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NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE
      Bethesda, Maryland

          Gift of
     Christine Miller Leahy
           and
      John Michael Miller

        In memory of
     James A. Miller, M.D.
           and
     Casper O. Miller, M.D. 
% 
 
 
 
                     THE

              ELEMENTS

                      OP

  MATERIA   MEDICA
                            i
                      AND

        THERAPEUTICS.

                      BY
JONATHAN PEEEIEA, M.D., F.R.S. & L.S.

             THIRD AMERICAN EDITION,
         ENLARGED AND IMPROVED BY THE AUTHOR.
    INCLUDING NOTICES OF MOST OF THE MEDICINAL SUBSTANCES IN
              USE IN THE CIVILIZED WORLD,
                   AND FORMING AN
       ENCYCLOPEDIA OF MATERIA MEDICA.

                   EDITED BY
            JOSEPH  CARSON, M.D.
  PROFESSOR OF MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA J
        FELLOW OF THE COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS OF PHILADELPHIA, ETC.
                    VOL. II.
      PHILADELPHIA:
BLANCHARD AND  LEA.
            1854. 
              Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1853, by
                               BLANCHARD AND  LEA,
in the Office of the Clerk of the District Court in and for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania.

       .  PHILADELPHIA:
T. K. AND P. H. COLLINS, PRINTERS. 
  PREFACE TO  VOL.  SECOND

OF  THE  AMEEICAN  EDITION.
  The appearance of the second volume of this work at a considerable period after
the publication of the first, would seem to require some explanation other than has
been given by the English editors.
  As will be perceived from the Preface to the first volume, the author had under-
taken a revision of the work so far as it had been printed in England, with especial
reference to the American edition.  This was performed with respect to three-fourths
of the entire Treatise which had been issued, which therefore may be regarded as
a fourth  edition by him.   The remainder has  been printed simultaneously with
the English edition, the  sheets as they were produced being transmitted to the
American publishers.   A portion of the latter part  had  undergone the revision of
the author himself, but, in consequence of his  lamented decease, the residue has
been  issued under the auspices of the  distinguished editors whose  preface  is ap-
pended.   The present  edition is therefore presented  as  the  last revised work of
Dr. Pereira, and the most complete that he published.
  With  reference to the additions made  by the  American editor to this second
volume, it may be stated that they pertain to the prominent vegetable productions of
this country, and to the directions of the United States Pharmacopoeia, in connection
with all the articles contained in the volume which are referred to by it.   Through-
out the two volumes now completed, the last revision of the Ut. S. Pharmacopoeia
has  been referred  to, and  its directions  followed.  The illustrations have been
materially increased over former editions,  and where  an opportunity presented of
inserting  in the American edition  more finished representations of plants,  it has
been  done from  the abundant resources of the  publishers.  The additions of the
American editor  are simply inclosed in brackets [ ], while those of the English
editors have Ed. appended to them.
December 1, 1853. 
 
PREFACE  OF  THE  ENGLISH  EDITORS.
   The Second  Part of the Second "Volume of the Materia Medica of the late Dr.
 Pereira now laid before the profession, brings to  a completion the third edition of
 this valuable work.1  In executing the difficult task of completing that which had
 been so ably commenced by the lamented author, the editors have endeavoured to act
 in accordance with his views, as embodied in a large collection of notes and memo-
 randa which were entrusted to  them for this purpose.   They have, on their own
 responsibility, made such alterations and additions as the present state of science
 appeared, in their judgment, to render  necessary; and the changes made in the
 preparations of the London and  Dublin Pharmacopoeias since the publication of the
 previous edition have been duly noticed.

   At the time of his decease, the learned author  had so far advanced with the pre-
 sent volume as to have completed the description of that important article of the
 materia medica,  Cinchona.  The remainder of the volume has  passed under the
 revision  of  the  editors;  and it may be  proper to state that they have in no case
 interfered with  the views or opinions of  the author: but, when circumstances ren-
 dered it necessary, they have added, in brackets or in notes, such remarks as appear-
 ed to them requisite for the further elucidation of the subject.   For some assistance
 in the performance of this duty, they feel bound to express their obligations to Mr.
 Jacob Bell and  to Mr.  Daniel Hanbury.   Mr. Bell  freely placed at their disposal
 the numerous papers contributed by the late Dr. Pereira to the pages of the Phar-
 maceutical Journal.
   It  will  be perceived that the present edition of this  standard scientific work has
 assumed an entirely new shape.   The Mineral substances  of the materia medica
 have  been confined to  the first, and the Organic  substances to the second volume.
 Considerable additions have been made to both  departments:  but  the   Organic
 Materia Medica has been especially enlarged.   The additions comprise four hun-
 dred pages of new matter; and the articles of materia medica, of which a complete
 medical and scientific history is given, amount to three hundred and sixty.   Of the
 value of the  matter thus contributed  to the medical literature of the day the Editors
 feel themselves at liberty to speak, since  the author is now no more, and they have

  1 The first part of Volume Second was published in London, before the decease of the
author. 
vi
PREFACE.
merely aided in carrying out his views in one small portion of  this elaborate  trea-
tise.  Their opinion is the expression of the opinion of the whole profession, both
in this  and foreign countries—namely, that in copiousness of details, in extent,
variety, and accuracy of information,  and in lucid explanation of difficult and
recondite subjects, it surpasses all other works on Materia Medica hitherto publish-
ed.  The history of a drug, as it is given in these volumes, is not a dry description of
its physical characters and its medicinal uses.  Philology, Natural History, Botany,
Chemistry, Physics, and  the Microscope, are all brought forward  to elucidate the
subject; and the reader thus acquires a furl scientific knowledge of each  article of
materia medica  before he is introduced to a description of its effects on plants,
animals, and man, or  to the  various theories of its  operation, and the different uses
to which it has been applied in ancient and modern times.   In illustration of this
statement,  we refer  to Article 232, on Cinchona,  the last which passed under the
hand of the author.    This article, when taken alone, displays an amount of scienti-
fic knowledge, a degree  of industry in  the collection of facts, and a judgment in
selecting and describing them, which it is rare to meet with in  one individual.  In
treating of the properties of the Cinchona alkaloids, it will  be  observed that  even
the abstruse  subject  of  epipolization, or the internal dispersion of light, as  a test
for quina,  has not escaped his notice.   It was a peculiar feature in the writings of
the author—one which is stamped upon every page of this treatise—that he was
not satisfied  until he had thoroughly exhausted  the subject.   His references to
ancient  and modern  writers are  constant and  numerous;  he  goes  to  all sources
which are capable of yielding information, and  fairly acknowledges his obligations
to those by whose learning, experience,  or research, he profits.   He  has thus suc-
ceeded in transforming the substance  of an unpretending course of lectures into  a
complete Encyclopaedia of Materia Medica.  We entertain no doubt that the pre-
sent edition will be found to add to that high reputation which, while living, the
author had acquired by his researches in this important branch of medical science.

                                          'ALFRED SWAINE TAYLOR.
                                           GEORGE OWEN REES.
London, September, 1853. 
CONTENTS OF YOL.  II.
American Editor's Preface to Vol. II.
English Editors' Preface to Vol. II.
Table of Contents in Vol. II.   .
List of Wood-cuts in Vol.  II.  .
Explanation of  the Plates
PAGE
  iii
   v
  vii
xxiii
xxiv
            II. ORGANIC  BODIES.
          3. tiegetabtlta.—Vegetables.
I. Cryptogamia.—Cryptogams or Flowerless Plants.
       Class I. Thallogenae.—Thallogens.
Order I.—Alg^e			50
Sub-order I.— Confervacese.			51
1. Confervals of mineral waters .			51
2. Confervals employed in medicine			52
3. Confervals developed in pharmaceutica		[ liquids	i 53
4. Esculent confervals			53
1. Porphyra laciniata ....			54
2. Ulva latissima ....			54
Sub-order II—Phycese			54
3. Fucus vesiculosus ....			55
JEthiops vegetabilis			56
Sub-order III.—Floridese .			56
4. Chondrus crispus ....			56
1. Decoctum chondri			59
2. Gelatina chondri			59
3. Pasta cacao cum chondro			59
5. Plocaria Candida ....			60
1. Decoctum plocarise candidee .			62
2. Gelatina plocarise candidae			62
6. Plocaria helminthocorton			62
Order II.—Lichenes			63
1. Lichenes esculenti et medicinales			64
7. Peltidea canina ....			64
8. Scyphophorus pyxidatus			64
9. Sticta pulmonaria ....			65
10. Gyrophora ....			65
 
Vlll
CONTENTS.
 11.  Cladonia rangiferina.
 12.  Cetraria islandica   .
       Decoctum cetrarise
 13.  Parmelia parietina  .
            2. Lichenes tinctorii
 14.  Roccella tinctoria  .
       1. Lacmus
            1. Tinctura lacmi
            2. Charta exploratoria c.ozrulea
            3. Charta exploratoria rubefacta
       2. Orchilla
       3. Cudbear

     Order III.—Fungi
            Sub-order I—Gymnomycetes
            Sub-order II.—Hyphomycetes
 15.  Fermentum  cervisiae
       1. Cataplasma fermenti .
       2. Cataplasma fseculae cerevisise .
       3. Cataplasma bynes
 16.  Oidiuin abortifaciens
            Sub-order III.— G aster omycetes
 17.  Elaphomyces granulatus
 18.  Lycoperdon  giganteum
 19.  Tuber cibarium
            Sub-order IV.—Pyrenomycetes
 20.  Sphaeria sinensis
            Sub-order  V.—Hymenomycetes
 21.  Exidia auricula judae
 22.  Morchella esculenta
 23.  Polyporus officinalis
 24.  Polyporus igniarius
 25.  Polyporus fomentarius
 26.  Agaricus campestris
       Agaricus Georgii
 27.  Agaricus oreades
       A. Dealbatus
       A. Semi-globatus
       A. Fsenisecii
       A. Dryophilus
28.  Fungi venenati
       Amanita
       Agaricus muscarius
                      Class II. Acrogenae.—Acrogens,
     Order IV.—Filices
29. Nephrodium filix mas
       Oleum filicis maris
30. Adiantum  .

     Order V.—Lycopodiace^e
31. Lycopodium clavatum
 97
 98
101
101
102 
CONTENTS.
iz
n. Phanerogamia, Auct.—Phanerogams or Flowering Plants.
Class III. Endogenae.
Sub-class I.  Glumaceas.
    Order VI.—Gramine^:
              Tribe I.— Oryzeas
32. Oryza sativa
              Tribe Il—Phalarideae
33. Zea mays .
              Tribe III.—Avenaceas
34. Avena sativa
       Decoctum avense
              Tribe IV.—Hordeaceae
35. Lolium temulentum
36. Hordeum distichon
       1.  Decoctum hordei
              Mucilago Hordei
       2.  Decoctum hordei compositum
       3.  Dyne
       4.  Cervisia
37. Triticum vulgare   .
       1.  Amylum tritici
       2.  Decoctum amyli
       3.  Furfures tritici
       4.  Farina tritici tosta
       5.  Turundse Italicse
       6.  Panis triticeas
            a. Panis fermentatus
            p. Panis sinefermento
38. Secale cereale
39. Secale cornutum vel Ergota
       1.  Pulvis ergotse
       2.  Infusum ergotse
       3.  Tinctura ergotae
       4.  Tinctura ergotae aetherea
       5.  yinum ergotae
       6.  Oleum ergotae
       7.  Extractum ergotae
              Tribe  V.—Andropogoneas
40. Saccharum officinarum
       1.  Syrupus
       2.  Liquor sacchari tosti
41. Andropogon muricatus
42. Andropogon iwarancusa
43. Andropogon calamus aromaticus
44. Andropogon schoenanthus  .
45. Andropogon citratum

    Order VII.—Cyperace^e
       Carex arenaria  . 
X
CONTENTS.
                    Sub-class II. Petaloideas vel Floridas.

                                Sub-division I.
              Perianth absent, squamiform, or glumaceous.

     Order VIII.—Aroide^  ....
            Sub-order  I—Aracese
46. Arum maculatum  .
47. Arisaema atrorubens       ....
            Sub-order  II.—CaMacese  .
48. Acorus  calamus

                               Sub-division II.
              Perianth proper, often corolline.
            1. Leaves  straight-veined or curved-veined.
                  f Flowers, sessile, spadiceous.

     Order IX.—Palmae      ....
              1.  Palmae fariniferae
49. Sagus laevis et S. genuina  ....
50. Saguerus saccharifer       ....
       Sago   ......
              2.  Palmae oleiferae
51. Elaeis guineensis et E. melanococca
52. Cocos nucifera     .....
              3.  Palmae ceriferae
       Corypha cerifera       ....
              4.  Palmae resiniferse
53. Calamus draco     .....
              5.  Palmae tanniniferae
54. Areca catechu     .....
                  ft  Ovary superior.

       Order X.—Melanthaceje
55. Colchicum autumnale      ....
       1. Pulvis cormi colchici
       2. Pulvis seminum colchici
       3. Tinctura (seminum) colchici .
       4. Tinctura (seminum) colchici composita
       5. Vinum seminum colchici
       6. Vinum (cormi) colchici
       7. Acetum (cormi) colchici
       8. Extractum (cormi) colchici aceticum .
       9. Extractum colchici (cormi)
      10. Succus colchici      ....
56. Hermodactylus    .....
57. Veratrum album  .....
       1. Pulvis veratri       ....
       2. Vinum veratri      ....
       3. Decoctum veratri
       4. Unguentum  veratri  ....
58. Veratrum viride   .....
59. Veratrum sabadilla 
CONTENTS.
XI
60.
Asagraea officinalis .
   1.  Pulvis sabadillse
   2.  Tinctura Sabadillse  .
   3.  Extractum alcoholicum sabadillas
   4.  Veratria

 Order XI.—Liliace^e
61
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
     Aloe vulgaris, A. abyssinica, A. socotrina, A.
          cata, A. ferox, A. africana, et A. plicatilis
        1. P'dulse aloes compost!as
        2. PHulas aloes cum myrrhd
        3. Pi J ulse aloes cum sapone
        4. Pilulse aloes et assafoetidse
        5. Pilulse aloe's et ferri .
        6. Pulvis aloe's compositus
        7. Pulvis aloe's cum canelld
        8. Decoctum aloes compositum
        9. Extractum aloes
      10. Tinctura aloes
      11. Tinctura aloes composita
      12.  Vinum aloes .
 62.  Urginea Scilla
        1. Pulvis scillse .
          Pilulse scillse composites
          Tinctura scillse
          Acetum scillse
          Oxymel scillse
          Syrupus scillse
        7. Syrupus scillse compositus
     Allium sativum
        Syrupus allii
     Allium cepa
     Asparagus officinalis
 66.  Polygonatum vulgare
 67.  Dracaena draco
 68.  Xanthorrhoea

                             f f f Ovary inferior
     Order XII.—Iridace^e
 69.  Crocus sativus
        1. Syrupus croci
        2. Tinctura croci
 70.  Iris florentina

     Order XIII.—Taccace^e
 71.  Tacca pinnatifida  et T. oceanica

     Order XIV.—Amaryllidaceje

     Order XV.—Musace^e  .
72.  Musa sapientum

     Order XVI.—Marantace^e
73. Maranta arundinacea
74. Canna edulis?
purpura seen
63.

64.
65. 
Xll
CONTENTS.
     Order XVII.—Zingiberace^e
75. Zingiber officinale .
       1.  Tinctura zingiberis
       2.  Syrupus zingiberis
       3.  Infusum zingiberis
       4.  Cerevisia zingiberis
76. Zingiber cassumunar
77. Curcuma longa
       1.  Tinctura curcumas
       2.  Charta curcumas
78. Curcuma angustifolia
79. Curcuma zedeoria  .
80. Amomum cardamomum
81. Amomum granum paradisa et A. melegueta
82. Amomum maximum
83. Amomum korarima
84. Amomum citratum
85. Amomum Clusii
86. Amomum macrospermum
87. Amomum globosum
88..Amomum villosum
89. Alpinia galanga, A chinensis, et A
90. Alpinia alba
91. Elettaria cardamomum
       1.  Tinctura cardamomi
       2.  Tinctura cardamom
92. Elettaria major
composita
nutans
    Order XVIII.—Orchidej3
93. Orchis
94. Vanilla    .
      1. Pidvis vanillas
      2. Tinctura vanillas
                    Leaves netted-veined.   (Dicfyogens.)
                            f Ovary inferior.

    Order XIX.—Dioscoreace^e    .
95. Dioscorea  .       .       .       .       .   ■    ,       .        .
96. Tamus communis  .       .       .
                            ff Ovary superior.

    Order XX.—Smilace^e  ......
97. Smilax officinalis, S.  medica, S. papyraeea, S. sarsaparilla, S. syphi-
          litica, S. cordato-ovata, et S. obliquata
      1. Pidvis sarsse  .
      2. Decoctum sarsse
      3. Decoctum sarsse  compositum
      4. Syriqius sarsse
      5. Extractum sarsse liquidum
      6. Extractum sarsse compositum
98. Smilax China
99. Smilax aspera
PAGE
 229
 229
 233
 233
 233
 233
 234
 234
 237
 237
 238
 239
 240
 240
 245
 246
 247
 247
 248
 249
 249
 250
 251
 251
 253
 253
 254

 255
256
 256
 259
 259
259
259
260
261

261
278
278
278
279
280
281
281
282 
CONTENTS.
xiii
                          Class IV.  Exogense.

                         Sub-class I.  Gymnospermse.

     Order XXL—Cycadace^e      ....
 100.  Cycas    .......
 101.  Zamia    .......

     Order XXII.—Pinace^e        ....
            Sub-order I.—Abietese     ....
 102.  Pinus sylvestris, P. pinaster, P. palustris,  P. taeda, P. pinea, P
           pumilio, et  P. cembra      ....
 103.  Abies excelsa, A. balsamea, A. canadensis, A. picea, et A. nigra
        1. Essentia abietis      .....
        2.  Cerevisia abietis     .....
 104.  Larix europoea   ......

     Medicinal Substances obtained from the preceding Coniferous Plants
    I.  Oleo-resinse terebinthinse .
          1.  Common  turpentine
          2.  Larch or  Venice  turpentine
          3.  Strasburgh turpentine
          4.  Canadian  turpentine
          5.  Common  frankincense
   II.  Olettm terebinthinse
              1.  Enema terebinthinae
              2.  Linimentum terebinthinae
 . III. Resinae terebinthinae
          1.  Resina
              1.   Ceratum resinae
              2.  Emplastrum resinae
          2.  Pix burgundica
              Emplastrum picis
  IV. Pix canadensis  .
   V. Pix liquida et Pix solida
          1.  Pix liquida
              1.  Aqua picis liquidse
              2.  Unguentum picis liquidse
             ' 3.  Oleum picis  liquidse
          2.  Pix nigra .
              Unguentum picis
            Sub-order  II— Cupressese.
 105.  Juniperus communis
          1.  Oleum juniperi
              Oleum empyreumaticum juniperi
          2.  Spiritus juniperi  compositus
106. Juniperus sabina  .
          1.  Oleum sabinse
          2.  Unguentum sabinse

    Order XXIII.—Taxacea^e
107. Taxus baccata
PAGE
 283
 283
 283

 284
 284

 284
 285
 286
 286
 286 
XIV
CONTENTS.
  Sub-class II. Angiospcrmae.

Sub-division I. Monochlamydeae.
      Order XXIV.—Liquidambarace^e
 108. Liquidambar styraciflua, L. altingia, et L

      Order XXV.—Salicace^e
 109. Salix  russelliana, S. alba, S. caprea, S.. fra
           purpurea
               Salicinum

      Order XXVI.—Cupulifer^s
 110. Quercus pedunculata
          Decoctum quercus
 111. Quercus infectoria
          1. Infusum gallae
          2.  Tinctura gallse
          3. Unguentum gallae
          4.  Unguenturn- gallse compositum
          5. Acidum tanuicum
          6. Acidum gatlicum .
          7. Acidum pyrogallicum
      Quercus tinctoria .
      Quercus alba
          Decoctum quercus albse
 112. Quercus suber
          1. Suber
          -■ Cortex AJcornocse Europsese
        .  3. Cortex Alcornocse Americanse

     Order XXVII.—Ulmace^e
 113.  Ulmus campestris
          Decoctum ulmi
     Ulmus  fulva
          Infusum ulmi

     Order XXVIII.—Urticace^e   .
114.  Parietaria officinalis

     Order XXIX.—Cannabinace^e .
115.  Cannabis sativa
          1.  Extractum cannabis indicse alcohol
                Extractum cannabis indicas pu
         2.  Tinctura cannabis indicse
116.  Humulus lupulus
          1.  Infusum lupuli
          2.  Tinctura lupidi
          3.  Extractum lupuli
         4.  Lupulina  .
          5.  Tinctura lupulinse

     Order XXX.—Moraceje
117.  Morus nigra
          Syrupus Mori
118.  Ficus carica
119. Dorstenia contrajerva et D. brasiliensis
orientale
gilis, S. pentand
um
ificatum
a, et S. 
CONTENTS.
     Order XXXI.—Artocarpace^e .
 120. Antiaris toxicaria .

     Order XXXII.—Piperaceje
 121. Piper nigrum
          1. Confectio piperis nigri
          2. Unguentum piperis nigri  .
          3. Extractum piperis fluidum
 122. Chavica Roxburghii
 123. Chavica betle
 124. Cubeba officinalis .
          1. Oleum cubebae
          2. Extractum oleo-resinosum cubebae
          3. Extractum cubebae fluidum
          4. Tinctura cubebae  .
 125. Artanthe elongata
          1. Infusum matico
          2. Tinctura matico

     Order XXXIII.—Euphorbiace^e
              Tribe Euphorbiese
 126. Euphorbia canariensis
 127. Euphorbia lathyris
 128. Euphorbia ipecacuanha
              Tribe Crotonese  .
 129. Croton tiglium
          1.  Oleum crotonis
          2. Linimentum crotonis
 130. Croton eleuteria  .
          1. Infusum cascarilla
          2.  Tinctura cascarilla
 131. Croton pseudo-China
 132. Ricinus communis
          Oleum ricini
 133. Curcas purgans et C. multifidus
 134. Anda brasiliensis .
 135. Manihot utilissima
          1. Farina mandiocse .
          2. Amylum mandiocse
              a. Cassava starch
              j3. Tapioca
 136. Crozophora tinctoria

     Order XXXIV.—Aristolochiace^e
137. Aristolochia serpentaria  .
          1. Infusum serpentariae
         2. Tinctura serpentariae
138. Asarum europaeum
         Pulvis asari compositus
139. Aristolochia rotunda et A. longa  .

     Order XXXV.—Laurace^e
140. Cinnamomum  zeylanicum
         1.  Oleum  cinnamomi       L 
XVI
CONTENTS.
         2.  Oleum cinnamomi foliorum
         3.  Aqua cinnamomi .
         4.  Spiritus cinnamomi
         5.  Essentia, cinnamomi
         6.  Tinctura cinnamomi
         7.  Tinctura cinnamomi composita
         8.  Pulvis cinnamomi compositus
         9.  Confectio aromatica
141. Cinnamomum cassia
         1.  Oleum cassise
         2.  Aqua cassise
         3.  Spiritus cassias
         4.  Tinctura cassise
142. Camphora officinarum
         1.  Mistura  camphor se
         2.  Mistura  camphor se cum magnesias
             Murray's fluid camphor
         3.  Spiritus camphor as
         4.  Tinctura camphor as composita
         5.  Linimentum  camphoras
         6.  Linimentum  camphoras compositum
143. Sassafras officinale
         Oleum sassafras
144. Laurus nobilis
         Oleum lauri .
             Oleum lauri sethereum nativum
145. Nectandra Rodiasi
         Bibirinse subsulphas .

       Order XXXVI.—Myristicace^e
146. Myristica fragrans
         1.  Oleum myristicse ,
         2.  Oleum macidis
         3.  Myristicse adeps
         4.  Spiritus  myristicse
         5.  Essentia  myristicse moschatse
147.
148.
149.
  Order XXXVII.—Thymelace^e
Daphne mezereum
    1.  Decoctum mezerei
    2.  Extractum mezerei alcoholicum
    3.  Unguentum mezerei
Daphne laureola  .
Daphne gnidium .
    Order XXXVIII.—Polygonaceje
150. Rheum palmatum,  R. undulatum, R.  compactum, R.  Emodi, R
               crassinervium, R.  leucorrhizum, R. hybridum, R.  spici
               forme, et R. Moorcroftianum
         1. Infus'um rhei
         2.  Tinctura rhei
         3.  Tinctura rhei composita
         4.  Tinctura rhei et aloes
         5.  Tinctura rhei et gentianse
         6.  Vinum rhei 
CONTENTS.
xvii
          7. Extractum rhei  .
          8. Extractum rhei fluidum
          9. Pilulas rhei
         10. Pilula rhei compositae
         11. Pilulse rhei et ferri
         12. Pulvis rhei compositus
         13. Syrupus rhei
         14. Syrupus rhei aromaticus
151. Rumex acetosa
152. Rumex hydrolapathum
153. Polygonum bistorta

     Order XXXIX.—Salsolace^;
154. Chenopodium anthelminticum
         Oleum chenopodii
155. Chenopodium vulvaria
                         Sub-division II. Corolliflorae.
     Order XL.—Labiatje
              Tribe I.— Ocimoideas
156.  Lavandula vera
         1.  Oleum lavandulse
         2.  Spiritus lavandulse
              Lavender water .
         3.  Tinctura lavandulse composita
              Tribe II—Satureiese
157.  Pogostemon Patchouli
158.  Mentha viridis
         1. Infusum menthse viridis
         2.  Oleum menthse  viridis
         3.  Spiritus menthse viridis
         4. Essentia menthse viridis
         5. Aqua menthse viridis
159.  Mentha piperita  .
         1.  Oleum menthse piperitse
         2. Spiritus menthse piperitse
         3. Essentia menthse piperitse
         4. Aqua menthse piperitse
160.  Mentha pulegium
         1.  Oleum menthse pulegii
         2.  Spiritus menthse pulegii
         3. Essentia menthse pulegii
         4. Aqua menthse pulegii
161.  Origanum vulgare
         Oleum origan i
162.  Origanum majorana
163.  Thymus vulgaris .
         Oleum thy mi
164.  Melissa officinalis
              Tribe  III.—Monardese
165.  Rosmarinus officinalis
         1. Oleum rosmarini  .
         2. Spiritus rosmarini 
xvm
CONTENTS.
         3. Essentia rosmarini
         4. Aqua Hungarica  .
              Tribe IV—Stachydese  .
166. Marrubium vulgare

     Order XLI.—Scrophulariaceje
167. Verbascum thapsus
168. Scrophularia nodosa
         Unguentum scrophularise
169. Gratiola officinalis
170. Digitalis purpurea
         1. Infusum digitalis  .
         2. Tinctura digitalis
         3. Extractum digitalis
         4. Pilulse digitalis et  scillse

     Order XLII.—Solanaceje
171. Hyoscyamus niger
         1. Tinctura hyoscyami
                  Succus hyoscyami  .
         2. Extractum hyoscyami
         3. Extractum hyoscyami alcoholicum
172. Atropa belladonna
         1. Extractum belladonnas
         2. Emplastrum belladonnas
         3. Unguentum belladonnas
         4. Tinctura belladonnas
                  Succus belladonnas  .
         5. Atropia
         6. Atropise sulphas
173. Datura stramonium
         1. Extractum stramonii
         2. Extractum stramonii foliorum
         3. Tinctura stramonii
         4. Unguentum stramonii
174. Nicotiana tabacum
         1. Enema tabaci
         2. Vinum tabaci
         3. Unguentum tabaci
175. Solanum tuberosum
         1. Amylum, solani tuberosi
         2. Dextrina .
176. Solanum dulcamara
           Decoctum dulcamaras
177. Solanum nigrum .
178. Capsicum annuum et C. fastigiatum
           Tinctura capsici
179. Mandragora officinarum

     Order XLIII.—Boraginace^e  .
180. Alkanna tinctoria .

     Order XLIV.—CoNvoLVULACEiE
181. Convolvulus scammonia 
I
                  CONTENTS.
         1. Pulvis scammonii compositus
         2. Pulvis scammonii cum cahmelane
         3. Confectio scammonii
         4. Extractum sive resina scammonii
         5. Tinctura scammonii
         6. Mistura scammonii
 182.  Exogonium purga
         1. Pulvis jalapse compositus   .
         2. Tinctura jalapse
         3. Extractum jalapse
 183.  Pharbitisnil

     Order XLV.—Gentianace^e
 184.  Gentiana lutea
         1. Infusum gentianse compositum
         2. Mint ura gentianse composita
         3. Tinctura gentianse composita
         4. Fimim gentianse
         5. Extractum gentianse
 185.  Ophelia chirata
         1. Infusum chirettse  .
         2. Tinctura chirettse .
 186.  Erythraea centaurium
 187.  Menyanthes trifoliata
 188.  Frasera carolinensis

     Order XLVI.—Loganiace^:
 189.  Spigelia marilandica
         Infusum spigelise
 190.  Spigelia anthelmia
 191.  Strychnos nux vomica
         1. Tinctura nucis vomicae
         2. Extractum nucis vomicae
         3. Strychnia .
 192.  Strychnos tieute  .
 193.  Strychnos colubrina
 194.  Strychnos potatorum
 195.  Strychnos pseudo-quina
 196.  Strychnos toxifera
 197.  Ignatia amara

     Order XLVII.—Asclepiadace^e
 198.  Hemidesmus indicus
         Syrupus hemidesmi  .
 199.  Calotropis gigantea
 200.  Solenostemma argel
      Asclepias tuberosa

     Order XLVIII.—Oleace^e
201. Olea europaea
202. Fraxinus rotundifolia et F. ornus  .

    Order XLIX.—Styrace.3:
203. Sty rax officinale   . 
XX
CONTENTS.
         1. Styrax prasparata
         2. Pilulse styracis compositse
204. Styrax benzoin
         1. Tinctura benzoini composite
         2. Pastilli fumantes  .
         3. Acidum benzoicum

     Order L.—Sapotace^e  .
205. Isonandra gutta   .
              Gutta Percha
206. Chrysophyllum buranheim
              Monfsia .

     Order LI.—Pyrolace^e .
207. Chimaphila umbellata
         Decoctum chimaphilse

     Order LII.—Ericaceae  .
208. Arctostaphylos uva ursi
209.
    1.  Decoctum uvse ursi
    2.  Extractum uvse ursi
Gaultheria procumbens
     Order LIII.—Lobeliace^e
210. Lobelia inflata
         1. Tinctura lobelias
         2. Tinctura lobelias aetherea
211. Lobelia syphilitica

     Order LIV.—Composite

            Sub-order I.—Tubtdiforse
              Tribe I.— Vernoniacese
              Tribe II.—Eupatoriacese
212. Tussilago farfara  .

              Tribe III.—Asteroidese  .
     Inula hellenium  .

              Tribe IV.—Senecionidese
     Anthemis nobilis  .
         1. Infusum anthemidis
       ■  2. Extractum anthemidis
         3." Oleum anthemidis
     Anacyclus pyrethrum
     Artemisia absinthium
     Artemisia moxa  .
     Artemisia (wormseed)
     Tanacetum  vulgare
     Arnica montana  .
     Lactuca sativa
         Extractum lactucse
     Lactuca virosa
         1. Lactucarium
         2. Tinctura lactucarii
         3. Trochisci lactucarii
213.
214.
215.
216.
217.
218.
219.
220.
221.

222. 
                                CONTENTS.


              Tribe V.—Cynarese
223. Carthamus tinctorius

            Sub-order II.—Labiatiflorse
              Tribe VI.—Mutisiacese  .
              Tribe VII.—Nassauviacese

            Sub-order III.—Liguliflorse
              Tribe VIII.— dehoraceas
224. Taraxacum officinale
         1. Infusum taraxaci .
         2. Decoctum taraxaci
         3. Extractum taraxaci
225. Cichorium intybus

     Order LV.—Valerianace^e
226. Valeriana officinalis
         1. Infusum Valerianae
         2. Tinctura Valerianae
         3. Tinctura Valerianae composita
         4. Extractum Valerianae fluidum
         5. Sodas valerianas  .
         6. Zinci valerianas  .
         7. Ferri valerianas  .
         8. Quinse valerianas

     Order LVI.—Rubiace^e
            Sub-order I—Coffeacese
227. Rubia tinctorum  .
228. Cephaelis ipecacuanha
         1. Vinum ipecacuanhse
         2. Syrupus ipecacuanhae
         3. Pulvis ipecacuanhas compositus
         4. Pilulse ipecacuanhse cum scilla
         5. Pilulse ipecacuanhse et opii
         6. Trochisci morphiae et  ipecacuanhse
229. Psychotria emetica
230. Richardsonia scabra
231. Coffea arabica
232. Cinchona
         a. C. Calisaya
         b. C. Caribaya
         c. C. de Cusco
         d. C. de  Huanuco
         e. C. Huamalies
         f.  C. de Jaen
         g. C. de  Loxa
         h. C. rubra .
         i.  C. condaminea Pitaya
         j.  C. lancifolia
         k. C. Carthagena
         1.  C. de Maracaibo
         1. Infusum cinchonas 
xxii
CONTENTS.
         2. Infusum cinchonse pallidse
         3. Infusum cinchonas spissatum
         4. Infusum cinchonas pallidse spissatum
         5. Infusum cinchonse compositum
         6. Decoctum cinchonse
         7. Decoctum cinchonas pallidas
         8. Decoctum cinchonas rubras .
         9. Tinctura cinchonas
        10. Tinctura cinchonas pallidas
        11. Tinctura cinchonse composita
        12. Extractum cinchonas
        13. Extractum cinchonas pallidas
        14. Extractum cinchonas rubras
        15. Quinae disulphas  .
        16. Tinctura quinse composita
        17. Quinse murias
        18. Quinse valerianas .
233. Uncaria gambir   .

     Order LVII.—Caprieoliace^;
234. Sambucus nigra  .
         1. Tlg'wa sambuci
         2. Unguentum sambuci

     Order LVIII.—Araliace.33
235. Panax quinquefolium

     Order LIX.—Umbelliper^:
236. Carum carui
         1. Oleum carui
         2. Spiritus carui
         3. Aqua carui
237. Pimpinella anisum
         1. Oleum anisi
         2. Spiritus anisi
         3. Aqua anisi
238. Fceniculum vulgare
239. Fceniculum dulce
         1. Oleum foznicxdi
         2.. Aqua fozniculi
240. Anethum graveolens
         1. Oleum anethi
         2. Aqua anethi
241. Cuminum cyminum
         Emplastrum cumini
242. Coriandrum sativum
243. Archangelica officinalis
244. Daucus carota
245. Narthex assafoetida
         1. Enema assafoztidse
         2. Tinctura assafoztidse
         3. Pilulse assafoztidse
         4. Pilulse aloes et assafoztidse
         5. Spiritus ammonias foztidus 
CONTENTS.
XX111
246.

247.
248.
249.
250.
        6. Emplastrum assafoztidse
        7. Mistura assafoztidse
     Ferula (sagapenum)
        Sagapenum prseparatum
     Dorema ammoniacum
        1. Mistura ammoniaci
        2. Emplastrum ammoniaci
        3. Emplastrum ammoniaci cum hydrargyro
        4. Ammoniacum prseparatum
     Galbanum officinale
        1. Pilulse galbani compositae .
        2. Emplastrum galbani
           Emplastrum galbani compositum
        3. Galbanum prseparatum
     Opoponax chironium
     Conium maculatum
        1. Pulvis Conii
        2. Tinctura conii
        3. Extractum conii
        4. Pilulse conii composites
        5.  Unguentum conii  .
        6*  Cataplasma conii .

     Order LX.—Cucurbitace^;
     Citrullus  Colocynthis
        1. Extractum colocynthidis
        2. Pilulse colocynthidis composita
        3. Pilulse colocynthidis et hyoscyami
        4. Enema colocynthidis
     Ecbalium officinarum

     Order LXI.—Myrtace^:
     Melaleuca minor  .
     Caryophyllus aromaticus  .
        1. Infusum caryophylli
        2.  Oleum caryophylli
        3.  Tinctura caryophylli
     Eugenia pimenta .
         1.  Oleum pimentse
         2.  Spiritus pimentse .
        3. Aqua pimentse

     Order LXII.—Lythrace^e
256. Lythrum salicaria

     Order LXIII.—Granate^e
257. Punica granatum .
         1. Decoctum, granati radicis
         2. Decoctum granati .

     Order  LXIV.—Rosacea
              Tribe I.—Amygdalese
258. Amygdalus communis
        1.  Conftctio  amygdalese
        2. Mistura amygdalese
251
252
253,
254
255 
XXIV
CONTENTS.
          3.  Oleum amygdalese
          4.  Oleum amygdalese amarse
 259.  Persica vulgaris  .
 260.  Prunus domestica .
 261.  Cerasus lauro-cerasus
          Aqua lauro-cerasi
 262.  Cerasus serotina  .
          1. Infusum pruni Virginian as
          2. Syrupus pruni virginianas
 263.  Acidum hydrocyanicum dilutum
               Tribe II.—Spiraeas
      Gillenia^trifoliata
               Tribe III.—Driadese
 264.  Geum urbanum
 265.  Potentilla tormentilla
          Decoctum tormentillse .
               Tribe IV.—Eosese
 266.  Rosa canina
           Confectio rosse caninse
 267.  Rosa gallica
          1. Infusum rosse compositum
          2. Confectio rosse
          3. Mel rosse  .
          4. Syrupus rosse gallicse
 268.  Rosa centifolia
          1. Syrupus rosse
          2. Aqua  rosse
          3. Oleum rosse
               Tribe V.—Pomacese
 269.  Cydonia vulgaris  .
          Decoctum cydonii
      Kosso, or brayera anthelmi'ntica
      Cerasus avium
      Alchemilla arvensis

    Order LXV.—Leguminos^e
              Sub-order I.—Papilionacese
 270.  Myrospermum (the quinquino)
271.  Myrospermum toluiferum  .
          1. Tinctura tolutana  .
          2. Syrupus tolutanus  .
272.  Cytisus scoparius
          Decoctum scoparii compositum
273.  Glycyrrhiza glabra
          1. Extractum glycyrrhizse
          2. Trochisci glycyrrhizse
          3. Trochisci glycyrrhizse et opii
274.  Astragalus
          1. Pulvis tragacanthse compositus
          2. Mucilago tragacanthse
275.  Mucuna pruriens  .
276.  Pterocarpus santalinus 
contents.
xxv
280.
281.
282.
283.
277. Pterocarpus erinaceus    .      •  .
         1. Tinctura kino
         2. Pulvis kino compositus

              Sub-order II.—Mimosese
278. Acacia
         1. Mucilago  .
         2. Mistura acacias
         3. Trochisci acacias
         4. Syrupus acacias
279. Acacia catechu
         1. Infusum catechu compositum
         2. Tinctura catechu  composita
         3. Electuarium catechu
         4.. Pulvis catechu compositus
     Andira inermis
     Haematoxylon campechianum
         1. Decoctum hsematoxyli
         2. Extractum hsematoxyli
     Tamarindus Indica
         Tamarindus prozparatus
     Cassia officinalis  .
         1. Infusum sennas
         2. Infusum sennas compositum
         3. Enema  catharticum
         4. Tinctura sennas composita
         5. Syrupus sennas
         6. Confectio sennas
         7. Extractum sennas1 fluidum
284. Cassia fistula
         1. Cassia prseparata
         2. Confectio cassise
285. Copaifera multijuga
         1. Oleum copaibas
         2. Pilulse copaibas
         3. Gelatine capsides of copaiva
     Spartium junceum
     Butea frondosa
     Indigofera tinctoria

     Order LXVI.—Terebinthace^e
286. Pistacia  terebinthus
287. Pistacia lentiscus  .
288. Rhus toxicodendron
289. Boswellia thurifera   .
290. Balsamodendron myrrha
        Tinctura myrrhse
     Amyris elemifera .
     Balsam urn gileadense
     Amyris commiphora (bdellium)

     Order LXVII.—Rhamnace^e
291. Rhamnus catharticus
         Syrupus rhamni 
XXVI
contents.
     Order LXVIII.—Simarubaceje .
292. Simaruba amara  .
         Infusum simarubas
293. Picraena excelsa  .
         1. Infusum quassias  .
         2. Tinctura quassias .
         3. Tinctura quassias composita
       Quassia amara  .

     Order LXIX.—Rutace^e
294. Ruta graveolens  .
         1. Confectio rutse
         2. Oleum rutse
         3. Syrupus rutse
295. Barosma .
         1. Infusum buchu
         2. Tinctura buchu
296. Galipea officinalis .
          1. Infusum cusparise
         2. Tinctura cusparise
       Dictamnus fraxinella

     Order LXX.—Zygophyllace;e  .
297. Guaiacum officinale
         1. Mistura guaiaci
         2. Tinctura guaiaci .
         3. Tinctura guaiaci composita
         4. Decoctum guaiaci .

     Order LXXI.—Oxalidace^e
298. Oxalis acetosella  .

     Order LXXII.—Vitace^e
299. Vitis vinifera
         1. Potassse bitartras .
         2. Acidum tartaricum
         3. Trochisci acidi tartarici
         4. Vinum
         5. Spiritus vini gallici
         6. Mistura spiritds vini gallici
300. Alcohol  .       .       .        .
         Spiritus sacchari
         Spiritus frumenti compositus  .
         Arrack
         Tinctures
         Spiritus
301. iEther sulphuricus
         1. Spiritus setheris sulphurici
         2. Spiritus setheris compositus
302. Oleum aethereum .
303.. Spiritus aetheris nitrici
304. iEther hydrochloricus
       Spiritus aetheris hydrochlorici
305. iEther aceticus
306. Chloroformyl (chloroform) 
CONTENTS.
xxvii
307. Acidum aceticum .
         1.  Acetum Destillatum
            Acetum gallicum   .
         2.  Acidum aceticum aromaticum
         3.  Acidum aceticum camphoratum
         4.  Oxymel
308. Acidum citricum .    .  .
         1.  Artificial lemon juice
         2.  Effervescing citrates
309. Acidum tartaricum
         Effervescing tartrates  .
310. Acidum oxalicum
311. Creasoton
         1.  Mistura creasoti
         2.  Unguentum creasoti
312. Petroleum
313. Succinum
         1.  Oleum succini
         2.  Acidum succinicum
314. Oleum animale empyreumaticum

     Order LXXIII.—Guttifer^e
     Garcinia mangostana
315. Garciniae species incertae  .
         Pilulse cambogise composites
316. Canella alba
         Vinum gentianse

     Order LXXIV.—Aurantiace^e
317. Citrus medica
318. Citrus bergamica .
319. Citrus limonum
         1.  Oleum limonum
         2.  Syrupus limonum .
320. Citrus aurantium .
321. Citrus bigaradia  .
         1.  Infusum aurantii compositu
         2.  Confectio aurantii
         3.  Syrupus aurantii .
         4.  Tinctura aurantii
         5.  Aqua floris aurantii
     Feronia elephantum
Order LXXV.—Ternstromiace^e

Order LXXVI.—Dipterace^e  ..
    1. Dryobalanops aromatica  .
    2. Sumatra camphor

Order LXXVII.—Byttneriace^e
    Order LXXVIII.
322. Malva sylvestris 
XXV111
CONTENTS.
323. Althaea officinalis  .
         1. Mistura althaeas
         2. Syrupus althaeas
324. Gossypium herbaceum
         Collodium
    Order LXXIX.—Linace^e
325. Linum  usitatissimum
         1. Infusum lini compositum
         2. Decoctum lini compositum
         3.  Oleum lini
         4. Farina lini
         5.  Cataplasma lini
326. Linum catharticum

    Order LXXX.—Caryophyllace^e
327. Dianthus caryophyllus
Order LXXXI.—Polygale^e
328.
     Polygala senega  .
         1.  Decoctum seneges
         2.  Infusum polygales
         3.  Infusum seneges
         4.  Syrupus senegas
         5.  Extractum seneges
329. Krameria triandra
         1.' Infusum kramerise
         2.  Extractum kramerise
         3.  Tinctura kramerise
         4.  Syrupus kramerise

     Order LXXXII.—Violace^i
330. Viola odorata
         Syrupus violas
     Ionidium ipecacuanha
     Ionidium microphyllum

     Order LXXXIII.—Cistaceje
     Cistus creticus

     Order LXXXIV.—Crucifere^;
331. "Cardamine pratensis
332. Cochlearia armoracia
         1. Infusum armoracise compositum
         2.  Spiritus armoracise compositus
     Cochlearia officinalis
     Sinapis nigra
     Cataplasma sinapis
335. Sinapis alba
333
334
    Order LXXXV.—Papaverace^e
336. Papaver rhoeas
         Syrupus rhozados
 PAGE
  985
  986
  986
  986
  988

  988
  988
  990
  990
  990
  990
  990
  991

  991
  991

  992
  992
  994
  994
  994
  994
  995
  995
  996
  996
  996
  996

  996
  997
  997
  998
  998

  998
  998

  999
  999
1000
1000
1001
1001
1001
1004
1004

1006
1006 
CONTENTS.
xxix
	PAGE
337. Papaver somniferum	. 1007
Opium .	. 1008
1. Decoctum papaveris	. 1054
2. Syrupus papaveris	. 1054
3. Extractum papaveris	. 1054
Preparations of opium.	
1. Pilulse opii	. 1054
2. Pilulse saponis composites .	. • . 1055
3. Pilulse calomelanos et opii	. 1055
4. Pilulse plumbi opiates	. 1055
5. Trochisci opii	. 1055
6. Pulvis cretes compositus curt	i opio .... 1055
7. Confectio opii	. 1055
8. Emplastrum opii .	. 1056
9. Extractum opii	. 1056
10. Tinctura opii	. 1056
11. Tinctura opii acetata	. 1058
12. Tinctura opii camphorata	. 1058
13. Enema opii	. 1058
14. Linimentum opii .	. 1058
15. Vinum opii	. 1059
16. Tinctura opii ammoniata	.....1059
17. -4ceftm opiY	. - . . . 1059
Morphia and its preparations	.....1060
1. Morphia .	......1060
2. Morphise acetas	. 1063
3. Liquor morphiae acetatis	. 1064
4. Mdrphise hydrochloras	.....1064
5. Liquor morphise hydrochloi	-atis . . . .1066
6. Trochisci morphise	. 1066
7. Trochisci morphise et ipecac	uanhes .... 1067
8. Moiphise sulphas .	.....1067
9. Liquor morphias sulphatis	.....1067
338. Sanguinaria canadensis	. 1067
Tinctura sanguinarise	. 1008
Order LXXXVI.—Menispermac	e;e . . . 1068
339. Cocculus palmatus	.....1069
1. Infusum calumbes .	.....1072
2. Tinctura calumbes .	. 1072
340. Anamirta cocculus	......1072
Unguentum cocculi	.....1075
341. Cissampelos pareira	.....1075
1. Decoctum pareires .	...... 1077
2. Infusum pareires .	.....1077
3. Extractum pareires	.....K)77
Order LXXXVII.—Magncjliaci	m . . . . 1077
342. Drimys winteri	.....1077
Magnolia glauca .	. 1078
Liriodendron tulipifera	.....1079
 
XXX
CONTENTS.
	PAGE
Order LXXXVIII.—Ranunculace^e	. 1080
343. Ranunculus acris .....	. 1081
344. Ranunculus flammula ....	. 1081
345. Helleborus niger .....	. 1081
Tinctura hellebori ....	. 1083
346. Delphinium staphysagria ....	. 1084
Delphinia .....	. 1085
347. Aconitum napellus ....	. 1085
1. Tinctura aconiti ....	. 1090
2. Tinctura aconiti foliorum .	. 1091
3. Extractum alcoholicum aconiti	. 1091
4. Extractum aconiti ....	. 1091
5. Aconitina .....	. 1092
348. Cimicifuga racemosa ....	. 1093
349. Coptis trifoliata .....	. 1095
Order LXXXIX.—Podophylleje	. 1096
Podophyllum peltatum ....	. 1096
Extractum podophylli ....	. 1097
Order XC.—Juglande^e	. 1097
Juglans cinerea .....	. 1097
Extractum juglandis ....	. 1098
Order XCI.—Geraniace^e	. 1098
Geranium maculatum ....	. 1098
Order XCII.—Cornace^e	. 1099
Cornus florida .....	. 1099
Decoctum cornus florides	. 1100
    Animal Snb-Kmgkim.



DIVISION I.—INVERTEBRATA.
Class I.—Poriphera .....	1101
350. Spongia officinalis .....	1101
Spongia usta .....	1103
Class II.—Polypiphera . . .	1103
Class III.—Conchifera .....	1104
351. Ostrea edulis ......	1104
Testes presparatse . .	1105
Class IV.—Cephalopoda ....	1105
352. Sepia officinalis ......	1106
Class V.—Annulosa .....	1106
353. Sanguisuga ••••..	1106
Class VI.—Insecta .....	1118
 
contents.
xxxi
PAGE Order I.— Coleoptera ...... 1118			
354. Cantharis vesicatoria			. 1118
1. Acetum cantharidis			. 1127
2. Tinctura cantharidis			1127
3. Ceratum cantharidis			1127
4. Unguentum infusi cantharidis			1127
5. Emplastrum cantharidis .			1128
6. Emplastrum cantharidis compositum			1128
7. Emplastrum calefaciens			1128
8. Pannus vesicatorius			1129
Order II.—Hemiptera			1129
355. Coccus cacti ....			1129
Tinctura cocci cacti			1132
Order III.—Hymenoptera			1132
356. Apis mellifica ....			1132
1. Mel depuratum ....			1134
2. Oxymel ....			1134
Wax ......			1134
1. Emplastrum simplex			1136
2. Ceratum . . .			1136
3. Linimentum simplex			1136
Class VII.—Crustacea ....			1136
DIVISION II.—VERTEBRATA.
     Class VIII.—Pisces
 357. Ichthyocolla
 358. Oleum jecoris morrhuae

     Class IX.—Aves

     Order I.— Gallinse
 359. Gallus Banckiva .

     Class X.—Mammalia

     Order I.— Cetacea
 360. Physeter macrocephalus
         1.  Ceratum cetacei
         2.  Unguentum cetacei

     Order II—Ruminantia
 361. Moschus moschiferus
 362. Cervus elaphus
       Cbrnu ustum
363. Ovis aries
       Sevum .
364. Bos taurus
           Lac
         1. Lactic acid
         2. Ox bile   .
1137
1137
1145
1153

1153
1153
1155

1155
1155
1157
1158

1158
1158
1164
1165
1165
1165
1166
1167
1169
1169 
XXXli                           CONTENTS.

                                                                    PAGE
     Order III—Pachydermata
365. Sus scrofa
       Adeps prseparatus

     Order IV.—Rodentia
366. Castor fiber
         1.  Tinctura castorei  .
         2.  Tinctura castorei ammoniata
367. Hyrax capensis   .
       Tinctura hyracei
                             APPENDIX.

368. Auri tercyanidum
369. Hydrargyri percyanidum  .
370. Argenti cyanidum
371. Zinci cyanidum  .
372. Radix sumbul
1169
1170

1171
1171
1176
1176
1176
1179 
LIST  OF  WOODCUTS IN VOL.  II.
Fig.
146.
147.
148.
149.
150.
151.
152.
153.
154.
155.
156.
157.

158.
159.
160.
161.
162.
163.
164.
165.
166.
167.
168.
169.
170.
171,
172.
173.
174.
175.
176.
177.
178.
179.
180.
181.
182.
183.
184.
185.
186.
187.
188.
189.
190.
191.
Esculent sea weeds.....
Calothrix nivea......  .
Sphaerozyga Jacobi......
Cryptococcus inaequalis  .  .   .  .
Ulvina myxophila......
Hygrocrocis cuprica.....
Sirocrocia stibica......
Leptornitus phosphoratus .  .   .  .
Porphyra laciniata......
Fucus vesiculosus......
Chondrus crispus......
Chondrus crispus (microscopic struc-
  ture of).........
Chondrus mamillosus  .  .  .   .  .
Plocaria Candida.......
Plocaria Helminthocorton   .   .  .
Peltidea canina.......
Scyphophorus  pyxidatus .  .   .  .
Sticta pulmonaria......
Gyrophora (Tripe de Roche)   .  .
Cladonia rangiferina.....
Cetraria islandica"......
r Cetraria  islandica  (microscopic
L   structure of)......67

 Roccella tinctoria......73
 Roccella fuciformis......73
 Roccella Montagnei   .'....   73
 Roccella phycopsis......73
 Moulds used in making litmus .   .   76
 Lecanora tartarea......7?

  Fermentum cervisiae, or Yeast in
    different stages of its growth.   .   82


 Cell from the albumen of barley   .   83
 Turpin's globuline of barley.   .   .   83
 Mycoderma cervisiae.....84
 Oidium (Ergotsetia) abortifaciens   .   87
 Elaphoinyces granulatus ....   88
 Tuber cibarium.......89
 Sphteria sinensis.......90
 Bundle of ditto as sold in China   .   90
 Morchella esculenta.....92
 Polyporus officinalis.....92
 Agaricus catnpestris  (microscopic
  structure of)........   94
Fig.                                 Page
192. Agaricus campestris et Georgii .  .    94
193. Agaricus  oreades, dealbatus, dryo-
       philus, semiglobatus et Faenisecii    95
194. Agaricus muscarius.....96
195. Cyathea glauca (a tree fern)   .  .    97
196. Nephrodium Filix mas   ....    98
197. Nephrodium  Filix mas (rhizome
       of)..........99
198. Lycopodium clavatum.....103
199. Lycopodium clavatum (spornles of,
       magnified)........103
200. Oryza sativa........108
201. Zea Mays.........110
202. Avena..........Ill
203. Lolium temulentum.....114
204. Hordeum.........116
205. Triticum.........119
206. Secale cereale.......129
207  }
208  (  Secale cereale (microscopic struc-   129
209J   tureof)........

210. Ergot of Rye........132
211. Full-grown ear of Ergot of  Rye   .   133
212  )
„l~"f  Ergot of Rye (microscopic  struc-
„. .' i   tureof, according  to Corda)   .   134
215. Vacuum pans, &c. (sugar refining)   147
216. Apparatus for circular polarization   150
217. Ordinary and extraordinary images   150
218. Colchicum autumnale.....172
219. Veratrum album......183
220. Asagraea officinalis......187
221. Aloe socotrina.......194
222. Plantain.........223
223. Banana..........223
224. Wheel-rasp for preparing Tous-les-
       mois..........228
> Commercial sorts of turmeric  235, 236
Round Cardamom......240
Amomum Granum Paradisi .  .  .   241
Amomum Melegueta.....242
0 
xxxiv
LIST OP WOODCUTS IN VOL."II.
Fig.                                 Page
236. ^
237  '
nr,o  f* Amomum Melegueta (fruit of)  .   243
239J
240. Capsule of grain of. Paradise  .  .   244
241. Malagueta Pepper fruit  ....   244
242. }
243. > Java Cardamoms......245
244. )
245. j
246. > Korarima Cardamom   ....   246
247.)
248. Amomum citratum.....247
249.^
250. ! Clusius's and «ther African Carda-
251. j   moms.........   248
252. j

orjj  \  Cajeput or Banda Cardamom    .   249

tf- }  Round China Cardamom  .  . * .   249
256. ^
257  )
   ' >  Hairy round China Cardamom  .   250

259. Black Cardamom......"250
260. Ovoid China Cardamom  ....   251
261.}
262. > Malabar Cardamoms    ....   252
263. )
264. ) Elettaria major or Ceylon Carda-
265.)   mom........254-5
266. ) Sarsaparilla (microscopic structure
267.J   of)    .........263
268. Honduras Sarsaparilla (microscopic
       structure of).......264
269. Vera Cruz Sarsaparilla (microscopic
       structure of).......264
270. Section of Mealy (Honduras)  Sar-
       saparilla (microscopic view of)  .   266
271. Bundle of Caraccas (gouty) Sarsapa-
       rilla  ..........267
272. Roll of Brazilian Sarsaparilla  .   .   267
273 )
2  ' > Bundles of Honduras Sarsaparilla   268

275. Section of non-mealy (Jamaica) Sar-
       saparilla .........269
276. Bundle of Jamaica Sarsaparilla    .   269
277. Plait of ditto.........270
278. Bundle of Lima  Sarsaparilla .  .   .   271
279. Bundle of Vera Cruz (lean) Sarsapa-
       rilla  ..........272
280. Apparatus for circular polarization   293
281. Ordinary  and  extraordinary images   293
282. Preparation of Tar.....303
283. Female Flower and fruit of Juni-
       perus communis......306
284. Leaf, &c.  of Juniperus Sabina  and
       leaf of  Taxus baccata  .   .  .  '.   309
284*. Branch, &c. of Quercus pedunculata   318
285. Chinese galls.......320
286. Mecca or Bussorah galls  ....   322
286*. Branch, &c. of  Quercus suber  .   .   330
287. Cannabis  sativa.......335
288. Preparation of  extract of  Indian
       Hemp.........339
289. Humulus Lupulus......341
Fig,
290
291.
292.
293,
294
295
296
297,
298,
299
300,
301,
302,
303,
304,

305,
306.
307.
308
309
310
311
312
313
314,
315,
316.
317.
318,
319.

320.
321.
322.
323.

324.
325.
326.
327,

328,

329.
• 30.
                                 Page
 Lupulinic grain (magnified) .  .   .   341
 Morus nigra........344
 Ficus Carica........345
 Dorstenia Contrajerva.....346
 Upas poison tree......348
 Piper nigrum........349
 Ricinus communis......373
 Cinnamomum zeylanicum   .  .   .   388
 Bombolo.........397
 True or round Nutmeg   .   .  .   .   413
 Long or wild Nutmeg.....414
 Rheum palmatum......422
 Rheum compactum......422
 Rheum Emodi.......423
 Crystals of Oxalate of Lime in Rhu-
  barb  ..........426
 Bilabiate flower.......440

i Foxglove leaves......456
 Cells of a potato (magnified)  .   .   498
 Strychnos Nux-vomica.....533
 Nux vomica........534
 Sections of ditto.......534
 Seed-coats of ditto (magnified) .   .   534
 Fruit of Strychnos Potatorum  .   .   550
 Argel leaf, flowers, and fruit   .   .   553
 Apocynum cannabinum   ....   554
 Olea Europsea.......556
 Olive Oil mill........557
 Extraction of Manna.....561
 Isonandra  Gutta  (Gutta  Percha
  tree)..........576
 Seed of Lobelia inflata (magnified)
 Cephaelis Ipecacuanha   ....   620
 Brown Ipecacuanha  Root   .  .   .   621
 Striated Ipecacuanha (Roots of Psy-
  chotria emetica)......628
 Undulated Ipecacuanha Root   .   .   629
 Cinchona Calisaya......633
 The Valley of San Juan del Oro.—
  Bark-peeling in the forests of Cara-
  baya, in Peru.......639
 Transverse section of the very young
  bark of  Cinchona ovata  .  .   .   641
 Bark of   C".  Calisaya entirely de-
  prived of periderm.....641
 Bark of C. scrobiculata   ....   641
 Bark of  C. pubescens coated ex-
  ternally by its periderm   .  .   .   641

r Microscopic structure of the longi-
t   tudinal sections of these barks .   642

r Microscopic structure of the trans-
C   verse sections of the  same    .   643

 Bark of C. Calisaya entirely de-
  prived of periderm .   .  .  .   .   645

r Microscopic structure of Calisaya
(   bark.........647

 Bark of C. scrobiculata   ....   650

r Microscopic structure of the bark
C   of C. scrobiculata.....651

Bark of C. pubescens.....653 
LIST OF WOODCUTS IN VOL. II.
XXXT
 Fig.
 346.
 347.
 348.
 349.
 350.

 351.

 352.
 353.
 354.
 355.
 356.
 357.
 358.
 359.
 360.
 361.
 362.
 363.
 364.
 365.
 366.
 367.
 368.
 369.
 370-
 382.
 383.
 384.
 385.
 386.
 387.
 388.
 389.
 390.

 391.

 392.
 393.
 394.
395.
396.
397.
398.
399.
400.
401.
Page
Microscopic structure of the bark
  of C. pubescens.....
653
 Panax quinquefolium .  .   .  •   .
 Fruit of Pastanica sativa .   .  .   .
 5 Coriandrum sativum.....
 ( Carum Carui  .   .  .   k   .  .   .
 Extraction of Assafcetida .   .  .   .
 Momordica Elaterium.....
 Caryophyllus aromaticus .   .'  .   .
 Mother Clove.......
 Punica Granatum......
 Section of the fruit of the same .   .
 Section of an Almond.....
 The Peach........
 Brayera anthelmintica.....
 Bedeguar, or Sweetbrier Sponge   .
 Papilionaceous flowers  .  .  .   .
 Legumes of Ceratonia Siliqua  .   .
 Common Garden Bean   .  .  .   .
 Astragalus creticus  ......
 Acacia arab'ica.......
 Alexandrian Senna......
 Tinnevelly Senna......
 Leaf of Coriaria myrtifolia  .  .   .
381.  Various species of Copaifera   .
 Spartium juncenm......
 Butea frondosa.......
 Indigofera tinctoria .  .  ." .   .   .
 Pistacia Terebinthus.....
 P Lentiscus........
Balsamodendron  Myrrha ....
B gileadense........
 Vitis vinifera.........
Alcohol;  Improved apparatus for
  distillation of spirit.....
Hydrometer, with one of its ballast
  weights........
. 699
 700
 702
 702
 713
 744
 753
 754
 760
 761
 763
 772
 806
 809
 810
 810
 810
 820
 826
 843
 845
 845
 853
 859
 859
 859
 861
 862
 865
 S69
 890

 896

 904
> Tincture Percolators.....915

Instrument for inhaling Chloroform  933
Vinegar Generator......937
Section of a Pyroligneous Acid Still  938
Citric Acid  Manufactory ....  948
Crystal of Citric Acid.....949

' Crystals of Tartaric Acid   .  .  .  952
 Fig.                                  Page
 402. Garcinia Mangostana.....966
 403. Hebradendron cambogioides    .  .  966
 404. Citrus medica.......973
 405. C. Limonum........974
 406. C. Aurantium........978
 407. C. Bigaradia........980
 408. Thea Bohea........982
 409.- Theobroma Cacao......984
 410. Gossypium  herbaceum   ....  987
 411. Linum usitatissimum.....989
 412. Root of Ionidium Ipecacuanha .  .   998
 413. Cistus creticus.......998
 414. A. Silique.........999
 415. Sinapis alba; S. nigra.....1002
 416. Capsule of the Poppy.....1006
 417. Cocculus palmatus......1069
 418. Drimys Winteri.......1078
 419. Branch, &c. of Magnolia glauca .   .  1078
 420. Branch, &c.  of Liriodendron tulipi-
       f>ra..........1079
 421. Cornus Florida.......1100
 422. Corallium rubrum......1104
 423. Alimentary Canal of the Leech .   .  1108
 42 1. Ventral surface of do......1109
 425. Diagram  illustrative of the internal
       anatomy of the Leech  .  .   .   .1110
 426.  Cantharides........1119
 427.  Male Genital Organs of Cantharis
       vesicatoria........1119
 428.  Female do. of do.  ...... 1119
 429.  Cochineal Insects......1130
 430. Opuntia cochinillifera.....1130
 431. Cicada limbata.......1134
 432. Astacus fluviatilis......1136
 433. False Isinglass from Para   .  .  . 1142
 434. Moschus  moschiferus.....1159
 435. Belly of do.........H59
 436. Skull and antlers of  Cervus  Ela-
       ph«s   .........1164
 437. Ovis Ammon.......H66
 438. O. Musimon........H66
 439. Skeleton of Sus Scrofa.....1169
 440. Castor Fiber........H7]
 441. Skeleton of do........ini
442. General  form  pf  Crystals  of By-
       cyanide of Mercury  .....1182
443. Crystals with modified Planes of do. 1182 
xxxvi
LIST OP WOODCUTS IN VOL.  II.
                         EXPLANATION OF PLATE I.

  This plate represents the appearance  of  starch grains when moistened with  water, and
viewed by a power capable of magnifying 250 diameters.  In order that the reader may com-
pare the  sizes of the different  grains, the micrometer lines are  faintly indicated;  each of the
square spaces between the lines represents the jTj'oTrth Part °f a square inch.
  1. Wheat Starch.—Most of the larger particles present their flattened  faces to the observer.
Three particles, seen  edgeways, have a  stronger  lateral  shading.  (For a description of the
grains, see p. 125.)
  2. Barley Starch.—As wheat starch." (See  p. 115.)
  3. Oat Starch.  (See p.  112.)
  4. Rye Starch.  (See p.  128.)
  5. Maize Starch.—The upper portion represents isolated grains.   The  lower portion (a) re-
presents a mass of grains,  as seen in the outer or horny portion of  the cells, the albumen with
the  cells in situ.   (See p. 110.)
  6. Rice Starch.   (See p. 108.)
  7. Sago Meal.  (See p. 103.)
  8. Starch Grains of Pearl Sago.   (See p. 165.)
  9. Starch Grains of False Sago made from Potato Starch.—One of the grains has escaped the
action of the heating process to which they have been subjected; all the others have been rup-
tured.  Chiefly taken from a specimen of Planche's "Sagou de la,  Nouvelle Guinee"  (See  pp.
166—7.
                      EXPLANATION  OF PLATE II.

10. West India Arrow-root (Maranta Arundinacea).   (See p. 224.)
11. Portland Arrow-root (Arum).   (Seep. 387.)
12. East India Arrow-root 'Maranta Indica).  (See p. 224.)
13. Tons Les Mois (Canna Coccinea).   (See p. 227.)
14. Tapioca (Janipha Manihot).  (See p. 381.)
15.   Do.   (Seep. 381.)
16. Starch of the Cycas Circinalis.  (See p. 283.)
17. Potato Starch (Solanum Tuberosum).  (See p. 501.)
18. Tahiti Arrow-root (Tacca Oceanica).  (See p. 221.)'
19. Starch of the Yam (Dioscorea Villosa).  (See p. 260.)
20. Starch of the Pea (Pimm).
21. Starch of the Plantain (Musa Paradisiaca).  (See p. 223.) 
 
 

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ELEMENTS
OF
MATERIA    MEDICA.
                    II. ORGANIC  BODIES.


  Under this division are included those vegetables and animals, with their educts
and products, which are employed in medicine.
  I adopt L. Gmelin's definition of an organic compound,  and which I have already stated
(see vol. i. p. 291, foot note).
  For reasons which have been assigned in the Preface to the first volume, certain medicinal
compounds, which consist of an organic acid and an inorganic base, have been referred to the
first division of this work, which treats of inorganic bodies.



                X   ikgetabilta.—Vegetables.


  These may be conveniently arranged in four classes, as follows:—

I. Cryptogamia; acotyledonous, asexual, or ( Stem and leaves (indistinguishable .... 1. Thallogenm.
    flowerless.................( Stem and leaves distinguishable......2. Acrogence.
                              (Cotyledons solitary or alternate; wood of
II. Phanerogamia; sexual, or flowering . .   stem youngest in the centre    . . .3. Endogena.
                          °   j Cotyledons opposite or verticillate; wood
                              [  of stem youngest at the circumference  . 4. Exogena.



I.  Cryptogamia, Linn.—Cryptogams  or Flowerless

                               Plants,

  Acottledones, Jussieu.—Exembryonatje or ArhizjB, Richard; Agam£ or Atheogam«,
                          Auctorum) Neme«, Fries.

  Characters —Sexual organs, and, consequently^oieers and true seeds, absent.  Reproduction
taking place cither by spores, which are enclosed in cases called theca> or imbedded in the sub-
stance of the  plants; or else by a mere dissolution of the utricles of cellular  tissue. Spores
destitute of embryo and  cotyledons, germinating at no fixed point, but at any part of their
surface.
      VOL. II.—4 
50                     VEGETABLES.—Nat.  Ord. Algje.
                     Class I.   Thallogense.—Thallogens.

    Asasdhs, Link;  Acottledones, Agardh; Homonemeje, Fries; Cryptophyta, Link;
                     Tuallophtta, Endlkher; Amphigenjs, Ad. Prong.

  Characters —Substance of the plant composed chiefly of cellular tissue, devoid of spiral ves"
sels.  Cuticle destitute of stomata, or breathing pores.   Stem  and leaves undistinguishable.  No
opposition of stern and  root.
  This class includes three orders:—

I. Thallogens nourished through their whole surface by the medium in ( Aquatic......t. Alga.
     which they vegetate......................... (Aerial  .......2. Lichenes,
II.  Thallogens nourished  through their thallus (spawn or mycelium)
     by juices derived from the matrix  ..............................3. Fungi.



                    Order I.  ALG.E, DC—ALGALS.
                                    Algales, Lindley.

  Characters.—Cellular flowerless plants, nourished through their whole surface by the me-
dium in which they vegetate ; living in water or  very damp places; propagated by zoospores,
coloured spores, or tetraspores.
  Properties.—None of the plants of this order  are poisonous.   Some of them are nutritious,
emollient, and demulcent: these properties they owe to the presence of mucilage1 (carrageenin),
starch, sugar (mannite), and a little albumen.  The peculiar mucilage of  sea-weeds will be
more fully  noticed hereafter (see Chondrus crispus).   It differs, says Dr.  Stenhouse, from ordi-
nary gum, for, when digested with nitric  acid, it yields oxalic, but neither mucic nor saccharic
acids.
  Mannite is probably obtainable in greater or less quantity from most if not all sea-weeds.  Tt
vvas procured from eight out of nine species examined by Dr. Stenhouse.2   He could not detect
it in Ulva latissima.   The following is a list of the Algae which he examined, arranged in order,
according to the  quantity of mannite which they severally yielded:—
1. Laminaria saccharina (12.15 per cent, of mannite).   5. Alaria esculenta.
2. Halidrys siliquosa (5 or 6 per cent.).              6. Rhodomenia palmata (2 or 3 per cent.).
3. Laminaria digitata.                            7. Fucus vesiculosus (1 to 2 per cent.).
4. Fucus serratus.                               8. Fucus nodosus.
Esculent Sea Weeds.
a. Rhodomenia palmata (or Dulse).      c. Laminaria saccharina.        e. Alaria esculenta.
6. Rhodomenia ciliata.                 d. Irida?a edulis.              /. Ulva latissima.
  1 On the Mucilage of the Fuci, with Remarks on its Application to economical ends, by Mr. S. Brown,
Jr., in Jameson's Edinb. New Phil. Journ. vol. xxvi. p. 409, 1839.
  • Memoirs and Proceedings of the Chemical Society of London for 1844. 
Esculent Sea Weeds; Confervals.
51
On the first two of these plants, when dried, the mannite often forms crystalline incrustations,
which by some have been erroneously supposed to be common salt.  Dr. Stenhouse thinks that
mannite might be more economically procured from sea-weeds than from manna.
  The alterative  and resolvent virtues ascribed to sea-weeds, and their presumed beneficial
effects in scrofulous affections and glandular enlargements, are referable to the inorganic con-
stituents; such as iodine,  bromine, the phosphates, and the alkaline substances.   The following
table shows the composition and proportion of ash in certain sea-weeds:—
	a		d	£			rt «	cd	4)		4) J3	
	et	89 3 •	a a	bp 1	B O, o	s •a 4)	be c o	.5 '3 60 B o	.2f' = T3	3 = S3 . ■O 3 t) o o *a	go d c-a	B V
	.— *-		t*			13 8 y		a	-o E>?			S
	E	I*	c E eS	.5 o	■a B o JS		J3 c		3 e b 5	3 i> O 3 ■" fa s	fai	X c u a. a.
			lJ		t>						o	
	J			fc			P4	p	fa	fa	fa	<
	24.77	16.02	16.91	21.36	18.00	23 42	21.23	13.72	22 40	10.07	4.51	17.50]
Soda.........	1.84	6.01		24 77	19 47		5.06 2.92	21.34 2.30	8.29 3.79	15.80 10.98	21.J5 11.09	12.70 7.39,
	6 50	7.05	8.28	6.02	7.11	10.23						
	8.13	7.59	6.80	11.04	11.80		20.56	5.94	7.44	10.93	11 66	9.89
Chloride of sodium .	33.72	38.72	26.92			1.66	13.85		28.39	20.16	18.76	16.56!
Chloride of potassium			10.18									0.93
Iodide of sodium . .	4.70	0.27							3.62	0.54	1.33	0.95
Phosphate of lime .	8.41	4.95	12.80	3.96	0.76	23.23	2.99	390	5.63	3.34	9.67	7.24
Phosphate of iron .	0.75	0.64										
Oxide of iron ....									0.62	0.29	0.34	0.24
Oxide of manganese Sulphuric acid . . .				0.22								
	10.60	18.35	W.63	32.63	42.86	25.19	28.66	40.42	13.26	26.69	21.06	24.76
	0.58	0.40	0.69				2.83	12 38 100"	1.56	1.20	0.43	1.82
Per centage of ash 1												
	100'	100'	"95.21	100*	100*	"99.79	"98.10		1003	100	1003	99.98
												
in weed dried at >	9.78	25.83	13.62	18.92	20.61	9.86	17.10	13.17	20.40	16.19	15.63	16.46
2123 F......)												
  The presence of so large a proportion of potash and phosphoric acid in plants growing in sea-
water, which contains so small a proportion of these ingredients, is very remarkable.  There
is reason, however, to believe that the quantity and constitution of the ash are liable to very con-
siderable variation, depending on the locality, season, age of the  plant, &c.  A  vermifuge pro-
perty has been ascribed to some algals.
  Laennec4 tried the influence of an artificial "marine atmosphere" (air impregnated with the
vapour of fresh  sea-weed) on consumptive patients, and was impressed with" an idea of  its
efficacy;  but experience has not confirmed his  favourable opinion  of its beneficial influence•
moreover, the inhabitants of sea-coasts, like those of inland districts, are the subjects of phthisis'.
           Sub-order  I.  Confervace,e, Midi.—Confervals.

   Characters—Vesicular, filamentary, or membranous algals, propagated by sporidia ("en-
dogenous cells, or a gelatinous substance which is ultimately formed into cells), which are pro-
duced at the expense of the endochrome of one or more cells, or sometimes by the copulation
of distinct individuals, and discharged by the opening or absorption of the mother cell.
   Properties.—These are  similar to  those of the Order, and which I have already noticed
(see ante, p. 50).
  1.  Confervals of mineral waters—Conferva'ls are  peculiarly abundant in both hot and
cold sulphureous  springs.   Calothrix nivea (Fig.  147), the  Conferva nivea of Dillwyn,5 has
been found in the sulphur  springs of Yorkshire, Durham, and Aix-la-Chapelle.6  The same  or
an allied species, was found by Dr. Daubeny? in the hot sulphur springs of Greoulx, in Provence.
Oscillaria labyrinthiformis—the Tremella thermalis of some writers—is one of the  most com-
mon species  in the  hot sulphur springs, and other thermal waters of Germany, France and
Schweitzer.
' Godechens, Annal. der Chemie vnd Pharm. liv. p. 352
4 Treat, on Diseases of the Chest, by Dr. Forbes, p. 369
' Forchhammer.
6 British Conferva, p. 54
' Op. citato.
• Daubeny, Linn. Trans, vol. xvi. p. 587, 1831. 
52                    VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Alg^e.

Italy.  In the Karlsbad waters, Sphcerozyga Jacobi (Fig.  148), and several species of Oscillaria,
have been detected.1  Humboldt found Oscillaria calida in the thermal waters of New Granada.
Fig.  147.                                     Fig. 148.
Calothrix nivea.                               Sphcerozyga Jacobi.
  The organic substance found in mineral waters, and variously called baregine by Longchamp,
zoogen by Gimbernat, theiothermin by Monheim, and glairine by Anglada, derives its origin from
confervals.   It is a glairy or mucus-like substance, which is said to communicate the flavour and
odour of flesh-broth to the water in which it is contained.  In the preparation of artificial sul-
phur baths, animal gelatine is sometimes used  to represent the baregine (see ante, vol. i. p. 478).
  The confervals, under the  influence  of light, decompose  water,  retain the hydrogen, and
evolve the oxygen.   Robiquet2 obtained, from  the Neris water, gas containing 44 per cent, of
oxygen, derived  from the Oscillatoria labyrinthiformis;  and he ascribed the medicinal qualities
of these waters  to the presence of this very oxygenated  air.  " Dr. Edwards," says Robiquet,
"has  shown that the air  contained in water  has a great influence over the life of batrachians,
and it is probable that, in some cases, our organs may also be more or less influenced by it."
  2.  Confervals employed in medicine.—Yeast is referred to Algae by Kiitzing,3 who calls
it Cryptococcus Fermentum.  It is more commonly, however, regarded as a fungus, and as such


                                                                   Fig. 151.
         Hygrocrocis cuprica
(in a solution of polychrome mixed with
         sulphate of copper).
will be noticed hereafter.  (See Fungi.)  With this doubtful exception, none of the Confervals
are employed, at the present day, in medicine.  Nostoch commune, or star-jelly, of which, formerly,
1 Endlicher, Genera Plant. Supp. 3me ;  Geiger's Handb. d. Pharm. 2te Aufl. Ergangsheft, 1813.
a Journ. de Pharmacie, t. xxi. p. 583, 1835.                             » Phycologia generalis. 
Confervals in Pharmaceutical Liquids.                 53
the most  extraordinary  superstitions were entertained,1 and  Conferva  rivularis,  or  crow silk,
recommended by Murray2 for trial in asphyxia, asthma, and phthisis, on  account of its evolving
oxygen  in solar light, have never been used in rational medicine.
  3.  Confervals developed in pharmaceutical and other liquids.—The  vesicular and
filamentous plants which grow in various chemical solutions,3 and to  the  naked eye  appear
like gelatinous or cottony masses, are considered by some botanists to be Algals.  Kiitzing refers
thern to the genera Cryptococcus, Ulvina, Hygrocrocis, Sirocrocis,  Leptomitus, and Chamcenema.

                                                             Fig. 153.
   Leptomitus phosphoratus
(in phosphoric acid from bones).
  But these minute plants are regarded by some eminent authorities as the spawn or mycelium
of various moulds, or, in other words, as imperfect mucedinous fungi.  "It is true," says the Rev.
M. J. Berkeley, "that moulds will vegetate in fluids, but, as soon as they assume their normal
form, there is a distinction between the immerged and free portion."   If, however, they fruc-
tify under water, which, according to Kiitzing, they do, their algaceous nature is, I apprehend,
proved.
  4. Esculent Confervals.—Some few of the Confervals are cooked and brought to table
under the name of laver; but the  amount of  nourishment which they contain is very small.
They are species of Porphyra and Ulva.
  1 See the articles " Nostoch," in the Diet. Univ. de Mat. Mid. t. iv. p. 635, 1832;  and " Califolium,"
in James's Medicinal Dictionary, vol. ii.
  » Appar. Medicaminum, t. v. p. 550,1790.—Pliny (Hist. Nat. lib. xxvii. cap. 45) says he knew a labourer
who fell from the  top of a tall tree, and thereby broke nearly every  bone in his bodv, and who, bein"
covered with a river conferva, kept moist by his own water, was cured in an incredibly short space of
time. He adds, that the term conferva is derived from " conferruminando," in allusion to the supposed
consolidating properties of this plant.
  * For some notices of these plants, the reader is referred to my paper On the Microscopic  Vegetations
developed in Pharmaceutical Liquids, iu the Pharmaceutical Journal, volg. vii. and viii. 1848. 
54
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Alg^j.
1. Porphyra laciniata, Agardh— Laciniated Purple  Laver.
Fig. 154.
  Porphyra  umbilicalis, Kiitzing;  Ulva  urn-
bilicalis, Eng. Bot.—The fronds are delicately
membranaceous, deeply and irregularly cleft
into  several broad segments.  Their colour
is deepish purple, but, when not  in  a  state
of perfection, it tends to livid olive.  " Under
the  microscope, the whole  frond appears to
be divided into squares, in  the manner of a
tessellated pavement, and within each square
are   four purple  granules or spores, which
constitute  the  fructification  and  the whole
colouring matter of the frond"1 (see Fig. 154,
a).   Abundant  on  all our  shores.  This
plant is pickled with salt, and sold  in  Lon-
don  as laver.  The London shops are said to
be supplied  with it from the coast of Devon-
shire.  When stewed, it  is brought to the
table and eaten with pepper, butter, or oil,
and lemon juice  or vinegar.  Some persons
stew it with  leeks and onions.  It  is gene-
rally taken as a luxury ; but it  might be em-
ployed  with advantage,  by scrofulous sub-
jects, as an alterative article of diet.   In the
absence  of  other vegetables,  it  might be
valuable as an antiscorbutic  to the crews of
our whaling vessels cruising in high latitudes,
where every marine  rock at half-tide abund-
antly produces it.
              Porphyra laciniata.
a. Small portion of the frond, showing the quaternate
             granules (magnified).


            2. Ulva latissima,  Grevilk.—Broad Green Laver.

  Ulva Lactuca var. latissima Lightf; Green Sloke; Oyster Green.—The fronds are bright herba-
ceous green, becoming tinged with brown in old age and decay.   They are oblong or roundish,
waved, and very tender  (see Fig.  146,/).   The granules are quaternate, and densely cover
the  whole frond.  It is said to be used at table under the name of green laver, being cooked in
the  same way as the Porphyra laciniata, to which it  is greatly inferior.   It is rarely taken when
the  latter can be procured.  I have never found it in the London  shops.
             Sub-order II.   Phyce^e, Endl.—Sea Wracks.

                         FucACEiE, Lindl; Aplosporeje, Decaisne.

  Characters.—Cellular or tubular algals propagated by spores (endogenous cells), contained
in superficial, often bladdery (utricles) cells, produced singly out of endochrome, consisting of a
simple nucleus clothed by its proper cellular membrane (epispore), and discharged by the open-
ing  of a transparent mother cell (perispore).
  Properties.—Similar to those of the order (see ante, p. 50).   To this order several esculent
species  belong:  such  as  Liminaria  digitata,  called by  the English  sea-girdles,  by the Scotch
Tangle; and Alaria esculenta (Fig. 146, e), termed Badderlocks,  Hen-ware, or Honey ware.  These,
as well  as  several other  species of this order, viz., Laminaria  saccharina  (Fig. 146, c), and
Halidrys siliquosa, have been already referred to as containing mannite (see  ante, p. 50).
  The only species used for medicinal  purposes which it will be  necessary to notice is Fucus
Vesiculosus.
1 Harvey, Phycologia Britannica, vol. i. pi. xcii. 1846. 
Sea Wrack:—History; Botany; Physical Properties.        55
Fig. 155.
  3. FUCUS VESICULOSUS, Linn — COMMON SEA WRACK
                             Sea:. Syst. Cryptogamia, Algae.
                               (Herba cum fructu, Offic.)

   History.—Theophrastus1  mentions  se-
veral species of Algae ($vxoc).   Fucus vesi-
culosa is sometimes termed quercus marina,
bladder fucus,  and common sea-ware, kelp-
ware, and black tang.
  _ Botany.    Gen.  Char. — Frond  linear,
either flat, compressed, or cylindrical, dicho-
tomous (rarely pinnated), coriaceous.   Air-
vessels [yesiculse]  when present innate, sim-
ple.  Receptacles  either  terminal or lateral,
filled with mucus, traversed by a net-work of
jointed fibres,  pierced  by numerous  pores,
which communicate with  immersed  spherical
conceptacles,  containing parietal spores, or an-
theridia, or both ([Harvey)."
   Sp. Char.—Frond plane, linear, dichoto-
mous, entire  at   the margin.   Air-vessels
roundish-oval  in  pairs.   Receptacles  mostly
elliptical, terminating the branches ( Greville).
   Very  variable;  but the varieties pass so
insensibly into each  other that it is difficult
to define them strictly.
   Hab.—Sea-shores.   Very common  every-
where.
   Physical Properties.—Its substance is
thickish, flexible, but very tough.   Its colour
is dark, olivaceous, glossy green,  paler at the
extremities,  and becomes  black by drying.   Its odour is strong; its taste nauseous.
   Composition.—It has been  analyzed  by Stackhouse,3 by Gaultier  de Claubry,3
by John,4 and by Fagerstrom.5  The following appear to be its constituents:  Cel-
lulose, mucilage (carrageenin), mannite, odorous oil, colouring and  bitter  matters,
and various salts.
   The following table shows the composition and proportion of ash  of Fucus vesi-
culosus of different localities:—
         Fucus vesiculosus.
Upper part of a frond, with air vessels and
   receptacles.
Section of a receptacle.
Conceptacle.
Filaments and sporeR, of which the con
   ceptacles are composed.
Filaments which issue from the pores on the
   surface of the frond.
	Mouth of Mouth of the Clyde, the Mersey.		North Sea.	Denmark.	Greenland.	Mean.
	15.23 11.16 8.15 7.16 25.10 0.37 2.99 0.33 28.16 1.35	15.10 16.77 15.19 9.89 4.42 30.94 7.69	17.68 5.78 4.71 6.89 35.38 0.13 5.44 23.71 0.28	9.03 7.78 21.65 10.96 3.53 9.67 26.34 11.04	17.86 21.43 3.31 7.44 25.93 10.09 13.94	11.96 12.25 10.92 9.53 19.62 0.25 5.64 0.95 24.62 4.06
Soda...........						
						
Chloride of sodium . . . Iodide of sodium .... Phosphate of iron and ) phosphate of lime . >						
Per centageof ash (cal-)						
	1006	1001	1008	1009	1009 100	
	16.39	13.22	20.56		16.22 16.60	
1 Hist. Plant, lib. iv. cap. vii.
' Ann. Chim. xciii. 116.
• Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. Bd. ii. S. 1354.
* (idilechens, Annal. der Chemie und Pharm. liv. p. 532.
' Schweitzer.
1 Diet. Scien. Nat. xviif. 500.
4 Schiveiggtr's Journ. xiii.461.

' James, ibid.
9 Forchhammer. 
56
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Alclu.
  Chemical Characteristics.—By treating the distilled water of Fucusvesicu-
losus with ether, a semisolid white oil is extracted, which  is the odorous principle.
The aqueous decoction of this plant is neutral, and  contains  in  solution  mucilage
(see carrageenin) and various salts.  It yields, with chlorine and starch, faint traces
only of iodine, sometimes none at all.  But if alcohol be  added, by which the
mucilage and a part of the sulphates are thrown  down, the alcoholic  liquor evapo-
rated, and  the residue mixed with potash, then  calcined, and afterwards  treated
with hydrochloric acid  to disengage hydrosulphuric acid, we may sometimes detect
iodine in  the  filtered liquor by the deep  blue  colour formed  on  the addition of
starch and chlorine.1
  By combustion in the open air, this plant yields the ash called kelp; and by in-
cineration in a covered crucible it gives a charcoal, termed vegetable ethiops.
  Physiological Effects.—During the winter, in some of the  Scottish islands,
horses, cattle, and sheep are fed on it.2   Its local action is detergent,  and, perhaps,
discutient.  Its  remote effects are probably analogous to those  caused by small
doses of iodine, modified by the influence of salts of sodium  and calcium.
  Uses.—Frictions of the plant,  with its contained mucilage, were employed, with
supposed advantage, by Dr.  Russell,3 in glandular enlargements and other  scrofu-
lous tumours:  the  parts  were afterwards washed with sea water.  He  also gave
internally the expressed juice of the vesicles in glandular affections.4
  ETHIOPS VEGETABILIS;  Vegetable  Ethiops.—This is  prepared  by incinerating
Fucus vesiculosus in a covered crucible.   It is composed of charcoal and  various
salts (see supra).  When hydrochloric acid is added to it,  traces of  sulphuretted
hydrogen are  frequently evolved.  By digesting the ethiops in water, and  testing
the solution with nitric acid and  starch, I have sometimes failed to obtain the blue
colour indicative of the presence  of iodine.  It has been exhibited in bronchocele
and scrofulous maladies.  Dr. Russell5 says it far exceeds burnt sponge  in virtue.
It  has  been employed also as a dentifrice.   The dose of it is from  ten grains to
two drachms.

         Sub-order III.  Floride^e, Eadl.—Kose-Tangles.
                    Ceramiaceje, Lindl.; Choristosporeje, Decaisne.
  Characters.—Cellular or tubular algals propagated by thecse (favellce vel favellidia, coccidia
vel keramidia),  composed of granules [spores?] contained within a cellular or  gelatinous peri-
sporangium; and  by spbserospores (or tetraspores), composed of four (or three) spores in a trans-
parent perispore.
  Properties.—Several  species of this sub-order are esculent.  They owe  this property to the
mucilage, starch,  mannite, and perhaps a little albumen, which they contain.  Besides the
species presently  to be described, Iridtta edulis (Fig. 146, d)  and Rhodomenia palmata (Fig. 146,
a), which is cried about the streets of Edinburgh under the name of dulse, may be mentioned
as illustrative examples of esculent species.

        4. CHONDRUS CRISPUS, Grev — CARRAGEEN OR
                               IRISH MOSS.
                            Sex. Syst.  Cryptogamia, Alga?.
                                   (Planta, Offic.)

   Synonymes.— Chondrus polymorphic,  Lamour; Spheerococcus crispus, Agardh;
curled chondrus (chondrus, from a;6V5po$, cartilage').
   History.— Carrageen, Irish,  or pearl moss, was  introduced into  medicine by
Mr. Todhunter, of Dublin.6
   Botany.  Gen.  Char. — Frond  cartilaginous, nerveless,  compressed  or  flat,
flabelliform, dichotomously  cleft:  formed  internally of three strata;  the inner,  of
» Guibourt, Hist, des Drog. 4me ed. ii 46.                         3 Greville, Alga Brit. xx.
a Dissertation on the  Use of Sea Water, 5th ed. 1769, pp. 41 and 44.      4 Op. cit. p. 99.
t Op. cit. p. 98.
6 Reece's Monthly Gazette of Health, Jan. 1831. 
Carrageen or Irish Moss; Preparation.
57
densely-packed longitudinal fibres; the medial, of small roundish cells;  the outer,
of vertical, coloured, moniliform filaments.   Fructification:  1, prominent tubercles
(nemathecia) composed of radiating  filaments, whose  lower  articulations  are at
length dissolved into spores (?); 2, tetraspores collected into sori, immersed in the
substance of the frond (Harvey).
   Sp. Char.—Frond  stipitate, thickish, cartilaginous, flat or  curled,  segments
wedge-shaped,  very variable in breadth;  apices truncate, submarginate, or  cloven:
axils obtuse;  sori  elliptical  or oblong,  concave  on  one  side  (Harvey).   Fronds
from 2 or 3 to 10 or 12 inches long: their substance cartilaginous, in some varieties
approaching to horny, flexible and  tough;  their  colour deep, purple-brown, often
tinged with purplish-red, paler  at the summit, becoming  greenish, and  at length
white in  decay.
   This, says Dr. Greville,  is the Proteus ©f marine Algae.   The varieties  are in-
numerable, and pass into one another so insensibly that it is  almost impossible to
define them.
   Mr. D. Turner1 enumerates the following varieties:—
   0. virens;   frond   submembranaceous,
 branches  dilated upwards, flattish, extreme
 segments  long and acuminated.
   y.  stellatus; frond  submembranaceous,
 branches  dilated upwards, divided  at their
 apices into very  numerous clustered short
 lacinifp.
   £. equalis; frond cartilaginous, thick, all
 the branches equal, linear, the extreme seg-
 ments obtuse.
   i. filiformis ; frond cartilaginous, subcylin-
 drical, branches  nearly linear, apices long
 and acuminated.
   f. patens; fronds sul>cartilaginous, chan-
 nelled on  one side, dichotomous, angles of
 the dichotomies patent.
   n. lacerus; frond cartilaginous, compressed,
 apices very narrow, elongated, branched.
   6. sarniensis; frond between coriaceous
 and cartilaginous,  branches  slightly chan-
 nelled on  one  side, dilated upwards, apices
 rounded and emarginate.
   i. planus; frond  subcoriaceous, flat, wide,
 branches linear, apices obtuse.
   k. geniculatus;  frond cartilaginous, com-
 pressed, branches  nearly linear, tubercles
 subglobose, black,  frond  bent,  and often
 broken at the tubercles.
   According to Ormancey,2 carrageen is a
 zoophyte which  he proposes to call Anti-
pathes polymorphus.   Unlike the fuci, he says,
 it  has no  canal, nerves, or roots; but, like
 the zoophytes, it has voluntary motion  of
 tentacula?, sensibility, and two distinct bodies,
 one  secreted by the  other, simulating  a
plant.
Fig. 156.

          Chondrus crispus.
1. Plant with sori (natural size).
2. Segment with sorus.
3. A segment and sorus vertically divided.
4. Seeds or spores.
5. Tetraspores from the sorus (magnified).
   Hab.—On rocks and stones on the sea-coast; very common.—Perennial: spring.
   Preparation.—For dietetical  and  medicinal uses, it  is  collected  on the west
coasts of  Ireland (especially in  Clare), likewise, according to  Kohl,3 in  Antrim;
washed, bleached (by exposure to the sun), and dried.
   In Ireland, it is  sometimes  employed by painters and plasterers  as a substitute
for size.
  1 Fuci;  or, Figures and Descriptions of the Plants referred by botanists to the genus Fucus Lond
1808-12,4to.                                                                    '
  9 Journal de Pharmacie et de Chimie, 3me ser. t. xii. p. 265, 1847.           * Ireland p. 247. 
58
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Alg;e.
Fig. 157.
Chondrus crispus.
   Along with  Chondrus crispus, other allied species,  especially Ch.  mamillosus,
are sometimes collected (see Fig. 158).
   Physical Properties.—The carrageen or Irish  moss  of commerce (muscus
carragenicus) consists of fronds, which are usually from two  to three or four inches
                                            long,  dry,  crisp, mostly yellowish or
                                            dirty white, but intermixed  with pur-
                                            plish red portions,  inodorous, or nearly
                                            so,  with  a  mucilaginous  taste.   The
                                            frond  is  formed  internally  of  three
                                            strata;  the  inner, of densely-packed
                                            longitudinal fibres; the medial, of small
                                            roundish cells;  the  outer,  of vertical,
                                            coloured, moniliform filaments.1
                                               In warm water, the dried commercial
                                            frond   swells   up,  and,  when   boiled,
                                            almost entirely dissolves.    If the swol-
                                            len  and  partially-dissolved  frond  be
                                            examined by  the microscope, it is seen
                                            to  consist  of  very minute,  somewhat
                                            fusiform cohering  cells.   A  calcareous
                                            meshy  crust  (consisting   of  various
                                            species of Flustra) is  frequently found
                                            on the frond.
                                    Chondrus  mamillosus  is found  in commercial
                                 carrageen.   Some  samples  I found to  be princi-
                                 pally composed of this  species.3   The frond of this
                                 plant is more  or  less  channelled; but the  species
                                 is best  distinguished by the fructification;  in  Ch.
                                 crispus the subhemispherical capsules are imbedded
                                 in the disk of the frond,  producing a depression on
                                 the opposite  side (see Fig. 156); in  Ch. mamil-
                                 losus, the spherical capsules are  scattered over the
                                 disk of the frond, and are supported on little short
                                 stalks (Fig. 158).
                                    Composition.—It has been  analyzed by Her-
a. Transverse section of the frond )   both
b. Longitudinal section of the frond J magnified.
a, a. Outer strata.
6, 6. Medial strata.
c. Inner stratum.
Fig. 158.
       Chondrus mamillosus.

Portion of the channelled frond bearing
      the pedicellate capsules.
berger3 and by Feuchtwanger.
               Feuchtwanger.
Jellv     ( Pectin [carrageenin] (a large portion).

Oxalate of lime.
Compounds of sulphur, chlorine, and bromine.
No fungic, boletic, or lichenic acids.
                 Herberger.
Vegetable jelly [carrageenin].........  79.1
Mucus......................   9.5
Two resins...................   0.7
Fatty matter and free acids..........traces
Chlorides of sodium and magnesium.....   2.0
Fibre, water, and loss.............   8.7
No traces of iodine or bromine could be re-
  cognized.                             ---
                                      100.0

Subsequently, iodine has been detected in  it by Sarphati,5 and both  iodine and
bromine by Grosse.8   (For the composition of the ashes, see p. 51.)

  Carrageenin.—The mucilaginous constituent of carrageen moss is termed by some writers
vegetable jelly, or vegetable mucilage, by others pectin.   It appears to me to be a peculiar modifica-
tion of mucilage, and I shall, therefore, call it carrageenin.  It is soluble in boiling water, and
its solution forms a precipitate with diacetate of lead and silicate of potash, and, if sufficiently
concentrated, gelatinizes on cooling."  Carrageenin is distinguished from  ordinary gum  by its
aqueous solution not producing a precipitate on the addition of alcohol; from starch,  by its not
assuming a blue colour with tincture of iodine;  from animal jelly, by tincture of nut-galls caus-
Phycologia Britannica, vol. i. pi. lxiii. Lond. 1846.
See, also, Henschel in Dierbach, Die neuesten Entdeck. in d. Mat. Med. Bd. ii. S. 276, 1843.
Buchner's Repertorium, Bd. xlix. S. 200, 1834.
American Journal of Sciences and Arts, xxvi.          ' Commentatio de Iodio, Lugd. Bat. 1635.
Pharmaceutisches Central Blattfur 1839, S. 159. 
Decoction of Carrageen ; Carrageen Cocoa.              59
ing no precipitate;1 from pectin, by acetate of lead not throwing down anything, as well as by
no mucic acid being formed by the action of nitric acid.
  According to Schmidt,2 the cell-walls of carrageen do not essentially differ from the contents
of the cells; for, when the plant is boiled in water, the whole swells up and forms a mucilage,
which may be expressed through a linen cloth, leaving behind the Flustrae and  small crusta-
ceans with which this alga is covered.  By digestion for a short time with  dilute sulphuric
acid  in a water-bath, the whole plant is converted into sugar and gum.
  The  composition of carrageenin dried at 212° F., according to Schmidt, is represented by the
formula C,2Hl0O10;  so that it appears to be identical with starch and sugar.  Mulder,8 how-
ever, represents it by the formula C21Hl9019.
  Chemical Characteristics.—The presence of carrageenin  in the decoction  is
demonstrated by the tests before  enumerated.   No iodine is recognizable by nitric
acid and starch.   Oxalate of ammonia detects lime (or calcium)  in solution, while
nitrate of silver  points out  the  presence of chlorine.   Guibourt* could recognize
neither sugar nor magnesia.
  Physiological Effects.—Carrageen moss is nutritive : its mucilaginous mat-
ter acts as an element of respiration (see ante, vol. i. p. 116), while its inorganic con-
stituents (phosphate of  lime, potash, salts, &c.) may also serve some useful purpose
in the animal economy.   It is generally regarded as being readily digestible.
   Medicinally, it is emollient and demulcent (see ante, vol. i. pp. 207-8).
  Uses.—It is a popular remedy for  pulmonary complaints (especially those of a
phthisical character), chronic diarrhoea  and dysentery, scrofula, rickets, enlarged
mesenteric glands, irritation of bladder and kidneys, &c.   As a culinary article,  it
has  been employed as  a substitute for animal jelly, in  the preparation of  blanc-
mange, jellies, white soup, &c.  A thick mucilage of carrageen scented with some
prepared  spirit is  sold as bandoline, fixature, or clysphitique, for stiffening the hair
and keeping it in form.
  Administration.—It is usually exhibited in the form of decoction or jelly.   It
has  also been employed in combination with chocolate  or cocoa.
   1. DECOCTUM  CHONDRI)  Decoction of Carrageen or  Irish Moss.—Macerate  half
an  ounce of carrageen  in cold or warm water, during ten minutes;  then  boil  in
three pints of water for a quarter of an hour.   Strain  through linen.   When pro-
perly flavoured, it may be used  as  a tisan or common  drink.   By doubling the
quantity of carrageen, a mucilage (mucilago chondri)  is procured.    Milk may be
substituted for water when the decoction is  required to be very nutritious.   A pre-
paration of this kind has been called lac analepticum.   Sugar, lemon-juice, tincture
of orange-peel, essence of lemon, or other aromatics, as cinnamon or nutmeg, may
be employed as flavouring ingredients.

   2. GELATINA CIIONDRI;  Carrageen Jelly.—This may be prepared by adding sugar
to the strained decoction and boiling down until the liquid is sufficiently concentrated
to gelatinize on cooling; or by employing a larger quantity  of carrageen.   If milk
be substituted for water, carrageen blanc-mange is obtained.   Sugar and other fla-
vouring ingredients may be employed, as above mentioned.

   3. PASTA CACAO CUM CHONDRO;  Pasta Cacao cum Lichene Carragheno, Ph. Dan.;
 Carrageen Cocoa.—The Danish  pharmacopoeia gives  the  following directions for
its  preparation:  Roasted  and decorticated  Cacao Seeds  reduced to a very subtile
mass in a warm iron mortar;  Powdered White Sugar,  of each rbij;  Powdered Car-
rageen ^iij.  Mix,  and form into quadrangular sticks.   Clarus and  Radius5 direct
carrageen, or while chocolate, to be prepared as follows: Cocoa Paste ^iv; Powdered
Carrageen gvj; White  Sugar giv; Flour q. s. (gvj).   Mix.—These  pastes are  to
be used like common cocoa or chocolate.
  ' Berlin. Jahrb. xxxiv Abth. i. 1834.         « Ann. der Chemie u. Pharm. Bd. li. S. 29, 1844.
  » Pharmaceutisches Central Blatt fur 1838, S. .'00; and The Chemistry of Animal and Vegetable Phy-
siology, by Fromberg and Johnston, Part ii. p. 239.
  4 Jaurn. de Chim. Mid. viii. 663.
  » Dierbach, Die neuesten Entdeck. in d. Mat. Med. Bd. ii. S. 276, 1843. 
60
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Alg^.
        5.  PLOCARIA  CANDIDA, ^.-CEYLON MOSS.
                           Sex. Syst. Cryptogamia, Algae.
                                  (Planta, Offic.)
  Synonymes.— Gracilaria  lichenoides,  Greville;   Sphserococcus  lichenoides,
Agardh;  Gigartina lichenoides, Lamouroux;  Fucus  lichenoides, Turner;  Fucus
amylaceus, O'Shaughnessy;  Jaffna Moss;  Edible Moss.—According to Rumphius,
it is called by the Malays Sajor carang and Agar agar carang ; at Amboyna, it is
termed Aysana and Aytsana (h. e. arbuscula ramosa), and Rumeyar waccar ; at Java,
Bulung; at Macassar, Dongi dongi; and at other places, Lottu lottu and Collocane.
  History.—It seems to have been long  known and used  in the East.  It has
been described by Rumphius,1 Gmelin,2 Turner,3 Nees,* and Agardh.5  About the
year 1837 it was introduced into England by Mr. Previte;  and in the year  1840
public attention was drawn to its useful properties by Messrs. Sigmond and Farre.6
  Botany.   Gen. Char.—Frond composed of large oblong-cylindrical cells contain-
ing granular endochrome, those of the  surface forming  moniliform, densely-packed
filaments.   Fructification of two kinds: 1. hemispherical, poinleted coccidia, con-
taining a  glomerule of oblong spores  on a central  placenta, within a pericarp  of
moniliform, densely crowded filaments; 2. oblong tetraspores imbedded in cells  of
the surface  (Endlicher).
                                          Sp. Char__Frond cartilaginous, cylindri-
               Fig. 159.                  cal, filiform, much and irregularly branched;
                                        branches smooth, spreading, acute, some-
                                        what fastigiate.   Coccidia sessile, scattered.
                                          Rumphius mentions four kinds of Alga coral-
                                        hides, which he distinguishes as the prima, secunda,
                                        tertia, and quarta ; and he has figured three kinds.
                                        Nees figures two plants—one fertile, the other
                                        sterile.   Turner notices two varieties: |S edulis ia
                                        a smaller variety, and has a remarkably flexuose
                                        frond, more thin and less branched than a:  its
                                        colour is quite white.
                                          Hab.—Ceylon,  at  Jaffnapatam;  the
                                        islands of the Indian Archipelago.
                                          Commerce.—It is exported to China by
                                        the islands of  the  Indian Archipelago.
                                        Mr. Crawfurd7 says that it forms  a portion
                                        of the cargoes of all the junks;  the price
                                        on the  spot where  it is collected seldom
                                        exceeding from 5s. 8d. to  7s. ,6f d. per cwt.
                                        The Chinese use it in the form of jelly with
                                        sugar, as a sweetmeat, and apply  it in the
                                        arts as  an  excellent paste.   The gummy
                                       matter which  they employ for  covering
                                        lanterns,  varnishing paper, &c, is made
                                        chiefly, if not entirely, from it.
                                          Physical Properties.—Ceylon moss
                                        is in whitish or yellowish-white ramifying
            Plocaria candida.              filaments of several inches in length.  At
                                       the base the largest fibres  do not exceed in
                                       thickness a crowquill; the smallest fibres
                                       are about as thick as fine sewing thread.
                                       To the naked eye the filaments appear  al-
ii. Plocaria Candida (nat. size).
d. Variety Q. edulis.
e. Part of frond with the coccidia (magnified)
/. Section of coccidium.
g-. Spores.
' Herb. Amboin, Pars vi. lib. xi. cap. lvi. p. 181; Alga coralloides, tab. lixvi. 1750.
3 Hist. Fucorum, p. 113, 1768.           3 Fuci, vol. ii. p. 124.
4 Hort. physic. Berol. 42. t. vi.          * Syst. Algarum, p. 233.
» The Ceylon Moss, Lond. 1840.         * History of the Indian Archipelago, vol. iii. p. 446 1820. 
Ceylon Moss;  Chemical Characters;  Effects;  Uses.         61
most cylindrical  and filiform; but, when examined by a  microscope, they appear
shrivelled  and  wrinkled.  The  branchings are  sometimes dichotomous, at other
times irregular.   Dr. Farre states that in a bale opened at Mr. Battley's, about T'jth
appeared to  bear fructification.   The tubercles (coccidia)  are  inconspicuous when
dry, but when moist, are readily seen.   They are  hemispherical, about the size of
i poppy-seed, and contain, according to Rumphius, a mass of minute, oblong, dark
red spores.  The consistence of Ceylon moss is cartilaginous.   Its  flavour is that of
Bea-weed, with a feebly saline taste.
   Composition.—This algal  has been  examined chemically, in  1834, by Dr.
O'Sbaughnessy;1 in 1842, by Guibourt;3 and in 1843, by Wonneberg and Kreyssig,3
by Bley,4  and by Riegel.5
   O'Shaughnessy's Analysis.
Vegetable jelly......  54.50
True starch........  15
Ligneous fibre.......  18
Gum............   4
Wax............a trace
Sulphate and muriate of
  soda...........   6.50
Sulphate and phosphate of
  lime...........   1
Iron ............a trace

                       99
Assume the  traces of the
  wax  and iron,  and the
  loss, at..........   1

          Total.....100
       Bley's Analysis.
Pectin............37.5
Lichen............3.85
Ligneous fibre........16.08
Gum.............1.2
Albumen...........0.9
Fatty matters........19 95
Lichenic acid........0.05
Chloride  of calcium.....0.20
Chloride  of sodium.....1.72
Water  ............18.5

                      99.95
The ashes of the ligneous  fibre
  contained chloride of sodium,
  sulphates of lime and of mag
  nesia,  carbonates of lime and
  magnesia, oxide of iron, silica,
  and iodic salt.
      RiegeVs Analysis.
Soluble gelatine.......78.5
Starch............6.0
Starchy skeleton......12.1
Resin  ............0.63
Chloride of sodium  .... 1.85
Chloride of magnesium  .  . 0.54
Sulphate of soda......0.38
                     100.00
The ashes of the skeleton  con-
  tained sulphate of lime, phos-
  phate of lime, and magnesia.
  1. Mucilaginous matter  (Carrageenin?); Vegetable  Jelly;  Pectin; Soluble  gelatine.—The
mucilaginous or gelatinizing principle of Ceylon moss appears  to me to agree  very closely, if
indeed it be not identical, with carrageenin.   It has not hitherto been analyzed.
  2. Starchy matter.—This resides chiefly in the cortical portion of the algal.  But the  in-
ternal cell-walls become  deeply stained purplish brown on the addition of iodine, as if they
were composed of a starchy substance (starchy skeleton).
  CnEMiCAL Characteristics.—By moistening Ceylon moss with a weak solution
of ioduretted  iodide of potassium, the plant acquires a purplish-brown or red colour;
the younger and more delicate fibres becoming almost black.   The change of colour
is most intense in the cortical portion, but the internal cell-walls also become stained.
By digestion in warm water, the plant softens and swells up.   By boiling it in water,
and then compressing and rubbing it gently between two plates of glass, the larger
spheroidal cells are readily separated from  each other:  they are  stained purplish-
brown by iodine.   The aqueous decoction  is mucilaginous, and  when sufficiently
concentrated, gelatinizes on cooling.  Iodine colours it a dull or purplish brown, and
gives an intense dark purplish colour  to the undissolved residue  of the plant.   If
the  plant be immersed  in diluted hydrochloric acid,  slight  effervescence occurs,
owing to the escape of carbonic acid evolved by the action of  the  hydrochloric acid
on  carbonate  of lime.
   Physiological Effects.—These are similar to those of Chondrus crispus (see
ante, p.  59).   Ceylon moss,  therefore, may be denominated  nutritive (chiefly as
an element of respiration, see vol. i. p. 116), emollient, and demulcent.   By the con-
tinued use of it at the table, the saline constituents of the plant would not be without
some influence on the system.
  Uses.—In the form of  decoction or jelly, it is employed as a light and readily
digestible article of food for invalids and children.   The residue of the decoction is
not devoid of nutritive matter, and might be served and eaten  like cabbage or legu-
minous substances; especially when the alterative influence of the saline constituents
is desired.  The  decoction or jelly of Ceylon moss may be employed in irritation of
1 Sigmond nnd Karre, The Ceylon Moss, p. 74, 1840.
3 Journ. de Chimie Mt.d. t. vili. 2ncle ser. p. 368, 1842.
» Pharmaceutisches Central BlattfUr 1843, p. 252.
• Ibidem, p. 409.
■ Ibidem. 
62
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Alg;e.
the mucous surfaces, and in phthisis.  It is  not apt to occasion thirst, sickness,
flatulence, heartburn, acidity, or diarrhoea.
  Administration.—It may be administered  in the form of decoction or jelly.
Dr. O'Shaughnessy recommends that  it should be steeped for a few hours in cold
rain water, as the first  step to its preparation:  this removes a large portion of the
sulphate of soda.  It should then be dried by  the sun's rays, and ground to a fine
powder; for cutting or  pounding, however diligently performed, still leaves the amy-
laceous matter so mechanically protected that the boiling may be prolonged for hours
without extracting the  starch.  This grinding process, however, is seldom employed,
the prepared  plant being merely cut into very small pieces.
  1. DECOCTUM  PLOCARLE CANDID J; Decoction of Ceylon Moss.—This  is prepared
by boiling the prepared moss in water, milk, or whey.  One drachm  of the plant
will give a mucilaginous quality to eight ounces  of water.   Milk,  sugar, orange or
lemon juice and peel, wine,  cinnamon, or other aromatics, may be used  to  commu-
nicate flavour.   This decoction may be taken ad libitum.
  2. GELATINA PLOCARLE CANDIDA; Jelly of Ceylon Moss.—-Mr. Previte's directions
for its preparation are  the following:  Boil half an ounce of the prepared moss in
a quart  of  boiling water for twenty-five minutes, or until a spoonful of the liquid
forms into a firm jelly within two or three minutes after it  is removed from the boiler.
Flavour with wine, a little cinnamon, lemon or orange juice and peel, and  sweeten
according to taste.   Boil the whole for five minutes, and pass it two or  three times
through a jelly-bag or  doubled muslin.  Leave it undisturbed, and it will become a
firm jelly in ten minutes.  If it be required perfectly clear for table use, add the
white of two eggs beaten up into a whip  before  the  second boiling, and allow it to
stand for a few minutes away from the fire,  with some hot coals on the top of the
boiler.  When clear, pass it through the jelly-bag, and leave it to congeal.   Should
the jelly be required particularly firm, add an ounce of moss to the quart of water.


    6. PLOCARIA HELMINTHOCORTON,  iSnrf/.-CORSICAN
                                  MOSS.
                            Sex. Syst. Cryptogamia Algae.
                                 (Planta, Offic.)

   History.—This plant has been in use for several centuries among the natives of
Corsica, as a  remedy for intestinal worms.   In 1756, Vaucher sent it to Paris.1
   Botany.—Gen. Char__See Plocaria Candida, p. 60.
   Sp. Char.—Frond cartilaginous, terete, tufted, entangled.   Stem filiform, creep-
ing; branches setaceous, somewhat dichotomous, marked indistinctly with transverse
streaks.
   Hab.—The Mediterranean Sea, on the shores of Corsica.
   Physical Properties.—Under the name of Corsican moss, is sold in the shops
a mixture of various marine vegetables and animals.   The essential, though usually
smaller, part of the  mixture is the  Plocaria Helminthocorton; the remainder con-
sists of  Corallines, Sertularias, and Ceramiums,  to the number of twenty species.3
Lamouroux states he found the remains of eighty species of marine plants.3  (See
also T.  C. Martius.)4
   The structure of the frond of Plocaria Helminthocorton  is " very peculiar, being
exceedingly lax and cellular, with  a  consistence similar to that of  the stems and
leaf-stalks of some aquatic herbaceous phaenogamous plants, and having the appear-
ance of articulations which  do not actually exist."5   The fructification is scarcely
1 J. P. Schwendimann, in Schlegel's Thesaurus Mat. Med. t. iii. p. 181.
* De Candolle, Essai sur les Propriitis Mid. p. 318, 2d ed. 
Corsican Moss; Physiological Effects ; Uses.             63
Fig. 160.
ever  seen.   The plant has a reddish-gray colour  externally, but is whitish inter
nally.  Its odour strong, marine, and disagreeable: its taste is saline.
   Composition.—Bouvier1 obtained from
100 parts of Corsican moss, vegetable jelly
[mucilage?  carrageenin?]  60.2;  vegetable
fibre, 11.0;  chloride of sodium, 9.2;  sul-
phate of lime, 11.2 ; carbonate of lime, 7.5;
iron, manganese, silica, and phosphate of
lime, 1.7.   Straub2and Gaul tier de Claubry3
have subsequently detected iodine, but the
quantity is small.
   Chemical Characteristics.—Corsican
moss effervesces with acids,  owing to  the
carbonate  of lime which it contains.   The
brown watery infusion is deepened in colour
by sesquichloride of iron, and lets fall some
brown flocculi.  Tincture  of  galls does not
alter it.   Nitric acid and starch give  no
indication of iodine.
   Physiological Effects. — Its effects
are  not very obvious.  The vegetable jelly
(mucilage) must render  it somewhat nutri-
tive; the  iodine and saline matters altera-
tive.   Mr. Farr4 says that, after  using the
decoction for six or seven days, it acts as a diuretic and diaphoretic, and occasionally
produces  nausea and giddiness:  after some time the stools  become darker, present
greenish specks, and are sometimes slimy.
   Uses.—It has been principally celebrated  as an anthelmintic  against the large
round worm (Ascaris lumbricoides).  Bremser5 ascribes  its efficacy to chloride of
sodium.
   In 1822,  Mr. Farr brought it forward as a remedy for cancer.   He was led to
try it from the circumstance of Napoleon Bonaparte having stated to Barry O'Meara
that it was used in Corsica for dispersing tumours.  Experience  does not  warrant
us in ascribing any benefit to  its employment  in this disease.
   Administration.—In powder, it is given in doses of a scruple to two drachms,
mixed with  honey or sugar;  but  the more usual mode of exhibiting it is in the
form of decoction, prepared by boiling  from four to six drachms  of it in a pint of
water;  of this  the dose is  a wineglassful three times daily.
        Plocaria Helminthocorton.
a. The plant (natural size).
b. A small stony coral attached to the thallus,
     and which may be readily mistaken  for
     the fructification.
e. The same, broken and magnified to show the
     pores.
              Order II.  LICHENES, ,7^s.—LICHENS.
                                 Lie hen ales, Lind.

   Chaiiactkrs.—Perennial, aerial thallogens, nourished through  their  whole surface by the
 medium in which they vegetate ;  always constituting a thallus, crust, or frond (receptaculum uni-
 versale; blastema) formed of a cortical and a medullary layer, of which  the former is simply
 cellular, the latter cellular and filamentous.  Apothecia (fructus) consisting of a receptacle and a
proligerous layer (lamina proligera) composed of spores (spora) naked or enclosed in spore-cases
 (asci; theccp), united to form a nucleus or disposed on a disk (discus).
   PnopER-riKs.—The tissue of lichens consists of cellulose.  Many of them contain amylaceous
 matters (lichenin or feculoid, and inulin) and their congeners gum and sugar, which render them
 nutritive, emollient, and demulcent.  Bitter principles (cetraric acid; picrolichenin) are sometimes
found in lichens: these  confer slight tonic properties.  Colouring matters (thallochbr,chrysophanic
acid, &c.) are frequently present.   Colorific principles (orcellic, erylhric, lecanoric, and other acids),
or principles which, under the combined influence of ammonia  and oxygen, form colouring
» Ann. de Chim. ix. 83, 1701.
» Gilbert's Ann. Bd. lxvi. S. 242.                             » Ann. de Chim. xciii. 134.
• A Treatise explanatory of a Method whereby occult Cancers may be cured, 2d ed. 1825.
1 Sur Its Vers Inteslin. 411. 
64
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Lichenes.
matters (orceine, &c), render some of the lichens valuable in the arts.  Besides the before-men-
tioned bodies, several  other vegetable acids (as the tartaric, oxalic, tannic,  and lichestearic)  are
found in the lichens.  The oxalic acid is found in combination with  lime: one lichen (Vario-
laria faginea) contains 47 per cent, of calcareous oxalate.  The ashes of the lichens constitute
about 8 per cent, of the dried plants, and consist principally of the earths : the ashes of lichens
growing on siliceous rocks contain more silica than those of lichens growing in other situations.
It is deserving of especial notice that not a single poisonous lichen is known.
  The lichens which I shall have  to notice may be  conveniently divided, according to their
uses, into the esculent,  the medicinal, and the tinctorial lichens.


       1.  Lichenes Esculenti  et  Medicinales.—Edible and
                              Medicinal  Lichens.

  The only lichen  employed medicinally by British  practitioners is  Iceland moss (Cetraria
islandica).   But several other lichens, whose medicinal qualities are in reality similar to, though
much feebler than, Iceland moss are still kept in the London herb-shops, being occasionally
employed as popular  remedies.  Those which I have met with are Peltidea canina, Scypho-
phorus pyxidatus, and Sticta pulmonaria.   These, as well as Gyrophora, Parmelia parietina, and
Cladonia rangiferina, require a short notice.
    7. Peltidea canina, Ach.—Ash-coloured Ground Liverwort.

  Peltidea canina, Ach. Syn. p. 239; Lichen caninus, Linn.;  Lichen cinereus  terrestris, Wood-
ville, Med.  Bot. vol. iv; Ash-coloured ground liverwort.
  This species, and also Peltidea rufescens, Ach., are sold in the herb-shops as Ground Liverwort.
It formerly  was in  repute as a preservative against the bite of a mad-dog,1 and, mixed with
half its weight of black pepper, it formed the pulvis anlilyssus (avri, against, and XiWa, canine
madness) of the London Pharmacopoeia for 1721.
Fig. 161.
Fig. 162.
          Peltidea canina.

Portion of the thallus, with the apothecia,
        a, a. (Natural size.)
   Scyphophorus pyxidatus.

. The poeditum.  b. The cup or
 scypha.  c c. The apothecia.
             8.  Scyphophorus pyxidatus, Hook.—Cup-Moss.

  Scyphophorus ptxidattjs, Hook, Engl. Fl. vi. p. 238; Cenomyce pyxidala, Ach. Syn.; Cla-
donia pyxidata, Schaer. Lich. Helv. Spicil. p. 26; Lichen Pyxidatus, Linn.;  Muscus pyxidatus,
Dale, Pharm.; Cup-moss.—This species (frequently mixed with S fimbriatus, Hook., and some-
times with S. cocciferus, Hook.) is the Cup moss of the  shops.  It was recommended by Dr.
Willis2 as a remedy for hooping-cough.3   He gave it in drachm doses, in the form of  powder,
decoction, and syrup.
» Phil. Trans, vol. xx. p. 49 ;  Mead, A Mechan. Account of Poisons, 5th ed. p. 165 Lond 17<M
a Pharmaceutice Rationalis, pars 2da, p. 49, 1C78.               '      P    '  0na- 1/5°"
» See, also, Dillenii, Dissertatio de Lichene Pyxidato, in Schlegel'a Thesaurus Materia Medica t. i. p. 
Gyrophoraj Rein-Deer Moss.                       65
              9. Sticta pulmonaria, Hook.—Tree Lungwort.

  Sticta pulmonaria, Hook, Engl. Fl.; St. pulmonacea, Ach. Syn. p. 233;  Lichen pulmonarius,
Linn.; Muscus pulmonaria,  Dale, Pharm.;  Tree Lungwort, Oak-Lungs.—This lichen  has  been
analyzed by John,' who found it to  contain resinous chlorophylle,  2; bitter extractive, S;  lichen
starch, 7; insoluble matters. 80; salts, Ike. 3.  Its virtues are dependent  on the bitter and  amy-
laceous matter, and  are similar, but inferior, to those of Iceland moss.  It has been esteemed as
a pectoral in pulmonary affections; as an astringent in internal hemorrhages, and as a remedy
for jaundice.   It has been given in doses of a drachm, in the form  of powder or decoction.  In
Siberia, where the plant sepms to be more bitter than in this country, it is  employed as a sub-
stitute for hops in brewing.2

                                 10. Gyrophora.

  Several species of Gtrophora  (as G. proboscidea 0 arctica, G. hyperborea, G. Pennsylvania,
and  G. Muhltnbergii) are employed by the hunters of the Arctic  regions of  America as articles
of food, unde* the  name of tripe de roche.  All four species were eaten  by Captain Franklin
and  his companions in 1821r when suffering  great privations in  America;  and to its use may
their preservation be in part ascribed.3  But, not having the means of extracting the bitter  prin-
ciple, these lichens proved noxious to several of the party, producing severe bowel complaints.
Fig. 16S.
Fig. 164.
              Sticta pulmonaria.
Portion of the thallus with the apothecia (scutelleg).
   a. Cyphelhs.  b. Section of the apothecium.
Tripe de Roche.
 (Gyrophora.)
11. Oladonia rangiferina, Hoffm.—Rein-Deer Moss.
   Cladonia  rangiferfna, Hoffm.; Cenomyce rangi-
ferina, Ach. Syn. p. 277 ; Lichen rangiferinus-, Linn.;
Reindeer Moss.—This lichen has become celebrated
on account of the  beautiful  description of it, and of
its uses, given by  Linnaeus,  in his Flora Lapponica,
p. 332.  It is this plant which, for the greatest part
of the year, and  especially during the winter season,
is the  support of the vast herds of rein-deer, wherein
consists all the wealth of the Laplanders.
   I have frequently bought this  lichen, along with
others, of the  London herbalists, who,  however, are
unacquainted with its real name; but who sell various
species of lichens, under the denomination of " mosses,"
for the use of bird  stuffers, who decorate the inside of
their cases with  them.
Fig. 165.
Cladonia rangiferina.
VOL.
 < Gmelin, Handb. d. th. Chem. Bd. ii. S. 1351, 1829.
 1 Murray, App. Medicam. vol. v. p. 520.
 * Franklin, Narrative of a Journey to the Shores of the Polar Sea, 1823.
n.—5 
66
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Lichenes.
       12. CETRARIA ISLANDICA, ^/.. — ICELAND MOSS.
                            Sea;. Syst. Cryptogamia, Alga5.
                                  (Planta, Offic.)

   History.—The  medicinal  properties  of this  plant (usually termed Lichen
 islandicus) were probably first known to the natives of Iceland.   According to Bor-
 richius, the Danish apothecaries were  acquainted with them in 1673.  In 1683,
 Hiarne spoke favourably of its effects in haemoptysis and phthisis.
   Botany.  Gen. Char.— Thallus foliaceous, cartilagino-membranaceous, ascending
 and spreading, lobed and laciniated, on each side smooth and  naked.  Apothecia
                             orbicular, obliquely adnate with  the margin  of the
           Fig. 166.           thallus,  the lower portion being free (not united with
                             the thallus); the disk coloured, plano-concave, with
                             a border formed of the thallus and inflexed (Hooker).
                                Sp. Char__Thallus  erect, tufted, olive brown,
                             paler on one side, laciniated, channelled, and  denta-
                             tociliate, the  fertile lacinia very broad.  Apothecia
                             brown,  appressed, flat,  with an  elevated border
                             (Hooker).
                                Hab.—Dry mountainous districts of the  new and
                             old continents.   Although met with in considerable
                             abundance in Scotland, it is never gathered there as
                             an article of commerce.
                                The word cetraria is derived from cetra or caelra
                             (xtuVpsa, Hesych), an ancient shield made of leather,
                             which the apothecia are supposed to resemble.
      Cetrana rslandtca.           COLLECTION.-The lichen should be  collected on
 a. The apothecia on the larger lobes  j      ji    i        /> u   i   •  1  »  n ,.   .
        of the thallus.          dry  ana clear days, carefully deprived of all foreign
                             matter by hand-picking, and dried in the sun.
   Physical Properties.—The Iceland  moss of commerce (muscus islandicvs;
 lichen islandicus) is in general brownish  or grayish  white; the  upper surface
 darker, towards  the base sometimes marked with blood-red spots; the under surface
 paler, whitish,  with white spots which have a  chalky or  mealy  appearance, are
 lodged in  little depressions of the  thallus,  and when submitted to microscopic exa-
 mination appear warty, pearl-white masses.   Apothecia are rather rare on the com-
 mercial lichen.   When quite dry, the lichen is crisp, cartilaginous, and coriaceous.
 It is almost odourless, and has a bitter mucilaginous taste.  Its  powder (farina) is
 whitish gray.
   Commerce.—It is imported in  barrels  and bags  from Hamburgh and Gotten-
 burgh, and is said to be the produce of Norway and Iceland.   In 1836, 20,599 lbs.
 paid duty; in 1837, 12,845 lbs.;  in 1838, 6179 lbs.;  in 1839, 15,933 lbs.; and
 in 1840, 6462 lbs.
   Composition.—It was analyzed by Berzelius1 in 1808, who obtained the follow-
 ing products from 100 parts:—green wax,  1.6; yellow extractive matter, 7.0; bitter
 matter, 3.0; nncrystallizable sugar, 3.6; gum, 3.7;  starch, 44.6; starchy skeleton,
 36.2; gallic acid, trace; bifartrate of potash, tartrate of lime, and a little phosphate
 of lime, 1.9 ( = 101.6).  In 1844-5 it was examined by  Messrs. Schnedermann
and Knop.2
  The following figures represent  the  microscopic appearances of sections of the
lichens.
1 Ann. de Chim. xc. 277.
2 Annal. der Chim. u. Pharm. IM. Iv. S. 141, 1S45; Pharm. Journ. vol. v. p. 427  1846. 
                Iceland Moss ; Amylaceous  Matter.                     67

Fig. 1G7.                           Fig. 168.                          Fig. 169.
a. External or cortical layer, which does not become blue by the addition of the tincture of iodine.
b.  Subcortical layer (stratum gonimicum),Wal\roth;  stratum fceculare, Wuhlenberg), which becomes
    blue on the addition of tincture of iodine.
c.  Medullary layer, composed of felted filaments or tubes (tela contexta, Schleiden), and intermixed nu-
    cleated cells (annuli, Link).
   1. Amylaceous Matter—Cetraria islandica  contains at least two  kinds of amylaceous
 matter, namely, one  which is  coloured blue by iodine (lichen-starch), and one which does not
 become blue with this agent (inuline).
   Link1 states that the amylaceous matter of Cetraria does not occur in a globular form.   If by
 amylaceous matter is to be understood starch grains, which are rendered blue by iodine, my
 observations confirm  his statement.   Payen,2 however, says he  has seen  the starch of Iceland
 moss in the form  of little balls; but he has probably mistaken the  cells for starch grains.   When
 a thin section of the thallus has been soaked in cold  water and then placed under the  micro-
 scope, a general blue  tint is communicated to the subcortical layer (see Figs. 167 and 168), on the
 addition of tincture of iodine: but none of the cells or granules  become blue.   A starchy non-
 granular matter, rendered blue by iodine, appears to reside in the intercellular tissue of the sub-
 cortical layer.  My friend Mr. Henry Deane has traced this  amylaceous matter  to the surface
 of the apothecia, which appears to be deficient in the  cortical non amylaceous layer.   Moreover,
 iodine colours sections of the apothecia in stripes;  rendering blue  the starchy matter between
 the  thecse and elongated cells  (see Fig. 169).
   I  have sometimes  seen the nucleated cells of the medullary layer (see Fig.  168) assume  an
 amber colour when treated with iodine.   Is this owing to the presence of inuline?
   a  Liclien-starch. This becomes blue on  the addition of iodine.   According to Schnedermann
 and Knopp, hydrochloric acid converts it into  a  transparent jelly.  Its formula, according to
 Mulder, is C^H'oO'o.
   Even after very prolonged boiling in water the tissue of Iceland moss  still  retains  the pro-
 perty of being tinged blue by iodine: hence it has been called amylaceous tissue, starchy skeleton,
 &c.   Mulder says, that when boiled sufficiently and acted on by solvents, the final residue of it
 is nothing but cellulose: it is improper, therefore, to call it amylaceous tissue.
   B- Inuline. This, according to Payen and others, is a constituent of Iceland moss. It is tinged
 yellow by iodine.  When insoluble in cold water its  formula is probably C12H10O10.
   Mulder is of opinion that the chief part of lichen-starch must be composed of a starch which
 like  inuline is turned yellow by iodine, and like common  starch can be  precipitated by basic
acetate of lead.
   2. d/mAmc Acid; Cetrarin; bitter principle of Iceland moss—This resides  in the cortical
portion  of the thallus.   It exists there for the most part in  the state of free cetraric acid, and
not as a cetrarate.  In the  pure state  the  acid  occurs in the form of shining minute  acicular
crystals.  It is intensely bitter,  not volatile, and is infusible without  decomposition.  It is almost
insoluble in water, which, however, acquires a bitter taste  when  boiled with  the acid.   It is
1 Icones selects Anatomico-Botanica, Fascic. iii. Berlin, 1841.          a L'Institut de 1>37. p. 145. 
68
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Orp. Lichenes.
 soluble in boiling alcohol, but crystallizes in great part on cooling.  It is slightly soluble in ether,
 and is quite insoluble in the fixed and  volatile oils.  Its formula is C34H160ls.  It is dissolved
 both by the caustic and carbonated alkalies, and is precipitated from its solution by acids.  Ce-
 trarate of ammonia (2NH3,C34HI6015) is a beautiful yellow salt, having a faint ammoniacal odour,
 and being soluble in water.  By exposure to the air it gradually becomes brown.  Schnedermann
 explains the production of the brown colour of Iceland moss by supposing that the cetraric acid
 of the thallus absorbs atmospheric ammonia, and the cetrarate of ammonia thus formed becomes
 brown by exposure to the air.  The alkaline cetrarates yield a red colour (cetrarate of iron) with
 the salts of the peroxide of iron.  Now as the ashes of Iceland moss contain iron, Schnedermann
 thinks it not improbable that the  red spots which are sometimes found at the base of the lichen
 may be due to the presence of cetrarate of iron, produced by the action of cetrarate of ammonia
 (formed as above explained) on the ferruginous constituent.   Cetrarate of lead (2PbO,C34H16015)
 forms a yellow flocculent precipitate.
   3. Lichestearic Acid (so called from Xsi^riv, lichen; and creap, fat).  When pure it is per-
 fectly white, and consists of pearly crystalline plates.   It is odourless, but has an acrid taste.  It
 is soluble in alcohol,  ether, and the volatile and fatty oils, but is insoluble in water.  At 248° F.
 it melts, and on  cooling congeals  into a crystalline mass. It cannot be volatilized without  de-
 composition. Its formula is C29H2506.   It is dissolved by alkalies, and is precipitated  from its
 alkaline solution by  acids.   Lichestearate of potash  is a white indistinctly crystalline powder:
 Lichestearate of silver (AgO,C2PH2405) is grayish white: Lichestearate  of lead (PbO,C24H2406) is
 white: Lichestearate of baryta is  grayish white:  Lichestearate of ammonia is crystallizable.
   4. Fumabic Acid; Lichenic acid.—This acid was discovered in Iceland moss by Pfaff.
   5. A neutral substance, called  provisionally "the body C," is mentioned by Schnedermann as
 being contained  in tolerable quantity in the lichen.  It is white, tasteless, insoluble in water,
 ether, oils,  alkalies, and acids, and difficultly soluble in hot spirit.
   Chlohothalle; Thalbchlor.—This is the  green  colouring matter.   It is  soluble in  ether,
 alcohol, and petroleum.   It has the properties of a weak acid, and is distinguished from chloro-
 phylle by being  little or not at all soluble in hydrochloric acid.
   Chemical Characteristics.—Iceland moss swells up in cold water, to which
 it communicates some portion of bitterness, and a very little mucilage.   If to the
 moistened thallus some tincture of iodine  be added, the tissues become intensely
 blackish blue;  but the white chalky or  mealy-looking spots, before mentioned, are
 unaltered  by iodine, and appear more  brilliantly white, in consequence of the  black
 ground on which they are placed.
   By prolonged boiling in water, the lichen yields a  mucilaginous decoction, which,
 when sufficiently concentrated, gelatinizes on cooling.   A solution of iodine com-
 municates  a blue colour (iodide of starch) to the cold decoction.
  When the decoction has been  imperfectly prepared in consequence of being weak, and  in-
 sufficiently  boiled, it yields a dingy green colour with iodine.   The green colour  depends on the
 mixture of two coloured substances: one yellow, the other blue.  "If," says Mulder, "a diluted
 decoction of Iceland moss, after being coloured with iodine, is allowed to settle for  a while, the
 layer at the bottom is yellow, and that  immediately above is blue."
   The decoction yields, with  the basic acetate of lead, a copious whitish  precipitate
 (amylate of lead);  and with a mixture  of sulphate of copper and potash, a  green
 precipitate (cetrarate of copper).1
   The sesquisalts of iron communicate a red colour (cetrarate of iron),  both to the
 decoction  and to an alcoholic  tincture  of  Iceland moss (prepared by digesting 5ij of
 the  lichen in f^vj  of rectified spirit).
   In strong hydrochloric acid the  thallus swells up, owing to the  gelatinization of
 the  starch contained in the intercellular  spaces.
   Physiological Effects,  a. On animals.—In Camiola,  pigs, horses, and oxen
 are  fattened by it.2
   /3. On Man.—It is  a mucilaginous  or demulcent tonic, without any trace of as-
 tringency.  If the bitter  matter (cetraric  acid) and extractive be removed, it is
nutritive,  emollient, and demulcent, like ordinary starch, over which it has  no ad-
vantage.    Captain Sir John Franklin and his companions tried it  as an article of
food, when suffering great privations in America,  but  its bitterness rendered it
hardly eatable.3
1 Herberger, Journ. de Pharm. xxii.                             a Murray, App. Med. v. 506.
* Narrative of a Journey to the Shores of the Polar Sea, p. 414, 1823. 
Yellow Wall Lichen ; Tinctorial Lichens.               69
   Uses.—Iceland moss is well adapted to those cases requiring  a nutritious and
easily-digested aliment, and a mild tonic not  liable to disorder the  stomach.   It has
been principally recommended in chronic affections of the pulmonary and digestive
organs, particularly  phthisis,  chronic catarrh,  dyspepsia, chronic diarrhoea, and
dysentery; but its efficacy has been much exaggerated.
   Administration.—It is best exhibited in the  form of decoction.   When em-
ployed as an alimentary substance  merely, the  bitter matter should be  extracted
before ebullition.   This is effected by digesting the lichen in  a  cold weak alkaline
solution (composed of water 300 parts, and  carbonate of potash 1 part), and after-
wards washing it  with cold water.1  But the subsequent  washing will  not remove
the  whole  of the  alkaline salt.  Instead, therefore,  of using  an  alkali, distilled
water may be used to extract the bitter principle.   The lichen should be heated
once or twice in water up to about 180° F., by which the lichen will be deprived
of most of its bitterness.   It  is  then to be boiled in water or milk.   When the
decoction is sufficiently concentrated it gelatinizes on cooling.   It  may be flavoured
with sugar, lemon peel, white  wine, or aromatics, and then  forms a very agreeable
kind of diet.

   DECOCTUM CETRARIjE, L. [U. S.]; Decoctum Lichenis Islandici,  D.; Decoction of
Iceland Moss.  (Iceland Moss 3v [3j, D.  (^ss, U. S.)~\; Distilled Water [Water,  U.
$.] Ojss; boil  down to a pint, and strain.)   Dose, f^j to  foiv every four hours.


    13. Parmelia  parietina, Ach.—Common Yellow Wall  Lichen.

   Parmelia parietina, Ach.;  Lobaria parietina, Hoffm.;  Lichen parietinus, Linn.; Common
Yelbw Wall Lichen.   Usually sold in the herb shops under the name of common yellow wall moss.
Xpto-o <f>i/Mov, hodie in Zacyntho, Sibth.  Thallus foliaceous, membranaceous, orbicular, bright-
yellow: the lobes marginal, radiating, rounded, crenate, and crisped,  granulated in  the centre,
beneath paler and fibrillose.  Apothecia deep-orange, concave with an entire border (Hooker).
This lichen has been the subject of repeated chemical investigation.   According to Herberger,2
it contains two beautiful colouring matters (parmelia-yellow and parmelia-red), several aliment-
ary  principles (gliadin, sugar, starch, and gum),  and  three medicinal substances (soft resin,
bitter matter, and volatile oil) ; besides wax, stearine, chlorophylle, and woody fibre.  Rochleder
and Heldt3 give the name of chrysophanic acid (C10H8O3) to the  golden yellow crystallizable
colouring  matter, which, more recently, Schlossberger and Doepping4 have found to be  identical
with the yellow teolouring matter of rhubarb (rheine, rheumine, rhabarbaric acid).   In 1815, this
lichen  was lauded by Dr. Sander5  as a valuable substitute for cinchona  bark in  intermittents.
He also gave it with success in hemorrhages and fluxes.  Haller had previously spokeu favour-
ably of it as a tonic in diarrhoea and dysentery; and Willemet had found  it  useful in contagious
autumnal  fluxes.  Subsequent experience, however, has not confirmed the favourable reports
made of its  medicinal power.  The dose  of it in  powder is from Qj to ^j.  It may also  be
given in the form of decoction, tincture, and extract.  Dr. R. D. Thomson6 has proposed it as a
test  for alkalies, which  communicate to its yellow colouring matter (called by him parietin) a
beautiful red tint.
             2.  Lichenes tinctorh.—Tinctorial Lichens.

   1. Number and Variety.—A considerable number of lichens have been employed by man
on account of the colouring matter which they yield him.  Some of them  (e. g., Parmelia
parietina and Evernia vulpina) contain colouring principles (e. g., chrysophanic and vulpinic acids).
Olbers (e. g., several species of Roccella, of Lecanora, of Variolaria* &c.) contain principles (e. g.,
orsellic, erylhric, lecanoric, and gyrophoric acids)  which are  colourless while in the plant, but
  1 Dr. Davidson, in a paper On the Removal of the bitter taste and lichenous odour of Iceland Moss
(Jameson's Edinb. New Phil. Journ. vol. xxviii. p. 260, 1840), recommends a solution of caustic potash
lor extracting the bitter taste of this lichen.  A pound of carbonate of potash (rendered caustic by a pound
of lime) is sufficient for 28 lbs. of the plant.
  * Buchner's Repertorium, Bd. xlvii. S. 179, 1834.
  » Ann. d. Chem. u. Pharm. Bd. xlviii. S. 12, 1813; and Chem. Gazette, vol. ii. p. 162, 1814.
  ' Ann. d. Chem. u. Pharm. Bd. i. S. 295, 1844 ; Pharm. Journal, vol. iv.
  » Die Wandflechte, ein Arzneymittel. welches die peruv. Rinde nicht nur entbehrlich macht, sondern die
auch an gleichart. Heilkraften ubertrifft, 4to. Sondershausen, 1815.
  • Lond. Ed. and Dub. Phil. Mag. July, li-44. 
70
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Lichenes.
which, under the influence of alkalies and atmospheric  oxygen, yield colouring matters (e.g.,
orceine).   Such principles I shall distinguish as colorific, or colour-making.
  2. Colours.—Lichens furnish four principal colours, viz., brown, yellow, purple, and blue.
  a. Brown colours are yielded  by Gyrophora pustulata and Sticta pulmonaria (see ante, p. 65).
The latter lichen, says Professor Guiboutt,1 produces on silk, by using, as mordants, bitartrate of
potash and chloride of tin, a very fine and durable Carmelite colour.  For  use  in France, it is
principally collected in the Vosges.
  3. Yellow colours are yielded by Parmelia parietina (see ante,  p. 69)  and Evernia vulpina.
The former lichen contains, as its yellow colouring principle chrysophanic acid; the latter, accord-
ing to M. Bebert,2 contains a yellow crystallizable acid called vulpinic acid.
  y and  J. Purple and  blue colours  are yielded by a considerable  number of lichens.   In this
country,  purple colours (orchil and cudbear) only are obtained from them ; but in Holland a blue
colour (litmus) is also prepared from these.  And it appears that the same  lichens yield either
the one or the other colour according to the method of treatment.
  The orchil makers  of this country call the  cylindrical and flat species  of Roccella used in
the manufacture of orchil and cudbear, weeds or orchellaweeds, and distinguish them according
to the countries yielding them (e. g., Angola weed, Canary weed, &c); while the crustaceous and
foliaceous lichens, employed for similar  purposes, they term  mosses (e. g., tartareous moss, pus-
tulatous moss, rock moss, &c).  A similar  distinction is made  in  French  commerce; the term
herbe being applied  to what the  English call a weed, while the name of lichen is given to what
our dealers term a moss.
  The following is a list of  the principal lichens employed by  British manufacturers of orchil
and cudbear, with their commercial names:—

               Orchella Weeds.
Angola Orchella weed (R.fuciformis)
Madagascar
Mauritius
Canary
Cape de Verd
Azores
Madeira
(R.fuciformis).
             "      (R. tinctoria).
             "      (R. tinctoria).
             "      (R. tinctoria).
             "  (R. tinctoria and R.fuciformis).
South American (Lima), large and round    '•
                        (R. tinctoria?)
Cape of Good Hope
Barbary (Mogadore)
small and flat
   (R.fuciformis).
 "    (R. hypomecha).
      (R. tinctoria).
              Mosses.
Tartareous moss (Lecanora tartarea).
Pustulatous moss (Gyrophora pustulata).
Canary Rock moss (Parmelia perlata ?)z
Corsica and Sardinia Rock moss.
Norway Rock moss.
Corsican and Sardinian (R. tinctoria).

  Mr. Harman Visger, of Bristol, informs me that " every lichen  but the best orchella weed is
gone or going rapidly out of use; not  from deterioration of their quality, for, being allowed to
grow, they are finer than ever; but because the Angola-weed is so  superior in quality, and  so
low-priced and abundant, that the product of a very few other lichens would pay the expense
of manufacture."
  In France, the Variolaria dealbata, De Cand., and V. orcina or oreina, Ach. (the Parelle d'Auvergne)
are employed in the production of orchil.   These two lichens constitute the  V. corollina, Ach.,
which must be confounded  neither with Lecanora parella, Ach., nor with Isidium corallinum,
Ach.
  3. Colorific principles.—These in most, if not in all, cases are organic acids:  e. g., alpha
orsellic, beta orsellic, erythric,  lecanoric, gyrophoric,  evernic, usnic, &c. acids.
  Under the united influence of water, atmospheric oxygen, and  ammonia, these colorific prin-
ciples  yield coloured products, which, though  probably not identical, pass under  the  general
name of orceine.
  The precise chemical changes which these colorific principles  undergo when exposed to the
joint action of water, air, and  ammonia, are not  definitely known.   Some  of these principles
are not directly converted into coloured substances, but into intermediate colourless  substances.
Thus lecanoric acid becomes first orcine and then  orceine.   Liebig, adopting  the formulae which
have been given for these three bodies respectively by Schunck, Will, and Dumas, has given the
following explanation of the changes:  Lecanoric acid,  ClsH808, gives  out two atoms of car-
bonic acid, C204, and becomes anhydrous  orcine, Cl6H804, which, with  three atoms of water,
H303, yields one  atom of crystallized orcine, C^H1^'; and one atom  of crystallized orcine,
Cl6HuO', with one atom of  ammonia, NH3, and five  atoms of oxygen, yield one  atom  of
orceine, C16H9N07, and five atoms of water: but  the accuracy of the formulae has been called
in question.
  1 Hist. Nat. des Drog. simpl. t. 2me p. 77, 4me ed. 1849.
  3 Journ. de Pharm. t. xvii. p. 696.
  » I have not met with the Canary Rock Moss in fructification, and cannot, therefore, positively state its
botanical name.  I found a similar lichen in commerce under the name of British Rock Moss   The thallus
of both corresponds to that of Parmelia perlata, Ach. 
Tinctorial Lichens.—Colorific Principles.                 71
  4. Test of the  Colorific  Property  of Lichens.—Hellot's test  is maceration in a weak
solution of ammonia (see Roccella tinctoriu).
  Another method is by testing an  alcoholic tincture of the  lichen  with a solution of  hypo-
chlorite of lime.   If the lichen possess any colorific power,  a fugitive  red colour is produced.
  Dr. Stenhouse1 proposes to estimate the quantity of colorific matter in lichens by means of a
solution of  hypochlorite of  lime.  Any convenient quantity of the lichen  (say one  hundred
grains) may be cut into very small pieces, and  then  macerated with  milk  of  lime till all the
coloring principle is extracted.  Three or  four macerations are  quite sufficient for this purpose,
if the lichen has been sufficiently comminuted.   The clear liquors should be  filtered and mixed
together.  A solution of bleaching  powder of known  strength  should  then  be poured into the
lime solution from  a graduated alkalimeter.  The moment  the bleaching  liquor comes in con-
tact with the lime  solution of the lichen, a blood red colour  is produced, which disappears in a
minute or two, and the liquid has  only a deep yellow colour.   A new quantity of the bleach-
ing liquid should  then be  poured into the  lime solution, and the mixture carefully stirred.
This operation should be repeated so long as the addition of the hypochlorite of lime causes
the production of rtie red colour; for this shows that the lime solution still contains unoxidized
colorific principle.   Towards the end of  the process, the bleaching solution should be added
by only a  few drops at a time, the  mixture  being carefully  stirred  between  each  addition.
We have only to note how many measures  of the bleaching liquor have  been required to de-
stroy the colouring matter in the solution,  to determine  the  amount of the colorific principle it
contained.  The following are the results of trials with the same test liquors upon four varie-
ties of lichen:—

                                                                     Measures.
               Angola lichen required......................200 = 1.00
               American lichen..........................120 = O.f'O
               Cape lichen.............................035 = 0.17
               Lecanora tarlarea, from Germany near Giessen ........025 = 0 12

   The amount of  colorific principle in a lichen  may also be directly  determined by extracting
the lichen with milk of lime, by precipitating by means of acetic acid, collecting the precipitate
on  a weighed filter, drying it at the ordinary temperature, and then weighing it.
   5. Mode of Extracting the Colorific Principles for Transport.—Dr. Stenhouse sug-
gests the following method: cut the lichens into small  pieces, macerate them in wooden vats
with milk of lime, and saturate the solution  either with  muriatic or acetic acid.  The gelatinous
precipitate  is then  to be collected on cloths, and  dried by a gentle heat.
   In this way almost the whole colorific matter can be  easily  extracted, and the dried extract
transported at a small expense from the  most  distant  inland  localities, such as the Andes or
 Himalayas.
   Dr.  Stenhouse has  kindly furnished me with the following  table of the lichens, and  their
colorific principles and coloured products:—
LICHENS.
Commercial names.
S. American Orchella-weed .

Cape Orchella-weed.....

Angola Orchella-weed  ....

Perelle  Moss (Lecanora pa-
  rella)  ............
Tartareous Moss (L. tartarea)

Pustulatous Moss (Gyrophora
  pustulata)..........
Rugged  hoary Lichen (Ever-
  nia jirunastri)........
Usnea (florida,  plicata, and
  hirta,  &c.)  .........
Rein-ilm-r   Moss  (Cladonia
  rangiferina)   ........
Ramnlina  (fastigiata)  [can-
  carts']   ............
Locality.
Lima, &c,

Cape of
 G. Hope
Angola,
 Africa
Switzer-
 land
Norway
Norway

Scotland

Germany
colorific principles.
 colouring
principles.
Formula.    Names. Formula.
Alpha Or-
 sellic acid
Beta Orsel-
 lic acid
Erythric
 acid
Lecanoric
 acid
Gyrophoric
 acid

   Ditto

Evernicacid

Usnic acid

   Ditto

   Ditto
CMH"Ol3-f-HO

C3,Hl»0'«+HO

CMH">09-4-HO

Cl8H809

C*H"0"

  Ditto

C«H"Ol3+HO

C*>Hl10"

  Ditto

  Ditto
Orceine!C,8Hl0NO
Ditto	Ditto
Ditto	Ditto
Ditto	Ditto
Ditto	Ditto
Ditto	Ditto
AUTHORITY.
Stenhouse.

Stenhouse.

Stenhouse.

Schunck.

Stenhouse.

Stenhouse.

Stenhouse.

Rochleder
 and Heldt.
Rochleder
 and Heldt.
Rochleder
 and Heldt.
1 Phil. Trans, for 1848. 
72
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Lichenes.
 14. ROCCELLA TINCTORIA, De Cand.—DYER'S ORCHELLA
                                    WEED.
                             Sex. Syst. Cryptogamia, Algae.

   History.—Theophrastus,1 Dioscorides,2 and  Pliny,3 notice a plant  which  they
respectively call  novtiov <j>vxo$, (pvxoe Oaxdoaiov,  and phycos  thallassion, i. e., fucus
marinus.  They state that it grew near the ground on the rocks of  Crete, and was
used for dyeing purple;  and  Dioscorides says that  some  persons  imagine that the
paint (fucus) used by women was this plant, but,  he  adds, it was  a root bearing
the same name.4
   The phycos thallassion  has been  usually assumed to be  Roccella tinctoria, and
not, as the ancients state,  a sea-weed.5  Bory de St. Vincent8 even  thinks that the
ancients made their celebrated purple dye, brought  from the isles  of Elishah,7  with
the R. tinctoria, which he therefore calls R. purpura-antiquorum.
   Early in  the 14th  century, the art  of dyeing wool with Roccella tinctoria was
made known at Florence by one of the descendants of  a German  nobleman named
Ferro or Fredrigo.  It is  said that he  accidentally discovered, in the Levant, the
colour obtained by the action of urine  on this  plant, there  called respio  or respo,
and in Spain orciglia ; and that his family received the name of Oricellarii, altered
to Rucellai, from  this useful invention.   From the latter  term the generic name
Roccella is supposed to be derived.8
   Botany.  Gen. Char.— Thallus coriaceo-cartilaginous, rounded or plane, branched
or laciniated.  Apothecia  orbicular,  adnate with the thallus; the  disk  coloured,
plano-convex, with a border at length thickened and elevated, formed  of  the  thal-
lus, and covering a sublentiform, black, compact,  pulverulent powder concealed
within the substance of  the thallus (Hooker).
   Sp. Char.— Thallus suffruticose,  rounded, branched,  somewhat  erect, grayish-
brown, bearing powdery warts [soredid].  Apothecia flat, almost black and pruinose,
with a scarcely prominent border  (Hooker).
   )3.  R. tinctoria /3 hypomecha, Ach.;  R. hypomecha, Bory.  Thallus terete, fili-
form, very long, simpiish, subconjugate, prostrate, pendulous.—Cape  of Good Hope;
Mauritius.—2 to  5 inches long:  the  thallus geniculate  where the apothecia are
developed (Bory): the apothecia by age lose the  thalloid margin and become con-
vex, naked, smooth, and black (Ach.).
   y.  R. dichotoma, Ach., has a  terete ash-gray, brownish thallus, with longish
dichotomous branches.
   Hab.—-Maritime rocks  of the eastern Atlantic  islands (the Madeira isles, the
Azores, the Canaries, and  the Cape de Verd isles); western  coast of  South America
(on porphyry near Riobamba in Colombia, and on the sea-shore  near Chancay in
Peru—Humboldt);9 Bourbon;  extreme  south of  England, Guernsey, Portland
Island,  and the Scilly Islands.
  In commerce several other species,  or varieties of  the  above  species, are met with.  The
most important are the following:—
  R. fuciformis, De Cand., Ach. Syn., p. 244.  Hooker, Engl. FL, vol. v. part 1, p.  222.  Lichen
fuciformis, Linn.  Flat leaved orchella  weed.— IViallus flat, branched, nearly upright, grayish-
white, bearing powdery warts.   Apothecia pruinose, bordered (Hooker).  Maritime rocks with
R. tinctoria; Canaries; from Cherbourg to Mogadore;  St. Malo; South of England.
  R.fuciformis $ linearis, Ach.  Spain, Sumatra, the Dezertas (Madeira).
  R.phycopsis, Ach., is also  perhaps a variety of R. fuciformis.  It is intermediate in character
  1 Hist. Plant, lib. iv. cap. vii. p. 82, ed. Heinsii, 1613.
  3 Lib. iv. cap. c. p. 283, ed. Saraceni, 159a.
  0 Lib. xxvi. cap. lxvi.; and lib. xxxii. cap xxii. ed. Valpy.
  4 Endlicher (Enchiridion Botanicum, p. 4, 1841) says, that one of the Alga?, viz., Rytiphlaa tinctoria,
Ag. yields a red colour, the fucus of the ancients.
  * Beckmann, Hist, of Invent, and Discov. translated by \Vm. Johnston, vol. i. p. 59, 1797.
  6 Essais sur les Isles Fortunies, 1S03; Diet. Classiq. d'Hist. Nat. xiv. 1828.
  ' Ezekiel, ch. xxvii. v. 7.                                        8 Beckmann, op. citato.
  * Synops. Plant. JEquin. i. 50. 
Dyer's Orchella Weed ; Physical Properties.
73
between the latter and R. tinctoria.  Its thallus is somewhat flattened (terete-compressed), and
much branched; the divisions being somewhat fastigiate, rarely more  than an inch long, and
very farinaceous.
  R. flaccida, Bory.  Branches somewhat cylindrical, filiform, very broad, pendulous, whitish.
Mauritius.
  R.  Montaonei, Belanger, Voy. aux Indes Orient. Pi.  13, Fig. 4 [no date].  Thallus coriaceous,
flaccid, flat, entire  and  broad  at the base, at length dichotomously (rarely trichotomously)
laciniate, pale glaucous, sorediferous.  Apothecia marginal, somewhat pedicellate, with a black
convex pruinose disk, and persistent margin.—On the  trunks of Mango trees (Mangifera indica)
in India; especially at Pondicherry.  This species, and R. pygmcea, D. R. and  Mont., which
grows in Algeria, are remarkable for growing on the trunks of trees; the others are found  on
maritime rocks.

           Fig. 170.          Fig. 171.          Fig. 172.            Fig. 173.
                            Roccella or Orchella Weed.

Fig. 170. Roccella tinctoria.                   Fig. 171. Roccella fuciformis.
      a. Thallus with apothecia.              Fig. 172. Roccella Montagnei.
      b. Ditto with soredia.                        a. Thallus with soredia.
      c. Portion of thallus with three mors           6. Ditto ditto (magnified).
           developed apothecia.              Fig. 173. Roccella phycopsis with soredia,
      d. R. tinct. var. dichotoma.
   Commerce.—All the species and varieties of Roccella found in commerce bear
 the general appellation of Orchella xceed; but they are distinguished by the name
 of the country from which they are imported.   The  following is a list of the sorts
 which, within  the last few years, have  been  found in the  London market;  those
 marked with the asterisk (*) I  have myself  examined, and possess samples of—
    *Angoln Orchella weed.        *Canary Orchella weed.      #Lima (thick) Orchella weed.
     Mauritius     "              Cape de Verde   "         *Lima (thin)        "
    ♦ Madagascar    "             *Western Island "          Corsica and Sardinia "
    ♦ Barbary (Mogndore) ditto.      *Madeira (Dezertas) ditto.
    #Cape of Good Hope ditto.

   In  1838, 567 cwts.; in 1839, 6494 cwts.;  and in 1840,  4175 cwts.  of Orchella
 weed  paid duty.
   Physical Properties.—Having fully described the botanical characters of  the
 different species of  lloccella, it will be  unnecessary here  to  describe  minutely  the
 different commercial sorts.1
   The commercial kinds of Orchella weed may be conveniently arranged in three
 divisions,  as follows:—
   1.  Orchella  weeds having a cylindrical tapering thallus.—These  consist usually
 of Roccella  tinctoria, and  perhaps R. flaccida, Bory.   In one case (Cape of Good
 Hope  orchella) the  plant is  R. hypomecha,  a  mere variety of R.  tinctoria.   Occa-
 sionally, flattened orchella weeds are found  intermixed: these  may be regarded as
accidental.
  1 For figures of the microscopic structure of the Roccella tinctoria, the reader is referred to Link's
Icones Selecta Anatomico-Botanica, Berl. l&il, 3tes Heft, Taf. vi. 
74
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Lichenes.
   a. Canary Orchella Weed.   Roccella tinctoria.—Formerly the most esteemed sort of Orchella.
 Thallus filiform, seldom exceeding in thickness a pin, and in length an inch and a half.  Colour
 from pale-yellowish gray to dark brown.
   8. Western Island Orchella  Weed; St. Michael's Orchella Weed.  Roccella  tinctoria.—Similar to
 the preceding;  but less valuable as a dye-stuff.
   y. Barbary  Orchella Weed; Mogadore Orchella Weed.  Roccella tinctoria.—Somewhat smaller
 than the preceding sorts,  and  less valuable as a dye.
   fr. Lima thick Orchella  Weed;  South American thick Orchella  Weed.   Roccella  tinctoria?  R.
flaccida, Bory?—A very handsome lichen, brought from Lima and other parts of the west coast
 of South America.  Distinguished from the other sorts by its large size; usually several, some-
 times six  or eight, inches long: its thickness from that of a crow-quill to  that of a goose-quill.
 Thick  tubercular  excrescences are frequently found on it.  It has a very leathery, sometimes a
 cartilaginous whitish appearance.  Its quality as a dye is considered  good, and superior to the
 preceding sorts.
   e. Cape of Good Hope Orchella  Weed.  R. tinctoria 8 hypomecha, Ach.—A large lichen, though
 rather  smaller than the preceding. Remarkable for its white or gray-white appearance: many
 of the divisions of the thallus are geniculated.  As a dye its quality is very bad.
   2.  Orchella  Weeds  have a flat (plane) or compressed thallus.   These consist of
 R. fuciformis,  and, perhaps, in some cases, of R. Montagnei.
   £. Angola Orchella  Weed.   R.  fuciformis.1—Thallus very flat, seldom exceeding an inch and
 a half or  two inches  in length :  in breadth (except at  the  fork or division) rarely more than
 one-sixth of an inch.  Colour greenish or yellowish-gray.  As a dye-stuff it is the most valuable
 of all the Orchella weeds.
   «. Madagascar  Orchella Weed.   R. fuciformis.—Smaller, but in other respects  similar to the
 preceding sort.   Somewhat less  valuable than the Angola sort.
   6. Lima thin Orchella Weed. R.fuciformis?—Somewhat  more rounded  or less flat than the
 preceding, which it in other respects very much resembles.
   3.  Mixed  Orchella  Weeds, consisting of both flat and round Orchella  Weeds.
   i. Madeira Orchella Weed.   R.  tinctoria  and R. fuciformis 8 linearis,  Ach.   Gathered on the
 Dezertas,  near  Madeira.  The round  and terete thalli resemble the  Canary Orchella.  The
 flattened thalli  are thicker than those of the Angola sort.
   Composition.—A  qualitative analysis  of  Boccella  tinctoria  was made by Fr.
 Nees v. Esenbeck,* who found in  it  a brown resin (soluble  in  alcohol  and ether,
 and becoming brownish red with ammonia), wax, glutinous matter, insoluble starch,
yellow extractive, yellowish-brown gummy matter,  lichen-starch, tartrate  and oxalate
 of lime, and chloride of sodium from the adherent sea water.
   The nature of the colorific principles  of the Orchella weeds (Roccella) of com-
 merce has  been the subject of several analytical investigations; the  most important
 of which are those  of Heeren,3 in 1830 ; of Kane,4 in 1840; of Schunck,5 in 1841,
 and also  in 1846;  of  Rochleder and  Heldt,6 in 1843; of Knop,7 in 1844;  and of
 Stenhouse,8 in  1848.
   Robiquet9 has thrown  much light on  the subject  by his investigations into  the
 nature of the colorific principle of Variolaria dealbata.
   The only constituents  of the Orchella weeds which will require  separate notice
 are the colorific principles; and in describing these I shall follow Stenhouse.
   1. Alpha-Orsellic Acid  (Stenhouse); Colorific principle of Lima  thick Orchella Weed (Roc-
 cella tinctoria).—Obtained by macerating the lichen in milk of lime, and then adding excess of
 hydrochloric acid to the  filtered  solution.  A white gelatinous  precipitate is obtained, which,
 when washed,  dried, dissolved in warm alcohol, and the solution allowed  to cool, yields stellate
 prismatic  crystals of  alpha-orsellic acid.  It is nearly insoluble  in  cold  water, but sparingly
 soluble in boiling water; pretty  soluble in cold alcohol and ether, and  readily so in boiling
  1 Dr. Scouler (in Dr. Stenhouse's paper on the Lichens in the Phil.  Trans, for 1848, p. 72) has pro-
nounced the Angola Orchella Weed to be R. Montagnei of Belanger.  My own examination of it led me
to believe that it was R.fuciformis.  I therefore submitted samples of it to Sir W. Hooker and Mr. Ben-
nett, of the British Museum, both of whom have declared it to be  one of the numerous varieties of R.
fuciformis.
  a Brandes's Archiv. d. Apothekerverein, Bd. xvi. S. 135.
  3 Schweigger's Jahrb. d. Chem. Bd. lix. S. 313, 1830 ; Buchner's Repertorium, Bd. xxxviii. S 21.
  4 Phil. Trans, for 1840, p. 273.
  5 Ann. d. Chem. u. Pharm. Bd. xli. S. 157, 1842; and Memoirs of the Chemical Society of London,vo\.
iii. p. 144, 1846.                                                                      '
  6 Ann. d. Chem. u. Pharm. Bd. xlviii. S. 1, 1843.
  ' Ibid. Bd. xlix. S. 102, 1844.                                    » Phil. Trans, for 1848, p. 63.
  " Journ.  de Chim. Mid. t. v. p. 324, 1829; Journ. de Pharm. t. xxi. pp. 209 and 387, 1835. 
Litmus.—History ; Preparation.
75
alcohol.  It reddens litmus, and forms crystallizable salts with the alkalies  and earths.  Its
most characteristic reaction, by which its  presence can be very readily detected, is the deep
blood-red colour which  it instantly strikes with a solution of  hypochlorite of lime; the colour
soon changes to yellow  which gradually also disappears.   A solution of orsellic acid in ammo-
nia, on exposure to the air, soon assumes a bright-red colour,  which gradually becomes  darker
and purple coloured.  The rational formula for alphaorsellic acid is C32Hl50 3-{-HO.
  2. Beta-Ousei.lic  Acid (Stenhouse);  Colorific principle of Cape of Good Hope Orchella Weed
(Roccellu hypomecha).—Is intermediate in its properties between alpha-orsellicacid and erythric
acid, but approaches  the former more  closely.  It is crystallizable, and its  solution yields a
fugitive blood red colour with hypochlorite of lime.  Its ammoniacal  solution also becomes red
in the air.  The rational formula of the hydrated acid is C3lH170u4-H0.
   3. Erithric  Acm  (Schunck and Stenhouse); Colorific principle  of Angola  and Madagascar
Orchella Weeds (Roccella fuciformis).—By macerating the lichen in milk of lime, as before stated,
Stenhouse obtained 12  per cent, of crude erythric acid.   It is a feebler acid  than  alpha- and
beta-orsellic acids; but  it agrees with these acids  in  being crystallizable, and in yielding red-
coloured compounds with ammonia, and also in its reaction  with  hypochlorite of lime. The
formula of the hydrated acid is C20Hi°O9-|-HO.
   Chemical Characteristics.—The  aqueous  decoction of Orchella weed forms
a copious precipitate with diacetate  of lead, and has its colour deepened by alkalies.
Digested in a weak solution of ammonia, in  a corked phial, at a heat not exceeding
130°  F., the plant yields a rich violet-red colour.   This is Hellot's test for the dis-
covery of a colorific  property in lichens.1  By adding  a solution of hypochlorite of
lime to an alcoholic tincture, or to  an  alkaline infusion  of the lichen, a fugitive
blood-red colour is produced.
   Physiological Effects.—Mucilaginous, emollient, and demulcent.
   Uses.—In  the  Mauritius it  is  employed in  decoction to alleviate cough.  In
Europe it is only employed as a colorific agent.


                              1. LACMTTS. — LITMUS.

   Synonymes.— Turnsole in cakes (tournesolen pains; fournesol en pierre); Dutch
turnsole;  lacca musica, musiva, vel musci;  lacca cserulea.
   History.—The  manufacture of  litmus was probably discovered  by the  Dutch
about the latter end  of the seventeenth  century.3
   Preparation.—Litmus is obtained  by the united influence  of water, air, am-
monia, and either potash  or soda, on any of the tinctorial  lichens capable of  yield-
ing orchil.  If the potash or soda be omitted, the product is not litmus, but  orchil.
   The manufacture  of litmus  has been described by  Ferber,3 by an anonymous
writer,4 by Morelot,5 and  by Amed6e  Gelis.8  From their accounts it appears that
the lichen  is macerated for several weeks, with occasional  agitation in  a mixture of
urine, lime, and potashes,  in a wooden trough under shelter.  A kind  of  fermenta-
tion takes place, and  the lichen becomes first reddish, and subsequently blue.   When
the pulp has acquired a proper  blue colour, it is placed in  proper  moulds, and the
cakes thus procured  are subsequently dried.
   The moulds are either of steel or  brass, and consist of two parts: the lower one
divided into rectangular  cells,  and  the upper one supporting a series of metallic
rods bearing small metallic  disks, so arranged as  to accurately fit the cells  of the
lower piece.
  1 Berthollet On Dyeing, by Ure, vol. ii. p. 184; also, Proceedings of Comm. of Agricult. of Asiatic
Society, April Sth, 1837.
  fl Litmus is not mentioned by, and, therefore, was probably unknown to, Caspar Bauhin (Pinax, 1671),
and to Dale (Pharmacologia, 3tia ed. 1737).  The earliest authors in whose works I have found it men-
tioned are, Pomet (History of Drugs, Eng. ed. 1712), and Valentine (Hist. Simpl. 1716).
  3 Neue Beytrngr zur Mineralgeschichte verschiedener Lander, Bd. i. S.378, Mietau, 1778.  Ferber de-
scribes the process as practiced at Amsterdam.  He says that the pulp is ground in a mill, and forced
through a hair cloth, before it is placed in the moulds.
  4 Nicholson's Journal of Nat. Phil. Chem. and the Arts, vol. ii. p. 311, 1799.  The notice, of litmus is a
translation from an article in the Journal  du Commerce. The lichen is said to be ground in a mill, and
sifted through a brass wire sieve before maceration.  The moulds are described as being 1* inches by
&-10ths of an inch.
  * Mtmoire sur le Lichen Francois, vulgo tournesol en pain, in the Mim.de la Soc. Mid. d'Emulation,
t. v. p. 281.
  • Journ. de Pharm. t. xxvii. p. 476, 1840. 
76
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Lichenes.
Fig. 174.
Moulds used in making Litmus.
  a. The lower or cell-piece.
  6. The upper piece.
   The  lower piece is immersed in  the pulp with which they are  filled, and the
excess of pulp is then scraped off by means of a wooden spatula.   The upper piece
being then applied, the disks enter the cells, and force out the  moulded cakes of
litmus.
   It appears from Gelis' experiments, that  any of the lichens which  serve for the
production of orchil may be used in the preparation of litmus.1
   The urine serves for the production of carbonate of ammonia,  and the lime em-
ployed abstracts the carbonic acid.
                                     The Dutch manufacturers add chalk or sul-
                                   phate of lime, and some siliceous or argillaceous
                                   substance, to give body and weight to the litmus.
                                   Indigo is also introduced, doubtless for the pur-
                                   pose of  increasing the blue colour of the cakes.
                                     Description. — Litmus  is  imported  from
                                   Holland, in  the form of small, rectangular, light,
                                   and friable cakes of an indigo-blue  colour.  Ex-
                                   amined  by the microscope we  find eporules, and
                                   portions  of  the epidermis  and  mesothallus  of
                                   some  species of lichen, moss leaves,  sand, &c.
                                   The  odour of the  cakes  is that  of indigo and
                                   violets.   The violet odour is acquired while the
                                   mixture is undergoing fermentation, and is com-
mon to all the tinctorial lichens.  It has led some writers into the error of supposing
that the litmus-makers use Florentine  orris in the manufacture of litmus.   The
indigo odour depends on the presence of indigo in the litmus  cakes.
   Composition.—An accurate and complete analysis of litmus  is  yet a desidera-
tum. ^ In 1840, Dr. Kane3 submitted it to examination, and obtained from it four
colouring principles, to which he gave the names of erythrolein, erythrolitmine, azo-
litmine, and spaniolitmine.   These, in their natural condition, are red, and the blue
of litmus, he says,  is  produced by  combination with a base.    " There are, properly
speaking," he adds, "only two characteristic colouring matters in litmus—the ery-
throlitmine and the azolitmine; for the erythrolein is  coloured crimson purple only
by alkalies, and the spaniolitmine occurs but very seldom.   In the litmus of com-
merce these colouring substances are combined with lime, potash, and ammonia, and
there is mixed up in the mass a considerable quantity of chalk and  sand."
   Gelis3  has published some  interesting observations on litmus.   He  says that
litmus owes its  colour to four different coloured products, which he designates by the
letters A,  B, C,  and D.  The ash of litmus  he found  to contain carbonate of pot-
ash, carbonate or sulphate of lime,  alumina, silica, traces of oxide of iron, chlorine,
sulphuric acid,  and phosphoric acid.
   I  shall provisionally call the proper colouring matter of litmus derived from the
lichen, lichen-blue.
  Lichen-Blue; Litmus Blue.   By these terms I understand the peculiar blue colouring matter
of litmus, which is soluble in water, and is reddened  by acids.  It is probably either some mo-
dification of orceine, or some allied principle.   It may perhaps be a  mixture  or  compound of
several colouring principles.
  It is soluble in both  water and spirit,  yielding a coloured solution, which, in the concentrated
state, has a purple colour when viewed by transmitted light;  but in the dilute state it  is pure
blue.  Viewed by transmitted candle-light it has a reddish  colour.   An  aqueous infusion of
  1 Ferber saw the Roccella lichen used at Amsterdam. Morelot stated that Variolaria orcina yielded it.
Nees and Ebermaier (Handb. d. Med. Pharm. Bot. Bd. i. S. 49); and Thomson (Org. Chemistry, p. 284),
on the other hand, say that Lecanora tartarea is employed.—An orchil-maker, under my care in the Lon-
don Hospital, told me that he had been accustomed to make litmus of pipe clay, starch, soda, and  orchil
liquor; and he gave me some specimens of it thus prepared.  Gelis prepared it with Roccella tinctoria
(in the scutel hferous state), Roccella fuciformis, and the mixture of Lecanora parella g pallesce.ns, and
Jsidium coralhnum, sold under the name of Orseille d'Auvergne; but the last-mentioned plants vieldeda
less fine product than the others.
  * Phil. Trans, for 1840, p. 298.                    » Journ. de Pharmacie, t. xxvii. p. 483, 1810. 
          Litmus:—Characteristics; Uses; Blue Litmus Paper.        77

litmus neither reddens turmeric paper nor occasions a precipitate with a solution of chloride of
calcium.  It contains, therefore, no free alkali or alkaline carbonate.
  It is reddened by acids; and also by many of the metallic salts—as corrosive sublimate, sul-
phate of copper, sulphate of iron, &c.  The infusion of litmus, which  has  been reddened by
acids, has its blue colour restored by alkalies, alkaline earths, the alkaline and earthy sulphu-
rets, the alkaline carbonates, the soluble  borates, the tribasic phosphate of soda, the alkaline
cyanides. &c.
  An infusion of litmus is decolorized by chlorine and by the alkaline hypochlorites.  Certain
deoxidizing agents also deprive it of colour; as sulphuretted hydrogen, hydrosulphuret of am-
monia, sulphurous acid, the hyposulphites, nascent hydrogen (obtained by adding  hydrochloric
acid and zinc to an aqueous infusion of litmus), and the protosalts of iron.  If an infusion  of
litmus be left  in contact with sulphuretted hydrogen, in a well-stopped bottle, for a few days, the
liquid is decolorized, but reacquires its colour  by exposure to the air or oxygen gas.
   Characteristics.—The lichen-blue  is an aqueous infusion of litmus, is distin-
guished from other vegetable blues by the action of acids and alkalies  on it (see
supra); for most vegetable blues and purples (as  red cabbage juice, syrup of violets,
&c.)  are changed to green by  alkalies, whereas, lichen-blue does not  undergo this
change.
   If a lump of moistened litmus be laid on turmeric paper, the latter is reddened
by it; but by the application of heat the redness disappears.
   When litmus cakes are thrown into  diluted hydrochloric acid, a copious  effer-
vescence ensues, and a solution of chloride  of calcium is obtained.
   If a cake of litmus be  ignited in  the outer cone of  the flame of a candle, a
whitish  violet tint is communicated to the flame,  indicative  of  the presence  of
potash.
   If the ashes of litmus be  thrown into diluted hydrochloric acid, violent  effer-
vescence takes place; a solution of chloride of calcium is obtained, and a quantity
of  siliceous  sand remains undissolved.
  Impurities.—Inferior samples of litmus  (including all those usually found in English com-
merce) contain indigo,1 the presence of which in litmus cakes is proved by their odour; by the
coppery lustre which they acquire when rubbed with the  nail;  by digesting them  in  oil  of
vitriol, by which a blue solution of sulphate of indigo is obtained; and by heating them in a
watch glass or platinum capsule, by which  indigo-vapour  (characterized by its  well-known
odour and reddish violet colour) and crystals of indigo  are obtained.
   Uses.—Litmus is employed as a test for acids  and  alkalies.   The former commu-
nicate a red colour to blue litmus: the  latter restore  the blue  colour of reddened
litmus.   (The action of various salts on litmus has been before stated.)   If the
litmus  present be reddened by an  unboiled, but not by a boiled, water,  we may
infer that the acid present is a volatile one; probably carbonic acid, or perhaps sul-
phuretted hydrogen.   Reddened litmus  may have its blue colour restored not only
by alkalies,  &c, as before mentioned,  but also by carbonate of lime dissolved  in
water by a considerable excess of carbonic acid.
   1.  TINCTURA LACMI;  Tincture of  Litmus.  (Litmus one part;  Distilled Water
twenty-five parts. M.)—Though called tincture, it is in reality an infusion of litmus.
In order to preserve it, a portion (about -jLth part) of  spirit may be added  to it.
If  required  to be more concentrated, the proportion of litmus should be augmented.
Some persons first bruise the litmus  in a mortar, and  then tie it up in a linen bag
before steeping it  in  the water.   By keeping in a closely-stopped  bottle,  its blue
colour disappears, but is shortly restored on the admission of atmospheric air.

   2.  CHARTA EXPLORATORIA C(ERULEA;  Blue  Test  Paper; Blue Litmus Paper.—
This is prepared by dipping slips of  paper in  a strong and clear infusion of litmus;
or by brushing the infusion over the paper.
   Bibulous  or  unsized paper  is  usually preferred, on  account of the facility with
which it imbibes the liquid to  be tested;  and also because the alum which frequently
enters into  the  composition of  the  size affects  the  colour  of litmus.   Professor
  1 See two papers by the author in the Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. ix. p. 12, 1849; and vol. x. p. 325,
1850. 
78
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Lichenes.
Graham, however, recommends good letter paper;  or, if the infusion is applied^ to
one side only, thin and sized  drawing paper.   Faraday1 recommends  the  infusion
to be prepared from an ounce of litmus and half a pint of hot water.   The Prussian
Pharmacopoeia of 1827 orders one part of litmus and four parts of water.   Others
employ one part of litmus and six parts of water.
   In order to obtain extremely delicate test paper,  the alkali in the litmus  is to  he
almost neutralized by a minute portion of acid.  To effect  this, divide the  filtered
infusion of litmus into two parts;  stir one portion with a glass rod which has been
previously dipped into very dilute sulphuric acid, and repeat  this until  the liquid
begins to look reddish: then add the other portion of liquid, and immerse the paper
in the mixture.
   Good litmus paper should be uniform in its colour, and neither very light nor very
dark.   When it has a purplish tint, it is a more delicate test  for  acids than when
its colour is pure blue.   When carefully dried, it may be preserved by wrapping it
in stiff paper, and keeping it in well-stopped vessels in  a dark cupboard  or drawer.
   Books of test  papers, bound up like bankers' cheque-books,  are sold in the shops,
and are very convenient.  They are about If  inches long and f ths of an inch wide.
To preserve them they are kept in leathern cases.
   Blue  litmus paper is used to detect  the presence of acids and of certain salts
which react as acids.
   I CHARTA EXPLORATORIA RUBEFACTA;  Reddened Test Paper; Red Litmus Paper.
This is prepared with an infusion of litmus which  has been slightly reddened by an
acid.  Blue litmus paper may be extemporaneously reddened  by exposing it for a
few seconds to the vapour of acetic acid;  but for preserving, it is  better to prepare
the paper with litmus which has been reddened by a  minute  portion of dilute sul-
phuric acid:  the acetic acid being objectionable, on account of its volatility.
   Red litmus paper is employed as a test for alkalies and certain  salts (see supra),
which react as bases.

                     2. ORCHILLA.—ORCHIL-LIQUOR.

   Two kinds of liquid or thin pulp called Orchil or Archil are  met with: one termed
blue orchil, the other red orchil.  They are prepared as follows: blue orchil is pro-
cured by steeping the lichens before mentioned (see pp. 70 and 71) in  an animo-
niacal liquor in a covered wooden vessel.   Red orchil is made with the same liquor
in common earthen jars placed in a room  heated by steam, and called a stove.   In
one manufactory which I inspected, the ammoniacal liquor was prepared by distilla-
tion from a mixture of lime, impure muriate or sulphate of ammonia obtained from
gas-works, and water; but some makers  still employ stale urine  and  lime.   Both
kinds of Orchil  sold in the shops are liquids of a deep reddish  purple colour and an
ammoniacal smell.   Red and blue orchils differ merely in  the degree of their red
tint.
   According  to  Dr. Kane, Orchil  consists of orcein, erythroleic acid, and azo-
erythrine.  To these must be added ammonia.
   Orchil is employed merely as a colouring agent.  It is used for dyeing, colouring,
and staining.  It is sometimes used as a test for acids.

                                3. CUDBEAR.

   Cudbear is called by the Germans Persio.1  The  manufacture of this  pigment
was begun at Leith about the year 1777, by the  late Mr.  Macintosh of Glasgow,
under the management  of Dr.  Cuthbert Gordon.  From  the latter  gentleman's
name the term cudbear (at first  Cuthbert) originated.
  1 Chemical Manipulation.
  2 The word persio is probably derived from persica, on account of the resemblance of the colour of cud-
bear to that of a peach. 
Cudbear; Cudbear Paper.   Fungi.                    79
  It  is procured in  the manner  of Orchil, by the mutual  action of  some  of the
colorific  lichens, air, and  an  ammoniacal  liquor.
 White Swedish or tartareous moss (Lecanora tarta-              Fig. 175.
rea) was  formerly chiefly used  in its  manufacture.
When the proper purplish red  colour  has been  de-
veloped,  the mixture is  dried in the air and reduced
to powder.
   I have found in the shops two kinds of powder of
cudbear,  one called red  cudbear, the other blue cud-
bear.   Both are purplish red—but  one  is redder
than the  other   I have  likewise  met with red and
blue cudbear pastes:  but the term Orchil might with          Lecanora tartarea.
more propriety apply to these.
   Cudbear is  employed as a purple dye for woollen yarn;  but the colour which  it
yields is  fugitive.  It is sometimes used for colouring pharmaceutical preparations;
and it may be employed also as a test.
    Cudbear paper  is sometimes used as a test for acids and alkalies.   "A paper
prepared from an infusion of the best cudbear, without the addition of either alkali
 or  acid, has a purple colour, and is affected by both acids and alkalies.   It is conve-
 nient in  alkalimetry, being already too red to be sensibly affected by carbonic acid,
 while it  is distinctly reddened by the mineral acids."1
               Order III.    FUNGI, Joss.—FUNGALS.
                                  Fongacf.2E, Lind.

  Characters —Plants consisting of a congeries of cells or  filaments, or both variously com-
bined, increasing in size in  the more perfect species by addition to  their inside, their outside
undergoing no change after its first formation; chiefly growing upon decayed organic substances,
or soil arising from their decomposition, frequently ephemeral, and variously coloured, never
accompanied, as in Lichens, by reproductive germs of a vegetable green called gonidia; nou-
rished by juices derived from the matrix.  Fructification either spores attached externally, and
often in definite numbers, to the cellular tissue, and frequently on  peculiar  cells called sporo-
phores or basidia, which are in many cases surmounted by fine  processes which immediately
support the spores, and called spicules or sterigmata ;  or inclosed in membranous sacs or asci, and
then termed sporidia (Berkeley, in Lindley's Vegetable Kingdom).
   Properties.—Variable:  we have esculent, medicinal, and poisonous species; and unfortu-
nately there  are no anatomical characters by which the poisonous are to be distinguished from
the edible fungi.
   They are remarkable for containing a very large proportion of water; and for their dry matter
being rich in nitrogen and phosphates.   Among their proximate constituents are several  ali-
mentary principles (e. g. albumen, sugar, mannite, and mucilage), and some poisonous ones
(ergotin, tremellin, and amanitin).  The substance called fungin, formerly considered to be a nu-
tritive principle, appears to agree with cellulose in its nature.
                   Sub-order  I.  Gymnomycetes, Endl.
                                 Coniomtcetes, Fries.

  Characters.—Sporidia naked (without  any hymenium, perithecinm, asci, or  sporidiferous
fiocci), produced beneath the epidermis of plants or within the matrix (Fries).
  Properties.—No medicinal substances are obtained from this sub-order.  The yeast plant,
which Turpin refers to the genus Torula (from torus, a twisted cord), is more probably an  im-
perfect mucedinous fungus, and as such will be noticed hereafter (see suborder Hyphomyretes).
The ergot-mould, called, by the late Mr. E. J. Quekett, Ergotcetia abortifaciens, and referred to this
suborder, is considered by Link and some other authorities to be a species of Oidium, and as
such will be noticed subsequently (see suborder Hyphomycetes).
' Graham, Elements of Chemistry, p. 925. 
80
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Fungi.
                  Sub-order II.   Hyphomycetes,  Fries.

   Characters.—Flocci sporidiferous, naked (Fries).
   Properties.—To this suborder (which is closely allied to Confervacea, p. 51,) are referred
the yeast plant, the ergot-mould, nwther of vinegar, and some other plants interesting alike to the
physician and pharmaceutist.

        15.  FERMENTUM CERVISIiE—BARM or YEAST.
                            (Cerevisise Fermentum, L. D.)

   History.—Leaven and ferment have been known from the most remote periods.
Leaven (or sour dough), called in Hebrew seor,1 and ferment, termed in  Hebrew
khametz,2 are both referred to in the  Old Testament: the one applies to solids, the
other  to  both  solids and liquids.  In the common version, however,  both these
Hebrew words are translated leaven.3   The Greeks appear to have used the term f i!^
in a general sense, to include  both leaven and ferment.   Dioscorides4 speaks of the
medical properties of the leaven of wheat (dtevpuv fv^), which Galen5 and Paulus8
simply call £vprj.  Pliny7 distinguishes leaven (fermentum) from beer yeast (spuma
cervisise).
   The history of the  discovery of the vegetable nature of yeast is  an interesting
subject of inquiry.   So long since as the year 1680, Leeuwenhoek8 described  and
figured the  globules of beer-yeast.  He was fully aware of its vegetable nature, hut
was ignorant of its power of vegetating or growing, and notwithstanding the high
magnifying power which he used,  he  failed to detect the presence of the granules
or nuclei in the interior of the yeast-cells.
   In  1826, Desmazieres9 published  some observations on  Persoon's genus Myco-
derma, which he defined anew, and referred to Gaillon's  class  of infusory animals,
called Nemazoaria (now placed among Algae).   He described a Mycoderma vini,
glutinis farinulse, malti-juniperini, malti-cervisise, and cervisise.   The latter is fre-
quently considered to be the yeast-plant; but Desmazieres confounded two things
which deserve  to be considered entirely distinct, namely, the yeast-plant, properly
so called (the  Torula Cerevisise  of  Turpin), and a larger filamentous confervoid
plant, to which more  strictly the name of Mycoderma  Cervisise of Desmazieres
should be confined.
   To Cagniard-Latour  is due the credit of establishing the real nature of yeast.
During the  years 1835 and 1836,  he  communicated to  the Soci6t6 Philomathique
some researches on ferments, which were  published  in  the journal called VInstitut
(Nos.  158, 159, 164, 165, 166, 167, 185,  and  199); and on  the  12th of June,
1837, he presented to the Academy of Sciences his Mimoire sur le Fermentation
Vineuse, a notice of which appeared  in the  Comptes Rendus of that period.   The
report10 on this  memoir, drawn up  by  Turpin, in the name of himself, Thenard, and
Becquerel, was  made to  the Academy in July, 1838 (Comptes Rendus);  and  the
memoir itself was printed  in the 68th volume  of  the  Annales de  Chimie  et de
Physique, 1838.
   About  the same time,  Schwann11  was occupied  in investigations on  this  sub-
  1 Hence the German sauer and English sour.
  a The sour fermented mare's milk used by the Tartars appears to have derived its name, koumiss, from
the Hebrew khametz.
[  3 In Exodus, xiii. 7, the terms seor and khametz occur together, and are evidently distinct. "Unleavened
things (matzah) [a{f,uo] shall be consumed during the seven days, and there shall not be seen with thee
fermented things [fyfAMTO*], and there shall  not be seen with thee  leavened mass [Z"f*i]-"—(Biblical
Cyclopcedia, vol. ii. pp. 23G-7.)  The interpolated Greek words are from the Septuagint.
  4 Lib. ii. cap. 107.                             * De Simpl. Med. Facult. lib. vi. cap. vi. § 3.
  6 Paulus iEgineta, trans, by F. Adams.  Syd. Soc. Ed. vol. iii. p. 126.
  1 Hist. Nat. lib. xviii. cap. 12 and 26 ; lib. xxii. cap. 82.  Ed. Valp.
  9 Arcana Naturae, delecta, p. 1, et seq. ed. nov. Lugd. Bat. 1722.
  9 Desmazieres's observations were first published  at Lisle.  They were  afterwards reprinted in the
Annales des Sciences Naturelles, t. x. p. 42, 1627.
  10 A translation of this report appeared in Jameson's Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal vol. XXV.
  11 PoggendorfTs Annalen der Physik, Bd. xli. p. 184, 1837. 
                             Barm or Yeast:—Botany.                          81

ject, but his observations were not published until 1837.   He denied that  the  or-
ganized being found in fermenting  liquids is one of the  infusoria, as Desmazieres
had supposed, but asserted that it is undoubtedly a plant, and that it has great re-
semblance to many jointed fungi.  Meyen, who examined it at Schwann's request,
agreed as to its vegetable  nature, and considered  that the  only doubt which  could
exist respecting it was, whether  it was an  algal or a fungus, but its deficiency in
green pigment led him to regard it as a fungus.  The filamentous fungus found in
saccharine  solutions  which are  undergoing  fermentation, Schwann, therefore, pro-
posed  to  call the sugar-fungus  (Zuckerpilz).   Meyen1  adopts Schwann's proposal,
and refers  to three species of Saccharomyces, viz.,  S. vini, IS.  cerevisise,  and  S.
pomorum.
   In  1837, Kiitzing2 described and figured the yeast-plant.
   On  the  20th  of August,  1838,  Turpin3 read to the  Academy  of Sciences at
Paris,  his valuable Mimoire sur  la  Cause et les Effets  de  la Fermentation Alcoolique
et Aceteusc.
   The notion that yeast was an  organized being,  in fact a living plant, was  at first
strongly opposed by Berzelius and Liebig;4 but was  soon adopted by the eminent
chemist Mitscherlich.5
   Botany.—The substance called  yeast is a mass of microscopic cryptogams.
   The organization and vitality of yeast are demonstrated by the form and structure of its par-
ticles,  as determined by the  microscope;  by their chemical composition; by their reproductive
power, as proved by the generation of yeast during the fermentation of beer; and lastly,  by the
effects of mechanical injuries^ of  heat and cold,' and of  chemical  and other poisons.s
   Kiitzing,9 who is a believer in the convertibility of some of the lower algals into
species, or even genera, of a higher organization,  is of opinion that yeast is an algal
in its  lowest, but a fungus in  its  highest, grade of development.
   It is more probable, however,  that  this plant  is a fungus in all stages of its  exist-
ence;  and that what we know as yeast is either a mass of sporidia or the separated
joints of  the spawn or mycelium of a fungus whose more perfect state is at present
undetermined, but which is probably  a mucedinous fungus, perhaps allied  to Peni-
cillium.   In the present state of uncertainty, I  have thought it preferable to desig-

Jf1?1"'1"1 the Progress of Vegetable  Physiology during the year 1837, translated by W. Francis, nn
83-84, London, 1839.                                                                    ,iy'
  a Journal far praktische Chemie, Bd. xi.
  1 Mimoire de VAcadimie Royale des Sciences, t. xvii. 1840.
  ' In Liebig's Annalen der Pharmacie, vol. xxix. p. 100, lt-39, a satirical paper (The Mystery of Vinous
Fermentation unfolded) was published, representing yeast to be an infusory animal which  fed on  sugar
and evacuated by the alimentary canal spirit of wine, by the urinary organs carbonic acid !  In  his Che-
mistry in its Application to Agriculture  and Physiology, edited by Dr. Playfair, 2d edition, 1812, Liebio-
declares yeast to be a body in a state of decomposition, and  states that  the idea of its reproducing  itself
as seeds reproduce seeds, cannot for a moment be entr-rtained. But in the third edition of his °Animal
Chemistry (edited by Dr. Gregory, 1846) he does not attempt to  deny the vegetable nature of yeast, though
he thinks that investigation into the nature of this substance is not yet completed.
 bags, and of these great care is requisite in their removal from place to place.  If they be allowed to fall
 violently on the ground, the yeast is spoiled. A bruise, as a blow given to the bag, also destroys it  The men
 who make up the dried yeast into quarter-pound and half-pound balls for sale, are obliged to bundle it verv
 dexterously, or they injure and destroy it.  In fact, falls, bruises, or rough handling, kill it, and the yeast
 which has thus been mechnnically injured may be readily distinguished from goud, unaltered yeast  Its
 colour becomes darker, somewhat like the change which an apple or pear undergoes when it  beeomos
 rotten ; and, from being crumbly or powdery, it becomes soft, glutinous, sticky to  the fingers like flour-
 paste, and  soon stinks.  I have submitted some of this injured  or dead yeast to microscopical examina-
 tion, but have been unable to detect any difference in  its appearance  from healthy yeast.  The effect of
 mechanical injuries is also  noticed by several writers.  Thus Liebig (Chemistry in its application to
 Agriculture, by Dr. Playfair, p. 266, 3d ed. 1642) remarks that simple  pressure diminishes  the power of
 yeast to excite vinous fermentation.                                                 v
  1 Boiling for a short  period  injures, and for a long period destroys, the  power  of yeast to excite fer
 mentation (Berzelius).  Cold interrupts fermentation, apparently bv rendering the  yeast-plant torpid
  « The power of yeast  to excite vinous fermentation is arrested or destroyed by alcohol, acids  alkalies
 various salts (chloride of sodium, bichloride of mercury, nitrate of silver, &c), volatile oils 'excess of
 sugar, &c.  (See Berzelius and Liebig;  also, Quevenne, in the Journ. de Pharmacie, t. xjiiv. p. 3334
 1838.)                                                                                  '
  * The following are, according to Kiitzing, thegeneric and specific characters of the Yeast-plant which
he calls Cryptococcus Fermentum, and refers to Mycophacecr. i Pilztanze), a sub-order of Al"se   '
  Cryptococcus.—Mucus hyaline globules, collected in nn imermediate mucous stratum. °
  C. Fermentum.—Submersed : globules elliptical, solid, in the centre 1- or 2-punctate.
        VOL. II.--6 
82                    VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Fungi.
nate it by its more classical name (Fermentum Cervisise) than to adopt any of the
following botanical names, which have been  given to  it:  Mycoderma Cervisise,
Desmazieres;  Torula  Cerevisise, Turpin; Cryptococcus Fermentum, Kiitzing; Sac-
charomyces Vini et Cerevisise, Schwann and Meyen.   For while Mycoderma is a
spurious genus (Fries and the Rev. M. J. Berkeley), the yeast-plant  has been de-
clared, by an  eminent fungologist, to  be  certainly no  Torula; and  as  Kiitzing's
notion of its algaceous nature  is not admitted by botanists, his name of Cryptococcus
Fermentum is scarcely admissible for it.
The Yeast-Plant.
Fig. 176.

                    Fresh Yeast.

  a. Cells overlapping and showing their transparency.
  6. Micrometer scale, indicating one-hundredth of a millimetre,
■with a progressive series of small seeds or seminules, the two
first beginning to become vesicular at the centre, the two others
showing the thickness of the cells, and their interior small gra-
nules of variable size.
Fig. 178.
Fig. 179.

Yeast in wort for three hours.

 (Cells double or didymous.)
 Yeast in wort for eight hours.

(Cells united and converted into
moniliform or jointed filaments.)
        Fig. 177.

















   c®(£)GO   ®



 Yeast in wort for one hour.
(Cells beginning to germinate.)
Fig. 180.
Yeast in a saccharine solution for
          three days.
h. The sporidia beginning to ramify
   and to evolve lateral buds.
i. Lateral branches composed of two
   joints.
I. An  individual  whose cell had
   evolved two branches.
The more or  less small intermixed
   cells or granules  are probably
   abortive.
   When submitted to microscopic examination, yeast is found to consist of globose,
or more or  less ovoidal, ellipsoidal, or somewhat pyriform,  transparent, nucleated
cells, varying in  size from ^V^4*1 to  about ^'^th of an English inch.   The nu-
cleus appears to me  to  consist of a mass of granules or nucleoli of unequal size:
some of the larger ones are highly refractive, and probably contain oily or fatty
matter.  The nucleoli are called by Turpin, globuline.
   Turpin spent a night in a brewery to examine the changes which the yeast under- 
Barm or Yeast :—Botany.
83
goes during the fermentation of beer.  The fresh yeast had the appearance indicated
in Fig.  176.  In one hour after it had been added to the wort, he says that germi-
nation had commenced;  the maternal cells had produced one or two buds or young
cells (see Fig. 177).  In three hours many of the cells  were didymous, or double,
the buds having attained the size of the maternal cells, and some of them  had them-
selves begun to produce  other buds or young cells (see Fig. 178).  In eight hours
the cells were arranged in rows, forming moniliform mucedinous  plants, composed
of several cells or joints, which varied  somewhat in diameter and shape.   Terminal,
and in some cases lateral, buds or young cells were observed, showing that the plants
were about to ramify.   Some of  the smaller rows were seen to explode and emit a
fine powder, consisting of minuter  globules (see  Fig. 179).   Turpin placed some
yeast-cells in an aqueous solution of sugar,  and in three days observed that jointed
filaments, with lateral branches, were produced (see Fig. 180).
   I have myself examined yeast at Messrs. Hanbury and Buxton's brewery at va-
rious stages of the fermentation of both porter and ale,  from a few hours to many
days.   In the more advanced stages of fermentation, I observed the globules of yeast
were frequently in strings, or rows, apparently forming moniliform often branched
plants.  But as the cells or  joints were very readily separable, I  could  not  satisfy
myself that the adhesion was otherwise than mechanical, such as we see  between
the blood-disks when they arrange themselves in  series like money-rolls, and such
as we sometimes perceive even in inorganic  amorphous precipitates.   My experience
agrees precisely with that of  Schlossberger,1 who  states  that he " never could per-
ceive a budding or bursting of the yeast-cells, accompanied by a  discharge of their
contents, nor could I ever produce this by compression.  These curious brachial and
other adjustments of the cells of yeast to each other, appeared to me the  work of
chance."   It is,  however, proper to add, that the artificial rupture of the cells has
been effected by Mitscherlich, who also confirms Turpin's observation of the  budding
of the yeast-cells (see p. 84).
   Origin.—It is well known that a pure solution of  sugar  will not undergo fer-
mentation when exposed to the air, but a saccharine vegetable juice, which  contains
albuminous matter (as the juice of the grape), suffers spontaneous fermentation, and
 this process always begins with the formation of  yeast-cells.
    By some it is assumed that these arise from yeast-germs floating in the air, and
 which, meeting with a fit receptacle for their development  in the vegetable juice,
 germinate and grow, and effect vinous fermentation.  By others their production is
 ascribed to a generatio primitiva.
    Turpin was of opinion that there are three sources or modes of production of
 the yeast-plant: 1st, the trans-
 formation of globuliue into yeast-       Fig. 181.                  Fig.  1S-2.
 cells; 2dly, budding, or the  se-
 paration of the joints of monili-
 form stems; 3dly, the escape of
 spores (globulins seminuliferes)
 from  the  interior  of the cells:
 Mitscherlich  admits   the   two
 latter modes of growth.
    The amylaceous particles con-
 tained  in the cells of the albu-
 men of barley (see  Figs. 1 SI,
 182) are called by Turpin globu-
liue. The transformation of these
into  yeast-cells is, according to
the same authority, the primitive
origin of beer yeast. Dr. Lindley8
Cell from  the al-
  bumen of barley,
  containing slanh
  grains, called by
  Turpin globuline.
Turpin's globuline of barley.
1 Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. v. p. 131, 1845.
2 Introduction to Botany, p. 113, 4th ed. ISIS. 
84
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Fungi.

 partly confirms Turpin, for he states that he has seen these smaller granules sprout
 during fermentation; and he adds, that they have at that time lost all their starch,
 for iodine produces no sensible effect upon their colour.
   Turpin states that 35 lbs.  of dried or pressed yeast produced during the brewing
 of 5700 litres [about 14 butts] of beer 247 lbs. of  dried or pressed yeast: that is,
 an actual increase of 212 lbs. of new  yeast.
   In the deposit from  the  porter refrigerator  of Messrs. Truman and Hanbury's
 brewery, I  have observed the forms  deposited in Fig. 183, c, d, e, and f  These
 constitute the plant called by Desmazieres the Mycoderma Cervisise.
   Occurrence in the Human  Body.—Yeast-cells have been found in the human
 body.   Hannever detected them  in the black  coating of the tongue  of a typhoid
 patient.   They have also been discovered in the liquids of the oesophagus, stomach,
 and intestine.   In some cases, probably, they may have been introduced by the beer
 drank by the patient;  but, in other cases, their  presence could not be  accounted for
 in this way.   As they  are developed in the urine of diabetic patients, their occurrence
 in urine has been supposed to indicate  the  existence of sugar, but they have  been
 found also in non-saccharine urine.1
   Description.—In commerce, three  varieties of yeast are known and distinguished.
                                  These are, brewers' yeast, dried yeast, and patent
             Fig. 1S3.              yeast.
                                    1. Brewers' yeast.—In breweries, two kinds of
                                  yeast may be distinguished, namely, upper or top
                                  yeast,  and lower or bottom yeast.   These  have
                                  been described by Mitscherlich.3
                                    Top yeast consists  of large cells, at the ex-
                                  tremities of which small ones are developed.  It
                                  appears, therefore, to be produced by buds.  In
                                  Berlin, the most beautiful top yeast is obtained at
                                  a temperature of 77° F.
                                   Bottom yeast consists of cells of  various sizes,
                                  without any  small globules attached to the large
                                  ones.  It appears to be produced by the growth
                                  of small isolated  granules (spores?), which Mits-
                                  cherlich  thinks have escaped  from the yeast-cells
                                  which have burst and disburthened themselves of
                                  their contents.   Bottom yeast is multiplied at a
                                  lower temperature than top yeast:  Mitscherlich
                                  says, that the bottom  ferment of Bavarian beer
                                  is produced at a temperature which must not ex-
                                  ceed 48° F. nor go below 32° F.    The bottom
                                 yeast sold at  breweries is generally impure.
                                   Brewers and bakers distinguish yeast according
                                  to the quality of  the beer  from which  it is ob-
                                 tained.   Ale  yeast is the best and strongest; and
       Mycoderma Cervisia.         is used for bread-making.  Porter  yeast is ob-
          Desmazieres.             jected  to by  bakers, but is used in distilleries.
                                , Small-beer yeast is said to  be weak, but rapid in
its effects, and is sometimes used  In making rolls.
  2. Dried yeast—Under this name is sold a granular or pasty mass of yeast-cells,
which have been separated from mechanically admixed  solids, as well as from the
supernatant fermented  liquid, probably by filtration  through linen cloths  and sub-
sidence.   That which is sold in London is imported from Holland,  Belgium, and
Germany, and is commonly called German yeast.   It comes over in hempen bags,

     1 Des Vtgttaux qui croissent aux VHomme et sur les Animaux,vai M Ch Robin  P-iri« isd7
     * Poggend. Ann. lix.; also, Chem. Gazette, vol. i. p. 568, 1843.              '     '
 
Barm or Yeast :—Composition.
85
each holding half a hundred weight.   If transported in casks  it is apt  to burst
them, unless they are strongly iron-bound, by the  quantity of carbonic acid which
it evolves.
   3.  Patent yeast.—This might with more propriety be called artificial yeast.   It
is a watery liquid, containing yeast-cells,  and which  has usually been prepared pur-
posely by the fermentation  of  an infusion of malt and hops.  The  hops  probably
contribute to prevent the liquid  becoming rapidly sour.  Turpin thinks that their
oil may act  as a stimulant in the development of the yeast-plant.  I am informed
by a baker that he prepares patent yeast  for bread-making by mashing  half  a peck
of ground malt with six gallons of water at 170° F.; then  boiling the wort with
half a pound of hops;  and  to the cooled liquid adding some brewers' yeast.   In
24 hours the patent yeast is fit  for use.1   It rapidly turns sour in warm weather;
and I am informed that bread made with it does not keep so  well as that  prepared
with other kinds of yeast.   It is in general use among bakers, especially those who
use an  inferior kind of flour.
   Mr.  Fownes2 describes the following mode by which  he prepared  some  artificial
yeast:  "A  small  handful of ordinary wheat-flour was made into a thick paste with
cold water, covered with paper, and left  for seven  days on  the  mantle-shelf of a
room where a fire was kept all day, being occasionally stirred.  At the  end of that
period  three quarts of malt were washed  with about two gallons  of water,  the infu-
sion boiled with some hops, and when sufficiently cooled, the ferment added.  The
results of the experiment were a quantity of beer (not very  strong,  it  is true,  but
quite free from any unpleasant taste), and at least a pint of thick barm, which proved
perfectly good for making bread."
   Composition.—Yeast has been analyzed by Marcet,3 by Dumas,4 by Mitscherlich,5
by Mulder,8 and by Schlossberger.7
   It consists of two parts,  the cell-walls,  composed of a kind of cellulose, and  the
contents of the cells, composed of a proteine substance, and probably fat, or oil.
   1. Cell-walls.—By digesting yeast in a weak solution of potash,  the contents of the cells
are removed,  and the membranous matter composing the cell-walls is left.  In its composition
it approximates to cellulose or starch.
                                                                  Schlossberger.
                                                                        With oxide of
                                                            With chromate copper and
                                                               of lead.    chromate of
                   Atoms.    Eq.Wt.   Per Cent.     Mulder.                   potash.
    Carbon........12.....72.....44 44.....45.00.....45.45.....45.09
    Hydrogen......10.....10.....6.17.....   6.11.....   6.87.....   6.60
    Oxygen .......10.....80.....49.38.....48.88.....47.68.....48.31
    Cellulose of yeast . 1.....162.....99.99.....100.00.....100.00.....100 00

   2. Contents of the Cells.—According to  both Mulder and  Schlossberger, yeast-cells con-
tain a substance allied to the proteine bodies.
                                                       Schlossberger.
                                    Mulder.         .-------------------^
               Carbon............43.35.......55.53.......55 53
               Hydrogen..........6.56.......7.50.......7 50
               Nitrogen...........12.68.......14.01.......13.75
               Oxygen...........37.41.......22.96.......23.22
                                     100.00        100.00         100.00
   Besides traces of phosphorus and sulphur.
   Mulder renards the contents of the cells as being the hydrated oxide of proteine, C40H37NsO26=
C<°H3'N*0'M-OM-6 H O.

  1 Various receipts for making yeast arc given in Webster's Encyclopedia of Domestic Economy, p. 760.
  a Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. ii. p. 403, 1842.
  * Quoted by L. Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. Bd. ii. S. 1100.
  4 Traitt de Chimie appliqutc aux Arts, t. vi. p. 316, 1843.
  * Lthrbuch d. Chemie, 4 Aufi S. 370 (quoted by Schlossberger).
  * The Chemistry of Vegetable and Animal Physiology, translated by Dr. Fromberg, p. 48 ; also, Pharm.
Central Blattfur lb'41,5*. MM.
  ' Ann. d. Chem. u. Pharm. Bd. Ii. S. 193, 1844 ; also, Pharm. Journal, vol. v. p. 42, 1846. 
86
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Fungi.
  It  is  probable that,  besides  a proteine body, the cells contain a  fatty, or oily substance.
Schlossberger states that he extracted a yellow oil from yeast by means of ether.
  3.  Ashes.—According to Schlossberger, the ashes of upper yeast amounted to 2.5; of lower
yeast, to  3.5 per cent.
  Physiological Effects.—The  effects of yeast on the  animal economy are, if
at all, not very obvious.   The constituent of the cell-walls is insoluble, and therefore
inert.   The contents of the cells may, perhaps, be slightly nutritive.  To the evolved
carbonic acid have been ascribed the topical antiseptic effects  of yeast.
  The  tonic and  laxative effects ascribed to  beer yeast, are  probably referable to
the fermented malt liquor in which the yeast-cells are usually contained and exhibited
(see  Wort).
  Uses.—Yeast is employed both for medicinal and chemical purposes.
  As a medicine,  yeast has been used both internally and externally.  Internally,
it has been administered as a tonic  and antiseptic in typhoid fevers.   Dr. Stoker1
states, that it usually acts as a mild laxative, improves the  condition  of the alvine
evacuations, and is more effectual in removing petechise and black tongue than any
other remedy.   It is admissible where cinchona and wine cannot be  employed, on
account of the inflammatory symptoms.  The dose of it is two tablespoonfuls every
third hour,  with an  equal  quantity of camphor mixture.  Enemata  of yeast and
assafoetida are said, by  the same writer, to be efficacious against typhoid tympany.
  Externally, it has been used in the form of poultice.    (See Cataplasma Fermenti.)
  Yeast is an important agent in panification and brewing.   In some cases of dys-
pepsia,  unfermented bread appears to agree better with the  stomach than fermented
bread, which is  supposed to derive an injurious quality from the yeast used in its
preparation.
  Yeast is sometimes added to liquids to excite the vinous fermentation, and thereby
to detect the presence of saccharine matter.
  L. Gmelin2 employed this test  to detect sugar in the animal fluids after the ingestion of amy-
laceous food.   Dr. Cliristison3 found it so delicate, that he could detect with it one part of sugar
in 1000 parts of healthy urine of the sp. gr. 1.030.  Messrs. Richard Phillips, Graham, and George
Phillips,4 used it to detect  the presence of saccharine matter  in tobacco adulterated with this
substance.  (For the mode of using this test, see Saccharum.)
  1.  CATAPLASMA FERMENTI, L.;  Cataplasma Fermenti Cerevisise; Yeast Poultice.—
(Yeast,  Water  heated  to 100°  F., of  each f Jv; Flour fbj.   Mix the yeast with
the water, and add the  flour,  stirring  so that a poultice may be  made.   Place  it
before the fire until it swells  up.)—It is applied, when cold, to fetid and sloughing
sores as an antiseptic and stimulant:  it destroys the fetor, often checks the slough-
ing,  and assists the separation of the dead part.   It  should  be renewed  twice or
thrice a day.   I have frequently heard patients complain of the great pain it causes.
The  carbonic acid is supposed to be the active ingredient.
  The following poultices are analogous in their nature and effects:—

  2. CATAPLASMA  FECiM CEREVISLE, Guy's Hospital  Ph.; Poultice of the grounds
of beer.—(Grounds of  beer; Oatmeal; as much of each as may be required to make
a poultice.)—It is applied cold twice or thrice a day, in the same cases as the  pre-
ceding preparation, to which its effects are analogous.
  This  poultice was formerly called5 the discutient cataplasm or cataplasma discu-
tiens, and was applied to disperse tumours.

  I CATAPLASMA  BYNES, Guy's  Hospital Ph.;  Malt-meal  and  Yeast  Poultice;
Malt Poultice.—(Malt-meal and Beer yeast;  as much  of each as may be  required
to make a poultice.)—This poultice is to be applied warm.
1 On Continued Fever, p  121, Dubl. 1829-30.
a Recherches Expirimentales sur la Digestion, Paris, 1826.
3 The Library of Practical Medicine, vol. iv. art. Diabetes, p. 249.
* Parliamentary Report.                      « Chirurgical Pharmacy, p. 279, Lond. 1761. 
Ergot-Mould :—History j  Botany.
87
   16.  OIDIUM  ABORTIFACIENS.—THE ERGOT-MOULD.

  History.—Phillipar,1 in  1837, recognized the joints  or sporidia of this fungus
on ergot.  Phoebus,3 in 1838, detected and figured these bodies, but did not consider
them to be of a fungic nature.   Mr. John Smith,3 of the Kew Garden, in November,
1838, recognized them on various ergotized grasses.   He considered them to be the
joints of a minute articulated  fungus, from whose action ergot resulted.  In De-
cember, 1838, the late Mr. E. J. Quekett4 gave an extended account of this fungus,
in a paper read  before the Linnean Society.   Mr. Quekett named the plant Ergot-
setia  abortans (E/yotsetia, from Ergot, and air la,, origin;  abortans, in allusion to
its destroying the germinating power of the grain of grasses, and  also to the medi-
cinal powers  of  ergot).  Subsequently, at my suggestion, he  substituted  the word
abortifaciens for abortans.
   Mr. Quekett at first5 considered this fungus to belong to the sub-order Hyphomy-
cetrs, tribe Mucedines; but after  his  paper had been read at the Linnean Society,
and was returned to him for correction, he was led to suppose that the fungus be-
longed to the sub-order Conlomycetes, tribe Sporidesmiei, because its sporidia were
produced  beneath the epidermis of the  grain.   Both Link8 and the Rev.  M. J.
Berkeley  consider the ergot-mould to  be a mucedinous fungus  belonging to the
genus  Oidium  (so  called from <l6v,  an  egg, and ttioc,  resemblance), and I have,
therefore, called it, at the suggestion of the last-named eminent fungologist, Oidium
abortifaciens.  Corda7 has recently referred it to the genus Hymenula, of the sub-
order Hymenophycetes, and names it Hymenula Clavus.
   Botany.   Gen. Char__Microscopic.   Threads white or brightly coloured, simple
or irregularly branched,  moniliform above, and breaking up into more or less ellip-
tical  spores.   (Berkeley in Lindl. Med. arid (Econ. Bot., p. 14, 1844.)

                                      Fig. 184.
                        Oidium (Ergotcetia) abortifaciens.

A, Sporidia.                                I, The fungus assuming a radiated form, and
B, C, E, F, G, II, different modes of reproduc-         beginning to develope sporidia upon its
     tinn in water.                              branches in water.
D, Membrane of sporidium laid open.
  1 Traiti Organogr. et Physiologico-agrir. sur VF.rgot, Versailles, 1837.
  1 Deutschl. kryptog. Giftgewnchse, Taf. ix. Berlin, 1838.
  3 Trans. Linn. Society, vol. xviii. p. 449.
  • Ibid., p. 453. An abridgment of this paper was published in the  Loud. Med. Gaz. vol. xxiii. p. 606,
Jan. 19, 18:10.
  * See the Lond. Med. Gaz. Jan. 19, 1639.
  • Report on the Progress of Physiological Botany in 1S41, published by the Ray Society, p. 91.
  ' />• i'rag  zur Kenntniss der Brandarten der Cerealien und des Mutterkorns, in  the Oekonomische
Xeuigkriten und Vtrhandlungen, No. 83, 1846:  a periodical publication.  I am indebted to the Rev. M.
J. Herkrlcy for the loan o( Corda's paper. A copy of Corda's figures, illustrating the structure of the ergot
of rye, and of the microscopic appearance of the fungus, will be given hereafter (see Secale Cornutum). 
 88                    VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Fungi.

   Sp. Char—Threads white, irregularly  branched;  spores abundant, elliptic, con-
 taining two nuclei (Berkeley).
   Mr. Quekett's description of the ergot-mould (called by him Ergotsetia  aborti-
facieiis) is as follows:  Sporidia elliptical, moniliform, finally separating, transparent,
 sometimes  slightly contracted  about their middle, usually containing one, two, or
 three, but occasionally as many as ten  or twelve well-defined greenish granules.
 They are, on the average, about l-4000th of an inch long, and l-6000th of an inch
 broad.   When placed on glass and moistened with water, they readily germinate or
 produce other plants,  though in various ways, as sometimes by emitting tubes (b),
 by the development of buds (c), and by the formation of septa across their interior
 (e, f, g,  h).
   Hab.—Floral envelopes, and ovaria of grasses: Europe, America.
   By the growth of these fungi upon or within the ovarium  of  grasses, a diseased
 condition of the ovarium, involving the whole of the embryo, and  sometimes par-
 tially or wholly the  albumen, is produced.  This disease, called  the ergot or spur,
 will be described hereafter (see Secale  Cornutum).   Mr. Quekett1 has  shown that
 the sporidia of this  fungus are capable of  infecting healthy grains  of corn, and  of
 ergotizing them.
   Properties.—The chemical properties and physiological  effects of this fungus
 are at present quite unknown.  We have yet to learn whether the peculiar properties
 of ergotized grasses  depend on the fungi, or on the morbid products of the ovarium.
Fig. 185.
                 Sub-order III.   Gasteromycetes, JEhdl.

   Characters —Sporidia free within a closed receptacle (peridium) collected together in the
centre, or  immersed and concrete, intermixed  with flocci, or contained in proper receptacles
(sporangia).

   17.  Elaphomyces granulatus, Fries.—Granulated  Elaphomyces.

   Lycoperdon cervinum, Linn.; Cervi Boletus, I. Bauh.;  Elaphomyces officinalis, Nees; Tuber cervi-
num,Nees; Boletus cervinus;  Harts Truffles;  Deer Balls.  Sold at Covent Garden Market, as
Lycoperdon nuts.  (Elaphomyces, from 'e\a<pic, a stag ; and piunc, a fungus.)   Rounded or oblong,
from half  an inch to two inches in  diameter, brown, papilloso verrucose, hard.   Peridium in-
ternally white.  Sporidia abundant, globular, black.—Indigenous.  Grows underground.
   A very complete analysis has  been made by Biltz2   The sporidia consisted of adi^Rgreeable
                                    odorous  volatile substance, soft  resin, 0.325; hard resin,
                                    0.052; red colouring  matter, uncrystallizable sugar, uiith
                                    fungic ozmazome, 2.708; gum, 2.083; inulin, 8.333; solu-
                                    ble albumen, a trace: fungin, red colouring and albuminous
                                    matter, soluble in potash; free  vegetable acid, vegetable
                                    salts of ammonia, potash, and lime, sulphate  and phosphate
                                    of lime, chloride of sodium, silica, manganese, and iron.
                                    The ashes amount to 1.25.  The peridium deprived of
                                    its warty coat consisted of yellow rancid, soft fat, 0.33;
                                   fungic ozmazome, with crystalline sugar, 12.000; gum,
                                    10.40; albumen, fungin. gummy and albuminous matter,
                                    soluble in potash; free vegetable acid, vegetable  salts of
                                    ammonia and  lime, phosphate and sulphate of lime.  The
                                    ashes amount to 1.1.  The warty coat contains yelbw,
                                    bitter fat, colouring matter, soluble in water and alkalies,
                                    but not in alcohol or ether;  bitter and other substances,
                                    but neither sugar nor inulin.  The capillitium contains
                                    sugar, but no inulin.
                                      Though still  retained in some of the  best modern
, .                                 works on medical botany published  on the continent,
this subterranean fungus is no longer used in medicine, at least in England.   A« however,  I
have met with it in the stock of a London herbalist, I presume at no very long period since'it
must have been in use. "It was formerly used by apothecaries for the preparation of the  bal-
      Elaphomyces granulatus.

a. The fruit with the mycelium (nat. size).
6. Vertical section of ditto.
c. Sporidia, with flocci of the capillitium
   (magnified).
1 Land. Med. Gaz. Oct. 8, 1841; and Trans, of the Linn. Society, vol  xix n  1T»
3 Trommsdorff's Neues Journ. d. Pharm. Bd. xi.                 '   '     ' 
Giant Puffball.—Common Truffle.
89
samus apoplecticus; and great power was ascribed to it in promoting parturition and the secretion
of milk.   Even now the country people in some places esteem it as an aphrodisiac, and prepare
from it a spirituous tincture."1   Parkinson2  says the dose  of it is one drachm and a half in
powder, taken with sweet wine, or with such other things as provoke  venery.


           18. Lycoperdon giganteum, Batsch.—Giant  Puffball.

   Ltco£f.rdow Bovista (Giganteum), Fries; Bovista gigantea, Nees.—Sold in the London herb
shops as the Common Puffball, or simply as Puffball.—They are the Fusseballs of Parkinson.—
In somewhat globular or obcotiical masses of variable size, sometimes one or two feet in diame-
ter, and usually of a more  or less yellow colour.   Peridium very brittle, bursting  in  areola?,
evanescent, at length broadly open.  Capillitium rare, evanescent together with the olive dingy-
brown sporidia.   This species, as well as Lycoperdon ccelatum of  Bulliard, has been used in me-
dicine under the  name of bovista, fungus chirurgorum, and crepitus lupi.   The spongy capillitium
with the sporidia has been employed for staunching blood:  thus it has been used as a  plug in
epistaxis, hemorrhage from the teeth, rectum, &c.   The spongy base  is employed as tinder.
The fumes of this fungus, when burnt, are said to possess  a narcotic  quality, and have  been
employed to stupefy bees.


                19.  Tuber cibarium, Sibth.—Common Truffle.

   Lycoperdon Tuber, Linn.; Tubera, Tourn.; Tubera sincera, Pliny, lib.xix. cap. 11.   Dr. Sib-
thorp (Fbrce Gr. Prodr. ii. 352) considers it to be the EiJvov of Diosc. lib. ii. cap. 175: its modern
Greek name being bfooe 8 Uvoc: but Fries, while he admits, on the authority of Sprengel, that it is
the i!Jw of Theophrastus (Hist. PI. lib. i. cap. 9), says it is certainly not the vfoov of Dioscorides.3
   The truffle of  the markets occurs in rough, rounded nodules, varying in size from a filbert to
the  fist, cracked  into  small subpyramidal warts.   Internally, it is  marbled or  veined.  The
white  portions are filamentous, and  are  regarded by the Rev. M. J. Berkeley as  constituting a
sort of mycelium to the darker portions, which he calls the veins: the  latter are cellular, and
contain many subovate, shortly pedicellated sporangia, at first filled with a granular mass, which
is ultimately collected into one or two globular, yellowish echinulate sporidia.

                                         Fig. 186.
A truffle (natural size) from which a           A section of a truffle (magnified).
  slice has been cut to expose the inter-           a a. Cells.
  nal structure.                               b b c. Pedicellated peridiola or sporangia
                                             containing sporidia.
                                            d. A sporidium (or spore) more highly
                                             magnified.
   In France, three varieties of truffle are known :4 the truffle de Perigord with black  flesh; the
truffle de Bourgogne with white flesh; and a third sort with violet flesh.  The first is the most
esteemed, on account of its odour and tenderness.
   This fungus grows several inches below the surface of the ground in several parts of Eng-
land.   Covent Garden market is chiefly supplied from the downs of Wiltshire, Hampshire, and
Kent.   Its odour is peculiar and penetrating, by which its presence is detected.  In this country
it is usually hunted by dogs trained for the purpose: in  Italy, by pigs.
  Riegel8 analyzed the dried Perigord truffles, and found them to consist  of a brown fat oil (olein)
with traces of volatile oil, an  acrid resin, osmazome, mushroom sugar, nitrogenous matter  insoluble
  1 Gleditsch, quoted by Nees v. Esenbeck and Ebermaier, Handb. d. med. pharm. Botanik, Bd. i. S. 28,
1832.
  a Theatrum Botanicum. n. 1320, 1640.                3 Systema Mycologicum, vol. ii. p. 290, 1822.
  4 Merat and De Lens, Dirt. Univ. de Mat. Mid. t. vi. "S3.
  * Pharmaceutisches Central-Blatt fur 1814, p. 17; also, Chem. Gaz. vol. ii. p. 137. 
90
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Fungi.
in alcohol, fungic acid, boletic acid, phosphoric acid, potash, ammonia, vegetable mucus, vegetable albu-
men, pecline, and fungine (fungic skeleton).
  Truffles are a  highly esteemed luxury at the table, being  used as a seasoning or flavoring
ingredient for ragouts, sauces, stuffings, &c.  They are considered to possess  aphrodisiac pro-
perties; and an Italian physician essayed to prove  that births were more numerous in those
years which correspond to the more abundant production of truffles!
                      Sub-order IV.   Pyrenomycetes.

  Characters.-^-Perithelium indurated, at first closed up, then perforated by a pore or irregular
laceration, inclosing a softer nucleus.  Sporidia immersed  in mucus, or inclosed in asci, which
are attached by their base.


                          20. Spha^ria Sinensis, Berk.

  Hia Tsao Tom Tchom, Reaumur, Mem. de  l'Acad. des Sc.  1726, p. 302. tab 16 ; Hia  Tsao Tong
Tchong, Du Halde, Descr. Geogr. et Hist, de la Chine, vol. iii. p. 490, 1770; Totsu Kaso, Thun-
berg, Travels in  Europe, Asia, &c. between  1770  and 1779, vol. iii. p. 68;  Hiastaotomtrhom,
Rees's Cyclop.;  Tong  Chong Ha Cho, Reeves; Summer Plant-Winter  Worm,  Pereira, Pharm,
Journ. vol. ii. p. 590, 1843; Hea Tsaou Taong Chung, Westwood, Ann. of Nat. Hist. vol. viii. p.
217;  Spharia Sinensis, Rev. M. J. Berkeley, in Hooker's Lond. Journ. of Botany, vol. ii. p. 207,
1843.
  This remarkable production is a highly esteemed  article of the Chinese Materia Medica. It
consists of a caterpillar or larva of a lepidopterous insect (probably  a species of Agrotis), from
whose neck projects  the fungus, called by the Rev. M. J. Berkeley, Sphceria Sinensis.
  Sph^ria, Fries.  Perithecia rounded  entire, furnished at the apex with  a minute orifice.
Asci converging, at length dissolving.
  S Sinensis, Berkeley.  Brown; stem cylindrical, somewhat thicker downwards; head cylin-
drical, confluent with the stem, pointleted.

                                       Fig.  187.
Fig. 188.
                   Sphceria Sinensis.
Fig. 187, Isolated individual.              Fig. 188, Bundle.
                    (Natural size.)
  Du Halde says that it is produced in Thibet, and also on the frontiers of the  province of
Se-tchuen, which borders on Thibet, or Laza.  It is brought to Canton in bundles  tied up in
silk (see Fig. 188):  each bundle containing about one dozen individuals.
  Each individual  (see  Fig. 187) is about  three inches long, half being the caterpillar; the
other half projecting from the back of the neck is the^ club shaped fungus, attached by slender
filaments, which  spread over the surface of the larva.  The substance of the caterpillar is  re-
placed by a mass of fine branched threads, mixed with globules of oil.   In none of the speci-
mens examined by  Mr. Berkeley were the perithecia developed.
  In  China, it is reputed as a  strengthening and renovating substance, and is supposed to pos<
sess properties similar to those  ascribed to ginseng.   It  is recommended in  cases where the
powers of the system have been reduced by overexertion or  sickness.  But on account of its
scarcity it is only used in the palace of the Emperor. 
Jew's Ear;  Common Morell; Larch Agaric.              91
  The mode of employing it is curious.   The belly of a duck is to be stuffed with five drachms
of this fungus, and the animal roasted by a slow fire.  The virtue'of the fungus is supposed to
pass into the flesh of the animal, which is to be eaten twice daily for eight or ten days!


                      Sub-order V.   Hymenomycetes.

   Characters.—Spores  generally quaternate on  distinct sporophores (basidia).  Hymenium,
naked.


               21. Exidia Auricula Judae,  Fries.—Jew's Ear.

   Tremella Auricula Juda, Linn.; Peziza Auricula, Linn.  This fungus grows on living trees,
especially the elder;  whence its name fungus sambuci, vel sambucinus.  It  is still professed to
be kept in the London herb-shops; but in  its place, I  find that Polyporus versicolor, Fries, is
usually  sold  for it.  Dr.  Martiny1 states that other species—namely, Polyporus adustus. Fries,
Polyporus zonatus, Fries (especially when this is strongly dried and half charred), and Dcedalea
unicolor, Fries, are substituted for  the genuine plant.  All these adulterations  or substitutions
may be readily detected by immersing the dried fungus in water: the genuine Exidia Auricula
Juda; softens and swells  up so as  to resume its natural gelatinous condition, whereas the others
do not soften in water.  It was formerly in repute as a topical astringent  and  discutient; and
was employed in the form of decoction  or  infusion (made with water, rose-water, vinegar, or
milk), and cataplasm made with  milk  and water.  It  has been used in sore-throat, sore-eyes,
and deafness.2  On account of its  absorbing and retaining liquids, it has been soaked in collyria
and applied to the eyes, as a  substitute for sponge.


            22. Morchella esculenta, Linn.—Common Morell.

   Phallus esculentus, Linn; Helvetia esculenta, Sowerby;  Fungus faginosus, Lobel., Gerarde, Par-
kinson; Merulius,3. Bauh. Hist. PI.
   This  fungus is sold at  the  Italian warehouses, and at Covent Garden Market, in the dried
and shrivelled state;  and though  a native of this country, is usually imported  from the Conti-
nent.  In the fresh state it is from 2 to 5 inches high, and hollow (see Fig. 189).  The stem is
white, from  I to 3 inches long, £ to 1 inch  in diameter.  The pileus, which is  confluent with
the stem, varies in size from  that of a pigeon's egg to that of a swan's egg; is deeply pitted or
formed in irregular areola?, divided by anastomosing ribs, and varies in colour from a pale yel-
lowish  brown to olivaceous and smoke  gray.  The hymenium covers the whole pileus.  The
thecce usually contain five globular spores.
   The  Morell is a highly-esteemed  luxury at table.   It usually enters into ragouts or other
dishes; but  is sometimes cooked by itself, being either stewed, or stuffed and dressed between
thin slices of bacon.  Though considered to possess nutritive qualities.it  is employed at the
table as a flavouring ingredient.   Virey3 enumerates it  among aphrodisiacs.


             23. Polyporus officinalis,  Frits.—Larch Agaric.

   Synonymes.—Boletus  Laricis,  Jacq., Misc.  ii. p. 164; Ph.  "Boruss.   Boletus
purgans, Pers. Syn. p. 531.   Boletus officinalis, Villars Delph. p. 1041.  Polyporus
Laricis, ltoques.
   History.—This fungus was used by the ancients.   It is described by Dioscori-
des4  under the name of 'AyajnxoV.  In the modern Greek Pharmacopoeia, it is termed
'Ayaptxbv tbxtvxov,  its Turkish name being Katpov pavtaoi.
   Botany.   Gen.  Char.—Hymenium concrete, with the  substance of the pileus,
consisting  of subrotund pores with their simple dissepiments.  (Berkeley.)
   Sp. Char.—Pileus corky-fleshy, ungulate, zoned, smooth. Pores yellowish (Fries).
   Hab.—South of Europe and Asia, on the Larch.
   Commerce.—The  best agaric is brought from  Asia and Carinthia.   A small
and inferior kind is collected  in Dauphine.  I was informed by the late Mr. Butler,
of Covent Garden  Market, that  the London shops were  supplied from Germany.

  1 Eneyklop. d. Naturalien u. Rohrwaarenk, Bd. i. S. 911, 1843.
  1 For further details respecting it,  consult Alston's Led. on the Mat. Medica, vol. i. p. 351, 1770: and
Murray. App. Medicaminum, vol. v.  p. 5S3.
  ' Bull, de Pharm. t. v. p. 801,1&13.                                       *  Lib. iSi. cap, j. 
92
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Fungi.
Levant Agaric (an inferior sort of which is known  at  Marseilles  by the name of
cucumule)  is  exported from  Smyrna.   The Russian larch agaric, exported from
Archangel, is the product of Larix sibirica
        Morckella esculenta.
1. Morchella esculenta (nat. size).
2. A section of ditto.
3. Thecae and sporules magnified.
   Collection.—It is collected in the months of August  and September, decorti-
cated, dried, and bleached in the sun.  Martiny states that it is beaten with wooden,
hammers to make it soft.   But that which I have found in English commerce has
neither been decorticated nor beaten.
   Description.—This fungus is still kept in the herb-shops, being sold under the
name of agaric, white agaric (agaricus  albus), or larch or female agaric (fungui
laricis).  It occurs in masses, varying  in size from that of the fist to that of a
child's head.   The most usual shape which I have found is that  of  a horse's hoof,
or of half a cone (divided by  a plane passing through both  the apex  and the base).3
Externally, it is yellowish or reddish gray; internally, it  is white.   It has a very
feeble odour, and a bitter acrid taste.  It is liable to be  attacked by a beetle, the
Anobium festivum, Panz.
   Composition.—It  has been analyzed by Bouillon-La-Grange j8 by Bucholz;4 by
Braconnot,5 and by Bley.6
   The constituents, according to Bley, are resin, 33.1; extractive, 2; gum and bitter
extractive, 8.3; vegetable albumen, 0.7;  wax, 0.2; fungic acids,  0.13; boktic acid)
0.06; tartaric and phosphoric acids, 1.354;  potash, 0.329; lime, 0.16; ammonia
and sulphur, traces.  The following substances were obtained by  the  action of caus-
tic potash and hydrochloric acid: coagulated albumen, 0.4;  artificial gum, 15.5;

  1 Martius, in Buchner's Repertorium, N. S. Bd. xli. S. 92, 1846.
  3 The specimen from which  Fig. 190 was  taken was kindly lent me by the Rev. M. J. Berkeley. I
have had it represented as growing on the stem of a tree.
  3 Ann. de Chimie, t. Ii. p. 76, 1808; also, Thomson's Chemistry of Organic Bodies—Vegetables, p. 939,
1836.
  4 Berlin, Jahrbuchfur 1808, p. 111.                      « Bull, de Pharm. t. iv. p. 304, 1812.
  * Trommsdorff's N. Journ. .Bd. xxv. S. 119, 1832; Martiny, Encyklop. d. Natur. S. 909.
Fig. 190.
       Polyporus officinalis.
(Represented as growing on the stem of 
Hard Amadou Polyporus;  Real Amadou;  Mushroom.
93
artificial rrsin, soluble in ether, 9.5; residual fibre called fungine (cellulose), 15;
moisture, 11, and loss, 2.367 = 100.000.
   The active principle of agaric has been usually said  to  reside  in the resin; but
Martius1 states that it is a peculiar substance, which he  proposes to call laricin.
This is a white amorphous powder, possessing a bitter taste, soluble in alcohol and
oil of turpentine, and forming with boiling water a paste.   It has been analyzed by
Dr. Will,  who found that its formula was C^H^O.
   The resin of agaric possesses purgative qualities, and was formerly  employed for
the adulteration of jalap resin.9   It probably contains laricin.
   Effects.—Larch agaric is an acrid substance.   Its  dust irritates  the eyes, and
causes sneezing, cough, and nausea.  When  swallowed in the dose of  a drachm or
two, this fungus excites nausea,  vomiting, griping, and purging, and is  said to check
sweating.
   Uses.—It has been employed internally as  an emetic, cathartic, discutient, and
to check  colliquative  sweating:  externally, as an  astringent.  De  Haen reported
favourably of it  as an  anti-sudorific in phthisis, and Barbut confirms his statements.
Favourable reports of it were also made by Toel, Neumann, Kopp, Burdach, Andral,
and others.   Subsequently, however, Andral has expressed an opinion that little
benefit is  to be derived from it.
   Administration.—The dose of it  is from 5ss to 5j as a purgative; and from
grs. iij to grs. viij, taken before going to sleep, to check sweating.3


      24. Polyporus  igniarius, Fries.—Hard Amadou Polyporus.
   Boletus igniarius, Linn.—An indigenous fungus found on willow,cherry, plum, and other trees,
and commonly known by the names of Agaric of the  Oak (Agaricus seu Fungus Quercus ; Aga-
ricus Quernus), or Surgeon's Agaric (Agaricus Chirurgorum); Spunk ; Touchwood.  Formerly used
in surgery as a  mechanical  styptic,  and still retained in some  foreign pharmacopoeias  (e.g.
Pharm. Castrenis Ruthenica, 1840).  It is prepared by decorticating it, cutting it  into thin slices,
and beating it with a mallet until  it has become sufficiently soft.   Its action in restraining he-
morrhages is mechanical, like lint.4  In some places, both it and the following species  are  em-
ployed in the preparation of Amadou or tinder.


            25.  Polyporus fomentarius, Fries.—Real Amadou.
   Boletus fomentarius, Linn.—Another indigenous  fungus, found on the oak, birch, and other
trees.  Its  uses  are similar to the preceding, and it mii<ht, with more propriety,be called Agaric
of the Oak, or Surgeon's Agaric. The substance sold in the shops as Amadou, or German tinder,
is prepared from this, as well as the preceding species, by cutting the fungus in slices, beating
it, and then soaking it in a solution of nitre, and afterwards drying it.   When impregnated with
gunpowder it is called black amadou.  Amadou, or German tinder, has been recommended by
Mr. Wetherheld5 as an elastic medium for applying support and pressure, and as a defence to
tender and delicate parts; as in the  form of a graduated compress, in umbilical hernia of new-
born infants, and as a compress over fistulous ulcers of the groin.  It does not lose its elasticity,
like lint.

               26.  Agaricus campestris,  Linn.—Mushroom.
   Agaricus edulis,  Roques.—Fries6 considers  this species to be  the fxvutic eitahfxoc of Dioscorides
(lib. i. cap. 109);  the Fungi qui rubent callo of Pliny (Hist.  Nat.  lib. xxii. cap. 47).  Ma.ma.pt
hodie Gr. Sibth.
   Aoakicus, Linn.  Hymenium consistingof plates radiating from a common centre, with shorter
ones in the interstices, composed of  a double closely connected membrane, more or less distinct
from the pileus.  Veil various or absent.—Named from Agaria, a region of Sarmatia (Berkeley).
  1 Buchner's Repertorium, Bd. xli. S. 93, 1846.
  9 Jacqnin, Diss, de Anarico Offic, Vind. 1778 (Richter's Arzneimittellehre, Bd. ii. S. 275).
  ' For further details respecting its medical uses, see Murray, App. Med. vol. v. p. 573; Riecke, die
neuern Arzneimitt.; and Duuglison, New Remedies; and, for formulae for its preparation, see Jourdan's
PharmacovH  L'niverselle.
  ' Phil. Trans, vols, xlviii. and xlix.; Warner's Cases in Surgery, p. 338 ; Murray, App. Medicam.vo\.v.
  » Lond. Med. Gaz. Nov. 26, 1841, p. 337.              Systema Mycologicum, vol. i. p. 281, 1821. 
- 94
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Fungi.
Fig. 191.
   A. campestris, Linn.; pileus  fleshy,  dry, subsquamose  or silky, gills  pink  free ventricose,at
 length brown, stem stuffed, furnished with a ring  white (Berkeley).
   Pileus or caps 2-5 inches broad, at first convex, then plano-convex, white or light brown, silky
 or clothed with reddish brown adpressed fibrillae  collected  into little fascicles; epidermis easily
 peeled off, projecting beyond the  gills, and  often  curled back, fleshy ; flesh firm, thick, white,
 more or less stained with reddish brown, especially when bruised.   Gills very unequal, at first
                                         of a beautiful pink, free,  obtuse,  and  sometimes
                                         forked behind, broad in the  middle; at length dark,
                                         mottled with  brownish purple; the edge  white, and
                                         minutely denticulate   Spores  minute, elliptical, pur-
                                         plish brown immediately supported on spicules (sterig-
                                         mata)  which surmount the  sporophores  (basidia).
                                         Root consisting of branched  fibres (mycelia).  When
                                         quite  young,  there  is  a  fine silky universal veil
                                         (Berkeley, with additions).
                                            If the pileus be cut through, the fleshy part  soon
                                         turns pink, and drops of pink juice may be squeezed
                                         out of it if young;  but if old, the cut part,  as well
                                         as the juice, is rather inclining to brown,  but the
                                         Agaricus  Georgii turns yellow.  The whole plant is
                                         rather brittle, and has a fine scent peculiar to itself
                                         (/. Sower by, Jun.).
                                            The mushroom is artificially produced either with
                                         or without  spawn.   Mushroom spawn is  the name
                                         given by gardeners to the white, branching, cottony
 fibres (mycelia), which form the so-called root of the mushroom, and upon which,  at short inter-
 vals, are many very small round buds (the infant  state of the plant).   This spawn is collected
 and saved by gardeners, and at the commencement of autumn is planted on beds of dung,and
 covered with straw:  in  about two months the  mushrooms  come up,  and rapidly increase.
Mixed with  dung, and made up into rectangular cakes, it forms what are called spawn cakes or
spawn-bricks.   These are  sold at Covent Garden Market,  and are  planted in beds.
  Mushrooms are also propagated  without spawn.   The principal ingredient employed in pre-
 paring the compost used for this purpose is horse-droppings.2   " The artificial production of this
species without the aid of spawn," says the Rev. M.J. Berkeley,3 " has  been  frequently brought
Section of one of the gills of A. campestris.
a a a. Sporophores  surmounted  by spicules
       bearing  spores.  Link1 terms these
       bodies small tubes with stalked gra-
       nules (antheridia).
6 6 5. Small tubes with transverse septa.  Ac-
       cording to Link they become spores.
e c. The central vesicular tissue.
Fig.  192.
A. Agaricus campestris.
a  Button.
b. Ditto;  the annulus splitting from pileus.
B. A. campestris (flap or full grown Mush-
       room).
C. A. Georgii.
1 Icones Selects: Anatomico-Botaniccr, Fasc. iii. Berlin, 1811.
3 See Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Gardening.
English Flora, vol. v. part ii. p. 107. 
Mushroom ;  Champignon.
95
forward as an argument for the equivocal generation of fungi.  But when it is considered how
many millions of these sporules must be devoured together with  the herbage  by the animal,
whose dung is a principal material in the compost, much of the force of this argument vanishes."
  The young mushroom is gathered while the margin of the pileus is connected with the stalk
by the veil, and at this period it is commonly called the button mushroom (Fig. 192, A a).  The
mature mushrooms are collected and sold  as full grown or flap mushrooms (Fig. 192, B).  Dr.
Badham1 mentions a very large variety commonly called by peasants the ox-mushroom.
  The mushroom was analyzed by Vauquelin,2 who found in it a brownred fat, a spermaceti-like
fat, mushroom sugar, peculiar animal matter,  ozmazome, albumen, fungine [cellulose], acetate of
potash, and other salts.
  This species is esculent, and in general wholesome; but it is employed at table for its savory,
rather than for its nutritive qualities.  At times it proves indigestible and unwholesome; occa-
sionally, perhaps, from some peculiarity in  the quality of the mushroom, or from the mode of
cooking it; but frequently from idiosyncrasy on the part of the sufferer.  The particular circum-
stances, however, which render  it unwholesome, are very obscure.   Its use should be avoided
by dyspeptics, by persons liable to pruriginous, exanthematous,  and scaly diseases of the  skin,
and by those who have a highly susceptible nervous system.
  The juice  of the mushroom, flavoured with  salt and aromatics, constitutes the sauce called
ketchup (a word said to be derived from the Japanese kit-jap), which, though in common use at
table, rarely  produces any unpleasant effects when used in  small quantities.
   Agaricus Georgii, Withering.—This species, called St.  George's Mushroom, because it grows
up  about St. George's day (April  23d), is said by the Rev. Mr. Berkeley to be frequently sold in
London under the name of White Caps.  But I have inquired  for it by this name among the
dealers in Covent Garden Market, but cannot meet with any one acquainted with it (Fig. 192.C).
   It is larger than the common mushroom (A. campestris), which it resembles in shape.  When
bruised it soon turns yellow, and by this character may be readily distinguished from the com-
mon mushroom, which turns pink when cut.  Its smell is  strong and unpleasant.  It contains
but little juice, and that of a yellow colour, and is, therefore, not adapted for making ketchup.
   Though not poisonous, it is less wholesome than the preceding species, and is usually rejected
by housekeepers.  It is very tough, and difficult of digestion.


                27.  Agaricus oreades, Bolton.—Champignon.

  Agaricus oreades, Withering, Brit. Pi., vol. iv.; A. pratensis, J. Sowerby, Eng. Fungi; J. Sowerby,
Jun.   The Mushroom and Champignon illustrated; A. PseudoMousseron, Bulliard; Fairy Rhtg
Agaric;  Scotch Bonnets.—This indigenous plant occurs in pastures, and is one  of several  fungi
which grow  in circles forming what have been termed Fairy-rings.  It is commonly sold in the
shops for use at table, and is liable   to be mistaken for several other species of Agaricus, viz.:
A. dealbatus, dryophilus, semiglobatus, and fcenisecii.  Of these, A.dealbatus is the only one which,
like the  true champignon, forms " fairy-rings."


                                         Fig. 193.
                                Agatici.3
 a 6. A. oreades          / g h. A. dryophilus.           I m. A. Facnisecii.
e d e. A. dealbatus.           t fe. A. semiglobatus.
  1 Treatise on Esculent Funguses, p. 8o, 1847.               a Ann. de Chimir. lxxxv. 5, 1813.
  • In the above cut, the figures marked a and 6 are from Mr. J. Sowerby, Jr.'s " Mushroom and Cham-
pignon Illustrated;" the others, from Mrs. Hussey's Illustrations of British Mycology, part xiii. pi.
xxxix. 181b. 
96
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Fungi.
  The fungus varies in colour from a pale to a deep buff" or nankeen colour.  The stem is 1 or
2 inches high, and 2 or 3 lines thick, round, solid, often slightly twisted, readily splitting longi-
tudinally into silky fibres, and is of the same colour as the gills.   The pileus or cap is from $ to
1 inch in diameter, irregularly round, convex, most elevated in the centre, tough and coriaceous.
The gills free, distant, waved at the edges, often lacerated, paler than the pileus.  •'If the pileus
be cut through (Fig  193, 6) the gills will not be found  to separate from it, but the fleshy part
runs down the middle of each gill, which is covered by the continuation  of the same buff-
coloured coat that lines the under surface of the  pileus between the gills—a structure widely
different from the poisonous one [Ag. semiglobatus']^1   Taste and odour agreeable.
  A. dealbatus, Sowerby (Fig. 193, c. d e) is distinguished from the champignon by the margin
of the pileus being at first  rolled inwards, by its very fine dingy whitish gills, by its becoming gray-
brown in zones when soaked in  water, and by its disagreeable odour.  This species, according to
Mrs. Hussey, resembles the champignon  more than any other;  and like  it also  grows in fairy-
rings.
  A. skmi-gloratus, Batsch. (Fig. 193, i k); the A. virosus of Sowerby is distinguished from
the champignon by its  dark-coloured gills, its holloto stem, and  shining glutinous pileus.   When
young, this species has an  annulus or ring, but this commonly disappears when the plant has
attained its full size.
  A. Fjenisecii, Persoon  (Fig. 193, I m), is distinguished from the  champignon  by  its dark-
coloured gills, its hollow stem, and its umber-purple spores.
  A. dryophilus, Bulliard (Fig.  193, f g h). is  distinguished from the  champignon by its fint
close gills, its hollow stem, and its reddened  swollen base.
  Like  the Agaricus campestris, or mushroom, the A. oreades, or Champignon, is used at table
on account of its savory qualities, and not for its nutritive  power, which is probably very slight.
         28. Fungi venenati.—Poisonous Fungi;  Toadstools.

  Many fungi are poisonous, and a still larger number frequently prove indigestible and un-
wholesome.  The same species which may be taken with impunity by one individual will
excite in another various inconveniences, such as nausea, vomiting, griping, diarrhoea, &c.  Dys-
pepsia, and a highly susceptible condition of the nervous system, such as that called the hysterical
constitution, dispose  to  those ill  effects, which,  in other cases, are ascribed  to idiosyncrasy of
constitution.
  It must be obvious from these remarks that there can be no absolute anatomical characters
by which the unwholesome can be distinguished  from  the wholesome species;  the  effects
greatly depending on the constitution of the  eater, or on some other insufficiently determined
circumstances.   An  illustrative fact of the truth of this statement has been adduced in the case
of a French officer and his wife, who died  in consequence of breakfasting off some poisonous
                                 Agarics, which were nevertheless eaten by other persons in
                                 the  house with impunity.   These, and other circumstances,
                                 have led to  a general distrust of  all fungi, except the culti-
                                 vated ones; and so strongly was the late accomplished botanist,
                                 Professor L. C. Richard,  impressed with  this feeling, that,
                                 though no one was better acquainted with the distinctions of
                                 Fungi than he was, yet  he would never eat any except such
                                 as had been  raised in gardens in mushroom beds.
                                    Of the genus Agaricus, all those species  which belong to
                                 the subgenus Amanita are either actually poisonous or highly
                                 suspicious.   The characters of this  subgenus are thus laid
                                 down by the Rev. M. J. Berkeley:—
                                    Amanita  (a name  given to some esculent  Fungus  by
                                 Galen).  Veil double: one universal, covering the whole plant
                                 in a young state, distinct from the epidermis, at length burst
                                 by the protrusion  of the pileus, part remaining at the baseof
                                 the  stem, part either  falling off, or forming worts  on the
                                 pileus; the other partial, at first covering the gills, and after-
                                 wards forming a reflected subpersistentringon the topof the
                                 stipes.  Stem puffed, at length  hollow, squamoso fibril lose,
                                 thickened at  the base.  PiVeuswith the disk fleshy, the margin
                                 thin, campanulate, then plane;  viscid, when saturated with
                                 moisture.  Gills attenuated behind, free, broader in front, ven-
                                 tricose,close, but little unequal; when full-grown,denticulated.
  One of the most  remarkable species of this  subgenus  is the  Agaricus muscarius Linn.
(Amanita muscaria,  Greville),  the remarkable effects and uses of which have been  already
noticed (see ante, vol. i. p. 152).
Agaricus muscarius.
1 Sowerby, Jr., The Mushroom and Champignon Illustrated. 
Acrogens :—Ferns.
97
  The Russians, who eat no less than sixteen species of agaricus,1 never employ any belonging
to the subgenus Amanita.2
  Besides the species of the subgenus Amanita, many other Agarici are poisonous or suspicious.
  The symptoms produced by poisonous fungi  are  those indicating  gastro-intestinal  irritation
(nausea, vomiting, purging and abdominal pain), and a disordered  condition  of the  nervous
system  (delirium, stupor, blindness, convulsions, muscular debility, paralysis, and  drowsiness).
In some cases, the power of the vascular system is remarkably depressed, the pulse being small
and feeble, the extremities cold, and the body covered with a cold sweat.  At  one time, local
irritation only; at another, narcotism alone is produced.3
  In some cases the active principle of poisonous fungi seems to be a volatile acrid principle; in
other instances it is a brown, uncrystallizable solid, called by Letellier amanitin.
  No specific antidote is  known.   The  first object, therefore, is to expel the  poison from the
stomach and bowels.  The subsequent treatment will depend on the  nature of the symptoms
which manifest themselves, and must be conducted on general principles.4


            Class II.  Acrogenae, Ad. Bwgniart.—Acrogens
     Psf.udocottledones, Agardh; Hetehonemes, Fries; Acrobrta, Mohl, Endlicher.
  Characters.—Substance of the plant  composed of cellular tissue chiefly, and, in the higher
forms, of vessels.   Cuticle bearing stomata or breathing pores.  Stem and leaves distinguishable.
Opposition of stem and root.  Stem growing at the point only
  This class includes a number of Orders, of  which two only (viz. Lycopodiacea and Filices)
need be here noticed as yielding anything useful in medicine.
Order IV.   FILICES, Juss.—FERNS.
                  Filicales, Lindley.
   Character.—Herbaceous plants with
 a perennial rhizome, more rarely having
 an  erect arborescent trunk  [when they
 are called tree ferns, filices arboreae.; Fig.
 195];  trunk coated, of a  prosenchyma-
 tous structure, with the  entire cylinder
 of woody fasciculi divided into two con-
 centric parts, the one narrow, placed be-
 tween the bark and the wood ; the other
 larger, central, medullary, sending fasci-
 culi of vessels towards the petioles, and
 communicating with  the  exterior  by
 means of chinks in the woody cylinder.
 Leaves [frondes] scattered upon the rhi-
 zome or rosaceo-fasciculate on the apex
 of the caudex, with circinate  vernation,
 annual or perennial, the base of the  pe-
 tioles persistent, growing to  the caudex ;
 simple or pinnate, entire or pinnatifid,
 [equal-]  veined (the veins composed of
 elongated cells), frequently having cuti-
 cular stomata.   Sporangia [theca], placed
 on  the veins of the back or margin of
 the  leaves, collected  in  little  naked
 heaps  [sori], or covered with  a mem-
 branous  scale  [indusium], or transmuted
 margin of the  leaf, pedicellate  [with the
 stalk (seta), passing round them in the
 form of  an elastic  ring  (annulia)], or
 sessile, unilocular, indefinitely dehiscent.
 Spores  [sporules] numerous, free, globose,
or   angular, in  germination   at  first
Fig.  195.
Cyathea gtauea (a tree fern).
  ' For some remarks on the Fungi used as food by the Russians, see Lyall's Character of the Russian*
and a detached History of Moscow, p. 55ft, Load. 1823.
  J Dr. Lefevre. Lond. Med. Gaz. xxiii.414.
  • For illustrations of the effects of particular species, consult Phcebus, Deutschl. kryptog. Giffewatkse
1838^ and Letellier, Journ.de Pharm. Aont. 1837.                                   "Viaeu>cmiue,
  4 tor further information respecting poisonous fungi, consult Chrisli»on.Ts Tveatise on Poisons.
VOL. II—t 
98
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Filices.
 elongated in every direction, throwing  out  radicles downwards, and  the cauliculus  upward
 (Endlicher).
   Properties.—The leaves are mucilaginous, and frequently slightly astringent and aromatic,
 The rhizomes contain starch, saccharine matter and gum, usually tannic and gallic acids, with more
 or less bitter matter, and  sometimes both fixed and volatile oils, resin.   They are considered to
 possess astringent and tonic properties, and in some cases act as vermifuges.
   From the tuberous rhizomes of fern is obtained, in  some of the Polynesian islands, as well
 as in some other parts of the world, a farinaceous or ligneous matter, which is  employed by the
 natives as a nutritive substance.  The rhizomes are cooked by baking or roasting.   In  general,
 however, they are only resorted to in  times of scarcity, when  other and  more palatable food
 cannot be obtained.1
   Several ferns have been  used in medicine. Those which I  shall particularly notice are  Ne-
phrodium Filix mas, still  retained in the British pharmacopoeias, and used as a vermifuge, and
 Adiantum or Maidenhair, a  syrup of which, or a substitute  for it, is still found in the shops under
 the name of capillaire.
   Ruiz2 has written a memoir on three  fern roots  sent from Peru, in South America, to Spain,
 under the name of Calaguala  (more correctly  Ccallahuala,  from  ccallua, a batten or trowel,
 and hualas, a boy, i.e. a boy's batten).   The first, or the genuine Calaguala, or Ccallahuala,or
 slender  Calaguala,  is  the  rhizome  of Polypodium  Calaguala, Ruiz;  the second,  called
thick Calaguala, Puntu-puntu, and sometimes Deer's tongue (Lengua de Ciervo), is the rhizome
of Polypodium crassifolium,  Linn.; and the third, termed middling Calaguala, the little  cord (Cor-
doncillo), or Huacsaro, is the rhizome  of Acrostichum Huacsaro, Ruiz.  The first  is the  species
which should be used in medicine: as, however, it is  unknown  in English commerce, I  need
not describe it.   Professor Guibourt3 has figured three sorts of the rhizome, but states that,  judg-
ing from Ruiz's description, he  has  not  seen the true  Calaguala.  He  once found the Maltese
fungus (Cynomorium coccineum) in some Calaguala which he received from Marseilles.  Calaguala
has been analyzed by Vauquelin 4   This rhizome is regarded in Peru as possessing deobstruent,
sudorific, diuretic, anti-venereal, and febrifuge virtues;  and  it  is  frequently used  to thin the
blood, to promote perspiration, and to mitigate rheumatic  and venereal pains.   It is commonly
administered in the form of decoction, prepared by boiling one ounce of the fresh  root in six
pints  of water to three pints.  This decoction is taken  ad libitum as a kind of  diet drink.
 29.  NEPHRODIUM FILIX  MAS, ifoW.-MALE  SHIELD
                                     FERN.
                           Sex. Syst.  Cryptogamia, Filices.
                                     (Rhizoma.)
Synonymes.—Poli/podium Filix mas, Linn.;  Aspidium Filix mas, Swartz.
History.—Fern-root was employed by the ancients in  medicine.   Theophrastus5

                                      Fig. 196.
A. Pinnule with nine sori fa).
B. Magnified portion of pinnule with the spo-
     rangia, a. Stomata.  b b. Sporangia par-
     tially covered by c. the indusium.
Nephrodium Filtx mas.
Stalk, b. Ring.
C. Magnified sporangium.
     c. Membranous sac.
D. Ruptured sporangium, with the spores es-
     caping.
   Ellis, Polynesian Researches, vol. i-^363^^^^arrath-e^a Whaling Voyage, vol. ii. p.

                                 is) is
being cooked a whole night in a native oven.'
1840.—Dieffenbach (Travels in New Zealand, vol. ii. 1643) aav«  tint th. u
- Memoria sobre la legitima Calaguala y otras dos rairet n-ur m*, .1 .«,.-.«.. _ _i            j i.


2 Hist. Nat. des Drogues simpl. t. ii. p. 87, 4me. ed. 1849                4  •„„  n,.  .  L  ,     ~,
• Hist. Plant, lib. is! cap. xx. and xxii.                               Ann' CA"""> *• Iv. p. 22. 
Male Shield Fern :—Botany; Description.              99
notices two kinds of fern; the male, which he calls Tttiais, and the  female, termed
&rj\vTttifiie:.   Dioscorides1 also mentions these two ferns, and  states  that  the  rxtepn
is by some persons called jSXtjxroi/, by others rto-Kvppi^ov.   Pliny2 notices  both ferns,
and says the pterin is supposed to be the male fern (filix mas).
   Botany. Gen. Char.—
Sori roundish,  scattered.
Indusium  orbicularireni-
form, fixed by the sinus.
   Sp.  Char__Fronds  bi-
pinnate,  pinnules  oblong,
obtuse  serrated, their stalk
and midrib chaffy.   Sori
near  the  central nerve
(Hooker).
   The   rhizome is large,
tufted,  and  scaly.   The
leaves  grow in a circle to
a height of 3 or 4 feet.
   Hab.—It  is an indige-
nous plant,  frequent  in
woods and in shady banks.
It is a  native  of  other
parts of  Europe, of Asia,
of the   North of  Africa,
and of the United States
of America.
    Description. — The
subterraneous stem (rhi-
zoma ;  caudex; fern root,
radix filicis, ofiacin.) lies
obliquely in  the  ground.
It  varies in length  and
breadth,  according to its
age.  For  medical   pur-
poses  it  should be from
three to six or more inches
long, and from half an inch
to an inch or more broad.
of the  footstalks  of the  fallen leaves.  These bases (phyllopodia) are arranged
closely  around the  rhizome in an oblique direction, overlapping each other.   They
are one or two inches long, from three  to five  lines thick, curved, angular, brown,
surrounded near their  origin from  the  rhizome  by two or  more shining, reddish
yellow, thin,  silky  scales (ramenta).   The radicle fibres (root, properly  so called)
arise from the rhizome between these footstalks.
   The  fern root of the  shops consists of fragments of the dried thickened bases of
the footstalks (phyllopodia), to which small portions of  the rhizome are  found ad-
hering, and of the root fibres.
   Internally, the rhizome and footstalks are, in the recent state, fleshy, of a  light
yellowish-green colour;  but in the dried state, yellowish or reddish-white.  Iodine
colours  the fresh rhizome bluish black,  indicating the  presence of starch;  particles
of which may be recognized  by the microscope.   In a  transverse  section of the
  1 Liv. iv. cap. clxxxvi. and clxxxvii. Sibthorp (Prodr. Fl. Graicai, vol. ii. p. 274) puts a query whether
Aspidium aculeatum, Willd. be not the itriett of Dioscorides?  But in the Pharmacopaa Grctca of 1837
trri^ic is given as the modern Greek name of Aspidium Filix mas.
  3 Hist. Nat. lib. xxvii. cap. Iv.
Fig. 197.
Fresh rhizome entire.
  a. Spirally-coiled young
     frond.
  6 6 6. Leaf-stalks (stipites)
     cut off.
  c c. Root-fibres.
Nephrodium Filix mas.
B. Transverse section of the fresh
        rhizome.
     a. Transverse section of the
  stem, with the vascular bundles.
     bbbbbb. Bases of the leaf-
  stalks, called phyllopodia. They
  surround the stem  in a circular
  manner, and are devoid of vascu-
  lar bundles.
It is almost completely enveloped by the thickened bases 
100
VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord. Filices.
                 Geiger.
Green fat oil....................6.9
------resin .   ..................4.1
                         .........22.9
Uncrystallizable sugar   )
Easily oxidizable tannin J
Gum and salts, with sugar and tannin.....".8
Ligneous fibre and starch ............56.3

                                    100.0
rhizome, we observe five  or six, or more, bundles of woody fibres and scalariform
ducts.  These bundles are arranged in a circle, are of a reddish-white colour in the
recent rhizome, but yellow in the dried one.
   The dried root has a feeble, earthy, somewhat disagreeable odour   Its taste is at
first sweetish, then bitter astringent, and subsequently nauseous, like rancid fat.
   Collection.—The rhizome should be collected in  the month of July, August,
or September.   The black portions, fibres, and scales, are to be removed, and the
sound parts carefully dried  and reduced  to  powder:  this  is of a yellowish colour,
and is to be preserved in  well-stoppered  bottles.  Both the whole rhizome and
powder deteriorate  by keeping.
   Fern buds (gemmse filicis maris) which are sometimes  employed in medicine,
are to be collected  in the spring.
   Composition.—Fern rhizome  was analyzed in  1805 by Vauquelin,1 in  1821 by
Gebhard,8 in  1824 by Morin,3 in 1826  by Wackenroder,4  and  by Geiger.5  Sub-
joined are the results of the analyses of  Geiger and Morin:—
                                                           Morin.
                                         Volatile oil.
                                         Fixed oil (stearin and olein).
                                         Tannin.
                                         Gallic and acetic acids.
                                         Uncrystallizable sugar.
                                         Starch.
                                         Gelatinous matter, insoluble in water and alcohol.
                                         Ligneous fibre.
                                         Ashes (carbonate,  sulphate, and hydrochlorate of
                                           potash, carbonate and phosphate of lime, alumina,
                                           silica, and oxide of iron).

   The anthelmintic property of the rhizome resides in the oil (oleum filicis maris).
Luck6 obtained from  the granular sediment  which  forms  in oil  of fern, tabular
rhombic plates, whose  formula was C^H^O20 (probably it should be C^H^O30), a
brown substance soluble in  alcohol  and alkaline liquids, and whose formula was
fj105H5*NO45, an(j a gray body, insoluble in all solvents, except caustic alkalies, and
whose formula was C^H^NO8.
   Batso7 found a  peculiar  acid (acidum filiceum) and  an alkali (filicina) in the
rhizome.
   Fern buds contain,  according to Peschier,8 a volatile oil, brown resin, fat oil, solid
fatty matter, green-colouring principle, a reddish-brown principle, and extractive.
   Characteristics.—The presence of tannic acid in the aqueous decoction of fern
rhizome is shown by  the sesquisalts of iron producing a dark green colour (tannate
of iron), and by a solution of gelatin causing a  yellowish precipitate (tannate of
gelatin).   No indication of the presence of a vegetable  alkali in the decoction can
be obtained by  tincture of nutgalls.   If the rhizome be  digested in alcohol, and
afterwards boiled in water, the decoction  when cold forms, with a solution of iodine,
a  dingy blue precipitate (iodide of starch).
   Physiological Effects.—These are not very obvious; but they are  probably
similar to those caused by other astringents.  Large doses excite nausea and vomiting.
   Uses.—it is only  employed  as an  anthelmintic.  Theophrastus, Dioscorides,
Pliny, and Galen,  used it as such.  The attention of modern practitioners  has been
directed to it principally from the  circumstance of its  being one of the  remedies
employed by Madame Nouffer, the widow of a Swiss  surgeon, who sold her  secret
method of expelling  tape-worm to Louis XVI. for 18,000 francs.9   At  the present
time fern rhizome  is but seldom employed in this country, partly because  the efficacy
of Madame  Nouffer's treatment is referred to the drastics used, and partly because
1 Ann. Chim. iv. 31.          a Diss, inaug. in PfafPs Syst. d. Mat. Med. 7er Bd. 219.
3 Journ. de Pharm. x. 223.     * De Anthelm. regni Vegetab.
* Handb. d. Pharm. 1829.
8 Ann. der Chem. u. Pharm. Bd. liv. 1845; also Chem. Gazette, vol. iii. p. 369.
' Inaug. Diss. 1826, quoted in Goebel and Kunze's Pharm. Waarenk.
8 Quoted by Soubeiran, Nouv. Traite de Pharm. t. ii. p. 159, 2nde Ed.
8 Trait, contre le Tania, &c. 1776, quoted by Bremser, Sur les Vers Intest. 
         Oil op Male Fern:—Maidenhair; History; Description.      101

other agents (especially oil of turpentine) have been found more effectual.   "It is
an excellent remedy," says Bremser,1 " against Bothriocephalus lotus [the tape-worm
of the Swiss], but not against Taenia Solium [the tape-worm of this country]; for
though it evacuates some pieces  of  the latter, it does not all of it."
   Administration.—It may be  administered in  the form of powder, of oil or
ethereal extract, or  of aqueous decoction.   The  dose of  the  recently prepared
powder is from one to three drachms.   Madame Nouffer's specific was two or three
drachms of  the powder taken in from four  to six ounces  of  water in the  morning
fasting, and two hours afterwards a, purgative bolus, composed of calomel ten  grains,
scammony  ten grains, and gamboge six or seven grains.   The bolus was exhibited
to expel the worm which the fern rhizome was supposed to have destroyed.
   The Etherial Tincture of Male Fern Buds (prepared by digesting 1  part of the
buds in 8 parts of ether) has been used  with success by  Dr. Peschier (brother of
the chemist of that name), and by Dr. Fosbroke3  as a vermifuge.

   OLEUM FILICIS MARIS; Oil of Male Fern.—The impure oil of fern (called olium
filicis Feschieri, extractum filicis eethereum, seu balsamum filicis), recommended by
Peschier,3 is an  ethereal extract, and is  composed, according to  its proposer, of a
fatty matter, resin, volatile oil, colouring matter,  extractive, chloride  of potassium,
and acetic acid.   A pound of the  rhizome yielded Soubeiran4 an ounce and a  half
of thick black oil, having the odour of fern.   It  may also be prepared from  the
buds as above stated.   The dose is from  half a drachm to  a drachm, in the form of
electuary, emulsion, or pills: an hour afterwards, an ounce or an  ounce and a half of
castor oil should be exhibited.   Numerous testimonies of its efficacy have been pub-
lished.5   I have  tried it in several cases of tape-worm, but without success.   By
substituting alcohol for ether, twelve or  thirteen  drachms of oil  can be obtained
from 21 lbs. of the rhizome.6


                     30.  Adiantum, Linn.—Maidenhair.

   History.—The term Maidenhair or Capillary (Capillaris, Apuleius; Capillaire,¥T.) has been
applied to several  species of fern which have been used  in medicine.  Dioscorides (lib. iv. cap.
 136 and 137) and Pliny (lib. xxii. cap. 30) notice two kinds, one termed Adianton, Polytrichon,
or Callilrichon (iJiavrov, woXuTpi^ov, jtaXXiTji^ov), the other called Trichomanes (-rpi^s/ttavec).   The
former is supposed by Sibthorp7 to be the Adiantum Capillus Veneris, Linn., or True Maidenhair,
the latter the Asplenium  Trichomanes, Linn.  Common Maidenhair Spleenwort of modern botanists.
In later times, other ferns have been also employed under the name of Maidenhair; especially
Asplenium Adiantum nigrum, Linn, or Black Maidenhair Spleenwort;  Asplenium Ruta muraria,
Linn. Wall-rue or  White Maidenhair, formerly called Salvia Vila; Ceterach officinarum, DC, or
Rough Spleenwort; and Scolopendrium vulgare, Smith, or Common Hart's-tongue.  To these must
be added, Adiantum pedatum, Linn, or Canadian Maidenhair, and Adiantum trapeziforme, Linn, or
Mexican Maidenhair.
   The only species which it will be necessary  here to notice are, Adiantum Capillus Veneris and
A. pedatum.
   Botant.  Gen. Char.—Sporangia placed on the distinct points of the veins  in a linear or
point-like receptacle, arranged in marginal sori.  Indusia  continuous with  the edge of the frond,
united to the receptacle, opening inward (Endlicher).
   1. A. Capillus Veneris, Linn.;  Frond bipinnate, pinnules  thin, membranaceous, obovate-cuneate
inciso-sublobate, segments of the fertile pinnules terminated by a linear oblong sorus, sterile ones
serrated (Hooker).—Indigenous.  Perennial.  May—September.
   2. A. pedatum, Linn.   Frond pedate, divisions pinnate,  pintue halved,oblong lunate,incised at
the upper edge, the sterile segments toothed; sori linear; petiole smooth.—North America.
   Description.—The officinal part of Maidenhair is the frond, or rather the whole plant without
the root.
  The herb of True Maidenhair (herba capillorum veneris) is sold a' herb-shops in the dried state.
When rubbed, it has a feeble odour, and its taste is sweetish and bitterish.
  The herb  of Canadian Maidenhair (herba capillorum veneris canadensis  vel adianthi pedati) is
more aromatic than the preceding.
1  Op. cit. p. 4'J'2                                   a Lancet for 1834-35, vol. ii. p. 597.
•  Journ. gener. de Med. J825, p. 375.                  « Nouv. Traitt de Pharm. ii. 161, 2nde ed
*  Dierbach, Neuesten Entd. in d. Mat. Med. Band I, 1S37.
•  Journ. de Chim. Mid. t. r. 2ndo Ser. p. 68.            ' Prodr. Fl. Graca, vol. ii. 
102              VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Lycopodiace;e.


  Composition.—No analysis has been made of these species of Adiantum.  The most im-
portant constituents appear to be tannic or gallic acid, bitter extractive, and a volatile oil.
  Effects and Uses.—None of the sorts of Maidenhairs appear to be endowed with any active
powers; though a great variety of imaginary properties have been ascribed to them.  They are
mucilaginous, bitterish, somewhat astringent, and aromatic substances; and  in modern times
have been used as pectorals in chronic catarrhs.   The Canadian Maidenhair (Adianthum pedatum,
Linn.) is the most esteemed sort, on account of its stronger and more agreeably aromatic qualities.
  A Syrup of Maidenhair (Syrupus Adianthi; Syrupus Capilli Veneris; Sirop  de Capillaire), pre-
pared by adding sugar and orange-flower water  to an infusion of Maidenhair, has long been
popular.  Both Baume and the French Codex direct it to be prepared with the Canadian Maiden-
hair.  When diluted with water, it forms a very refreshing beverage.  But as the Maidenhair
serves no essential purpose in this drink, it is usually omitted, and the syrup sold in the shops
under the name of capillaire is nothing but clarified syrup flavoured with  orange-flower water.
The Prussian and Hamburgh Pharmacopoeias authorize this substitution by giving formula? for
a syrupus florum aurantii to be used in " loco syrupi capillorum  veneris."
      Order  V.    LYCOPODIACE^S, D C—CLUB-MOSSES.

  Characters.—Herbaceous or shrubby vascular  terrestrial plants.  Stem terete,  branched,
leafy.  Leaves inserted spirally on the stem, imbricated, simple, sessile or decurrent, never arti-
culated.  Spore cases (sporocarpia ; thecce; sporangia)  axillary, mostly uniform, sometimes, on the
same individuals biform;  some bivalved, containing a farinaceous powder, composed of poly-
gonal smooth or papillose-spinulous granules (sporules; pollen?) ; others 3-4-coccous, 3-4-valved,
containing a few (usually 3 or 4) somewhat globular corpuscles (spores? gemmceox buds?) marked
at the vertex with a three-legged raphe.
  Properties.—These are but little known.
  An acrid principle resides in  several species.   Both Lycopodium clavatum and L. Selago act as
emetics.  The latter species, called muscus catharticus seu erectus, and supposed to be the Selago1
of the Druids, has also been employed as a cathartic emmenagogue, and  to produce abortion.
In large doses it operates as a narcotico-acrid poison.  A decoction of it is sometimes  employed
by the peasants of Sweden, and other places, as a lotion to destroy pediculi on the skin of horses,
cows, pigs, &c.2  Dr. Buchner3 has recorded some cases of accidental poisoning by it, in which
it caused staggering and  sickness.  Lycopodium catharticum, Hooker (L. rubrum, Chamisso) is
also a violent purgative.  Some species, e.g. Lycopodium Phlegmaria, Linn., and Selaginella con-
voluta, Spring (L. hygrometricum, Mart.) are reputed aphrodisiacs.


       31.  Lycopodium clavatum, Linn.—Common Club-Moss.
                                  (Herba; Sporulae.)

   History.—The earliest writers by whom the medicinal qualities of this plant
are distinctly referred to,  are the herbalists (Brunsfels, Tragus,  Cordus, &c.) of the
16th century.
   Botany.  Gen. Char.—Spore-cases unilocular, uniform  or biform;  the farini-
ferous ones subreniform, and bivalved; the globuliferous ones somewhat globose, 3-
4-lobed, 3- 4-valved.  (Endlicher, Gen. Pi!)
   Sp. Char.—Stem  creeping; branches ascending; leaves linear-lanceolate, nerve-
less, terminating at the point in a bristle; spikes in pairs, stalked, cylindrical; bracts
ovate, acuminate, premorse, toothed (Endl. Med. Flanzen).
   Foots of several strong scattered fibres.   Stems procumbent,  trailing, branching,
leafy, several feet in length.  Leaves crowded, curved upwards, linear-lanceolate,
flat, ribless, smooth, deep  green, partly serrated, tipped with a capillary point; those
of  the branches erect;  the upper ones loosely dispersed.   Spikes terminal, usually
in  pairs, rarely  one, or three, densely beset with shortened, dilated, ovate, entire,
long-pointed leaves or scales, in whose bosoms the small,  sulphur-coloured capsules
[thecee] are situated  (Smith).
   Hab.—Mountainous heaths and moors all over Europe.  Indigenous.   Perennial.
July, August.
1 Pliny, Hist. Nat. lib. xxiv. cap. 65.                   a Murray, App. Medicam. vol. v. p. 493.
3 Repert.fUr d. Pharmacie, Bd. xiv. s. 311,1823. 
Common Club-moss :—Description.

              Fig. 198.
103
                               Lycopodium clavatum.
                      a. Scale of a spike with a capsule (magnified).

  Description.—1. Sporulse Lycopodii.  The powder sold in the shops under the
name of lycopodium (pulvis, farina,  pollen, seu semina lycopodii), witch-meal, or
vegetable  sulphur  (sulphur  vegetabile),
consists of granules, usually regarded  as                  Fig. 199.
sporules, but by some considered  to  be
grains of  pollen.  In both their physical
and chemical properties they resemble the
latter.  They are gathered towards the
end  of  the summer, and  are separated
from  the capsules, &c, by sifting.
  Lycopodium  is a very fine, odourless,
tasteless, and very mobile  powder, of a
pale-yellow colour.   It  adheres  to  the
fingers, but exhibits a repulsive force  for
water, and hence is with difficulty mixed
with it.  If strewed on this liquid it floats,
and the hand may be dipped  to the bot-
tom without being moistened.  If shaken
up with water a portion of it sinks, but
the greater part floats.   With spirit of
wine  it is readily miscible.   It is tinged brown by iodine.  When thrown into the
flame of a candle it burns with great rapidity, producing an instantaneous flash of
yellowish-white  light.
  When moistened by spirit of wine, or, still better, by oil of vitriol, and examined
by the microscope, the granules are found to  have  the shape of tetrahedrons, with
a convex base; or they may be described as spheroids,  on a portion of whose surface
there are  three faces, or planes, uniting  to form a three-sided pyramid.   The faces
appear to have been produced by the mutual  pressure  of the granules on each other,
while in the spore-cases.   The external membrane forms reticulated elevations, with
intervening depressions or pits, giving a  cellular appearance to the  surface  of the
granules.   The  three-legged mark, at  the union of the three planes,  appears  to  be
formed by a cleft in the membrane.
Sporules of Lycopodium clavatum
     (highly magnified). 
104
VEGETABLES.—Nat.  Ord. Lycopodiace^e.
  2.  Herba Lycopodii (Herba musci clava/i terrestris).  This is odourless; at first
sweetish, and then bitterish.  Digested in water it yields a yellowish infusion, whose
colour is deepened by sesquichloride of iron.
  Composition.—Lycopodium  sporules have  been analyzed by Bucholz1 and by
Cadet.3   The former chemist obtained the following results:  Fat oil, 6.0; sugar,
3.0; mucilaginous extract, 1.5;  and pollenin, 89.5.   The substance called pollenin
is, however, a complex organized body, and cannot be regarded as a proximate prin-
ciple.  By the  action of caustic potash on lycopodium, Muspratt3 has shown  that
acetic acid is obtained.
  The herb has not been analyzed.  It appears to contain some  acrid principle.
  Adulteration.—As met with in the London shops, I have never found lycopo-
dium (the sporules) adulterated.
  The sporules of other species  of Lycopodium  are said to be sometimes substituted
for those of L. clavatum:  the microscope  alone can detect the difference.
  The pollen of some  plants, as of  Typha latifolia, and of some coniferous plants,
is said to be sometimes substituted for the lycopodium sporules.  The  microscope
readily distinguishes the substitution.   The shape, the size, the  character of the
surface, and the cohesion or isolation of the grains, must be attended to  in distin-
guishing them.   The pollen of  coniferous  plants is also sometimes recognizable by
its terebinthinate odour when rubbed in the  hand: that of Typha latifolia is not so
inflammable as genuine lycopodium  meal.
   Starch,  talc,  gypsum, chalk, boxwood powder, &c. &c, have been reported as
adulterating substances.   By throwing the suspected lycopodium on water, the mi-
neral substances present would readily fall to the bottom, and might be detected by
their appropriate chemical tests.   Iodine  and  the  microscope will detect starch.
Boxwood powder has been separated from  lycopodium by a fine sieve, which let the
genuine sporules through, but retained the wooden particles.
  Once  I  have seen lycopodium infected by  a fungus, the matted mycelium of
which had a slate colour, and a  membranous or papery appearance.
  Effects.—1. Of the sporules.—Applied externally, lycopodium acts as an ab-
sorbent and desiccant.  Taken internally, it is reputed to possess demulcent, sedative,
and  diuretic properties; but these qualities are  of doubtful existence.
  2. Of the herb.—The herb appears to  be endowed with some active properties.
It acts as an emetic and cathartic, and is  reputed to possess diuretic and emmena-
gogue qualities.
  Uses.—1. Of the sporules.—Lycopodium is used both medicinally and pharma-
ceutically, as well as in the arts.
  It is applied as a dusting powder to excoriated surfaces, especially the intertrigo
of infants, and  to parts affected with erysipelas,  herpetic ulceration, eczema, &c.  It
is sometimes used in the form of ointment.  In Poland, it is popularly employed as
an external application in  plica polonica.  As  an internal remedy, its powers are
very doubtful.   It  has, however, been used by Wedelius  and  others,* and, in  later
times, by Hufeland, Jawandt, Bademacher, and Busser,5 in  the  retention of urine,
and  flatulent colic of infants; and in  calculous complaints, hemorrhoids, gout, &c.,
of adults.
   In pharmacy, it is used for enveloping pills and boluses.   It serves both to isolate
the  pills and cover their taste.
   But its principal  use is at theatres, where it is employed for filling flash-boxes,
and  for producing artificial lightning.   It  is also used in pyrotechny.   Gray says
that females employed in delicate works use it to keep their hands free from sweat.
   2. Of the herb.—This is rarely employed.   It has been celebrated in  the treat-
ment of plica polonica, and, in  consequence,  has been called plicaria.  It was
employed  in the form of decoction, both externally, as lotion  and liniment, and

  1 Berlin. Jahrb.fur d. Pharm. 1807, S. liv.; also L. Gmelin'g Handb. d. Chem.
  a Bull, de Pharm. t. iii. p. 31, 1811.           * Pharmaccutisches Central-Blattfur 1844, S. 904.
  4 Murray, App. Med. vol.  v.                • Hufeland's Journal, Bd. ii. iv. and xxxvi. 
             Phanerogams or Flowering Plants :—Endogens.          105

internally.1  More recently it has been recommended by Dr. Rodewald2 in retention
of urine, from gravel, or pus [!], in atony of  the muscular coat of the bladder, in
weakness and relaxation of the  inner membrane  of  the bladder, and as a diuretic.
He states that he has used it for many years with great success.
   Administration.—The sporules are administered internally in doses of from ten
grains to a  scruple, in the  form  of  a mixture, or emulsion, made  with syrup,
mucilage, or yolk of egg.   Externally, they are sometimes used in the form of oint-
ment, composed of  one drachm of  lycopodium to an ounce of  lard.   The herb is
administered in the form of decoction  or infusion.  Two up-heaped tablespoonfuls,
with  a pint of water, are to be boiled to one-half;  and of this decoction  a teacupful
may be taken every ten minutes, or at  longer intervals.  In a more dilute  state it
may  be drank as  a  tea.




II,  Phanerogamia, Met.--Phanerogams or  Flowering

                                    Plants,

            Cotyledone*, Juss.—Embryonat.se, Rich.—Vascularis, De  Cand.

   Characters.—Substance of the  plant composed  of  cellular tissue, woody fibre, ducts, and
spiral vessels.  Leaves usually present; cuticle with stomata.  Flowers with perceptible stamens
and pistils.  Seeds with an embryo enclosed within a spermoderm, furnished with one or more
cotyledons.
                Class III.  Endogens, DC.—Endogens.

                              MoXOCOTILEDONES, JuSS.

  Characters.—Trunk usually cylindrical, when a terminal bud only is developed, becoming
conical and branched when several develope: consisting of cellular tissue, among which the
vascular tissue is mixed in bundles, usually without  any distinction of bark, wood, and  pith,
and destitute of medullary rays; increasing in diameter by the addition of new matter to the
centre.  Leaves frequently sheathing at the base, and  not readily separating from the stem by
an articulation, mostly alternate, generally parallel-veined, rarely netted.  Flowers usually hav-
ing a ternary division; the calyx and corolla  either distinct or  undistinguishable in colour and
size, or absent.  Embryo with but one cotyledon ;  if with two, then  the accessory one is imper-
fect, and alternate with the other; radicle usually enclosed within the substance of this embryo,
through which it bursts when germinating (Lindley, chiefly).
  This class includes two  subclasses :  1. G'lumacece, or glumaceous  endogens.   2. Petaloidce, or
endogens, whose floral envelopes, if present, are whorled.
                     Sub-class  I.   Glumacese,  Endl.

  Characters.—Flowers disposed in spikelets, and enclosed within imbricated bracts.  Ovary
free, unilocular, containing one erect ovule.   Fruit a caryopsis.  Embryo at the base of farina-
ceous albumen.
  This class includes two orders:  1. Graminecr, or glumaceous endogens with  round stems,
leaves having split sheaths, and embryo lying on the outside of the albumen.  2.  Cyperacea>,or
glumaceous endogens with angular stems, leaves  with  entire  sheaths, and embryo  included
within the albumen.
 ' Vicat, Mfmoire sur la Plique Polonoise (Murray, App Med.).
 1 No. Hi, Altenberger medicinische Zettung, lbU3.  (Quoted by Dierbach, die neuesle Entd. in d. Mat.
Med. Bd. i. rv 50, 1837.) 
106
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Gramine^.
        Order VI.   GRAMINE.E,  E. Brown.—GRASSES.

                           Gramina, Juss.—Graminace.e, Lind.

  Characters.—Flowers usually hermaphrodite, sometimes monoecious  or  polygamous; con-
sisting of imbricated bracts, of which the most exterior are called glumes, the interior immedi-
ately enclosing the stamens  palea, and the innermost at  the base of the ovary scales.  Glumei
usually  2, alternate; sometimes single; most commonly unequal.   Palece two, alternate; the
lower or exterior simple;  the upper or interior composed of 2, united by their contiguous mar-
gins, and  usually with 2 keels, together forming a kind  of dislocated calyx.   Scales 2 or 3,
sometimes wanting; if 2, collateral, alternate with the palese, and next the lower of tliem,either
distinct  or united.   Stamens  hypogynous, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, or more, 1 of which.alternates with the
2 hypogynous scales, and is. therefore, next the lower paleaj; anthers versatile.   Ovary simple:
styles 2 or 3, very rarely combined into 1; stigmas feathery and hairy ,■  ovule ascending by a
broad base, anatropal.   Pericarp usually undistinguishable from the seed, membranous.  Albu-
men farinaceous;  embryo lying on one side  of  the albumen at the base, lenticular, with abroad
cotyledon  and a developed plumule; and occasionally, but very  rarely, with a second cotyledon
on the outside of the plumule, and alternate with the usual cotyledon.—Evergreen herbs.  Rhi-
zoma  fibrous or bulbous.  Stems cylindrical, usually fistular, closed at the joints, covered with a
coat of  silex, sometimes solid.  Leaves narrow and undivided,  alternate, with  a split sheath,
and a membranous expansion (ligula) at the junction of stalk and blade.  Flowers in little spikes,
called locusta, arranged in a spiked,  racemed, or panicled manner (Lindley).
  Properties.—Considered with reference to their ultimate or mineral constituents, the grasses
are remarkable for  the large proportion of silica, potash, and phosphoric acid, and for the small
proportion of chlorine which they contain.  The silica predominates  in the leaves and stem, the
phosphoric acid in the seeds.   The  following table1  represents the mean composition of the
ashes of the most important cereal grains.

    Mean per centage Composition of the Ash of the following Cereal Grains:—
	Wheat.	Barley (with the husk).	Oat.	Rye.	Indian corn.	Rice.
	23.72 9.05 2.81 12.03 0.67 49 81 0.24 1.17	13.64 ) 8.14 J 2.62 7.46 143 38.93 0.10 0.04 27.10 0.21	26.18 5.95 9.95 0.40 43.84 10.45 0.26 2.67 0.06	122 08 } 11.67 4.93 10.35 1.36 49.55 0.98 6.43	1 32.48 1.44 16.22 0.30 44.87 2.77 0.18 1.44	(18.48 ) 10.67 1.27 11.69 0.45 53.36 6.27 3.35
Soda..........						
						
						
Silica..........						
						
						
	99.50	99.72	99.76	101.35	99.70	99.54
	about 2.0	2.84	2 18	2.425	about 1.5	1.00
  The following table, drawn  up by M.  Payen,2 shows  the  proportions of the proximate oi
immediate principles of the cereal grains:—
100 parts of
Wheat, hard, of Venezuela   .  .  .
   "    "   of Africa.....
   "    *'   of Taganrog   .  .  .
   "   demi-hard, of Brie (France)
   "   white tuzelle.....
Rye............
Barley...........
Oats............
Maize...........
Rice............
Starch.
58.12
64.57
63.30
68.65
75.31
65.65
65.43
60.59
67.55
89.15
 Gluten,
and other
Azotized
Matters.3
22.75
19.50
20.00
16.25
11.20
13.50
13.96
14.39
12.50
 7.05
Dextrine,
Glucose,
 or Con-
generous
  Sub-
 stances.
 9.50
 7.60
 8
 7
 6.05
12
10
 9.25
 4
 1
 Fatty
Matters.
2.61
2.12
2.25
1.95
1.87
2.15
2.76
5.50
8.80
0.80
Cellu-
 lose.
4
3.50
3.60
3.40
3
4.10
4.75
7.06
5.90
3
 Silica, Phos-
phates of Lime,
Magnesia, and
 Soluble Salt*
 of Potash and
   of Soda.
3.02
2.71
2.85
2.75
2.12
2.60
3.10
3.25
1.25
0.90
  1 Drawn up from the calculated means contained in Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry and
Geology. 2d edit. 1847.
  1 Precis de Chimie Industrielle, p. 394, Paris, 1849.
  3 The proportions of azotized substances have been deduced from the elementary analysis by multiply-
ing by 6.5 the weight of azote obtained. 
Grasses :—Common Rice.
107
  Of the proximate or  organic constituents of grasses, starch and sugar are found in large pro-
portion, the former in the seed, the latter in  the stem.   These constituents, with proteinaceous
matter (gluten, albumen), to which may be  added gum, confer on corn its valuable nutritive
properties.   (For the per centage proportion of starch and proteinaceous  matter in corn, see
ante, p.  106, and vol. i.  p. 119.)
  Fragrant volatile oils  are obtained from herbaceous parts of some grasses.  Several of these
are employed in perfumery and in medicine  (see the genus Andropogon).
  The  grasses are  remarkable for their deficiency of pectin, as well as of  pectic, tartaric,
citric, and other vegetable acids commonly found in plants.
  Considered with regard to their dietetical uses, the grasses are most important and valuable
to man.  They contain  nitrogenized principles fitted for the production of the essential constitu-
ents of the blood  and  of the organized tissues, and also  non-nitrogenized principles for  the
production of fatty matters,  lactic acid, and, by combustion, of heat.  The following table gives
a general  view of the uses which several constituents  of grains of corn serve in the animal
economy:—
Corn.
1. Complex )
   nitro-   ( Gluten  .
  genized   I Albumen
substances. J
Blood.
2„S| ^reh
  genized   \f,uS&T
substances. J Gu,n •
3. Mineral
 substances.
'Poth, soda,  lime, 1
  magnesia,  iron,
  phosphoric acid, I
  sulphur (in  glu- |
  ten,&c.),(fluor?), |
  chlorine, silica,  j
Fibrine  .
Albumen
Hit matin
4. Water . .  Water
Fat.......
Sugar ......
Lactic acid . .  .

Poth,  soda, lime,
 magnesia,  iron,
 phosphoric acid,
 sulphur  (in   fi-
 brine,  albumen,
 &c),   (flnor?),
 chlorine, silica ?

Water.......
:H
     Organs.
 Fibrine, albumen,'
 hnematin,   gela-
 tine,  chondrine,
 kreatin,    krea-
 timn,   inosinic
 acid.

 Fat........
 Sugar  .......
 Lactic acid ....

'Poth,  soda, lime,
 magnesia,  iron,
 phosphoric acid,
 sulphur  (in  fi-
 brine,  albumen,
 gelatine,    Sec),
 fluor,  chlorine,
 silica.
 Water.......
J   I
      Excreta.
 'Urea, uric acid,
   hippuric   acid,
   kreatin,   kreati-
   nin, horny mat-
   ter (in hair, nails,
   and epidermis).

 I Carbonic acid.
: J Water.
 ( (Caloric.)


  Poth, goda, lime,
   magnesia,  iron,
   phosphoric acid,
   sulphur, sulphu-
   ric acid, chlorine,
 ,  fluorine, silica.
= Water.
Almost every species of grass is wholesome.   Some supposed exceptions to this statement have
been  already noticed (see vol. i. pp. 134 and 135).   Of these, the best established is Lolium
temulentum, which will be presently noticed.   In  a  state of disease, corn  sometimes  acquires
most  important and valuable medicinal properties.  (See Ergot.)


                              Tribe I.  Oryze^e, Endl.


                   32.  Oryza  sativa, Linn.—Common Rice.

                                Sex. Syst. Hexandria, Digynia.
                                         (Semina.)

   Strontmes.—"Ofvfyr, Theophr. Hist. Plant, lib. iv. cap.  5;  orv£a,  Dioscor., lib. ii. cap. 117;
Galen, de simpl. med. facult., lib. viii. cap. xv. 16 ; Oryza, Pliny, Hist. Nat., lib. xviii. cap. 13.
   Botany.—Stems numerous, 2 to 8 or 10 feet long.   Leaves  long and slender.  Panicle diffuse
thin,  bowing when the seed  is weighty.   Spikelet hermaphrodite, 1-flowered; glumes 2, small;
palece 2 ; scales 2, smooth ; stamens 6 ; ovary sessile ; styles 2 ; stigma feathery.   Caryopsis com-
pressed, enclosed by the  palese.—Originally a native of Asia.  Extensively cultivated in India,
China, the Indian  Archipelago, and  most other Eastern countries; in the West Indies, Central
America, and the  United States; and in some of the Southern countries of Europe.   Forty or
fifty varieties1 are known to  and  cultivated by the Indian farmers; of these some are awned—
others are awnless.  The kinds most esteemed in this country are the Carolina and Patnarice.
Patna rice is imported in bags holding 1$ cwts. each.   It has usually been mixed with lime, to
prevent the attacks of insecls.  The grain, whilst enclosed in the palese or  husk, is called paddy
(padi or puddie) by the Malays, bras when deprived of the husk, and nasi after it has been
boiled.
  Composition.—Rice has been analyzed by Vauquelin,3 by Braconnot,3 by Vogel,4 and by
d'Arcet and  Payen5 (see ante, p. 106).   The composition of Carolina  and Piedmont rice  is,
according to Braconnot, as follows:—
« Roxburgh, Flora Indica, vol. ii. p. 200, 1822.
9 Mem. du Museum d'Hist. Nat. t. iii. p. 229, 1817.
4 Quoted by L. Gmelin, Handb. d. Chemie, Bd. ii. S. 1345.
» Journ. de Chimie Mid. t. ix. p. 221, 1833.
* Ann. Chim. Phys. t. iv. p. 383,181S. 
108
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Gramine.f.
Fig. 200.
Composition of Rice.
                                                               Carolina Rice.  Piedmont Rice,
                      Starch  ........................   85.07  ....  83 SO
                      Parenchyma (woody fibre).............   4-<™  • •  • •   4.80
                      Glutinous matter  ..................   3"0  • •  •  •   3-60
                      Rancid, colourless, tallowy oil  ..........   0.13  ....   0.25
                      Uncrystallizable sugar...............   0.29  ....   0.05
                      Gam   .......  .................   0-71  • •  • •   0.10
                      Phosphate of lime..................   0.40  ....   0.40
                      Water  ........................   5.00  ....   7.00
                      Acetic acid, phosphate of potash, chloride of po-
                        tassium, and vegetable salts of potash and lime, traces        traces

                                                                  100.00        100.00

                         The inorganic constituents of rice have been before stated (see ante,
                      p. 106).
                         1.  Rice starch  is manufactured, under Mr. Orlando Jones's patent, as
                      follows: Patna rice  is  first freed  from  stones, dust, &c,  by  a process
                      analogous  to winnowing, and is then  digested whole in a solution of
                      caustic soda containing 200 grains of soda to the  gallon.   The solution
                      being poured off, the grain, which has  thus been deprived  of part of its
                      gluten, is ground in a mill, and the ground rice mixed with  a solution
                      of the same  strength, so as to form  a mixture having the consistence of
                      thick cream.   More  lye is then added, and  the mixture stirred up for a
                      few hours, and then  left to deposit:  a heavy matter, called fibre (heavy
    Oryza sativa.      starch), deposits, while the  starch (lighter starch)  remains suspended.
 o. Branch with awns.   The  liquor is  then  run off into shallow vessels, where  the starch de-
                       posits: the alkaline solution of gluten  is then drawn off, and the starch
repeatedly washed with water and then allowed  to deposit.  The starch mass is now obtained
of the consistence of clay.   It is then usually mixed with  blue  colouring  matter  (smalt), to fit
it for the use of the  laundress, and  removed to  draining-boxes, which are  lined with cloth.
These consist each of two cells, whose size  is 3 feet long, 6 inches deep, and  6  inches broad.
Here the starch forms a  lump or mass of the shape and size of the cell, and is afterwards cut
into 6 cubical blocks, which  are placed on chalk-stones to drain, and are then partially dried in
a stove, to produce what is called crusting.  The crust is scraped off, the block wrapped in paper
and returned to the stove to  dry, when it splits into the columnar masses commonly  known as
the race of the  starch.  If, instead of  crusting the lumps, the starch were slowly dried, decom-
position is apt to take place; and, if rapidly dried, the races are apt to be small and needle like.
100 lbs. of Patna rice, as it  occurs  in the  market, yield from  80  to 85 lbs. of  good marketable
starch, 7.5 lbs. of fibre, the remainder  being gluten, gruff or bran, and  a small quantity of light
starch, carried off in suspension in the alkaline liquor.
  Vbgel states that, from  dried rice,  he obtained 96 per cent, of starch.
  When examined by the microscope, the granules are observed to  be polygonal,  and very mi-
nute; their  average  diameter being  about  y^gyd  part of  an  inch.1  They are  the smallest
granules of all  the commercial starches.  According to Vauquelin, rice starch begins to dissolve
in water at from 122° to 132° F.
  Two kinds of rice starch are found in the  shops: one, prepared under Orlando Jones's patent;
the other, called Mechlin glaze starch, manufactured by Mottram, Rehe & Co.
  2. Proteine matters.—Rice  contains  a much smaller  proportion  of the  so-called gluten  than
wheat does.  According to Horsford2 and  Payen (see  ante, p. 106, and vol. i. p.  119), the
quantity is about 7 per cent.
  The substance which the rice starch-makers term gluten is  analogous to what  Mulder  calls
proteine, being obtained  by carefully neutralizing  the alkaline  solution in which rice  has been
digested with an acid, by which a precipitate forms, which, when  separated from  the super-
natant liquor, has a creamy consistence, an  agreeable smell, and a bland taste, like pap.  By
  * The following are measurements of the particles of rice starch made by my friend Mr. Jackson :—
                                                      Inches.
                          1.............00027
                          2.............00021
                          ii.............0002
                          4.............00017
                          5.............0001

                                                     5) .00095

                                                       .00019=^5
Most of the particles are angular; but the measurements were taken on those which most nearly ap-
proached the globular form.
  a Ann. Chem. u. Pharm. Bd-xlviii. 1846. 
Indian Corn;  Maize:—its History;  Botany.
109
evaporation, it forms a dark-coloured hard mass.  If kept for some time  in  the moist state, it
undergoes decomposition, and evolves an odour somewhat like sour yeast.   Mixed  with eggs, I
have employed it, in the form of a Iraked pudding, in diabetes.
  3. Fatty matters.—The quantity of fatty matter contained  in  rice  is smaller than in other
varieties of corn.  The outer part of the grain appears to contain more than the inner part.
  Effects—Rice, though nutritious, is le»s so than wheat:  this is proved by chemical analysis,
which shows the much smaller proportion  of glutinous or nitrogenous matter found in the former
than in the latter grain (see ante, p. 106, and vol. i. p. 119). "Rice,''says Boussingau It,1 "is held upas
a most nutritive food; but though I have lived long in countries which  produce it, I  am far from
considering it  as a substantial nourishment.   I have always seen it, in ordinary  use, replace
bread;  and when it has not been associated with meat, it has been employed with milk."
  The solid or dry part of rice does not materially  differ from the solid or dry part of potatoes
in the proportion of starch  and gluten which  it contains; and, therefore, as far as regards these
two principles, the nutritive values of anhydrous rice and anhydrous potatoes are about equal.
But, in some Union poor-houses, the substitution of  an  equal weight of boiled rice  for potatoes
was followed  in a few months by scurvy.2
  Rice, when swallowed in the raw state, swells up in  the alimentary canal, and acts injuriously
by  the mechanical distension it gives rise to.   Mr. Hovell3 has reported  a case in which great
pain, peritoneal inflammation, and death, arose from the ingestion of a tumblerful  of raw rice.
  "Rice," says Marsden,* "is  the grand material of food, on which  a hundred million  of the
inhabitants of the earth subsist, and although chiefly confined by nature to the regions included
between, and bordering on the tropics, its cultivation  is  probably more extensive than that of
wheat, which  the Europeans are wont to consider as the universal staff of  life."
   Rice is less  laxative than the other cereal grains.  Indeed, it is generally believed  to possess
a binding or constipating quality; and, in consequence, is frequently prescribed by medical men
as  a light, digestible, uninjurious article of  food in diarrhma and dysentery.
   Various ill  effects, such  as disordered vision, &c, have been ascribed to its use;5 but, as I
believe, unjustly so.   Neither does there appear to  me to be any real  foundation for the asser-
tions of Dr. Tytler,6 that malignant cholera (which he  calls the morbus oryzeus,  or rice disease)
is induced by it.
   Uses.—Rice is employed as a  nutriment in a variety of  forms;  e. g. boiled rice, rice milk, rice
pudding, rice cakes, &c.   In China, rice vermicelli is prepared from it.  This is sold in flat bundles
(of about 5 inches long, and  1A inch broad), composed of a folded  thread or filament made
of  rice paste.  Medicinally, rice is employed as a demulcent, somewhat binding, nutritive sub-
stance in diarrhoea, &c.  Gardiner's alimentary preparation is very finely ground rice meal.


                              Tribe II.  Phalaride^e.


                 33. Zea Mays, Linn.—Indian Corn; Maize.
                                Sex. Syst.  Monrecia, Triandria.
                                          (Semina.)

   Histort.—Frumenlum Indicum Mays dictum, Casp. Bauhin, Pinax; Frumentum  vel Triticum
 Turcicum; Turkish Cornor  Wheat.—The first undoubted  notice of this  plant occurs in the works
of  Tingus,' who died in 1554; though by  some writers it  is thought to be referred to both in
the Bible8 and in the works of Greek and  Roman authors.9
   Botant.—Stem 2 lo  10  feet high.  Leaves broad, flat, entire with  a short  ligula.  Flowers
monurious; males terminal, racemose; females axillary, densely spiked.   Stamens 3.  Ovary
sessile ovate.  Style  1, long, capillary.  Stigma ciliated.  Caryopsides roundish or reniform, ar-

  1  Ann. Chim. et Phys. lxvii. p. 413.
  '  Provincial Medical and Surgical Journal, June, 1847.  Dr.  Garrod (Monthly Journal of Medical
Science, January, 1848) calculates that, prior to the substitution,  the usual weekly food of the men in the
Crediton Union contained 1N5 grains, und of the women  181 grains of potash ; but,  after the substitution
the weekly amount of potash taken  by the men was about 51 grains, and by the women 46 grains or a
reduction of more than two-thirds : and he ascribes the occurrence of scurvy after the use of rice to the
inferior proportion of potush wliich this grain  contains in comparison with potatoes. We ought, how-
ever, also to take into consideration the fact that  rice is  deficient  in certain vegetable acids found in the
potnto (see ante, p. 107).
  »  Lancet, April 10th, 1847, p. 390.                         « History of Sumatra, p 65,  3d ed. 1811
  •  Uontius,  Account  of the Dtseases, Natural  History, $c. of the East Indies, translated  into English.
1/00; also, Unrheteau in  I'ortuelle's Elem. d'Hygiene, 4me fed.
  •  Lancet. 1K13-34, vol. i.
  1  De Stirpium Historia, p. 651, 1532.  (Sprengel, Hist. Rei Herb. t. i. p. 320, 1807.
  •  Genesis, ch. xli. ver.5; Leviticus, ch. ii. ver. 14, ch. xxiii. ver. 14 : Matthew, ch. xii. ver 1 kc   He«
Cobbett's Treatise on Cobbett's Corn, ch. ii. 13, 1828.                                  '  '
  •  Both  TheophHiatus  (Hist. Plant, lib. viii.  cap. iv.) and Pliny (lib. xviii. cap. xiii.) mention a Bae-
trmn rorn ol remarkably large fizc.  Theophrastus says the  grains were as large as olive stones-  and
Pliny mutes that they were as largo as the ears  of our corn.  b'mas (Synopsis Plant. Floret  Class, a. 312
1M5) suggests that the Sic/xty* of Strabo (lib. iv.) may be our maize. 
110
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Gramine*.
 ranged on a large cylindrical receptacle or rachis, popularly called the cobb—An annual plant
 indigenous in  tropical America, but cultivated in various parts of the world.
    The ordinary colour of the ripe grains or caryopsides is yellow; but they are frequently met
 with white, party-coloured, red, purple, or even  black.
    Maize meal is sold in the shops under the name of polenta.
    Composition.—Maize has been analyzed by Dr. Gorham,1 by Bizio,2 and  more  recently by
                                  Payen, whose analysis may be considered to have  superseded
                                  his predecessors (see ante,  p. 106).
                                     1. Maize starch is not at present an  article of commerce-3
                                  though a patent* has been taken out for its manufacture by
                                  fermentation  as well as by the action of caustic and carbon-
                                  ated alkalies.  The  quantity  of starch  contained  in  dried
                                  maize  is, in  round numbers, about 67 per cent, (see ante
                                  p.  106, and vol. i. p. 119).
                                     When examined by the microscope, the particles of maize
                                  starch are seen  to be more  or less rounded or  ovoid, with  a
                                  very distinct either circular or slit hilum; but with no visible
                                  rings or laminas.  Their shape is mostly somewhat irregular
                                  and knobby;  some mullar shaped.  Owing to their mutual
                                  compression, many of the particles are angular  or polyhedric:
                                  this is especially the case with those contained in the  outer
                                  or  horny portion of the  albumen;  while those found in the
                                  interior or farinaceous portion are more rounded.   Occasion-
                                  ally, particles are seen with a  projection like  a stalk.  'IV
                                  particles of maize  starch are  mostly  of the  medium  size5
                                  (.0005 to .0007 of an inch).  By polarized light  they show
                                  very distinct crosses.
                                    2. Proteine  matters—The quantity of gluten and other azo-
                                  tized constituents in maize  is smaller than in wheat.  Hors-
                                  ford"'obtained 13.65 per cent, from maize meal, and 14.66
                                  per cent, from maize grains.  But Payen (see ante, p. 106,)
                                  found  only 12.5 per cent.   Partly in  consequence of this
                                  smaller proportion of gluten, and partly from some difference
                                  in  the quality of this substance,' maize is  less adapted for
                                  making bread than wheat.
                                   3. Fatty matters.—Of all  the cereal grains, maize appears
                                  to be richest in fatty matter.  MM. Dumas and Payen pro-
                                  cured 9 per cent, of yellow oil  from maize;8 but Liebig9 was
                                  able to  obtain  only 4.25 per cent.  This oil consists, accord-
                                 ing to Fresenius, of carbon 79.68, hydrogen 11.53, and oxygen
       More recently, Payen10 has given 8.80 per cent, as the  proportion of oil found in maize.
  Effects.—Maize  agrees generally with the other cereal grains in its nutritive properties (see
ante, p. 107).   It is  remarkable for its fattening quality, and  which probably depends on the
larger amount of fatty matter contained in it than  in other cereal grains. In those unaccustomed
to its use, it is considered apt to excite  or keep up a tendency to diarrhcea.
  Uses.—It is exclusively employed as an article of food.
          Zea Mays.

a. Male flowers.
6, 6, b, b.  Female flowers.  (The
 styles which project beyond the
 enveloping sheaths form a kind of
 tassel, popularly called the silks.)

8.79,
  1 Quarterly Journal of Science, vol. xi. p. 206, 1821.         * L  Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. ii. 1310.
  3 The substance usually sold in the shops as Indian corn starch is potato starch.
  * Repertory of Patent Inventions, N.S. vol. xviii. p. 163, 1842.
  \T\e f?ilow/ng meTasu/ements of seven (including the largest and smallest) grains of maize starch were
made by Mr. George Jackson :—
                   1..............0010 of an English inch.
                   2..............0006     "     «
                   3..............0005     "     <<
                   *..............0004     "     «
                   5..............0003     '<     "
                   6..............0002     "     «
                   7.............   .0001     "     <<
  8 Ann. d. Chem. u. Pharm. Bd. xlviii. 1846.

*££?$£££& St *'o2^S£: *•iL p-129>4me 6d-1849) sa^that th« ^»« ™ize con-
  8 Comptes rendus, Oct. 24, 1842.
  ' Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie, Bd. xlv. S. 126 1843
  10 Precis de Chim. Industrielle, p. 394, 1849. 
The Common Oat:—Botany; Description;  Composition.       Ill
Tribe III. Avenace^:.
Fig. 202.
        34.  AVENA  SATIVA, Linn.—THE COMMON OAT.
                             Sex. Syst. Triandria, Digynia.
                      (Semen tunicis nudatum, L.—The seeds, E. D.)

  History.—The oat is not mentioned in the Old Testament; hut it is noticed by
the ancient Greek1 and Roman3 writers, the former of whom called it  ppopoc, the
latter avena.
  Botany.   Gen.  Char—Spikelcts three, many-flowered;  flowers remote; the
upper one withered.   (Humes two, thin, membranous, awnless.  Palese two, herba-
ceous; the lower one awned on the back, above
the base,  at the  point almost bicuspidate; the
upper  one bicarinate, awnless;  awn  twisted.
Stamina  three.   Ovarium somewhat pyriform,
hairy at  the point.   Stigmata  two,  sessile,
distant, villoso-plumose;  with  simple  hairs.
Scales  two,  smooth,  usually two-cleft, large.
Caryopsis  long,   slightly  terete,  internally
marked by a longitudinal furrow, hairy at the
point, covered by  the palese, adherent to the
upper one (?) (Kunth).
  Sp.  Char—Panicle equal.   Spilcelets two-
flowered.   Florets smaller than the calyx, naked
at the  base, alternately awned.   Root fibrous,
annual (Kunth).
  Hab—Cultivated in Europe.
  A considerable number of varieties3  of this
species are cultivated;  these  may be arranged
under the two heads of white oats and the red,
dun, or black oats.
  The white oats have the paleae of a  whitish
or  straw  colour.   To this division belong the
potato oat, the Georgian oat, the Poland oat, and  the Friezland or Dutch oat.
  The red, dun, or black oats,  are so called on account of their colour.
  Besides  the Avena sativa, several other species of Avena are cultivated as oats.   The follow-
ing are the chief:—
  Avena orientalis, Kunth.—Tartarian, Hungarian, or one-seeded oat.   Cultivated in Europe.
  Avena brevis, Kunth.—Short oat.  Germany, Austria,  and Hungary.  Cultivated in  France
and Spain.
  Avena nuda, Kunth.—Naked oat.  Cultivated in Europe.
  Description.—Oats (caryopsides vel semina avena;  cruda) are too well known
to  need description.  As found  in  commerce, they are  usually enclosed in the
paleae  or husk.    When  deprived of their integuments,  they  are called  groats
(semina  integumentis nudata,  L.;  avena excorticata seu  grutum) : these  when
crushed,  are denominated Embden groats.    Oatmeal (farina ex seminibus  D.) is
prepared  by grinding the grains.   It  is not so white as wheaten flour,  and has a
somewhat bitterish taste.
  Composition.—Oats  have been  analyzed by Vogel,4 by Payen,5 and, more re-
           Avena.
a. The white oat.
b. Siberian or Tartarian oat.
  1 Hippocrates De victus ratibne, lib. ii. sect. iv. p. 356, ed. Fees.; Theophrastus, Hist  Plant lib viii
cnp. 9; Dioscorides, lib. ii. cup. 116, and lib. iv. cap. 140; Galen, De Alim. Facult. lib. i. cap. 14 p' 322
torn, vi.—I'raas (Synops.  Plant Flora  Classics, p. 303, 1845) considers that the term jWoe i'ncinrfol
both Arena sativa and A.fatua, Linn.                                        r ^ ' "»ciuaes
  '■• Pliny, Hist. Nat. lib. xviii. cap. 44.
  ■ Kor nnnccountof the different sorts of cultivated oats, see The Agriculturist's Manual bvPot.r t —
 on and Son, 1830 ; and Siipvlem;'",  1842. Also, Loudon's Encyclopedia of Agriculture.'
« Quoted bv L. Gmelin, Hamlb. d. Chemie, Bd. ii. S. 1345.
1 Pricis de Chimie Industr. 1849. 
 112                 VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Graminils.

 cently, by Messrs. Norton and Fromberg;  and oatmeal  by Dr.  Christison.1   The
 results of Payen's analysis have been already stated (see ante, p. 10(3).
   Four varieties of Scotch oats were analyzed by Messrs.  Norton and Fromberg9
 with the following results :—

                                         IIopeton Oats.                   Potato Oats.

                            Northumberland.    Ayrshire.       Ayrshire.     Northumberland.
            Starch...........65.24.......64.80.......64.79.......65.60
            Sugar...........4.51.......2.58.......2.09.......O.bO
            Gum............2.10.......2.41.......2 12.......2.28
            Oil.............5.44.......6.97.......6.41.......7 38
  „„,.„.„  ( Avenin......*..... 15.76.......16.26.......17.72......16.29
 „™T, ) Albumen.......... 0.46.......129.......  1.76.......2.17
 compounds ^ Glutin...........o 47.......-,M.......1.33.......U5
            Epidermis.........1.18.......2 39.......2.84.......2.28
            Alkaline salts and loss . . 2.84.......1.84.......0.94.......1.75
                                 100.00 N.....100.00 F.....100.00 F.....100.00 N.

   Oats consist of from 22 to 28 per cent, of husks; and of from 72  to 78  per cent.
 of  grain.
   The composition of the  husk  of the  oat, according to Professor Norton, is as
 follows:—

                                             Hopeton Oat.       Potato Oat.
               Oil.....................1.50..........0 92
               Sugar and gum..............0.47..........0.75
               Gluten and coagulated albumen.....1.88..........1.88
               Cellulose..................89.68..........89.46
               Saline matter (ash)............6.47..........6.99

                                               100.00              100.00

   The husk of the  oat, therefore, though nutritive, is less so than the bran of wheat.
   1. Oat Starch, when examined by the  microscope, is  perceived to consist of small particles,
 whose normal shape is round; but which  is modified by the mutual compression of the par-
 ticles—some  being  mullar-shaped, from the mutual  pressure of two  particles—some being
 rounded at one end  and dihedral at the other, from the mutual pressure of three particles—and
 others being  polyhedric  or  many-angled, from  the mutual pressure of many particles,  The
 hilum is tolerably distinct in the  rounded granules, but rings or lamina? are  not visible.  The
 great bulk of the granules are of the medium  size3  and  polyhedral, frequently presenting a
 pentagonal outline.   Unlike most other starches, little or  no variation is observed in their  ap-
 pearance when they are viewed by polarized light; no crosses are visible.
  2. Avenin—This is a proteine compound analogous  to casein or curd of milk, and on it
 much of the nutritive value  of oats depends.   If oatmeal be washed  on a sieve, and  the milky
 liquid which runs through be left till the starch is deposited, then heated to 200° F. to coagulate
 the albumen, and to it, when cooled, acetic acid added, a  white powder falls, which is avenin.
   Chemical Characteristics.—Iodine forms, when added to the cold  decoction
 of oats, the  blue iodide of starch.   Oatmeal, when mixed with water, does  not form
 a dough as wheaten flour does; but by washing  it  with water on a sieve, the whole
 of the meal, with  the exception of the coarse parts, will be washed through.
   Physiological  Effects.—Oatmeal is  an  important and  valuable article of
 food.   With the  exception of maize or  Indian corn, it  is  richer  in oily or fatty
 matter than any other of the  cultivated cereal grains ; and its proportion of protein
 compounds exceeds  that  of the finest  English  wheaten flour.  So that both with
 respect to its heat- and  fat-making, and its  flesh- and  blood-making principles, it
 holds a high rank.
  A  diet of  unfermented oat-bread is apt to occasion dyspepsia in  those  unaccus-
tomed to its use;  and  it was formerly  suspected of  producing  or aggravating chronic
  ' Dispensatory
  a Johnston's Led. on Agricult. Chemistry, p. 886, 2d. edit. 1847.
  • The following measurements of six (including large and small) grains of oat starch were made by
Mr. George Jackson :—
     1...........0010 of an English inch.   I  4...........0003 of an English inch.
     2...........0006    "      "        5...........0002     "      «
     3...........0004    "      "        6...........0001     "      « 
The Common Oat:—Bearded Darnel.
113
skin diseases, but without just grounds.   Oatmeal porridge, taken at breakfast,
sometimes relieves habitual constipation.
   Intestinal concretions, composed of phosphate of lime, agglutinating animal mat-
ter, and the small, stiff, silky bristles seen at one  end  of the inner integument of
the oat, are sometimes formed  in  those who habitually employ oats as food :  forty-
one specimens,  collected by Dr. Monro secundus, are still in the Anatomical Mu-
seum of the University of Edinburgh.   These  formations are now comparatively
rare, probably because the oats are more perfectly deprived of their investing mem-
branes before being ground (Christison).
   Uses.—The oat is employed dietetically and  medicinally.
   As  a dietetical agent, it is employed in the form of oat-cake or unfermented oat-
bread, oatmeal porridge or stir-about, and gruel.  The latter is sometimes given to
infants as a substitute for the mother's milk.  When there is a tendency to diarrhoea,
either in adults or infants, it is advisable to substitute wheatmeal for oatmeal.
   In medicine  we employ gruel, prepared from  groats or oatmeal, as a mild, nutri-
tious,  and, in most cases, easily-digested article  of food in fevers and inflammatory
affections.  It is also in general use after parturition;  and is the basis of caudle.
In poisoning by acrid substances, it is employed as an emollient and demulcent.
It is given, after the use of purgatives, to render  them  more efficient  and  less in-
jurious.  It is  frequently used, either alone or in conjunction with other agents, as
a clyster.   Oatmeal  is used for making poultices.
   Oats are also employed by distillers for the production of spirit (see Alcohol).
   DECOCTUM AVEM ; Oatmeal Gruel]  Water Gruel.—-This is usually prepared by
boiling oatmeal or groats in water for about half an hour, and then straining.  Dr.
Cullen* directs it to be prepared by boiling an ounce  of oatmeal with three  quarts
of water to a  quart, constantly stirring;  strain, and when  cold  decant the clear
liquid  from the sediment.    Sugar, acids,  or  aromatics may  be employed for
flavouring.

                           Tribe IV.   Hordeace^e.
           35. Lolium temulentum, Linn.—Bearded Darnel.
                             Sex. Syst. Triandria, Digynia.
                                     (Semina.)

  Synonymes.—A?pa, Dios. lib. n. cap. 122; Galen, de simpl. med. fac. lib. vi. § 10, and de
aliment, facult. lib. i. cap. 37; Paulus JEg. lib. vii. sect, iii.;  Lolium, Pliny, Hist. Nat. lib. xxii.
cap. 79; Lolium infelix, Virgil, Georg. i. 153.
  History.—This grass was used medicinally by the ancient Greeks and Romans, though it is
somewhat remarkable that it is mentioned neither by Hippocrates nor Celsus.
  Botany.  Gen. Char.—Spikes  many-flowered, distichous, sessile,  contrary to the rachis.
Flowers beardless at the base.  Glumes 2, nearly equal, herbaceous, lanceolate, channelled, awn-
less; the lower or inner ones very often deficient in the  lateral spikelets.  Palece 2, herbaceous  ;
the lower concave,  awnless, or awned below the point;  the upper bicarinate.   Stamens 3.
Ovary smooth; styles 2, very short, inserted below the point;  stigmas feathery, with long, simple,
finely-toothed, transparent hairs; scales 2, fleshy, smooth, acute, entire or two-lobed.  ■ Caryopsis
smooth, adhering to the upper paleaj (Kunth).
  Sp.  Char.—Spikelets about 6-flowered, equalling or shorter than the glume.   Outer palea as
long as its awn.—Root without barren shoots.  Stem erect, 2 feet high, smooth and shining below,
rough  upwards.  Ligule short.  Inner glume usually present,  often bifid.
  Lolium temulentum, 0. arvense, (Babington, Brit. Bot.) is a variety of the above. It is usually
smaller and smoother; its spikelets 4- or 5-flowered;  its awns either absent or at most short,
lax, and weak.
  J'.urope (indigenous), Japan, New Holland, Chili, Monte Video.—Annual.—Fl. July.
  Inscription.—The grain (raryopsis) enclosed in the  husk is ovato-oblong. on one  side flat-
tened and furrowed—on the other convex, grayish brown; odourless, with a sweetish-bitterish,
not disagreeable, taste.   It yields a darkish meal or farina (called cerina by Pliny).2
1 Treatise of the Materia Medica, p. 280.               a Hist. Nat. lib. xxii. cap. 58.
 VOL.  II.—S 
114
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Graminlvt.
Fig. 203.
  Composition.—In 1827, Bizio1 examined  darnel, and dig.
covered in the seeds two peculiar substances, which he called
respectively glojalico and lalico; the latter he stated possessed
a narcotic power similar to that of opium.   In 1837, Mura-
tori2 analyzed darnel seeds, and  ascribed their poisonous pro-
perties to a peculiar acid.  In  1 S34,Bley3exartiined them, and
obtained the  following substances: Traces of volatile oil, chlo-
rophylle 7.5,  soft  resin 3.5,  bitter extractive with chlorides and
sulphates 6.0, gum with chloride of calcium 6.0, sugar 0.7, albu-
men 0.65, extractive with malate of lime 1.55, gum with sulphatt
and muriate of potash 2.5, gum  with malate of potash 3.0, starch
29.9, artificial gum and coagulated albumen 2.9, gluten 0.8, vege-
table fibre 11.0, moisture 20 0 [loss 0.4 ?].  Bley concluded that
the  poisonous principle of darnel was extractable  from the
seeds by water.   Subsequently,4 he procured from the watery
extract of darnel seeds a peculiar substance, which  he called
loliin. 1000 grains of the seeds  yielded him 294 grains of starch.
  Loliin is a foliated or pulverulent dirty white substance, so>
luble in hot and cold water, and in hot alcohol.  Its aqueoui
solution reddened litmus paper feebly.  A tenth of a grain of
loliin caused an acrid sensation in the throat, followed by an
affection of the head and weakness of the whole body, which
effects continued only for a short time.
  Chemical Characteristics.—According  to  Rnspini,5 the
presence of grains of Lolium temulentum in  wheat-flour may
be detected by digesting the suspected farina  in rectified spirit.
If the Lolium be present,  the spirit  immediately acquires a
characteristic green tint, which  gradually  deepens; and the
taste of the tincture is astringent, and so disagreeable  that it
may even excite  vomiting.  By evaporation  it yields a green
resin.  But I have  not  succeeded in  obtaining these  results.
By  digesting  bruised and coarsely powdered grains of Lolium
temulentum  in rectified  spirit, the liquid had  acquired in forty.
eight hours a pale yellow colour and scarcely any flavour, and
yielded,  by spontaneous evaporation, a minute portion of yel-
lowish residue with a saline taste.
  Physiological Effects,  a.  On Animals.—The effects of
bearded  darnel on  animals have been examined by  Seeger,
Burghard,  Mariotti, and  Hertwig; and the general results es-
tablish the poisonous action of the seeds of this grass.   Vomit-
ing was  a general effect; followed by tremblings,convulsions,
insensibility,  and augmentation of urine and  sweat.6
  0. On Man.—The ill effects of the seeds of bearded darnel
on man were known to the ancient Greeks and Romans.  The
symptoms which they produce are  twofold : those indicating
gastro-intestinal  irritation—such as vomiting and colic; and
those which arise from disorder of the cerebro-spinal  system-
such as headache, giddiness, languor, ringing in the ear.'-, con'
fusion of sight, dilated pupil, delirium, heaviness, somnolency,
trembling, convulsions, and  paralysis.   These seeds, therefore,
appear to be  acro-narcotic poisons.  According to Seeger, one
of the most certain  sisms of poisoning by them is trembling of
the  whole body.  Both  Burghard  and Schober (quoted by
Wibmer) mention death as having  resulted from  their use.
In Cordiers cases their ill effects were directly ascertained by
experiments  made uppn himself; but in most other cases they
were the  results of accidental  poisoning.   In  general, they
have arisen  from the intermixture  of bearded darnel seeds
with other cereal grains.7   In  a prison at  Cologne, sixty per-
Lolium temulentum, or Bearded
           Darnel.
  1 Dierbach. Die ntuest. Entd.in d. Mat. Med. Bd. iii. S. 1139,1847.
  1 Buchner's Repert.fiir die Pharmacie, 2te Reihe, Bd. xii. S. Wl,
1838.
  » Ibid., Bd. xlviii. S. 1G9, 1834.
  « Ibid., 2te Reihe, Bd. xii. S.  175,1838.
  * Journ. de Pharm. et de Chimie, 3me Ser. t. v. p. 297, 1814.
  ' Wibmer, Die Wirk. d  Arzneim. u. Gifte, Bd. iii S. 237, 1837.
  ' See Cliristison On Poisons; and Wibmer, op. supra cit. 
             Two-Rowed or Long-Eared Barley:—its History.          115

eons suffered from the use of a bread-meal containing a drachm and a half of lolium temulentum,
in six ounces of meal.1
   Regarded in a medicinal point of view, bearded darnel appears to possess sedative and ano-
dyne properties. Fantoni2and Giacomini consider it to be a direct hyposthenic (see vol. i. p. 134)
depressing the cerebral circulation and acting like aconite.
   Uses —Darnel has been  recently employed in headache, in rheumatic  meningitis, and in
sciatica.   Fantoni used it with success  in  the case of a widow who, at the climacteric period,
was affected with giddiness, headache, and epistaxis, which had resisted various other remedies.
In a case of violent rheumatic meningitis, very great benefit was obtained by its use.
   Administiiation.—The dose of powdered darnel is one or two grains every four or six hours
in the form of powder or pill.  It  may also  be employed in the form either of decoction or of
extract.   The extract is given to the extent of half a grain or a grain in the day.
   Antidotes.—No specific chemical antidote is known.  In the  event, therefore, of a case of
poisoning by darnel, our principal reliance must be on the use of evacuants and dynamical anti-
dotes  (see vol. i. p. 145).  After the removal of the poison from the  stomach and bowels,  stimu-
lants (such as ammonia, coffee, &c.) may be administered to relieve the depression.


36. HORDEUM  DISTICHON, Linn— TWO-ROWED  OR LONG-
                             EARED BARLEY.
                             Sex. Syst. Triandria, Digynia.
                    (Semen tunicis nudatum, L.—Decorticated Seeds, E. D.)

   History.—Fliny,3  on the authority of Menander, says barley (Jmrdenm) was  a
most ancient aliment of mankind.  It was cultivated in Egypt nearly 1500  years
before Christ.4  Hippocrates mentions three kinds of xpiJ»J or barley;  namely, barley
Bimply so called,5 three-month barley,8  and Achilles  barley.7  These probably were
II. vu/gare, 11. distichon, H. hexastichon.
   Botany.  Gen. Char.—Spikelets three together, the lateral ones  usually withered,
two-flowered, with an upper flower reduced to a subulate rudiment.   Glumes  two,
lanceolate-linear, with  subulate awns, flatfish, unequal sided, at  right  angles  [con-
trariac"\, with the paleae almost unilateral, turned  inwards [unticee], herbaceous,  rigid.
Palnc  two, herbaceous; the  inferior one (turned inwards) concave, ending in an
awn; the superior one (turned outward) contiguous to the raehis, bicarinate.   Sta-
mina three.  Ovarium hairy at the apex.  Stigmata two, sessile, somewhat terminal,
feathery.   Scales two,  entire or augmented by a lateral lobe, usually hairy or ciliated.
 Can/apsis hairy at the point, oblong, with a longitudinal furrow internally, adherent
to the paleas, rarely free (Kunth).
   Sp. Char.—The lateral florets male, awnless; the hermaphrodite ones distichous,
close pressed to the stem, awned  (Kunth).
   0.  With naked seeds; II. nudum;  Naked tworowed Barley.—The grains of this
variety separate from the palese or chaff-like wheat.
   Hab.—A native of  Tartary, cultivated in this country.
   Several sorts of this species are in cultivation: such as the common two-rowed or
English barley, the Chevalier barley, the Annat barley,  Dunlop barley, golden or
Italian barhy, and black two rowed barley (Ilordeum distichon nigrum).
   Besides //. distichon, several other species of Hordeum are in cultivation—namely,
// vulgarc,  or Spring Barley;  II. hexastichon, or  Six-rowed Bailey; and //.  Zco-
citron, Sprat or Battledore Barley.
   Description.—The grains (caryopsides vel  semina  hordei cruda) are too well
known to need description.  As found  in commerce, they are usually enclosed in
the paleae or husk.   Deprived  of their  husk by a mill, they form Sotch, hulled, or
pot barley (hordeum mundatum).  When all the integuments  of the grains are
removed, and the  seeds are rounded and polished, they constitute pearl barley (hor-

   1 Wibmer, p. !>3G.
   * Annali universali di Medieina, Sept. 1813 (quoted by Dierbach).
   * Hist. Aat. xviii. 14.                                   * Exodus, ix. 31.
   » De virtus rnt. lib. ii. p. 3oj, ed. Fa&au.                     • De wtvrb. mul. lib. i. p. 609.
   ' De morbis, lib. iii. p. 400. 
116
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Gramine.e.
deum perlatum). ,  The farina (farina hordei) obtained by grinding pearl barley to
powder is called patent barley.
Fig. 204.
               The Ripe Seeds.
Meal  .......................70.05
Husk.......................18.75
Moisture.....................11.20

                                      100.00
                                   Hordeum or Barley.
              a, H. vulgare. 6, H. hexastichon. c, H. distichon.  d, H. Zeocitron.

   Three qualities of barley are distinguished in the market:  the hard and flinty, fit
for making pot barley; a softer kind,called malting barley, which is next in value;
and feeding barley, which is adapted for neither of the uses of the two other kinds.
   Composition.—According to  Einhof,1 barley has the following composition:—

                                                            Barley-meal.
                                            Starch   ......................67.18
                                            Fibrous  matter (gluten, starch, and Iignin) . .  7.29
                                            Gum........................4.G2
                                            Sugar......................5.21
                                            Gluten  ......................3.52
                                            Albumen.....................1.15
                                            Phosphate of lime with albumen  .......0.24
                                            Moisture.....................9.37
                                            Loss........................1.42

                                                                                 100.00

   Payen's analysis of barley has been already given (see ante, p. 106), as also  the
proportion of starch  and proteine constituents according to Krocker and Ilorsford
(see vol. i. p. 116).  Mr. Johnston3 gives the following as the average composition of
fine barley-meal:  Starch 68; gluten, albumen, &c. 14; fatty matter 2; saline mailer
or ash 2; water 14=100.
   1. Proteine Compounds.—The proportion of proteine matter  in barley is much less than
that in wheat, and its quality is very different.  If barley dough be washed with water, nearly
the whole is washed away, the husk  alone excepted : it contains, therefore, little or no gluten
properly so called.   The milky liquid deposits starchy matter and an insoluble proteine matter
(insoluble caseine?), while the clear liquid holds in solution a small  quantity of albumen (coa-
gulable by heat), and of caseine (precipitable by acetic acid).  If the starchy deposit be digested
with water containing ammonia, a solution of the proteine compound is obtained, from which
a voluminous precipitate (caseine?) is thrown down by  acetic acid.  (Johnston.)
   2. Stahch.—Barley starch, like wheat  starch, consists principally of  large and small grains,
with but few of intermediate size: but the diameter of the largest grains is somewhat  larget
than that of the corresponding grains of wheat starch.3   The shape of  the larger grains is irre-
gularly circular, or elliptical, or obscurely  triangular, flattened or lenticular, the flattened surfaces
being undulated or uneven: the smaller grains are globular, ellipsoidal, rarely angular or mullar-
  1 L. Gmelin's Handb. d. Chemie, ii. 1344.
  2 Led. on Agricultural Chemistry, p. SSI, 2d edit. 1647.
  3 The following measurements of seven (including the largest and smallest) grains of barley starch
were made by Air. George Jackson :—
     1.........0.0011 of an English inch.
2.........0 0010
3.........0 0009
1.........0 0008
0.000.5 of an English inch.
0.0002    ♦'      "
0.0001    "      << 
Barley-Water; Malt.
117
shaped.  The hilum is scarcely, if at all, perceptible on the larger grains, and the rings are very
faintly indicated: in these respects the grains of barley starch differ remarkably from those of
rye starch.   On the smaller grains, a hilum, or what appears to  be such, is frequently percep-
tible.  By polarized light the cross is less distinctly seen than  in rye starch.  Barley starch offers
more resistance to the action of boiling water than some other starches; and the insoluble resi-
due, after the prolonged ebullition of it in water, constitutes what Proust1 called hordeine.
  3.  Fatty or Oily Matter.—Fourcroyand  Vauquelin*detected a yellow, acrid, saponifiable,
butyraceous oil, in barley.
  Chemical Characteristics.—Iodine  forms the blue iodide of starch, when
added to the cold decoction of barley.   Decoction of whole barley has an acrid bitter
taste, which it derives from the husk.
  Physiological Effects.—Barley is a  valuable nutritive.  Considered in rela-
tion to wheat, it offers several peculiarities.   In the first  place it contains much less
proteine matter;  in  other  words, less of  the  flesh-and-blood-making  principles;
though  Count Rumford3 considered barley-meal in soup three or four times  as nu-
tritious as wheat-flour.  Secondly, its starch offers more  resistance to  the action of
the gastric juice, in consequence of  its more difficult  solubility in  water.   Thirdly,
its husk is slightly acrid;  and, therefore, this should be removed from  barley intended
for dietetical purposes, as in Scotch and pearl barley.  Fourthly, barley-meal is more
laxative than wheat-meal.
   Uses.—Barley is employed both dietetically and medicinally; as  well also in the
brewery and distillery.
   Barley-meal is sometimes added to three times its  weight of wheat-meal to form
infant's food;  the addition of the barley-meal being intended to obviate the consti-
pating effects of  wheat-meal.
   Scotch and pearl barley are employed to  thicken soups, and to yield barley water.
It is frequently  used in  the  dietaries of pauper establishments; but when  bowel
complaints prevail, some other cereal grain (wheat, for example) should  be substi-
tuted for it.

   1. DECOCTUM HORDEI, L. D. [U. S.]; Aqua hordeata ; Barley Water.—(Barley [pearl
barley] giiss [3iss, 1).]; Water Oivss [Oiss, D. (Barley ^ij;  Water Oivss, U. S.)].)—
First wash away, with water, any foreign matters adhering to the barley seeds; then,
half  a pint of the water being poured on them, boil the seeds a little  while.  This
water being thrown away, pour the remainder of the water, first made hot, on them,
and boil down to two pints, and strain, //.—This is a valuable demulcent and emol-
lient drink for the invalid in febrile cases and inflammatory disorders, especially of
the chest and urinary organs.   It is sometimes given  to children as a slight laxative.
It is usually flavoured with  sugar, and frequently with some slices of lemon.  It is a
constituent of the Enema Aloes, L., Enema Terebinthinae, L., and Decoctum Hordei
comjiositum, L.
   The  Mucilago Hordei, Ph.  D., is prepared with Ground  Pearl Barley §ss;
Water  f 3xvj.

   2. DECOCTUM HORDEI COMPOSITUM,!.; Mistura Hordei, E.; Decoctum Pectorale;
Compound Decoction of Barley; Pectoral Decoction.—(Decoction  of Barley Oij;
Figs, sliced, ^iiss; Liquorice [root]  sliced  and  bruised  3v; Raisins [stoned] 3iiss
[and Distilled Water Oj, L.~\.   Boil down to two  pints, and strain.—The process
of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia is essentially the  same.)—This decoction is emol-
lient, demulcent, and slightly aperient.   It is employed  in the same  cases as  the
simple decoction.

   3.  DYNE  (Pvvii); Brasium; Maltum; Malt.—This is barley which has been made
to germinate by  moisture and warmth, and  afterwards dried, by which the vitality
of the seed is destroyed.—By this process  part of the proteine matter  of the barley
is converted iuto diastase.  This, although it does not constitute more than about
1 Ann. Chim Phys. v. 339.
* Eaay on Feeding the Poor, lbOO.
' Ann. de Mus. d'Hist. Nat. \o. xxxvii. p. 8. 
118
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Gramineas.
gfoth of the malt, serves to effect the conversion of about 40 per cent, of the starch
of the seed into grape-sugar, or gum (dextrine).   The grain loses by the operation
of malting about  8 per cent, of its weight, and gains about -^th  or -j'jth in  bulk.
This loss arises in part from the separation of the radicles in the form of  malt-dust
or cummins.   The colour  of  the  malt varies with the  temperature  at  which it is
dried.   If the temperature does not exceed 100° F., the  result is pale malt; if it
be above this and does not exceed 180°, the result is amber malt.   These varieties
of malt yield fermentable infusions.   Brown or blown malt dried at 260°  F. is used
to communicate flavour; while roasted,  burned, or high-dried malt, which has been
scorched, is employed for colouring porter.
   The infusion of malt (infusum bynes), commonly called  sweet-wort, contains sac-
charine matter, starch, glutinous matter, and mucilage.   It is nutritious and laxa-
tive, and has been used as an antiscorbutic and tonic.   Macbride1 recommended it
in scurvy;2 but it is apt to increase  the  diarrhoea.  As  a  tonic  it  has been used in
scrofulous affections, purulent discharges, as from the  kidneys, lungs,  &c, and in
pulmonary consumption.3   The  decoction (decoctum bynes) is prepared by boiling
three ounces of malt in a quart of water.   This quantity may be  taken daily.
   4. CERVISIA;4 Ale and Beer.—By the  fermentation  of an  infusion  of malt and
hops are obtained ale and beer.  These  liquids consist  of alcohol, sugar,  mucilage,
an extractive  and bitter principle, fatty matter,  aroma (volatile oil?), glutinous
matter,  lactic and carbonic acids, salts,  and water.  Common beer contains about 1
per cent., strong ale or beer about 4 per cent., best brown stout 6 per cent, and  the
strongest ale about 8  per cent, of spirit of sp. gr.  0.825.   The  ashes of  beer con-
sist of potash, soda, lime,  chlorine, sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid, and silica.5
   Beer  is a thirst-quenching, refreshing, exhilarating, intoxicating, and slightly
nutritious beverage.8
   a.  Ale7 is prepared with pale malt.   It is, therefore,  lighter coloured; and, when
made with an equal weight of malt, is richer in alcohol,  sugar, and gum, than porter
or stout.  Pale  or bitter  ale, brewed for the India market, has been carefully  fer-
mented  so as to be devoid of  saccharine matter, and contains an extra quantity of
the active principles of hops.   It is frequently used as a restorative beverage  for
invalids and convalescents.
   /3.  Porter (the stronger  kinds of which are called stout) owes its dark  colour to
high-dried or charred malt.   When fresh or new,  it is said to be mild; and, when
old and  acid, is called hard.  An  extract of cocculus indicus, called black extract
or hard multum,  is occasionally used by dishonest dealers to  augment its intoxicat-
ing quality.  For medicinal purposes bottled porter  (cervisia lagenaria)  is usually
preferred to draught porter.   It is used as a restorative  in the latter  stages of
fever, and to  support the powers of the system  after surgical operations,  severe
accidents, &c.
  1 Hist. Account of anew Method of Treating Scurvy, 1767.
  2 See also a paper by Dr. Badenoch. Med. Obs. and Inq. vol. v. p. 61.
  3 Rush, Med. Obser'v. and Inq. iv. 367.
  4 Pliny (Hist. Nat. lib. xxii. cap. &••>, ed. Valp.). in noticing the drinks prepared from corn, says that
" Zythum is made in Egypt, celia and ceria in Spain, and cervisia, and many more sorts, in Gaul." For
cervisia, some writers use the term cerevisia.  Zythum (£vdo;) was a kind of beer obtained by fermenta-
tion from barley. (See Herodotus, lib. ii. cap. 77.) As cervisia was made  from unmalted barley, its
colour would be pale, and it would, therefore, in this respect, agree with our ale. But the ale and beer
of the present day" ditfer from the ancient cervisia in being  flavoured with hops, and hence the phrase
cervisia lupulata, which is sometimes applied to them.
  5 Dickson, Phil. Mag. and Journal of Science, vol. xxxiii. p. 341, 1848.
  6 For further details respecting the nutritive and dietetical properties of beer, see the author's Treatise
on Diet, p. 415, et seq.
  ' Ale, in Saxon eale or ealo (probably from the word celia,  before mentioned), is sometimes Latinized,
ala or alia. 
Common Wheat :—Botany.
119
    37. TRITICUM VULGARE, Kunth.—COMMON WHEAT.
                              Sex. Syst. Triandria, Digynia.
(Farina; farina seminis: Amylum;  seminis, faicnla, L.:  Amylum; fecula of the seeds, E.:  The seeds,
                        from which are prepared flour and starch, JD.)

   History.—In the earlier  ages wheat was  an esteemed article  of food,1 and  is
frequently spoken of by Hippocrates,2 who calls  it rtvpoc, and mentions three kinds
of it:  wheat,  simply so called, three-month  wheat, and Sitanian  wheat.   Pliny3
describes several kinds of triticum.
   Botany.  Gen.  Char.—Spikelets three or many flowered: the fructiferous rachis
generally articulated, flowers distichous.   Glumes two, nearly opposite, almost equal,
awnless or awned:  the  upper one bicarinate; the keels more  or less aculeato-ciliate.
Stamina three.    Ovarium pyriform, hairy at the apex.   Stigmata two, terminal,
subsessile, feathery;  with long, simple,  finely-toothed hairs.   Scales two, generally
entire  and ciliated.   Caryopsis externally convex, internally concave, and marked
by a deep furrow, distinct, or adhering to the  paleae (Kunth).
   Sp. Char.— Spike four-cornered,  imbricated; with  a tough  rachis.   Spikelets
generally four-flowered.   Glumes ventricose, ovate, truncate, mucronate, compressed
below  the apex, round, and convex  at the back, with a prominent nerve.   Flowers
awned or awnless.   Grains loose (Kunth).
   et.  eKstivum* Kunth;  T.  cestivum, Linn. D.; Spring or Summer Wheat.—Annual;   glumes
awned.—This variety includes a great many sorts known  to farmers by different names, and
which  may be arranged in  two divisions—viz., the white bearded and the red bearded.
   8-  hybernum,4  Kunth; T. hybernum, Linn.;  T. compactum, Host.;  T. velutinum, Schuebl.;  T.
erinaceum, Hort. Hal.;  Winter Wheat.—Biennial ; glumes almost awnless.   This  variety also
includes many sorts, which may be arranged in two divisions—viz., the white beardless and ihered
beardless.—Talavera wheat is a white beardless winter wheat.  Mr. Hard, miller,of Dartford, tells
me that " this kind (Talavera wheat) is far superior to any description of wheat, either foreign or
English; and the great advantage it possesses consists in its strength, colour, and sweetness.
The reason of there being so small a quantity at market, arises from  the fact of its being  so
                            Trilicum.— Wfuat.
a. T. vulgare, a. aestivum.                    e.  T. polonicum.
6. T. vulgare, g. hybernum.                   f.  T. Spelta.
c. T. turgidum (compositum).                 g-.  T. monococcum.
d. T. turgidum.
  * Lerit. ii.                                        * De victus rat. lib. iii. p. 374, ed. Fcesii.
  * Hist. Nat. xviii. 12.
  4 The distinction of wheats into summer and winter wheats, or into those sown in the spring and those
■own in the autumn, has been objected to on the ground thut under the name of T. hybernum are included
several  of the earlier sorts of spring wheat, and under T. erstivum, are included several wheats which
require as long a time to arrive at maturity at the common winter sorts. 
120               VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Graminea3.

unprofitable to the farmer, scarcely producing one crop in three, which I greatly regret, as it is
the most valuable grain we have; and, technically speaking, if the flour improperly manufac-
tured, 8 oz. will absorb as much liquor as 11 oz. of that used by the baker."
   Hab—It is a native of the country of the Baschkirs, and is cultivated in Europe.
  Besides T. vulgare, other species of Triticum  are cultivated.  The following are the chief:—
  T. TritciDix, Kunth; Turgid Wheat.  Some of the sorts of this species  have smooth ears;
others downy, woolly, or  velvety ears.—This  species includes the  T. turgidum, Linn, and  T.
compositum, Linn.
  T. dtjiium, Kunth; Hard or Horny Wheat.
  T. polonicum, Kunth;  Polish Wheat.
  T. Spelta, Kunth;  Spelt  Wheat.
  T. monococctjm, Kunth; One-grained Wheat.
   Description.—Wheat-grains (caryopsides tritici; semina tritici), as brought  to
market, are completely devoid of their palese (chaff or husk).
   The number of parts into which millers separate wheat varies in different locali-
ties.   According  to Mr.  Hard, miller, of  Dartford, in Kent, the products  obtained
by grinding one quarter  or eight bushels of  wheat are as follows:—

                   Produce of one quarter of Wheat weighing 504 lbs.
           Flour.......................................392 lbs.
           Biscuit or fine middlings............................10
           Toppings or specks...............................  3
           Best pollard, Turkey pollard, or twenty-penny...............15
           Fine pollard...................................  13
           Bran and coarse pollard ............................50
           Loss sustained by evaporation, and waste in grinding, dressing, &c. ...  11
                                                                     504 lbs.
   Wheat-grains vary in size, smoothness, transparency,  and hardness, and in the
thickness  of their integuments; and, consequently, the relative proportions of bran
(and pollard) and flour which they yield  vary.   The integument  readily separates
in soft-grained wheat,  but with difficulty in the hard-grained: the  former, therefore,
yields more bran and less flour;  while the latter produces flour of a lower  quality,
because it is  intermixed  with some of the ground integuments.
    Semolina, Soujee, and Manna Croup1 are granular  preparations of wheat, de-
prived of  bran.
   I am indebted to  Mr.  Hard for the following notice (as well as for samples)  of
the products  obtained  in grinding wheat:—
    " The wheat having been ground in the usual way, should be allowed to  remain
in the meal for some time before dressing, which removes the heat caused by the
process, and  enables the miller to obtain more flour, and  the baker a better quality,
than if dressed immediately it is ground.
    " The process of dressing is by a wire  cylinder containing  a certain number  of
sheets of  different  texture  or fineness, which  cylinder contains eight hair-brushes
attached  to a spindle passed through the  centre of the cylinder, and laid out so  as
to gently  touch the wire: this cylinder is fed  by a  shoe with the meal; then the
flour and  offal, after passing through the wire in this way, are divided by wood par-
titions fixed close to the outside of the cylinder.   The produce of wheat-meal dressed
through the wire machine consists of—1st, Flour;  2d, White Stuff, or Boxings, ox
 Sharps;  3d, Fine  Pollard; 4th, Coarse Pollard, or Horse  Pollard; 5th, Bran.
The second product (i. e. the White Stuff) is  then  submitted to  another  dressing
through a fine cloth machine, and produces—1st, Fine Middlings, for biscuits; 2d,
 Toppings or  Specks; 3d, Dustings; 4th, Best Pollard, Turkey Middlings or Coarse
 Middlings.
    Composition.—1.  Wheat-flour  has  been  analyzed by Vogel,a by Proust,3  by
 Henry,* and by Vauquelin.5  The following are the  results obtained by Vauquelin.

   1 The term Manna Croup is probably derived from Manna-Grout, the name of  a nutritious food  pre-
 pared from the grain of Glyceriafluitans. (See Curtis, Fl. Lond. vol. i. pi. 7; also, Tooke's View of tkt
 Russian Empire, vol. iii. p. )6S, 2d edit. 1800.)
   » Quoted by L. Gmelin. Handb.  d. Chem. Bd. ii. S. 1341.          » Ann. Chim. Phys. t, v. p. 340.
   4 Journ. de Pharm. t. vni. p 51, 1S22 ;  and t. xv. p. 127,1329.      * Ibid., t. viii. p. 353, 16'i». 
Common Wheat :—its Composition.

      Composition of Wheat Flock.
121
French j Wheat.	Odessa Hard Wheat.	Odessa Soft Wheat.	Ditto.	1 | Flour of Ditto. 1 Paris, bakers.		Ditto of good quality used in public establishments.	Ditto, inferior kind.
Gum...... 3.32 Water.....1 10.00	56.5 14.55 8.48 4.90 2.30 12.00	62.00 12.00 7.56 5.80 1.20 10.00	70 84 12.10 4.90 4.60 8.00	72.00 7.30 5.42 3.30 12.00	72.8 10.2 4.2 2.8 10.0	71.2 10.3 4.8 36 8.0	67.78 9.02 4.80 4 60 2.00 12.00
Wheat flour . . 100.49 | 98.73 1 98.56			100.44 1 100.02 | 100.0			97.9	100.20
   Payen's analysis of wheat has been already given (see ante, p. 106); as also the
proportions of water, proteine matters, and starch, according to  the investigations
of  Horsford and  Krocker (see vol.  i. p.  116); and the composition of the ash of
wheat (see ante, p. 106).
   Mr. Johnston1 found that in 20 samples of English flour the proportion of water
varied from 15 to 17 per cent.
   The proportion of the organic constituents of wheat is  liable to considerable va-
riation, according to soil,  climate, variety of seed, mode of culture, time of cutting,
and quality of manure.
   2. The composition of bran, like  that  of wheat-flour, is subject to great variation;
but the following is given by Mr. Johnston as the average:—

                                  Composition of Bran.
                    Water..........................  13.1
                    Albumen (coagulated).................19.3
                    Oil ...........................  4.7
                    Husk and a little starch................55.6
                    Saline matter (ash)  ..................  7.3

                               Bran...................100.0

   1. Stauch—As wheat-starch  is an article of the materia medica, it will be  noticed among
the officinal preparations (see ante,p. 124).
   2. Proteine Matters.—The quantity of proteine matters in wheat has  been already stated
(see vol. i. p. 116, and vol. ii. p. 123).  Wheat contains at least four different proteine compounds,
natnely, albumen, vegetable, fibrine, gluten, and caseine.  They have an analogous composition, and
contain each about  16  per cent, of nitrogen.
   If wheaten-dough be washed on a sieve by a stream of water, a milky liquid passes through,
and a tenacious elastic mass is left behind  called crude gluten, or sometimes Beccaria's gluten.
The milky liquid holds in solution gum, sugar, and albumen;  and in suspension starch : the crude
gluten contains vegetable fibrine, gluten, caseine or  mucine, and  oil.   According to Saussure2
crude gluten has the following composition:—

                     Glutin.......................... 20
                     Vegetable fibrine  ....................72
                     Mucine (caseine?)  ...................4
                     Oil............................3.7
                     Starch (accidental)...................a  small quantity

                              Crude gluten................99.7

   a.  Vegetable Albumen.—Obtained by allowing the milky liquid above  mentioned to deposit its
starch, and  then heating the supernatant liquor nearly to boiling : flakes of coagulated albumen
are formed.  Its composition was found by Dr. Bence Jone»3 to be carbon 55.01, hydrogen 7.23
nitrogen 15.92, oxygen, sulphur, and phosphorus 21.84.
   8. Glutin;  Gliadine (from y\la, glue); Pure Gluten.— Obtained by boiling crude gluten in al-
cohol, which extracts glutin, caseine or mucine, and  oil. By cooling, the  caseine is deposited.
The supernatant liquid is then evaporated to dryness, and  the adhesive mass  thus obtained
digested with ether to extract the oil: the residue is glutin.   Its composition has been before
noticed (see vol.i. p. 112).
   y.  Vegetable Fibrine; Zymome (from &(*», ferment).—This is the part of  crude gluten which
is insoluble in alcohol.  Mulder considers  it to be  coagulated albumen; Liebig as vegetable
fibrine.  Johnston, on  the other hand, thinks it  different from both  albumen and fibrine, and

  » Lectures in Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edit. p. 867.
  * Bibliotheque universellt, Sciences et Arts, t. liii. p. 260,1833.       * Liebig's Animal Chemistry. 
 122               VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord. Gramine.e.

 therefore, calls it simply gluten.  When obtained as above described it  much resembles tbe
 fibre of lean beef.   Dr. Bence Jones ascertained its  composition to be carbon 55.22, hydrogen
 7.42, nitrogen 15.98, oxygen, &c, 21.38.
  f. Caseine.— After the albumen has been separated by heat  from  the aqueous liquid before
 alluded to, the addition of acetic acid causes the separation of what is supposed to be caseine.
 Tbe white flocculent substance, which  deposits on cooling  from the alcoholic liquor in which
 crude gluten has been boiled, and which has been called murine, somewhat resembles caseine,
  3. Oil.—Obtained by  digesting wheat flour in ether.  The  quantity procured varies from
 1^ to 3 percent.  As bran yields about twice as much as fine flour, it follows that the oil exists
 in greater proportion in the outer than in the  inner part of the grain.  The oil resembles the
 fatty oils or butter in its  properties.  By washing wheat-dough, part of the oil is  washed out,
 and part remains in the crude gluten.
  4. Water.—According to Johnstone, English flour contains, on an average, from 15  to 17
 per cent, of water.
  5. Mineral Constituents.—The composition of the ashes of  wheat has been already
 stated (see ante, p. 106).  The most important of these constituents are the alkaline and earthy
 phosphates.
   Chemical Characteristics.—The cold  decoction of wheat-flour  forms,  with
 tincture of iodine, the blue iodide of starch.  Nitric acid gives wheat-flour a fine
 orange-yellow colour.   Recently-prepared tincture of guaiacum forms a  blue colour
 with good wheat-flour.
   Diseases of Wheat.1—Five diseases of wheat are  produced  by the attacks of
 parasitic fungi; namely, 1st, bunt, smut-balls,  or pepper-brand, produced by Uredo
 Caries, De Candolle;  2dly, smut, dust-brand, or  burnt-ear, produced by Uredo
 segetum; 3dly, rust, red-rag, red-robin, or red-gum, caused,  as Professor Henslow
 has shown, by the young  state of Puccinia graminis, which was  formerly supposed
 to form two  distinct fungi, to which the  names of  Uredo Rubigo  and U. linearis
 had been  given;  4thly, mildew, produced by the  Puccinia graminis  in a  more
 advanced period of its  growth; and 5thly, ergot, caused by the Oidium abortifa-
 ciens (see ante, p. 87).
   Two diseases of wheat  are produced  by parasitic animalcules;  namely, first, the
 ear-cockle, purples, or peppercorn,  caused  by a microscopic, eel-shaped animalcule,
 called Vibrio Tritici; and, secondly, the wheat-midge, an abortion of the  grain
 caused by a minute two-winged fly called  Cecidomyia Tritici.
   Corn affected with any of these diseases is of course deteriorated in value; but we
 have still to learn what are the precise effects on the animal economy of grain thus
 infected.   The bunt imparts to flour  its disgusting odour, and makes it less fit for
 bread;  but flour thus tainted is used in the manufacture  of  ginger-bread.   Smut
 does not give any unpleasant odour to corn, which, when infected  with it, is fre-
 quently used for  feeding  fowls, apparently without producing any ill effects.  I
 have ascertained that  ergot of wheat is  as powerful in its action on the uterus as
 ergot of rye.   It has  been suggested that some remarkable cases of spontaneous
 gangrene which occurred  at Wattisham, in Suffolk, in  1762, may  possibly have
 arisen from the presence of ergot in the corn used by the  persons affected;  but of
 this there is no evidence.
  Deterioration;  Adulteration.—By exposure to  a damp air, wheat-flour
 absorbs moisture,  and,  after  some time, acquires  a  musty odour, and becomes
 mouldy; the gluten being  the first to suffer change.   In this state it may be readily
 conceived that wheat-flour would prove injurious to  health.
  Wheat-flour  is  subject  to adulteration with various  vegetable  and mineral sub-
stances.
  Among vegetable substances used for the purpose of adulterating wheat-flour, the
following have  been named: potato starch, the meal  of  other cereal  grains (viz., of
maize, rice, barley, and  rye), of buckwheat, and of  certain leguminous seeds (viz.,
of beans, peas, and vetch).
  In the detection of these adulterations, the microscope lends important assistance.
Henslow's Report on this
>1. ii. part 1. 
        Common Wheat:—Adulteration;  Physiological Effects.     123

It enables us to judge of the size and shape, the markings on, and the isolation
and agglomeration of, the starch grains, and thereby to distinguish the starch grains
of one meal from those of another.
  In some cases, the microscopic examination of suspected flour is aided by the use
of a solution of potash.  Thus it enables us readily to detect the presence of either
potato starch or the meal of leguminous seeds.   If a solution containing about If
per cent,  of potash1 be added to a mixture of potato-starch  and wheat-starch (or
wheat-flour), the granules of potato-starch swell up, and acquire three or four times
their original volume, while those of wheat-starch are scarcely affected  by it.   A
solution of potash, containing about 12 per cent, of potash, dissolves all the  varie-
ties of  starch,  but not cellulose; hence, if to wheat-flour,  intermixed with the meal
of some leguminous seed, this solution be added, the starch grains dissolve, and the
hexagonal tissue of the adulterating leguminous seed is rendered very-obvious.3
   Occasionally, polarized light  may  be used to  aid  the microscope in detecting
adulterations of wheat-flour.  Thus, unlike wheat-starch,  the starch of the oat pro-
duces no effect on polarized light, and presents no crosses when viewed by it.
   In the detection of the meal of the leguminous seeds, the odour and flavour of
the  suspected  flour, and its  chemical characters, aid in  detecting the fraud.   If
the suspected  flour be digested with  twice its volume of cold water, the infusion
filtered and a few  drops of  acetic acid added  to it, a precipitate  of legumine (a
kind of caseine)  is produced, if  the  meal  of a leguminous  seed be  present;3 but
wheat-flour, treated in the  same way, yields a slight  precipitate (of caseine), and,
therefore,  this test must not be  relied on.  Donny has pointed  out a mode of
detecting  the  meal  of two leguminous seeds, viz., the vetch (Vicia saliva),  and
beans (Faba vulgaris, common tick bean): it consists in exposing the suspected
flour to the successive action of the vapours of  nitric acid and ammonia:  wheat-
flour, when thus treated, becomes yellow;  but  the meals  of the leguminous seeds
just referred to become red, and hence, wheat-flour adulterated with either of them
becomes more  or  less spotted with red, according to the proportion of the leguminous
meal present.
   The mineral  substances  which  have been  used to adulterate  wheat-flour are
chiefly chalk and sulphate of lime (plaster  of Paris).   White clay and bone-ashes
are  also  said  to have been used.   Sulphate  of copper  and  alum are  sometimes
 added to bad wheat-flour to improve its quality and render it more fitted for making
 bread.   These different  adulterations may be  readily detected.   Their quantity
 and nature may be judged  of by incinerating the suspected flour, weighing the ash
 (which in genuine flour amounts to about 1 or 1£ per cent.), and  determining its
 nature.  Flour mixed with chalk effervesces on  the  addition of hydrochloric acid,
 and yields a calcareous solution detectable by a solution of oxalate of ammonia (see
vol. i.  p. 568).   Flour mixed with sulphate of lime, when digested in water, yields
a solution which  answers to the tests  both  for lime (see vol. i. p. 568) and for sul-
phuric acid (see vol. i. p. 368).  Pure wheat-flour is almost completely soluble in a
strong solution of potash containing about 12 per cent, of alkali; but mineral  sub-
stances used for the purpose  of adulteration remain  undissolved.
   Physiological Effects.—The nutritive qualities of wheat are similar to those of
the  cereal grains generally, and which have been already  noticed (see ante, p. 107).
   As it exceeds other kinds  of  corn  in the proportion of proteine  matters which it
contains, so it surpasses them in its flesh- and blood-making qualities.  But, as it
contains less starch and fatty matters than  some  other cereal grains, it is probably
inferior to the latter as a fattening agent.
  1 I find Hint a mixture of 1 measure of liquor potassee, Ph. L., and 2 or 3 measures of distilled water,
readily distinguishes potato-starch from whtnt-starch.
  '' Donny, Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. 3inc Srr. t. xxi. p. 5, 1^-47; and Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim. 3rae
Ser. t. xiii. p. 139, 1815  Also. Mareskn, Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim. 3me Ser. t. xii. p. 98, 1847; also,
Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. vii. p. il!i4, Is IS.
  * Journ. de Pharm et de Chim. 3me ^er. I. xi. p. 322, 1817; also, Pharmaceutical  Journal, vol. vii. p.
84, lbl7. 
124               VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Gramineas.

  The different parts of the grain differ in composition, and, therefore, in nutritive
value.   The  external  sub-epidermoid part contains  a larger  proportion of oil, of
salts (chiefly phosphates), and albuminous and caseine matter than the more internal
and farinaceous portion; and it is, therefore, probable that  the  finest flour, which
has been freed as much as possible from all traces of bran, is  actually somewhat less
nutritive than the coarser flour.
  Wheat-flour, especially  when baked, is  rather constipating  than purgative.  In
this it differs from both barley-meal and oat-meal.   Infants  who  are  fed on baked
flour frequently suffer with constipation; and  to relieve this it is sometimes found
necessary to substitute a portion of barley-meal for an equivalent weight of wheat-
flour.
  Wheat-flour yields the finest, whitest,  lightest, and most digestible kind of bread,
It owes its superiority in  these respects  to the large quantity of tenacious gluten
which it contains.
  Undressed wheat-flour appears to act, by the bran which it contains, as a mechani-
cal stimulant to the bowels;  and hence brown bread is  resorted to for the purpose
of counteracting  habitual constipation.
  Uses.—Wheat-flour is  employed in  medicine both  as  a therapeutical and a
pharmaceutical agent.
  It is used with great advantage as a dusting powder in  burns and scalds.   It
cools the part, excludes the  air, and absorbs  the  discharge, with which  it forms a
crust which effectually protects the subjacent part.   When the crust has become
detached by the accumulation of purulent matter beneath, a poultice may be applied,
and, after the removal of the crust, the  exposed surface may be again dusted over
with flour.
   A mixture of flour and water is used as a chemical antidote in poisoning by the
salts of mercury, copper, zinc, silver, and tin, and by iodine (see vol. i. p. 203).
   Flour is a constituent of  some poultices, as the yeast-poultice (see  ante, p. 86),
and  the mustard-poultice.
   It is used in pharmacy for enveloping pills.
   1. AMYLUM TRITICI; Amylum; Wheat-Starch.—This starch  was known to Pliny,1
who says the discovery of it was first made in Chios, and that it received  its name
amylum (o.uv\ov', from a, negative, and pvxot, a mill) because it was not prepared
by grinding in a mill.
   There are various modes of  preparing it, but the method followed in this country
is a mechanico-chemical one, the starch being separated from  the other ingredients
of wheat, partly  by mechanical agency,  and partly by chemical means.   The cellu-
lose or woody fibre of the grain is separated by mechanical means; the gum, sugar,
albumen, and soluble salts, are dissolved out  by cold water; and the  gluten is got
rid of partly by allowing it to undergo decomposition, and  partly by solution in
the acetic acid which is developed by fermentation.
   A mixture of  coarsely-grained wheat is steeped in water  in a vat for one or two
weeks  (according to the state of the weather), by which acetous fermentation is
established.   The acid liquor (called sour water,  or simply  sours) is drawn off, and
the impure starch washed on sieves to separate the bran.  What passes through is
received in shallow vessels  termed frames.   Here  the starch  is deposited.   The
sour liquor is again drawn off,  and the slimes removed from the surface of the starch,
which is to be again washed, strained, and allowed to deposit.   The liquid which is
drawn off  is called green water.  If the operation of washing be again resorted to,
the  part washed off is called white water instead  of  slimes,  the liquid itself being
Btill termed  green water.  When, by these  processes, the starch has become suffi-
ciently pure, it is boxed; that is, it is placed in wooden boxes perforated with holes
and lined with canvas, where it drains.   It is then cut in square lumps, placed on
chalk stones or bricks, to absorb the moisture, and dried in a stove.   By this pro-
1 Hist. Nat. lib. xviii. cap. 17, ed. Valp, 
Wheat-Starch;  Bran.                         125
cess the blocks are crusted (see ante, p. 108).   The blocks are then scraped, papered,
labelled, stamped, and returned to the stove.   Here they split into columnar masses
(like grain, tin,  or basaltic columns), commonly called the race.
  In commerce, there are two kinds of wheat-starch—one white,  the other blue.
  1.  White  uhcat-starch is the sort which should be employed for  dietetical or
medicinal purposes.   What is  sold under the names of French  starch and patent
white starch is of this kind.
  2.  Blue wheat-starch is used  by the laundress  for  stiffening linen.   It owes its
colour to finely-powdered smalt or indigo, which has been introduced into it before
the boxing process.   The Poland and glaze starches of the shops are of this kind.
They are not adapted for medicinal purposes.
  When examined by the microscope, wheat-starch is  perceived to consist princi-
pally of large and  small grains, with but few of intermediate size.1   The  smaller
particles appear to be spheroidal or nearly so.  The  large  ones  are rounded, and
flattened or lenticular.   When at rest, they appear to  be globular;  but, by making
them roll over in water, they are seen to be flattened, compressed, or lenticular; one
of the flattened  faces being sometimes a little more convex than the other.  Viewed
edgeways, the particles are strongly shaded.   In the  middle, or nearly so, of the
flattened surface is the rounded, elongated, or slit hilum.  This  is surrounded by
concentric rings, which extend frequently to the edge of the grains.   When heated,
the particles crack at the edges.
   When heated in a tray in an oven to 300° F., wheat-starch acquires a buff colour,
and is converted into dextrine or British gum.
   Boiled in water, wheat-starch yields a mucilage, which, when sufficiently concen-
trated, forms, on cooling, & Jelly (hydrate of starch).   The consistence  of this jelly
is due  to the mutual adhesion of the swollen hydrated integuments of the starch
grains.  When submitted to  prolonged ebullition in a large  quantity of water, the
granule almost entirely dissolves, and the decoction, on cooling, does not gelatinize.
With  iodine the decoction, when cold, forms the blue  iodide of starch,  the colour of
which is destroyed by alkalies and by heat.
   The composition of wheat-starch is C^H^O10.
   Wheat-starch is not employed alone as food.  As found in commerce, its taste is
somewhat disagreeable.
   Starch powder is  used as a dusting powder to absorb acrid secretions and to pre-
vent excoriation.  Its decoction  is used  as an emollient  and demulcent clyster in
inflammatory conditions of the large intestines, and as a vehicle for  the formation of
other more active enemata.  Starch is an antidote for poisoning by iodine, and is
sometimes given in combination with this substance to prevent its  local action (see
vol. i. p. 405).   It enters into the composition of the Pulvis Tragacanthse compo-
situs,  Ph. L.

   2.  DEC0m"M AMYLI, L.; Mucilago Amyli, E. D.; Decoction or Mucilage of Starch.
—(Starch 3iv;  Water Oj [Oss, Z).].) Rub the starch with the water gradually added,
then boil for a short time.)—It is  sometimes used alone as an enema in dysentery,
irritation of the rectum, &c.  It is a constituent of the Enema Opii, L.

   I.  FURFI'RKS  TRITICI; Bran.—Decoction or infusion of bran  is sometimes em-
ployed as an emollient foot-bath.  It is also taken internally as a demulcent in catar-
rhal affections.   Its continued use causes a relaxed condition of bowels.    Bran poul-

  1 Tlie following measurements of the starch grains of different sizes of common and spelt wheat were
mule l>y .Mr. George Jackson: —
              Common Wheat.                             Spelt Wheat.
     1..........0000 of on English inch.        1..........0012 of an English inch.
     a..........0000    "     "            2..........0010    "     "
     3..........0004    "     "            3..........0005    "     '<
     4..........0003    "     "            4..........0003    "     «
     6.........0002    "     '<        |    5..........0001    "     "
     (5..........0001    "     "       i 
126
VEGETABLES.—Xat. Ord. Graminfje.
tices are applied warm in abdominal inflammation, spasms, &c.  Bran bread is used
in diabetes (see p.  127, foot-note).
   4. FARINA TRITICI TOSTA; Baked  Flour.—Wheat-flour lightly baked,  so as to
acquire a pale buff tint,  is an excellent food for infants, invalids, and convalescents.
Unlike the more amylaceous substances (such as arrow-root, tapioca, sago, &c), it
contains flesh- and  blood-making  as well as  fat-making ingredients.   Moreover, il
has no tendency to relax the bowels;  on the contrary, I think it  is somewhat con-
stipating.   Hence, therefore, it may be used with advantage where there is a tend-
ency to diarrhoea.   When employed as an infant's food, it may be sometimes desir-
able to mix it with a fourth of its weight of prepared barley-meal, to obviate  its
constipating effects.  It is prepared by boiling it in milk or milk and water, and is
taken  as a kind of  pottage or gruel.
   Hard's Farinaceous Food is  a fine wheat-flour, which has been subjected to some
heating process.  It is an excellent preparation.
   5. TURUNDA ITALICS;  Macaroni, Vermicelli,  and. Italian or  Cagliari Paste (in
the form of stars,  lentils, &c).—These are  pastes made  with  tbe finest and most
glutinous wheat.    By the artificial addition of  wheat-gluten to the ordinary wheat
products  may be obtained which  rival the finest Italian pastes.1  The granulated
gluten (gluten granule") of MM. Ve>on freres is a paste made in this way. These
various preparations are agreeable and most nourishing foods.   Boiled in beef-tea,
or similar fluids, they may be taken with great advantage by  invalids  and conva-
lescents.
  6. PANIS TRITICEUS, L.; Wheaten Bread.— This  is  of  two kinds, fermented  or
leavened, and unfermented or unleavened.
  a. Panis fermentalus; Fermented or Leavened Bread.—The ingredients used in
its  manufacture are wheat-flour, salt,  water, and yeast.   In  making the  ordinary
loaf-bread of London, the baker always employs a portion of potatoes; not for adul-
teration, but to assist fermentation, and to render  the bread lighter.  Patent yeast
(see ante, p. 85) is generally employed by him on the  score of economy.  The
yeast excites the  fermentation of the sugar, which it converts into alcohol and car-
bonic  acid:  the former is  dissipated  in  the oven, and the  latter, distending the
dough, causes it  to rise, and gives the vesicular  character to bread.  During the
process, a portion of starch  is  converted into soluble gum (dextrine) and  a small
portion of sugar.
  The following table represents the comparative composition of the flour and bread
of wheat, according to Vogel:—a
              Flour.
Starch  ...................68.0
Sugar....................2.3
Gum ....................2.5
Moist gluten................24.3
Albumen..................1.5

                               98.6
               Starch.
Starch...................53.5
Sugar  ...................3.(3
Starch-gum................]8.0
Gluten, with some starch........20.75
Carbonic acid, and the muriates of lime
 and magnesia................

                              95.85
   Flour in baking takes up  a considerable quantity of water, the absolute amount
of which, however, depends on several circumstances.  Home-made bread baked in
separate  tins contains about 44 per cent, of water, whereas the flour from which it
is made contains only about 16 per cent.   Ordinary bakers' bread, baked in united
loaves, contains as much as 50 or 51 per cent, of water.  Various  additions made
to wheat-flour enable it to take up  more water.   Common salt does  this: in the
language of the baker it gives stiffness or  strength  to the dough.   Alum (used by
bakers under the name of " stuff") has a similar effect: it also augments the white-
ness and fineness of bread, and renders it less liable  to  crumble.   It, therefore,

  1 Payen, Prtcis de Chimie Industr. p. 397, 1849.
  » Quoted by Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem.  Ifd. ii. S. 1341 and 1343; also. Journ. de Pharm, t. iii. p. 211, 
WnEATEN-BREAD.                            127
enables the baker to use an inferior flour with less chance of detection.   Sulphate
of copper (in  the proportion of one grain to two pounds of flour) has a like effect,
and has been used in some parts of Belgium  to  adulterate  bread.  It  is  said  to
enable the latter to take up 6 per cent, more water without appearing moister.1
   The general dietetical properties of bread resemble those of wheat-flour (see ante,
p. 124).   In diabetes, its use is objectionable on account of its  augmenting the
saccharine condition of the urine.8   In  some forms of dyspepsia,  fermented bread
disagrees with  the patient;  and, in  such, benefit is  occasionally  obtained by the
substitution of unfermented bread.   The use of brown bread as a preventive of
habitual costiveness has already  been referred to (see ante, p. 124).   It, however,
frequently fails to produce the desired effect.
   Fermented bread is employed  both in  medicine and pharmacy.   Crumb of bread
(mica panis) is sometimes used  in the formation of pills; but  is  objectionable for
this purpose, on account of the pills thus made becoming excessively hard by keep-
ing.   Furthermore, in some cases, the constituents of  bread decompose the active
ingredients of the pills.   Thus,  the chloride  of sodium of bread decomposes nitrate
of silver.   Crumb of bread is most  valuable  for the preparation of poultices.   The
breadand-waterpoullice is prepared  by covering some bread in a basin with hot
water: after it has stood for ten minutes, pour off the excess of water, and  spread
the bread about one-third of an  inch thick on soft linen, and apply to the  affected
part.   Sometimes lint dipped in oil is applied beneath the poultice.3   Decoction of
poppy, or Goulard's water, may  be substituted for common water.  This is a valua-
ble application to phlegmonous inflammation.   A bread-and-milk-poultice, to which
lard is sometimes added, is also  used to promote suppuration; but  it should be fre-
quently renewed,  on  account of its tendency to  undergo  decomposition.   Both
poultices are used in the treatment of irritable ulcers.
   0.  Panis  sine fermento; Panis azymus; Unfermented Bread.—Of this  there
are two kinds; one compact and heavy,  the  other light and elastic.
   Of the heavy and compact kind of unfermented bread we have an example in the
common sea-biscuit or ship-bread (panis nauticus), which, on account of its  hard-
ness and compactness, must be more slowly  permeated and acted on by the gastric
juice  than the ordinary  light and porous fermented bread.   These  biscuits  are fre-
quently adulterated with chalk.   Some dyspeptics prefer  the lighter  kinds of bis-
 cuits  (panis biscoctus) to fermented bread.   Biscuit powder  is frequently used for
 infants food.
   The light and porous kinds of unfermented bread owe their lightness and porosity
 to some volatile or gaseous body developed in  the dough by either  heat or chemical
 action.  In  the  preparation of certain kinds  of biscuits, solid sesquicarbonate of
 ammonia is used to produce lightness.   The heat of  the  oven volatilizes the  salt,
 the vapour of which distends the dough.  Carbonic acid (developed by the action
 of an acid on an alkaline carbonate) is, however, the agent  generally employed to
give porosity to unfermented bread.  The patent unfermented  bread is  a prepara-
tion of this  kind.  The  following  receipt  yields  an excellent product:  Take of
  1 For further  detnils respecting the chemistry of fermented  bread, the reader is referred to Dumas,
Traitr de Chimie appliqutc aux Arts, t. vi. 1843; Johnston's Lectures on  Agricultural Chemistry,'2d
edit. 1817; and I'nyen, Prftisdc Chimie  Industrielle, 1849.
  4 Bouelrmlat (Comptes Rendus, Nov. 1841, p. 942) suggested the use of a gluten-bread, in diabetes, as a
substitute for the ordinary wheaten-bread, but in pructice  it has not been found available.  When quite
devoid of starch, it  can be  masticated only with extreme difficulty, and, in fact, is not edible.—Bran-
brend is, perhaps, the best kind of bread for diabetic patients.  Dr.  Prout (Stomach and Renal Diseases,
5th edit. p. 44, IMS, lins published n receipt for a bread of this kind  devised by his patient, the late Rev.
J. Kigg.  The following formula yields the best product which 1 have seen, and has proved highly useful
in one case of diabetes: Take course wheat-bran, wish it thoroughly with water on  a sieve, until  the
water passes through clear; then dry it in an oven, and grind ton fine powder by a mill (the mill which
was found to answer was made by While, in Hoi born).  Then take 7 eggs, 1 pint of milk, $ lb. of butter,
n few caraways or some ginger, and make into a paste with a sufficiency of  the bran-Hour.  Divide  the
mass into seven  equal parts, and bake each separately, in a saucer, by rather a quick oven; the time
required for hiking is usually about 'JO minutes.—Dr. Percy (Chemical Gazette, March  15, 1849) has pub-
lished u receipt for a bread for diabetic patients made of the ligneous matter of potatoes (see the article
Solanum  tuberosum).
  * Abernethy, Lancet, vol. v. 1WI, p. 135. 
 128                VEGETABLES.—Xat. Ord. Gramine.e.

 Flour rbj; Bicarbonate of Soda  40 grains;  Cold Water half  a pint, or  as much
 as maybe sufficient;  Muriatic Acid of the shops 50 drops; Powdered White Sugar
 a teaspoonful.   Intimately mix the  bicarbonate of soda  and sugar with  the flour,
 in a large basin, by means of a wooden spoon.   Then gradually add the water with
 which  the acid has  been previously mixed, stirring constantly, so as to form  an
 intimate  mixture very  speedily.   Divide  into two loaves,  and  immediately  put.
 them into a quick oven.—If any soda should escape the action  of the acid, it causes
 one or  more yellow spots, which, however, are more unsightly than detrimental.'
 The  sugar may be  omitted if  thought desirable.  This  kind  of  bread  is well
 adapted for the use of invalids and dyspeptics.   With the latter it sometimes agrees
 when ordinary fermented bread disagrees.   It  is  superior  to biscuits in  lightness
 and porosity.   It is a very convenient kind of  bread for persons on ship-board and
 in other places where yeast cannot be procured.

           38. SECALE CEREALE, Linn. — COMMON RYE.
                              Sex. Syst.  Triandria, Digynia.
                                    (Semina, Offic.)

    History.—Rye is mentioned  in  the English  version of the  Old Testament;'
 but, in  the opinion  of Sprengel,3 spelt wheat is meant.   The same writer also
 states that Theophrastus4 is the earliest author who notices the Secale cereale; but
 the word  tl^n, used  by Theophrastus, is thought by  Fraas5 to refer to  Triticum
 monococcum, and not to rye.  Galen6 mentions rye under  the name of j3pi'$a, the
 term by which, as well as  by eixau,  rye is known  in  modern  Greece.7  Pliny8
 speaks of secale or rye.
    Botany.   Gen. Char.—Spikelets two-flowered.  Florets sessile, distichous, with
 the linear rudiment of a  third  terminal one.    Glumes two,  herbaceous,  keeled,
 nearly  opposite, awnless or awned.  Palese  two, herbaceous; the lower one awned
 at the point, keeled, unequal sided, broadest  and thickest on  the outer side; the
 upper shorter and bicarinate.  Stamina three.    Ovarium pyriform, hairy.   Stig-
 mata two, nearly sessile, terminal, feathery, with  long, simple, finely-toothed hairs.
 Scales  two, entire, ciliate.   Caryopsis hairy at the point, loose (Kunth).
    Sp. Char.— Glumes and awns  scabrous (Kunth).
   Hab.—The  Caucasian-Caspian desert.   Cultivated in Europe; but little in Eng-
 land ;  frequently on  the Continent.
   Description.—Rye grains (caryopsides vel semina  secalis vel frumenli), in ex-
 ternal  appearance, more resemble wheat than other cereal grains; but  they are

  1 The above formula yields a bread of excellent quality, as  I can vouch from having repeatedly em-
 ployed it.  Various other formulae have  been published, many of which doubtless also yield excellent
 products. The following  are given in a little pamphlet entitled Instructions for making Unfermenttd
 Bread, by a Physician, 15th edit. 1848:—                                           J
                            To make White or Flour Bread.
     Take of Flour, dressed or household.............3 lbs. avoirdupois
            Bicarbonate of soda, in powder...........9 drachms, apothecaries' weight.
            Hydrochloric (muriatic) acid ............Hi fluidrachms.
            Water..........................about 25 fluidounces.
                            To make Brown or Meal Bread.
     Take of Wheat meal (that is, wheat well ground, as it comes
              from the mill, retaining the whole of the bran)  3 lbs  avoirdupois
            Bicarbonate of soda, in powder...........10 drachms, apothecaries' weight.
            Hydrochloric (muriatic) acid............101 fluidrachms.
            Water..........................about 28 fluidounces.
 In the shoos a
/'
bonate of soda, with some farinaceous substance (wheat flour and potato starch); to which is sometime!
added a small portion of alum.  They are very useful and convenient preparations;  and, for employment
on board ship, and in various other situations, will be found very valuable.
  1 Exodus, ix. 32.                          3 Hist. Rei Herb. ii. 9, 1807
  4 Mist. Plant, lib. viii. cap. 9.                * Synops. PI. Flore* Classics, pp. 306 and 307 1845
  « He Alim. facull. lib. i. cap. xiii  torn. vi. p. 320.                        ' ''     ana JU'> 1BW
1 Fraas. op supra cit.; also, Pharm. Grceca, pp. 501 and 540, 1837.
B Hist. Nat. lib. xviii. cap 39 and 40, ed. Valp. 
Common Rye:—Description;  Composition.
129
smaller and darker  externally.   Internally they               Fig. 206.
are white and farinaceous; externally brownish.
Like  wheat, as found  in commerce, they are
devoid of their husk or paleae.
   In order that the  changes whichj rye  under-
goes  when it becomes  ergotized may be  better
understood, Corda1  has given  the  following de-
scription of the microscopic characters of healthy
rye grains: " When we submit a thin transverse
Bection of a healthy grain of  rye to microscopic
examination, we perceive that the seed-coat (Fig.
207, a) consists of three layers of thick-walled
cells, beneath which we find the second, properly
the third, seed-coat (207, b),  composed of a sin-
gle layer  of thick-walled  cells, having scarcely
any cavity.  Next  follows a  layer of cells con-
taining  gluten (207, c); and  afterwards the cel-
lular tissue of  the  albumen  (207, d).   This
consists of large roundish hexagonal cells, which  e> entire plant' '>'>paleiE; g
contain grains of starch (Fig. 208).  The starch-
grains (Fig. 209) are roundish or  ellipsoidal, and^ibout the 0.000150 of
line  in length."
Secale cereale.
receptacle.


the Paris
Fig. 207.
Fig. 208.
Fig. 209.
            Microscopic appearance of a healthy grain of Rye (highly magnified).
Fig. 207. A thin section of a Tipe grain of rye.  o, I Fig. 203. A single cell of the albumen more highly
seed-coat; b, inner seed-coat; c, layer of glu-
ten cells; d, cells of the albumen filled with
starch grains.
     magnified, and showing the starch grains with
     which it is filled.
Fig. 209. Grains of rye starch very highly magnified
     (according to Corda).
   Composition.—Rye  has been analyzed by Einhof,3 by Boussingault,3 by Fuer-
stenberg,4 and by Payen (see ante, p. 106).   The proportion of starch and proteine
compounds contained in it, as ascertained by Krocker and Horsford, have been be-
fore stated  (see ante, vol. i. p. 119).
              Rye-Seeds.
                    Einhof.     Boussing.
Husk or bran........24.2......24
Pure meal.........05.6......63.08
Moisture..........10.2......12.92
100.0
100.00
              Rye-Meal.
                    Einhof.
Starch...........61.07 ....
Gum............11.09 ....
Gluten...........9.48)
Albumen..........3.28 J  ' " '
Saccharine matter.....3.28 ....
Husk............6.38 & salts
Undetermined acid and loss 5.42......2.0
Fatty matter........0.00......3.5
Boussing.
 . . 64.0
 . . 11.0
 . . 10.5
    3.0
    6.0
100.00
100.0
  * Beitrag zur Kenntniss d* r Brandarten der Cerealienund des Mutterkorns, in the Oekonomische Neuig-
keiten und Verhandlungen, No. 83, Vienna, 1846.
  a L. Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. Bd. ii. S. 1343.
  ' Quoted by Johnston,Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry.
  * Journ.f.pr.Chem.Bd.xwi.S. 195.
        VOL. II.—9 
130               VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Gramineas.

  The composition of the ashes of rye is stated at p.  106.
  1. Proteine Compounds.  fiWne, G/«rtn, and Mbumen.-The so-called gluten of rye differ,
from wheat-gluten.  It is not cohesive, and is soluble in water and alcohol; but alter it has been
dissolved in alcohol it is insoluble in water.  It agrees in its properties with the glutin of wheat
(see vol. i. p. 116, and ante, p. 106).  Heldt' considers it to be identical in composition with the
other proteine compounds of rye analyzed by Dr. Benje Jones and Seheerer
  2. Starch.  The starch of rye, like  that of wheat, consists principally of large and small •
grains, with but few of intermediate size; the larger ones being,on the whole, somewhat larger
than the corresponding ones of wheat."  The shape of the larger grains is circular, flat,or lenti-
cular; of the smaller ones  globular  (chiefly), ellipsoidal or ovoidal, rarely angular or mullar-
shaped.  On the flattened surface of the larger grains is seen the central, rarely circular, usually
slit  or 3- 4-, or even 5- radiate hilum, sometimes surrounded by very faint concentric rings and
delicate radiating lines.  By polarized light the grains show a central cross.
  Chemical Characteristics.—A cold decoction of rye  forms with iodine the
blue iodide of starch.  By washing rye-dough with water, nearly the whole becomes
diffused through the liquid,  little more than husk or bran remaining behind.  The
milky liquid deposits on standing starch grains, and the decanted portion yields on
evaporation the so-called gluten; from which, sugar is extracted  by water, and oil
by  ether:  the  residue (glutin) is soluble in alcohol.
  Physiological Effects.—In its nutritive qualities rye resembles wheat, espe-
cially in the fitness of its flour for making bread; but it contains less proteine matter
and more sugar.
  Uses.—Bye is employed dietefically and medicinally;  and also in the distillery
and brewery.
  Bye-bread (in Germany called  Schwartzbrod or  black bread) is in common use
among  the inhabitants of the northern parts of Europe, but in this country is rarely
employed.   It is said to  be more laxative (especially to those unaccustomed to its
use) than wheat-bread;  and hence  is sometimes taken to counteract habitual consti-
pation.   The roasted seeds (semina secalis tosta) have been employed as a substitute
for coffee.  On the continent rye-flour and rye-bran are applied to the same medicinal
uses that wheat-flour and wheat-bran are applied in England.  Bye ipott&geKpulmentum
xeljusculum secalinum) is said  to  be a useful  article of diet in consumptive cases.3


  39.  SECALE CORNUTUM. — SPURRED  RYE  OR ERGOT.

  Ergota.—Secale cereale  semen purgo parasitico corruptum ?  L.   The ergot, a
peculiar excrescence supposed to be produced by a parasitical fungus, D.
   Stnonymes.— Clavi siliginis,~Lomceru8',  Secalis mater, Thalius;  Secale luxu-
rians,  Bauhin, Pinax, lib.  i. sect. iv. p. 23;   Grana secalis degenerati, Brunner;
Secale  cornutum, Baldinger; Clavus secalis vel secalinus ; Secale maternum, turgi-
dum vel temulentum ;  Ergota, Ph. Lond. et Ed.; Spur ;  Spurred or horned Rye;
Ergot of Rye;  Cockspur Rye;  Cockspur.
   History.—No undoubted reference to ergot is found in  the writings of the an-
cients.   The disease produced by it is supposed to be referred to in the following pas-
sage:  "1089.  A pestilent year, especially in  the western parts  of Lorraine, where
many persons became putrid, in consequence of their inward parts being consumed
by St.  Anthony's fire.  Their limbs were rotten, and became black like coal. They
either perished miserably, or, deprived of their putrid hands and feet, were reserved
for a more miserable life.   Moreover, many cripples were afflicted with contraction
of  the sinews  [nervorum contractio]."*

  1  Ann. d. Chem. u. Pharm. Bd. xlv. S. 198,1843.
  ' The  following measurements.of eight (including the largest and smallest) grains of rye starch were
 made by Mr. George Jackson:—
     1........0.0016 of an English inch.
     2........0.0O15    "     "
     3........0.0013    "     "
     4........0.0010    "     "
  * Pearson, Pract. Synop. of the Mat. Alim. 91.
  4 Extract from the works of Sigebert, in the Reeueil des Histor. des Gauls et de la France, torn. xiii. p-
 259. A  passage somewhat similar to the above, with the addition  of the following, "the bread which
5........0.0005 of an English inch.
6........0.0003     "     "
7........0.0002     "     '<
8........0.0001     "     <• 
Spurred Rye or Ergot:—its Botany.                   131
   The first botanical writer who notices ergot1 is Lonicerus.2   It seems to have been
employed by women to promote labour pains long before its powers were known to
the profession.   Camerarius,8 in 1683,* mentions that it  was a popular remedy in
Germany for accelerating parturition.   In Italy and France, also, it appears to have
been long in use.5
   Botany.—The nature and formation of ergot are subjects  on which botanists
have been much divided in opinion.
   1. Some regard ergot as a fungus growing between the glumes of grasses in the
place Of the ovary.—Otto von Munchausen,6 Schrank,*  De Candolle,8 Fries,9 Wiggers,'0 and
formerly Berkeley," adopted this opinion, and described ergot as  a fungus under the name of
Spermoedia Clavus,*2 Fries (Clavaria Clavus, Munch.; Sclerolium  Claims, De Cand.). Fries and
Berkeley, however, evidently entertained some  doubts  respecting its nature; for the  first sug-
gests that the genus Spermoedia consists of " semina graminum morbosa," and the second  says,
" it appears  to be only a diseased  state of the  grain, and  has  scarcely sufficient claim to be
admitted  among fungi  as  a distinct genus."  The latest writer who  has adopted this view is
Guibourt,'3 who concludes that ergot is not an ovary or altered grain,  but a fungus which, after
the destruction of the ovary, is grafted in its place on the peduncle.
   Against this opinion  may be urged the circumstance  noticed by Tessier,'« that a part only of
the grain may be ergotized.  Moreover, the scales of the base of the ergot, the frequent remains
of the  stigma on  its top, and the articulation of it to the  receptacle, prove that it is not an  inde-
pendent fungus, but an altered grain.16
   2. Some regard ergot as a diseased condition of the ovary or seed.—The  argu-
ments adduced against  the last opinion are in favour of the present one.  Though a considerable-
number of writers have taken this view of the nature of ergot, there has been great discordance
among them as to the causes which produced the disease.
   a. Some have supposed that ordinary morbific causes (such as moisture combined with warmth) were
sufficient to give rise to this diseased condition of the grain.   Tessier'6 and  Willdenow1* appear to
have been of this opinion.
   8> Some have ascribed the disease to the attack of insects or other animals.  Tillet, Fontana, Read,
and Field,18 supported diis view, which, I  may  add, has  subsequently been  satisfactorily dis-
proved.
   y. Some, dissatisfied with the previously assigned causes of the disease, have been content with declar-
ing ergot to be a disease, but without specifying the  circumstances which induce it.  Mr. Bauer,19 who
closely watched  the development of ergot during eight years (1805-13), and has made  some
beautiful drawings of it in different stages, arrived at this conclusion ;  as also Phoebus.20
   ). Others have referred  the production of the disease to the presence of a parasitic fungus.  This
opinion, which appears to me  to be the correct one, and which must not be confounded  with
that entertained  by De Candolle and others (vide supra), has been adopted and supported by
Leveille in 1826,21 by Dutrochet,22 by Mr. John Smith,23 and by the late Mr. Edwin Quekett;2*
and more recently by Fee2S and  by Corda.26  But though the writers just mentioned agree in
 was eaten at this period was remarkable for its deep violet colour," is quoted by Boyle (Biblioth. Thtrap.
 torn. iii. p. 374) from Mtzerai, Abrtgt Chronologique.  But I cannot find the passage in the first and best
 edition 01 Mezeray's Abrtgt Chron. 3 vols. 4to. lflflfl; or in his Histoire  de France; or in bis Mtmoires
 Htst. et  Critiques.   Whether or not it be in the second and  less perfect edition of Mezeray's Abrtgi
 Chronologique, I am unable to decide, not having seen this work.
  1 The etymology of the word ergot is very doubtful.  Whiter (Etymologicon Universale, ii. 594) thinks
 that it is  derived from arguo, and is attached to such terms as urgeo.  It was anciently written argot.
  a Kreuterbuch, p. 885, Franckfort, 1582.
  * Actes des Curxeux de la Nature, art. 6, obg. 82, quoted by Velpeau.
  4 Dierbach, Neuest Entd. in d. Mat. Med. 130, 1837.
  1 Bayle, Btbl. Thtrap. iii. 375.  Velpeau, in his  Traiti Complet de VArt des Accouchemens, gives  an
 excellent literary history of ergot.
  « Hausvater. i. 332, 1764-1773.                              * Baxersche Flora, ii. 571,1789.
  • Mtm. du Mus. d'Hist. Nat. ii. 401, 1815.                  » Syst. Mycol. ii. 308, 1822.
  10 Inq. in Secale Corn. Gutting. 1831, in Christison's Treatise.
  11 English Flora, vi. Part ii. 226, 1836.  Mr. Berkeley is now of opinion that the ergot is produced  by
 Oidium abortifaciens (see ante, p. 944); and in Lindley's Medical and (Economical Botany, p. 14, 1849.
  " Erroneously quoted in the Pharm. Lond.  1836, as AcinxUa Clavus.
  " Hist. Nat. des Drogues, 4me edit. t. ii. p. 72, 1849.          » Quoted by De Candolle.
  '• Quekett, in Proceedings of the Lin. Soc. Dec. 4, 1838.
  " Mtm. Soc. Roy. Mtdec. 1776, p. 417; 1777, p. 587.          " In Christison's Treatise on Poisons.
  '• Referred to by Christison, op  cit.
  '• MS. British Museum; also, Trans, of the T.inn. Society, vol. xviii.
  90 Deutschl. kryptogam. Giftegewachse, Berlin, 1838.          ai Ann. de la Soc. Linn, de Paris.
  n Mtmoires pour servir a. VHistoire anatomique  et physiologique des Vigtt. et des Animaux, vol ii  r>
 161,1837.
  M Trans. Linn.  Society, vol. xviii.                         M Ibid.
  *» Mtmoire sur VErgot du  Seiglt, et sur quelques Agames qui vivent  Parasites sur les Epis de eette
 Ctrtale, ler Mem. Strasbourg, 1843.  See Pharm.  Journ. vol. v. p. 282,1846.
  " Beitrag zur Kenntnissder Brandarten der Cerealienund des Mutterkorns, in the Oekonomische Neuie-
ktittn und Verhandlungen, No. 83, published at Vienna, 1846. 
132
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Graminea-:.
considering ergot to be a disease of the ovary or seed, caused by a parasitic fungus, considerable
difference exists among them as to the real nature of the parasite.1
   The  statements of Le>eill6,  Phillipar,9 Smith, and  Quekett, leave, I think, but
little doubt that ergot is a disease of the grain caused by the presence of a parasitical
fungus.   This view is supported by the  observations of Wiggers, that  the white dust
(sporidia, Quek.) found on  the  surface of ergot will produce the disease in any plant
(grass?) if sprinkled in the soil at its roots.  Mr. Quekett (see ante, p. 87) infected
grains of corn by immersing them in water in  which the sporidia of the Oidium
abortifaciens were contained.  The plants which were produced by the germination
of the grains were all ergotized.
   Mr. Quekett, who most carefully examined  the development of ergot, says  that
the first appearanee of the ergot is observed by the young grain and its appendages
becoming covered with a white coating composed of multitudes of sporidia (Fig. 184
A, p. 87) mixed with minute cobweb-like filaments ( Oidium abortifaciens, Fig. 184,
H I, p.  87).   This coating  extends over all  the other parts  of the grain, cements
the anthers  and  stigmas together, and gives the  whole  a mildewed appearance.
When the grain is immersed in water, the sporidia  fall to the bottom  of the liquid.
A sweet fluid—at first limpid, afterwards viscid—is found in the affected flower at
this stage; and, when  examined by the microscope, is found to contain the sporidia
just referred to (Phillipar, Smith,  Quekett).   Phillipar  says this fluid oozes from
the floral centie; and  Mr.  Quekett, who at  first thought that it had  an external
origin,  was  subsequently convinced that it escaped from the ergot or  the parts
around it.
   If we examine the ergot when about half-grown (Fig. 210), we find it just begin-
ning  to show itself above  the palea3, and presenting a purplish-black colour.  By

                                     Fig. 210.
Ergot of Rye.
A. A side view of a longitudinal section of an infected grain, soon after fecundation, when the diseme
     makes its first external appearance : magnified eight times in diameter        "' WUCQ lne uls™
B. Front view of a section of the above infected grain, cut at letter a: magnified sixteen times in diameter
C. Ditto, cut at letter b: magnified sixteen times in diameter        ^      sixteen times in diameter.
D. Side view of an unripe but advanced ergotized grain, at the upper part of which is the tubereulated
     Levem'e     g * VerMlforra aP^araace. «d constituting the fungus (SphcHeli Vsegetum) of
E. Longitudinal section of the grain.
F. A full-grown ergot, within its floret, magnified twice its diameter.
1 lha^ SVen M abst^' 0f f F«e'!,°Pillion i» ">e PkrwaeeiKical Jo«rM( vol v n 282
 TKuti Organogr. et Phys.-Agr. sur la Carte, U Ckarbon, I'Ergot, &c. 8vo \lrLili^} ?^7. 
Spurred Rye or Ergot :—its Botany.
133
this  time it has lost in part its white coating, and  the  production of sporidia and
filaments has nearly ceased.   At the upper portion of the grain, the coating now
presents a vermiform appearance, which Leveilte1 describes as constituting cerebri-
form undulations.  These are beautifully depicted in Mr. Bauer's drawings (Fig. 210,
A D e).  LeveiHe1 regards this terminal tubercle of the grain as a parasitical fungus,
which he calls the Sphacelia Segetum.   But these undulations are merely masses
of sporidia; for if a little be scraped off with a knife, then moistened, and examined
by the microscope, we find nothing but  myriads of sporidia.   The ergot now in-
creases in a very rapid manner.
   Corda has confirmed the ob-                       F'S- 211-
servations of Messrs. Smith and
Quekett; but, as I have already
stated (see ante, p. 87), he con-
siders  the  fungus to be a  new
species  of  Hymenula (of  the
sub-order Hymenophycetes), to
which  he ha« given  the name
of H. clavus.
   To the agriculturist, an  im-
portant  subject  of inquiry is
the  predisposing  causes  of
ergot.   Very little of  a satis-
factory nature  has, however,
been ascertained on this point.
One  fact,  indeed,  seems  to
have been fully established—
viz.  that  moisture, which was
formerly thought  to be  the fer-
tile source of the  spur, has lit-
tle, if  anything, to do with it.a
Moreover, the  disease  is  not
peculiar to rye.   Many other
grasses (Phoebus  has  enume-
rated 31 species)  are subject to
it.  In  the summer of 1838,
I  found the following  grasses,
growing in Greenwich marshes,
ergotized:  Lolium   perenne,
Dactylis glomerata, Alopecurus
jiratensis,  Festuca  pratensis,
Triticum repens, Arundophrag-
mitcs,  Hordeum murinum, and
H.pralense. Professor Henslow
found  it in wheat which had
been sent to the miller.3  I am
indebted to him  also for fine
specimens of ergot on  Ammo-
phila  arundinacca.  But  the
disease is  not confined to the
Gramincas:  the Cyperaceae are also subject to  it, and perhaps, likewise, Pal-
maccse.*
   Commerce.—Ergot is imported from Germany, France, and America.  The late
J full grown ear of rye, strongly infected with ergot (natural
                      size).
1 Quoted by Richard, Eltm. d'Hist. Nat. i. 332.       » Phillipar, op. cit. 126; also, Bauer MSS
• Report on the Diseases of Wheat,p.20, from tbe Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England
* Phasbus, op. cit. 105.                                                       * 
134                VEGETABLES.—Nat.  Ord. Gramineas.
Mr. Butler, of Covent  Garden Market, told me that about lj tons were imported
in the year 1839.
   Description.—When we  examine  a number of  ears  of ergotized rye, we find
that the number of grains in each spike which have become  ergotized  varies con-
siderably :  there may be one only, or the spike may be covered with them.1  Usually,
the number is from three to ten.
   The mature ergot (Fig.  211) projects considerably beyond the paleae.    It has a
violet-black colour, and presents  scarcely any filaments and sporidia.
   The spurred rye, or ergot (ergota) of commerce, consists of  grains which vary in
length from a few  lines to an inch, or even an inch and a half, and whose breadth
is  from half a line  to four lines.   Their form is cylindrical or  obscurely  triangular,
with obtuse angles, tapering at the extremities (fusiform),  curved like the spur of a
cock,  unequally furrowed on two sides, often irregularly cracked and fissured.  The
odour of a single grain is  not detectable, but  of a large quantity is fishy, peculiar,
and nauseous.   The taste  is not  very marked, but is disagreeable, and very slightly
acrid.   The grains are externally purplish-brown or black, more or less covered by
a bloom, moderately brittle, the fractured surface being tolerably smooth, and whitish
or purplish-white.   Their sp. gr. is somewhat greater  than that of water, though,
when thrown into this liquid, they usually float at first, owing to the adherent air.
The lower  part of the grain is sometimes heavier than the  upper.
   When examined by  the microscope, we  find that the ergot  consists of three dis-
tinct parts:—

   1.  The internal part or body of the ergot: this is composed of the hexagonal or
       rounded cellular tissue.   The  cells have the shape and regularity of the
       normal cells of  the albumen, but they are considerably smaller (Corda says
       they are only ^th of the size), and contain, instead of starch, from one to
       three globules of oil, which are lighter than water and soluble in ether (Fig.
       212, d, and 214).   If the structure of ergot be examined after  the grains
       have  been dried and  re-moistened, the tissue presents a very irregular ap-
       pearance.
   2.  The violet or  blackish coat  of the ergot:  this consists of  a layer of  longitudi-
       nally elongated  delicate cells  (see Fig. 212, c).
   3.  The  bloom, which to a greater or less  extent, covers the violet coat of the
       ergot: it resembles the bloom of plums, and may be readily wiped off.  Ac-
       cording to the late Mr. Quekett, it consists of  the sporidia of the Oidium

                   Fig. 212.                    Fig. 213.          Fig. 214.
Microscopic appearance of Ergotized Rye (highly magnified) according to Corda.
Fig. 212. Thin transverse section of ergot of rye.  a, layer of spores; b, sporophores or basidia; c,
         epidermis of the receptacle; d, body of the receptacle; «, oil globules.
Fig. 213. Spores of the fungus very highly magnified.
Fig. 214. Body of the receptacle, with the cells containing oil.
1 Phillipar, op. cit. p. 96. 
Spurred Rye or Ergot:—Description;  Composition.
135
       abortifaciens (Fig. 184, a).   But  Corda  describes  it as  consisting  of two
       parts:  a layer of cylindrical, undivided cells (sporophores or basidia, Fig.
       212, b), supporting the spores (Fig. 212,  a, and Fig. 213).
  In considering the metamorphosis which the normal rye grains have undergone
by becoming ergotized, it appears that the seed coats and gluten  cells (Fig.  206, a
b c, p. 129) have  been replaced by a layer of dark  cells  (Fig. 212, c);  that the
large cells of the albumen (Fig. 207, d, and Fig. 208,  p. 129) have  been replaced
by the small cells of the ergot (Figs. 212  d,  and 214); that  the starch grains of
the cells of the albumen (Fig. 208, and Fig.  209) have been replaced  by drops of
oil in the cells of  the ergot (Fig. 212, d, and  Fig. 214);  and  that  the little  body
at the top of the ergot (Fig. 210, F a), which Phoebus calls the Muhrhen, is the
remains  of the hairy crown of the  grain, of the stigmata, and of the withered ele-
vated pericarp.
  Thus  the entire organization of the grains is changed, and at the same time  their
effects on  the animal body are altered;  for while sound  rye  is edible, nutritive,
and  healthy, ergotized rye is unwholesome and poisonous, producing raphania and
abortion.
  Deterioration.—The ergot of  rye is  fed  on  by a little acarus, which is about
one-fourth of the  size of a cheese-mite.  This animal destroys the  interior of the
ergot, and leaves the grain as a mere shell.   It produces much powdery excremen-
titious matter (Quekett).  In  four months 7£ ounces of this fecal matter of the
acarus were formed in seven pounds of ergot.  I have some ergot which has  been
kept for eleven years in a stoppered glass vessel without being attacked by the  acarus,
and  it has all the characteristics of good ergot.  It is  advisable, however, not to use
ergot which has been kept for more than two years.
  Composition.—Ergot was analyzed, in 1816, by Vauquelin;1 in 1817, by Pet-
tenkofer;9 in 1826, by Winkler;8  in 1829, by Maas;« in 1831,  by  Wiggers;5 and
more recently by  Chevallier.6  The results obtained  by Chevallier were analogous
to those of Wiggers.

            Vauquelin's Analysis.             i              Wiggers's Analysis.
Pale yellow matter, soluble in alcohol, and tasting | Ergotin......................1.25
  like fish-oil.                              : Peculiar fixed oil  ................35.00
White bland oil, very abundant.                 White crystallizable fat  ............1.05
Violet colouring matter, insoluble in alcohol, solu-
  ble in water.
A fixed acid (phosphoric ?).
Vegeto-animal or nitrogenous matter, prone to putre-
  faction, and yielding ammonia and oil by distilla-
  tion.
Free ammonia, disengaged at 2120 F.
Cerin.......................0.78
Fungin......................46.19
Vegetable osmazome..............7.76
Peculiar saccharine matter........... 1.55
Gummy extractive, with red colouring matter 2.33
Albumen   ....................1.46
Superphosphate of potash............4.42
Phosphate of lime, with trace of iron.....0.29
Silica.......................0.14

             Ergot.............102.20
   1. Ergotin was procured by digesting ergot with ether, to remove the fatty matter, and then
in boiling alcohol. The alcoholic  solution was  evaporated, and the extract treated  by water.
The ergotin remained undissolved.  It was brownish-red, with an acrid bitter taste, and, when
warmed, had a peculiar but unpleasant odour.  It was soluble in alcohol, but insoluble in water
or ether.  It is probable, therefore, that it is a resinoid colouring matter.   It proved fatal to a
hen.  Nine grains of it were equal to an  ounce and a half of ergot.  It appears, then, that
though a poisonous principle.it is probably not the agent which acts  on the uterus, for the latter
is soluble in water, whereas ergotin is not.  It  is possible, however, that it may be rendered
soluble in water by combination with some other body.
  2  Oil of Ergot.—As this is now used in medicine, its  properties will be described hereafter
(see p. 143).
  There are no good grounds for suspecting the existence of either hydrocyanic acid or phosphate
of morphia in  ergot, as supposed by Pettenkofer.

  ' Ann. Chim. iii. 337.                             a Buehner's Repert. iii. 65.
  • Christison, On Poisons.                          * Schwartze, Pharm. Tabell. 2er Ausg. 460.
  • Phrebus, Giftgewachse, 102; Journ. de Pharm. xviii.525, 1832.
  ■ Dierbach, Neuest. Entd. in d. Mat. Med. 1837, p. 129. 
136              VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Gramineaj.

   Chemical Characteristics.—Ergot is inflammable, burning with a clear yel-
lowish white flame.  The aqueous infusion or decoction of ergot is red, and possesses
acid properties.   Both acetate and diacetatc of lead cause precipitates in a decoction
of ergot.   Iodine gives no indication of the presence of starch.   Nitrate of silver
causes a copious precipitate soluble in ammonia, but insoluble in nitric acid.  Tinc-
ture of nutgalls also produces a precipitate, {tannate of ergotin?)  Alkalies heighten
the red colour of the decoction.
   Physiological Effects.—Great discrepancy is to be found  in  the accounts
published respecting the influence of spurred rye on man and animals.   While the
majority of experimenters or practical observers concur in  assigning to it energetic
powers, others have declared it  harmless.
   a.  On  Vegetables.—Schiibler and Zeller have  tried  its effects on  plants, and I
infer from their statements that they found it poisonous.1
   j5.  On  Animals.—Accidental observation and direct experiment concur in show-
ing that in most instances spurred rye acts as a poison to the animal economy.  But,
as Phoebus correctly observes, we cannot call it a violent poison, since drachms and
even ounces are required  to destroy  small animals (e. g. rabbits and pigeons).
   It  has  proved poisonous  to flies, leeches, birds (geese,  ducks, pigeons, common
fowls, &c.), and mammals, (dogs, cats, pigs, sheep, rabbits, &c.)   Birds and mam-
mals refuse to take it, even mixed with other kinds of food.  Diez3 gives the follow-
ing as the  symptoms produced by it in dogs who are compelled to  swallow it:
" Great aversion to it,  discharge of saliva and mucus from the mouth, vomiting, dila-
tation of the pupil, quickened respiration and circulation, frequent moanings, trem-
bling of  the body, continual running round, staggering gait, semi-paralysis of the
extremities, especially the hinder ones,  sometimes diarrhoea;  sometimes hot anus,
increased formation of gas in the alimentary canal;  faintness and sleepiness, with
great thirst, but diminished appetite.   Death followed under gradually increasing
feebleness, without being preceded by convulsions.   To the less constant symptoms
belong inflammation of the conjunctiva, and the peculiar appearance of turning round
in a circle from right to left."  Similar observations  as  to its  injurious operation
have  been made by Bobert.3  In some cases abscess and gangrene of various parts
of the body, with dropping off of the toes, and convulsions, have been noticed.  A
strong decoction injected  into the vein of a dog caused general feebleness, paralysis
of the posterior extremities,  vomiting, and death.4
   But there are not wanting cases apparently showing  that spurred  rye has no in-
jurious action on animals.   The most remarkable and striking are those related by
Block.5   In 1811, twenty sheep ate together nine pounds  of it daily for four weeks
without any ill effects.  In another instance, twenty sheep consumed thirteen pounds
and a half daily, for two months, without injury.  Thirty cows took together twenty-
seven pounds daily, for three months, with impunity; and two fat  cows took, in
addition,  nine  pounds of ergot daily, with no other obvious effect than that their
milk  gave a bad caseous cream, which did not yield good butter.   These statements
furnish another proof to the  toxicologist  that the ruminants suffer less from vegetable
poisons than other animals.
   Another interesting topic of inquiry is the action of ergot on the gravid uterus
of mammals.   Chapman6 says " it never fails, in a short time, to occasion abortion."
We have the testimony  of  Percy and Laurent, that a decoction injected into the
veins of a cow caused  the animal to calve speedily; and in one out of three experi-
ments, Mr. Combes has  stated, the ergot  caused  the  abortion of  a  bitch.7   Diez8
found that it caused uterine contractions in dogs, rabbits, and sows.   Large doses
given to bitches  induced an inflammatory condition of the uterus,  and destroyed
both mother and her young.  However, in opposition to these statements, we have

  1 Marx, Die Lehre v. d. Giften, ii. 107.                 » Quoted Dy Phoebus, op. cit. p. 106.
    Christison, op. cit.                              * Gaspard,. Journ de Phys.  exptr. ii. 35..
    Phoebus, op. cit. p. 107. .                          « Elem. of fherap. i. 489. 4th edit.
    XSeal, Researches respecting Spur or Ergot of Rye, p 90.   * Phoebus, p. 106. 
Spurred Bye or Ergot:—Physiological Effects.          137
the evidence of Chatard, Warner, Villeneuve, and others, who failed in producing
abortion with it.1
  I am indebted to the late Mr. Youatt, formerly Veterinary Surgeon to the Zoolo-
gical Society, for the following note respecting the effects of ergot on animals:—
  "I have, for the last six or seven years, been in the habit of administering the
ergot of rye to quadrupeds in cases of difficult or protracted parturition, in order to
stimulate the uterus to renewed or increased action.   In the monogastric,  if I may
venture to use the term, I have never known it fail of producing considerable  effect,
even when the uterus has been previously exhausted by continued and violent efforts.
In tbe ruminant, with its compound  stomach or stomachs, I  have witnessed many
a case of its successful exhibition.   I have had recourse to it in  the cow, the sheep,
and the deer, both  foreign and domestic.  Parturition has not always been accom-
plished, from false presentations or other causes, but the uterus has in every case
responded—it has  been roused to a greater or less degree of  renewed action.  On
the other hand, there are cases recorded by veterinary practitioners, in which  it has
been  given in very large quantities without producing the slightest effect.   I have
always attributed this to a certain degree of forgetfulness of the construction  of the
stomachs of ruminants.   If the  medicine, as is too often the case, is poured hastily
down, and from a large vessel, it breaks through the  floor of  the cesophagean canal
and  falls into the rumen, and there it remains perfectly inert.   But if it is suffered
to trickle down the cesophagean canal, although a portion of  it may still  enter the
rumen, the greater part will flow on through  the cesophagean canal and the many-
plies into the fourth or villous stomach, and produce  the desired effect."
  y.  On Man.—These may be noticed under two heads:  1, effects of single doses;
2, effects of its continued use as an article  of food.
   1. In single or few doses.—Hertwig,a Lorinser,3 Jorg,4 and Diez,5 who have en-
deavoured to ascertain  the effects of ergot by experiment, agree in stating that, in
doses of from half a drachm  to two drachms, nausea, inclination to vomit, dryness
of the throat, great thirst, aversion to food, uneasiness or actual pain in the abdomen,
occasionally alvine evacuations, weight and pain  in  the head, giddiness, in some
cases stupor and dilatation of pupils, have resulted from its use.   It deserves, how-
ever, to be noticed, that these effects have not been observed by some experimenters.6
   The effects produced  by the  use of  single or a few doses  of ergot may be con-
 veniently arranged under four heads.
   o. Effects on the uterine system.   ( Uterine contractions.)—The action of spurred
rye  on the uterus, when labour has actually commenced, is usually observed in from
ten  to twenty minutes after the  medicine  has been taken, and is manifested  by an
increase  in  the violence, the continuance, and the frequency of  the pains,  which
usually never cease until the child is  born;  nay,  they often continue  for some
minutes after, and promote the speedy separation of the placenta and the  firm con-
traction of the uterus  in a globular form.   The contractions and  pains caused by
ergot are distinguished from those of natural labour by their  continuance; scarcely
any interval can be perceived between them, but a sensation is experienced  of one
continued forcing effort.   If, from any  mechanical impediment (as distortion), the
uterus cannot get rid  of its contents, the violence of its contraction may  cause its
rupture,  as  in the cases alluded to by Dr.  Merriman,7 Mr. Armstrong,8 and Mr.
Coward.0
   Ergot sometimes fails to excite uterine contractions.   The  causes of failure are,
for the most part, oonjeotural.   The quality of the ergot, peculiarities on the part
  1 Ncal, op. cit.                          a Sundelin, Heilmiltell. i.513, 3te Aufl.
  • Rtlin. Med. and Surg, Journ. xxvi. 453,      * Gebrauch inn. Reizm. z. BefOrd. d. Geburt. 1833.
  • I'liojbus, op. cit.
  • Kfil, Diss, inaug. de Secali Cornuto, Berol. 1822, quoted in Sundelin, Heilmittell.,-  also, Dr. Chap-
innn. Elem. ofTherap. vol. i. p. 488, 4th edit.
  ' Syn. if Diff. Part p. 197, 1838.            ' Lond. Med. Gaz. Aug. 4, 1838.
  • Ibid., Nov. 87, 1840. Pjd the ergot cause the rupture, in the case related in the Lancet, vol. i. 1830-7.
p. Ml, by .Mr. Hooper? 
138
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Gramineje.
 of the mother, and death of the foetus, have been assigned as such.   The two first
 will be readily admitted;  but why the remedy should be  altogether inert  " where
 the foetus has been for some time dead, and putrefaction to any extent taken place,"1
 cannot be readily explained.   Its occasional failure has been  urged by the late Dr.
 Hamilton3 as an argument in favour of his notion that ergot acts " in no other way
 than by influencing the imagination."  But, on the same ground, the  sialagogue
 power of mercury might be denied.  Dr. Hamilton's  erroneous estimate of the
 powers of  ergot is referable to a want of experience of its use;  for he admits that
 he has only had two opportunities in  practice of making a fair trial of it.
   There is usually much less hemorrhage  after delivery, when ergot has been em-
 ployed, than where it has not been exhibited.  The lochial discharges are also said
 to be less;  but this is  certainly not constantly the  case.  Moreover, it has been
 asserted " that the menstrual discharge has not recurred after the use of the ergot
 in certain cases of protracted parturition."3  But the inference  intended to be con-
 veyed here, viz., that ergot caused the non-recurrence, is not correct;  at least, I am
 acquainted with several cases in which this effect did not follow the employment of
 spurred rye, and I know of  none in  which it did.
   Ergot has been charged with causing the death of the child;  but the charge has
 been repelled by some experienced practitioners as being devoid  of the least founda-
 tion.  " The ergot," says Dr. Hosack,4 "  has  been called, in some  of the  books,
 from its effects in hastening labour, the pulvis  adpartum ; as it regards the child,
 it may, with almost equal truth,  be  denominated the pulvis ad mortem; for I be-
 lieve its operation, when sufficient to expel the  child, in cases  where nature is alone
 unequal to the task, is to produce so violent a contraction of  the womb, and conse-
 quent convolution and compression of the  uterine vessels as very much to impede,
if not totally to interrupt, the circulation between the mother and child."  How-
 ever, Dr. Chapman5 strongly denies this  charge, and tells us  that  in  200 cases
 which occurred in the practice of  himself  and Drs. Dewees and James, the ergot
 was used without doing  harm in any respect;  and,  he adds, " no one here believes
 in the alleged deleterious influence of the  article on the foetus."   It  is not im-
 probable, however, where the  impediment to labour is very great, that the violent
 action of the uterus may be attended with the  result stated by Dr.  Hosack.  Dr.
 F. H. Bamsbotham6 has suggested that the poisonous influence  of  ergot may be
 extended from  the mother to the  foetus, as in the case  of opium.   He also states'
that of 36 cases in which he  induced premature  labour by  puncturing the mem-
branes, 21 children were born alive; while, in 26 cases of premature labour induced
by ergot only, 12 children only were born  alive.   This fact  strongly favours the
notion of the deleterious influence of the ergot on the foetus.
   Given to excite abortion, or premature  labour, ergot has sometimes failed to
produce the desired effect.  Hence, many experienced accoucheurs have  concluded
that,  for this medicine to have any effect on the uterus, it was  necessary that the
process of labour should have actually commenced.8   But, while we  admit that it
sometimes fails, we have abundant evidence to prove that it frequently succeeds;
and most practitioners, I think, are now satisfied that in a large  number of cases it
has  the power  of originating the process of accouchement.   Cases illustrating its
power in this respect are referred to by  Bayle;9  and others  are mentioned  by
Waller,10 Holmes,11 Bamsbotham,13 Miiller,13 and others.
   The action of ergot on the unimpregnated uterus  is manifested by painful con-
tractions, frequently denominated  " bearing-down  pains,"  and  by the obvious

  1 Dr. Bibby, in Merriman?s Synopsis, p. 198.
  1 Pract. Observ. relating to Midwifery, part ii. p. 84, 1836.
  * Dr. J. W. Francis, in the 3d American edition of Denman's Midwifery, 1829.
   Essays, vol. ii. 296.                                   . Elem. of Therap. i. 488, 4th edit.
  I £°"f *%d- Gaz- vo1- X1V- P- **'                         ' ^id., June 15, 1839.
  9 Bayle, Btbl. Thtrap. iii. 550.                           » Op. cit. p. 550
  *> Lancet 1826 vol. x. p. 54.                             .. Ibid., 1827-28, vol. ii. p. 794.
  " Lond. Med. Gaz. xiv. pp. 85 and 434; also, Lond. Med. Gaz. June 15, 1839.
  a Dierbaoh, Neuesten Entd. in d. Mat. Med. i. 139, 1837. 
             Spurred Rye or Ergot:—Physiological Effects.          139

influence which it exercises  over various morbid conditions  of this viscus; more
particularly by its checking uterine hemorrhage, and  expelling polypous masses.
Tenderness of  the uterus, and even actual metritis, are said to have been induced
by it.1
  $. Effects on  the Cerebro-Spinal System.  (Narcotism).—Weight and pain in
the head, giddiness, delirium, dilatation  of pupil,  and stupor, are the  principal
symptoms which indicate the action of ergot of rye  on the brain.   Dr. Maunsell3
has published  five cases (viz., two  which  occurred to Dr. Churchill,  one to  Dr.
Johnson, and two to Dr. Cusack), in which  delirium or  stupor  resulted  from  the
use of ergot (in half-drachm and two-drachm doses), and was accompanied by great
depression  of pulse.3   Trousseau and Pidoux4 found that under the repeated use of
ergot, dilatation of pupil was the most common symptom of cerebral disorder.   It
began to be obvious in from twelve to twenty-four hours after the  commencement
of the use of the medicine, and sometimes continued for several days after its cessa-
tion.  The cerebral disorder is frequently preceded by the uterine contractions,  and
usually  remains for some time after these have subsided.
   Effects of ergot on the Circulatory System.—I have known increased frequency  and
fulness  of  pulse, copious perspiration, and flushed  countenance, follow the use of
ergot during parturition.  But in most  instances the opposite effect has been induced;
the patient has experienced  great faintness,  the pulse has been greatly diminished
in both  frequency and fulness, and the face has become pale or livid.  In one case,
mentioned by Dr. Cusack,5 the pulse was reduced from 120 to 90.  Dr.  Maunsell
has referred to four other cases.  These effects on the circulatory system were accom-
panied with cerebral disorder, of which they were probably consequences.   Similar
observations, as to the power of ergot  to diminish the frequency of  the  pulse, have
been noticed by others.8
   8.  Other effects of ergot.—Nausea and vomiting are not uncommon consequences
of the exhibition of ergot when the stomach is in an irritable condition.   Various
other symptoms have  been ascribed to the use of ergot; such  as weariness of  the
limbs and itching of the skin.7
   2.  Effects produced by the continued use of ergot as an article of food (Ergotism,
Fr. ;  Raphania, Linn., Vog., Cull.,  Good; Convulsio raphania,  and Eclampsia
typhodes, Sauv.;  Morbus spasmodicus, Bothm.; Morbus convulsivus, malignus,
cpidemicus, cerealis, &c, Alt.;  Kriebelkra/nkheit, or the creeping sickness, Germ.).
—Different parts of the continent, e. g. France (especially in the district of Sologne),
Silesia,  Prussia, Bohemia, Saxony, Denmark, Switzerland, and Sweden, have been,
at various periods, visited with a dangerous epidemic (known by the names above
mentioned), which affected, at the same time, whole districts of country,  attacking
persons of both sexes  and of all ages.8  So  long  back  as 1597 (Tissot), the use of
ergotized rye was thought to be the cause of it.  Various circumstances have  ap-
peared to prove the correctness of this opinion,9 which has been further confirmed
by the effects of ergot on animals, as well as by the occurrence of a disease similar
to, if not  identical with, ergotism, in  consequence of the  use of damaged wheat.10
Yet several intelligent writers have not acquiesced in  this view; and  the circum-
stances  mentioned by Trousseau,11 and  by Dr. Hamilton,13 are certainly calculated to
throw some doubts over the  usually received opinion.
   Ergotism assumes two types; the one of which has been denominated the convul-
sive, the other the gangrenous ergotism.  Whether these arise from different condi-
tions of the  ergot, or  from  peculiarities  on the  part of the patient, or  from  the

  ' Dr. NVgri, Lond. Med. Gaz. xiv. 369.                     a Lond. Med. Gaz. xvi. 606.
  ' Si e, also, Dr. Cusack, in Dubl. Hosp. Rep. vol. v. p. 508.      4 Traitt de Thtrap. i. 546.
  • Dr. Maunsell, Lond. Med. Gaz. xiv. 606.
  • Merriman, Synopsis, pp. 201 and 203, 1838; Trousseau and Pidoux, Traitt de Thtrap. i."547.
  ' Trousseau and Pidoux, op. cit. i. 547.
  • Tissot, Phil. Trans, vol. Iv.;  Rothman, Amcen. Acad. vi. 430.
  • Mfm.  de la Soc. Roy. de Mid. i. 1777.          »• Phil. Trans,  for 1762: Henslow, op. supra cit.
  " Trait,' de Thtrap. i. 527.
  " Practical Observations relative to Midwifery, part ii. p. 85. 
140               VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Gbamixeje.

different quantity of the ergot taken, we are hardly prepared now to say.   In con-
vulsive ergotism, the symptoms are weariness, giddiness, contraction of the muscles
of the extremities, formication, dimness of sight, loss of sensibility, voracious appe-
tite, yellow countenance, and  convulsions, followed by death.  In the gangrenout
ergotism there is also experienced formication; that is, a feeling as if insects were
creeping over the skin, voracious appetite, coldness and insensibility of the extremi.
ties, followed by gangrene.1
   Uses.—To Dr. Stearns, of the  United States, is  due the  credit of introducing
ergot of rye to  the notice of the profession as an agent  specifically exciting uterine
contractions.3   In 1814, a paper was published by Mr. Prescott,3 on the  effects of
it  in exciting labour-pains, and in uterine hemorrhage.   It was  not employed in
England until 1824.   The following are the principal uses of it:—
   1.  To  increase the expulsatory efforts  of the  womb  in  protracted or lingering
labours.—When the delay of delivery  is ascribable solely  to the feeble contractions
of the uterus, ergot is admissible, provided, first, that there be a proper conformation
of the pelvis and soft parts;  secondly,  that the os uteri, vagina, and  os externum,
be dilated, or readily dilatable, and lubricated with a sufficient secretion; and, lastly,
that the child be presenting  naturally, or so that  it shall form no great mechanical
impediment to delivery.   A natural position of the head is not an absolute essential
for the  use of ergot, since this medicine is admissible  in some cases of breech presen-
tation.4  The circumstances which  especially contraindicate or preclude the use of
this medicine are  those  which create an  unusual resistance  to the passage of the
child: such are, disproportion between the size of the head and of the pelvis, great
rigidity  of the soft  parts, and  extraneous  growths.   Moreover,  "earliness of the
stage" of labour is laid  down by Dr. Bigelow5 as a  circumstance contraindicating
the use of ergot.   The proper period for its exhibition is when the head of the child
has passed the brim  of the pelvis.   Some practitioners  assert that a dilated or lax
condition of the os uteri  is not an essential requisite for  the exhibition of ergot.  It
has been contended that one of the valuable properties  of  this medicine is  to cause
the dilatation of the  uterine orifice; and cases are  not wanting to confirm  these
statements.6
   2.  To hasten delivery  when the life of the patient is endangered by some alarming
symptom.—Thus, in serious hemorrhages occurring during labour, after the rupture
of the membranes, and where the placenta is not situated over the os uteri,  the ergot
is  especially indicated.7  It has also been  employed  to  accelerate delivery in  puer-
peral convulsions.   Five successful  cases of its use are  recorded  by Bayle,8 on the
authority of Waterhouse, Mitchell, Boche, Brinkle, and Godquin.   But the narcotic
operation of ergot presents a serious objection to its use in cerebral affections.
   3.  To provoke the expulsion of the placenta when its retention depends on a want
of contraction of the uterus.—In such cases, ergot has often proved of great advan-
tage.9  When  the hemorrhage is  excessive, the  ergot  must  not be  regarded as a
substitute for manual extraction, since, during the time required for its operation,
the patient may die from loss of blood.10   In  retention of the placenta from spas-
modic or irregular contraction of the uterus, as we'll as from morbid adhesion, ergot
is  improper or useless.11
   4.  To provoke the expulsion of sanguineous clots, hydatids, and jwlypi from the

 1 Christison, Treatise on Poisons; Orfila,  Toxicol. Gin.; Phil.  Trans. 1702; Henslow's Report onthi
Diseases of Wheat,  in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, vol. ii. 1841.
 1 New York Med. Repos. vol. xi. 1807; quoted in the United States Dispensatory.
 1 Med. and Phys. Journ. vol. xxxii. p. 90, 1815.
 4 Dr. F. H. Ramsbotham, Lond. Med. Gaz. xiv. 86.
 ' Quarterly Journal of Literature, Science, and Arts, ii. 63.       « Bayle, op. cit p 539
   Dr. Blundell, Lancet for 1827-28, vol. i. p. 805; Dr. F. H.  Ramsbotham. Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xvi.
pp. 66 and 692.
 8 Bibl. Thtrap. iii. 448 and 548.
 » Dr. Blundell, Lancet, 1827-28, vol. ii, 259; Bayle (Bibl. Thtrap. vol. iii. 541) has recorded  nine caiei
from Balardini, BordoJ, Davies, Dnchateau, and Morgan: and  many others will be found in tbe medical
journals.
 "> Dr. F, H, Ramsbotham, Lond. Med. Gaz. xiv. 738.     '» Dr. Jackson, Lond. Med. Gaz. iv. 105. 
Spurred Rye or Ergot:—Uses.                    141
uterus.—Coagula of blood collected within the womb after delivery may sometimes
require the use of ergot to excite the uterus to expel them, as in the case mentioned
by Mackenzie.1   Ergot is also valuable in promoting the expulsion  of those re-
markable  formations called uterine hydatids,3 and which are distinguished from the
acephalocysts of other parts  of  the  body by their not possessing an independent
life, so that when separated from their pedicles they die.3   A successful case of the
use of ergot in this  affection has been published  by Dr. Macgill.4  In  uterine
polypus, ergot has  been  exhibited with the view of hastening the  descent of the
tumour from the uterus  into  the  vagina, so  as to render it readily accessible for
mechanical extirpation;5  for it is well known  that, until this is effected, the patient
is continually subject to hemorrhage, which in some cases proves fatal.   In some
instances, ergot has caused the expulsion of a polypus.6
   5.  To  restrain uterine hemorrhage, whether puerperal or non-puerperal.—Ergot
checks hemorrhage  from the womb, principally, if not solely,  by exciting contrac-
tion of the muscular fibres of this viscus, by which its  blood-vessels are compressed
and emptied, and their orifices closed.  The experience of physicians and surgeons
in all parts of the civilized world has fully and incontestably established the efficacy
of ergot  as  a remedy for uterine hemorrhage.7   Maisonneuve  and Trousseau8  have
shown that the beneficial influence of ergot is exerted equally in the unimpregnated
as  in the impregnated  state; proving, therefore, that the contrary  statement of
Prescott  and Villeneuve  is incorrect.  Even  in a case  of cancer of the uterus,  they
have found  it  check the sanguineous discharge.   In females  subject to profuse
uterine hemorrhages  after delivery, ergot may  be administered as a  preventive,
just before the  birth of the child.9  Even in  placenta presentations, a dose or two
of ergot  may be administered previously to  the  delivery being  undertaken.10  To
restrain excessive discharge  of the lochia or  catamenia, this  remedy is sometimes
most beneficial.
   6. To provoke abortion, and to promote it when this process has commenced and
is accompanied with hemorrhage.—Under certain  circumstances, the practitioner
finds it expedient to produce abortion: as in  serious hemorrhage during pregnancy,
and in  deformed pelves which do not admit the passage of a full-grown foetus.  In
 such cases,  the ergot may be employed with great advantage.11  When abortion
 has already  commenced,  ergot may be employed  to quicken the process and check
 hemorrhage.
   7. In leucorrhoza and gonorrhoea.—Ergot was  first given  in leucorrhoea by Dr.
 M. Hall;13 and was subsequently employed by Dr. Spajrani13 with success;  and in
 eight cases by Dr. Bazzoni,14 seven of these were cured by it.  Dr. Negri15 published
 seven successful cases of its use.   Its efficacy has  been  confirmed by many  other
 practitioners.   Dr. Negri also used it with apparent benefit in gonorrhoea, in both
 the male and female.  He concludes that " secale  cornutum  has a peculiar action
 on the mucous membranes; but, if exhibited when there  is a state of acute inflam-
 mation, their morbid secretions may be considerably  increased; on the contrary,
 when a more chronic form of inflammation does exist, the secale cornutum may have
 a beneficial  influence in arresting their preternatural discharge."
   8. In hemorrhages generally.—The power possessed by ergot of exciting uterine
 contractions, readily explains the efficacy of this  agent in restraining  sanguineous
 discharges from the womb;  but it has also been used to check  hemorrhage  from
 other organs.   In  these cases it can only act as a sedative to the circulation, in a

  1 Neal, Researches, p. 88.                           a Acephalocystis racemosa, H. Cloq.
  ' Cruveilhier, Diet, de Mid. et de Chir. prat. art. Acephalocystes, p. 260.
  • Bayle,  op. cit. p. 471.
  » Dr. H.  Davies, Lond. Med. and Phys. Journ. vol. liv. p. 102, 1825.     « Lancet, 1828-9, vol. i. p 24
  1 Sec the list of cases in Bnvle's Bibl. Thtrap. iii.543.
  • Bull, de Thtrap. t. iv.; also, Trousseau and Pidoux, Traitt de Thtrap. i. 540.
  • Roche, Diet, de Mid.et Chir. prat.art. Ergot, p. 455.
  "> Dr. F. H. Ramsbotham, Lond. Med. Gaz. xiv. 660.
  " Ibid., p. 434 ; also, Dr. Weihe. in op. cit. vol. xviii. 543.
  " Lond.  Med. and Phys. Journ. May, 1829.                    '» Lancet, Feb. 5th, 1831
  " Bayle, p. 509.                                         '* Lond. Med. Gaz. xiii.'p. 369. 
142
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Gramineaj.
similar way to foxglove.  A considerable number of cases have been published in
proof of its power of checking hemorrhage from  other organs (as^ the nose, gums,
chest, stomach, and rectum).1  But, having found it unsuccessful in my own prac-
tice, seeing that in the  hands of others it has  also failed,3 and knowing how difficult
it is to ascertain the influence of remedies on  hemorrhages, I think further evidence
is required to prove  the anti-hemorrhagic powers  of ergot.
  9.  In amenorrhea.—Some few cases have been  published tending to show that
ergot possesses emmenagogue properties.3  It appears to me to be more calculated
to cause than to relieve amenorrhcea.
  10. In other diseases.—Ergot has been employed in various  other  diseases with
apparent success;  viz.,  intermittent fever,4 paraplegia,5 &c.
  Administration.—Ergot is usually given in the form either of powder or infu-
sion.   The decoction, less frequently the tincture, and  still more rarely the extract,
are  also used.  Latterly,  the ethereal oily extract and  oil  have been used.
  1. PULVIS ERGOTiE; Pulvis Secalis Cornuti;  Powdered Ergot.—This powder is
only to be prepared  when required for use.    The dose of it, for  a woman in labour,
is twenty  grains, to  be repeated  at intervals  of half an hour for three times; for
other occasions (as leucorrhoea, hemorrhages, &c), five to  ten or fifteen grains three
times a day: its use should not be continued for any great length of time.   It may
be taken mixed with powdered sugar.   It has had the various names of pulvis par-
turiens (more correctly parturifaciens), pulvis ad par turn, pulvis partem acceler am,
obstetrical powder, &c.
  2. INFUSDI ERGOTiE, D.;  Infusum  Secalis Cornuti; Infusion of Ergot—Ergot,
in coarse powder,  5ij; Boiling Water f ^ix.  Infuse for one hour, in a covered vessel,
and strain.  The product  should measure about eight ounces.  The dose for a woman
in labour  is f^ij, to be  repeated at  intervals of  half an hour or an hour.   Sugar,
aromatics (as nutmeg or cinnamon), or a little wine or brandy, may be  added to
flavour it.
  3. TINCTURA ERGOTJE,.D.;  Tinctura  Secalis Cornuti; Tincture of Ergot—(Ergot,
in coarse powder, §viij; Proof Spirit Oij.   Macerate for  fourteen days, strain, ex-
press, and filter, D).—Five fluidrachms of this tincture  contain one drachm of ergot.
Dose 3j to 3iij.
  Various other formulae have been published,6 some made with rectified, others
with proof, spirit.   In  most of them the proportion of ergot is smaller than in the
Dublin formula.   One  formula7 orders of Ergot,  bruised, f^j; Boiling Water fsij.
Infuse for twenty-four  hours, and add Bectified  Spirit f^iss.   Digest  for ten days.
Half a drachm of  this tincture is said to be equivalent to ten grains of the powder.
One or two spoonfuls of a tincture of ergot (prepared  by  digesting ^ss of ergot in
§ iv of rectified  spirit), mixed with water, has been recommended as an  injection
into the uterus in difficult labour.  It is to be introduced between the head of the
child and the neck of the uterus.8
  4. TINCTURA ERGOTS  JITHEREA, L.; Tinctura Secalis Cornuti JEtherea ; Ethereal
Tincture of Ergot—(Ergot,  bruised,  jfxv; Ether Oij.   Macerate for seven  days;
then express and strain, L.)—Half a fluidounce of this tincture contains a drachm
and a half of ergot.   The dose is a teaspoonful.   The  objection  to this preparation
is that it is not miscible with water.
  The ethereal solution  of ergot, used by Dr.  Lever8 to promote  uterine contraction,
is essentially a solution of the oil of  ergot.  It was prepared by digesting §iv of

 1 See the cases of Drs. Spajrani, Pignaceo, and Gabkii, in the Lancet for 1830- and 1831; of Dr. Negri,
in tbe Lond. Med. Gaz. xiii. 361.
 3 Trousseau and Pidoux, Traitt de Thtrap. i. 546.               * Neal, Researches, p. 79».
 4 Dierbach, op. cit. p. 444.                                 « Bayle, op. cit. p>. 548.
 « Dierbach, Neuesten Enid, in d. Mat. Med. i. 147,1838.
 ' Lehrb. d. Gynacologie, i. 280, 1827.                         » Lancet, 1827-28, vol. ii. p. 435.
 » Lond. Med. Gaz. N. S. vol. ii. for 1839-40, p. 108. 
Ergot:—-its Wine; Oil; Extract.
143
powdered ergot in f |iv of ether during seven days.   The tincture was submitted to
spontaneous evaporation, and the  residue dissolved in f£ij of ether.  The dose of
this solution is from  itlxv to rr^xxx on a lump of sugar.
  [5.  VINUM ERGOTvE, U. S.; Wine of Ergot—Tike of Ergot, bruised, two ounces;
White Wine a pint.   Macerate for fourteen days, with  occasional agitation; then
express and filter through  paper.   This preparation is used as a substitute for the
tincture.  Dose, f3J, or f3ij.]
  6,  OLEDI ERGOT.E;  Oil of Ergot—The liquid sold in the shops under the name
of pure oil of ergot is obtained by submitting the ethereal tincture of ergot to evapo-
ration  by a very gentle heat.  Its colour is  reddish brown.   Mr. Wright1 states
that this depends on the age of the ergot, and that when obtained from recent speci-
mens  it is not unfrequently entirely free from colour.   Its taste is oily and slightly
acrid.   It is lighter than water, and is soluble in alcohol and in solutions of the
caustic alkalies.   It  is probably a mixture of several proximate principles.   I made
a guinea-pig  swallow a fluidrachm of it: the only obvious effect was copious  and
frequent diuresis.   Two fluidrachms diffused  through water and injected  into the
jugular vein of a dog, caused trembling of the muscles,  paralysis of  the hind, and
great  weakness of the fore legs, which lasted for more than two days.   The respira-
tion and action of the heart were exceedingly rapid.  The saliva streamed copiously
from  the mouth.  The pupil was strongly dilated  before  the  experiment, and  no
obvious change in it was induced by the oil.   Mr. Wright found the oil  very ener-
getic.   A drachm, he states, injected into the jugular vein caused  dilatation of the
pupil, feeble, slow, and intermittent action of the heart, deep and interrupted respi-
ration, general paralysis, insensibility to punctures, and death in two hours and forty
minutes.
  According to evidence adduced by Mr. Wright, the oil possesses the same influence
over the uterus  as that of the crude drug;  that is, it occasions powerful  uterine
contractions.   To produce this effect,  it should be given in doses of* from 20 to 50
drops in any convenient vehicle, as cold water, warm tea, or weak  spirit and water.
  7. EXTRACTUM ERGOTiE;  Extractum Secalis Cornuti; Bonjean's  Ergotine.—This
is prepared by exhausting ergot of rye by  means of water, and evaporating the
liquors to the consistence of syrup.   To this  extract is to be added a considerable
excess of alcohol, by which all the gummy matters and salts insoluble  in alcohol are
precipitated.   The supernatant liquid  is to be decanted and reduced in a water bath
to the consistence of a soft extract.  From 100 parts of  ergot, from 14 to  16 parts
of extract, called,  by Bonjean, ergotine, are obtained.  This extract is soft,  reddish-
brown, and homogeneous;  has an  odour of roast meat, and a slightly piquant bitter
taste.   It may be employed  medicinally in substance, made into pills, or dissolved
in water.  The dose of it is from five to ten grains.  The  aqueous solution of it is
red, limpid, and transparent.
  Antidote.—The proper treatment to be  adopted in  a case of  poisoning by an
overdose of ergot has not been accurately determined.   The first object  would be,
of course, to evacuate the poison from the alimentary canal by the use of  emetics or
purgatives.   As chlorine decomposes ergotin, Phoebus recommends the employment
of chlorine water.   In the absence of this, nitro-hydrochloric acid (properly diluted)
might be exhibited.   The  subsequent treatment should be conducted on general
principles.
' Ed. Med. and Surg. Journal, vol. liv. p. 52. 
144               VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Gbamineaj.
                     Tribe V. Axdropogone^:, Kunth.

40. SACCHARUM OFFICINARUM, Zinn-THE SUGAR CANE.
                             Sex. Syst. Triandria, Digynia.
(Saccharum; caulia succus preeparatus purificatus crystallinus.  Sacchari Fsex; succus proeparatiu im.
   purus, L.—Saccharum commune; Sacchari Faex ;  Saccharum  purum, .E.—Saccharum purificatum;
   Refined Sugar; White Sugar.—Theriaca; Treacle ; Molasses; or the concentrated uncrystallized
   juice, D.)
   History.—The  manufacture of sugar is said by Humboldt to be of the highest
antiquity in China.   Cane-sugar was known  to the  ancient Greeks  and Romans,
and was considered by them  to be a kind  of  honey.   Possibly, Herodotus1 refers
to it when he says that the Zygantes make honey in addition to that which they
get from bees.  Theophrastus3 calls it mel  in arundinibus ; Dioscorides3 terms it
aa.xxo.oov; Pliny4 saccharum.   Humboldt5 adopts  too hastily, I think, the opinion
of Salmasius,  that the latter writers  meant the siliceous  product of the Bamboo,
viz., Tabasheer; for, in  the first place, as  they arrange it with honey, it was pro-
bably  sweet,  which tabasheer  is not;  secondly, the Sanscrit name for  sugar is
Sarkura;6 thirdly, a passage in Lucan7 seems distinctly to refer to  the sugar-cane:
" Quique bibunt tenera dulces  ab  arundine succos."   Surely no  one will pretend
that the bamboo is a " tenera arundo ?"8
   Botany.   Gen.  Char__Spikelets all fertile, in  pairs;  the one sessile, the other
stalked;  articulated at the  base,  two-flowered; the lower floret neuter, with  one
palea; the upper  hermaphrodite,   with two  paleae.    Glumes two, membranous.
Palese  transparent, awnless;  those of the  hermaphrodite  flower  minute, unequal.
Stamens three.   Ovary smooth.    Styles two, long; stigmas feathered, with simple
toothletted hairs.   Scales two, obscurely two or three-lobed at the point, distinct
Caryopsis smooth (?), loose (?) (Kunth).
   Sp. Char.—Panicle effuse.   Flowers triandrous.   Glumes obscurely one-nerved,
with very long hairs on the back (Kunth).
   The stem is solid, from six to twelve feet high.   Leaves flat.  Panicle terminal,
from one to three feet long,  of gray colour, from the  long soft hair that surrounds
the flower.   Palese rose-coloured.
   Kunth admits four varieties:—
   a. commune, the common yellow cane, called by the Bengalees Poori, and, by the West Indians,
the Creole Cane or Native Cane, from its having been the one originally introduced into the New
World.
   0. purpureum, the purple cane, called by the Bengalees Kajooli, and which is said to yield juice
one-eighth richer than the yellow cane.
   y. giganteum, the giant cane, a large light-coloured cane, called by the Bengalees  Kullooa.  It
grows in a low swampy soil, where the other two will not succeed.   Its juice is weaker than
that of the yellow cane, but the plant grows to a much larger size ; and it is, therefore, much
cultivated in India.
   i. tahitense, the Tahita cane, commonly called the Otaheite cane.
   Hab.—It is cultivated in both Indies.  Its native country is uncertain.
   Two other species of Saccharum are cultivated  for the sugar they produce:—
   S. violaceum, Tussac, Antill. i. 160—Kunth, Agrostogr. i. 474;  Violet Sugar-cane.  (By some
authors  considered to be identical with Tahiti sugar cane above mentioned.)—Cultivated in
both Indies.
   S. sijteitse, Roxb., Fl. Ind.; China Sugar-cane.—Cultivated in China, where sugar is made
from it.
  1 Lib. iv. Melpomene, cap. exciv.                             a De Melle.
  3 Lib. ii. cap. civ.                                         * Hist. Nat. lib. xii. cap. xvii.
  1 Journal of Science and Arts, vol. v. p. 15.
  6 Royle's Essay, p. 83.—In his more recent work, called Cosmos, Humboldt (Sabine's transl. vol. ii
pp. 109 and xxvi.) states that the Sanscrit name for sugar is the source of the  Greek and Semitic naraei
for it.
  1 Lib. iii. v. 237.
  8 References to passages in other ancient authors will be found in the notes to Valpy's edit, of Pliny''
Hist. Nat. vol. iv. 2193; see, also, Moseley's Treatise on Sugar, Lond. 1799. 
The Sugar-Cane :—Composition;  Properties.            145
   Composition of the Sugar-cane.—Avequin1 analyzed the Tahiti and  ribbon
varieties of the fresh sugar-cane of Louisiana, and Dupuy9 analyzed the fresh sugar-
cane  at  Guadaloupe.   Peligot,3 by combining  the  composition  of cane-juice with
that of the dried canes sent him from Martinique, has also deduced the composition
of the fresh caue.   More recently, Casaseca4 analyzed the sugar-cane of Cuba.
Avequin.
                           Dupuy.       Peligot.             Tahiti Cane.   Ribbon Cane.
Sugar................  17.8.......18.0............14.280.......13.392
Cellulose..............  9.8.......9.9............8.867.......9 071
Mucilaginous, resinous, fatty, and)               __                  q ^jg           q ^
  albuminous matter  : : :  : ' :  ^ QA '[[[[[ [  _ pits, si.ica/and i  ^ ][[[[[[  ^
     .................  "               (   oxide of iron  J
Water................72.0.......72.1............76.OP0.......76.729
          Fresh sugar-cane  .   100.0......100.0...........100.000......100001

  The dried sugar-cane was analyzed by 0. Hervy*
  The composition of sugarcane ash is an important consideration for the sugar-planter. as it
enables him to deduce the most appropriate manure for promoting the growth of the cane.6
  The sugar-cane, especially the violet  variety, is coated by a glaucous powder of a peculiar
kind of wax, which has been called cerosine or sugarcane trux.'  This is fusible at 1S0° F., and
dissolves in  boiling alcohol: the alcoholic solution, even when it contains but a small quantity
of cerosine, gelatinizes or solidifies on cooling like an alcoholic solution of soap.  The composi-
tion of this wax is C«H50O2 (Dumas).
   Extraction of Cane-juice.—Cane-juice is generally extracted from the stems
by means of  the sugar mill.  The canes, when  ripe, are cut close to the ground,
stripped of their leaves, and carried  in bundles to  the mill-house, where they are
twice subjected to pressure between iron rollers, placed either vertically or horizon-
tally.   The residue of the canes  which have  been thus crushed and deprived  of
their juice is called  megass.
  Other methods of extracting the  cane juice have been suggested.  The hydraulic press has
been introduced into Jamaica  and St. Vincent's.   By Michiel's patent it is proposed to macerate
thin slices of the cane in a mixture of lime and water, so as to coagulate the albuminous mat-
ters but to extract the  sugar.   It has also  been  proposed to extract  the sugar in Europe from
the canes imported in the dried state.8
   Properties of Cane-juice.—Cane-juice  is  pale  yellowish-gray, and has  an
agreeable sweet taste  and a faint  fragrant odour.   As  it flows from the  mill it is
frothy, and, owing  to  the  suspension in it  of finely-divided matter, is  turbid  or
opalescent.   Its sp.  gr. ranges  from  1.067  to  1.106:  Mr. Fownes9 found it to be
from 1.070 to 1.090.   By boiling, its turbidity is commonly a little increased, and
sometimes  a few small flocks are separated from it.   Both nitric acid and  corrosive
sublimate occasion, after a time,  a very slight precipitate.  A  large addition  of
alcohol throws down flocks resembling gum or dextrine.   A few drops of sulphate
of copper,  and an excess  of caustic potash,  occasion, on heating, a very abundant
red precipitate of suboxide of copper, indicative of the presence  of glucose or grape-
sugar.
   According to Mr. Fownes, the juice contains  the following substances:  Cane-
sugar in great quantity, a  notable  amount of glucose or grape-sugar, gum or dex-
trine, phosphates of lime and magnesia, some  other  salt of lime and  magnesia,
sulphates and chlorides,  potash  and soda, and, lastly, a peculiar  azotized matter
belonging to the  albuminous  family, forming  an insoluble compound with  lime,
  1 Journ. de Chimie Mid. t. ii.2deSer. pp. 26 and 132, 1836.
  » Quoted by Dumas, Traitt de Chimie, t. vi. p. 209, 1843.
  ' Journ. de Pharm. t. xxvi. p. 154, 1840.
  4 Ann. de Chim. ft Phys. 3me Ser. t. xi. p. 39, 1814.        » Journ. de Pharm. t. xxvi. p 569, 1810
  • For analyses of the ush of the entire sugur-cunc, as well as of the crushed and pressed cane (meeav's)
see Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, pp. 393 and 628, 2d edit. 1847. The same author also
gives the formula for a special manure for the sugar-cane, deduced from the analyses of the ash (op cit
p. 614).
  ' Journ. de Pharm. t. xxvi. p. 738, 1840.
  ■ For further details, see Dr. Evans's Sugar-Planter's Manual, 1847.
  1 Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. viii. p. 15, 1848.
       VOL. II.—10 
146               VEGETABLES.—Nat.  Ord. Gramineas.

not coagulable by  heat or acids,  and readily putrefiable.   Of ordinary vegetalk
albumen there are but indistinct traces, and of caseine or legumine none.   Avefjuin
found a portion of  cerosine or  sugar-cane wax in cane-juice.   It is  detached from
the canes in the mill.
   Cane-juice has been  analyzed by Proust,1  by Avequin,2 by Peligot,8 by Plague,4
and by Casaseca.5  The following  are their more important results:—

                              Avequin.      Peligot.       Plagne.       Casaseca.
      Sugar..............15.784.....20.90.....20.8000.....20.94
      Various organic matters  . . .   0.140.....  0.23.....  0.8317.....  0.12
      Salts.....     ....   0.236 .....  0.17  . .  . small quantities . .  .  0.14
      Water .............83.840.....78.70.....79.3325.....78.&0
              Cane-juice.....100.000.....100.00.....99.9642.....100.00

   It appears, therefore, from these analyses, that cane-juice  contains about 20 per
cent, of saccharine matter.   Or, assuming that the juice  has an average sp. gr. of
1.073, the quantity will be 18 per cent.   Moreover, according to both Peligot and
Casaseca, the whole of the saccharine matter is  crystallizable, or true  cane-sugar;
the uncrystallizable sugar, or  molasses, which  is obtained by evaporation from the
juice, being the product of alterations  effected  in  the crystallizable  sugar hy the
operation: but  Mr. Fownes  observed that this  statement must be received with
some reservation.
   Of late years, concentrated West Indian cane-juice has  been imported.  It contains nearly half
its weight of granular sugar, besides a variable amount of molasses.
   Clarification of Cane-juice.—The clarification or defecation of cane-juice is
effected, usually in large copper vessels of the capacity of 300 or 400 gallons, by
the combined use of heat and lime:  the  latter is technically called "the temper!'
The heat serves to coagulate  any vegetable albumen which may be  present.   The
lime neutralizes the free  acid and combines with the peculiar albuminous  or  pro-
teine body mentioned by Mr. Fownes, and forms  a coagulum, the separation of
which is promoted by the heat.   Part of it  rises to  the top as a scum, and the
remainder subsides as a thick muddy deposit.
   Various other substances6 have been tried as  a substitute for lime with more or
less success.   Diacetate of lead has been employed for this purpose, but its use has
been discontinued on account of a great number  of persons  having  suffered the ill
effects of this metal from partaking of sugar prepared with it.
   Concentration of the  Cane-juice.—The clarified juice  should be filtered
prior to  evaporation.  This,  however, is  not usually  practised.  It  is generally
drawn off from  the clarifier into a copper boiler, where it is evaporated and skimmed.
It is then passed successively through a series of boilers, the last of which is called
the teache.   When  it has  acquired a proper  tenacity and granular aspect,  it is
emptied or "skipped" first into a copper  cooler  and afterwards  into a wooden ves-
sel, where it is  allowed to crystallize  or grain.   The concrete sugar is then placed
in casks (usually sugar  hogsheads)  perforated with  holes in the bottom, each of
which is partially closed by the stalk of a plantain leaf.   Here the sugar is allowed
to drain for three or four weeks.   It is then packed  in hogsheads and sent to this
country under the name of muscovado or raw sugar.
   The drainings, or uncrystallized portion  of sugar, constitute  molasses.  This is
received in an open cistern beneath.
   The feculencies  separated in the clarifying  vessel,  and the  skimmings  of the
evaporating coppers, are employed in the manufacture of rum.
   Properties  of Raw Sugar.—Raw sugar  is a mixture of crystallizable and
uncrystallizable sugar, contaminated by various organic and mineral  substances.
Its mineral constituents are, according to Avequin, silica, phosphate and  subphos-
1 Ann. de Chim. lvii. 131.                     » Journ. de Chim. Mid. t. ii. 2de Ser. p. 26,1
» Journ. de Pharm. t. xxvi. p. 154, 1840.         » Ibid., p. 248, 1840.
» Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. 3me Ser. t. xi. p. 39.   « See Dr. Evans's Sugar-Planter's Manual. 
The Sugar-Cane:—Sugar Refining.
147
phate of lime, carbonate of lime, sulphate of potash, chloride of potassium, and the
acetates of potash and lime.
  The raw sugar of the  shops  reddens litmus, and is not completely soluble in
alcohol.   Its aqueous solution yields precipitates with  the diacetate of  lead, oxalic
acid, and  caustic ammonia; and  is frequently darkened by the addition of the ses-
quichloride of iron.  By keeping,  strong raw sugar becomes  weak—that is, soft,
clammy, and gummy.   This change the late Mr. Daniell1 ascribed to the action of
the lime.
  Sugar Refining.—The following is a sketch of the process as usually practised
in London: Raw sugar  is dissolved in water by the aid of steam (this process is
called giving  the  sugar a blow-up).  The liquid  is  then  heated with bullock's
blood9 (technically called spice), and filtered through canvas bags (called Schroder's
bags).  The clear liquor is  allowed to percolate slowly through a bed of coarse-
grained animal charcoal placed on a woollen cloth, supported on a false bottom of
basket-work, and contained in a large wooden vessel.   The depth of the bed of
charcoal varies in different refining-houses.   I have seen it  three feet deep; but I
am told that some refiners employ a bed twenty feet in depth.   The filtered liquor,
which is  nearly colourless, is  conveyed to a copper  vessel (Howard's vacuum-pan),
where it  is boiled by the aid of steam, under diminished atmospheric pressure, at a
temperature of about 170° F.

                                     Fig. 215.
                 View of two Vacuum Pans and their subsidiary Apparatus.

a a. Charging measures, supplied by pipes, which descend from c c, the liquor cisterns,  d d, are the
     vacuum spheroidal pans, the lower half of each being supplied with a jacket, as a case for the
     steam.  At the sides of the neck of each pan are a barometer and thermometer.  Below the neck,
     and just above the horizontal line 6 6, is the handle of the proof-stick, which appears like a stop-
     cock.  When the syrup is sufficiently concentrated, it is discharged into the heater, e t.

   The consistence  of the liquid is  examined from  time  to  time by taking out a
sample by the proof-stick, which is so constructed as not to admit air.
   When the requisite degree of concentration has been attained, a valve is opened
in the bottom of the vacuum  pau, and the syrup allowed to escape into a copper
vessel (heater),  enveloped by a jacket, so as  to  enable it  to  be  heated by steam.
The syrup is  then transferred to conical moulds (made  of earthenware or iron),
whos^ orifices  are closed by a paper plug, and the next morning, when solidified
these moulds are carried to the curing-floor, when the stoppers are withdrawn and
' Quarterly Journal of Science, vi. 3^.
» At one time hydrate of alumina, under the name of finings, was uged in addition to blood. 
148
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Gramine.e.
the moulds placed in pots, in order to allow  the green  syrups to drain off:  the?c
are made into an  inferior sort of refined sugar (brown lumps).   The loaves are then
either clayed or sugared,  generally the latter.
   Claying1 (which is now almost entirely out of  use) consists in pouring clay and
water on the base of the  sugar loaf:  the water slowly percolating  through the
sugar, a portion of which  it dissolves, carries with it the colouring matter and other
impurities.   Sugaring is effected by substituting a saturated  solution of pure sugar
(called liquor) for the  clay and water; it washes out the colouring matter, but does
not dissolve tbe pure sugar.   The loaves are afterwards dried in a stove, and put
in blue paper for  sale.3
   The following may be  regarded as  an approximation to the produce of 112 lbs.
of raw sugar by the above process:—
                   Refined sugar..........79 lbs.
                   Bastard............17
                   Treacle............16 (12 lbs. solid matter.)
                   Water.............4
                              Raw sugar......112
  The animal charcoal used in sugar refining is changed every week, and of course is a more
powerful decolorizer when fresh than when it has been used several  times.   It follows, there-
fore, that the quality of the refined sugar obtained varies with the day of the  week—that is,
with the age of the  charcoal.  At the commencement of the week, when the charcoal is fresh,
the finest white loaves of  sugar are made;  about the middle of the week tillers  and lumps are
obtained;  and, at the end of the week, bastards.
  In the process of sugar refining, various salts have been proposed  to be used as defecators;
such as the trisacetate of  lead,3 acetate of lead,4 bisulphite of lime,5 sulphate of tin,6 &c.  The
salts of lead are probably the most effective agents, but, on account of their poisonous properties,
are dangerous to the public health.7
   Properties.—Common or  cane-sugar  is the  sweetest  of all kinds  of sugar.
When pure, it is white and odourless.   It  is very soluble  in water, both  hot and
cold (see  Syrupus, vol. i. p. 153); is soluble in rectified  spirit, but not in ether.  Its
watery solution, aided  by heat, decomposes some of the  metallic salts (as those of
copper, mercury,  gold, and silver); but several of them (as the  diacetate of copper
and  nitrate  of silver) require nearly a boiling  temperature  to  change them.  A
dilute watery solution  of common sugar, with a little yeast, undergoes the vinous
fermentation.  Sugar  promotes the solubility of  lime  in water, and  forms both a
soluble and an insoluble compound with oxide of lead.
   Cane-sugar is capable  of existing either in the crystallized or amorphous state.
In this respect it  resembles sulphur (see vol. i.  p. 355).
   1.  Crystallized Cane-sugar.—To this division are referred sugar-candy  and the
ordinary  loaf and lump  sugar  of the  shops.  By the  slow cooling of a saturated
aqueous solution of sugar, we obtain the large  and fine crystals which constitute
the commercial sugar-candy (saccharum candum),  and  of  which three kinds are
kept in the shops;  namely, white candy, prepared from pure sugar; brown candy,
prepared from brown sugar; and pink or rose candy, prepared from sugar artifically
coloured  (probably by cochineal).
   The crystals of sugar are doubly oblique  prisms, and, therefore, have two axes  of
double refraction8 (see vol. i. p. 187).   Their sp. gr. is 1.6065.
   Common crystallized  sugar is permanent in  the  air and phosphorescent in the
  1 " Claying sugar, as they report here, was first found out in Brazil: a hen, having her feet dirty, going
over a pot of sugar by accident, it was found under her tread to be whiter than elsewhere."—Sloane'i
Jamaica, vol. i. p. 61.
  a For further details, consult a paper by Messrs. Guynne and Young, Brit. Ann. of Med. June 23 and
July 14, le37 ; also, Dr. Ure's Diet, of Arts, art. Sugar.
  1 Guynne and Young, British Annals of Medicine, vol. i. p. 778, and vol. ii. p. 42, 1837.
  4 Sievier and Scoffern, Pharmaceutical Journal, vols. ix. and x.
  ' Melsen, Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. ix. p. 220.
  • Warburton, Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. x. p. 82.        ' See Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. x
  • Sugar-candy makes an interesting polariscope object. It  is usually cut so as to show one only of ita
two systems of rings. 
              The Sloar-Cane:—its Chemical Characteristics.          149

dark when struck or rubbed.   When heated, it melts  and soon becomes coloured.
By this process, its  tendency to crystallize is diminished or destroyed.
   The commercial varieties of  common crystallized cane-sugar  are of  two kinds—
white or brown.  The first is refined sugar.
   1. Purified or Refined Sugar (Saccharum, L.;  Saccharum purum, E.; Succus concretus puri-
ficatus, D.;  Saccharum  purificatum) is met with  in the shops in  conical  loaves (loaf sugar) or
truncated  cones, called lumps (lump sugar), of various sizes  and degrees of purity.  Small
lumps are called tillers.  The finest refined sugar (saccharum albissimum) is perfectly white,
and is termed double refined; the inferior  kind (saccharum album") has a  slightly yellowish tint,
and is called single refined.   Both varieties are compact, porous, friable, and made up of small
crystalline grains.
   2. Brown Sugar (Saccharum commune,^.; Saccharum fuscum ; Succus concretus non purificalus,
D.) occurs in commerce in  the form of a coarse powder composed of shining crystalline grains.
It is more or less damp and sticky,and  has a peculiar smell and a very sweet taste.  Its colour
is brownish-yellow, but varying considerably in intensity.  Muscovado,  or raw sugar, has the
deepest colour, and is intermixed with lumps.  Bastard is a finer kind, prepared  from molasses
and the green syrups.   The Demerara crystal sugar is the finest: its colour is pale yellow, and
its crystals are larger and more brilliant than the preceding  varieties.
   2.  Amorphous Cane-sugar.—When  syrup  or a strong solution of crystallized
cane-sugar is rapidly boiled down, and then poured out on a  marble or metallic
plate, it  congeals in  an amorphous, vitreous, more  or  less coloured mass, usually
called boiled sugar, of which barley-sugar (saccharum hordeatum), acidulated drops,
and hard-bake, are familiar examples.   During the preparation  of barley-sugar and
acidulated drops, the confectioners  usually add a small quantity of cream of tartar
to the melted sugar, in  order  to destroy its  tendency to crystallize.   Vinegar and
tartaric acid are mentioned by some writers as being used for this purpose.
   If when the melted sugar has  partially solidified, but while  it is  yet soft, it be
hung on a hook and rapidly and repeatedly drawn out, it becomes opake and white.
This pulled sugar was formerly termed sugar penides (saccharum pen idium).
   When crystallized cane-sugar is  subjected  to a temperature of about 356°  F., it
melts; and, at a higher temperature, begins to give off  water and to suffer decom-
position.  If the heat be gradually augmented, it becomes brown, evolves a remark-
able  odour, loses its sweet taste and acquires a bitter one.   In  this condition it is
called caramel (from xm'u, / burn, and peu, honey), or burnt sugar (saccharum
tostum).   It enjoys  acid  properties, and is composed, according to  Peligot,1 of
C^H^O18.
   Molasses and Treacle.—These are viscid, dark brown,  dense liquids,  composed of
amorphous  or  uncrystallizable sugar, crystallizable sugar, gum, extractive, various
salts, and  water.   They are frequently confounded, but in trade are  considered
distinct.
   1.  Molasses (more correctly Melasses, from  mel, honey, because it is soft and sweet like honey)
is the drainings from raw or muscovado sugar.  West India molasses is occasionally imported for
refining.  It yields brown sugar, or bastard, and treacle.
   2. Treacle (Theriaca, D.; Fax Sacchari, L. E.) is the viscid, dark brown, uncrystallizable
syrup which drains from refined sugar in the sugar moulds.  It is thicker than West Indian
rnolnsses, and has a somewhat different flavour.  Its sp. gr. is  generally 1 4 ;  and it contains,
according to Dr. Ure, on an average, 75 per cent, of solid matter.  Payen says that it may be
regarded as a saturated solution of crystallizable sugar, of which it contains from 40 to 5U per
cent, of its weight.   It is employed in the manufacture of gingerbread, and, by poor people, as
a substitute for sugar.  It is also sometimes used to yield, by fermentation, an alcoholic liquor—
either to be drank as a  kind of beer,or to yield, by distillation, spirit. It is sold under the names
of " melassc de la  Cochinchine"1 and "prepared melasse," to be taken with lentilmeal  (sold as erva-
tenia or revalenta arabica), as a remedy for habitual constipation.
   Chemical Characteristics.—As a species of sugar,a cane-sugar is known  by
its susceptibility of undergoing the vinous fermentation;  that  is,  of suffering a pecu-
liar decomposition into alcohol and carbonic acid.  For  this purpose it is dissolved

  1 Peligot, Ann. Chim. et de Phys. Ixvii. p. 175.
  » Mannite, glycyrrhizin, glycerine,  and  some other sweet substances, which were formerly called
sugars, are, by modern chemists, excluded  from the list of sugars, properly so  called, because they are
incapable of undergoing the vinous fermentation. 
150
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Gramixe/f.
Fig. 216.
in water, and to the solution a small portion of yeast (dry yeast is to be preferred)
is added, and the mixture exposed to a temperature of about 70° F.   Effervescence
soon takes place, carbonic acid is evolved, and a vinous  or alcoholic liquor is pro-
duced.   In  this process the cane-sug:ir combines with water, and  becomes grape-
sugar, C^H^O12, which, by fermentation, is resolved  into four  atoms  of carbonic
acid, 4CO, and two atoms of alcohol, 2C4H603.
  The quantitative determination of sugar is effected by ascertaining the amount of carbonic
acid evolved during fermentation.  171 grains of sugar-candy furnish 88 grains, or about 18G.4
cubic inches of carbonic acid gas.  At mean temperature and pressure, 100 cubic inches, or 47.J
grains, of carbonic acid gas are given out by 91.7 grains of sugar-candy. In round numbers, we may
say that one cubic inch or half a grain of carbonic acid gas is equal to one grain of sugar-candy.1
   Cane-sugar is distinguished from other kinds of sugar by the  following characters:
—Its crystallizability  in prismatic crystals, its very sweet taste, its  ready solubility
in water, its solution being charred and letting fall a brown or black powder when
heated with a few drops of oil of vitriol, but being unchanged when treated iu the
same way with caustic potash—and by  the difficulty with which it reduces the blue
hydrated oxide of copper to the orange  suboxide.
                                Grape-sugar reduces  the hydrated  oxide of copper to tlie
                              suboxide with  great facility.   The test is  applied thus: Add
                              to the saccharine solution  a small  quantity of a solution of
                              caustic potash, and then a  few drops of a weak  solution of
                              sulphate of copper; taking  care that the alkali is in excess.
                              Then apply heat: if grape-sugar be present, an ochre-yellow
                              or red precipitate  of suboxide of  copper is  formed before
                              ebullition takes place.   Uncrystallizable sugar, as well as sugar
                              of milk, also readily reduces the oxide; but this effect does not
                              take place with crystallizable cane sugar; or rather, a higher
                              temperature or  a longer action  of the ingredients is required
                              to produce the effect.   This is called Trommer's test.
                                 A solution  of crystallizable   cane-sugar  is distin-
                              guished from solutions of some other kinds  of saccha-
                              rine matters by possessing the property of right-handed
                              circular  polarization.
                                 If a ray of common light (Fig. 216, a) be polarized
                              by reflection at an angle of 56°.45 from the surface of
                              glassa (b), the plane  polarized ray (c), which is thug
                              obtained, transmitted through a pure solution of crys-
                              tallizable cane-sugar (d), and the  emergent ray (e) ana-

                                                      Fig. 217.
,si
'Mr
~3
*£
Plan of the Apparatus for showing
  the circular polarization of liquids.

(In  this figure, g indicates  a  lens
  which is used to produce well-de-
  fined images.)
Representation of the two disks of complementary colours pro-
  duced respectively by the ordinary and extraordinary rayt.
  By the rotation of the analyzer, the extraordinary image (x)
  revolves  around the ordinary image (p),each undergoing a
  change of colour.
lyzed by a double refracting rhomb of calcareous spar (/), two coloured images are
perceived  (Figs. 216 and 217);  one (o) caused by ordinary refraction, the other

  • Full directions for the quantitative determination of sugar by fermentation are jriven by Dr. Mille'i
in the article Organic Analysis of the Cyclopadia of Anatomy and Physiology, vol. iii. p. 799.
  a The plane polarization of the ray may be effected by a Nichol's prism instead of a pliiss-mirror.
The use of a silvered glass-mirror is objectionable, on account of its producing elliptical polarization. 
The Sugar-Cane:—Composition;  Adulteration; Purity.     151
(x) by extraordinary refraction.   The colours of tbe  images  are complementary;
that is, when one image is red, yellow, or blue—the other is green, violet, or orange.
By rotating the  analyzer  (the rhomb  of calcareous spar),  the colours change:  if the
rotation  be right-handed (that is, as we turn a screw or corkscrew to make it enter),
the sequence of the colours is red,  orange,  yellow, green,  blue, indigo, and violet.

Sequence of Colours for a Solution of Cry*tallizable Cane-sugar, as obtained by the right-
                          handed Rotation of the Analyzer.
               Ordinary Image.                       Extraordinary Image.
                   Red................Green.
                   Orange..............Blue.
                   ,- „                                  (Indigo.
                   Ve'low..............\ Violet.
                   Green...............Red-
                   Bine   ...............Orange.
                   \™l\S°  I..............Yellow.
                   Violet  J
                   Red................Green.

   In one  complete revolution of the analyzer, each of the colours of  the spectrum
occurs twice for  each image.1
   Composition.—The following is the ultimate composition of sugar :—
Hydrogen		Atoms. , , 12 . . . 9 .	Eq. Wt. . . 72 . . . 9 . . . 72 . . . 153 .	Per Cent. . . 47.05 . . 5.9 . . 47.05 . . 100.00	Atoms. Anhydrous sugar . . 1 . Water.........2 . Crystallized sugar . . 1 .	Eq. Wt. . . 153 . . . 18 . . . 171 .	Per Cent. . . 89.47 . . 10.53
		. . 9 .					___
Anhydrous	sugar1	. . 1 .					. . 100.00
  Adulteration; Purity.—The purity of genuine sugar is readily judged of by
its physical or sensible qualities.   The impurities may also be detected by chemical
means, but it is  rarely necessary to resort to these.  A  solution of pure sugar is
colourless, and  yields no precipitate with  oxalic acid, diacetate of lead, or caustic
ammonia.   Pure  sugar is completely soluble in rectified spirit.
  Brown sugar of commerce contains  crystallizable  and  uncrystallizable  sugar,
woody tissue  of the sugar-cane, vegetable albumen, siliceous particles, sporules and
filaments of fungi; and,in most samples, a peculiar species of mite (Acarus), which
has been called the sugar mite3 (acarus sacchari).   In  most cases  the animal is
dead,  but frequently it is met with  in the living state.  Starch or flour is also said
to be found in  brown sugar.
   Various adulterations have been practised on sugar.   The most important of these
is the intermixture of  starch sugar.  A  few years ago  I  inspected an extensive
manufactory  of sugar from potato-starch at Stratford, in Essex: the sugar obtained
was sold for  the adulteration of brown sugar, and the  molasses  produced was con-
sumed in  an oxalic acid manufactory.    Brown cane-sugar adulterated with  starch
sugar is less  sweet, less readily soluble  in  water, and less crystalline and sparkling
than pure brown  cane-sugar.  Moreover, potato-sugar  always contains  sulphate of
lime, the detection of which (see the tests for sulphuric  acid and lime, pp. 368 and
562) in a suspected sample of sugar is, therefore, of some value.   It has been pro-
posed to detect the presence of potato-sugar by Trommer's test (see  ante, p. 150)
and by caustic potash.   But though Trommer's test readily detects starch-sugar in
a solution of white cane-sugar, the detection is not so easily effected by it in a solu-
tion of brown cane-sugar, because the uncrystallizable cane-sugar, or treacle, which

  1 The nature of the present work does not  admit of a further elucidation of circular polarization, which
I have !;ere introduced as an aid in the qualitative determination of a saccharine solution.  Biot has
npplied it tn the quantitative determination of sugar.  To his various papers contained in the Mtmoires de
rAcadi-mie des Sciences, and especially to his Instructions Pratiques  sur VObservation et la Mtsure des
Proprittfs Optiques appetites rotatoires, Paris, lb45, the reader is  referred for further information. See,
also, the article Saccharimttrie Oplique, in  Pelouze and Fremy's  Coursde Chimie Centrale, t. iii. p. 337,
1K50.—A popular sketch of the subject will  be found in  my Lectures  on Polarized Light, published by
Messrs. I.iingiiiuii und Co.—A very admirable report on this and other  methods of effecting the qualitative
Hnd quantitative iinalysis of sugars, nyrtips.  and molasses, by Professor  R. 8. McCulloch, is contained in
a Letter from the N. cretary ofthe [United States] Treasury to the United  States Senate, read Feb. 21, 1845.
  * Peligot, Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. lxvii. p. 124.
  ' Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. x. pp. 343  and 396, Jan. and Feb. 1851; Lancet Cot Jan. 18 and 25, 1851. 
 152               VEGETABLES.—Xat.  Ord. Gramineas.

 is present readily reduces the blue hydrate of copper to the orange suboxide—acting
 thus like starch-sugar.  Chevallier1 proposes to detect starch-sugar in cane-sugar by
 means of caustic potash: Boil the suspected sugar in a ley of caustic potash: if no
 starch-sugar be  present, the liquor  remains colourless;  but,  on the contrary, it
 becomes brown if starch-sugar be present.   But this test, like the last one, is better
 adapted for detecting starch-sugar in white cane-sugar than  in the ordinary brown
 cane-sugar of the shops.3
   Farinaceous substances  and dextrine may be detected by boiling  the suspected
 sugar  in water and  testing the decoction, when  cold, with iodine, which causes a
 blue colour with starch and a purplish colour with dextrine.
   Gum is distinguished from sugar by its insolubility in rectified spirit.
   Various other substances have, it is said, been used for the adulteration of sugar;
 as finely-powdered marble, chalk  or  whiting, sand, bone-dust, and  common  salt.
 With the exception of salt, all the substances  here mentioned are  insoluble  in water,
 and by this character, therefore, may be readily  separated from sugar.   Common
 salt may be detected in a solution of the suspected sugar by the ordinary tests for
 that substance (see vol.  i. p. 537).
   Physiological Effects.—Sugar, considered  as an article of food, is an aliment-
 ary principle which belongs to  the class of "elements of respiration,"  (see  vol.  i. p.
 117.)   It contributes to the formation of fat and  of lactic acid, and by its oxidation
 furnishes heat.   It has  recently been detected  in the tissue of the liver, but in no
 other organ.8
   It disagrees with  some dyspeptics, and  is  reputed to  have  a  tendency to cause
 flatulency and preternatural acidity (by the formation of lactic  acid ?) of the primm
 viae.
   Treacle, and therefore raw sugar, check the tendency to constipation.
   Uses. —Sugar is used dietetically,  medicinally, and pharmaceutically.  Medicin-
 ally, it is but little employed.   In the form of lozenges, sugar-candy, &c, it is slowly
 dissolved in the mouth to allay tickling cough.  As a chemical  antidote, it  has been
 recommended in poisoning  by the salts of copper, mercury, silver, gold, and lead.4
 But any advantage procured by its use in  these cases is referable to its demulcent
 and emollient properties, and not to its chemical influence.   The  same remark  may
 be  made with  respect to the benefit said to have been obtained  by the use of the
juice of the sugar-cane in poisoning  by arsenious acid.5   Powdered white sugar is
 sometimes sprinkled over ulcers, to remove spongy granulations, denominated proud
 flesh.  The same remedy has also been employed  for the removal of  specks on the
 cornea.
   In pharmacy, the uses of sugar are much more  extensive.  It serves to preserve,
 to give flavour, bulk, form, colour, cohesiveness, and consistence; to subdivide and
 to suspend oily  substances in  aqueous  liquids.  To fulfil  one  or more  of these
 objects, it is a constituent of syrups, elseosacchara, conserves, electuaries, confections,
 lozenges, some pills  and powders, &c.   For  making pills, treacle serves  to  give
 cohesiveness, to preserve the pill-mass soft, prevent  mouldiness,  and in some cases
 to check chemical changes.  As an antiseptic, it is used  for  the  preservation of
 various medicinal organic substances.   It acts  in at least two ways—by excluding
 air and  by absorbing moisture (see  vol.  i. p. 205);  and perhaps, also,  in some
 other way—as when  it promotes the solidification of pectine.   Sugar  is also useful
 in preserving some  inorganic  compounds:  thus it checks, though  it does not ab-
 solutely prevent, the higher oxidation of some of the protosalts of iron; hence its
 1 Journ. de Chim. Mtd. t. viii. 2de Ser. p. 472, 1842.
 » On a trial for the recovery of excise duties on potato-sugar, it was stated that this sugar possessed
only three-fifths of the sweetening properties of genuine cane-sugar, and that it was mixed with whiting,
bone-dust, &c. previous to its being offered for sale.  (Pharm. Journ. vol. i. p. 603, 1842 )
 * Comptes rendus, xxvii. p. 514; Chemical Gazette, March 1, 1S49.
 * Vogel and Buchner, in Schweigger's Journ. xiii. 162; xiv. 224
 * Chisholm, Quarterly Journal of Science, x. 193. 
Syrup;  Burnt Sugar;  Cuscus.
153
use in the ferri carbonas saccharatum (see vol. i. p. 724), and syrupus ferri iodidi
(see vol. i. p. 744).
  It is employed in  the  manufacture of oxalic acid;  and  it is sometimes used in
distilleries to yield, by fermentation, alcohol.   The Edinburgh College directs it to
be used in the rectification of sulphuric acid (see vol. i. p.  359).
  As  a  test, it is sometimes  used in the laboratory in  conjunction with oil of
vitriol, to detect the cholic acid of bile.

  1. SYRCPUS, L. [U. S.]; Syrupus simplex, E.  D.; Syrup;  Simple Syrup.—(Sugar
Ibiij [rbv, D. (rbiiss, U. £.)]; Water Oj [Oij,  D. (Oj, U. S.) ].   Dissolve the sugar
in the water by a gentle  heat.)—By keeping  for several months, syrup undergoes
Bome  molecular changes, by which its power of  producing  right-handed  circular
polarization is considerably diminished.
  The proportion  of  water and  sugar  used  by the  London College is,  by weight,
water  1 part, sugar 1.9748 parts;  by the  Edinburgh  College, water 1 part, sugar
2.1942 parts—or, very nearly, water 1 part, sugar  2£ parts; and, by the Dublin
College, water 1 part, sugar  2 parts.
  In  order to yield a clear and bright syrup, distilled water and well-refined sugar
should be employed.   Ordinary spring water  becomes turbid by boiling, owing to
the precipitation of carbonate of lime.1
  The sp. gr. of  boiling  syrup  should be 1.264  (equal to 30° of Beaume's areo-
meter).   When it has cooled  down  to 60° F., its  sp. gr.  should be 1.321 (equal
to 35° of Beaume's areometer).  The  Dublin College states the sp. gr. of simple
syrup to  be 1.330.
  Syrup  is used in medicine to give flavour, cohesiveness, and consistence.

  2. LIQUOR  SACC1IARI TOSTI; Caramel; Burnt Sugar.— This is a useful, innocuous
colouring agent.   It  is  prepared by  melting  half  a pound of brown sugar in an
iron pot,  and applying  heat until the  liquid  acquires a deep brown colour;  then
adding a gallon of boiling water.


     41. Andropogon muricatus, Retz.—Vittie-Vayr, or Cuscus.
                              Sex. Syst. Triandria, Digynia.
                                      (Radix.)

   Virana, Asiat. Res. iv. 306; A. squarrosus, Linn., Suppl. 433; Phalaris zizanoides, Linn., Syst-
Veg. v. 104; Anatherum muricatum,  Beauv.,  Agrost.  128, t. xxii f. 10;  Vetiveria  odorata, Virey,
Journ. de  Pharm. xiii. 499;  Bena (Bengalee), Roxburgh, Fl. Ind. i. 265; Vittie-Vayr (Tamool),
Ainslie, Mat. Indica, ii. 470; Woetiwear (Tamool), Roxb., op. supra cit.—Coromandel, Bengal:
very common on every part of the  coast.—Its root, called cuscus, or khus-khus (radix vetiveria),
is imported from Bombay:  it is long, fibrous,  brownish or yellowish-white; has a  fragrant
aromatic odour,2 and a feeble bitterish, aromatic taste.  Iodine colours it bluish-black.  In  1809,
Vauquelin3 analyzed it  under the name of schcenanthus.  It was  analyzed in 1828 by Henry,*
and in 1831 by Geiger;6 the latter found volatile  oil, resin, bitter extractive, starch, traces of hydro-
chloric and calcareous salts and woody fibre.  Cap6 submitted  the root to distillation with water,
and obtained  two volatile oils:  one limpid, amber coloured, and lighter than water; another,
in larger  quantity, which was heavier than water, opake, and adhered to the bottom of the
receiver.   The dried roots, when slightly moistened,  emit a pleasant kind of fragrance, and are
employed  in India for making vissaries (large fans) and door- and window-screens (composed
of a frame-work of bamboo covered by cuscus root).   During the hot winds, the outsides of
these screens are  kept watered by natives,  and thp air that passes through is thereby  rendered
both cool  and fragrant.  Cuscus root is imported into England  for  perfumery purposes. It
serves to make scented baskets, and is put into drawers to guard linen and woollen goods from
the  attacks of insects.   This root has also been employed in medicine.  It acts as a gentle
  1 Pee some observations by Mr. Savory, on the preparation of syrup, in the Pharmaceutical Journal,
vol. ii. p. 452, 1W3.                                                                    '
  * The odour is said by Martius (Buchner's Repertorium, Bd. xxxix. S. 230, 1831) to be between that of
palbanum and of violet-root, and to approach that of serpentary ; while Geiger considers it to be between
that of culamus and of yellow water iris-root, and similar to myrrh.
  * Ann. du Mustum, xiv. 28; and Ann. de Chimie, lxxii. 302.
  4 Journ. de Pharm. torn. xiv. p. 57, 1828.
  * Quoted by Goebel, Pharm. Waarenkunde, Bd. ii. S. 265.
  • Journ. de Pharm. t. xix. p. 48. 1833. 
154
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Gramineas.
excitant and diaphoretic.   In  India, an infusion of it is used as a diaphoretic and gentle stirrm.
lant in febrile cases.  The warm infusion has been employed as an antispasmodic, diaphoretic,
diuretic, and emmenagogue.   An ointment of the root has also been applied to destroy pedioili
on the heads of children.1  In 1831, it was used in Paris as a preservative against the cholera:
it was worn by  the ladies; bundles of it were  hung up in the rooms; and fumigations were
prepared with it.2  In Hamburgh, it was used  by Dr. Buchheistei3 and others in cholera.  A
weak infusion has  been  used by Foy4 in rheumatism  and gout.  It  may be  employed in the
form  of powder, infusion, tincture, or  volatile oil.  The dose of the powder (pulvis vetiveria)
is about a scruple in the  form of pills.   A weak infusion or tea is prepared with one or two
drachms of the root and  two pints of water; this may be drank ad libitum.   A strong infusion,
prepared with one ounce of the root to half a pint of water, may be administered in doses of a
tablespoonful.   A tincture (tinctura  vetiveria), made with one ounce of the root and half a pinl
of proof spirit, is given in doses of  a teaspoonful.


                    42.  Andropogon Iwarancusaj Roxburgh.
                                Sex. Syst. Triandria, Digynia.
                                          (Radix.)

  Ibharankusha, Iwarankusha, Kurankusha, Beng. and  Hind.;  Iwarancussa, Asiat. Res. iv. 109;
Terancus, Blane, Phil. Trans, vol. lxxx. p. 286,  1790; Sir G. Blane considered,  that  it might be
the Nardus Indica,  or Spikenard, of the ancients: Mr. Hatchetts  supposed it to be the source of
the grass oil of Nemaur, an opinion which Dr. Royle6 has declared to be incorrect.—This  fra-
jrrant grass, which  has a bitter, warm, pungent taste, is  a native of the  skirts  of the northern
mountains of India; between the river Rapty and the northern mountains, and about Hurdwar,
It comes remarkably near A. Schcenanlhus both in habit and taste.  It is employed by the natives
in fevers, whether continued  or intermittent.  They infuse about a drachm of it in  half a pint
of hot water, with a small quantity of pepper, and  give this  for a  dose thrice daily.  The
virtues almost entirely reside in the larger parts of the  roots, marked with annular cicatrices,


                43. Andropogon Calamus aromaticus, Royle.
                                Sex.  Syst. Triandria, Digynia.
                                     (Oleum volatile.)
  According to Dr. Royle,7 the grass-oil of Nemaur is obtained from a new species of Andropo-
gon, to which he has given the name of A.  Calamus aromaticus.  He  says that it is " found in
Central India, extends north  as far as Delhi, and south to between Godavery and Nagpore,
where, according to Dr. Malcolmson, it is called spear-grass:  it may be the A.  Martini of Rox-
burgh, as. I.believe, it is also  thought  to be by Dr. Wight, though it has been named A. Nar-
doides by Nees von Esenbeck."   Dr. Royle examined Mr. Hatchett's  specimens of the grass,
obtained from Mr.  Swinton, as the source of the grass-oil, and found them to be identical wiih
his A. Calamus aromaticus, though  Mr.  Hatchett's figure of the plant (copied from the Phil.
Trans, vol. lxxx.)  actually represents another species, viz., A. Iwaruncusa.   Dr. Wallich8 ex>
amined a specimen of the plant from which  the grass-oil is obtained, and declared it to be
either A. Iwarancusa, or, perhaps, A.  Martini, Roxburgh.
  Dr.  Royle9 considers this species to  be the sweet calamus10  and sweet cane11 of Scripture—the
KaXa.fji.tc a.pt»f4.a,TiH.o* of the ancient Greeks.12
  Ghass-oil of Nemaur ; Roosa-ke-lel, Hind.; Oleum graminis Indici.—This oil  is imported from
India under the name of grass-oil or ginger-grass oil.13
  In  1845, I obtained from a merchant in  London a sample of essential oil which agreed in
its sensible qualities with the grass-oil of Nemaur given me  by Dr. Royle.  With it I received
the following notice : " A sample of three canisters of essential oil imported from Bombay, under
the name of ginger-grass oil,  and, according to the importer, used by the natives against rheu-
  1 Lemaire Lisancourt, Bull, de la Soc. Phil. vii. 43, 1822.
  a Kunze, Pharm. Central Blattfitr 1831. S. 660.                * Bull. gin. de Thtrap. Fev. 1831.
  4 Dierbach, Die ntuest. Entd. in d. Mat. Med. Bd. i. S. 166, 1837.
  ' On the Spikenard of the Ancients, [by  C. Hatchett, F. R. S.  Lond. 1836, 4to.]
  8 Essay on the Antiquity of Hindoo Medicine, pp. 34 and 82.
  1 Essay on the Antiquity of Hindoo Medicine, pp. 33 and 82, 1837; and Illustrations of the Botany, tft.
of the Himalayan Mountains, p. 425, 1839.
  s Transactions of the Medical and Physical Society of Calcutta, vol. i. p. 368, Calcutta, 1625.
  9 In Kitto's Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature, vol. ii. p. 105, 1845.
  10 Exodus, ch. xxx. ver. 23.   It is here called Kaneh Bosem, literally reed of fragrance.
  11 Jeremiah, ch. vi. ver. 20  It is here denominated Kaneh Hattob, or good reed.
  " Dioscorides, lib. i. cap. 17.
    Ainslie {Mat. Indica, vol. ii. p. 401) applies the names of ginger-grass, spice-grass, false spikenard,
sukkunaro-pilloo (Tamool), to the  Andropogon Nardus (?) of Dr. Rottler, which he says is common in
the Cautalum hills and in the Tinnevilly district; but he puts a query whether it may not be the fragrant
grass described by Mr. Maxwell in  the Transactions of the Medical Society of Calcutta, vol. i. p. 367, 
Grass-Oil of Nemaur.                             155
matism, and by them called rosa oil.   The grass grows, according to the  same  authority, fifty
or sixty miles  from Bombay in the jungle, and is there called rosa grass.  It smells, as you will
perceive, of ginger and turpentine."
  Grass-oil of Nemaur is commonly known to the perfumers by the name of oil of geranium.  I
have been informed  that it is sometimes cafled oil of rose geranium.  It is occasionally sold  by
druggists as oil of spikenard.
   Under the name of " 01. Palm, ros," [sic] a  volatile oil has been sent from a merchant in
Constantinople to  his correspondent in London, as an oil used for  reducing (that is, adulterating)
otto of roses; and, in the accompanying letter, it was stated that  if genuine otto be mixed with
from 20 to 30 per cent, of this oil, it would be still equal to the finest commercial otto.   By the
dealers in London this oil was called oil of geranium.1   It is almost colourless, and  is clearer,
brighter, and more fragrant and roseate than ordinary grass-oil ; but its odour is, I think, essen-
tially that of the latter.  Is it rectified grass-oil ?  It is remarkable that Dioscorides (lib. i. cap.
xvi.) states that a-^jtHwe (a native of Arabia) has the odour of the rose.
   Grass oil of Nemaur is, according to Mr. Forsyth,2 procured at the foot of the Vindhya range
of hills in the  vicinity of Jaum Ghat,  and thirty  miles further west, near Nalcha.
   It is obtained by distillation.  When the plant begins to flower, it  is cut and bound in small
bundles or maniples, 250 or 300  of which are introduced into a wrought-iron boiler fitted over
an earthen fireplace.  Water being added, ebullition is promoted.  The oil, with water, distils
over into two  large copper receivers  immersed  in cold  water.  The  process occupies about six
hours.  After  the  product has stood for some time, the oil is skimmed off the surface by a small
shallow spoon.
   Commercial grass-oil of Nemaur  is of a  light straw  colour, and has  a fragrant aromatic
roseate odour, with taste which is  not very dissimilar to that of oil of  lemons.   It floats on
water.  Dr. Stenhouse3 found that  it  is usually a mixture of a pure volatile oil  (C4H5), and of
about half its bulk of a fluid resin, the latter probably being the  product of the oxidation of the
oil.
   In India, the grass-oil is frequently adulterated; usually, according to Mr. Forsyth, with  the
61. sesami.  As this is a fixed oil, the sophistication is readily detected by dropping the suspected
grass-oil into rectified spirit:  if pure,  it dissolves, but if it be mixed with a fixed oil, the spirit
becomes milky.                                               x
   Grass oil is  chiefly employed in perfumery;  but it is also employed  in medicine.   Tts medi-
cinal properties are  similar to those of other aromatic fragrant volatile oils, and are those of a
stimulant and diaphoretic.  It is highly esteemed in  India for  the  cure  of the more  chronic
forms of rheumatism.  It is applied  as a liniment.  A couple of drachms of it are rubbed into
the affected part in  the heat of the sun, or  before the  fire, twice daily.  It causes a  sense of
warmth and  pricking which lasts for two hours or  longer.  It  is also  employed to excite
diaphbresis in slight catarrhal affections; and for this purpose it  is rubbed into the soles of  the
 feet and wrists.


                      44.  Andropogon  Sehcenanthus,  Linn.
                                 Sex. Syst. Triandria, Digynia.

   I suspect that under this name three species  of Andropogon have been confounded.
   1. Rumphius's Schcenanlhum Amboinicum, called by the natives of Amboyna Siree.   Its odour
 is that of  a mixture of roses and  fresh-mown  hay.  As Linnaeus, in  the  later editions of hi3
 Systema Plantarum, cites Rumphius's figure,4 we may take this species as the genuine Andro-
pogon Sehcenanthus of Linna;us.6  It has been recently very fully described by the late celebrated
Professor Th. F. L. Nees von Esenbeck.6  Rumphius proposes to  call it Schcenanlhum Indicum
sterile, to distinguish it from  the Arabian  plant.
   2. The Arabian Sehcenanthus is said by Hasselquist? to grow plentifully in the deserts of both
the Arabias, and  to be gathered  near Limbo, a  port of Arabia Petra?a, and exported to Egypt.
The Arabians call it Helsi Meccavi and Idhir Meechi.  It is said that in the deserts between Syria
and Egypt there is  no grass  but  this which camels eat: hence  it  has received the  name of
fecnum vel stramen camelorum, or camels hay or straw.   It was formerly in the London Pharma-
  1 Recluz (Journ. de Pharm. t. xiii. p. 529, 1827) obtained from Pelargonium odoratissimum, var. odore
rosato (Persoon), a concrete volatile oil, which he calls volatile oil of geranium with the odour of the
roses (huile volutile du Geranium a odeur de roses).  It must not be confounded with the so-called oil of
pernnitiin alluded to in the text.
  ' Transactions of the Medical and Physical Society of Calcutta, vol. iii. p 213, Calcutta, 1827.
  ' Memoirs and Proceedings of the Chemical Society of London, vol. ii. p. 122, 1845.
  4 Herbarium Amboinense, purs v. lib. viii. cap. 24, page 181, tab. lxxii. Fig. 2.
  • In the Linnean Herbarium, there is a single specimen  of A. Sehcenanthus, but without any statement
indicating its place of growth.
  * neigrr'* Pharmacie, 2te Aufl. von Th. F. L. Nees von Esenbeck, J. H. Dierbach, and CI. Marauart
Hd.ii. Ite Halite, S. 145, 1839.                                               '           4   '
  ' Voyages and Travels in the  Levant in the years 1740,50,51.52, Lond. 1766__It  is remarkable that
Forskal, in his Flora Arabico- Yemen, does not mention, in  his list of odorous plants (p. xcv.) a single
odorous grass as growing in Arabia Felix.                                                   ° 
156
VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord. Gramineaj.
copasia, and was called sehcenanthus, squinanthus, ve\juncus odorattis; its vernacular name being
squinanch or  sweet-smelling rush.  The herbs (stem, leaves, and  sometimes  the flowers) werg
brought from Turkey and Arabia, tied up in bundles about  a fool  long.  The stem, which re-
sembled a barley straw, was filled  with a  pith like those of our common rushes; the flowers
were of a carnation colour, striped with light purple.1
   It was considered to possess stimulant and diaphoretic properties, and was commended in
hiccup, vomiting,  flatulent colic, and female  obstructions; but  was little used, except in  the
milhridatium and theriaca. It was administered to the extent of one or two drachms in the form
of infusion or tea.
   It is not improbable that this plant may be the <r;co~voc 11/037x0?  of Hippocrates,2 the cytXneof
Dioscorides;3 for the last-mentioned writer states that the most esteemed sort grew  in that part
of Arabia called Nabataea, which agrees with the statement of Hasselquist.
   3. The Andropogon citralum, De Cand.—As this is undoubtedly the source of the oil of lemon-
grass of the shops, it deserves a separate notice.


           45. Andropogon citratum, De Cand.—Lemon-Grass.

   Although  all the Anglo-Indian botanists, whose works I have consulted, consider the Lemon-
grass of India to be identical with the Andropogon  Sehcenanthus of Linnaeus,  yet various circum-
stances have long since led me to suspect that they are in  error.  Its citron or lemon odour is
so  very strong and  remarkable, that any one familiar  with the plant, or its volatile oil,could
not overlook  or mistake it.  Yet not one of the authorities quoted  by Linnaeus, nor any of the
pharmacologists of  the  last century who were  familiar with the Linnsean plant, mention it,
Rumphius,4 whose figure of the plant is referred  to by Linnseus,  says the odour of the Amboyna
plant is similar to that of roses mixed with that  of new-mown hay.  Dale5  describes the odour
of Sehcenanthus as being sweet and very fragrant, and Lewis6 simply says  it  is agreeable.
   The first botanical writer who notices the peculiar citron odour  of lemon-grass is De Candolle,'
who states that under the name of Andropogon citralum there was frequently met with in bo-
tanical gardens a grass which had  very much the  habit of  A. Sehcenanthus, but was  larger, did
not require a hot house, and was most distinctly characterized by the citron-odour of the bruised
leaves.  The late eminent botanist professor Th. Fr. L. Nees von Esenbeck8  pointed out some
botanical characters  which distinguish the two  plants.  Thus  he  states that the leaves of A.
citratum, De Cand. are much broader, flat, of a strong bluish-green colour, and both above and
at the  margin are  very rough when drawn backwards through the fingers; whereas, the leaves
of A. Schasnanthus are narrow (half aline in breadth), completely keeled, like  those of the sedges,
bluish-green, and somewhat sharp  at the margin when  drawn backwards through  the fingers.
Moreover, the hairs  of the rachis of the spikelets  of the A. citratum are  much shorter  than
those of A. Sehcenanthus.
   Lemon-grass is  a native of the continent of India and  of Ceylon.  It was introduced into
the West Indies towards the latter part of the last, or beginning of the present century.9
   The peculiar characteristic of this species of Andropogon is its odour,  which, when the grass
is fresh, is very distinctly citron-like; or rather, especially when  the plant is dry, resembles that
of balm—the Melissa officinalis, Linn., called by the French Citronnelle.
   The lemon-grass yields, by distillation, an essential oil, which  is imported from Ceylon, Bom-
bay, Cochin (Malabar coast), and Madras, under the  names of  lemon-grass  oil or citronnelle oil.
It is yellow, and has a fragrant, citron-like odour.   It is much used in perfumery under the name
of oil of verbena.  It is frequently adulterated with a fixed oil, and when thus sophisticated it
forms  a milky liquid, when dropped into rectified spirit; whereas, the pure  oil  dissolves  and
yields  a transparent solution.
   The lemon-grass  is employed in the form of infusion, in both the East and West Indies, as
a mild diaphoretic in slight colds.  The fresh leaves are sometimes used as a substitute for tea,
and the white succulent centre of the leaf-bearing stems serves  to give an agreeable  flavour to
curries.   In  Martinique, it is reputed poisonous, or at least as capable of producing abortion both
in animals and the human species.10
  1 Lewis's New Dispensatory, 5th ed. 1785, p. 160.
  » De Morb. Mul. lib. ii. sect. v. p. 673, ed. Fcesii.                               » Lib. i. cap. 16.
  4 Herb. Amboinense, pars v. lib. viii. cap. 24, p. 181, tab. lxxii. Fig. 2, Amstel. 1750.
  * Pharmacologia, 3tia ed. p. 258, 1737.
  s Experimental History of the Materia Medica, 4th ed. vol. ii. p. 20, 1791.
  1 Catalogus Plantarum Horti  Botanici Monspeliensis, p. 78, Monspelii,  1813.   Link (Hort. Berol,\.
242, 1827), and, following him,  Kunth ( Enum. Plant, i. 493, 18331, in quoting  this work, have substituted
the name A. citriodorus for A. citratum: the former name does not occur in De Candolle'* Catalogue.
  8 Geiger's Pharmacie, 2te Aurl.  by Th. F. L. Nees von F.senbeck, J. H. Dierbach, and C. Murquart,2te
Abth. lte Halfte, S. 147. 1839.
  s Hamilton, Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. vi. p. 369, 1846.
  10 Guibourt, Hist. Nat. des Drogues  Simples, 4me edit. t. ii. p. 114,  1849. 
Aroide^e:—Araceas;  Cuckow-pint.                   157
       Order VIl   CYPERACEjE, R. Brown.—SEDGES.

  Chaiiactf.rs.—The  plants in this order  closely  resemble  grasses (see ante, p. 106), from
which they are distinguished by their embryo being  inclosed within the base of the albumen;
by their leaf-sheaths being whole or entire, not slit; and by their stems being solid, angular, and
without joints or diaphragms.
  Phopf.hties—These plants are remarkable for their deficiency of those organic principles
which render the grasses so valuable and important  to man (see ante, p. 107).   The so-called
roots (rhizomes)  of several species of Cyperus (e. g. longus, rolundus, and esculentus) were  for-
merly employed  in medicine.   They are mild aromatics, stomachics, and diaphoretics.  The
roasted roots of C. esculentus have been used as a substitute for coffee.   The rhizomes of Carex
arenaria have been employed as a substitute for  sarsaparilla, under the name of bastard or
German sarsaparilla (radix sarsaparilla germanicce vel radix graminis major).

            \
                 Sub-class II.  Petaloidx vel  Floridte.

  Characters.—Floral envelopes, if present, whorled.
  This sub-class  includes all the remaining orders of endogens, which may be arranged in two
subdivisions.

                                SUBDIVISION  I.

  Floral envelopes absent; or, if present, imperfect, squamiform, sometimes more or less glumaceous.


                   Order  VIII.    AROIDEiE, Midi

                           Araces and Orowtiaceje, Lindl.

  Characters—Flowers generally unisexual, rarely hermaphrodite, arranged upon a spadix, in
the axil of a spalhe.  Perianth either none, or, in the hermaphrodite flowers, rudimentary and
scaly.  Stamens numerous, or definite and opposite  to the segments of the perianth:  anthers
opening outwards.  Ovaries free, 1-, 3-, or many-celled.  JFYwt'f. succulent  or dry, indehiscent.
Seeds usually with fleshy or mealy albumen, rarely with none.  Usually  herbaceous plants with
either subterranean tubers (cormi) or a creeping rhizome.
   Properties.—The fresh plants of this order are frequently remarkable for acridity, which
especially resides in the tubers and rhizomes, and often renders them violent poisons.  This is
especially remarkable in Dieffenbarhia Seguina, or the Dumb Cane, a native of the West India
Islands, two drachms of whose juice have been known to prove fatal in two hours.  The acrid
principle (which, perhaps, may be a sulphurated volatile oil) is in many  cases readily dissipated
or decomposed and rendered inert by cooking.  Even drying seems to injure or destroy it.  As
it is soluble in  water, washing removes it from the starch.
  The useful qualities of the order depend  on starch and  aromatic volatile oil: on the former
depend the esculent properties of some species, and on the latter the medicinal properties of some.
   Colocasia esculenta (also called Caladium esculentum or Arum esculentum) is used in some parts
of the world as  food.   Its large, fleshy, and farinaceous tubers are called yams in Madeira,
from whence they were sent me by Mr. Nobrega.   I find that when boiled they form a very
agreeable substitute for potatoes.
   Colocasia Antiquorum is cultivated in Egypt and other parts  of  the world  for the nutritious
matter yielded by the tubers.
                        Sub-order I.  Arace^e, Endl

                               Flowers naked, unisexual.


               46.  Arum maculatum, Linn.—Cuckow-pint.
                             Sex. Syst. Monrecia, Polyandria.
                                      (Tuber.)

  Ari-m vulgare, Lam.; Common Cuckow-pint; Wake Robin; Lords and Ladies.—A well-known
indigenous, acrid, and poisonous plant, which, by drying or by the aid of heat, loses  its acridity!
From the underground tubers is manufactured, in the island of Portland, a starch called Portland 
158
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Aroideaj.
arrow-root  or Portland sago (feecula ari; farina ari).  It is  procured  by cleansing  the roots
(tubers), pounding them  in a stone mortar with water, and then straining.   The  starch  sub-
sides from the  strained liquor, and, the  supernatant water being  poured off, is collected and
dried.1   Care is requisite in the pounding of the roots on account of their acridity.
  From a  peck of the roots about a pound of starch is procured.
  Portland arrow-root is a white amylaceous powder.  Examined by the microscope, its par-
tides are found to be exceedingly small,2 circular, mullar-shaped, or polyhedral. The angular
appearance of some of them arises from compression.  The hilum is circular, and apparently
lies in a small depression.  It cracks in a linear or stellate manner.  The dietetical uses of this
starch are similar to those of other starches, as of the West Indian arrow-root.  It makes very
agreeable puddings.
  The  roasted tubers are esculent.
  The  fresh  plant is an  acrid poison; causing burning and swelling of the throat, vomiting,
colic, diarrhoea, and  convulsions.  By drying, the activity of the plant is in a great measure
destroyed.   Medicinally, the tubers were formerly used as diuretics in dropsies, and as expec-
torants in chronic catarrhs.3


              47. Arisaem atrorubens, Blume.—Dragon-Root.
                             Sex.  Syst. Moncecia, Polyandria.
                                       (Tuber.)

  Arisema  atrorubens,Blume,Rumphia, i. 97; Arum triphyllum, Linn.; Dragon-root; Indian
Turnip;  Wake Robin.—A native of the  United States of America.  Its properties agree closely
with Arum  maculatum,  and, like the latter, it yields  a pure white fecula.  The tuber is used
in the United States as a stimulant to the secretions in chronic bronchial affections, rheumatism,
&c, in doses of from ten grains to a scruple.  The powder, made into a paste with honey, has
been beneficially applied to the mouth and throat of children in aphthae.
                      Sub-order II.   Callace^e, Midi

             Perfect stamens associated with ovaries in hermaphrodite florets.


  48.  ACORUS  CALAMUS, L«-COMMON  SWEET FLAG.
                             Sex. Syst. Hexandria, Monogynia.
                               (Rhizoma, L.—Rhizome, E.)

  History.—This is probably the  axopov of Dioscorides.*   Dr. Royle says that in
Persian works akoron is given as its Greek appellation.   It must not be confounded
with  the  xdxapof apupatixos  of Dioscorides,  which,  according  to Dr.  Royle,5 is
Andropogon Calamus aromaticus, Royle (see ante, p. 154).
  Botany.  Gen. Char.—Flowers arranged upon a spadix.   Spalhe replaced by
a two-edged leaf-blade.   Perianth of  6 pieces or  scales, inferior, persistent.  Sta-
mens 6,  filiform.   Stigma sessile.    Ovaries 2-  3-celled.   Berries  1-celled,  1-3-
seeded.   Seeds albuminous.
  Sp. Char.—Spathe, a continuation of the 2-edged scape, rising much above the
spadix.
  Rhizome thick, rather  spongy, with many long roots, aromatic, like  every part
of the  herbage, but  much more powerfully so.   Leaves erect, two or  three feet

  1 Mrs. Gibbs, Transactions of the Society of Arts, vol. xv. p. 23?, 1797.
  2 The following measurements of five particles were made by Mr. Jackson :__
                   1...........0.0004  of an English inch.
                   2...........0.0003      ■<■     "
                   3...........0.000-22     "     '<
                   4...........0.00013     "     "
                   5...........0.0001      "     <<

                                          5)0.00115
                         Average.....0.0023
The average size, therefore, is the ijjgth of the inch in diameter.
  » See Murray,  App. Med. vol. v. p. 44, 1790; and Alston's Lectures on  the Materia Medica,Vo\.l
p. 387.
  4 Lib. i. cap. 2.                                  « Essay on Ike Antiq. of Hindoo Med.  p. 33. 
           Common Sweet Flag:—Composition; Effects;  Uses.        159

high, bright green, near an inch broad.   Stalk like the leaves, except being thicker
below the spadix, and not quite so  tall.   Spadix about  a  foot above the root, a
little spreading, two or three inches long, tapering, covered with  a mass of  very
numerous, thick-set, pale green flowers, which have no scent, except when bruised.
A very narrow wavy membrane may be observed at  the base of the spadix, which
perhaps ought to be taken into the generic character as a spathe (Smith).—Peren-
nial : flowers in June.
   Hab.—It is a native of this country, growing in watery places about the banks
of rivers,  and is very plentiful in the rivers of Norfolk, whence the London market
was formerly supplied.   It grows, also, in other countries of Europe, in Asia, and
in the  United States.
   Description.—The dried underground stem  (rhizoma,  L.; radix acori veri
seu radix calami aromatic!, Offic.) occurs in the shops  in flattened pieces four or
five  or more  inches long, and  about as  broad as  the thumb; jointed, somewhat
curved, of a spongy or  corky texture internally;  of a yellowish  brown or fawn
colour  externally, and buffy, with a slight roseate hue, internally.   Their fracture
is short:  their upper surface is marked transversely with the vestiges of the leaves
which  were attached to it; the lower surface has numerous dark points,  surrounded
by small light-coloured elevated circles, from which the roots arise.   Their taste is
warm  and bitter; their odour  is aromatic.  In  Germany, the rhizome  is usually
peeled before drying it (rhizoma decorticata) ; but the operation is unnecessary and
wasteful.   In this state, the rhizome is grayish-white and easily pulverizable.
   The rhizome  should  be gathered in  spring or  late in the autumn, and dried
quickly.   It is usually gathered on the  banks of  the Thames about May for the
London market.
   The fresh rhizome is employed for distillation.   The pieces are sometimes  four-
teen or fifteen inches long, and one inch wide.
   The rhizome of  the Yellow Water Iris (Iris Pseudo-acorus) is said to be some-
times  substituted for that of the true Acorus.
   Composition.—The fresh rhizome was analyzed by Trommsdorff,1 who obtained
the  following  results:  Volatile oil, 0.1;  soft resin,  2.3; extractive, with a  little
chloride of potassium, 3.3; gum, with some phosphate of potash, 5.5 ; starchy matter
 (like inulin), 1.6 ; woody fibre, 21.5 ;  and water, 65.7.   Meissner found traces of
 copper in the ashes.
   The active constituents are the oil, the resin, and the extractive.
   Oil of thk Common Sweet Flag (oleum acori calami, called, in the shops, olettm calami aro-
 matici) is obtained by distilling the  fresh rhizome with water.  Its odour is  similar to, though
 less agreeable than, that of the rhizome.  Its  colour is yellow.   It  is bought by snuffmakers,
 so that it is used, I presume, for scenting snuff.  It is also employed in the preparation of
 aromatic vinegar.
   Chemical Characteristics.—Iodine blackens  the rhizome (especially when
 it has been boiled), thereby indicating the presence of starch.  The cold decoction
 of the rhizome forms, with  a solution of iodine, the blue iodide of starch.   Acetate
and diacetate of lead, and protonitrate of mercury,  cause  precipitates with the
decoction.   These precipitates consist principally of metallic oxides  or subsalts, and
t\\fi  substance called extractive.  Nitrate of  silver  produces  a precipitate (chloride
of silver), which is insoluble in nitric acid, but soluble in ammonia.   The decoction
reddens  litmus.
   Physiological Effects.—It is an aromatic stimulant and mild tonic.   Voo-t9
arranges  it with the cxc.itant.ia volatilia, and regards it as approaching angelica root
on the one  hand, and cascarilla and angustura barks on the  other.
   Uses.—It is rarely employed by medical practitioners, though  it might be fre-
quently substituted, with good effect, for the more  costly oriental aroraatics.   It is
a usoful  adjunct to other stimulants and tonics.  It has been employed in continued

  1 Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. ii. 1339.                 a Lehrb. d. Pharmakodyn. i. 454, 2te Aufl. 
160
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Palm as.
asthenic fevers accompanied with much prostration of strength and greatly weak-
ened digestive power.   For the cure of ague, the  dried root powdered is used bv
the country people in Norfolk.1   It is  well adapted for dyspeptic cases  accompanied
with, or dependent on, an atonic condition of the digestive organs, and is especially
serviceable in gouty  subjects.   It has  also been used as a local agent, viz., in the
formation of aromatic baths, poultices, and gargles, as an application to foul-con.
ditioned ulcers, &c.  It is employed, I am informed, by some  rectifiers to flavour
gin.
   Administration.—In powder, the  rhizome may be  given  in doses of  from a
scruple to a drachm.  The infusion is, perhaps, the most eligible preparation; it is
made by digesting 3j of the rhizome in ^xij of boiling water;  the dose is two or
three tablespoonfuls.   The decoction is an objectionable  preparation, as the oil of
the rhizome  is dissipated by boiling.   The tincture (Ph.  Bor.) is  procured  by di-
gesting ^ij of the rhizome in ^xij of spirit (sp. gr.  0.900); the dose is a teaspoonful.

                                  SUBDIVISION  II.

              Flowers with a proper, often corolline perianth, usually hermaphrodite.
1. Leaves with parallel veins, either proceeding from the base to  the apex (straight-veined), or
            curved and proceeding from the midrib to the margin (curved-veined).
              f Flowers sessile on a branched scaly spadix, usually unisexual.
        Order IX.   PALMiE,  Juss.—THE  PALM  TKIBE.

                                   PALMACE2E, Lindl.

   Characters.—Flowers hermaphrodite, or frequently polygamous.  Perianth six-parted, in
two series, persistent; the three outer segments often smaller, the inner sometimes deeply con-
nate.  Stamens inserted into the base of the perianth, usually definite  in number, opposite the
segments of the perianth, to which they are equal in number, seldom three ; sometimes, in a few
polygamous genera, indefinite in number.   Ovary one, three-celled, or  deeply three-lobed; the
lobes or cells one-seeded, with an erect ovule, rarely one-seeded.   Fruit baccate or drupaceous,
with fibrous flesh.   Albumen cartilaginous,  and  either ruminate or furnished with a central or
ventral cavity ; embryo lodged in a particular cavity of the albumen, usually at a distance from
the hilum, dorsal, and indicated by a little nipple, taper  or pulley-shaped ; plumule included,
scarcely visible; the cotyledonous  extremity becoming thickened in  germination, and  either
filling up a pre-existing cavity, or one formed by the liquefaction of the albumen in the centre.—
Trunk arborescent, simple, occasionally shrubby and  branched, rough, with the dilated half-
sheathing bases of the leaves or their scars.  Leaves clustered, terminal, very  large, pinnate, or
flabelliform, plaited in vernation.  Spadix terminal, often  branched, enclosed in a one or many-
valved spathe.  Flowers  small, with bractlets.   Fruit occasionally very  lar^e.  (R  Brown,
1810.)
   Properties.—Palms, considered in a  dietetical and medicinal point of view, are of the
highest importance to the inhabitants of tropical regions.  Their stems yield starch (sago) sugar,
and  wax; their terminal leaf buds are boiled and eaten as  a  kind of cabbage;  their fruits yield
oil, sugar, and resins : and their seeds form  articles of food, and yield, by pressure, fixed oil.
   In the abundance of sugar and starch which the palms yield, this family resembles the grasses.
But they are distinguished from the latter in containing, in some cases,  a large  quantity of fixed
oil.  To these three principles are chiefly due the nutritive qualities of palms.  But these sub-
stances being non-nitrogenized, are merely fat-making  and heat-yielding, and  without the
addition of proteine  compounds (found in the seeds, and probably in other edible parts of palms),
would be insufficient to support life.
  Palm sugar, in the crude state, is catted jaggary.  By fermentation, it yields toddy or palm wine,
from which, by distillation, an ardent  spirit (arrack or rack) is obtained.  Date sugar, and also
other kinds of palm sugar, are imported into England,and are used by grocers for mixing; but,
being deficient in what in trade is called "  strength," they do not pay for refining.2
   Wax, astringent matter (tannin), and resinous principles, are useful products obtained from palms,
but they are of less frequent occurrence than the substances before mentioned.  Still less fre-
quently met with are acrid principles.
  The ashes obtained by the combustion of palm leaves yield potash.
1 Sir J. E. Smith, Engl. Flora, ii. 158.              a Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. v. p. 61, 1815. 
Sago Palms.                             161
                1. Palale farinifera.—Sago Palms.

  The farinaceous substance called sago is obtained from the stems of several palms.
Those of the genera Sugus and Sagucrus are the most important, and will be sepa-
rately noticed.
  The trunk of old trees of Caryota urens, called, by Robinson,1 the  Sago palm of
Assam, yields a sago which both Roxburgh3 and Robinson consider to be very little
if at all inferior to the sago of the Malay countries.  From  Phoenix farinifera,
which grows in the Coromandel coast, is likewise obtained  a sago, but which is less
nutritious and palatable than the  common sago.3   Corypha umbraculifera, or the
Talipat  palm, yields sago in Ceylon; which would  appear from the  statement of
Bennett* to be of inferior quality.
  Japan  Sago is said to be obtained from several species of Cycas.  None of this, however,
reaches England.  (See order Cycade,e.)


                            49. SAGUS, Gartner.

                          Sex. Syst. Moncccia, Hexandria.

  Mctroxylon, Bottb.
  Gen. Char.—Flowers hermaphrodite or polygamo-moncecious on the same spadix.
Spadix  much branched, sheathed  by many incomplete spathes.  Amenta  terete.
Bract squamiform: bractlets  very densely villose-bearded, connate like  a cupule.
Calyx 3-cleft.   Corolla 3-partite.   Stamens 6: filaments  subulate, connate at the
base; anthers affixed by the  back.   Ovary subtrilocular:  stigmata 3, connate in a
pyramid. Berry coated by reversed scales,  1-seeded.  Albumen ruminated or uni-
form.   Embryo  dorsal.   (Blume, Rumphia.)
  1.  Sagus  lvevis, Rumph. i. 76, tab. 86 and 126-127  (nomine  S. Rumphii);
Blume,  Rumphia, vol. ii. p. 147 ; Jack, in Comp. Bot. Mag. i. 266; Sagus inermis,
Roxb. Fl. Ind.  iii. 623;  Mctroxylon  leeve,  Mart. Gen.  et Sp. Plant, p. 215, 2;
Kunth, Enum. Plant, iii.  214, 2.    Mctroxylon Sagus, Rottb. Rambia or Rambija
of the Malays.   The Unarmed Sago-Palm.
   Stem tallish.   Petioles, rachides, and spathes, unarmed.  Fruit somewhat globose,
and depressed on both sides.   (Blume, in Rumphia, p. 147.)
   Islands of the Indian Archipelago, Sumatra and Borneo, and the islands between
them, growing spontaneously in low swampy lands.
 _ A large quantity of granular sago is prepared from this species5 in Sumatra espe-
cially, the peninsula of Malacca, and in Borneo.   It is chiefly exported to Europe,
Bengal, and China.  The farina which is brought from Siak, on the northern coast
of Sumatra, although inferior in whiteness to that of Borneo, is much sought after
on account of its being less  friable.  It  commonly fetches twice the price of the
latter.6
  The quantity  of sago yielded by this palm is prodigious: Crawford7 says 500 or
600 lbs. is not an unusual  produce  for one tree:  and Blume mentions 600 to 800
lbs. as the quantity obtained  from a single tree when mature.
 ^ 2.  Sagusoenuina, Rumph. (ex parte); Blume, Rumphia, vol. ii. p. 150; Sagus
RumjJiii, Roxb. Fl. Ind.  iii.  p. 623 (excel,  synon.); Sagus spinosus, Roxb. ibid. •
Mctroxylon Rumphii, Mart. Gen. et Sp. Palm. p. 214, tab. 102 and  159.
  Stem  of middling height.  Petioles, rachides, and spathes prickly;  the  prickles
scattered or  confluent.   Fruit somewhat globose, depressed on both sides.  (Blume.)

 1 A Descriptive Account of Assam, p. 5G, Calcutta, 1841.
 1 Flora  Indica, vol. iii. p. 620.                     » Ibid., p. 786.
 4 f.Vy/on, and its Capabilities, p. 05, Lond. 1613.
 • Roxburgh (Flora Indica, vol. iii. p. 023) says that from the pith of this tree " the granulated satrn
which we meet with  in Kurope is made."                                             °
 • Illume, Rumphia, vol. ii. p. 118.            ' History of the Indian Archipelago, vol i d  393
      VOL. II.—11 
162
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Talma:.
   Islands of the Indian Archipelago.   Abounds in  the Malacca islands, especially
where the nutmeg and clove grow naturally.
   "This, the Malay Sago Palm, is the tree the pith of which is the staff of life to
the inhabitants of the Moluccas."   (Roxburgh.)
   The stature of this tree seldom exceeds thirty feet.  Before maturity, and  pre-
vious to the formation of the fruit,  the stem consists of a thin hard wall, about two
inches thick, and of an enormous volume of tissue (commonly termed the medulla
or pith), from which the  farina, called  sago, is obtained.   As the  fruit forms, the
farinaceous medulla disappears; and when the tree attains full maturity, the stem
is  no more  than a  hollow shell.  The utmost age of the tree does not exceed thirty
years.1


    50. SAGUERUS SACCHARIFER, Blume.-THE  GOMUTO
                                   PALM.
                          Sex. Syst. Moncecia, Polyandria.

   Synonymes.—Palma Indica vinaria secunda, Saguerus, sive Gomulus Gomuto,
Rumph. Amb.  i. p. 57, t. 13; Anau, Marsden, Hist. Sum. p. 88, 3ded.; Saguerus
Rumphii, Roxb. Fl. Ind. iii. 626; Arenga saccharifera, Mart. Gen. et Sp. Palm.
p.  191,  tab. 108.
   Botany.  Gen. Char.—Flowers monoecious  by  abortion, on  separate spadices,
sessile, the female ones between two males.   Spadices simply branched.  Spathes
many incomplete.   Calyx 3-cleft, with imbricated leaflets.    Corolla 3-petalous, with
valvate aestivation.   Males : Stamina indefinite: filaments filiform: anthers linear,
cuspidate.   Females :  Ovary trilocular, with the  Ovule  affixed at the  bottom of
the internal angle.   Stigmata 3,  acute, connivent.  Berry 3- or, by abortion, 2-
seeded.   Albumen uniform.   Embryo dorsal.  (Blume.)
   Sp. Char.—Petioles unarmed.   Segments of  the  fronds linear-lanceolate, at the
base 1- or sub-2-auriculate, beneath whitish.   Branches of the spadices elongated,
fastigiate, pendulous.   Berry turbinate-globose.   (Blume.)—From 20 to  25 feet
high: readily distinguished by its rude and wild aspect.
   Hab.—Very common  in the islands of the  Indian Archipelago, the Moluccas,
and the Philippines.
   A saccharine juice called nera or toddy is obtained in large quantities by wound-
ing the spadices and receiving the liquor  in  earthenware  pots or bamboos closely
fastened beneath.2  This juice yields by boiling a coarse dark kind of sugar (jaggary),
and by fermentation an intoxicating beverage.   Wine which is used by the Chinese
residing in the Indian islands in the preparation of Batavian  arrack.3   When the
trees are exhausted by the incessant draining of  their juices, sago of good quality
is  obtained from the trunk—as much as 150 to 200 lbs. weight from a single tree.4
   The flesh of the fruit is acrid, and affords a juice which when applied to the skin
occasions great pain and inflammation.   The  inhabitants of the Moluccas were in
the practice of using in their wars, in the defence of posts, a liquor afforded by the
maceration of the  fruit, which the Dutch denominated hell water (aqua infernalii)>

                                    SAGO.
       (Sago; Saguslaevis, Rumph., et alia? fortasse Palmarum species.  Caudicis Fa:cula, L.)

   History.—Sago does  not appear to have been  known to the Greeks, Romans,
or Arabians.   The preparation of sago-meal and  sago-bread, as carried on at Fanfur
1 Crawfurd, History of the Indian Archipelago, vol. i. p. 384.
a Marsden's History of Sumatra, p. 88, 3d edit. 1811.
• Crawfurd's History of the Indian Archipelago, vol. i. p. 399,1820
* Blume, Rumphia, vol. ii. p. 126.             ' Crawfur 1, op. cit 
Sago:—Commerce;  Manufacture.
163
(Kampar, in Sumatra?), was first described by Marco Polo1 in the  13th century.
Sago-bread was described and figured by Clusius.9
  Granulated sago was  not known until  a later period.   It is said3 to have  been
introduced into England in 1729, into France in 1740, and into Germany in 1744.
Rumphius* states that in  Borneo grains  of the size of  a coriander  seed are made
from the farina of the Saguerus (Saguerus saccharifer, Blume).
  The word sagu (also written by some of the earlier authors zagu and saga5) is the
Malay name both for the  palm  and its  farina :6 it is also used in Java to  signify
the bread made from the farina.7
  Commerce.—Sago is brought to England  from Singapore in bags, &c.  The
quantity on which duty was paid in 1840 was 26,895 cwts.
  Newbold8 gives the following as the quantities imported into Singapore in 1836:—
                                                          Bundles.
                 Sago from Sumatra.............157750
                     "   West Side Peninsula........   HO
                     "   Borneo, 1308 piculs.........140560
                     "   North Islands, 140 piculs.......15251
                                       Total imported .... 313701

The quantity exported from Singapore in the same year was 28,764 piculs.
   Manufacture,   a.  Of Raw Sago-Meal.—The manufacture of sago-meal varies
somewhat in different localities.  In the  Moluccas, it is  procured as follows: When
the tree is sufficiently mature, it is cut down near the root, and the trunk subdivided
into portions of six  or seven  feet long,  each of which is split into two parts.   From
these the medullary matter is extracted, and with  an instrument of bamboo or hard
wood is reduced to  powder, like sawdust.   To separate  the farina from the accom-
panying bran and filaments,  it is mixed with water, and the mixture then strained
by a sieve.   The strained  liquor deposits the farina, which, after two or more edul-
corations, is fit for use.   This is raw sago-meal.9
   b.  Of Sago-Bread.—In the  Moluccas, sago-cakes  are made by throwing the dry
meal into heated earthenware moulds: a hard cake is formed in a few minutes,  so
that one heating of the mould serves to  bake several series of cakes.10
   c.  Of Granulated Sago.—To prepare  this the meal is mixed with water and
made into  a paste, which is then  granulated. Forrest says that in  New Guinea
granulated sago is  made by  mixing the sago-meal with water and passing the paste
through a sieve into a very shallow iron  pot  held  over  a  fire, by which it is made
 to  assume a globular form; so that,  he adds, our grain sago is half baked and will
keep  long.   This,  according to Blume, is the process which  is  followed by the
Chinese colony in  Singapore; the  meal  being first  repeatedly worked and dried.
Blume adds that, during the heating process, the grains are constantly turned, and
that, though quite  white at  the commencement, they become  hard  and somewhat
pellucid during the process.
   One kind of pearl sago of the shops has been obviously subjected to some heating process:
this is the Tapioka sago of Guibourt; but the application of heat  must have been  most carefully
regulated, for charred sago is unknown to  commerce.   Some  of the  granulated sago of the

  1  Trarrls in the Eastern part of the World in the  Thirteenth Century, translated from the Italian, with
Notes, by W. Marsden,  p.GU,4to. Lond. 1818.
  ■'  Exotic, lib. i. cap. iii. p. 5, 1605.
  ' Sleek, quoted by J. A. Murray, App. Mcdicam.  vol. iv. p. 17, 1790.
  1  Herbarium Amboin.  purs Ima, p. 61, Anist. 1750.  "...... in Borneo ex eadem eonficiunt farina
rotuud.'i grana Corinndri semen mngnitudine et forma referenda."  I have given the words of Rumphius
because gome highly respectuble  authorities (J. A. Murray and Guibourt) have overlooked this passage'
and assumed that Rumphius does not mention granulated sago.
  » See the authorities quoted in C. Bauhin's Pinax.
  ' Crnwfurd. History of the  Indian Archipelago, vol. i. p. 387, 1820.
  1 Sir K. Drake, in llakluyt's I'rincipal Navigations, Voyages, tec. vol. iii. p. 742.
  • Political and Statistical Account of the British Settlements in the Straits of Malacca vol i  d *50t
Lond. 1&19.                                                                  'K'   '
  » Crnwfurd, op. supra  cit. vol.  i. p. 390. Mr. Crisp (Asiat. Researches, vol. vi. 1799) has described the
mode of preparing sogo-meal in  the Poggy Islands, lying  off Sumatra.  See, also, Forrest's Voyast to
New Guinea, 2d edit. 1780, pp. 39-41, for the method of preparing it by the Papuans.'
  ,0 Forrest (op. supra cit.) has figured a mould, which he calls the Papua oven. 
164
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Palmae.
shops presents no evidence of having been heated;  and it has, therefore, been supposed that
its granulation must have been effected by a mill.
   Description of Sago.—Sago occurs in commerce in two states—pulverulent
and granulated.
   1. Pulverulent Sago; Sago Meal; Sago Flour (Farina Sagi).—This is im-
ported in the form of a fine  amylaceous  powder.  It is whitish, with a buffy or
reddish tint.  Its odour is faint, but somewhat unpleasant and musty.  Viewed by
a powerful pocket-lens, it presents a glistening granular appearance.   Examined by
the microscope, it is found to consist of irregularly elliptical or oval, more or less
ovate,  usually isolated particles,1 which are often somewhat narrowed or  tapered
at one extremity.   Owing to their mutual  pressure, many of them  appear as if
truncated, either by a single plane perpendicular to the axis of the particle, in which
they are more or less mullar-shaped—or by two inclined planes, giving the particles
a dihedral extremity.  Some of them resemble in form a caoutchouc bottle cut off
at the  neck.  From their strong lateral shading they are obviously convex.  Many
of the  particles are  more or less broken.   Most of them have an irregular or tuber-
culated surface, as if eroded.   The hilum, when perfect, is  circular; but  it cracks
in the  form of a single slit, or of a cross, or in a stellate manner.  The surface of
the particles presents the appearance of a series of concentric rings or annular  lines,
which, however, are much less distinct than in potato starch.  These lines are indi-
cative of the concentric layers of which each particle is composed.  When examined
by the polarizing microscope,  the particles show a black cross, the centre of which
is  the hilum.
   I have met with sago-meal in commerce under different names.  Once, I received
a sample from Cockermouth,  in Cumberland, where it was  sold  as " Food forth
People."   A  sample of a fine white and  carefully-prepared sago-meal was given
me under the name of arrow-root.   I shall distinguish it as refined sago-meal.
   The following information respecting the mode of refining sago-meal was furnished
me by a starch manufacturer: " By sifting and washing, the best sago-meal loses
about one-fifth of its weight in the  form of earthy matter and woody fibre.  The*
meal thus sifted and washed is then bleached by means of chloride  of lime and
sulphuric acid.  The bleached  meal is afterwards washed in successive  waters until
a perfectly pure product is obtained.  In  this state it  serves as a food for infants
and invalids.  Coloured by turmeric, and flavoured by the  essential oils of cassia
and bitter almonds, it forms a custard powder.  Without the colouring matter, it
serves  as a blanc-mange powder."
   2. Granulated Sago;   Grain Sago (Sagus granulosa);  Grana  Sagi.—The
grains  are more or less rounded masses of variable size and colour.   Examined by
a microscope with a low object-glass (say of 2- or 3-inch focus), they are seen to be
masses  of glistening particles.  There  are two kinds of granulated sago—browu
sago, and pearl sago.
   a. Common or Brown Sago (Sagus fusca); Sagou gris des Moluques, Planche
and Guibourt.—This is the only kind of sago which was  known in English com-
merce  prior to the introduction of pearl sago.
 1 The following measurements, in parts of an English inch, of the particles of starch of sago-meal,
brown sago, and pearl sago, were made for me by Mr. George Jackson:__
FAKTICLES.	SAGO-MEAL.		BROWN SAGO.		PEARL SAGO.	
	Long diam.	Short diam.	Long diam.	Short diam.	Long diam. | Short diam	
1....... 2........ 3....... 4....... 15......... i 6....... je:::::::	0.0022 0.00195 0.0017 0.0014 0.0013 0.0012 0.0005	0.0016 0.00135 0.0013 0.0014 0.00095 0.00095 0.0008	0.0026 0.0020 0.0017 0.0017 0 0013 0.0009 0.0008 0.00075	0.00155 0.0014 0.0015 0.0012 0.0010 0.0006 0.0008 0.0000	0.0031 0.0022 0.0021 0 0018 0.0018 0.0017 0.0012 0.0008	0 0019 0.0015 0.0014 0.0013 0.0012 0.0012 0.0003 0.00075
 
Granulated Sago.
165
  It occurs in somewhat irregularly-rounded or  globular masses or grains, which
are  whitish on one  side, and grayish-brown  on the other.  The ordinary brown
sago of the shops consists of grains which  are  usually about the size of the grains
of pearl barley.  This may be termed  the smaller or ordinary brown sago.   It is
the sagou gris des Mo/uqurs of both Planche and Guibourt.  But there is another
variety, the globular masses of which are  larger, sometimes as large  as gray peas.
To  distinguish it from the smaller sort just mentioned, I shall  call it large brown
sago.  I  received it first  from Dr. Douglas Maclagan, of Edinburgh, and subse-
quently from Professor Guibourt, who terms it gros sagou gris des Moluques.   The
Bmaller masses of it are  about equal in size to the larger masses  of the former sort
of  brown sago.  Except in the size of the  grains or masses, the two  sorts are
identical.
   Examined by the microscope, the grains of brown sago are  found to consist of
particles like those of sago-meal, but somewhat more  broken and less regular in
their shape.   Some of them present the appearance of containing in  their interior
a smaller particle,  or rather, perhaps, an air-cavity,  which, when  examined by
polarized light, forms the centre of the black cross.   Intermixed with the starch
particles is a yellowish-brcfwn substance, which gives colour to the sago.
   0. Pearl Sago (Sagus perlata).—The  manufacture  of this kind of sago is com-
 paratively recent.   Crawfurd,1  who wrote in  1820, says: "Within  the  last few
 years the Chinese of Malacca have invented a process by which  they refine sago so
 as to give it a fine pearly lustre.  ...  A small quantity of it, exposed for sale •
 in the London market in 1818, sold for about thrice the price of ordinary [that is,
 brown] sago."   The sago used by the Chinese  at  Malacca in  the manufacture of
 pearl sago is, according  to  Newbold,2 brought from Sumatra.   Pearl sago is also
 prepared at Singapore.3
    Pearl  sago  occurs in pearl-like grains, which vary in size from that  of  poppy
 seeds to that of  white mustard seeds, or  even  somewhat larger than these.   The
 shape of the larger grains is more or  less globular, that of the  smaller ones being
 often much less regular.   The surface of the  larger grains is smooth, even, and
 regular; that of the small grains often rough, uneven, and somewhat tuberculated.
 Occasionally, two or three of the smaller grains adhere together.   Some samples are
  white, some  brownish yellow,  pink, or roseate.  The  coloured grains are not of
  uniform tint over the whole of their surface; often being on one side white, on the
  other coloured.   By the aid of a solution of  chloride of lime,  the coloured  kinds
  can be bleached and rendered perfectly white (bleached pearl sago).
    When submitted to microscopic examination,  pearl sago  is found to consist of
  the same kind of starch particles as sago-meal, but all more or  less  ruptured, and
  presenting indistinct traces of rings.   These  peculiarities are  doubtless produced
  by the process of granulation.
    oo.  White Pearl Sago.—Grains smaller than white mustard seeds;  opake and*
  white on one side, pearly on the other.   The filtered cold aqueous  infusion  does
  not strike a  blue  colour with tincture of iodine.   The whiteness  of  this kind of
  pearl sago has probably been produced by bleaching.
    00.  Coloured pearl sago.—Grains of different size.  Those of some sorts are not
  larger than poppy  seeds (small coloured pearl sago), while those of other sorts are
  nearly as large, or even somewhat larger, than white mustard seeds (large coloured
 pearl sago).   The  colour varies in intensity, and  slightly in shade  also; but the
  prevailing tint is that of bran, or sometimes pinkish brownish yellow.  Some sorts
  arc  as pale as ground,  unsifted wheat-flour (pale-coloured pearl sago);  others are
  nearly as deep-coloured as bran  itself.  Some  of the larger sorts have a grayish or
  brownish colour (grayish or brownish pearl sago); but, like  all kinds of coloured

    * History of the Indian Archipelago, vol. iii. p. 349, 1820.
    • Political and Statistical  Account of the British Settlements in the Straits of Malacca, vol. i. pp. 243-4,
  1830.
    ' Blume, Rumphia, vol. ii. p. 148. 
166
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Palmas.
 sago, the tint is not uniform on different parts of  the same grain, being deep on
 one side and pale on the other.
   The filtered cold aqueous infusion of  some  sorts does  not strike a blue  colour
 with tincture of iodine.   This kind corresponds  to the  Sagou rosi des Moluquct
 of Planche and Guibourt.
   The  filtered cold aqueous infusion of other sorts yields a blue colour on the addi-
 tion of tincture of iodine, showing that a higher temperature has been employed in
 the preparation of  it than of other sorts.   This corresponds to the Sagou-lapioka
 or Tapioca-sago of Guibourt.   When examined by the  microscope, the  particles
 are found to be more ruptured and torn—an obvious effect of heat  on them.   This
 sort of pearl sago is often not distinguishable  by its  external appearance from  that
 of the  Sagou rosi des Moluques of Planche and Guibourt.
   Under the name of  damaged pearl sago, I have  received a sample of  coloured
 pearl sago, some of the particles of which are yellow (from sulphur-yellow to orange
 coloured).   When bleached by means of chloride  of lime,  it becomes quite white
 (bleached pearl sago).
   Factitious Sago.—This is prepared in both Germany and in France (at Gentilly,
 near Paris) with potato-starch.   It occurs both white and coloured.
   I have two kinds of white factitious sago—one small-grained, the grains of which
 are scarcely so large as white mustard seeds;  the other large-grained, the grains of
 which are intermediate in  size between white mustard seeds and  coriander seeds.
•The first, I met with in English commerce;  for the other, I am indebted to Professor
 Guibourt.
   I have also  two kinds of coloured factitious sago, both large-grained—one red,1
 the other brownish,3 and somewhat resembling brownish pearl sago.   For both of
 these I am indebted to Professor Guibourt.
   The white and the red sorts are remarkable for being spherical and smooth.
   The microscope  can alone distinguish factitious  sago from  the real sort.  The
 difference in the size, the shape, and other characters, between the particles of sago-
 starch  and the unaltered particles of potato-starch, readily distinguish the one from
 the other.   (See also Potato-starch.)
   But many of the starch particles of potato sago are ruptured by the influences to
 which they have been subjected during the preparation  of the sago.   They have
 become swollen, ruptured  in the direction of their  long axis, and, by drying, have
 shrivelled, leaving  a long, linear,  sometimes  curved or even-branched  line with
 incurved or involuted edges, indicating the situation of the rupture.
   I have received from Professor Guibourt samples of "Sagou des Maldives de Planche, donne
 par lui," and " Sagou de la  Nouvelle Guinee de Planche,3 donne par  lui," and find  them to be
 fictitious sagos made from potato starch.  The grains of New Guinea sago are undistinguishable
 externally, and, by the microscopic examination of their starch particles, form red-coloured "Sagou
 de fecule de pomme de lerre," also sent me by Professor Guibourt.  Both are bright red on  one
 side and whitish on the other.  Most of their starch grains are ruptured and shrivelled as above
 described.  The Maldive Sago is  paler coloured, and some of its starch particles are little or
 not at all altered;  others are ruptured and shrivelled.
   Composition.—Sago has not been  analyzed.  The pure  starch, of which it
 essentially consists, doubtless has  the same composition  as other amylaceous sub-
 stances, viz., C12H10010.   Sago-meal is contaminated  with various impurities (see
 ante, p.  164).   Granulated sago  contains some  colouring matter,  particles of
 which may readily  be detected by  the microscope.
   Chemical  Characteristics.—Sago possesses the  general characters  of an
 amylaceous substance.
   Sago-meal is insoluble in cold water; but, by boiling in water, it almost entirely

  1 This is, perhaps, the kind  mentioned by Planche (Journ. de Pharm. t. xxiii. p. 305, 1637) as being
 " falsified sago coloured by cochineal."
  2 This, perhaps, is the brown sort of German sago made from potato-starch, and said,  by Dierbach
 (Synopsis Materia: Medica, Abt. i. S. 27. 1811), to be coloured by burnt sugar.
  3 Journ. d. Pharm. torn, xxiii. p. 155, 1637. 
The Guinea Oil Palms.                         167
dissolves, and yields a tolerably clear solution.   The decoction, when cold, strikes
a blue colour with tincture of iodine.
   Granulated sago swells  up  in  cold water, but does not completely dissolve by
boiling, a more or less considerable amount of insoluble matter remaining behind.
The remarkable difference in the action of boiling water on sago-meal, and on dif-
ferent kinds of granulated sago, leads me to suspect that some substance of difficult
solubility in water is used in the preparation  of the paste  for  making granulated
Bago.  The filtered cold aqueous infusion of some sorts of pearl sago (Sagou-tapioha
of Guibourt) strikes a blue colour with tincture of iodine.   The cold infusion  of
brown sago is rendered milky by nitrate of silver, diacetate of lead, and protonitrate
of mercury;  but the cold infusions of  pulverulent and of pearl  sago  are scarcely
affected by these  tests.
   Physiological Effects.—It is nutritive and easy of digestion, and  is  an im-
portant article of food in some  parts of the East.  " The Malay sago palm," says
Dr.  Roxburgh, " is the tree, the pith of which is the staff of life to the inhabitants
of the Moluccas."   It is probable that this pith contains some nitrogenized nutri-
tive substance in  addition to the amylaceous matter.
   Uses.—Sago  puddings are  occasionally brought to table.  But the  principal
use  of sago is to yield a  light, nutritious, easily-digestible, and non-irritating article
of food for the invalid in febrile and inflammatory cases.   For this purpose it should
be boiled in water (in some cases milk  is preferred), the  solution strained, and fla-
voured with sugar and spices, or even with a little white wine, when the use of this
is not contraindicatcd.
                   2.  Palm^ oleifer^e.—Oil Palms.

   Oil is obtained from the fruit of some, and from the seeds of many palms.   Two
oils obtained from palms are found in commerce:  they are palm oil and cocoa-nut
oil;  the one obtained from a species of EUeis, the other from a Cocos.


                51.  Elaeis, Jacquin.—The Guinea Oil Palms.
                             Sex. Syst. Dioecia, Hexandria.
                                   (Fructus oleum.)

   Palm oil is obtained from two species of Elaeis, both natives of Guinea, and to both of which
the name of Guinea Oil Palm is equally applicable.  The  oil resides in the  fleshy portion of
the fruit, which, in this respect, resembles the olive.
   1. El.kis guineensis, Jacquin;  The True Guinea  Oil Palm; The Palm Oil-Tree; Sloane's
Jamaica, vol. ii.  p. 113, 1725; Avoira, Aubl., PI. de la Guiane, 1775.—A native of Guinea;
cultivated in tropical America.   The drupes are about the size of pigeons' eggs, ovate, somewhat
angular, deep orange yellow, collected in heads.   Tliey have a thin epicarp, a fibrous, oily,
yellow sarcocarp, which covers and closely adheres to the  hard stony putamen or endocarp,
within which is the seed.
   From the s.ircocarp is procured palm oil (oleum palmce).  This is obtained by boiling the pulp
in water, by which the oil separates and floats on the surface.
   2. Kleih melanococca, Gartner.—The drupes are somewhat smaller than those of the pre-
ceding species.   Some time since I received from Mr. Warrington a bunch of them, which had
been recently brought from Guinea as the fruit from which  palm oil is obtained.  The flesh of
the fruit is oily, and has the well-known odour and colour of palm oil.  Gartner1 thought that
it inijiht be only a variety of E. guineensis; but Von Martius,2 who has fully described it, regards
it as a distinct species.
  At the ordinary temperatures of this country, it is solid, and might, therefore, with more pro-
priety be termed palm butter.   It is said that, when quite fresh, it fuses at 81° F.; but that, by
keeping, its  fusing point rises.  Stenhouse3 found that very old palm oil required a temperature
of '.is£°  F. to fuse it.
  Palm oil has a rich orange yellow colour, a sweetish taste, and an agreeable odour resembling
1 De Fructibus et Semin. Plant, vol. i. p. 18, 1801.            » Palma: Brasil. p. 62, tab. 54-58,
' Ann. d. Chemie u. Pharm. Bd. xxsvi. S. 50. 
168
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Palma:.
that of the rhizome of the Florentine orris.   It is soluble in boiling alcohol and in ether.  By
exposure to solar light it becomes white.
  Palm oil requires to be bleached for various uses in the arts, and there are several agents
which are used for decolorizing it—viz., chlorine, oxygen, powerful acids (sulphuric, nitric, or
chromic acid),  and the combined influence of air, heat, and light.1
  Palm oil consists of oleine, palmitine, and colouring matter.  As found in commerce, it usually
contains also free fatty acids (oleic and palmitic) and free glycerine, and, therefore, may be said
to be  rancid.  The cause of the separation of these acids from the glycerine has not been satis.
factorily explained.  The quantity of them increases with the age of the oil, and, according to
Pelouze and Boudet,2 varies from 33  to 80 per cent, of the entire oil.  In proportion as the
quantity increases, the fusing point of  the oil rises.   The glycerine which is set free gradually
becomes converted into sebacic acid, which is also found in old palm oil.   These various changes
seem to  be  effected by a kind of fermentation, to the commencement of which, according to
Guibourt,3 the presence of atmospheric air is necessary.
  Palmitine is a white solid fat, which is resolved, by saponification and by the fermentation
just alluded to, into palmitic acid (C32H3103-(-HO), considered by Dumas  to be identical with
ethalic acid—and glycerine (oxide of glycerule).
  The Africans use  palm oil as a kind of butter.  It is now rarely employed in medicine.  By
the public it is occasionally used by way of friction in bruises, sprains, &c.   It is a constituent
of the common black bougie.   Its ordinary use in  this country is in the manufacture  of soap
and candles.  It readily becomes rancid.
  The seeds of both species of  Elaeis are nutritive.   They yield by pressure a fixed oil (palm-
seed oil;  oleum palmae  seminis), which is  solid at ordinary temperature.  It is devoid of the
orange-yellow colour and orris odour of palm oil.   It is  said to be used in Africa as  a  kind of
butter.  It is rarely  brought to  Europe, but a few years since I obtained from Africa a specimen
of it, with a sample of the seeds from which it was procured.


             52.  Cocos nueifera, Linn.—The Cocoa-Nut Tree.
                               Sex. Syst. Moncecia,  Hexandria.
                                         (Semina.)

  Tenga, Rheede, Hort. Malab. i. t. 1, 2, 3, 4; Calappa, Rumph., Herb. Amb. i. 1.1,2.—A native
of tropical countries, but does not thrive  except near the coast.  It is one of the most important
and valuable palms.   Five varieties of it are indigenous to Ceylon.4   Its stem yields porcupine
wood.  A powerful oil is  extracted from the bark, which is used by the Cingalese in the  form
of ointment in cutaneous diseases.   By incision into the spathe at the top of  the leaves, sweet
toddy is obtained, which, by fermentation, yields palm wine, from which arrack is procured by
distillation.   The fruit, the  cocoa-nut in the shell of the shops, is a drupe, the fibrous  portion of
which yields coir, which is used for making ropes, mats, &c.;  and is also employed, as a sub-
stitute for horse-hair, for stuffing mattresses.  Within the cocoa-nut is the nucleus or kernel (in
the dried state called copra in commerce), consisting of the albumen (the edible portion), within
which is the unsolidified liquor amnii (called cocoa-nut milk) and the embryo, which is lodged
in a small cavity at the base of the  albumen.   The albumen  and cocoa-nut  milk  have been
analyzed by Brandes,5 Buchner,6 and  Bizk>7  According to  the latter authority, 100 parts of
cocoa-nut milk contain—water, 95; crystallizable glycine (identical with orcine and granatine),
3.825; zymome, 0.75; and mucilage, 0.25 [loss, 0.175].  In 100 parts of the albumen, he
found—71.488 of oil; 7.665 of zymome; 3.588 of mucilage; 1.595 of crystallizable glycine;
0.325 of yellow colouring  matter; and  14.950 of woody fibre [loss, 0.392].  There  are two
modes, practised at Malabar and Ceylon, of obtaining cocoa-nut oil or oleum cocoa-nut butter: the
one is by pressure, the other by boiling the bruised nut and skimming off the oil as it forms on
the surface.  It is a white solid, having a peculiar odour, like  that of the flowers of furze (Ulex
europceus),  and a mild  taste. It fuses at a little  above 70° F., readily becomes rancid, and dis-
solves easily in alcohol.  It consists of a solid fat called  cocin or cocinine  (a combination of
glycerine and cocinic or coco-stearic acid, C2?H2603-4-2HO), and of a liquid fat or oleine, which
has not been much examined.   Cocoa-nut oil is used in the manufacture of candles arid  soap.8
It serves particularly for the manufacture of marine soap, which forms a lather with sea-water.
Cocoa-nut oil has been used for medicinal purposes.   Loureiro  considered it, when fresh, not
inferior to olive oil.   On  the continent of India, as well as in Ceylon,  it  is used as  a pomatum
for promoting, preserving, and softening the hair.  Mr. Bennett thinks that if it were perfumed,
and used for this purpose by Europeans, it would soon display its virtues to such advantage as
1 Knapp's Chemical Technology, vol. i. p. 431, 1848.        <> Journ. de Pharm. t. xxiv. p. 385, 1838.
" Hist. Nat. des Brogues simples, 4me edit. t. ii. p. 142, 1849.
* The Coco-Nut Palm, its Uses and Cultivation, by J W. Bennett, 2d edit Lond 1836
 Quoted by L. Gmelin, Handb. d. Chemie, Bd. ii. S. 1338.
 Repert fur die Pharm. Bd. xxvi. S. 337, 1827.             t Journ. de Pharm. t. xix. p. 455,1833.
• Knapp's Chemical Technology, vol. i. p. 468,1518.                                 v    ' 
Resin-bearing Palms :—The Dragon's Blood Calamus.        169
to ensure its general use.  But the great drawback to its medicinal  employment in pomatums
and unguents is its odour, and the facility with which it becomes rancid.


             3.  Palmae  cerifer^e.—Wax-bearing  Palms.

  The only palm  wax which  has been brought  to Europe as  an  article of commerce is the
produce of the following palm :—
  Cohtpha ckrifeha, Mart., Gen. et Sp. Palm. tab. 49 and 50 ; Caranaiba, and Ananachi cariri,
Piso et Marcgrave, pp. 62 and 130, 1648; Carnauba,  Brande,  Phil.  Trans.  1811, and  Virey,
Journ. de Pharm. t. xx. p. 112,183-1.—Grows on the shores of the Rio  Francesco, in the Brazils.1
In the axillae of the leaves, waxy scales are secreted, which are collected and melted by the
Indians.  The wax thus obtained is  imported into this country from Rio Janeiro under the
names of Carnauba Wax, Brazilian Wax, or Palm Wax.  It was submitted to chemical exami-
nation by Mr. Brande, and has subsequently been analyzed by Lewy, who found it to consist
of OH3**)2.  The fusing point of this wax is 180° F.  It is, therefore, less fusible than bees'
wax,  whose melting point is about 150° F.  Being a genuine wax, it is applicable to some of
the purposes for which common bees' wax is now employed.


           4. Palmae resinifer^e.—Resin-bearing Palms.

  The only resinous substance used in medicine and the arts, and which is obtained from the
palms, is Dragon's blood, tbe produce  of Calamus Draco.


      53.  Calamus Draco,  wuid.—The Dragon's Blood Calamus.
                               Sex.  Syst. Dioecia, Hexandria.
                               (Resina;  Sanguis Draconis.)

  Palma Juncus Draco,  Rumph., Herb. Amb. pars v. p. Ill, t.  Iviii.  Fig.  1.—A native  of the
islands of the Indian Archipelago.  The berry, which is round, pointed, and about the size of
a cherry, yields a resinous substance  called in commerce  dragon's blood (sanguis draconis)—a
term  which is also applied to a product of the Dracaena Draco (vide  Liliaceje), and likewise
to a substance obtained from the Plerocarpus Draco (vide Leguminos^:).  Lieut. Wellstead says
that, in Socotra, Dragon's blood exudes spontaneously from the stem of a tree.2  The following
are the kinds of it which I have met with:—
   1.  Dragon's blood in the reed ; Dragons blood in sticks; Sanguis Draconis in baculis.—This occurs
in dark reddish-brown sticks of from twelve to eighteen inches long, and from a quarter to half
an inch in diameter, enveloped with the leaf of the Talipat palm (Corypha umbraculifera), and
bound round with slender slips of cane (probably the stem of Calamus petrceus).   It is supposed
to be obtained from a species of Calamus,  perhaps C. Draco.
   2.  Dragon's blood in oval masses; Dragon's blood in drops ; Sanguis Draconis in lachrymis, Mar-
tius.—This occurs in reddish-brown lumps of the  size and shape of an olive,  enveloped with
the leaf of Corypha  umbraculifera or Corypha Licuala, which thus  connects them together in a
row,  like the beads of a necklace.  This kind is rare in English  commerce.  It is obtained,
according to Rumphius, by rubbing or shaking the fruit  of Calamus Draco in a bag.   A resinous
exudation is by this means separated, and is afterwards softened by heat, and made up in these
masses.
  3.  Dragon's blood in powder.—This is a reddish powder, of very  fine quality, imported from
the K;i-t Indies.  It is probably the dust obtained from the fruit of  the C. Draco, in the way
just described.
  4. Dragon's  blood in the tear;'Sanguis Draconis in granis, Martius.—It occurs  in irregular
pieces, some as large as the fist.  T. W. C. Martius3 says pieces of  the fruit of the Calamus
Rotang are frequently found intermixed.
  5.  Lump Dragon's blood; Sanguis Draconis in massis.—This is of inferior quality.  It  occurs
in large masses, which, when broken,  present a heterogeneous appearance.
  Other varieties of Dragon's blood are described, but I have never met with them.  Guibourt
mentions a dragon's blood in cakes, and a false dragons blood in oval  masses.
  Dragon's blood is composed  of red resin  (called  draconin) 90.7, fixed oil  2.0,  benzoic acid 3 0
oxalate of lime  1.6, phosphate of lime 3.7.4  According to Johnstone,5 the resin of lump dragon's
blood has the formula C°H2108; that of reed dragon's blood C«0H2°O9.
amlof PaT," °WW  Palm "^ 8°ld ** HaynM'8 timber-V"d, Long Lane, Smithfield, London, under the
 •» Athtnaum, Muy 10, 1835;  also, Journal of Royal Geographical Society.

 ! plT'&Z" for 1840, p. 364.                   ' ***"*"> '«"*• * Fh<"m- **' 225' 
170
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Palmar.
  It is inert, or nearly so, but was formerly reputed an astringent.  It is a constituent of some
tooth-powders and tinctures, but is never prescribed by medical practitioners.  Its principal
consumption is for colouring spirit and turpentine varnishes.


         5.  Palale tanninifer.e.—Tannin-bearing Palms.

     The only palm which yields any officinal astringent substance is the Areca Catechu.


         54. ARECA CATECHU, Linn -CATECHU PALM.
                            Sex. Syst. Monoecia, Hexandria.
                  (Semen.—Extract of the kernels, E— Carbo seminis, Offic.)

   History.—Areca  nuts are not mentioned in the  writings of the ancient Greeks
and Romans.   Avicenna speaks of  them under the  name of Fufcl*
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—1. Male :  Calyx three-parted.   Corolla three-petalled.
2.  Female:  Calyx   three-leaved.    Corolla three-petalled;  nectary six-toothed,
Ovarium superior, one-celled, one-seeded;  attachment inferior.  Drupe coriaceous,
Seed single, ruminate.   Embryo in the base of the  albumen.   (Roxburgh.)
   Sp. Char.— Trunk  straight  and  slender, from  forty to fifty feet high.   Fronds
pinnate;  leaflets  compound,  linear,  opposite, premorse.  Spathe erect,  ramous,
Male flowers hexandrous.   Seed of a roundish conic form, and obtuse.   (Roxburgh)
   Hab.—Cultivated in all the warmer' parts of Asia.
   1. Description and Uses  of the Seeds.—The  fruit  of the  Catechu palm is
about the size and shape of a small  egg, yellowish, and smooth.   Within the fibrous
pericarp is the seed (areca nut; betel nut; pinang).  This  is  about the size of a
nutmeg, roundish  conical, flattened  at the  base, hard, horny, inodorous, externally
reddish brown, internally brown  with whitish veins.  The principal part of the
seed is the ruminate albumen, at the base of which  is the embryo.2
   The varieties of this fruit are  numerous: of these, some have been  figured by
Blume,3 viz.,  Pinang  Putie (Areca  alba), Pinang  Susu (Areca  lactea), Pimuvj
Betul (Areca propria), and Pinang  Pict.
   According  to Morin,* areca nuts (seeds) are  composed of tannin (principally),
gallic acid, glutin, red insoluble matter, fixed oil, gum, oxalate of lime, lignin, &c.
   With lime and the leaves of Piper Betel, these nuts form  the celebrated mastica-
tory of the East, called betel.   They are  usually cut into four equal parts; one of
which  is rolled up  with a little lime in the leaf of the Piper Betel, and the whole
chewed.  The mixture acts as a sialagogue, and tinges the saliva red.   The Indians
have an idea that by this means the teeth are fastened, the gums cleansed, and the
mouth cooled.   Peron5 was convinced that he preserved  his health, during a long
and difficult voyage, by the habitual use of the betel, while his companions, who
did  not use it,  died  mostly of dysentery.  In  this  country, areca-nut charcoal is
used as a tooth powder.  I know of no particular value it can have over ordinary
charcoal, except, perhaps, that derived from its greater hardness.
  2.  Areca-nut  Catechu.—In the southern parts of India,  and  probably  in
Ceylon, an extract called catechu is  procured from areca  nuts.6  The mode  of pre-
paring  it  has been described by  Herbert  de Jager7  and Dr. Heyne.s  The  last-
  1 Lib. ii. tract, ii. cap. 262, p. 306, Venet. 1564.
  5 Roxburgh's Plants of Coromandel, pi. 75; Flora Indica, vol. iii. p. 615.
  s Rumphia, vol. ii. p. 68, tab. 102, 1836.                         * Journ. de Pharm. viii. 449.
  * Voyage aux Terres Australes.
  6 Ainslie (Mat. Indica, vol. i. p. 65) notices two preparations of areca nuts, which, he says, have been
confounded with the true or real catechu (i. e. catechu of the Acacia Catechu).  One of these he calls
cuttacamboo (in Tamool), the other cashcuttie (in Tamool); and he adds that both are brought to India
from Pegu.   It is probable, however, from his description, that by cuttacamboo he means gambir lan
extract of Nauclea Gambir), and by cashcuttie, Pegu cutch (an extract of Acacia Catechu).—Blume
(Rumphia, vol. ii. p. 67) denies that an extract called catechu is procured from areca nuts; and says that
the error has arisen from the circumstance that old and dry areca nuts, broken in small pieces, are mace-
rated in rose-water in which catechu has been dissolved.
  ' Miscellanea curiosa, Dec. ii. Ann. iii, p. 10, Norimb. 1685,
  1 Dr. Heyne, Tracts, Historical and Statistical, on India, 
                Melanthacea;.—Common Meadow Saffron.             171

mentioned author  states that it is largely procured in Mysore, about Sirah, in the
following manner:  "Areca nuts are taken as they come from the tree, and boiled
for some hours in an  iron vessel.   They are then  taken out, and the remaining
water is inspissated by  continued boiling.   This process furnishes Kassu, or most
astringent terra japonica, which is  black, and mixed with paddy husks and  other
impurities.   After the  nuts are dried, they are put into a fresh quantity of water,
boiled again, and this water being inspissated, like the former, yields the  best or
dearest kind of catechu, called  Coury.  It is yellowish brown, has an earthy frac-
ture,  and is free from the admixture of foreign bodies."
   None of the extracts brought from India under the denomination of catechu are
distinguished by any name by which  they can be referred to the areca nut.  It is
probable, however, that some of them which come over in the form of  round and
flat cakes, and also in balls, and which are more or  less covered with paddy  husks
(glumes of  rice), are obtained from this seed.  A decoction of some  of these kinds
of catechu yields, when cold, a blue  colour  on  the  addition of iodine, indicating
the presence of starch.  The presence of fatty matter in them is considered by
Professor Guibourt1 to be a proof  that the areca nut has been employed in their
production.
   I think it probable that  the Colombo or  Ceylon catechu of commerce, in the form
of round flat cakes, covered by paddy husks, is the Kassu of Heyne; and Professor
Guibourt is of opinion that the dull reddish catechu in  balls partially covered by
paddy husks is the Coury of Heyne.   (For further details, the  reader  is  referred
to the article Acacia Catechu, where a general notice will be given of all the com-
mercial sorts of catechu.)


ff Flowers with a true perianth free from the ovary (superior ovary), usually hermaphrodite.

             Order X.   MELANTHACE^E, R. Brown.

   Ciiaiuctkrs.—Perianth inferior, petaloid, in six pieces, or, in  consequence of the cohesion
of the claws, tuhular; the pieces generally involute in aestivation.  Stamens six; anthers mostly
 turned outwards.  Ovary three-celled; many seeded;  style trifid or three-parted; stigma undi-
 vided.  Capsule generally divisible into three pieces; sometimes with a loculicidal dehiscence.
 Seeds with a membranous testa;  albumen dense, fleshy.  (R. Brown.)
   Puopehtiek.—Several  violently  poisonous alkaloids  (veralria,  colchicina, sabadillina, and jer-
 vina) are peculiar to this order.  They exist in combination with organic acids.   These bases,
 ns well perhaps as resins, are the active principles of the order.  The Melanthacese are acrids
 (emetics, purgatives, diuretics, and  errhines) and sedatives (see vol. i. p. 25S).  When acting
 as poisons, they are called narcotico-acrids (see vol. i. p. 234).


 55.  COLCHICUM AUTUMNALE, Linn— COMMON MEADOW-
                                 SAFFRON.
                            Sex. Syst.  Hexandria, Trigynia.
   (Ilerbffi agrestis cormus recens et exsiccatus : semen, L.—Cormus et semina, E.—The cormus and
                                     seeds, D.)
   History.—Dioscorides3 speaks of Colchicum (xoxx^ov), and states that it grows
abundantly in Messenia and at Colchis (from which latter place it received its name).
Dr. Sibthorp3 found three  species of  Colchicum in Greece—viz.  C. autumnalc, C.
montanum,  and C. cariegatum; and of these he considers the first  to be  the Col-
chicum of Dioscorides.  In this opinion he is to a certain extent confirmed by the
editors of the Pharmacopcea Grseca (1837), who apply  the  modern Greek name
of xox%tx6v to C  autumnale.   But  there  is reason  to doubt the accuracy of  this
opinion: for this species is only found in Greece, on this side  of the Sperchius, at an
elevation of at least 3500 to 4000 feet—at Parnassus, and Thymphrastus;  whereas
1 Journ. de Pharm. et de Chimie, 3me Sor. t. xi. p. 303, 1847.                  3 Lib iv can 84
• Prodr. 11. Gra-ca, i. 250.                                               '  "  v   ' 
172
VEGETABLES.—Xat. Ord. Melanthace/e.
Fig. 218.
C. variegatum, which Fraas1 thinks is the *o^cxov of Dioscorides, is common, and
occurs on the Xirobuni,3 at an elevation of only 1000 to 2000 feet, at Hymettus,
Messapius, and Helicon.
  For the introduction of colchicum into  modern practice we  are chiefly indebted
to Stork,3 in 1763; but partly, also, to the opinion that it is the active principle of
a celebrated French remedy (eau midicinale)  for gout.
  Botany.  Gen. Char.—Perianth single, tubular, very long, rising from a spatha;
limb campanulate, six-partite, petaloid.  [Stamens six, inserted into the  throat of
the tube.   Ovarium three-celled.   Styles three, filiform, long.   Stigmas  some-
what  clavate.]   Capsule three-celled;  cells united  at the  base (Booker, with some
additions).
  Sp. Char.—Leaves plane, broadly lanceolate, erect (Hooker).
  Root fibrous.   Cormus (improperly called  root  or bulb) ovate, fleshy, large, co-
vered with  a loose brown membrane.  The leaves are produced in the spring along
with the fruit, and disappear before the flower  appears.   Flowers  several, lilac or
pale purple, arising from the cormus by a long, narrow white tube.*   Fruit oblong,
elliptical, composed of three cells, which may be regarded as distinct follicles, with
                                    intermediate fissures.   Seeds small,  spherical,
                                    with a rough brown testa and large fleshy stro-
                                    phiola; internally they are white, and consist
                                    of a minute embryo lodged in a  horny  elastic
                                    albumen.   The  flowers appear  in September,
                                    and the fruit the following spring or summer.
                                      There  is a variety, 0 with late flowers  (flori-
                                    bus serotinis), growing  near Devizes, in Wilt-
                                    shire, which flowers in the spring.
                                      Florists  cultivate several sorts; such as the while,
                                    the striped-flowered, the striped-leaved, the broad-leaved,
                                    the many-flowered, and the double flowered.
                                      Hab__Moist rich meadows in many parts of
                                    England  and in various  countries of Europe.
                                      The plant is propagated by seeds, by a single
                                    mature cormus,  or by several immature  or in-
                                    fant cormi.
                                      Collection  of the Cormi.—The cormus
                                    is biennial.  It  first  appears about the  end of
                                    June  or  beginning of July:  it flowers  in the
                                    autumn,  and produces its leaves in the spring,
                                    and its seed in  the June of the following year.
                                    It then begins to shrivel, becomes leathery, and
                                    finally disappears in  the succeeding  spring or
                                    summer.
                                      The activity of the cormus varies at different
                                    seasons of the year.   It is usually considered to
                                    be greatest when the  cormus  is about  a  year
                                    old—that is, about the month of July, between
the withering of the leaves and the  sprouting forth of the  flower  of the  young
cormus.  At this period the cormus is fully developed, and has not exhausted itself
by the production of the young one.  But many of the cormi brought to market
have already pushed forth their flowers, which are broken off so as to prevent the
        Colchicum autumnale.
1. Closed capsule.  2. Open capsule.
    3. Styles.  4. Section of capsules.
    5. Seed.
 1 Synopsis Plant. Flora. Classica, p. 284, 1845.
 3 Xirobuni, bv Col. Baker called " Xezo Vouni," (Journal of the Geographical Society, vol. vii- V- Mi
1837.)
 3 Libellus quo demonstratur Colchici Autumnalis Radicem non solum tuto posse exhiberi homintbvs,
sed et ejus usu interno eurari quandoque morbos difficillimos, qui aliis Remediis non cedunt, Svo. Vindob-
1763.
 4 Miller says that, in Warwickshire, the flowers are called naked ladies, because^they appear withcut
leaves. 
Common Meadow Saffron:—Composition.                173
circumstance from being observed.   " I have seen many cwts./' says Dr. Lindley,1
"sent to town in this state, which nevertheless found a ready sale, and at the best
price."
  It i9 to be dug up in the month of July, or before the autumnal bud shoots up.—Ph. Lond.
  Dr. Christison2 has expressed some doubts as to the propriety of collecting the cormi in July;
for though they are plumpest, firmest, and abound most in starch at this period, yet he has
found the  shrivelled cormi in the succeeding April to be equally if not more bitter; and he
quotes the  analyses of Stoltze to show that, while the October cormus yields 2  per cent., the
March cormus yields 6 per cent., of bitter extract.  But there is an error in the quotation which
vitiates the inference intended to  be drawn from it.   Stoltze found that the October cormus
contained 2.17 per cent, of bitter extractive, and that the March cormus contained 5.91 of sweet
extractive  matter combined with  some bitter extractive;  and he concludes that the October
cormus is much more active, and contains more bitter  extractive, than the spring cormus.
   The seeds should be gathered when fully ripe.   The London market is principally
supplied from Gloucestershire, but partly, also, from Hampshire and Oxfordshire.
   Description.—The cormus, commonly called  the bulb or root (radix colchici,
Offic), when gathered at the proper season, is about the size of a chestnut, and
somewhat resembles in external appearance the bulb of the common tulip ( Tulipa
 Gesniriana); which, as well  as  other liliaceous bulbs, are distinguished  from the
cormus of colchicum by being composed of laminae or scales, whereas  the cormus
of colchicum is solid.3  It is  rounded on one side—flattened on  the other, where is
perceived the fibrous germ of a new cormus, which, if allowed  to grow,  shoots up
and bears the flower, while the old cormus wastes.   It is covered by  two coats—
an inner  reddish-yellow one,  and an external brown one.  Internally, the cormus
is white,  fleshy, solid;  contains a milky juice,  is very feculent, and has an  acrid
bitter taste.
   Desiccation.—The slices  are to be quickly  dried, in  a dark  airy place, with a
heat not  exceeding 170° F.*
   Having removed the outer coats, cut the cormus transversely in thin slices, and dry by a heat
 which is to be at first gentle, and  afterwards slowly raised to  150°.—Ph.  Lond.
   The late Dr. A. T. Thomson5 recommended the slices to be dried upon  clean
 white paper without artificial heat;  but the time required for this is  an objection
 to it in practice.   The dried  slices (radix siccata, Offic.) should be about the eighth
 or tenth  of an inch thick, rounded, oval, with  one notch only on one part of their
 circumference (not fiddle-shaped), inodorous, of a grayish-white  colour and an amy-
 laceous appearance.
   The seeds (semina)  are about the size of those of black mustard, odourless, and
 have a bitter acrid  taste.  Their colour is brown, varying from pale to dark  or
 blackish.  They somewhat resemble several of  the cruciferous seeds (black mustard,
 turnip, and rape), but are larger than these; moreover, the latter being more oily
 are more readily crushed.  I have  known colchicum seeds mistaken  for grains  of
 paradise.
   Composition.—The colchicum cormus was  analyzed in 1810 by Melander, and
 Moretti;8 in 1818 and 1819, by Stoltze;7 and in 1820 by Pelletier and  Caventou.s
  1 Flora Medica, p. 589.                                     * Dispensatory, 2d edit. p. 353.
  ' Some yi'iirs ago, a load of tulip bulbs was delivered at Apothecaries' Hall, London, for colchicum
cormi.  Tim lute Mr. Anderson, gardener to the Apothecaries' Botanic  Garden at Chelsea, for many
years cultivated some of these tulips, in commemoration, I suppose, of the attempted fraud.
  4 But! Irv, Lond. Med. Rep. xiv. 429.                           * Ibid., p. 344.
  • Bull, de Pharm. vol. ii. p. 217.
  ' Berlinisches Jahrbuchfur die Pharmacie, Bd. xix. S. 107, 1818; and Bd. xx. S. 135, 1819.
  • Journ. de Pharm. vi. 364. 
174
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Melanthaceas.
      Analysis of

PELLETIER AND CaVEXTOU.
Fatty matter \ °lein:
  composed of) t i^'   -a
     *      ( Volatile acid.
Supergallate of veratria.
Yellow colouring matter.
Gum.
Starch.
Inulin in abundance.
Lignin.
Ashes, a minute quantity.
Colchicum cormus.
                    Stoltze's Analyses.
                     Cormi gathered
                        in March.
Volatile acrid matter  ....  trace......
Soft resin...........0.04......
Crystallizable sugar.....0.41
  Ditto,
 in Octobtt.
rather more
• • . O.M
    1.18
Sweet extractive'with some ) , 0] J Uncrystallizable sugar . .  2.72
  bitter extractive......)     ( Bitter extractive......2.17
Difficultly-soluble extractive  1 30  ................0.52
Gum, like tragacanth  ....  0.81
Starch.............  7.46
Lignin.............2.32
Extractive, soluble in potash  0.61
Water.............81.04
 1.65
10.12
 1.61
80.31
Colchicum cormus
99.90  ...............10030
   The seeds have been submitted to chemical  examination,  in 1832,  by L. A.
 Buchner, Jun.,1 who found in them fixed oil, free acid, bitter extractive (impure
 colchicina), and resin.
   I. Colchicina; Colchicia;  Colchicene.—The existence of this principle in colchicum seeds
 was announced by Geiger and Hesse.2   They prepared  it by digesting the seeds in boiling alco-
 hol : this dissolved a supersalt, which was precipitated by magnesia, and the precipitate treated
 with boiling alcohol.  By evaporation, colchicina was deposited.  The following are said to be
 its properties:  It is a crystallizable alkaline substance, without odour, but having a bitter taste
 Its  hydrate is feebly  alkaline, but neutralizes acids, and forms crystallizable salts having a bitter
 taste.  It is soluble in water, and the solution precipitates the solution of chloride of platinum,
 Nitric acid colours colchicina deep violet, which passes into indigo blue, and quickly becomes
 first green and then yellow.  Concentrated sulphuric acid colours it yellowish brown.
   Colchicina is said  to be distinguished  from veratria by the following characteristics: 1st, it is
 soluble in water, whereas veratria is not; 2dly, it is crystallizable, whereas pure veratria is not;
 3dly, it does not possess the acridity of veratria; and it differs from the latter in this, that, when
 applied to the nose, it does not excite sneezing, whereas the least portion of  [impure] veratria
 occasions a most convulsive sneezing.
  Colchicina is  a powerful poison.  One-tenth of a grain, dissolved in weak  spirit, killed a
 young cat in about twelve hours.   The  symptoms were salivation,  diarrhoea, vomiting, a stag-
 gering gait, cries, convulsions, and death.  The stomach and intestines were violently inflamed,
 and had extravasated blood throughout the whole course.
  2. Stahch.—The  starch grains of the cormus of colchicum  are moderately uniform in size:
 though normally rounded, they present more or less flattened faces, produced by their mutual
 compression in the cells of  the plant, by which they have acquired a  polygonal appearance,
 Many are mullar-shaped, some are dihedral at one end, others trihedral; owing  to the mutual
 pressure of two,  three, or four particles.  The hilum is usually stellate.

   Chemical Characteristics,   a.  Of the  Cormi.—The decoction of the fresh
 cormi, when cold,  forms, with a solution  of iodiDe, a deep  blue precipitate (iodide
 of  starch);  with sesquichloride  of  iron,  a faint bluish tint  (gallate  of iron); with
 diacetate of lead, or protonitrate of mercury, a copious white precipitate; with nitrate
 of silver, a precipitate which is at first white, but becomes in a few  minutes black;
 with tincture of nutgalls, a very slight, dirty-looking precipitate, which is somewhat
 diminished by the effect of heat  [Pelletier and Caventou3 regard  this precipitate as
 a mixture of the tannates of starch said inulin* (and of veratrin ?)] ; and with a solu-
tion of gelatine, a slight haziness.   Fresh-prepared  tincture of  guaiacum, with a
few drops of acetic acid, produces  a  cerulean blue colour  with  the fresh corinus,
indicating the  presence of  gluten.
   j3. Of the Seeds.—The decoction of the seeds,  when cold, yields,  with oxalate of
ammonia, a white  precipitate (oxalate of lime) ;  with  diacetate of  lead,  a copious
white precipitate;  and, with nitrate of silver, a precipitate.  If the  decoction be
concentrated, and poured into alcohol, a gelatiniform precipitate is produced.
   Physiological Effects.   a.  On  Vegetables.—Not yet determined.
  r3. On Animals.—Colchicum is a poison to animals.   It acts as  a local irritant,
  1 Repert.fur die Pharm. Bd. xliii. S. 376, 1832.
  a Journ. de Chim. x. 465.                                      a Journ. de Pharm. vi. 365.
  4 The precipitate produced in an amylaceous decoction by infusion of nutgalls, disappears when the
liquor is gradually heated to Yii? F.: but if inulin be present, it does not disappear until the liquor bm
reached the boiling point. 
           Common Meadow Saffron*—Physiological Effects.         175

reduces the force of the circulation, and causes inflammation of the alimentary canal.
Animals, for the most part, refuse to feed on it.   It  has, however, been eaten by
deer and cattle,  and proved poisonous to them.1   It  is said to prove injurious at
spring-time only.3   Moreover, we are told  that when dry it may be eaten in hay
with impunity.  Storck3 and Kratochwill* gave it  to dogs,  on whom it acted as an
acrid poison, and  caused death.   Sir E.  Home5 injected  160 drops of a vinous
infusion of colchicum into the jugular vein of a dog : all power of motion was in-
Btantly lost, the  breathing became slow, tbe pulse hardly to be felt..  In ten minutes
it was 84, in twenty  minutes 60, in an hour 115, with  the  respiration so quick as
scarcely to  be counted.   In two hours the pulse was 150, and very weak.   The
animal was purged, vomited, and very languid: he died in  five hours.   On dissec-
tion, the internal  coat of the  stomach was found  inflamed, in a greater  or less
degree, universally.   From this experiment it appears that  the action of colchicum
on the alimentary canal is of a specific kind.
  In opposition to  the  above statements, it deserves notice that Orfila6 has fre-
quently given to dogs, in the month of June, two or three cormi without perceiving
any sensible effects;  from which  he infers that climate and season of the year have
great influence on  their deleterious properties.
  It has been said that horses eat colchicum with impunity; but it is probable that
this statement is erroneous.  Withering7 states, on the authority of Mr. Woodward,
that, "in a pasture in which were several horses, and  eaten down nearly bare, the
grass was closely cropped, even under the leaves, but not a leaf bitten."
  Some further information on the effects of colchicum on dogs will be found in Sir
C. Scudamore's  Treatise on Gout and Rheumatism, 3d edit. p. 477, 1819.
  y.  On Man.—Colchicum is acrid and sedative.   Taken internally, in small and
repeated doses, it promotes the action of the secreting organs, especially the intes-
tinal mucous membrane.   The kidneys, the skin, and the liver, are less certainly
and obviously affected by it.  Salivation has been ascribed  to it by Dr.  Aldridge.8
The most constant effects observed from  the  use of larger doses are nausea, vomit-
ing, and purging.   Reduction of the frequency of the pulse  is a common, though
not an invariable effect.   Mr. Haden9 was, I believe, the first to direct attention to
the advantages to  be taken of this effect in the treatment of inflammatory diseases.
In some experiments made on healthy individuals by Dr. Lewins,10 debility, a feeling
of illness, and headache, were experienced.   This feeling of debility is not, however,
to be referred to the  evacuations  produced; for, as Dr. Barlow11 has  observed, the
number of motions is sometimes considerable without any proportionate depression
of strength  ensuing.   " I have known," says Dr. B., " even  twenty stools occasioned
by  a single dose of colchicum, the patient not complaining of the least debility."
The action of colchicum on the secretory apparatus is not confined to that of the
alimentary canal: after the use of three or four full doses of this medicine, copious
sweating is often produced, especially when the skin is  kept warm.   On other oc-
casions,  the kidneys  are  powerfully  acted  on.   In  one case, mentioned by Dr.
Lewins, seventy drops of Vinum Colchici caused the discharge of  upwards of a
pint of bile by vomiting.  Violent  salivation  resulted, in a case recorded  in an
American journal.19   Chelius, of Heidelberg,13 asserts that, in gout and rheumatism,
colchicum occasions a striking increase in the quantity of uric acid contained in the
urine: in one case it was  nearly doubled in  the  space  of  twelve days.   But this
effect is by no means constant, as Dr. Graves14 has pointed out.  Indeed, it some-

 « Wibmer, Wirk. d. Arzn. u. Gifte, Bd. ii. 150.
 • Ilucquet, in Wibmer, op. cit.; also, Want, Lond. Med. and Phys. Journal, vol. xxxii. p. 216.
 » Lib. de Ctdchico, p. 17.                         « Quoted by Wibmer.
 • Phil. Trans. IslO.                             « Toxicol. Gin.
 1 Brit. Plants, ii. 462, 7th edit. 1830.                » Dublin Hospital Gazette, p. 52, Oct. 1845.
 • Practical Obsirvations on the Colchicum autumnale, 1820.
 10 Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, vol. xlvii. p. 345, 1837.
 " Cyclopadia of Practical Medicine, art. Gout, vol. ii. p. 371.
 13 Wood und Buche's United States Dispensatory, 3d edit.
 11 Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. ii. p. 830.                  » Ibid., vol. vii. p. 548. 
176             VEGETABLES.—Nat,. Ord. Melanthacejs.
times happens, in acute rheumatism, when the urine is loaded with uric acid or the
urates, that under the use of colchicum the quantity of these matters in the urine
is diminished;  so that it would seem rather  to  prevent the formation of uric acid
in the system than to provoke its elimination.
  In excessive or poisonous doses colchicum  acts as  a  powerful poison.  In a case
related by Mr. Fereday,1 where two ounces  of  the wine of the seeds of colchicum
were swallowed, the  symptoms were acute pain in  the bowels, coming on in about
an hour and a half after taking it, vomiting,  acute tenesmus, small, slow, and feeble
pulse, cold feet, and weakness of limbs.  The nausea, vomiting, and pain in the
stomach continued with undiminished violence, the pulse became also imperceptible
and  intermitting, the urine was  suppressed, the  respiration  hurried, purging of
copious liquid stools came on, and loss of sight for a minute or two after  getting
out of bed.   The patient died forty-seven hours after swallowing the poison.  On
a post-mortem examination, the skin  of  most parts of the  body was found to be
covered with a purple efflorescence: no inflammation was observed in the alimentary
canal; two red patches were found, one  in the  stomach,  and the other in the
jejunum.   These were  produced by the effusion of a small quantity of blood, in the
one case, between the muscular and mucous coats; in the other, between the peri-
toneal and muscular coats.   Ecchymosed spots were observed on the surface of the
lungs, of the heart,  and of the diaphragm.   More recently, a case of poisoning by
a decoction  of  the seeds has been recorded ;3 as, also, by the leaves of this plant.
  In Mr. Fereday's case, the only indications of an affection of the nervous system
were weakness of the  limbs, the temporary loss of sight, and  the slowness and
feebleness of the pulse.
  It is deserving of notice that, in this case, also in another  related by Chevallier,3
likewise in a third mentioned by Mr. Dillon,4  and in  Mr. Haden's case,5 no con-
vulsions were observed; and, in the first three cases, no insensibility.  In the last
case, however,  Mr. Haden mentions that at  " ten P. M. she  fell into an apoplectic
kind of sleep,  which terminated in death before morning."   It is remarkable that
convulsions are ascribed to veratria  by Magendie, and to colchicina by Geiger and
Hesse.   In one case of fatal poisoning from  an  ounce and a half of the tincture of
colchicum,6 delirium occurred.
  It is a popular notion that colchicum  acts as an emmenagogue; and hence it is
sometimes used to produce  abortion.   Several poisonous cases of its use for this
purpose have occurred.
  Some persons appear to be peculiarly  susceptible  of the influence of colchicum.
In Mr. Haden's case, 3ijss of tincture of colchicum caused death in a female whose
mother was also  exceedingly susceptible of the action of colchicum in even very
small doses.  In a case related by Mr. Mann,7 5ujss of the wine  of colchicum in
divided doses caused death on the fourth day.
  The above account of the effects of  colchicum applies both to the cormi, the seeds,
and the leaves.   The flowers are likewise poisonous, and a fatal case from their use
is mentioned by Dr. Christison.8  They have been recommended for medicinal use,
  tjses.—The following are the principal  diseases in which  the  Meadow Saffron
has been employed :—
   1. In Gout.—The circumstances which of late  years have  led to the extensive
employment of colchicum in gout are the following: About seventy years ago, M.
Husson, a military officer in the service of  the king  of  France, discovered, as he
informs us, a plant  possessed of  extraordinary virtues in the cure of various dis-
eases.  From  this  plant  he prepared  a remedy  called Eau Mddicinale, which
acquired great celebrity for abating the  pain and  cutting short the paroxysm of

  1 Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. x. p. 160.                2 Journ. de Chim. Mid. t. vi. 2de Serie, p. 505'
  8 Ibid., viii. 351.                            4 Stephenson and Churchill's Med. Bot. vol. ii.
  s Magendie's Formulary, by C. T. Haden.
v  s Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, xiv. 262.
  ' Taylor, On Poisons.                                 8 Treatise on Poisons, 3d edit. p. 792. 
                   Common Meadow Saffron:—its Uses.                177

gout.1   Various attempts were made to discover the nature of its active principle.
In 1782, MM. Cadet and Parmeutier declared that it contained no metallic or
mineral substance, and that it was a vinous infusion of some bitter plant or plants.
Alyon9 asserted that  it was  prepared with Gratiola;  Mr. Moore3 that it  was a
vinous infusion of white hellebore with laudanum;  Mr.  Want4 that it  was a  vinous
infusion  of colchicum.  Although most writers have adopted Mr. Want's opinion,
we should bear in mind  that the proofs hitherto  offered of its  correctness,  viz.,
analogy of effect, cannot be admitted to be conclusive, as is well shown by the fact
that  they have been advanced in favour of the identity of other medicines with the
Eau Midicinale.
  The power of colchicum to alleviate a  paroxysm  of gout is admitted by all; but
considerable  difference of opinion exists as to the extent of this power,  and the pro-
priety  of employing it.   Sir Everard Home,5 from  observation of its effects  on his
own  person,  regarded it  as  a specific  in gout, and from experiments on animals
concluded that its beneficial  effects in this malady are produced  through the circu-
lation.
  Dr. Paris8  observes :  "As  a specific in  gout its efficacy has been fully ascertained;
it allays pain, and cuts short the paroxysm.   It has also a decided  action upon the
arterial  system, which it would  appear  to  control through the medium of the
nerves."  But if  by the  word specific is meant a  medicine infallibly, and  on all
patients, producing given salutary effects, and acting by some unknown  power on
the disease,  without  being  directed  by indications,7 undoubtedly colchicum  is no
specific for gout.
  That colchicum alleviates a paroxysm of gout, I have before mentioned; but  that
alleviation is palliative, not curative.   It has no tendency to prevent a speedy re-
currence of the attack; nay, according to  Sir  Charles Scudamore,8 it  renders the
disposition to the disease much stronger in the system.   Furthermore,  by repetition
its power over gouty  paroxysms becomes  diminished.
  The modus medendi of colchicum in gout is an interesting, though not very satis-.
factory part of our inquiry.   I have already stated that some regard this remedy
as a specific; that is, as operating by some  unknown influence.   Others, however,
and  with more  propriety, refer its therapeutical  uses  to its  known physiological
effects.   " Colchicum," says Dr. Barlow,9  " purges, abates pain,  and lowers the
pulse.    These effects are  accounted for by assigning to  it  a cathartic  and sedative
operation; and it is this combination, perhaps,  to which its peculiar virtues are to
be ascribed."  The fact that a combination of a drastic and a narcotic (as elateiium
and  opium, mentioned by Dr. Sutton,10 and  white hellebore and laudanum, recom-
mended by Mr. Moore)11 has been found to give, in several cases of gout, marked
and  speedy relief, seems to me to confirm Dr. Barlow's opinion.   The idea  enter-
tained by Chelius, and adopted  by Dr. G. Hume Weatherhead,u  that  colchicum
relieves gout by augmenting the quantity of uric acid in the urine, is not supported
by fivct, as I have already mentioned.   Whether it acts by preventing the formation,
of uric acid in the system, I am not prepared to say.
  In acute gout occurring in plethoric habits, blood-letting should  precede the use
of colchicum.  This medicine should then be exhibited  in full doses, so as to  pro-
duce a copious evacuation by the bowels, and then the quantity must  be  considerabh-
diminished.   Though purging is not  essential to the therapeutical influence of col-
chicum, it is  admitted by  most that, in a  large number of cases at least, it promotes
the alleviation of the symptoms.  Hence, many practitioners  recommend its com-

  1 Dr. E. G. Jones. An Account of the Remarkable Effects of the Eau  Midicinale d'Husson in the Gout.
  ' Eltm. de Chimie.
  ■ Two  Letters on the Composition of the Eau Midicinale. 2d edit. 1811.
  ' Med. and Phys. Journal, vol. xxxii. 1814.      » Phil. Trans. 1816.
  ■ Pharmacologia, 6th edit. vol. ii. p. 175.       ' Vide Dr. Parr's Lond. Med. Diet. art. Specific*.
  • Treatise on Gout and Rheumatism, 3d edit. p. 197.
  • Cyclopaedia of Practical Medicine, art. Gout, vol. ii. p. 372.
  10 Tracts on Gout, p. 201.                    " Op.  eit.
  " Treatise on Headaches, p. 88, 1835.
       VOL.  II. —12 
178             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Melanthacea^.
bination with saline  purgatives, as  the  sulphate  of magnesia.  Sir Cliarles Scuda-
more has expciiencci " the most remarkable success from a draught compo.sed of
Magnesias  gr. xv  ad xx;  M>gnes. Sulphat. 3j  ad^ijj  -4cWt  Colchici 3j ad 5ij;
with any distilled water the most agreeable, and sweetened with  any pleasant syrup,
or with 15 or 20 grains of Extract. Glycyrrhiz."
   2. In rheumatism.—The analogy existing between gout and  rheumatism has led
to the trial of the same remedies in both diseases.   But its therapeutical powers in
the latter disease are much less marked than in  the  former.   Rheumatism  may
affect the fibrous tissues of the joints, the synovial membrane, the muscles or their
aponeurotic coverings, the periosteum, or the neurilemma, constituting  thus five
forms of the disease, which may be denominated respectively the fibrous or ll<ja-
mentous; the synovial, arthritic, or capsular;  the muscular; the periosteal;  and
the neuralgic forms of rheumatism.1  Of these, colchicum is said to produce its  best
effects  in the synovial form.   It is  remarkable, however, that  in all the severe cases
of this variety of rheumatism which  have fallen under my notice, the disease has
proceeded unchecked, or was scarcely relieved  by the use of colchicum.   In  one
instance, that  of my much-lamented  friend, the late  Dr. Cummin (whose case is
noticed by Dr. Macleod, in the Lond. Med.  Gaz. xxi. 358), the disease proved fatal
by metastasis to the  brain.  In another melancholy, but not fatal case, the gentle-
man lost the sight of both his eyes, and has both  knee-joints  rendered stiff.  In
neither of these cases was colchicum of the slightest avail.
   Of the mode of administering colchicum in "rheumatic gout,"  recommended by
Mr.  Wigan,3 I have  no experience.   He gives eight grains of the powder in some
mild diluent every hour until  active vomiting, profuse  purging, or abundant per-
spiration take place; or, at least, till the stomach  can bear  no more.  The usual
quantity is eight or ten doses;  but, while some take fourteen, others can bear only
five.  Though the pain  ceases, the  more active effects of the colchicum do not take
place for some hours after the last  dose.  'Thus  administered, Mr. Wigan declares
colchicum  " the most easily managed, the most universally  applicable, the safest,
and  the most certain specific in  the whole compass of  our opulent Pharmacopoeia."
But its use in these  large doses requires to be carefully watched.
   3. In dropsy— Colchicum was used  in dropsy with success by Storck.8  It has
been employed in dropsical cases with the twofold view of purging and promoting
the action of the kidneys.   Given  in combination  with saline purgatives, I have
found it beneficial  in some cases of  anasarca of old persons.
   4. In inflammatory diseases generally.—Colchicum was recommended as a seda-
tive  in inflammatory diseases in general by the late Mr. C. T. Haden.*  He used it
as an auxiliary to blood-letting, for the  purpose of  controlling arterial action;  and
gave it  in the form of powder, in doses of six  or seven grains,  three  or four times
daily, in combination with purgatives, in inflammatory affections of the lungs and
their membranes, and of the breasts and nipples.  In chronic bronchitis it has also
been found useful  by Dr. Hastings.5
   5. In fevers.—The late  Mr. Haden,8 and more recently Dr. Lewin,7 have spoken
favourably of the use of colchicum in fever.  In my opinion, it is only admissible
in those forms of the disease requiring an active  antiphlogistic treatment.   In such
it may be useful as an auxiliary to  blood-letting  and cathartics.
   6. In various other  diseases.—For  expelling tape-worm, colchicum has been
found  efficacious by Chisholm and Baumbach.   In some chronic affections of th
nervous system, as chorea,  hypochondriasis,  hysteria, &c, Mr. Raven8 employed it
with advantage.   In humoral asthma, and other chronic bronchial affections, I have

  1 Dr. Macleod, Lond. Med. Gaz. xxi. 120.
  5 Lond. Med. Gaz. June 30, 1838.                                          , Libellus.
  * Practical Observations on the Colchicum autumnale 1820
  » Treatise on Inflammation of the Mucous  Membrane of the  Lunes 1820             • On cit
  1 Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, April 1837.        '                       '
  4 London Medical and Physical Journal, Jan. 1817.' 
Common Meadow Saffron.
179
found it of great  service, especially when these complaints were accompanied with
anasarcous swellings.
  Administration.—The cormi and seeds of meadow saffron have been employed
in substance, in a liquid form, and in the state of extract.

  1.  Pl'LVlS CORMI COLCHICI.—Dose, from two to eight or nine grains.  To preserve
it, Mr. Wigan recommends it to be kept mixed with sugar.

  2.  PI'LVIS SEWN HI COLCHICI.—Dose the same as that of the cormus.   The seeds
are to be preferred to the cormi, as being more uniform in their properties.
  3.  TIXCTIHA [SEMINHI] COLCHICI,L.Ed.; Tinctura Seminum Colchici, D. [7Vnc-
lura Colchici S< minis, U.  S.].—(Meadow Saffron seeds, bruised  [ground finely  in a
coffee-mill, Ed.'],  3v;  Proof  Spirit Oij.   Macerate for seven [fourteen, D.] days,
and strain, L.  " Percolation is much more convenient and speedy than digestion,"
E.—[Colchicum seed, bruised,  four ounces;  diluted alcohol two pints.   Macerate
for fourteen days, express  and filter through paper, or moisten the powder with the
diluted alcohol, allow to stand for twenty-four hours, and then displace, U. S.]—Dr.
Williams' objected to this preparation as being " turbid, unpalatable, and  disposed
to precipitation."  The same writer3 also asserts that the active property of the
seeds resides in their husk or cortical part, and,  therefore, protests against bruising
them.   But were his  assertion  correct (and it is most improbable that the embryo
is devoid of activity),  bruising  them cannot destroy or injure their  activity.   The
average dose is from f5ss to f3J.  I  have repeatedly given  fjij at a dose without
any violent effect.   Dr. Barlow, who prefers this to the other preparations of  col-
chicum, advises that in gout a drachm, a drachm and a half, or two drachms of the
tincture should be given  at  night, and repeated the following morning.   If  this
quantity fail to purge briskly, a third dose may be administered the  ensuing night.
Externally, the tincture  has been  employed as a liniment to  relieve rheumatic,
gouty, venereal, and other  pains.3

  4. TINCTURA [SEMMTI COLCHICI COMPOSITA, L.; Spiritus Colchici ammoniatus, h.
1824.—(Meadow Saffron seeds, bruised, £v ', Aromatic Spirit of Ammonia Oij.  Ma-
cerate for seven days, then express and strain.) Dose n^xx to f5J.—This preparation
was  recommended  by Dr. Williams  as  being " of greater value when acidity or
flatulence prevails than the  Vin. sem. Colchici, and  better  adapted  to the palates
of those who object to the flavour of  white wine."   It is seldom  employed.   Mr.
Brande4 says doubts  are  entertained as  to  the propriety of employing ammonia
in it.

   6. YIiM'n SEUIMJM  COLCHICI  [Vinum  Colchici Seminis, U. S.].—No formula for
this  exists in any of the British pharmacopoeias.   The following is Dr. Williams's
formula: .Meadow Saffron seeds, dried,  %\];  Sherry Wine Oj  (wine measure).
Macerate for eight or ten  [fourteen]  days, occasionally agitating, then filter.   The
average dose is f3ss to f3J.   I  have given  it to  the extent of fjij.  Dr.  Williams
says it may bo gradually increased to f^iij.
  [This formula has been adopted by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, which directs double
the  proportion of  each  of  the ingredients, and directs maceration for  fourteen
days.]

  6.  VIM )I [COIHII] COLCniCI,L. E. [ Vinum ColchiciRadicis,XJ. S.].—(Meadow  Saf-
fron  cormus, dried  and sliced, £viij ; Sherry ^Vine Oij.  Macerate for seven days
[express strongly the residuum,  E.], and strain.) [The directions of the U. S. Pharm.
are:  Take of Colchicum Hoot  one  pound; White Wine two pints.   Macerate for
fourteen days, with occasional agitation, and filter; or by displacement.]   Average
dose  f^ss to t'5J.—Sir E. Home5 thought  that the second and subsequent deposits

  1 London Mid. Rep. vol. xiv. p. !ia.                           a Qp. cit. vol. xv. p. 442.
  • Lnycock, London Medical Gazette, vol. xxiii. p. 899; and vol. xxiv. 388.
  « Diet, of Mat. Mt,l. 1839.                                  • Phil. Trans. 1837. 
180             VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord. Melantuace.e.

which take place from this wine contain  the principle which acts  on the stomach
and bowels,  while  that which  cures  the gout is retained in permanent solution.
But Sir C. Scudamore1 found the sediment to be inert.
   7. ACETUM [C0R3II] COLCHICI, L. E. D. [U. S.].—(Meadow Saffron cormus, dried [and
bruised, D.], 5iiiss  [gj, D.]; Dilute  Acetic Acid Oj  [Acetic Acid  of commerce
(sp. gr. 1044) fgiv; Distilled Water  ^xij, D.];  [Proof Spirit f5iss, L.].  Mace-
rate the colchicum in the acid [diluted with the water, D.], in a covered vessel, for
three [seven, D.] days;  then express, set aside for the feces to subside, and strain.
[To the strained liquor, add the spirit,  L.]—The Edinburgh College directs col-
chicum-bulb, fresh  and  sliced, gj; Distilled Vinegar  f^xvj ; Proof Spirit fgj.)-
The London  and Dublin  Colleges, in  their Pharmacopoeias  for  1850,  have very
properly substituted the dried for the fresh cormus ordered in the preceding Phar-
macopoeia, on account of the impossibility of procuring the fresh at all seasons of
the  year.  [The U. S. Pharm.  orders of Colchicum  Boot, bruised,  two  ounces;
Diluted Acetic Acid two pints.   Macerate the root with the  diluted acetic acid, in
a close glass  vessel, for seven days;  then express the  liquor and set it by, that the
dregs may subside;  lastly, pour  off the clear liquor.]—In practice,  one part of the
dried cormus may be considered  equal  to three partg of the fresh: for Mr. Battley-
says the cormus loses about 67 per cent,  of  its weight in drying;  and  Mr. Bain-
brigge3 obtained 2 lbs. 15 oz. of dried  slices from 8 lbs. of fresh cormi.   The proof
spirit used in preparing  the acetum is  for  the purpose of  checking decomposition.
By the action of the acetic acid  on the colchicina of the cormus, an acetate of this
alkaloid is obtained.   Sir  C. Scudamore4 regards an acetic preparation of colchicum
as milder than the wine or tincture  made with  the same relative weights of cormi
and liquids, though it is a  most efficient preparation in gout.  He advises, as I have
before mentioned, that it should  be given in combination with magnesia, by which
its acid menstruum is destroyed  (acetate of magnesia being formed), and the active
principle of the colchicum  left in the most favourable state for administration. The
average dose  is from f5ss to fjij.

   8. EXTRACTDI  [CORII]  COLCHICI ACETICUM, L.  E. D. [U. S.].—(Fresh Meadow
Saffron cormus, Ibj; Acetic  [pyroligneous, Ed.] Acid fgiij.  Bruise  the cormus
gradually sprinkled with the acetic acid, then press out the juice, and evaporate it
in an earthen vessel which is not glazed with lead [over the vapour-bath, Ed.] to a
proper consistence.   The  Dublin College orders of Colchicum Boot, dried, £iv;
Dilute Acetic Acid f^viij.   Digest the root in  the  acid for fourteen days, then
filter, and evaporate, by  means of a water-bath, to the consistence of a soft extract.
[Take of Colchicum Boot, in coarse  powder, a  pound;  Acetic Acid  four fluid-
ounces ; Water a sufficient quantity.   To the acetic acid add a pint of water, and
mix the resulting liquid  with the colchicum  root.  Transfer  the  mixture to a per-
colator, and pour water gradually upon it until  the liquid passes with little or no
taste.  Lastly, evaporate the liquid in  a porcelain vessel to the proper consistence,
U.  S.]—This compound contains the acetate  of colchicina.   It is a very favourite
remedy in the treatment of gout and rheumatism, and was  introduced into practice
by Sir C  Scudamore.  Dr. Paris5 observes that he has " found it useful in  promot-
ing healthy discharges of bile."  He occasionally combines it with blue pill, calomel,
or potassio-tartrate of  antimony.   The dose  is from gr. j  to gr. iij twice or thrice
a day.

   9. EXTRACTDI  COLCHICI  [CORMI],  L.—(Fresh Meadow Saffron  cormus Ibj.
Bruise the cormus, sprinkled with a little water, in a stone  mortar; then press out
the juice,  and evaporate it, unstrained, to a proper consistence.)—This is a favourite

  ' Treatise  on Gout, 3d edit. p. 513.                              i Lond  md Gaz xii, 463.
  * Haden, Practical Observations on Colchicum autumnale, p. 77.
  • Observations on the Use of Colchicum.
  * Appendix to the Eighth Edition of the Pharmaeologia. 
IIermodactyl :—Natural History; Description.           181
preparation  with  Dr.  Hue, of St.  Bartholomew's Hospital, in  the early stage  of
acute rheumatism.   The dose is gr. j every four hours.

   10. SKITS COLCHICI; Preserved Juice of Colchicum.—I am informed that in one
experiment from one cwt. of very fine cormi gathered at the end of  August, and
well bruised and pressed, four imperial gallons and f ^xij of  a light fawn-coloured
juice were obtained.   This juice becomes darker coloured by exposure  to  the air.
After standing forty-eight hours  the spirit  is added to  it.   A  large quantity of
feculent deposit is formed, and the  liquor acquires a  paler tint.    The  deposit by
boiling yields  a coagulum.  Exposure to light appears to render it somewhat paler.
The smallest dose of succus colchici is five minims.
   Antidote.—See Veratrum album.


                 56.  Hermodactylus, Auct — Hermodactyl.

  History.—Among the later Greek and the Arabian physicians,  a medicine called hermo-
dactyl (itf/,o$aKTv\oe, from 'Ep/xr.c, Mercury or Hermes ; and  SaicruXo?, a finger) was in great repute
as a  remedy for arthritic diseases.  It was first  mentioned by Alexander of Tralles,1 who
flourished A. D. 560.  Paulus iEgineta,2 who lived A. D. 650, Avicenna.3 Serapion,* and Mesue,5
also speak of it.  It is deserving of especial notice,'that, under the name of Surugen or Hermo-
dactyl, Serapion comprehends the  Kohjfiniy and  e$ti[A.epn of Dioscorides, and the ef/uio^cMTuXoc  of
Paulus.   By some of the old writers, hermodactyl was called anima  articulorum, or the soul of
the joints.
  Natural  History.—The cormi brought from Oriental countries in modern times under the
name of hermodactyls, answer to the descriptions given of the ancient substance  bearing this
name.  1 am, therefore, induced to believe them to be identical with the latter.   Their resem-
blance to the cormi of Colchicum autumnale leads me to reject the notion of Matthiolus, at one
time entertained by Linnaeus,6 and adopted by Martius7 and Fraas,8 that they are produced by
Iris tuberosa.  That they are the underground stems of some species of colchicum can scarcely,
i think, be doubted by any one who carefully examines them.   Notwithstanding the statements
of Mr. Want9 and of Sir H. Halford,10 I cannot admit the  assumption  that hermodactyls are the
cormi of Colchicum autumnale, though this is the only species of Colchicum admitted  into the
new Greek Pharmacopeia.   Though resembling the latter in several  circumstances, they pos-
sess certain distinctive  peculiarities. Some of the most  eminent pharmacologists of Europe
(e.g. Guibourt, Goebel, Geiger, GeorTroy, &c.) also regard them as distinct.  The Colchicum illyri-
rum, mentioned in many works as yielding hermodactyl, is unknown to modern botanists.  The
cormus of Colchicum byzanlinum is too large to be  confounded with  hermodactyl. Colchicum
variegatuui has been supposed by  several botanists  and pharmacologists  to  be  the source of
hermodactyl, but further evidence  is required to establish  the opinion.  This plant is  a native
of Sicily, Crete, Greece, and Portugal.  Dr. Sibthorp11 found  it on Helicon, Parnassus, and other
mountains of Greece.  It is not  improbable, I  think, that Colchicum bulbocodiodes may yield
hermodactyl, which Dale12 tells us is brought  from  Syria. Dr. Lindley informs me that this
species was found by Colonel Chesney near the Euphrates, where it was very common, flower-
ing in March.  Theconni were not brought over.  Iris tuberosa was not found there.  Forskiil13
found Colchicum  montanum (which Sprengel, in his Syst. leg1., regards as identical with C. bulbo-
codiodes) at Kurma, in Arabia.
   Dj.m iiji'tion.—Mesne says that  hermodactyl is either long, like thefinger,or round.  Of the
round, he adds, there are three kinds—the white, the red, and the black;  the white being the
best.  C. Bauliin14 considered that the black and red hermodactyl of Mesue and  Serapion are
C. nutuiriualc, or, as he terms it, " Colchicum commune;" but the white hermodactyl he regarded
as a di:-tinct kind, which he calls " Colchicum radice siccata alba."  Through the kindness of
my friend Professor Royle, I have  had the examination of two kinds  of hermodactyl, procured
hy him  in the bazaars of  Northern  India, brought, he thinks, from Surat or  Bombay, and pro-
Imbly imported  there from the Red Sea.
   ]. Tasteless Hermodactyl; Sorinjan sheeran (i.e. sweet sorinjan), Royle; Hermodactylus, Auct.
nostra- fetalis.—In  their general  form  these  cormi resemble those of Colchicum autumnale.
They are flattened, cordate, hollowed out or  grooved on one side, convex  on the other.  At

  1 Lib. xi.
  » Opera, lib. iii. rap. 78; also, Adams's Translation for the Sydenham Society, vol. i. p. 660; and vol.
,i |M>. 114 nm!495.
  ' Lib. ii. nip. 352.                                * De  simplicibus,  cap. 194.
  » Opera, p. 37, ed. Bnnon. 1IS1.                     s Murray, App. Med. vol. v. p. 215.
  ' Pharmakognosie, 42.                             8 Syn. Plant. Fl. Classical, p. 293, 1845.
  • Mnt. and Phys. Journal, vol. xxxii.               "> London Medical Gazette, vol. viii. p. 318.
  " Prod. Fl. (irtrctr, ii. 250.                        " Pharmacologia, p. 245, ed. 3tia.
  " Fl. &gypt. Arab. p. 77.                          » Pinax, p. 67, 1671. 
182              VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Melantiiacea3.

their lower part (forming the base of the heart) is a mark or disk for the insertion of the root
fibres.   Their size varies: the specimens I  have examined were from £ to l£ inches in length
or height, 1 to 1^ inches in breadth, and about i an inch in depth.   They have been deprived
of their coats, are externally dirty yellow or brownish, internally white, easily broken, farina-
ceous, opaque, odourless, tasteless, or nearly so, and worm-eaten.  They agree precisely with
hermodactyls furnished me by Professor Guibourt.  They are readily distinguished from the cormi
of Colchicum autumnale by the following characters, which are correctly stated by Geofl'roy:1
They are not  rugose, are white  internally, are moderately hard, easily broken, and form g
whitish powder; whereas the dried cormi of Colchicum autumnale are rugose, softer, and have
a reddish or grayish tint both internally and externally.
  2. Bitter Hermodactyl;  Sorinjan tulkh (i. e. bitter sorinjan), Royle.   ? Bulbs [cormi] of another
Colchicum.2  I1] Hermodactylus rubens et niger (Avicenna and  Mesue).—The cormi of this variety
are distinguished from the preceding by their bitter taste, their smaller size, and  by having
externally a striped or reticulated appearance.  Their  colour  for the most part is darker; in
some specimens it is blackish.  One cormus is ovate-cordate ;  1 inch in height or length, i of
an inch broad, and about J of an  inch thick, grooved or hollowed on one  side, convex on the
other;  of a  brownish-yellow colour, semi-transparent, has a horny appearance, and is marked
by longitudinal stripes, indicating a laminated structure.  A second is opaque, amylaceous, reti-
culated  externally, white internally, less flattened, and of a remarkable shape, the  concave or
hollow  side of the cormus being continued half an inch below the mark for the attachment of
the root fibres.  The  other cormi are of the size and shape of a large orange pip, but flattened
or grooved on one side; some of  them are worm-eaten, and one is  blackish-brown externally,
  Composition.—Lecanu3 analyzed  hermodactyls (the  tasteless variety),  and obtained the
following results: Starch (forming the  principal constituent of the  hermodactyl), fatty matter
yellow colouring matter, gum, supermalales of lime  and potash, and chloride of potassium.
  Is the absence of veratria or colchicina to be ascribed to the cormi having undergone decom-
position by keeping?   No inulin was detected.
  Chemical Characteristics.—Both the tasteless and bitter hermodactyls are blackened  by
tincture of iodine, showing the presence of starch.   A cold decoction of the bitter variety pro-
duced an intense blue precipitate  (iodide of starch) with a solution of iodine.   Tincture of galls
and solutions of protonitrate of mercury, and of diacetate  of lead, caused  a cloudiness in the
cold decoction.
  Effects and Uses.—No modern experiments have  been made to  determine the activity of
hermodactyl.  The tasteless variety i3 probably inert, or nearly so; but the  bitter variety, 1 sus-
pect, possesses some activity.  Is  its operation analogous to that of  the cormus of Colchicum
autumnale?
  Speaking of the treatment of gout and arthritis, Paulus says: "Some, in the paroxysms of all
arthritic diseases, have recourse to purging with hermodactylus; but  it is  to be remarked that
the hermodactylus is bad for the stomach, producing nausea and anorexia, and ought, therefore,
to be used only in the case of those who are pressed  by urgent business, for it removes rheu-
matism speedily,and after two days at most, so that they are enabled to resume their accustomed
employment.''4


    57.  VERATRUM ALBUM, Zi»m.-WHITE HELLEBORE.
                              Sex. Syst. Polygamia, Moncecia.
                                (Rhizoma, L.—Rhizoma, E.)

   History.—This is, I think, the hrke$oe,oc xevxbc of Dioscorides (lib. iv.  cap. 150),
and probably, therefore, of other ancient writers, as Hippocrates and Theophrastus
On this point, however, considerable differen.ce  of opinion  has existed.   Schulze,5
while  he acknowledges the great similitude between Veratrum album, Linn, and
the white hellebore of Dioscorides,  is of opinion that the true hellebore (both white
and black) of Theophrastus is  wholly lost.  And  Dr.  Sibthorp,6 who found both
V. album and V. nigrum in Greece,7 regards Digitalis fcrruginea as  the white helle-
bore of Dioscorides—an opinion from which Sir J. Smith, the editor of the Prodro-
mus, expresses his  dissent.8   The  term veratrum is  said  by  Lemery to be derived

  1 Trait, de Mat. Med. t. ii. p. 79.                             a Goebel, Pharm. Waarenk. p. 271
  3 Journ. de Pharm. xi. 350.                                                         r
  4 Adams's Translation, vol. i. p. 660, Sydenham Society's edition.
  ' Diss, inaug. sist. Toxicol. Veterum, Halre. 1768.              e Prod. Fl. Gracce i 439
  1 Neither Fraas, nor any other botanists, whose collections in Greece he examined, found either of the
above-mentioned species of veratrum.
  8 For some interesting information respecting the ancient hellebore, consult Dierbach, Arzneimittel.d-
Hippocrates, p. 107.                                                         ' 
                White Hellebore:—Botany; Composition.             183

from vere atrum (truly black), in reference  to the colour of the rhizome;  but this
etymology is improbable.
  Botany.—Gen.Char.—Flowers polygamous.   Perianth  six-parted; segments
broad, concave, imbricating,  nearly  equal, striated,  not  excavated at the  base.
Stamens six, equal, inserted into the base of the segments ; filaments subulate;
authors r,niform, with confluent .cells.  Ovary with three  divaricating  stigmas.
Capsule three-horned,  separating into three many-seeded  follicles.   Seeds com-
pressed, winged at the apex.  (Lindley.)
  Sp. Char.—Panicle decompound.  Bracts equalling the flowers.  Pedicels  pube-
scent.  Segments of the perianth somewhat  erect and obtuse, serrulate.   Leaves
ovate-oblong, plaited.   (Sprengel.)
  Root composed of numerous fleshy brownish-white fibres, arising from a perennial,
cylindrical, fleshy,  subterraneous  stem  or rhizome, which is  brown  externally,
brownish-white internally, and is placed  obliquely in  the earth.   Stem one to four
feet high.   The plant flowers from June to  August.
   Two varieties (by some considered distinct species)
are included here :—
   a. albiflorum (V. album, Bernh) with decompound raceme
 and white flowers.
  0. viridiflorum (V. Lobelianum,  Bernh.)  with  compound
 raceme and greenish flowers.
   Hab.—Mountainous regions of Europe.   Abounds
 in the Alps and  Pyrenees.
   Description.—The  rhizome  or  cormus (radix
 veratri, offic, radix hcllebori albi) is single-, double-,
 or  many-headed,  having  the  form of  a  cylinder, or,
 more frequently,  of a truncated cone.  It is from two
 to  four inches long, and about one inch in diameter,
 rough, wrinkled, grayish, or blackish-brown  externally,
 whitish internally.  Portions  of the  root fibres are
 usually attached  to it, as well as some soft, fine hair-
 like fibres.  At  the upper extremity of  the  rhizome
 we frequently observe the cut edges  of numerous con-
 centric, woody, or  membranous scales:  they are por-
 tions of the dried leaf-sheaths.   When cut transversely,
 the  rhizome  presents a large central  portion (fre-
 quently called medulla), which varies  in its qualities;
 being woody,  farinaceous, or spongy, in  different specimens.  This is separated by
 a brown fine undulating line from a thick woody ring, in  which the root fibres take
 their origin.   On the outside of this is a narrow but compact brown epidermoid
 coat.  The odour of the  dried rhizome  is feeble; the taste is at first  bitter, then
 acrid.   By keeping, the rhizome is apt to become mouldy.
   The rhizome of Veratrum viride is used in the United States as a substitute for that of Vera-
 trum ulbutn (see p. 180).
    Composition.—White hellebore  rhizome  was analyzed in'1820 by MM. Pelle-
 tier and Caventou,1 who obtained the  following results :  Fatty matter (composed of
 ch in, stearin, and a volatile [cevadic?] acid), supergallate  of veratria, yellow col-
 ouring matter, starch, ligneous matter, and gum.  The ashes contained much phos-
 phate and  carbonate  of lime, carbonate of potash, and some traces of silica and
 sulphate of lime, but no chlorides.   They  could not  obtain the volatile  [cevadic ?]
 acid in a crystalline form.
   1. Yeratiua.  (See p. 190).
   2. Jkiiyik (so called from Java, the Spanish name  for a poison obtained from  the root of
 white hellebore) ;* Barytin.—A white crystalline, fusible, and inflammable substance, discovered
Fig. 219.
Veratrum album, Linn. var.
       albiflorum.
' Journ. de Pharm. vol. vi. p. 363.
a Bauhin's Pinax, p. 1S6. 
184             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Melanthaceas.

by Simon.1  It is soluble in  alcohol, but not in water.  With acetic and phosphoric acids ii
yields readily soluble salts; but, on the contrary, with sulphuric, nitric, and hydrochloric acids,
it forms difficultly soluble compounds2  On account of its resembling baryta m being precipit-
able from its solution in acetic acid by sulphuric acid, it  was called at first baryhn.  Its com-
position, according to Will, is C60H'5N2O5.
   Chemical Characteristics.—A  decoction of the  rhizome  undergoes, on  tbe
addition  of a solution of gelatin, no change, showing the  absence of tannic  acid;
but with  the  sesquichloride of iron, it becomes olive green (gallate? of iron).  With
tincture of galls, it became slightly turbid (tannates of veratria and starch).   With
acetate and diacetate of lead, and protonitrate of  mercury, it  formed ^ copious pre-
cipitates.   Oil of  vitriol reddens the concentrated decoction, owing to its action on
the  veratria.   The rhizome  left after the decoction had been  prepared from it,
becomes, on the addition of a solution  of iodine, black (iodide of starch).
   Physiological Effects,   o. On  Vegetables.—Not ascertained.
   0.  On Animals generally.—" The  best account  of its  effects is contained in a
thesis by Dr. Schabel, published at Tubingen, in 1817.  Collecting together  the
experiments  previously made by Wepfer, Courten, Viborg, and Orfila, and adding
a number of excellent experiments  of  his own, he infers that it is poisonous to ani-
mals of all classes—horses, dogs, cats,  rabbits, jackdaws, starlings, frogs, snails, and
flies ; that it  acts in whatever way it is introduced into the system—by the stomach,
windpipe, nostrils, pleural  membrane of the chest,  on external wounds, or the veins;
that it produces in every instance symptoms of irritation in the alimentary canal,
and  injury of the nervous system;  and that it is very active, three grains of  the
extract applied to the nostrils of a cat  having killed it in sixteen hours."3
   y.  On  Man.—Its  local action  is  that of  a powerful acrid.   Applied to  the
Schneiderian membrane, it excites violent sneezing.  Epistaxis even  is said to have
been induced by it.  Its operation, when swallowed or  placed  in contact with  the
skin, is also that of an energetic irritant.
   Its remote action is on the secretory apparatus,  the stomach and intestines, and
the nervous system.  In small and repeated  doses, it promotes secretion from  the
mucous surfaces, the salivary glands, the kidneys, and  the uterus, and increases the
cutaneous exhalation.4   In larger doses, it causes vomiting, purging, pain in  the
abdomen, tenesmus, and occasionally bloody evacuations, and great  prostration of
strength.   In some instances, a few grains even  have  had these effects.  Schabel
says there is  no substance  which so certainly and promptly provokes  vomiting; and
Horn5 employed it as a sure emetic.   In addition to the local action which it  ex-
ercises, when swallowed, on the stomach and intestines,  it possesses a specific power
of influencing these viscera :  for Etmuller6 has seen violent vomiting result from
the application of the rhizome to the abdomen; and Schroder7 observed the  same
occurrence where  the rhizome was used as a suppository.   In excessive doses, it
operates  as a narcotico-acrid  poison, producing gastro-intestinal  inflammation and
an affection of the nervous system.   The symptoms are violent vomiting and purg-
ing  (sometimes of blood),  tenesmus, burning  sensation  of  the mouth, throat,
oesophagus, stomach, and  intestines, constriction  of the throat, with a  sense of
strangulation, griping pain in the bowels, small, and, in some cases,  almost imper-
ceptible pulse, faintness, cold sweats, tremblings, giddiness, blindness,  dilated pupils,
loss  of voice, convulsions, and insensibility, terminating in death.   A cutaneous
eruption  has, in some instances, followed the use of white hellebore.
  I am indebted to Dr. Wm. Rayner, of Stockport, for notes of three cases of  poisoning by in-
fusion of white hellebore.  The symptoms  resembled those just mentioned, except that there
was no purging.   All three cases rapidly recovered.
 1 Pog-gendortFs Annalen, xli. 569; and Pharmaceutisches Central Blatt fur 1837, S. 191.
 1 Pharm. Central Blatt fur 1837, S. 753; also, Berlinisches Jahrb.fUr d. Pharm. Bd. xxxiii. S.393;
and Lond. and Edinb. Phil. Mag. vol. xii. p. 29.
 3 Christison's Treatise on Poisons, 3d edit. p. 790.     * Greding Sammtl. med. Schrift. Th. 1, S. 179.
 » Archiv. H. x. H. 1, S. 161.                      e Opera omnia, torn. ii. pt. ii. p. 144.
 ' Orfila, Toxicol. Gin. 
             White Hellebore:—Uses; its Administration.           185

  Hutchinson1 remarked that, when death did  not occur, palpitation and intermit-
ting pulse, besides dyspeptic and nervous  symptoms, remained for some time.
  These effects were not observed in Dr. Bayner's cases.
  In its action on the system, Veratrum album is more closely related to cebadilla
and meadow saffron than to any other medicinal  agents.  It is more acrid and less
stupefying than Helleborus niger, with which it  has been so frequently compared
both by ancients and moderns.   Orfila2 ascertained, by experiment on animals, that
it is more active as a poison than  the last-mentioned substance.   It exercises  no
known cheniical influence over the tissues by which it is distinguished  from the
mineral irritants, as baryta and emetic tartar, with which Schabel compared it.
  Uses.—It is but rarely employed, principally on  account  of  the alleged  uncer-
tainty of its  operation.   But, from the few trials which I  have made  with it, I
suspect  this uncertainty is  much exaggerated, and  is principally referable to the
varying lengths of time which  the rhizome  has  been  kept after  its  removal
from the earth, for, like colchicum, it deteriorates by keeping.   The following are
the principal cases in which it has been employed:—
  1. In affections of the nervous system, as melancholia, mania, and epilepsy.3  As
an emetic, purgative, and promoter of the  secretions generally, we can easily under-
stand that it may prove occasionally beneficial.
  2. In chronic skin diseases, as herpes, Dr. C.  Smyth4 gave the tincture internally
with benefit.  As external applications, the  decoction  and ointment  are used in
scabies (hence the Germans call the rhizome Kratzwurzel, i.  e.  itch-root), tinea
capitis, &c.; but their use is not quite free from danger.
  8. In gout, it was given in combination with opium, by Mr.  Moore,5 as a substi-
tute for, or in imitation of, the Eau Midicinale.  , The dose, in a paroxysm of gout,
was from forty minims to two drachms of a mixture composed of three parts of
 Vin. Veratri albi and one part of liquid laudanum.
  4. In amaurosis and chronic affections of the brain occurring in torpid habits, it
is employed as  an errhine or sternutatory (hence its German  name, Niesswurzel,
i. e. sneeze-root).   It is usually diluted  with  some  mild  powder.  The German
snuff called Schneeberger is said to contain it.
   5.  To destroy pedicnli, the decoction is used as a wash.
   0. As an emetic, it was  employed by Horn.
   Administration.—The following are  the principal modes of exhibition:—
   1. PULVIS VERATRI; White Hellebore Powder.—The dose of  this at the commence-
ment should not exceed one or two grains.  This quantity will  sometimes occasion
nausea  and vomiting; but Greding found  that in  some cases eight grains,  and, in a
few instances, a scruple of  the bark of the rhizome in powder were required to ex-
cite vomiting.  As an errhine, not more than two or three grains, mixed  with eight
or  ten  of  some mild powder (as  starch, liquorice,  Florentine  orris, or lavender)
should be employed at one time.  It is a constituent  of the  Unguentum  Sulphuris
compositum (see vol. i. p. 3G0).

  2. VIM M VERATRI, L.;  Tinctura  Veratri albi; Tincture of  White Hellebore.—
(White Hellebore, sliced, |viij; Sherry Wine Oij.    Macerate  for seven days, and
strain.)—As  a substitute for colchicum in  gout  and rheumatism,  the dose  is ten
minims twice or thrice daily.  This quantity is to be gradually increased.  A full
dos9 acts as an emetic and cathartic.

  I DECOCTHl  VERATRI, Ph.  I.. 1836;   Decoction of  White  Hellebore.—(White
Hellebore,  bruised, 3x; Distilled Water Oij; Bectified Spirit fsiij.   Boil the
hellebore in the water down to a pint, and when it is cooled, add the spirit.)—This
preparation is only used as an external application in skin diseases (scabies, lepra,
1 Schu urt/c's Pharm. Tab. 2te Ausg.
5 Greding, Sdmmtl. mtdiz. Schriften. T. 1, S. 179.
* Two Letters to Dr. Jones, 1811.
3 Toxicol. Gin.
4 Med. Communications, vol. i. p. 207. 
186              VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Melantiiacea

tinea capitis, &c), and to destroy pediculi.  When  the  skin is very irritable, the
decoction will sometimes require dilution.   If the surface to which it is applied be
denuded, absorption  of the  veratria may occur, and  constitutional symptoms be
thereby induced; hence it is a dangerous application, especially to children.

   4.  lOTEXTDI VERATRI, Ph. L. 1836  {Unguentum  Veratri albi,V. S.] ;  Ointment
of White Hellebore.—(White Hellebore, powdered, gij ;  Lard syiij; Oil of Lemons
ttlxx.   Mix.)—This ointment is used in the treatment  of  the  itch as a substitute
for the disagreeable, though far more effective, sulphur ointment.   Like the decoc-
tion,  thare is danger of the absorption of  the active principle of the rhizome when
the ointment is applied  to  raw surfaces;  it  is, therefore, an  unfit remedy for
children.
   Antidotes.—Astringent solutions have been recommended;  and in  one case,
which fell under my notice, infusion of nutgalls seemed to give relief.  The supposed
benefit has been referred  to  the union of  tannic acid with  veratria, by which the
solubility and activity of  the  latter are  diminished;  but  Schabel1  found that three
drachms of a tincture of white hellebore, given with infusion of galls, to a cat, proved
fatal  in twenty  minutes.  Hahnemann  recommends coffee, both as a drink  and in
clyster.  I) jmulcent liquids,  and, in some cases, opiates,  may be useful.   The other
parts of the treatment must  be  conducted on general principles.   Stimulants will
be usually required on account of  the failure of the heart's  action.


           58.  Veratrum  viride,  Willd.—American  Hellebore.
                              Sex. Syst. Polygamia, Monoecia.
                                       (Rhizoma )

   [The Veratrum VinrnE, U. S. (Secondary  List), is known in  the  United States as American
Hellebore, Swamp  Hellebore, Indian Poke, and  Itch Weed. It has a perennial, thick, fleshy root,
tunicated at  top,  the lower part solid and  sending off numerous  white  or  light-yellow radi
cles.  The stem is annual, from two to three feet high, pubescent.  Leaves at base six inches
to a foot long, broad, oval, nerved, acuminate, of a deep green colour, and pubescent; those on
the stem narrower, and, at the summit, bracteaeform.   Flowers in panicles, terminal, and of a
greenish-yellow tint.  The calex  is wanting;  petals six, stamens six, pistil a rudiment (Willde-
now).   Germs three, when not rudimentary, on the lower portion of the  panicle.
   The plant  is found in many parts of the United States, from  Canada to Carolina, inhabiting
damp places in the neighbourhood of streams and meadows.  It appears early in March.
   The  whole plant has an acrid and burning taste; the root only is officinal.  This, when dried,
consists of a somewhat tunicated top, with a thick hard base, and numerous radicles attached to
it.  The odour, disagreeable in the recent state, is lost by drying.  The taste is at first sweetish,
then bitter, followed by an acrid burning sensation in the mouth, which lasts for some hours
after it  has been chewed.  When powdered, it acts as a sternutatory.   For the composition of
this root, we  are indebted to  Mr.  Henry Worthington (American  Journal of Pharmacy, vol. x. p.
97), who found it to contain gum, starch, sugar, bitter extractive, fixed oily matter, colouring matter,
gallic  acid,an alkaloid substance identical with veratria, lignin, and salts of lime, andpotatta.
With regard to the alkaloid substance, he describes it as "nearly  insoluble in water, more soluble
in ether, and entirely soluble in absolute  alcohol.  When exposed to flame, it first melts, then
swells up, and  burns without residue.   It produces a burning  acrid sensation in the mouth,
which lasts for several hours.  It acts powerfully as a sternutatory, producing violent sneezing,
which lasts for half an hour after it has been applied  to the nose.:'   "In its chemical relations,
the analogy is carried out by not being changed to a red colour by the action of nitric acid, and
from  its forming salts with the acids, none of which are crystallizable but the sulphate, tartrate,
and oxalate."
   That the framers of the United States Pharmacopceia have done well in the introduction of
this article, is shown by the  testimony in its favour  as a potent medicine.  Dr. Osgood [Am.
Journ. of Pharm.,  vol. vii. p. 202), and Dr. Ware (Bigelow's Med.  Bot. vol. ii. pp. 127, 132), have
each  instituted a course of  experiments to  test its remedial powers.  The  first found it an
emetic; and the second met with a case  where this effect on the stomach was produced by tbe
application of the ointment to an ulcer on the leg.  Mr. Worthington submitted himself to the
test of its powers. He took the fourth of a grain of the Alcoholic Extract, which caused an acrid
burning sensation in the mouth, and communicated to the  throat and fauces a sense of dryness
and heat, which finally reached the stomach.  In the  course of about an hour, this dryness and
1 Quoted in Brandt and Ratzburg's Giftgewachse, Abt. 1, S. 28. 
Spike-Flowered Asagr/ea:—Botany;  Description.          187
burning sensation in the throat and stomach became intense, and a disposition to hiccough was
excited, which soon commenced, gradually increasing in frequency until it reached fifteen or
twenty times per minute.  This was attended with some sickness and retching until vomiting
took place.  This was violent, and seemed to come on about every ten  or fifteen  minutes for
the space of an  hour.  During this time, dizziness and tremor  were created, which passed off
with the effect of the dose.  With the hiccough there was a copious secretion of saliva and dis-
charge of mucus from the stomach and nose.  During the action of  this dose, the pulse was
weakened so as  to be scarcely perceptible, and reduced from sixty-eight to fifty-two pulsations
per minute.  (Op. cit.)
  The experiment just detailed was repeated three times, and in neither was there a disposition
to catharsis.  The effects are those of an acro-narcotic, and not one of the least potent of this
class of remedies.   The uses  and mode of  administration are similar  to those of the While
Hellebore.  In  gout and rheumatism, the medical gentlemen before  mentioned speak  in its
favour.  A  knowledge of it is  stated to be possessed by the North American Indians.—J. C]

                       59. Veratrum Sabadilla, Rctz.
                            Sex. Syst. Polygamia, Moncecia.
                                     (Semina.)
   A native  of Mexico and the Antilles.  Its leaves are radical, oval-oblong, obtuse, ribbed.  Its
stem is almost leafless.   The  panicle is nearly simple.  The flowers have short pedicels, and
are nodding.
   Its fruit and  seeds are said to be brought from the Antilles, under the name of cebadilla
(semina sabadilla caribace), but  I have never met with them.
Fig. 220.
   60.  ASAGRiEA OFFICINALIS, Zmrf.-SPIKE-FLOWERED
                                ASAGRiEA.
                            Sex. Syst. Hexandria, Trigynia.
(Alkali e seminc comparatum, L.—Sabadilla; Fruit of Veratrum Sabadilla1 of Ilelonias officinalis, and
                           probably of other Melanthacese, E.)
  Synonymes.—Veratrum officinale,  Schlecht; Ilelonias officinalis, Don.
  History.—This plant was described by Schlechtendahl,3 afterwards by Mr. Don,3
and subsequently by Dr. Lindley.4   The seeds were  known to Monardes in  1573.
They were  called  sabadilla, or cevadilla,  or, more  properly, cebadilla (from the
Spanish cebada, barley), on account of the supposed resemblance of the inflorescence
of the plant to that of hordeum.
  Botany.  Gen. Char.—Flowers polygamous,  racemose,
naked.   Perianth  six-partite;  segments  linear, veinlcss, al-
most equal, with  a nectariferous  excavation  at  the base,
equal to the stamens.   Stamens alternately shorter; anthers
cordate, as if unilocular,  after dehiscence  shield-shaped.
 Ovaries three, quite  simple,  attenuated  into  an   obscure
stigma.   Follicles   three, acuminate, papery;  seeds scimitar-
shaped, corrugated, winged.  Bullous herbs, with grass-like
hares, and small, pale, densely-racemed flowers. (Lindley.)
   Sp. Char.—The only species known.
   Leaves  linear,  acuminate, subcarinate,  roughish  at  the
margin, four feet long, and three lines broad.   Scape round,
about .six feet  high.  Raceme,  a foot  and  a half long, very
dense, very straight, spiciform.   Flowers white, with a bractea
at the base.  Anthers yellow.
  Hab.—Eastern  side  of  the Mexican  Andes, near Bar-
ranca de  Tiosclo (Schicde).  Neighbourhood of A'era Cruz
(Harfweg).
  Description.—The  cabadilla, cevadilla, or  sabadilla of
the shops  (sabadilla; semina  sabadillse mexivanse), comes
from  Vera Cruz  and  Mexico.  It consists of the  follicles
(some containing  seeds, others empty),  loose  seeds, stalks,
  Asagraea officinalis.
a. Fruit-bearing stem.
b. Root, bulb, and leaves.
1 Pre |». 185.
• Ed. Sew Phil. Journ. Oct. 1839.
3 Lmnea, vi. 45.
4 Bot. Reg. June, 1839. 
188
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Melanthage^.
and abortive flowers of the Asagrsea officinalis, and perhaps of Veratrum  Sabadilla
also.
   The follicles, commonly termed  capsules, rarely exceed, or even equal, half an
inch in length, and are  about one  line or a  line  and a half in diameter.   They
are  ovate-oblong, acuminate.   Their  colour  is  pale  yellowish-brown, or reddish-
gray.   The coat of each  is  thin, dry, and of  a papery consistence.   Each  fruit i3
composed of three follicles mutually adherent towards the base, open at the superior
and internal part.   The receptacle, fruitstalk, and the remains  of the dried  and
withered  calyx, are usually present in  the cebadilla of the  shops.   Seldom more
than one or two,  though  sometimes three, seeds are found in each follicle.
   The seeds are two or three  lines long,  scimitar-shaped, pointed, blackish-brown,
shiny,  wrinkled or corrugated,  slightly winged.   Internally, they  are whitish or
horny.  Embryo straight/next the hilum, lodged  in fleshy albumen.  They have
little odour, but a bitter, acrid,  persistent taste.
   Composition.—Two analyses of cebadilla  have been made about the same time
(1819);  one by Meissner;1  and a second  by Pelletier and Caventou.3  The follow-
ing  are the results:—
            Meissner's Analysis.
Fatty matter (olein and stearin).......24.63
Wax (myricin).................   0.10
Sabadillin (veratria)..............   0.58
Resin (soluble in ether)............   1.45
Hard resin (insoluble in ether)........   8.45
Bitter extractive with the acid which is uni ted ? g 97
  to the sabadillin...............J
Sweet extractive................   0.65
Extractive separable by alkalis........24.14
Gum.......................   4.90
Vegetable jelly 'phyteumacolla) with chlo- )
  ride of potassium and  vegetable salts of> 1.11
  potash.....................)
Oxalate of lime combined with bassorin ...   1.06
Lignin......................20.56
Water......................   6 40
Cebadilla....................100.00
      The ashes contained oxide of copper.
     Pelletier and Caventou's Analysis.
                        {Olein.
Fatty matter composed of  } Stearin.
                        ( Cevadic acid.
Wax.
Supergallate of veratria.
Yellow colouring matter.
Starch.
Lignin.
Gum.
                        I Carbonate of potash,
                              "    lime.
                          Phosphate lime.
                          Chloride potassium.
                          Silica.
Cebadilla.
  1. Cevadic or Sabadillic Acid.—This is a crystalline, fusible, volatile, fatty acid, having
an odour analogous to butyric acid.  It is soluble in water, alcohol, and ether.  It is obtained by
the saponification of the oil of cebadilla (fatty matter).  Cevadate of ammonia causes a white
precipitate with the persalts of iron.  The composition of this acid is unknown.
  Oil of cebadilla given me by Mr. Morson is green, lighter than  water, and has a faint, some-
what rancid taste.
  2. Yeratric Acid, of Merck.3—This is a crystalline, fusible, volatile acid, soluble in alcohol,
slightly so in water, but insoluble in ether. According to Schroetter, it consists of Cl9H90"-f aq.
  3. Resins.—The  two resins found by Meissner, but overlooked by Pelletier and Caventou,
are probably endowed with activity.
  Conerbe obtained from cebadilla seeds, sabadillina, helonin or resin of veratria, and gum resin of
sabadillina.
  a. Sabadillina  is a white crystalline solid, possessing alkaline properties, being  soluble in
boiling water and in alcohol, but not in ether.   In the fused state it consists of C2oHl3NO'. It
forms with acids  crystallizable salts.   It is said, by Simon,4 to be  merely a compound of resinate
of soda and  resinate  of veratria.  Dr. Turnbull  found it inferior in activity to veratria.
  B- Helonin or resin  of veratria (veratrin, Conerbe; pseudo-veratria) is a brown solid, fusible a!
365°.  Insoluble in ether (by which it is distinguished from veratria), and in water.  It com-
bines with acids; but neither saturates them, nor forms with them any crystallizable salts. It
consists of CI4H9N03.  Its action on the animal economy has not been determined.
  y. Gum-resin of sabadillina (resinigomme, Couerbe; monohydrate of sabadillina, Alter.) is a red-
dish solid, soluble in  water and alcohol, but slightly so in ether.   It saturates acids,but does not
form crystalline compounds with them.   Alkalies throw it down from its saline  combinations,
It consists of C2oHl4N06.  Hence it differs from anhydrous sabadillina in containing an atom
more water.   Furthermore, it is distinguished from this alkali in  not being crystallizable.
  4. Veratria.—(See p.  190.)
1 Schweigger's Journ. f. Chem. xxxi. 167.
» Pharmaceutisches Central-Blatt fur 1839, S. 235.
3 Journ. de Pharm. vi. 353.
4 Berl. Jahrb. Bd. xxxix. S. 393. 
        Spike-Flowered Asagrjea:—Physiological Effects;  Uses.     189

   CnEMiCAL Characteristics.—The brownish-coloured decoction  of  cebadilla
reddens litmus, owing to the presence of free acid.  Sesquichloride of iron deepens
the colour of the decoction, and causes an olive brown precipitate.  Alkalies deepen,
whilst acids diminish, the colour of the decoction (by their  action on  the yellow
colouring matter, Pelletier).  Acetate and diacetate of lead, protonitrate of mercury,
and sulphate of copper, form precipitates  in the  decoction.  Oxalate of  ammonia
renders it turbid (oxalate of lime).   Nitrate of silver forms a coloured precipitate,
which is, for the most part, soluble in nitric acid:  the insoluble portion is chloride
of silver.  Solutions of iodine and tincture of nutgalls have no  obvious effect.   Oil
of vitriol reddens the decoction owing to its action on the  veratria.
   Physiological Effects,   o.  On  Vegetables.—Not ascertained.
   0.  On Animals.—Are  similar to  those of  Veratrum  album.   Cebadilla  has
proved poisonous to dogs and cats.1  A pinch of it produced violent spasms in cats;
half a drachm caused vomiting  and  convulsions in dogs.   It  is a poison to insects.
Thus bugs die  from it in convulsions: hence its use as a bug poison !2   Its efficacy
in destroying pediculi has long been known.
   y.  On Man.—The action  is probably similar to, though more  acrid than, white
hellebore.   The effects of  small and repeated doses have not been satisfactorily as-
certained.   Large and poisonous  doses cause burning  and pain in the throat  and
stomach, nausea, vomiting, purging, prostration of strength, convulsions,  delirium,
and sometimes a cutaneous eruption.  Even the external application of the powder
has caused dangerous effects.   Plenck tells us of a young man who was  rendered
temporarily insane by the  application of powder of cebadilla  to the head.  Lentin
says an infant,  whose nurse had sprinkled  the powder  in  its hair, died in convul-
sions.8
   Rubbed  on the skin, the tincture causes a stinging sensation similar to  that pro-
duced by veratria.   After  its use for  some days, a slight  eruption  appears on  the
skin,   llubbed over the cardiac region, it  in some instances reduces the frequency
and force of the pulse in a marked  degree.   The alcoholic extract has nearly the
same  effects, when taken internally,  as veratria.    It also induces sensations of heat
and tingling on the  surface of the  skin, and sometimes acts as a diuretic.4
   Uses.—Cebadilla has  been  employed  internally, as an anthelmintic, in both
thread-worms and  tape-worms.5   Dr.  Turnbull8 has given the extract with benefit
in painful  rheumatic and neuralgic affections.  Though it is applicable in all  the
maladies for the relief of which veratria has been recommended, it is rarely admin-
istered by  the mouth.
   Externally the powder of the seeds has been used to destroy pediculi; hence the
Germans called the seeds Lausesaamen, or  lice-seeds.  But  it cannot be applied with
safety to children, and especially when the  skin is  broken.   I  have already referred
to the dangerous consequences  of  its employment.   The tincture  has been used as
a rubefacient in chronic rheumatism, and,  rubbed over the heart, in some cases of
nervous  palpitation.7  It may, in fact, be employed as a cheap though efficient  sub-
stitute for  the tincture of veratria.
   But the principal use of the seeds, for which  indeed they have been introduced
into the  Pharmacopoeia, is  for yielding veratria.
  Administration.—The following are the preparations  of cebadilla which have
been employed in medicine.

  1. PULVIS SABADILLE; Pulris contra pediculos; Poudre  de  Capucin;  Powder of
Cebadilla.—The  dose for  an adult is from two  to six grains; gradually increased.
In one case of tape-worm, half a drachm was taken daily for fourteen days.8
1 Willrtnet, Nouv. Mtm. de VAcad. de Dijon, 1782.
' St-rliger, iu Schmucker'B Vermischt. chirurg. Schrift. vol. ii. p. 272.
* Murruy, App. Med. vol. V. p. 172.
* Turnbull, On the Medicinal Properties of the Ranunculacea, p. 7
• Schmucker's Verm, chirurg. Schrift. Bd. ii. S. 271.                          « Op. cit. p. 7.
1 Turnbull, op. cit.                          * Seeliger, in Schmucker, op. cit. vol. ii. p. 271. 
190             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Melanthaoe^e.

   8.  TINCTURA  SABADILLSE;  Saturated  Tincture of  Cebadilla, Turnbull.—(Ceba-
dilla  seeds, freed from their capsules  and bruised, any quantity;  Rectified Spirit,
as much  as will cover them.  Digest  for  ten days.)—Used as a  rubefacient lini-
ment in chronic rheumatism and paralysis.   It is rubbed over the  heart in nervous
palpitation.
   I EXTRACTDI ALCOHOLICUM SABADILLA J  Alcoholic  Extract of Cebadilla.--Eva-
porate the saturated tincture, with a very gentle heat, to a proper consistence.   Dose,
l-6th of a grain, gradually increased.   It  is given, in  the form of pill, in rheumatic
and neuralgic cases.
   4.  VERATRIA, L. E.  [U.S.]; Vcratrin; Veratrina, Thomson; Sabadillin, Meiss-
ner.—This vegetable  alkaloid  was discovered  about the same time (1819), by
Meissner in Germany, and  by Pelletier and Caventou in France.  Couerbe1 pro-
bably was the first  who obtained it pure.
   The  process of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia is as follows :—
  "Take any convenient quantity of Cevadilla: pour boiling  water over it in a covered vessel,
and let it macerate for 24 hours; remove the  Cevadilla, squeeze it, and dry  it thoroughly with
a gentle heat.  Beat it now in a mortar, and separate the seeds from the capsules by brisk agi-
tation in a deep narrow vessel.  Grind the seeds in a coffee-mill, and form  them into a thick
paste  with rectified spirit.  Pack this firmly in a percolator, and pass rectified spirit through it
till the spirit ceases to be coloured.  Concentrate the spirituous solutions, by distillations, so long
as nodeposit forms, and pour the  residuum, while hot, into twelve times its volume of cold water,
Filter through calico, and wash  the residuum on the filter so  long as the washings precipitate
with ammonia.  Unite the filtered liquid with the washings,  and add an excess of ammonia.
Collect the precipitate on a filter, wash it slightly with cold water, and dry it, first by imbibition
with filtering paper, and then in the vapour bath.  A small additional quantity may be got by
concentrating the filtered ammoniacal fluid, and allowing it to cool.
  "Veratria thus obtained is not pure, but sufficiently so for medicinal use.   From this coloured
substance it may be obtained white, though at considerable loss, by solution in very weak muriatic
acid, decolorization with animal charcoal, and re-precipitation with ammonia."
   Cebadilla yields, to rectified spirit, veratria in combination with a vegetable acid.
Ammonia unites with the vegetable acid, and sets free the alkaloid.
   By Couerbe's process,  a drachm  of commercial veratria may, it is said, be pro-
cured from one pound of  cebadilla.
   Commercial veratria was  said by Couerbe to be composed of pure veratria, saba-
dillina, resin of veratria (veratrin,  Couerbe), and gum-resin of veratria (resini-
gomme, Couerbe).  These are separated from each other by the successive action of
water, ether, and alcohol,  as shown by the following table:—

                  ( yields to boiling  water . . \\' Sabadillina, which crystallizes on cooling.
„       .,„„,.'           e         ( 2. Resin of Veratria, left in the cold solution.
Commercial Veratria j                      > 3  Veratria, soluble in ether.
                  ' insoluble in boiling water 14. Gum-resin of veratria, insoluble in ether, but solu-
                                        (      ble in alcohol.

  The nature of sabadillina has been already pointed  out (p. 188).
  Properties.— Commercial veratria  is pulverulent, odourless,  and  grayish or
brownish white.  All  the  samples I have tasted were bitter and acrid, and produced
a feeling of numbness  and tingling when applied to the tongue.   But pure veratria
is an  almost white,  friable solid,  having the  aspect of a resin: it is uncrystallizable,
odourless, has a very acrid taste, without any mixture  of bitterness.   It is fusible
at 240° F.   It is sparingly soluble in ether, readily so in alcohol, scarcely so in cold
water.  It possesses alkaline  properties: thus, it restores the blue colour  of reddened
litmu?,  and saturates acids.   Its  salts crystallize with difficulty: indeed, the sulphate
and hydrochlorate alone have been obtained  in the state of crystals; the other salts
have a gummy aspect.  Both the hydrochlorate  and sulphate are soluble in water.
   Characteristics.—Veratria is known by the following characters:  Its alkalinity,
its combustibility, its uncrystallizability, the  difficult crystallizability of its salts, its
solidity at ordinary temperatures, its ready  solubility  in alcohol, its being almost
1 Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. t. 52, p. 368. 
             Veratria:—Composition; Physiological Effects.          191

insoluble in water, and by the intense red colour which it assumes when mixed with
oil of vitriol.  Pure veratria is readily soluble in ether; not so, impure or commercial
veratria.  Nitric acid renders  commercial veratria reddish, and forms a yellow solu-
tion with it (see Morphia and Narcotina).   A solution of veratria in dilute acetic
acid produces a whitish precipitate (tannate of veratria) with tincture of nutgalls,
a white one (hydrated veratria) with ammonia, and  an intense red colour with oil
of vitriol.   Carbazotic acid does not occasion a precipitate unless the solution be
concentrated.  To these  chemical peculiarities must be added those characteristics
derived from its physiological  effects: A minute portion  of  veratria causes violent
sneezing, and a small quantity of a solution of four grains of veratria in a fiuidrachm
of rectified spirit, rubbed on the wrist  or forehead,  produces, within three  or  four
minutes, heat  and  tingling.  Pure veratria  is  less apt to   occasion  sneezing, by
handling, than the impure  or  commercial sort.
  The  London College (1851) gives the following characters of veratria: Dissolves but slightly
in water, more soluble in ether, but most in alcohol.  It has no smell, but violently irritates the
nostrils, and has a bitter taste.   It is to be cautiously administered.
  [The following characteristics are given by the U. S. Pharm.  Pulverulent, grayish-white, ino-
dorous, but very irritant to the nostrils, and of an acrid bitter  taste, causing a sensation of tingling
with numbness in the tongue.   It is very slightly soluble in water, but readily and wholly dis-
solved  by alcohol.  It has an alkaline reaction, and is entirely dissipated by a red heat.  With
nitric acid it forms a yellow solution, and, when in contact with concentrated  sulphuric  acid,
becomes intensely red.]
   Composition.—The following is the composition of pure veratria, according to
Couerbe:—

                               Atoms.     Eq. Wt.      Per Cent.       Couerbe.
         Cnrbon............34......204......70 83......70.780
         Hydrogen...........22......22......  7 64......  7.630
         Nitrogen..........1......  14......  4.86......  5.210
         Oxygen............6......48......16 67......16.368
                Veratria....... 1......288......100.00......100.000

   Physiological Effects,   a.  On  Animals.—Magendie1 has shown that the
 local action  of veratria is that of an irritant.  Placed in the nostrils  of a dog, the
 acetate of  veratria provoked violent and continued sneezing.   When introduced into
 the intestinal canal, it caused  inflammation.   Applied to parts whence  absorption
 goes on actively (as the  pleura and  tunica vaginalis), it occasions  tetanus, and death
 in a few minutes.   Forcke- gave moderate and gradually increased doses (| to J- of
 a grain) of veratria for twenty days.  It caused vomiting, and occasionally foaming
 at the mouth.  The stools continued hard.   Dr. Bardsley3 observed vomiting and
 giddiness  (reeling) produced in animals to whom he gave veratria.
   /3.  On  Man.—Applied to the nose, a minute quantity excites excessive sneezing
 Rubbed  on  the  skin in  the form of ointment, it causes a  sensation of heat and
 tingling (called by Dr. Turnbull dcctro-stimulation).  This effect is not confined to
 the  part and itrf immediate neighbourhood where the application has been made; for
 somewhat similar sensations are occasionally experienced in distant parts.
   Taken internally, in small or medicinal doses, veratria excites a feeling of  warmth
 in the stomach and bowels, which extends  to  the chest and  extremities.  Tino-lin^
 and various anomalous sensations (as of a current of  hot or cold air or water passing
 over the  skin) are perceived  in various parts of the body.   Nausea and vomiting
 are occasionally excited by a full dose.   On the secretions and exhalations its action
 is not very uniform.  It  frequently produces perspiration,  and not unfrequently
 diuresis.   Forcke' mentions increased secretion of saliva and of tears produced with-
 out the contact of the veratria either with the conjunctiva or mouth.   The bowels
 are for the most part confined, so that purgatives are not unfrequently required during
 tho use of  it.  Yet in some cases veratria has caused copious bilious evacuations.  In

   1 Formulaire, p. 162, 8me edit.                         » Untersuch.iiber d. Veratri* 1R»7
   • Ilosp. Facts and Observ. lS-.ni.                        * Op. cit. p. 22.           ' 
192
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Liltace;e.
some instances it  has promoted, in others diminished, the appetite.   Forcke men-
tions that a pustular eruption is sometimes induced by it.   Dr. Bardsley generally
found the pulse become slower  and depressed after the use of veratria.
   I  am not acquainted with  any cases of poisoning in the human subject by exces-
sive  doses of veratria.   Vomiting and convulsions would probably be induced.
   Uses.—Veratria is employed externally or internally: sometimes in both ways at
the same time.   It has been tried in the following cases :—
   o. Li  neuralgia, it  has been used by Dr. Turnbull, Dr. Ebers of Breslau,1 and
Dr. Forcke.   It is applied in the form of ointment, containing from twenty to forty
grains of veratria to an ounce of lard.   The frictions are to be continued until the
heat and tingling caused by the veratria have acquired a considerable degree of in-
tensity.   Though, according to my own experience, it fails to give relief in  a large
majority of cases, yet in some few its effects are highly beneficial,  and in none is it
injurious.   As a remedy for neuralgia, it is, however,  far inferior to Aconitum and
its alkali Aconitina.
   /3.  In Home nervous diseases (Neuroses, Cull.)—Veratria  has been  extensively
used in this class of diseases, but for the most most part empirically.   If it  possess
any  therapeutical power, " a more extended experience  is required to establish its
claim to our  regard."3  Among the maladies  against which it  has been used (in
some instances internally, but mostly externally) are—nervous palpitation, paralysis,
hooping-cough, epilepsy, hysteria, hypochondriasis, &c.3
   y.  In rheumatism and gout.—Dr. Bardsley gave it internally in rheumatism, but
with no remarkable results.   Externally it has been employed in the form of oint-
ment by Sir C Scudamore and Dr.  Turnbull.  It should not be applied while the
inflammation is of an active kind.   It would appear to be best adapted for the
neuralgic forms of rheumatism.
   h. In dropsy.—Dr. Bardsley  administered  it internally  in dropsy,  but  says it
possesses " no particular claims to the attention of the profession."  Ebers employed
veratria endermically, and also  in the form of ointment, epidermically.   It acted as
a diuretic, and gave relief.4
   Administration.—The ordinary veratria of the shops is administered in doses
of one-sixth of a grain, three times a day.   On account  of its acridity it should not
be given in solution, but in  the form of pills.
  a.  Pilulce  Veratria; Veratria  Pills; Turnbull. — Veratria  gr. j;  Extract of Hyoscyamus;
Liquorice powder, aa. gr. xij.   Let 12 pills be made, of  which one may be taken every three
hours.
  0.  Tinctura Veratria; Veratria Embrocation; Turnbull.—Veratria gj.; Rectified Spirit ^ij.
Dissolve.  This embrocation is  sometimes used as a substitute for  the ointment.  Magendie
(Formulaire) directs a tincture of veratria to be prepared by dissolving four grains of the alkali
in an ounce of alcohol.  Of this from 10 to 25 drops are taken, in a cup of broth, as a substitute
for the tincture of colchicum.
  y.  Unguentum Veratria; Veratria Ointment; Turnbull.—Veratria £-s.; Olive Oil  5jj; Prepared
Lard |j.   M.
  £.  Sales  Veratria.—The sulphate and tartrate of veratria  (prepared by saturating  veratria with
sulphuric or tartaric acid) are sometimes used instead of the uncombined alkali.   The dose anJ
mode of administration are the same as for the latter.
   Antidote.— Vide Veratrum Album.
         Order XI.   LILIACEiE, Lindl—LILYWORTS.

  Characters.—Calyx and corolla both alike, coloured, regular, occasionally cohering in a tube
Stamens six, inserted  into the  sepals and petals; anthers opening  inwards.  Ovary superior,
three-celled, many seeded : style one; stigma simple or three-lobed.  Fruit succulent,or dry and
capsular, three celled.  Seeds packed one upon another in one or two rows; embryo with the

  1 Dierbach, Neuest. Entd. in d. Mat. Med. 1837.
  a Paris, Appendix to the 8th edit, of the Pharmacologia.
  * See the treatises of Turnbull and Forcke, before referred to.        * See Forcke, op. supra ci^ 
Aloes :—Species.
193
same direction as the seed, in the axis of fleshy albumen, or uncertain in direction and position,
occasionally very minute.  Herbaceous plants, shrubs, or trees, with bulbs, or tubers, or rhizomes,
or fibrous  roots.  Leaves  narrow, with parallel veins, membranous, not  articulated with the
stem; either sessile or with a narrow leafy petiole.
  Properties.—Not uniform.  Mucilage, resinous matters, acrid volatile  oils, and acrid ex-
tractive substances, are the organic principles to which the medicinal qualities of this order are
chiefly referable.  Their relative proportions, however, vary considerably in different species.
  The fleshy bulbs are usually more or less acrid.  Those of the genus Allium owe their acridity
to a volatile oil (sulphuret of allyle) whose composition is C6H5,S (see vol. i. p. 253).  Bundles of
acicular crystals or raphides, usually considered to be phosphate, but by Schleiden declared to be
oxalate, of lime  are found in  some of the cells of these bulbs.


                          61.  ALOE, Linn.—ALOE.
                           Sex. Syst.  Hexandria, Monogynia.
                (Succus proprius spissatus foliorum ex variis Aloes speciebus.

   History.—Neither aloe plants nor the inspissated juice of their leaves are men-
tioned by Hippocrates or  Theophrastus; but both are described by Dioscorides1 and
Pliny.9
   Botany.   Gen.  Char.—Perianth tubular, six-cleft, fleshy, nectariferous at the
base, the sepals of the same form  as the petals, and closely imbricating them.   Sta-
mens hypogynous, as long as the perianth, or even  longer.   Capsule membranous,
scarious, three-corned, three-celled, three-valved, with a loculicidal dehiscence.  Seeds
numerous, in two rows, roundish  or angular.  (Lindley).—Succulent plants.
   Species.—The following species furnish the greater part of the substance called
in the shops aloes:—
   1. Aloe vulgaris, Lam. L. D.; Aloe perfol lata *, vera Linn.; A. bardadensis,
Miller, Haworth;  'Axotj,  Dioscor. Sibth.—Stem  woody, simple, cylindrical, short.
Leaves fleshy, amplexicaul, first  spreading,  then  ascending,  lanceolate,  glaucous,
green, flat above, convex below, armed with hard, distant, reddish spines, perpen-
dicular to the margin ; a  little mottled with darker colour; the parenchyma slightly
coloured  brown, and very distinct from the tough leathery cuticle.   Scape axillary,
glaucous reddish, branched.    Spike cylindrical-ovate.   Flowers at first erect, then
spreading, afterwards pendulous, yellow, not larger than the stamens.  (Lindley).
— Mast Indies, Barbary,  Spain, Italy, Sicily, Malta, Greece, West Indies.
   Specimens of this species are frequently brought to  London  from the West Indies by sailors,
a tarred cloth being closely tied around the truncated stem to prevent the escape of the juices
of the plant.  If suspended  by a cord from the ceiling of a room, thjy continue to live for a
considerable time, and throw out fresh leaves.  I have had one in  my possession  for nearly
two years, and  it is still living and growing.
   This species yields Barbados aloes (Aloe Barbadensis, Ph. Lond.).—The  brownish-
yellow, bitter, resinous juice which,  by inspissation, forms  aloes, is  contained  in
parallel greenish vessels beneath  the epidermis of the leaves.
   2. A. Abtssimca, Lam. is by some writers considered to be a variety of A.  vulgaris.  By
Kunth it is regarded as  a distinct species.  Its flowers are greenish yellow.  It is a larger and
more resinous species than the  preceding, and was brought from Africa by Bruce. It may,
perhaps, yield a portion of the aloes of commerce.  It contains a very bitter juice,  which be-
comes brown in the air.
   3. Aloe socotrina, Lam.  De Cand.—Stem woody, straight, one and a half feet
high or more, naked below,  where it is strongly marked with  the scars of leaves.
Leaves amplexicaul, ascending, ensiform, green, curved inwards at the  point, convex
below, rather  concave above, marked with  numerous small  white marginal serra-
tures, the parenchyma abounding in a bright brownish-yellow juice.  Raceme cylin-
drical, unbranched.     Flowers scarlet at the  base, pale  in the middle, green  at the
point.  Stamens  unequal,  three  of them longer  than  the  flowers.   (Lindley.^__
Socotra;  also, accordiug to Nees von Esenbeck, Cape of Good  Hope.

      1 ,'ib- hi. cap. xxv.                              » Hist. Sat. lib. xxvii. cap. v.
        VOL. II.—13 
194
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Liliace.e.
                        Lieut. Wellstead1 says that the hills on the west side of Socotra are
                      covered for an extent of miles with aloe plants ; and he observes that
                      it is not  likely, at any future  period, that the  whole quantity will be
                      collected which might be required.
                        It  is said  to  yield socotrine (and  real hepatic ?)  aloes.—
                      Under the epidermis of the leaves are parallel greenish vessels
                      containing the bitter resinous  juice,  as in the last-mentioned
                      species.   By drying, the leaves of A. socotrina  (like  those of
                      A. purpurascens, but unlike  those  of A. vulgaris) acquire a
                      purplish-red  colour, which  commences  first  in the  parallel
                      vessels, and is  probably produced by the oxidation of the re-
                      sinous juice contained in these vessels.
                        4. A. purpurascens, Haworth.—This species has  dark red flow-
                      ers  and glaucous  leaves,  which  become  purplish-red when drying.
                      It has the same  localities as the  last-mentioned species.  Its juice is
                      very bitter and resinous, and becomes  blood red in the air.
                         5.  Aloe spicata,  Thunb.  D.—Stem  three  to four feet
high, as thick as a man's arm.   Leaves thick, fleshy, broad at the base, gradually
narrowing to  the  point,  channelled,  full  two feet  long, distantly toothed, with a
few white spots; their parenchyma almost colourless.    Spike a foot long, very com-
pact, with  the flowers campanulate and horizontal.   The three petals broader, ovate,
obtuse, white, with a triple green line, the sepals narrower, less  concave.   Stament
much longer than  the perianth.  The flowers  are filled with  a purplish honey.
(Lindley.)—This species is a native of the interior  of the Cape  of Good Hope, and
contributes  to yield Cape Aloes.   Thunberg3 states that it yields the best hepatic
aloes, (" succus Aloes hepaticus purus et optimus.")
   6.  Aloe  ferox, Lam.—Stem very lofty.   Leaves perfoliate, thick, juicy, sword-
shaped, deflexed, glaucous, prickly  throughout, but  bearing larger and  sharper
spines along the margins.  Flowers racemose, crowded.   Stamens  double as long
as the  corolla.  L. Pappe, Fl.  Capensis Med. Prodr.—A native  of Swellendam,
Cape of Good Hope.    Yields the best Cape  aloes.
   7.  Aloe  Africana, Miller.—Yields Cape  aloes almost equally good with A.
ferox, but not so bitter, nor so powerful a drastic.
   8.  Aloe  plicatilis, Miller.—Inhabits the  mountainous range near the Paarl,
Drakenstein, and Fransche Hock, at the Cape of Good Hope.   It  yields the aloes
commonly used  by the colonists, which is  milder  than the preceding,  and much
resembles  Barbados aloes.
   Other Species.—It is  probable that several other species contribute to the supply of the
aloes  of commerce.  I have received four species from Mr.  Dnnsterville, of Algoa Bay, who
writes that from all of tbem, as well as from other species, the  so-called Cape aloes is  obtained,
Thunberg3 states that A. perfoliata yields a  large quantity of aloes at the Cape, and he also says'
that A. linguaformis, Linn, yields the best and purest sort.   Dr. Christison5 suggests that A. Com-
melini of Willdenow may yield some.  He was informed, by Mr. John Lyell, that at Swellen-
den and George (South Africa), aloes is obtained from A. spicata, A. Africana of Haworth, and
varieties of these crossed  with A. ferox.  The last-mentioned species is now cultivated  in Bar-
bados, according to Schomburgk.6
   In  Arabia,  ForskaF found A. officinalis (A. rubescens of De Candolle?), whose juice had tbe
odour of the officinal socotrine aloes.  Its flowers were red.
   In  India, there is also a species with reddish flowers, which Dr. Royle8 has called A. Indica.
This, if known to Roxburgh, was probably included by him in A.perfoliata.
   Nees von Esenbeck mentions the following species as being rich in a bitter resinous juice:
A. humilis, Lam.; A. Ferra, De Cand.; A. ferox, Lam.; and A. subferox, Spreng.  He also found
that the following were feebly bitter, but in different degrees: A.  glauca, Mill.; A. paniculate,
Jacq.; A. saponaria,H<iw.; A.  c3esia,S.J).; A. plicatilis,  Mill.; A. arborescens, Mill.; and A.
frutescens, S. D. He says that A. glauca, Mill, was also slightly bitter, but that the juice became
* Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. v.
a Disserlatio Botanica-Medica de Aloe, 1785.
» Diss. Med. Bot. p. 10.                   * D)id. p. 7.
' Dispensatory, 2d edit.                   « Hist, of Barbados, p. 590.
 Flora ^gyptiaco-Arabiea, p. 73,1775.      • Illust. of the Botany of the Himalayan Mountains.
Fig. 221.
Aloe socotrina. 
Aloes :—Preparation.                         195
dark brown in the air, which shows that this colouring matter is a peculiar principle originally
different from the bitter matter.
  Preparation.—The finest kind of  aloes is obtained by evaporating  the juice
which flows spontaneously from  the  transversely-cut leaves.  This  juice  is lodged
in vessels running  longitudinally beneath the epidermis.  The exudation of it is
promoted by gravity, by dipping the leaves in hot water, and by making  fresh sec-
tions of the leaves.   But if  pressure be employed,  the proper aloetic juice becomes
mixed with the mucilaginous liquid of the leaves, and thus an inferior kind of aloes
is obtained.   A  still commoner  variety is procured  by boiling the leaves, from which
the juice has been  previously allowed to escape, in  water.
  a.  Of Socotrine Aloes.—In the Island of Socotra the leaves are plucked at any
period,  and by any one  who chooses  to take the trouble; and after  being  placed in
a skin,  the juice is  allowed to exude from them.1   The following mode of  preparing
socotrine aloes, as  related by Hermann, was communicated to Ray by Dr. Palmer:8
" When the leaves which  have been pulled from the roots  are  gently compressed
by  the  hand or an  instrument, the juice drops from  them into a receiving vessel;
and being allowed  to stand  during  a night deposits the grosser parts.   The next
day it is transferred  to another vessel, in which it is exposed to the  sun that it may
harden and become dry, when it acquires a brownish-yellow colour."
   0.  Of Barbados Aloes.—In Barbados, the aloes is  best procured in the month
of  March.   It is  obtained  as fallows:  "Every slave  hath by  him  three  or four
portable tubs.   The  leaves being cut near  the roots, are thrown into these with their
broken ends downwards;  and as the  leaves are full of large longitudinal veins or
vessels, they yield  an easy passage to the juice (which is of a greenish-yellow colour)
to drip out.   This being boiled  for about five hours in a copper or kettle, the watery
particles evaporate, and the remainder comes to a consistency and thickening as
sugar doth  when sufficiently boiled.   The way to know when it is enough boiled is,
to  dip  a stick in the liquor, and observe whether the aloe sticking to it, when cold,
breaks short:  if it doth, then it is  boiled  to  perfection, and fit to be poured into
gourds or calabashes, or other vessels, for use."3
    Dr.  Wright* says, that in Jamaica, the leaves contained in hand-baskets  or nets
 are boiled in water,  and the strained liquor evaporated to a proper  consistence,  and
 then poured into gourds or calabashes.  Dr. Patrick Browne,5 on  the other hand,
 states  that the sun-dried  juice  is called socotrine aloes; but the common aloes, he
 adds, is obtained by squeezing out the juice by the hand, adding water  to it,  and
 boiling down to a  proper consistence.
    y.  Of Cape Aloes.—The method of preparing aloes followed  at the Cape of Good
 Hope  has been described by Thunberg,6 Lieut. Moody,7 and others.8
    Mr. George Dunsterville, surgeon of Algoa Bay, and formerly one of my pupils,
 has furnished me with the following  information respecting the manufacture of Cape
 aloes:  "A shallow pit  is dug, in which is  spread  a bullock's hide or sheep's skin.
 The  leaves of the aloe  plants in the immediate vicinity of  this pit  are stripped off,
 and piled up on the skin, to variable heights.   These are left for a few days.   The
juice exudes from the leaves, and is received by the skin beneath.   The Hottentot
 then collects in a bucket or other convenient article the produce of many heaps,
 which  is then put  in an iron pot capable of holding  18 or 20 gallons.   Fire is applied
 to  effect evaporation, during which the contents of the pot are constantly stirred to
 prevent burning.  The cooled liquor is then poured into wooden cases of about three
 feet square by one foot deep, or into goat  or sheep skins, and is thus  fitted for the
 1  VVrlstead, op. citato.                                 a Dale, Pharmacologia.
 » Hughes, S'atural History of Barbados, p. 154, 1750.  This account is further confirmed by that of
Mr. Millmgtnn, Lond.  Med. Journ. vol. viii. p. 44}.  But Dr. Christison states, the Barbados aloes of
Ihe pren-iit diiy is the extract of .» decoction.
 ♦ Lond. Med. Journ. vol. viii. p. 219.                       • History of Jamaica, p. 196, 1789
 •  Travels in Europe, Asia, and Africa, between the Years 1770 and 1799, vol ii. p. 49.
 '  Ten Years in South Africa, vol. ii. p. '2, 1835.
 • Four Months in Cape Colony, in Chntnbers's Miscellany of Useful and  Entertaining Tracts, vol  xx
No. 173, Ldinb. 1W7; also, Mr. John Lyell in Christison's Dispensatory, 2d ed. 
196
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Liliace.e.
market.  In the colony, aloes realizes about 2\d. to 3id. per lb." _ Mr. Dunsterville
also informs me that the Hottentots and Dutch boors employ indiscriminately different
species of Aloe in the preparation of Cape aloes.   He  adds, that " the Cape aloes,
which is  usually prized  the  highest in the  English  market, is that made at the
Missionary Institution of Bethelsdorp (a small village about nine miles from Algoa
Bay, and chiefly inhabited by Hottentots and their missionary teachers).  Hence it
is called Bethelsdorp Aloes.   Its superiority arises, not from the employment of any
particular species of Aloe, for all species  are  indiscriminately used; but from the
greater care and attention paid to what is technically called ' the cooking of the aloes,'
that is, to the  evaporation, and  to the absence of all  adulterating  substances (frag.
ments of lime-stone, sand, earth, &c.) often introduced  by manufacturers."
   Description and Varieties.—I am acquainted with seven commercial varieties
of aloes;  namely, Socotrine, Hepatic, Barbados, Cape, Mocha, Caballine, and Indian,
To these  must be added Curacoa Aloes.
   The terms socotrine, hepatic, and  caballine, have been used to indicate rather the quality and
purity, than  the origin, of aloes.  Thus  Thunberg1  says, " Pro diversa puritate  potius, quam
quidem sua origine, triplicem imprimis Aloes speciem  in Pharmacopolis nostris  introductam
in venimus, scilicet socotrinam, hepalicam, et cabaUinam."  And  Jussieu2 states that  he saw all
three varieties prepared at Morviedro, in  Spain, from the Aloe  vulgaris.
   The term Aloe lucida, or clear aloes, has  been applied by Schroder,3 Geoffroy,4 Fee,8 and others,
to a clear or transparent aloes supposed to be formed by the concretion of the juice on the leaves
after they  have been incised. It is probable that by this term are meant the clearest and most
transparent pieces of  socotrine aloes.  I have never met with,  in English commerce, any aloes
by this name: and a similar remark has been made by  Alston.6
   1.  Socotrine Aloes (Aloe socotrina,  L.; Aloe socotorina and Aloe Indica, E.).'
A few years ago this kind of aloes was brought by way of Smyrna, and hence was
frequently  termed Turkey aloes.   But  since  the expiration of the charter of  the
East India Company, it is usually brought by way of Bombay.  It is the kind sold
at Apothecaries' Hall, London, and  at  other places under the name of extract of
spiked aloes (extractum aloe's spicatum), although there is  no evidence of its being
obtained  from  Aloe spicata.   The London College (1851) states it to be the juice
of the cut-off leaves, dried in the air,  of  an uncertain  species  of aloe.  It comes
over  in  skins8 contained in  casks (holding  from  11  to  15 cwt. each), kegs, and
chests.    Its consistence and  colour are subject to considerable variation.  Tbe  ex-
terior portion of each skinful is usually hard, but the internal portion is frequently
soft or even semi-liquid.
   The  hardened portions vary in colour in different parts of the same mass; some-
times they are garnet red, at other times much paler, and when quite dry are golden
red, and  yield a golden yellow powder.   By exposure  to the air  the colour is
deepened.^  The fracture of  fine selected pieces is  smooth, glassy, and conchoidal;
but socotrine aloes of excellent quality often breaks with a roughish fracture.  The
finest kind  of socotrine which I have met  with had the semi-transparent red colour
observed  when we break a fine  tear  of  myrrh.   Thin films of pure and hardened
socotrine  aloes are usually translucent or nearly transparent.   The fragments, which
have a ruby  colour, are  called  aloe socotrina vera.   The odour of fresh  broken
pieces (especially when breathed on) is very fragrant, and is much stronger in recent
and soft specimens.   The same agreeable odour is obtained by heating the aloes on
a point of a knife in a candle.   By distillation with water, we obtain a liquid having
the same odour,  but free from any bitter  taste.   When fresh, socotrine  aloes pos-

  1 Dissertatio Botanico-Medica de Aloe. 1785.
  2 Elements of Chemistry, by M. J. A.  Chapta], vol.  iii. p. 86, 1791.
  3 The Compleat Chymical Dispensatory, p. 500,  1609.
  4 Tractatus de Materia Medica, t. ii. p. 649, 1741.
  s Cours d'Hist. Nat. Pharm. t. i. p. 327, 1828.
  6 Lectures on the Materia Medica, vol. ii. p. 422, 1770
nW^Y6 recei,vef1 from Dr. D. Maclagan, Lecturer on'Materia Medica in Edinburgh, two specimens of
„« ?v«. 5 raarked  True Socotrine Aloes, garnet red in their frai.on.nts;" the other " Aloes given in mi
Phnrm" n^! rough fracture nearly garnet red in thin fragments. Included under Aloe indica, Ed.
rnarm   iiotn kinds are feocotrine aloes.
  8 I am informed  that they are the skins of the Gazelle. 
Socotrine Aloes; Hepatic Aloes.                   197
sesses considerable acidity, and the late Mr. Hennell informed me that, in the pre-
paration of the compound extract of colocynth, he had frequently observed the fatty
acid of  the soap  set free by the acid of the socotrine  aloes.   I have been  shown
a sample of what was declared to be socotrine aloes, which was soft or semi-liquid,
and  had a bright or palm-oil yellow colour, and a very fragrant odour.
   When a package of socotrine aloes arrives at a druggist warehouse, it is usually
garbled or sorted.   The finest, clear, and hard pieces are separated for sale.   The
soft  portions  are placed upon slabs or  in  shallow tin  trays, 6r other vessels, and
exposed to a very gentle heat to harden them (hardened socotrine. aloes), and at the
same time to preserve the favourite colour of this kind of aloes.   Mr. Whipple, who
has  had great experience in  these matters, informs me that " the loss would  be
frightful,  if, after selecting or  separating the clean aloes, the skins  were not washed
and  the aloes obtained by subsequent evaporation."
   It is brittle, bitter, reddish brown, with an aromatic odour;  fresh thin films of it  are trans-
lucent.  Ph. Ijond.
   "In thin pieces, translucent, and garnet red; almost entirely soluble in spirit of the strength
of sherry.  Very rare."  P.Ed.
   But socotrine aloes as imported is not "in thin pieces;" this character being given
to it in the garbling  process, or by drying the soft portions in thin layers as above
mentioned.    Translucency and a garnet red colour are qualities not possessed  by
many fine specimens of  socotrine aloes.  The alcoholic strength of sherry is subject
to variation, and, therefore, the statement of the College as to the solubility of soco-
trine aloes is not very definite.   Lastly, as to socotrine  aloes being very rare, I may
observe that the late Mr. Hennell, of  Apothecaries' Hall, informed me (Dec. 21,
1841), that he would  be happy to take  an  order for 500 lbs. of it.
   The impure and dirty pieces of socotrine aloes are sometimes melted and strained
(strained socotrine aloes), by  which the colour and odour are impaired,  and the
other qualities somewhat altered.
   Socotrine  aloes  has long been  regarded as the  best kind  of aloes, though  its
commercial value is now below that of Barbados aloes.   It is, I suspect, inferior in
activity.
   Socotrine aloes is mentioned by Avicenna and Mesue, both of whom regarded it
as the best kind.  By F6e,* and some other  continental writers, it  is confounded
 with Cape aloes.
   The aloes prepared in the Island of Socotra is probably procured from Aloe  soco-
 trina ; and perhaps also A. purpurascens.  In 1833, the quantity exported from
 this island was 83 skins, or 2  tons.  But a much larger quantity might be  procured
if required a   Two samples (one  of which I  have in my museum) brought direct
from the Island of Socotra, by a friend of Professor Koyle,  are largely intermixed
with foreign substances, as sand, skins, &c.
   Sir Whitelaw Ainslie3 says, that the greater part of the extract now sold under
the name of socotrine aloes is prepared in the kingdom of Melinda;  and I am
informed by an eminent drug merchant that  both socotrine and hepatic aloes have
been imported into London directly from Zanzibar.
   2. Genuine Hepatic Aloes; Liver-coloured Socotrine Aloes (Aloe hepatica, L. D.;
Aloe Indica, E.).4—This sort of aloes usually comes to London from Bombay  (hence
it is sometimes called Bombay or East. India Aloes) in  skins, contained  in casks
holding from 200 to 300 pounds,5 or in  kegs.   The  London College (1851) declares
it to be the "inspissated juice of the leaf ? " of "an uncertain species of aloe."   Its
odour is very much the same as that of the socotrine kind, or perhaps it is  a little
  1 Cours d'Hist. Nat. Pharm. t. i. p. 325.              * Wellstead, Journ. Geograph Soc. vol. v.
  * Materia Indica, vol. i. p. 9.
  * 1 Kuspect hepatic aloes is included by the Edinburgh College under "Aloe" indica."  For, in preparing
Decoctum of Aloes, the College orders Socotrine or Hepatic Aloes, though the term hepatic does not occur
in ilo- Ii*l of Materia Medica.
  » .Mr. Whipple informs me that it is " received in packages varying from 56 lbs. to 12 cwt. casks, most
commonly in firkins. Lately, it  has come over in boxes lined with tin, and holding about 56 lbs.  All of
these, except the lust, contain the skin packages." 
198
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Liliaceje.
less fragrant.  It is distinguished from the latter by its opacity and its liver colour,
It might, therefore, be called opake liver-coloured  socotrine aloes.   It appears to
me to bear very much the same relation to the transparent or  real socotriue aloes
that the opake yellow rosin bears to the dark transparent or fiddler's rosin.   It is
sometimes imported in a soft or liquid state, and  in this condition I know not how
to distinguish it from liquid socotrine aloes.   The similarity of the odour of socotrine
and hepatic aloes leads to the suspicion that they are obtained from the same plants;
and which is further confirmed by the two being sometimes brought over intermixed,
the socotrine occasionally forming a vein in  a cask of hepatic aloes.   Some samples
of hepatic aloes, when digested in  rectified  spirit of wine, yield a  tincture, at the
bottom  of which there remains undissolved a  yellowish granular  powder (in ap-
pearance something like lycopodium), which is insoluble  in water, alcohol,  ether,
and dilute sulphuric acid, but is readily soluble in a solution of caustic potash, form-
ing a red-coloured liquid.
   The place of produce of this  species is probably the same as that  of the so-called
socotrine aloes.
  Opake, liver-coloured,  bitter, with an unpleasant odour.  Ph. Lond.
   3. Barbados Aloes ; Aloes in gourds (Aloe barbadensis, Ph. L.  and Ed.)—This
is the kind  denominated by most  continental writers (as  Geiger, Theod. Martius,
Pfaff, Fee,  and others), hepatic aloes (aloe hepatica), but its colour is not constantly
that of  the liver.  It is  imported  from Barbados or  Jamaica usually in gourds
(Lagenaria vulgaris), weighing about 60 to 70 pounds, or even more than this; and
sometimes  in  cases or boxes  holding 56 lbs. each.   The hole  in the gourd-shell is
partially closed by a piece of gourd let in and covered by a portion of coarse cloth,
which is nailed down over the aperture.
   The finest Barbados aloes is the inspissated juice, which I  have heard called by
an inhabitant  of the island cold drawn Barbados aloes, to distinguish it from the
extract of the decoction, which is of inferior quality.
   Barbados aloes varies  in colour from  a dark brown  or black (brown or black
Barbados aloes) to a  reddish-brown or  liver colour (liver-coloured  or hepatic Bar-
bados aloes) :  even in the same gourd a difference of colour is occasionally observed,
The fracture also varies, sometimes being dull, at other times glossy,  or even resin-
ous.  Its unpleasant  odour (which is much increased by breathing on it) will always
distinguish it  from the foregoing  kinds.   Its powder is of a dull olive-yellow colour.
This kind of aloes is obtained chiefly, if not exclusively, from  the Aloe vulgaris}
   The London College (1851) declares it to be the " inspissated juice of the  cut-off
leaves of Aloe vulgaris."
   Opake, not glistening, liver-coloured, becoming blackish, with a bitter nauseous taste, and
very unpleasant odour.—Ph. Lond.
   The quantity  of aloes annually exported from  Barbados is  stated by Sir R. H. Schomburgk
(op.cit. pp. 149, 150, and 160) to be as follows:—
          1740)
           to > average annually........327 gourds.
          1748)
          1792...............515 gourds.
          1841...............1361 gourds.
          1842...............2956 gourds, 1 case, 1 package.
          1843...............4227 gourds, 8 puncheons, 27 boxes.
          1844...............2371 gourds, 2173 packages, and 78 boxes.
          1845...............1958 packages.

   4. Cape Aloes (Aloe capensis ; A. lucida of Geiger).—This kind is imported, as
its name indicates, from  the Cape of Good Hope.   It is brought over in chests and
skins, the latter being preferred, as  the  aloes contained therein  are  usually purer
  1 Dr Maycock (Flora Barbadensis,1830) notices no other species of Aloe indigenous, naturalized,ot
cultivated in Barbados.  But Dr. Christison observes that, though at one time Barbados aloes was made
only from A. vulgaris, he is assured  by various pupils from that island that, while this species is pom-
monlyused, others are likewise employed.  Sir R. H. Schomburgk 'History of Barbados, p. 590,1-4")
mentions A. ferox, Lam. or Great Hedge-hog Aloe, as having been introduced from  the Cape of Good
Hope.  Kunth {Enum. Plant.) says, but I know not on what authority, that A. socotrina is cultivated at
Barbados. 
Cape Aloes;  Indian Aloes.
199
and more glossy.   It has a shining resinous appearance, is of a deep brown colour,
with a greenish tint, and has a glossy or resinous fracture; its edges, or thin laminae,
viewed  by transmitted  light, have a  yellowish red or ruby colour;  its  odour is
stronger and more disagreeable than the Barbados aloes;  its powder  is  greenish
yellow.   Some of the commoner kinds of Cape aloes have a rough fracture.   The
finest kind of Cape aloes is called BetJielsdorp aloes (see ante, p. 196).
   Occasionally it has been imported of a reddish-brown  colour, like that of the
liver, and opake (liver-coloured or  hepatic  Cape aloes).  Some  years since an ex-
perienced dealer bartered 3 lbs. of Cape  aloes for 1 lb.  of  what  he thought to  be
the genuine hepatic aloes, but which turned out to be a fine sort of Cape  aloes.   I
presume this  is the kind which Professor Guibourt,1 to whom  I  sent a specimen of
it, formerly termed false hepatic aloes;  and which more recently8 he calls  opake
Cape aloes.   Its  odour, when breathed on, instantly detects it.
   I have received four species of Aloe plants from Mr. Dunsterville, of Algoa Bay, and the four
extracts  which  he was informed were obtained respectively from the species sent.  Two of the
plants were dead and rotten; and the others were unknown to the late Mr. Anderson, of the
Chelsea  Gardens.  The four extracts are as follows:—
   a. Ordinary Cape Aloes.—Dark, glossy, very resinous, with a strong disagreeable odour, and
greenish tint.
   0. Socotrine Cape Aloes.—This, in colour, resembled socotrine aloes; but it was more glossy,
brittle, and transparent.  Its odour, though disagreeable, was less so than tbe first kind.
   y. Hepatic Cape Aloes.—This is an  intermixture of an opake liver-coloured extract (hepatic
Cape ahes) with a dark, glossy, transparent extract.
   J. This very  much resembled the preceding, and might equally claim  for its opake portion
the name of hepatic Cape aloes.
   Cape aloes  is procured  from Aloe" spicata and other species (see ante, p. 194).
   5.  Fetid, Horse, or Caballine Aloes (Aloe caballina).—I have  never met  with
any particular kind of aloes under this name in English commerce; Barbados aloes
being used in  England for horses.   From Prof. Guibourt I have received two  sub-
stances, which he denominates Alois Caballin.
   a. One is impure or foot Cape aloes.
   &. The other is in black opake masses, intermixed with straws, pieces of bark, sand,  char-
      coal, and other impurities.   Its fracture is  uniform.  It  is difficult to pulverize, adheres
       to the pestle, gives a greenish powder, has a very  little odour, and  yields a dark  brown
       decoction.  It is probably an extract  prepared by boiling the leaves in water.
   Guibourt says Caballine aloes is procured either in the countries which furnish
ordinary aloes, or in  Spain3 or Senegal.
   6. Mocha Aloes  (Aloe de Mochd).—Under this name, I found in a drug ware-
house,  where it had lain for many years, an impure kind of aloes, in large irregular
masses, opake, and  black externally, intermixed  with  sand,  strings, &c.  In its
brittleness, odour, and the pale colour of its  decoction, it resembles Cape  aloes.
The  interior  of  the mass is not  uniform:  in some places it  is  dark and opake,
somewhat like Barbados aloes;  in other places it resembles socotrine aloes, and  here
and there we find portions having the transparency and  resinous appearance of Cape
aloes.   Recently, this kind of aloes has been imported under the name of Mocha
aloes from Muscat, in chests containing nearly 2 cwt. each.4  Dr. Christison thinks
it is East  Indian aloes of low quality.   It is described  by Guibourt under the name
of blackish or fetid aloes (aloes noirdtre et fitide).
   7.  Indian Aloes (Aloe indica ; not the Aloe indica of the Edinburgh Pharmaco-
poeia).—Dr. O'Shaughnessy5 mentions two kinds of Indian  aloes : Kurachee aloes,
nearly  black, opake, and soluble  in  water  to the extent  of 52  per cent.;  and
Dcckan aloes, deep brown, and soluble to the extent of 98  per cent.
  1 Hi's*, des Drog. simpl. 3me edit. t. ii. p. 418.                         » jj,d. 4me edit, p  168
  • Formerly the inhabitants of Morviedro, in Valencia, cultivated the aloe plant (A. vulgaris), and ob-
tained from it three kinds ol aloes, called respectively socotrine, hepatic, and caballine (Jussieu in Cliap-
tnl'i Elements of Chemistry, vol. iii. p. 86);  but Laborde 'View of Spain, vol. i. p. 302, 1609) soys the
cultivation is now neglected.
  4 Mr. Whipple tells me that, in dissolving and straining Mocha aloes, he has never found less than 25
per cent, of impurities (sund, atones, &c).
  ' Bengal Dispensatory. 
200
VEGETABLES.—Xat. Ord. Liliace^.
  Through the kindness of Professor Royle, I have examined four kinds of aloes
brought from the interior of India :—
  *.  Aloes from Northern India.—Is dull, black, and brittle, and has little odour.  It came from
      the  northern parts of India, where it is common  in  the bazaars (Bazaar aloes).  It j9
      probably the kind which Ainslie1 says resembles Barbados aloes, and is brought to India
      from Yemen, in Arabia.  Is this the produce of Aloe offirinalis, Forsku.1 J
  8.  Guzerat Aloes.—Is dark, more gummy in its appearance and feel, more difficult to fracture,
  y.  Salem Aloes.—In  blackish masses.  It was brought from Salem. _  It is distinguished from
      all the preceding by the numerous large air cavities observed in its interior.  Its odom
      is analogous to that of socotrine aloes.   Its price is marked one  anna  and nine pice
      [about two-pence halfpenny] a pound.
  S1.  Trichinopoli Aloes.—Resembles Cape aloes in its brittleness, odour, and colour, but is mote
      opake.  Its price is marked at two annas [about three pence] a pound.
  These aloes are the produce, in part at least, of Aloe indica;* a species with red-
dish flowers, common in dry situations in the northwestern provinces of  India, and
which,  if known to Roxburgh, was  included by him in the  A. perfoliata, Linn.,
and  perhaps also of A. vulgaris,  or the plant mentioned by Rheede.3
  8. Curacoa Aloes.—This species of aloes is  not known in the London market,
but  a notice of it has been published by Mr. A. Faber.4   It is the produce of the
Dutch  West India  Island, Curacoa; but as even in Holland it cannot  be regularly
obtained, it is probable that its production is scanty.
   It is most like Cape aloes, but does not possess the greenish colour which is some-
times perceived in  the latter;  its appearance is  more dull; and its  colour is often
that of tbe liver.   From hepatic aloes it differs by its saffron-like odour.   It is pro-
bably the  produce of A. vulgaris.
   Powdered Aloes.—In January, 1846, the lecture assistant of the Pharmaceutical
Society carefully powdered selected samples of  five kinds of  aloes in  the Society's
museum.   The colour of the various powders were as follows:—

        Powders.
No. 1. Cape aloes  . .  Lightest colour.  Tint, pale yellow.
 "  2. Hepatic aloes .) Nearly alike.  Deeper coloured than No. 1. No. 2 had a reddish, No.3agreenish
 "  3. Barbados aloes J  tint.
                                f Both darker than the three preceding sorts.  That of No. 4 had
 "  4. Socotrine aloes  ......... j  the tint of, but was less deep than, roasted chicory powder;
 "  5. Mocha aloes.   Darkest colour |  that of No. 5 was olive or greenish. In twelve months, No.
                                {  4 had become coherent and darkest of all.

   Strained Aloes;  Aloe colata.—In  order to  deprive aloes of the various foreign
matters with which they are frequently mixed,  the wholesale  druggist purifies the
extract by melting  and straining it.   The fusion is effected in  a metallic vessel
heated by steam or hot water,  a hair or wire sieve being used for straining the liquor.
By  this process the aloes suffers a physical, and probably  also a  chemical change.
It becomes darker coloured, harder, and somewhat less odorous.   It is  probable that
the  deepened colour is produced  by the action of atmospheric oxygen.
   Composition.—Aloes has been analyzed by Trommsdorff,5 by Bouillon-Lagrange
and Vogel,8 by Braconnot,7 and by Winkler.3
Trommsdorff.		Bouillon-Lagrange and Vogel.		Braconnot.	Winkler.	
Socotrine. Saponaceous principle 75	Barbados. 81.25 6.25 12.5 trace	Soc. Extractive 68 Resin ... 32 Vegetable) „ albumen > 100	Bar 52 42 6 100	Soc. Bitter principle 73 Puce do. 26 Impurities ... 1 100	Soc Bitter matter 50 Resin .... 50 Albumen . . 0 100	Bar\ 60 35 5 100
Vegetable albumen . . 0 Gallic acid .... trace						
Aloes........100 100.00						
1 Mat. Ind. vol. ii. p. 10.
a Royle, Bot. of the Himalayan Mountains.            * Hort. Malab. ii. t. 3.
4 Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. vii. p. 547, 1848.         « Ann. de Chim. t. lxviii. p. 11, 1808.
6 Ibid. p. 155.                                    ' Journ. de Physiq. t. Ixxxiv. p. 334, If 17.
' Geiger, Hand. d. Pharm. Bd. ii. 782,1829. 
Aloes :—Chemical Characteristics.
201
  l. Aloesiw, Pfaff (Saponaceous Matter; Extractive;  Bitter Principle of Aloes or Aloe bitter;
Aloin).—This is the principal constituent of aloes.   It is contained in the cold infusion of aloes,
and also in a decoction which has cooled : it may be obtained  from either  by evaporation.
Thus procured, it is a brown and bitter mass, readily soluble in water,but difficultly so in spirit
of wine.  In pure alcohol or ether it is said to be insoluble, or  nearly  so.  Besides  carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen, it contains nitrogen, for it yields ammonia by destructive distillation, and
furnishes carbazotic acid when treated by nitric acid.   Aloesin is probably a mixture or com-
pound of various proximate principles.   Obtained as above, Braconnot says it contains some of
the puce-coloured principle, which may be removed by oxide of lead.
  2. Aloe Resin.—The substance which deposits from a decoction of aloes as it cools is usually
denominated resin.   Braconnot says it is a mixture of aloesin and puce-coloured principle; while
Berzelius regards it as apolheme  combined with  unaltered  extract.   It is  transparent, brown,
fusible, soluble in alcohol, ether, and alkaline solutions.  The puce coloured principle of Bi aconnoi
is an odourless and tasteless powder, combustible, but not fusible; and is prepared by digesting
aloes with  water and oxide of lead: a compound of the puce principle and the oxide  is  pro-
cured, which is to be washed and decomposed by weak nitric, acid: the oxide is dissolved,and
the puce principle left.  From Braconnot's observations, this principle seems to be rather oxidized
extractive (apolheme, Berz.) than resin.
  3. Vegetable Albumen.—This term is applied to a substance insoluble in both  water and
alcohol.
  4. Aloesic Acid—This is  the acid which Trommsdorff supposed to be gallic acid.  A solu-
tion of aloes reddens litmus, darkens ferruginous  solutions, but does not precipitate gelatin :
hence Trommsdorff assumed the presence of gallic acid.  But while gallic acid causes  a blue
colour with the persalts of iron, infusion of aloes produces an olive brown one.  Furthermore,
if excess of diacetate of lead be added to this infusion, and  sulphuretted hydrogen be passed
through the filtered liquor, to throw down tbe excess of lead, the boiled  and strained  liquor
possesses the property of becoming olive brown on  the addition  of sesquichloride of iron.
Hence it appears to me that the acid is a peculiar one,  and I  have accordingly termed it  aloesic
acid.  It must not be confounded with an acid obtained  by the action of nitric acid on aloes, and
which has been termed aloetic acid.
   Meisviier1 has given the  name  of Aloine to a supposed  alkali  in  aloes.   Its  solution  was
brown, and acted as an alkali  on reddened litmus paper.  With  sulphuric acid, aloine formed a
crystalline  salt.
   Winkler2 regards aloes as a  neutral vegetable salt, composed of two peculiar basin substances
(viz., a non-bitter resin, and a bitter substance) and an  acid, viz., a colouring, non-bitter matter.
   Fabroni3 obtained a fine violet colour from the recent juice of the Aloe, which  has been pro-
posed as a dye for silk.  It is  formed by the action of the oxygen of the air on the juice.
   Messrs.  T. and H. Smith4 have obtained a yellow crystalline substance from aloes, to which
they have given the name of aloine.   Its composition is stated by Dr. Stenhouse to be C^H^O4.
In doses of one or two grains it operates as a purgative.
    Chemical  Characteristics.—Aloes  is  almost  completely soluble in boiling
 water.   AVhen the decoction of aloes cools, the  substance  called  resin is deposited.
The clear cold  solution  (aloesin) reddens litmus, strikes  a deep olive-brown  tint
(aloesate  of iron) with  sesquichloride of iron, is  deepened in colour by  alkalies, but
is  unchanged with gelatine.   Diacetate  of  lead  forms a  copious  yellow precipitate;
with it.
    The alcoholic tincture of aloes does not become turbid when  mixed with water.
When the ethereal  tincture is poured  in  water,  the ether  evaporates, and leaves a
film  of resin.
    The bitter principle of  aloes (aloesin) is distinguished  from  that of rhubarb by
its  not striking a green colour with  the  salts  of iron, and  by  its insolubility in
ether.
   The differential chemical characters of the various kinds  of aloes are not constant. The fol-
lowing, however, are the  results of some experiments:—
   a.  Cape aloes, when good, usually completely dissolves in boiling water,  leaving no residuum
of  vegetable ulbumen, &c.  The decoction is clear, usually  paler than that of the other  kinds,
and deposits much of the so called resin in cooling.
  0.  Barbados aloes  sometimes leaves an insoluble residuum (vegetable albumen, &c.) when
boiled in water.  The decoction, when  cold,  is dark and usually turbid: generally.it is darkei
than  that of the other sorts, yet  I have found it the  palest. I have also  observed that the
1 PfnfTs Mat. Med. vol. vii. p. 171.                  a Schwartz, Pharm. Tabell. p. 294, 2te Au6g.
» Ann. de Chim. xxv. 301.                          « Chemical Gazette, March 15,1851. 
202
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Liliace*:.
decoction on cooling becomes turbid, and lets, fall a yellow powder like that which I have seen
in decoction of hepatic aloes.
  y. Socotrine aloes yields a decoction which, when cold, is dark and nearly clear.
  i.  Hepatic aloes yields a decoction which, on cooling, frequently deposits a yellow powder.
  Products of the decomposition of aloes by nitric acid.—When aloes is heated with
nitric acid, nitrous  fumes are evolved, and the principles of which aloes consist are
oxidized.  The residuum has an intensely bitter taste, and is termed artificial aloe.
bitter (kunstliches Aloebitter.)   It is a mixture of several principles.
  The products of the action of nitric  acid on aloes have occupied the attention of several dij.
tinauished chemists;  but the results of their experiments, though highly interesting, are no!
uniform.   Braconnot1 and  Chevreul2  examined the reaction.   The former  applied the term
aloetic acid to the residual solid, which Liebig3 subsequently declared to be a mixture of nitric
or nitrous acid, carbazotic acid, and a peculiar, non-acid, resinous, red matter.  Boutin4 has mote
recently examined the reaction of nitric acid on aloes, and he states the products to be polychn
malic acid (the aloetic acid  of Braconnot) composed, according to Pelouze,of CloH2N20,;», oxalic
acid, carbazotic acid, and cyanile.   Schunk*  states that, by the action of nitric  acid on aloes, he
obtained  four peculiar acids, viz., aloetic acid, aloeresinic acid, chrysammic acid, Cl5HN2012-f HO,
and chrysolepic acid, Cl2H2N30'3+HO.
  Mulder6 has recently examined the products of the reaction of nitric acid on aloes.  Anhydrcw
chrysammic acid, he says, consists of C14HN2On. The so-called chrysolepic acid he considers to be
identical  with nitropicric acid (i. e. carbazotic acid).  He found the  composition of the folia.
ceous crystals of this acid to be C12H3N3Ou.
   Physiological Effects,   a.  On Vegetables.—Not ascertained.
   /3. On Animals.—Aloes is  the ordinary purgative for  solipedes  (the horse, the
ass, the zebra, &c), as it is both safe and sure.   In horses, previously prepared by
two or three bran-mashes to soften the dung, the dose is from five to seven drachms.'
It acts slowly, requiring from eighteen to forty-eight hours for its operation.8 Mr.
Youatt informs me that aloes is a valuable purgative for the dog, in doses of from
one to three drachms, and with the addition of from one to three grains of calomel.
Barbados aloes is preferred by veterinarians, as being more effective than Cape aloes,
in the ratio of about seven to five.    Aloes proves purgative to oxen, sheep, and pigs,
but, as in the other cases, it operates  slowly.9  Moiroud10 injected into the veins of
a horse  four drachms of aloes  dissolved in water with a  little alcohol, and the next
day an ounce more, without any other effect than the evacuation of a large quantity
of  urine.   The dung, however, was enveloped by a  thin pellicle formed by altered
intestinal mucus.   This was collected and analyzed  subsequent to the death of the
animal (which followed  three days after the injection): it offered scarcely any traces
of the constituents of the  bile.
   y.  On Man.—Taken internally in small  doses aloes acts  as a tonic to the ali-
mentary canal, assisting the  digestive process, strengthening the muscular fibres,
and promoting the secretions, especially  that  of the liver, which organ it is thought
specifically to influence.   In large doses it acts as a purgative.  There are, however,
some peculiarities attending its cathartic operation deserving of notice.  In the first
place, these effects are not so speedily produced as  by some other  purgatives; for
eight, twelve,  and  sometimes  twenty-four hours  elapse  before they are  produced.
Secondly, aloes acts  especially on the large  intestines,  and a full  dose is in some
persons  apt to produce heat and irritation about the  rectum, and tenesmus; and, in
those troubled with hemorrhoids,  it is said not unfrequently to increase; or even to
bring on, the sanguineous discharge.  Fallopius11 tells us, that of one hundred persons
who used aloes as a purgative, ninety were  affected with the hemorrhoidal flux,
which ceased when the  use of aloes was omitted.   But  though this statement has
been often quoted  as an objection to the use of aloes, it is of little importance, as
there is no  evidence that  the disease was brought  on  by  aloes.   The uteruSj in
 1 Ann. de Chimie, Ixviii. 28.                             a Ibid, lxxiii. 46.
 3 P( ggendorfPs Annalen, xiii. 205 ; also, Liebig and PoegendorfPs HanUworterbuch d. Chimie, S. 268,
S37.
 4 Journ  d. Pharmacie, t. xxvi. p. 185.                     * Ann. der Chimie, Bd. xxxix,
 6 Buchner'g Repertorium, 3te Reihe, Bd. ii 1849.            ' Youatt, The Horse, p. 211.
 ' Moiroud, Pharm. Vitir. p. 26.                          9 Wibraer's Wirlc. d. Arzneim.
 w Op. cit.                                           " Opera Omnia, p. 109, Fraacof. 1600. 
Aloes:—Physiological Effects; Use.                203
common with all the pelvic viscera, is stimulated by aloes.  A determination of blood
towards these organs, and a fulness of  the  blood-vessels (especially of the veins),
are produced, and thus uterine irritation and menorrhagia are apt to be increased
by aloes, while in amenorrhcea and chlorosis it may occasionally act as an emmena-
gogue.  Dr. Wedekind1 says that small doses of aloes often occasion erection, and
increase the sexual feelings.
  The purgative effects of aloes do not arise merely from their local action on  the
alimentary canal, since this effect  is sometimes produced when  the  medicine  has
been neither swallowed  nor given  by the rectum.  Thus Monro primus* tells  us,
that the tincture of aloes applied to a caries of the bone produced purging;  and it
is said3 that an aloetic pill used as a stimulant to an issue had a similar effect; lastly,
applied to a blistered surface it has the  same operation.   So that the purgative
action of aloes appears to be of a specific kind.
  According to Dr. Wedekind,* the operation of aloes depends on the  increased
secretion of bile, which is produced by  the specific action of this medicine on  the
liver.  He  founds this opinion  on the results  of various experiments.   Thus, he
says, that if aloes be added to purgatives (a laxative infusion and  sulphate of soda),
whose operation is speedy, its effects do not take place for some hours after those
caused by the other purgatives; and he also asserts that  the evacuations in  tbe
second purging differ from those of the  first both in appearance and smell.   More-
over, he found that, as long as the stools were white or gray in icterus, the aloes did
not purge even when exhibited  in  large doses; but the purgative effect supervened
immediately after the fecal matter began to contain bile, proving that the  presence
of bile in  the intestinal canal is a necessary condition of the purgative effect of aloes.
But in Moiroud's experiment, above quoted, no effect seemed to be  produced on the
hepatic secretion.
   In all probability, the increased secretion of bile, the  irritation  about the rectum,
the disposition  to  hemorrhoids,  and the  vascular excitement of the sexual  organs,
all of which are said to  be produced by  aloes, are the effects of a stimulant action
exerted by  this  medicine over the venous system of the abdomen, and especially of
the pelvis.
   Dr. Grcenhow5 ascribes a diuretic effect to aloes, and his statement is corroborated
by Moiroud's experiment.
   Socotrine aloes is said not to be so apt  to occasion hemorrhoids as the Barbados
kind.  Some years since, Dr.  Clutterbuck instituted  numerous experiments at  the
General Dispensary, Aldersgate Street, which I witnessed, to  determine the effects
of the different kinds of  aloes, but scarcely any difference in their operation on the
human subject  was perceptible.  However, it  is  probable  that Cape  aloes is less
powerful  in its action on man, as it is on the horse, than the Barbados kind.   But
the difference is the less obvious in the human subject,  on account  of the compara-
tive smallness of  the dose required to produce the purgative effect.
   As a purgative, aloes holds an  intermediate  rank  between  rhubarb and senna.
Vogt8 places it  between jalap and rhubarb.   From rhubarb it is distinguished by
its more stimulant influence over the large intestines and the pelvic organs: from
senna by its feebler action as a  purgative, by its slow operation, and by its tonic in-
fluence when given  in small doses.   It irritates less powerfully than either jalap
or stammony :  further, its influence over the blood-vessels  of the pelvic viscera ia
greater than these.
   Use.—The uses  of aloes may be readily inferred from the remarks already made.
It is evidently  not adapted for those  cases in which a  speedy effect  is required; and
it is, therefore, useless to add it to purgatives to quicken their operation.   It is
well fitted for cases of costiveness where there  is a scanty secretion of bile, and for
1 Ruit'i Magazin. 1827, Bd. 24, Heft 2, S. 304.
• Works, p. 300, 17Bt.                   » Mim. de la Soc. Roy. de Mid Paris, torn. ii. p lfi»
4 Op. cit..■ nl»o, Lancet, vol. i. p. 017, 1S27-8                                     '
• Lond. Med. Uaz. vol. xix. p. 270.         « Pharmakodynamik, Bd. ii. S. 334, 2te Aufl. 
204
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Liliace^e.
torpid conditions  of the large intestines, especially when attended with  deficient
uterine action.  Some  of the ill effects  ascribed to the use of aloes are probably
imaginary, and others are much  exaggerated.1   It  is, however, advisable to avoid
the use of this purgative in inflammatory conditions  and organic diseases of the
liver, in biliary calculi, in mechanical impediments to the  passage of the blood
through the branches  of the portal veins, in hemorrhage from any of the pelvic
organs  (as the uterus and rectum), in irritation of the rectum, prostate gland, or
bladder, in pregnancy, &c.   For we  have many other equally efficient purgatives,
to the use of which, in  these  cases, no ill consequences  have been ascribed.  While,
therefore, I concur  with  Dr.  Fothergill3  in advising that the exhibition  of aloes
should  be avoided when the menses are about to cease, I am not prepared to admit
that " the piles, strangury, immoderate discharges of the menses, racking pains in the
loins, representing labour pains, and  other similar  complaints,"  are  frequently in-
duced by this medicine.   On the contrary, I suspect this  catalogue of the evils of
aloetic  purges to  be much overcharged.  " Aloetic  medicines," says Dr. Denmau,'
" are forbidden during pregnancy,  lest they should do mischief by their supposed
deobstruent qualities ;  but they are cheap, and conveniently given in the form of
pills, and I have  not observed any  bad effects from them."  The emaciation, stric-
ture of the rectum,  and enteritis, referred by Dr. Greenhow* to the long-continued
use of aloetic medicines, ought, doubtless, to be ascribed to other causes.
   The  following are some of the cases in which the use of aloes has been advised:—-
   1. In loss of appetite and dyspepsia, depending on a debilitated condition of the
digestive organs,  accompanied by  costiveness,  but unattended with any  signs of
local irritation, aloes may be given in small doses as a stomachic.
   2. In habitual costiveness, depending on deficiency of bile,  or on a sluggish condi-
tion of the large intestines—particularly in hypochondriacal or studious persons, or
in those whose habits or occupations are sedentary—aloes, given  in sufficient doses
to purge, will be  found  a very useful medicine.   A torpid state of the colon, with
large fecal accumulation, is not unusual in females.5   In  such, the use of aloes is
often attended with much benefit.
   3. To excite the menstrual discharge, aloes is frequently employed.   It has been
supposed that, by determining an afflux of blood to the pelvic organs, aloes would
stimulate the uterine vessels, and thus relieve deficient  menstruation conuected with
atonic conditions of the  uterus.  But it often fails : indeed, Dr. Cullen8 says that it
rarely succeeds.
   4. To reproduce  the hemorrhoidal discharge, aloes has been frequently employed
in large doses.  Serious  affections  of the head, or of other parts, have sometimes
disappeared on the occurrence of  the hemorrhoidal  flux;  and,  therefore, in persons
who have  been subject to this discharge, but in  whom  it  has stopped, it  is ad-
visable  to attempt  its  re-establishment,  with  the  view of  relieving  other more
serious  disorders.
   5.  To promote  the secretion of  bile where a deficiency of this fluid does not arise
from hepatic inflammation;  as in some forms of jaundice which  are unconnected
with biliary calculi,  inflammation, mechanical obstruction of the ducts, &c.
   6.  In cerebral affections.—The compound decoction  of  aloes is  a  most valuable
stimulating purgative for elderly persons in whom a  tendency to apoplexy exists,
especially in cold  and phlegmatic  habits.   It will frequently be necessary to conjoin
other cathartics, as the infusion of senna.
   7.  As an anthelmintic, a decoction of  aloes, used as an enema, has been effica-
cious in the small thread-worm (Ascaris vermicularis).
   Administration.—On account  of its nauseous  taste, aloes is frequently given
in the form of pill (pilulse aloeticee,  offic).  One or two grains seldom fail to pro-

  * On. the Use and Abuse of Aloes, London Medical Gazette, vol.  iv. p. 139.
  * Med.  Obs. and Inq. vol. v. p. 173.                * Introd. to the Pracl. of Midwifery.
  * Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xix. p. 270.
  * Copland, Dictionary of Practical Medicine, art. Colon, torpor of.        *  Treat, of the Mat. Med. 
                   Aloes:—Pills; Powder; Decoction.                205

dace one stool, which seems to be merely an evacuation of what may be supposed
to have been present for the time  in  the great intestines (Cullen).  Tbe ordinary
dose is five grains; but ten, fifteen, or even  twenty grains are sometimes given.
  1. PILULA ALOES COMPOSITA, L. D.; Pilulse Aloes, E.; Compound Pills of Aloes.
—(Socotrine Aloes [Hepatic,  Z).], powdered, 3j', Extract of  Gentian Jss; Oil of
Caraway ir^xl. [f3ss> D-) ', Treacle,  as much as may be sufficient  [3*ss, Z>.] L.;
beat them together until incorporated.  The Edinburgh College orders of Socotrine
Aloes and Castile  Soap equal parts ;  Conserve of  Red Roses a sufficiency; beat
them into a proper pill mass.   This pill may be also correctly made with the finer
qualities of East Indian Aloes, as the Socotrine variety is very scarce; and many,
not without reason, prefer the stronger Barbados Aloes, E.)—This pill is a valuable
purgative  in habitual costiveness.   Dose, five to fifteen grains.

  I PIL! LA ALOES CUM MYRRHA, L.  D.; Pilulse Aloes et  Myrrhse, E.  [U. S.]; Pi-
lules liufi, offic.;  Pills of Aloes and Myrrh; Rufus's Pills.—(Socotrine or Hepatic
Aloes ^ss [four parts, E.]j Saffron 3'j [one part, E.]; Myrrh 3'j [two parts, E.];
Soft Soap 3'j ', Treacle [Conserve of  Red Roses, E.\ as much as may be sufficient.
Rub the aloes and the myrrh separately to  powder;  then beat  the whole together
until incorporated  [Aloes ^ij; Myrrh 3j; Saffron  ^ss;  Syrup q. s.  M.   To be
divided  into 480 pills,  U. S.~\).—Used as a purgative in  chlorosis and  amenorrhoea.
Dose, ten to twenty grains.

   3. PILULA ALOES CUM SAPONE, L.; Pilula Aloes diluta; Pills of Aloes and Soap.—
(Extract of Barbados Aloes powdered, Soft Soap, Extract of Liquorice, equal parts ;
Treacle as much as may be sufficient.  Beat the aloes with the  soap;  then, having
added the others, beat the whole together until incorporated.)—Dose, grs. V to grs. x.

   4. PILULE ALOES ET ASSAFIETIM, E. [U. S.]; Pills of Aloes and Assafetida.—
(A loos  [Socotrine  or East Indian], Assafetida, and Castile Soap, equal parts.  Beat
them, with Conserve of Red Roses, into a  proper pill mass.)—Used in dyspepsia
attended with flatulence and costiveness.   Dose, ten to twenty grains.

    §. PILULE ALOES ET FERRI, E.j  Pills  of Aloes  and  Iron.—(Sulphate of Iron
 three parts;  Barbados Aloes  two parts; Aromatic  Powder six  parts; Conserve of
 Red Roses eight parts.   Pulverize the aloes and sulphate of iron separately;  mix
 the whole ingredients, and beat them into a proper mass,  which is to be divided into
 five-grain  pills.)—A valuable emmenagogue in atonic amenorrhcea  and chlorosis.
 Dose, one to three pills.

    6. PULVIS  ALOES COMPOSITUS,  L.;  Compound Powder of Aloes.—(Socotrine or
 Hepatic  Aloes 3iss;  Guaiacum  Resin  £*j; Compound Powder of Cinnamon  £*ss.
 Rub the  aloes and the guaiacum  resin, separately, to powder;  then  mix them with
 the compound powder of cinnamon.)—Purgative  and  sudorific.  Seldom  used.
 Dose, ten to twenty grains.

    7. PULVIS  ALOES CUM  (ANELLA [U.S.]; Hiera Picra, offic; Powder of Aloes and
 Canclla.—(Iltrpatic Aloes ibj;  Canella bark 3*iij.   Powder  them  separately, and
 then mix.)—A popular emmenagogue.  Dose, five to fifteen grains.

    8. DECOCTUM  ALOES COMPOSITUM,  L.  D.; Decoctum Aloes, E.; Compound Decoc-
 tion of Aloes.—(Extract of  Liquorice 3vij [gss, E. Z>.]; Carbonate of  Potash 3i
 [9ij, E. />.]; Extract of Socotrine Aloes [Hepatic, D., or Socotrine, E.']  powdered,
 Myrrh  powdered,  Saffron, of each 5iss [3j, E /?.]; Compound  Tincture of Car-
 damom t'3\ij [fjiv, E, as much as is sufficient, Z>.]; Distilled Water Oiss [f^xvj,
 E., fsxiv, D.].   Boil down  the liquorice, carbonate of potash, aloes, myrrh, and
 saffron, with the  water, to a pint [fsxij, EJ], and strain;  then  add the  compound
 tincture of cardamom [as much as will make  sixteen fluidounces, D.~\.—A most
 valuable preparation.   A mild cathartic, tonic,  antacid,  and emmenagogue.   Used 
206
VEGETABLES.—Nat.  Ord. Liliace^e.
 in the before-mentioned cases in doses of fgss to fgii.   Acids, acidulous salts, and
 most metallic salts, are incompatible with it.   If it be  desirable to conjoin chaly-
 beates with it, either the Potassse Ferrico-Tartras (see vol. i. p. 752) or the Ammo.
 nise Ferrico-Citras (see vol. i. p. 749) may be added to the cold decoction without
 undergoing decomposition.   The quality of the aloes used, the length of  time the
 decoction is boiled, and the purity of the extract of liquorice, affect the transparency
 or turbidity of this decoction, which is never so bright  as tincture of aloes.1

   9. EXTRACTUM ALOES, L.; Extractum Aloe's Purificatum; Purified Extract of
 Aloes.—(Socotrine Aloes gxv;  Boiling Water Cong. j.  Macerate  for three days
 with a gentle heat; afterwards strain and set by, that the dregs may subside.   Pour
 off the clear liquor, and evaporate it to  a proper consistence.)—It is intended to
 deprive the aloes of the substance called resin, on which its irritating and griping
 qualities have been supposed to depend.   Dose, five to fifteen grains.

   fl. EXTRACTUM  ALOES BARBADENSIS,  L.; Extract of Barbados  Aloes.—This is
 prepared in the same way as the Extractum Aloes, L.

   y. EXTRACTUM  ALOES HEPATITE;  Extractum  Aloes  Aquosum, D.;  Extract of
 Hepatic Aloes; Watery Extract of Aloes.—Hepatic Aloes, in coarse powder, Jiv
 Water Oij.   Boil the aloes until it is dissolved;  when  the solution is cold, and the
 dregs have subsided, pour off the  clear  liquid, and evaporate it to a proper con-
 sistence, D.
   The effects, uses, and doses of these two preparations are  the same as  those of
 Extractum Aloes.

   10. TINCTURA ALOES, L. E. [U. S.];  Tincture of Aloes.—(Socotrine  or Hepatic
 Aloes, coarsely powdered, gj;  Extract of Liquorice giij; Distilled Water  Oiss [Oj
 and fgviij, E.~\; Rectified Spirit Oss [fgxij,  E.\   Macerate  for seven [with occa-
 sional agitation, E.] days, and strain.  Th'is  tincture cannot without difficulty and
 delay be prepared by percolation, E.)—Purgative and stomachic.   Dose, 3ij to 3j.

   11. TINCTURA  ALOES  COMPOSITA, L.;  Tinctura  Aloes et Myrrhse, E.  [U.S.];
 Elixir  Proprietatis of Paracelsus,  Compound Tincture of  Aloes.__(Socotrine or
 Hepatic Aloes, coarsely powdered, giv  [giij,  U. &]; Saffron gij [gi, U.  S.]; Tinc-
 ture of Myrrh Oij.  Macerate for seven days, and strain, L.   This tincture cannot
 be well prepared by percolation, E.)—Purgative, stomachic, emmenagogue.  Used
 in cold, sluggish habits.  Dose, 3ss to  3j.

   12. VINUM  ALOES, L.  E.  [U.S.]; Tinctura Sacra; Wine of Aloes.—(Socotrine or
 Hepatic Aloes, rubbed  to powder, gij; Canella, powdered, 3iv;  Sherry  Wine Oij.
 Macerate for seven days, frequently shaking, and  strain.   The Edinburgh Collet/e
 uses Aloes [Socotrine  or East  Indian] giss; Cardamom seeds ground,  Ginger in
 coarse powder, of each 3iss; Sherry Oij.  Digest for seven  days, and strain through
 linen or calico [Aloes, in powder, gi; Cardamom  bruised, Ginger bruised, of each
 a drachm;  White Wine a pint.   Macerate for fourteen  days,  with occasional agita-
 tion, and filter through  paper, U. S.J).—Wine of aloes is purgative in doses of f|a
 to f Jij; stomachic in doses of f3j to f^ij.
  Aloes is a constituent of several other preparations (as Pilula Colocynthidis com-
posita, L. D.; Pilulse  Colocynthidis, E.;  Pilulse  Rhei compositse, L. E.; Pihlx
 Cambogise, E.; Pilulse Cambogise compositse, L.;  Tinctura Rhei et Aloes, B.),
 which will be described hereafter.
1 Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. i. p. 182, 1841. 
Squill:—History; Botany.                      207
     62. URGINEA SCILLA, Steinheil.—THE SEA ONION,  OR
                          OFFICINAL SQUILL.
                           Sex. Syst. Hexandria, Monogynia.
                           (Bulbus recens, L.—Bulb, E. D.)
  Synonymes.—Squilla  maritima, Steinheil;1  Scilla maritima, Linn.; Cepa
marina, Lobel.
  History.—The Egyptians worshipped a bulbous plant called by Lucian Kpouuvov,
and which  Pauw3 asserts to be the squill, and further suggests that  it was  the  red
variety  (? Squilla Pancrution var. o Bulbo rufo, Steinheil);  but by others it  has
been thought to be the onion  (see Allium Cepa).   Pythagoras3 is said  to have
written  a volume on the medicinal properties of squill,  and to  have invented  the
acetum  scillse.   Hippocrates  employed squill (axtMa) internally,4 externally,5  and
as a pessary.8  Pliny7 says there are two medicinal sorts of squills—one, which he
calls the male, with white leaves; the other, or female, with black leaves: the former
probably is white, the latter red squills.
  Botany.  Gen. Char.—Sepals three, coloured, spreading.   Petals very like them,
and scarcely  broader.   S'amens six, shorter than the perianth; filaments smooth,
Bomewhat dilated at the base, acuminate, entire.   Ovary three-parted, glandular and
melliferous at the  apex; style  smooth, simple; stigma obscurely three-lobed, pa-
pillose.   Capsule rounded, three-cornered, three-celled.   Seeds  numerous, in  two
rows, flattened with a  membranous testa.   (Steinheil.)
   Sp. Char__Leaves very large, subsequently  spreading.   Bracts long.   Flowers
white;  flower-bud  somewhat acute.   Anthers yellow.   Ovarium thick, yellowish.
Bulb very  large.   (Steinheil.)
   Bulb roundish-ovate, half above ground.  The  leaves appear  after the  flowers:
they are broad,  lanceolate,  twelve to eighteen inches  long.   Scape  about  two  feet
high, terminated by a dense long raceme.
   Hab.—Shores of the  Mediterranean, viz.: Spain, France,  Sicily, Africa,  &c
Navarino has long been celebrated for its squills.   In its native soil the plant flowers
about August.
   SauiLLA  Panckatiow, Steinh. (nayttfirm, Dioscorides) is said by Steinheil to  yield a small
bulb of  a reddish  colour, found in commerce under the name of squill.
   Description.—The fresh bulb (bulbus recens, L.; radix recens, offic.) is pyriforra,
of  the  size  of the  fist to that of a child's head, and is composed of  thick, fleshy,
smooth, shiny scales,  attenuated at their edges, closely applied over each other, and
attached to a conical disk (a rudimentary stem) which projects inferiorly, and gives
origin to the root fibres, the remains of which are to be frequently found in the bulbs
of commerce.   The outer  scales  are usually dry, thin, coloured, membranous, or
papery.  By cracking the inner or fleshy scales, numerous  spiral vessels  may be
drawn  out.  On submitting the cuticle of  the scales  to a microscopic examination,
numerous  acicular  crystals (raphides) are perceived in cells, which are distinguished
from the surrounding  angular cells by being larger and elliptical.  The pulvis scillse,
offic, contains nine or ten per cent, of these crystals.
   Two  kinds of squills, both abounding in an acrid juice, and having a very bitter
taste, are met with  in commerce;  viz., the white (scuilla alba, mascula, vel hispa-

  1 In lf>34. Steinheil (Ann. Sc. Nat. t. i. p. 321, 2nde Ser.) proposed the name Urginea for the genus to
which squill (Urginea Scilla, Steinh.) belongs.  Some objections  having been  raised to it, and no sys-
tematic writer having then  adopted it, Steinheil, in 1836 (op. cit. t. vi. p. 2?2), proposed to substitute the
nnine of Squilla (aniXXa) for Urgineu; but subsequently some writers have adopted the term Urginea as
the generic name.
  ' Phil. Diss,  on the Egyptians and Chinese, vol. i. p. 130, 1795.
  * Pliny, Wist. Nat. lib. xix. cap. 30, ed. Vnlp.                      * De vietiis rations.
  1 De utceribus.                                             • De Nat. Mul.
  ' Hist. Mat. lib. xix. cap. 30, ed. Vulp. 
208
VEGETABLES.—Xat. Ord.  Liliace*:.
nica), and the red (scuilla rubra, fsemina, vel  ilalica),1 both of which are so called
from the colour of the scales.   The white is preferred in England.
   In the London Pharmacopoeia (1851) the fresh bulbs are directed to be dried like
colchicum.
   Dried squill (radix scillse siccata, offic) is, however, for the most part imported,
in consequence of the duty being no higher for this than for  the recent bulb.  It
occurs in white or yellowish-white,  slightly diaphanous pieces, which, when dry, are
brittle, but when moist are readily flexible.  As  their affinity for moisture is great,
they should be preserved in  well-stoppered bottles, or in a very dry place.
   Squill is imported  from Malta, and other countries of the Mediterranean.  Also
from Petersburg and  Copenhagen.8
   Composition.—The more recent analyses of squill are  those of Vogel, in 1S12'
and of Tilloy, in 1826.*   Buchner,5 in 1811, examined  the juice of the fresh  bulb.
VogeVs Analysis of Squills,
     dried at 212 J F.
                               Tilloy's Analysis of dried and
                                      fresh Squills.
Scillitin with some sugar ... 35 ' Acrid bitter resinous extractive
Tannin  .............24   (Scillitin).
Gum...............6 : Uncrystallizable sugar.
Woody fibre, and  some  ci- )     Gum,
  trate (and perhaps tartrate) >
  of lime...........)
Acrid volatile matter.....
Loss...............
30
Squill bulb..........100  Squill bulb
Fatty matter.
Piquant, very fugaceous matter.
  Buchncr's Analysis offresk
       Squill bulb juice.
Peculiar bitter extractive .  9.47
Mucilage  ..........3.og
Gelatinous matter (Tra-)
  gacanthin?)......\  °'9'
Phosphate of lime  .....0.31
Fibrous matter.......338
Water............79,01
Astringent acid......tracej
Loss .............4.40
Squill juice
100.60
   1. Acrid, volatile ? matter.—It is well known that squill, in the recent state, is very acrid,
and, when applied to the skin, causes irritation, inflammation, and even vesication.  By drying,
the greater part of this acridity is got rid of; and hence the acrid principle is usually described
as being of a volatile  nature, and, in  confirmation of  its volatility, Athanasius6 states that two
ounces of water distilled from fresh squills caused the  death of a dog in six hours. However,
by others, its volatility is denied ; and Vogel says, that  six ounces of water distilled from fresh
squills had  no effect  on dogs.  Buchner? states, that besides the bitter scillitin, squill contains,
according to his experiments, another principle, which  is combined with phosphate of lime, and
which is capable of exciting itching and inflammation.  This acrid matter may be easily decom-
posed, but is not volatile, as is generally supposed.
  2. Scillitin (Scillitile, Thomson).—The substance to which Vogel gave the name of Scillitin
is a whitish transparent deliquescent substance, which, when dry, has a resinous fracture, and
may be easily  rubbed  to powder.   Its  taste is bitter, and subsequently sweetish.  It readily
dissolves in water, spirit of wine, and acetic acid.   The substance sold in the shops under the
name of Scillitin is a thick treacle-like liquid.  Landerer8 obtained crystals of Scillitin.  He saya
they possessed alkaline properties.  Lebordais.9 on the other hand, says  it is neutral and
incrystallizable.  It obviously requires further examination.
  3. Raphides  (Phosphate of lime?  Oxalate of lime?).—The  acicular crystals found in  the
cuticle of the  scales of the bulb, as  before mentioned, probably consist of phosphate of lime,
or,  according to Schleiden, of oxalate  of lime.  These, perhaps, are the needle-like  crystals
obtained by Vogel by evaporating the juice of the  bulb, and which  he regarded as citrate of
lime.  According to the late Mr. E. Quekett they constitute about  10  per cent, of powdered
squills.
   Chemical Characteristics.—An aqueous decoction of  squills is  pale, and
very bitter.   Sesquichloride  of iron communicates an intense purplish  blue colour
(gallate of iron)  to it.    (This test I have not found to succeed uniformly.  The
decoction of some specimens of squills scarcely becomes altered by the salts of iron.)
Gelatin has  scarcely any effect on it.   Nitrate of silver forms a white precipitate
(chloride of silver) soluble in ammonia, but insoluble  in nitric acid.   Oxalate of
ammonia renders the decoction turbid, and after some  time causes a white precipi-
tate (oxalate  of lime).    Diacetate of lead and  proto-nitrate  of mercury form pre-

  1 Is the red kind the Squilla Pancration var. a Bulbo Rufo, Steinheil ?
  2 Trade List,  Sept. 11, and Nov. 20, 1838. Sir Janv-s Wylie (Pharm. Castren. Ruthenica, p. 335, ed.
4to. 1840) gives North Russia as one of the habitats of this plant.
  » Ann. de Chim. t. 83, p. 147.                             * Journ. de Pharm. xii. p. 635.
  s Berl. Jahrb.  xv. p. 1.
  « Pfaff, Mat. Med. Bd. v. S.  18.                           1 Toxikologie, 340.
  « Thomson's Org. Chem. p. 717.                           » Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. xxiv. 58. 
Physiological Effects.
209
cipitates  in  the decoction.   Tincture of nutgalls  has little or no  effect on it; it
sometimes  occasions  a cloudiness.   Starch is not  recognizable  in it  by  iodine.
Alkalies  heighten the colour of the decoction.
  An infusion of squills in water acidulated with hydrochloric acid yields a white
precipitate with oxalate of ammonia (oxalate of lime);  and with caustic ammonia
sometimes a precipitate (phosphate of lime), at others scarcely a cloud.
  Physiological Effects,   o.  On Vegetables.—Not ascertained.
  0.  On Animals.—An ounce of powdered squills acts as a diuretic on horses and
other large  animals; the same effect is produced  on smaller animals by  half a
drachm.1  When the  dose is  large, squill acts as a  poison.  It first causes local
irritation; then its active principle  becomes absorbed, affects the nervous  system,
and  thereby quickens  the respiration, causes  convulsions, and death.3   Hillefeld3
mentions paralysis  produced in a  rabbit by nineteen grains  of powdered squill.
Emmert and  Hoering* state that the squill  juice introduced into the abdominal
cavity became absorbed.
  y.  On Man.—Squill is an acrid.   In small doses it acts as a  stimulant to  the
excretory organs.   Thus  it promotes secretion from the mucous membranes (espe-
cially the bronchial and gastro-intestinal) and  the kidneys.  Its most marked effect
is that of a diuretic.  Its expectorant effects are less obvious and constant.  Some-
times, when it fails to act on  the kidneys, it  increases cutaneous exhalation.   Its
influence on secreting  organs is probably to be referred to the local stimulus com-
municated to their vessels  by the active principle of squill in its passage out of  the
system, for Emmert and Hoering5 have shown that the juice is absorbed, so that squills
may be regarded as an acrid even for these remote parts.  When if proves diuretic in
dropsies, it usually promotes the absorption of the effused fluid—an effect which is,
I think, indirect, and a consequence of the diuresis.  But Sundelin6 observes of
squill, that it promotes the secretion of urine less by its  local irritation  of  the
kidneys, than by its general excitement of the absorbent apparatus.
  By the  continued use  of squill, in  gradually increased doses, it  disturbs  the
functions of digestion and assimilation.
   In full  medicinal doses, squill  excites nausea and vomiting.   Purging, also, is
not unfrequently produced.  When squill proves emetic  or  purgative, its diuretic
operation is much less obvious—a circumstance which Cullen7 refers to the squill
being prevented reaching the blood-vessels and kidneys.   Home,8 however,  alleges
that tbe diuretic effects are not to be expected unless  there be some  operation on
the  stomach.   But the operation on the stomach  may  be, as Cullen  suggests, a
mere test  of the activity of  the  squills.   However, that the effect  of squill, in
strong doses,  is not confined to the  alimentary canal, is  proved  by the fact, that
when the vomitiug and purging were present, the  pulse has been  observed to be'-.
reduced  in frequency, often to forty beats per minute (Home).
   In excessive doses, squill acts as a narcotico-acrid  poison, and causes vomiting,
purging, griping pain,  strangury,  bloody urine,  convulsions,  inflammation,  and
gangrene of the  stomach and intestines.9  Twenty-four grains of the  powder have
proved fatal.10
  Considered with reference to its diuretic effect, squill is comparable with foxglove.
But it exceeds the latter in its stimulant influence over  the urinary  organs.   On
the other hand, foxglove  is characterized  by its powerfully sedative effect on  the
vascular system; for  though  squill has, in some instances,  reduced the frequency
of the pulse, this  effect is by no means common.  Squill, says Vogt,11 preponderates
in its action on  the inferior or vegetative  [organic]  life; foxglove, on the other
hand, in its action on the higher or animal life.

  ' Moiroud, Pharm. Vtttr.                        » Orfila, Toxicol. Gen.
  ' Man, Die Lehre fond. Giften, vol. ii.             « Meckel's Archiv, B.4, Heft 4, S.527.
  ' Op. cit.                                    ' Handb. d. sp. Heilm. Bd. ii. S. 17.
  1 Treat, of the Mat. Mid. p. 557.                   • Clinical Experiments, 3d edit. p. 387, 1783
  * Murray, App. Mol. vol. v. p. 97.                  ,0 Vogel, Journ. de Phys. Ixxv. 194.
  " Pharmakodyn. n. .IVJ, 2te Aufl.
       VOL. II.—H 
210
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Liliace^.
  Uses.—The principal uses of squill are those of an emetic, diuretic, and expec-
torant.
  1. As a diuretic in dropsies.—It is applicable to those cases of dropsy requiring
the use of stimulating or acrid diuretics, and is  improper in inflammatory cases.
It is an unfit remedy for dropsy complicated with granular kidney or vesical irrita-
tion ; but when these conditions  are not present, it is adapted for torpid leuco-
phlegmatic subjects.  Hence, it is more serviceable in anasarca than in either ascites
or hydrothorax.   It should  be given so as to excite a slight degree of nausea (not
vomiting), as  recommended  by Van  Swieten.1  By  this means its absorption u
promoted.   The  acetate  or  bitartrate  of potash  may  be  conjoined.   Calomel is
usually regarded  as a good  adjunct  for promoting the diuretic influence of squill.
When it does not purge it is beneficial, but its tendency to affect the bowels is an
objection to its use.
  2. As an expectorant in chronic pulmonary affections admitting of the use of a
substance stimulating the capillary vessels of  the  bronchial membrane.  Thus, in
chronic catarrh, humid asthma, and  winter  cough, it is often employed with con-
siderable benefit.   It is  of course improper in all acute cases accompanied with
inflammation  or  febrile disorder.  In old persons it is often  combined with the
tinctura camphorse composita, and with good effect.  The oxymel or syrup of squill
may be given to  relieve troublesome  chronic coughs in children.
  3. As an emetic, it is occasionally used in affections of the organs of respiration
requiring or admitting of the use of  vomits.   Thus, the oxymel is given, with the
view of creating  sickness and promoting expectoration, to children affected with
hooping-cough; and sometimes, though with less propriety, in mild cases of croup.
The great objection to its use is the uncertainty of its operation: in one case it will
hardly excite  nausea, in  another  it causes violent  vomiting.   Furthermore, it is of
course highly objectionable as an emetic for delicate children with irritable stomachs,
on account of its acrid properties, and the irritation it is capable, in these cases, of
setting up.
  Administration.—The  following are the  preparations of  squills usually em-
ployed :—
  1. PULVIS SCUM; Powder of Squill.—The bulb loses about four-fifths of its
weight  by drying;  so that six grains  of the dry powder are equal to half a drachm
when fresh.   Powdered  squill  readily  attracts water  from the atmosphere, and
becomes soft and mouldy; hence  the necessity of  preserving it in stoppered bottles
and in a dry place.   I have seen it become hard and massive like diachylon plaster.
It is usually  administered in  the form  of pill.  The dose of the powder, as an
emetic, is from six to fifteen grains;  ten  grains being the average.   As an expec-
torant or diuretic  we should commence with one  grain, and gradually increase the
dose until slight  nausea is excited.

   I PILULA  SCILLE  COMPOSITE, L.;  Pilulse  Scillse Compositse,  D. [U.S.];
Pilulse Scillse, E.; Compound  Squill Pill.—(Squill, fresh dried and powdered, 3J
[5iiss, Z>.];  Ginger powdered, Ammoniacum  powdered, of  each  3ij; Soft Soap
3iij [Castile  Soap 3>j? D.~]  [Syrup,  U. S.~];  Treacle as much as may be sufficient
[by weight ^ss,  D.~\.  Mix the  powders together; then beat them with the other
ingredients until they are incorporated.   The Edinburgh College takes of powdered
Squill five parts; powdered Ammoniac, Ginger, and  Spanish Soap,  of each four
parts;  Conserve of Bed Roses two parts;  and forms them into five-grain pills.)—
Expectorant and diuretic.  Principally used in chronic bronchial affections.  Dose,
from five to twenty grains.   It readily spoils  by keeping.
   I, TINCTURA SCUM, L.  D.  E. [U. S.];  Tincture  of  SquiUs.—(^\\\, fresh
dried [in coarse  powder, E.~], £v; Proof Spirit Oij ; macerate for  seven [fourteen,
D.~\ days, and strain, L.  " Prepare this  tincture by percolation, as  directed for
1 Commentary upon Boerhaave's Aphorisms, vol. xii. p. 435. 
Vinegar of Squills;  Hive Syrup.
211
tincture of cinchona, but without  packing the pulp firmly in  the percolator.   It
may likewise be obtained by the  process of digestion from the sliced bulb."  E.)
[The U. S. Pharm. directs of Squill four ounces; diluted Alcohol two pints; mace-
rate for fourteen days, compress and filter through paper;  or, this tincture may also
be prepared by thoroughly moistening the Squill  in  powder, with diluted Alcohol,
allowing  it to  stand  for  twenty-four hours, then transferring  to an apparatus for
displacement, and gradually pouring upon it diluted Alcohol, until two pints of the
filtered liquor are obtained.]—Expectorant and diuretic.  Used in chronic bronchial
affections.  Dose, rt^x to f3ss.
  4. ACETUM SCUM, L.  D. E. [U. S.];  Vinegar of Squills.—(Squill, fresh dried
and powdered, ^ijss [^ij, Z?.];  Dilute Acetic Acid Oj  [Acetic  Acid of commerce
(sp. gr. 1.044), f^iv; Distilled Water gxij, 2).]; [Proof Spirit fgiss, L.\   The
ingredients and relative proportions used by the Edinburgh College are the same
as those of the London College, except that distilled vinegar is employed.   Mace-
rate  the  squill with  the vinegar, with a  gentle heat, in a covered vessel, for three
[seven, D. Ed.'] days; afterwards press out [the liquor] and  set it aside,  that  the
dregs may subside; lastly, add the spirit to the clear liquor.  [The U. S. Pharm.
directs, of Squill, bruised, four ounces;  Diluted Acetic Acid two pints; Alcohol  a
fluidounce.  The process is the same as  that of the Dublin College;  or it may be
made by  displacement.])—Expectorant and diuretic.  Used in chronic pulmonary
affections  and dropsies, under the regulations before described.   Dose, 3ss to 3iss,
in some aromatic water.
   5. OXYMEL SCILLA,  L.  [U. S.]; Syrupus Scillse, E.;  Oxymel of Squills ;  Syrup
of Squills.—(Honey  rbv; Vinegar of Squill Oijss.   Boil  down the vinegar, with a
slow fire, to  twelve  fluidounces, and mix tho honey, made hot, L.—Vinegar of
Squills Oiij; Pure Sugar ibvij.  Dissolve the sugar in the vinegar of squills with
the aid of a gentle heat and agitation, E.)  [Vinegar of Squill Oij; Clarified Honey
Ojss.  Mix them, and evaporate, by means of a water-bath, to the proper consistence.
The specific gravity should be 1.32, U.  S.J)—Used as an expectorant in chronic
catarrhs and asthma,  in doses of f 5J or f3ij-  As an emetic, it is sometimes given
to children affected with hooping-cough or croup,  in doses of a teaspoonful repeated
every quarter of an hour until vomiting  occurs.

   [6.  SYRUPUS SCILLA, U. S.;  Syrup of Squills.—This is directed to be prepared
of  V incgar of  Squills a  pint; Sugar two pounds.  Add  the sugar to the vinegar
of squill, and proceed in the manner directed for syrup.   This  preparation is  used
in place of the preceding as an emetic and expectorant.  In affections of the lungs,
where squill is beneficial, it may be employed as  an  ingredient of cough mixtures,
variously compounded.   As a common remedy for children in cases of cough or cold,
it is with safety directed and commonly used.   The dose is f3ss to 3j or 3ij.
   7. SYRUPUS SCILLiE  COMPOSITUS,U.S.; Compound Syrup ofSquill; Hive Syrup.—
Take of  Squill bruised, Senega bruised, each  four ounces;  Tartrate of Antimony
and Potassa forty-eight grains; Water four pints; Sugar three  pounds and a half.
Pour the  water upon the squill and senega, and having boiled to one-half, strain,
and add the sugar; then evaporate to three pints, and, while the syrup is still hot,
dissolve in it the tartrate of antimony and potassa.   Another mode of preparation
is, to take of Squill in coarse powder, Senega in coarse powder, each four ounces •
Tartrate of Antimony and Potassa forty-eight grains;  Alcohol half a pint; Water
a sufficient quantity;  Sugar three pounds and a half.  Mix  the  alcohol with two
pints and  a half of water, and macerate the squill and senega in  the mixture for
twenty-four hours.  Put the whole  in an apparatus for displacement, and add as
much water as  may be necessary to make  the filtered liquor amount to three pints.
Boil the liquor for a few minutes, evaporate to one-half, and strain; then  add  the
sugar, and evaporate until the resulting  syrup measures three pints.   Lastly, dis-
solve the tartrate of antimony and potassa in the  syrup, while it is still hot.
  This preparation is a modification of that  made according to the formula given 
 212                VEGETABLES.—Nat.  Ord. Liliaceje.

 by Dr. J. B. Coxe, and which goes by the  name of Coxes Hive Syrup.   In the
 former editions of the  Pharmacopoeia, the formula of Dr. Coxe was adopted; and
 as honey was substituted for sugar, it had the officinal name of Mel Scillse compo-
 situm.  The formula above cited authorizes the substitution  of  sugar for honey, as
 it is less liable, when prepared as directed, to  undergo fermentation—a great  desi-
 deratum in hot weather.   There is  no difference between the proportions of the
 ingredients, so that an  equal strength of the two preparations is  obtained by both.
 The latter was introduced in accordance with the recommendation of the Committee
 of Bevision of the Philadelphia College of  Pharmacy.
    This preparation combines the advantages of squill, senega, and  tartarized anti-
 mony, and is  an exceedingly active  preparation.  In sufficient doses,  it operates
 upon the stomach, producing free vomiting  and expectoration.   It is  used at the
 commencement of croup, hooping-cough, and catarrhal  affections  in children, with
 the view to its evacuant impression.   In the inflammatory stages,  as an expectorant
 and nauseant, it may also be employed with advantage, in reduced doses.  The dose
 is from gtt.  x to f 3i, according to the age of the child, repeated every ten or fifteen
 minutes until it pukes.  As an expectorant for adults, the dose is gtt. xx to gtt. xxx.]
   Antidote.—No antidote is known.  The first object, therefore, in a case of poi-
 soning, is to evacuate the stomach; the second, to allay the inflammatory symptoms
 which may supervene.


 63. ALLIUM  SATIVUM,  Zm-COMMON  OR  CULTIVATED
                                   GARLIC.
                           Sex. Syst. Hexandria, Monogynia.
                                    (Bulb, E.)
   History.—This plant was well known to  the ancients.  The Greeks called it
 exopoSov;1 the Bomans Allium.2  It was used by Hippocrates.3
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—Flowers umbellate,  with a membranous spathe.   Peri-
 anth six-parted, permanent, equal.  Stamens inserted  into the base of the perianth;
filaments either all alike, or every other one tricuspidate, with  the anther  on the
 middle point.   Style subulate,  stigma  simple.   Capsule  usually obtusely three-
 cornered or three-lobed,  depressed, three-celled, bursting  into  three valves through
 the dissepiments, and containing two  or one  black angular  seed in each cell.
 (Lindley.)
   Sp. Chax.—Bulb surrounded by smaller ones.  Leaves linear, entire.    Urnhd
 bulbiferous,  globose.  Spathe  ovate,  rounded.  Segments of  the perianth ovate,
 obtuse.   Pistil and stamens exsert.4   Stem about two feet high.   Flowers whitish.
   Hab.—? South of Europe.   ? Egypt.  ? Persia.  Cultivated in  kitchen gardens.
 It flowers in July.
   Description.—The  bulb (bulbus allii) is composed  of cloves  (spicse vel nuclei
 allii), each furnished with its proper envelopes.   Its odour is strong, irritating, and
 characteristic;  its taste  is acrid.
   Composition.—Cadet5 analyzed garlic.   He found the constituents to be acrid
 volatile oil, extractive (a little), gum, woody fibre, albumen, and water.  The ashes
 contained alkaline and earthy salts.  Bouillon-Lagrange has detected, besides these,
 sulphur, starch, and saccharine matter.6
  Oil of Garlic (Oleum Allii) is a sulphuret of allyle, A11S=C«H5,S (see vol. i. p. 253).  Ac-
 cording to Wertheim,' oxide of allyle, AUO=C6Hs,0, also exists in the crude oil.   Oil  of garlic
 has a very acrid taste, a strong smell, and a yellow colour.   It is heavier  than water, and is
 soluble in alcohol.  As it contains sulphur it produces, in burning, sulphurous acid.  According
to Cadet, 20 lbs. of garlic yielded only six drachms of essential oil; Wertheim obtained  between

 2 Dreophrastus' Hist- -P'<Hlt-li°- vii. cap. iv.; Dioscorides, lib. ii. cap. 182.
 « t\ nJ' ■??,'• JSlt- lib- xix> cap- 31> ed- ValP-      6 De victits ratione in acutis, p. 404, ed.  Fcesii.
 « De Candolle Bot. Gall.                     • Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. ii. 1336.
 « Journ. de Pharm. t. ii. p. 358.
 * Ann. d. Chem. u. Pharm. Bd. Ii. S. 289, 1644; Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. iv. p. 325, 1845. 
The Onion:—History;  Botany.
213
three and four ounces from 1 cwt. of garlic.  It strikes a black colour when rubbed with oxide
of iron.  It is a powerful irritant, and when applied to the skin causes irritation.  The Hindoos,
according to. Dr. Ainslie,' prepare a stimulating expressed oil  from garlic, which they give in-
ternally in ague, and use externally in palsy and rheumatism.
  Physiological Effects.—Garlic is a local  irritant.   When swallowed, it ope-
rates as a tonic and stimulant to the stomach.   Its volatile oil becomes absorbed,
quickens the circulation, occasions thirst, and is thrown out of the  system by the
different excretories,  the activity of  which it promotes, and to whose excretions it
communicates its well-known odour.   Large doses occasion nausea, vomiting,  and
purging.   Puihn2 says the expressed juice has proved fatal.
  Uses.—Employed by the cook as a flavouring ingredient in  various made-dishes,
sauces, &c.  Barely used by the medical practitioner.   Internally, it  has been exhi-
bited as a stimulant and stomachic in enfeebled digestion; as an expectorant  in old
chronic catarrhs; as a diuretic in atonic dropsies; and as an anthelmintic.  Externally,
it has been employed  as a resolvent in indolent tumours; as a local irritant or rube-
facient applied to the feet  to cause revulsion from the  head or chest; as an anti-
spasmodic  liniment (composed of oil and garlic  juice) in infantile convulsions; as
a remedy for some cases of deafness,  a clove or a few drops of the juice being  in-
troduced into the ear.
  Administration.—A  clove  may be swallowed  either  entire, or, more conve-
niently, cut into small pieces.  The  dose of the fresh  bulbs is  one or two  drachms.
The expressed juice mixed with sugar, the infusion of garlic, and a syrup,  are some-
times employed.

  [^SYRUPUS ALLII.—Take  of fresh Garlic, sliced, six ounces;  diluted Acetic Acid
a pint; Sugar two pounds.   Macerate the garlic in the diluted acetic acid in a glass
vessel for four days, then express the liquor, and set it by that the dregs  may sub-
side.   Add the sugar to the clear  liquor, and proceed in the  manner  directed for
syrup.
  This formula was adopted upon the recommendation of Mr.  Daniel B. Smith, of
Philadelphia, who  demonstrated the futility of the old method of preparing syrup
of garlic, of which  formula (Journal of Philadelphia  College of Pharmacy, No. 1,
p. 50)  it is a modification.   Dose, 3!-]


              64. ALLIUM  CEPA, Linn.—THE ONION.
                           Sex. Syst. Hexandria, Monogynia.
                                     (Bulbus.)

   History.—The onion was known and used in the most ancient times.  By Fraas1
it is  considered  to be the  xpo/tjitvov (see ante, p. 207) of  Theophrastus* and Dios-
corides.5  The a^tdvtov of Theophrastus was  a variety  of onion.   By Pliny8  the
onion is called  cepa.   It was employed in  medicine by Hippocrates.   An  onion
taken from the hand of an  Egyptian mummy perhaps 2000  years  old  has been
made to grow.7
  BOTANY'.   Gen. Char.—Vide Allium sativum.
  Sp. Char—Stem fistulous, ventricose beneath;  longer than  the terete, fistulous
leaves.   I 'mbel capsulifcrous, globose.   Segments of perianth linear-elliptic, obtuse;
shorter than the stamens and pistil.8  Biennial.   Flowers whitish.   July.
  Loudon8 enumerates eighteen varieties deserving of culture.
  Hab.—Egypt.   Cultivated in kitchen gardens.
  Besides A. sativum and A. Cepa, various other species of Allium are also cultivated for culinary
purposes; as, A. Porrum, the Leek: A. ascabnicum, the Shallot; A. Schanwprasum, the Chive;  anil
A. Scorodoprasttm or Rocambole.   Their virtues are analogous to those of the onion and garlic.

  * Materia Indica, i. 151.
  * Synops. Plant. Fl. Class, p. 201, 1815.
  • Lib. ii. cap. 181.
  ' MOllfr'i Physiol, by Baly, vol. i. p. 29
  • Encyclopaedia of Gardening.
* Quoted by Wibmer, Die Wirk. d. Arzneim.
* Hist. Plant, lib. vii. cap. 4.
8 Hist. Nat. lib. xix. cap. 32, ed. Valp.
• Botanicon Gallicum. 
 21-4                 VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Liliace^e.

   Description.—The bulb (bulbus) is tunicated.   When cut, it  evolves an  acrid
 principle, having a well-known odour, and a powerful action on the eyes, causing a
 flow of tears.  Its taste is sweet and acrid.   Onion juice is colourless, but by ex-
 posure to the air it becomes reddish.
   Composition.—According to Fourcroy and Vauquelin,1 the  onion  contains an
 acrid volatile  oil, uncrystallizable  sugar, gum,  woody fibre,  albumen, acetic and
phosphoric acids, phosphate and citrate of lime, and water.
  Oil  of  Onions (Oleum cepa) contains sulphur, and is probably similar in composition  to oil
 of garlic, AllS=C6H5,S.  It is acrid, piquant, and colourless.
   Physiological Effects.—Analogous to those of garlic, but milder.   The oil
 becomes  absorbed, and communicates the well-known onion  odour to the breath.
 By boiling onions the volatile  oil is  dissipated, and the  bulb  is deprived of its
 irritating qualities, and becomes a mild esculent substance.
   Uses.—Extensively used  as  an article of food and as a condiment.   It is  very
 rarely employed in  medicine, but is  adapted to the same cases  as garlic.   Raw
 onions are occasionally taken  as  an expectorant, with  advantage, by elderly persons
 affected with winter  cough.
   Administration.—A  roasted onion  is  sometimes  employed  as  an emollient
 poultice  to suppurating tumours, or to the ear to relieve ear-ache.  The expressed
juice has been  given to children, mixed with sugar, as an expectorant.


        65. Asparagus officinalis,  Linn.—Common Asparagus.
                               Sea;. Syst. Hexandria, Monogynia.
                                    (Turiones et Radix.)
  A well-known indigenous culinary vegetable, which is extensively cultivated in gardens for
 its young succulent shoots (turiones asparagi), which, when boiled, form a much admired article
 of food.   These, as well as the root (radix asparagi), have been used in medicine.
  The shoots have been chemically examined by Robiquet,2 who found in their juice asparagin,
 mannite, peculiar aqueous extractive, green acrid oleo-resinous matter, wax,  gluten, albumen, colouring
 matter, and salts of potash  and lime.
  Dulong3 analyzed  the root, and  found in it albumen, gum, a peculiar  matter (precipitable by
 basic acetate of lead and protonitrate of mercury), resin, saccharine matter (reddened  by oil of
 vitriol), and salts of potash and lime.  He detected neither asparagin nor mannite.
  Asparagin (also called  asparamid,  althmn, and  agSdoil) crystallizes in right rhombic prisms,4
 whose formula is C&HsN208-f 2HO).  When heated to 248° F., they lose 12 per cent, of water.
 They have a cooling, somewhat nauseous taste, are slightly soluble  in  cold water, more so in
 boiling water, but are insoluble in alcohol and ether.  By the action of acids and alkalies aided
 by heat asparagin is resolved into aspartic acid, fJSH5N06, and ammonia, NH3.   Asparagin  is
found in the urine of those who have swallowed it (see ante, p. 279).
  The young  shoots act  as diuretics, and  communicate a peculiar fetid odour5 to the urine.
 This is produced neither by the asparagin nor  by  tbe volatile matter contained in the distilled
water of the  shoots, but  by something which resides in the aqueous extract.6   Formerly, an
 emmenagogue and aphrodisiac property was ascribed to asparagus.
  The medicinal properties of the root are similar to those of the shoots.   Like the latter, it
 communicates an unpleasant odour to the urine.  It formed one of the^ue greater aperient root*
 (radices quinque aperientes majores) which were formerly used in visceral diseases.  The other
 four were  butcher's  broom (Ruscus aculealus),  celery or smallage (Apium graveolem), parsley
 (Petroselinum sativum), and fennel (Fceniculum officinale).
  Though no longer contained in  our Pharmacopasia, asparagus is  still occasionally used  as a
 popular remedy, chiefly  as a diuretic in dropsies, and as a iithic.'  For these purposes the shoots
are boiled  and used at table; or the root, which is considered superior to the  shoots, is taken in
the form of an infusion or decoction (prepared  by boiling an  ounce of the root  in a quart of
water), which may be taken as a  common  drink.

  1 Ann. Chim. lxv. 161, 1808.
  a Ann. de Chim. Iv. 152: also. Thomson's Chemistry of Organic Bodies—Vegetables. 1838
  • Journ. de Pharm. t. xii. p. 278, 1826.                               B      '
  4 Mr. C Brooke, Pharm. Journ. vol. vi. p. 560,1847.
  * Murray  (App. Med. vol. v. p. 184,1790) thinks the odour not dissimilar to that of Geranium robertiannm.
  1 Phsson  et Henry fils, in Journ. de  Pharm. xvi. 725,1830.
  'For some experiments on the solvent power of asparagus-juice for urinary calculi, see Lobb's Tnatiu
on Dissolvents of the Stone, 1739.                                           ' 
Solomon's Seal.   Xanthorrhcea.                     215
           66.  Polygonatum vulgare, Desf—Solomon's Seal.
                              Sex. Syst. Hexandria, Monogynia.
                                      (Rhizoma.)
  ConvaUaria Polygonatum, Linn.—A well-known indigenous plant, whose rhizome  (radix poly-
gonati), though long banished from the Pharmacopoeia, is still kept in the herb shops, and sold
as Solomon's Seal (Sigillum Salomonis).  I suspect that the rhizome of P. muUiflorum is also sold
under the same name.   When neither species is to be obtained, bryony root is commonly sub-
stituted.
  Solomon's  seal is a white, fleshy, odourless rhizome,  having a  sweetish, mucilaginous, very
slightly bitterish, acrid taste.  Iodine applied  to the fresh cut surface of  the  rhizome gathered
in September does not darken it.  In these properties, the rhizomes of both the above-mentioned
species of Polygonatum  agree.  Walz1  examined chemically the herb, stem, and root  of P.
muUiflorum.   He  found in them  asparagin, uncrystallized sugar, starch, gum, gluten, peculiar
nitrogenous matter, acrid resin, pectin, malic, citric, hydrochloric, and phosphoric  acids, potash,
magnesia, lime, and alumina.
  Solomon's seal is a popular application to bruised parts (the eye, for example), to remove
the marks.  For this purpose it is scraped and applied to the parts.  Gerarde2 says it "taketh
away in  one night, or two at most, any bruse, blacke or blew spots gotten by falls or women's
wilfulness, in stumbling upon their  hastie husbands' fists."
                           67. Dracaena Draco, Linn.
                             Sex. Syst. Hexandria, Monogynia.
  This tree, which has the habit of a palm, is a native of the Canary Islands.   Its stem yields
by incision a red juice, which concretes and forms a red resin resembling dragons blood (see
ante, p. 169), which appears to have been collected by the Spaniards when they took possession
of those islands.  Hence  this  species has usually passed for  one of the  sources  of dragon's
blood.  But none of  the  commercial article  is obtained from it.  Indeed, Guibourt3 states
that, at the present time, it is impossible to obtain the smallest quantity of it  at  the  Canary
Islands.
  One of the Dracaena-trees growing at  Orotava has long been celebrated for its great size and
age; and  next  to the  Baobab trees (Adansonia digitata),  it  is  regarded as one of the oldest
inhabitants of the earth.4
                             68.  Xanthorrhcea, Smith.
                              Sex. Syst. Hexandria, Monogynia.
                                        (Resina.)
  The Xanthorrhccas or Grass-Trees of Australia differ considerably in  habit  lrom the other
Liliacerp.   Their stems are usually shrubby and resiniferous; their leaves long, narrow, grass-
like, and in tufts; and their flowers small, white, and densely crowded on long cylindrical spikes
like  those  of bulrushes (Typha).  Mr. Brown5 has described seven species,  viz., X. arborea,
auslralis, Hostile, media, minor, bracteata, and Pumilio.   The  first two are arborescent, the third
and fourth  have short stems, and the last three are stemless.
  Two resins, both the produce of this genus, have been imported into this country—one yellow,
the other red.
  1. The yellow resin of Xanthorrhcea, known by the various names of yellow resin of New Holland
(resina lutca novi Bclgii), Botany Bay resin, and acaroid resin or gum (resina vel gummi acaroides),
was  fir<t noticed by Governor  Phillips,8 in 1789.
  It  is obtained from the trunk of one or more species7 of Xanthorrhcea by spontaneous exuda-
tion.8   It occurs in more or less rounded tears; in flattened pieces, bearing on one side  an  im-
  1 Jahrb. f. pr. Pharm. vi. 15;  vii. 17.  (Wittstein'a Vollstand. etym. chem. Handworterbuch, Bd. i. S.
360, 1847.)
  a Herball, 1633.                               ' Hist. Nat. des Drogues, 4eme edit. t. ii. p. 145.
  4 Humboldt, Tabl. de la Nature.—See, also, Ann. des, Scien. Nat. t. xiv. p. 137.
  • Prodromus Flom Nova  Hollanditr, 1810.  One of the arborescent species (probably X. arborta) is
called black boy (Drummond, in Hooker's Journal of Botany, vol. ii. p. 344, 1840).
  • Voyage to Botany Bay, 1789.
  ' Smith (Itres'a  Cyclop, vol. xxxix. art. Xanthorrhcea) refers it to X. Hastile and some other species
(see, rtlso, Uvnnett'a Wanderings in New South Wales, Sec. 1834).  On the other hand, L. Gmelin (Handb.
d. Chem. ii. 618), on the authority of Sieber, and Me rat and De Lens (Diet. Mat. Mid. vi. 970,1834J. on
the vcrbnl authority of Mr. It. Brown, refer it to X. arborea.
  • White, Journal of a Voyage to New South Wales, in 1787, p. 235,1790. 
216
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Iridace.e.
pression of the stems to which they were attached, and intermixed with portions of wood, stalks,
earth, &c; and in masses of variable  size and irregular shape, having, when fractured, aspeckled
or granitic character.   The pure resin is reddish-yellow.  Its fresh fractured surface  resembles
that of  gamboge;  its powder is greenish-yellow.  When  heated, it emits a vapour having a
fragrant odour like that of Tolu or storax.   It has  been repeatedly subjected to chemical exa-
mination; viz., by Lichtenstein,1 Schrader,2 Laugier,3 Widmann,4 Trommsdorff,6 and more re-
cently by Stenhouse.6  It  consists essentially of resin, cinnamic acid, a small quantity of benzoic
acid, and a trace of volatile oil.  Some sam pies contain a small quantity of bassorine.  Heated with
peroxide of manganese and oil of vitriol, it evolves the odour of the oil of bitter almonds.  In
alcoholic solution yields, on the addition of water, a yellow precipitate soluble in caustic potash,
By the action of nitric  acid it yields so large a portion of carbazotic acid that it is likely to prove
the best source of  that  acid.  As it sometimes resembles Tolu  and  storax in composition, so it
probably resembles them also in its medicinal properties.  Mr. Kite7 employed it in several
diseases.  He says it neither vomits, purges, nor binds the belly; nor does it act materially as
a diuretic or diaphoretic.  More recently, Dr. Fish8 has employed it  in the form of tincture with
opium in fluxus hepaticus, and the colliquative diarrhoea of phthisis.   On  account of its resem-
blance in composition  to the balsams, it deserves a trial in  chronic catarrhs.  A tincture of New
Holland resin is prepared by digesting the resin in rectified spirit: Kite used equal parts of resin
and spirit;  Fish, 2 ounces of resin to Jbj of spirit.  The dose of the tincture is 5Jj or £ij in milk
or mucilaginous mixture.—It might be used as a substitute for, or mixed with other  substances
in the preparation of fumigating pastiles.
   2. The red  resin of  Xanthorrhcea  is  sometimes imported under the name of black-boy gum,
In colour it  somewhat  resembles dragon's blood, or Botany Bay kino (Eucalyptus resinifera); bul
many of the pieces, like some of those of the yellow resin of Xanthorrhcea, are marked by the
impression of the trunk  to which  they have adhered.  When heated, it evolves a fragrant
balsamic odour; and, with the exception of the intermixed and adherent ligneous matters,is
completely soluble in rectified spirit.  The source of this resin would appear to be X. Hastilt,
for Viquet (quoted by Nees Von Esenbeck9) says that this  species yields a red resin which re-
sembles dragon's blood.
 \\\ Flowers with a true perianth adherent to the ovary (inferior ovary), usually hermaphrodite.

 Order XII.  IRIDACE^, Until—IRIDS,  OR CORN-FLAGS.

                                       Iride.b, Juss.

   Characters.—Calyx and  corolla superior, confounded, their  divisions partially cohering, or
 entirely separate, sometimes irregular, the three petals being occasionally very short.   Stameni
 3, arising from the base of the sepals; filaments  distinct or connate;  anthers bursting externally
 lengthwise, fixed by their base, 2-celled.   Ovary 3-celled, cells many-seeded; style 1; stigmasi,
 often petaloid, sometimes 2-lipped.   Capsule 3-celled,  3-valved, with a  Ioculicidal dehiscence.
 Seeds attached to the inner angle of the cell, sometimes to a  central column, becoming loose;
 albumen horny, or densely fleshy;  embryo enclosed within it.—Herbaceous plants, or very seldom
 under-shrubs, usually smooth ;  the hairs, if any, simple.  Roots tuberous or fibrous.   Leaves equi-
 tant, and distichous in  most genera.   Inflorescence terminal, in spikes, corymbs, or panicles, or
 crowded, sometimes  radical.   Bracts spathaceous, the partial ones often scarious; the sepali
 occasionally rather herbaceous (Lindley).
   Properties.—The underground stems and roots usually abound in fecula and mucilage; but
 these nutritive substances are  generally combined with  an  acrid principle, which excludes their
 employment as articles of food.  However, Morcea edulis, M. sisyrinchium, Gladiolus edulis, and a
 species of Tigridia, have been used as esculent substances..  The rhizomes of several species of
 Iris (as I. Pseudoacorus, I. germanica, I. sibirica, and J.  versicolor) are  remarkable,  especially in
 the fresh state, for their acridity, in consequence of which  some  of them  have been  used as
 purgatives, sialagogues, or errhines,  or  for issue-peas.  The rhizomes of some species (as  J.
florentina and J. germanica) have an agreeable smell.   The colour and the odour of saffron are
 to be regarded as part of the petaloid  qualities of the  stigmata of Crocus.  The effects of this
 medicine on the  nervous system are regarded by De Candolle10 as similar to those of [certain
 odorous] flowers.
  * Crell's Journal, ii. 242, 1799 ;  also, Thomson's Chemistry of Organic Bodies—Vegetables, p. 532.
  a Trommsdorff's Journal, v. 96.                          3 Ann de chimie, lxxvi. 265.
  ' Buchner's Repertorium, xxii. 198, 1825.
  5 Taschenbuch, 1826; also, Gmelin, Handb. d. Chemie, ii. 618.
  6 Memoirs of the  Chemical Society, iii. 10, 1848.            i Essays and Observations, p. 141,1795.
  8 Dierbach, Die neuesten Entdeckungen in d. Materia Medica,  Bd.  i.  S. 225, 1837; from the Boston
Journal, vol. x. p. 94.
  • Geiger's Pharmacie, Bd. ii. S. 178, 2te Aufl. 1839.         »° Essai sur les ProprUtts Mid. 
The Saffron Crocus:—History; Description.           217
   69. CROCUS SATIVUS, Allioni.-THTZ SAFFRON CROCUS.
                           Sex. Syst. Triandria, Monogynia.
                            (Stigma, L.—Stigmata, E. D.)

  History.—Saffron is mentioned in the Old Testament.1   Homer3 speaks of the
crocus (xpoxoe).   Hippocrates3 employed saffron in uterine and other maladies.   The
word saffron  (za'faran) is probably of Persian origin.
  Botany.  Gen. Char.—Perianth [coloured], with a slender tube twice as long
as the  limb; limb 6-partite, equal,  erect.  \_Stamens  3, inserted into the  tube;
anthers sagittate.]   Stigmas 3, thick, convoluted, generally crested.   Capsule under
ground, elevated by a short peduncle from the root,  which peduncle elongates after
the decay of the flowers,  and the  capsules  appear above ground.   (Hooker, with
some additions.)
  Sp.  Char.—Stigma protruded, drooping, in 3 deep linear divisions.  (Hooker)  (
   Cormus roundish;  its brownish coats reticulated,  separating  superiorly into
distinct parallel fibres.  Leaves linear, with a white central stripe, and surrounded
at their base with  long  membranous sheaths.   Flowers light purple, shorter than
the leaves, with a two-valved membranous spathe.   Anthers pale yellow.   Stigmas
deep orange-coloured.
  Hab.—A native of Asia Minor.   Now naturalized in England, France, and some
other European countries.   It is a doubtful native of the eastern parts of Europe.
It is said to have been introduced into Spain by the Arabs.4  It flowers in September
and October.
   Preparation.—The flowers are gathered in the morning, and the stigmata, with
a portion of the style, plucked out  for use, the rest of the flower being thrown away.
The stigmata are then dried on paper, either by means of portable kilns over which
a hair-cloth  is stretched,5 or in a room by the sun.8   When dried between paper
under the pressure of a thick board and weights, the saffron is formed into cakes
now no longer to be met with.
   Description.—The only saffron now found in the shops is that called hay saffron.
The article sold as cake saffron is  in reality not saffron.
   Hay saffron (crocus infozno) consists of the stigmas with  part of  the style, which
 have been very carefully dried.  They are from an inch to an  inch and a half long,
 thin, brownish-red; the upper portion (stigma) is expanded, notched at the extremity;
 the lower portion, which  constitutes part of the style (called  by Th.  Martius7 F'dmi-
 nelle), is narrow, capillary, yellowish.   The odour  is penetrating, aromatic, and, of
 large  quantities, narcotic.  The taste is bitter, somewhat aromatic.   When chewed,
 saffron tinges the mouth and the saliva yellow.
   It consists of triparted red filaments having an orange  colour; the segments dilated at the
 apex.  Moistened with water and rubbed on paper, it produces an intense orange-coloured stain.
 —Ph.  Lond.
   I find by careful examination that one grain of good commercial  saffron contains
 the stigmata and styles of nine flowers; hence 4,320 flowers are required to yield
one ounce of saffron.
   a. English saffron (crocus  anglicus) is no longer found in commerce.
   8. S/xtnish suffron (crocus  hispanicus) constitutes the best saffron of the shops.  It is imported
 from Gibraltar (principally), Cadiz, Denia, Santander, and  Malaga.  From the concurrent ac-
counts of  pharmacologists it would appear that formerly Spanish saffron was spoiled by being
dipped in oil to preserve it.  But the saffron now imported from Spain has not been subjected
 to this treatment.  Occasionally Spanish, as well  as any other kind of saffron, is oiled by the
dealers to give it an appearance of  freshness.
  y. French saffron (crocus gallkus) is  usually considered in commerce to be of second quality.
1 Solomon's Song, iv. 14.                           a Iliad, xiv. 346.
• Opera, Ed. Ftps. pp. 407, 575, 614, 626, and S76.         « Dillon, Travels through Spain.
> Douglas, Phil. Trans, for 1728.
' l'uke, Stephenson and Churchill's Med. Bot. vol. iii.     ' Pharmdkognosie, 15-32. 
218
VEGETABLES.—Nat.  Ord. Iridace^:.
It is the produce of Gatinais (Gatinais saffron) and Orleanais, which comprehend part of tbe
departments of Seine et-Marne and Eure-et-Loire, and the whole of the department of Loiret.
The saffron of Angouleme is intermixed with the pale styles, and is the worst.1   French saffron
is shipped  for England at Calais, Boulogne, and Havre.
  Besides the preceding, several other varieties of  saffron are mentioned by pharmaeologists,
but  they are not distinguished in English commerce, and I am unacquainted with them.  Such
are  Austrian, Bavarian, Oriental, and the Sicilian saffron (C. austriacus, bavaricus, orient alls, and
siciliensis) mentioned by Murray,2 Geiger,3 and others.  The saffron of Lower Austria is said to
be the best and most costly in Europe, but the produce is scarcely sufficient  for the home con-
sumption;  and, therefore, saffron is imported into Austria.  Austrian saffron is chiefly produced
at Ravelsbach, Meissau, Eggendorf, Kirchbeg, and Wagram.*
  From the Customs report5 it appears that  saffron  is occasionally imported into England from
Hamburg, Antwerp, Genoa, Naples, and Bombay.  But I am ignorant of its place of growth
and quality.  According to Gussone,6 Crocus odorus yields Sicilian saffron.  Dioscorides7 con<
sidered the saffron of Corycus (a mountain  of Cilicia, in Asia Minor, now called  Curco) to be
the  best, and that of Lycia and Olympus to be of second quality; while Cyrenaic saffron, as well
as that from Centuripinum (Centorbe) in Sicily, he declares to be the worst.
   Cake saffron  (crocus in  placenta) was formerly prepared  by  compressing hay
saffron.   But the cakes now met with in the inferior shops are composed of Safflower
(Carthamus tinctorius)  and gum-water, made into a paste, and rolled  out on a tin
plate with a  rolling-pin into  oval cakes  of  11 inches long, 10 inches  broad, and
about one-tenth  of an  inch thick.   These are dried on brown paper  in a stove,
They are shining, and of a brownish-fed colour.   I can detect neither  saffron nor
marigolds (Calendula officinalis) in them.   Their  price is  considerably less than
that of good hay saffron.   I am informed by a maker of cake saffron that there is
only another person besides himself by whom this substance is made in London.
  Adulteration.—To increase the weight  of saffron, it is said to be sometimes
intermixed with sand or grains of lead.  To detect these, it is sufficient to scatter
the saffron loosely over a sheet of white paper, when the sand or grains of lead fall
out.
  To give saffron flexibility and an appearance of freshness, as well as to augment
its  weight, it is sometimes damped or oiled.   To detect either water or oil, a small
portion of saffron should be subjected  to pressure between  folds of white blotting
paper;  if this become either moistened or greased, the adulteration is obvious.
  Another adulteration practised on saffron is intermixing it with the petals of some
plant; usually of safflower (Carthamus  tinctorius), which is sometimes called bastard
saffron.   The safflower readily escapes the eye of a superficial  observer.   If rubbed
with the moistened finger on paper, it produces a  slightly yellow mark only, whereas
genuine saffron causes a very intense orange-yellow  stain.  The fraud may also be
detected by carefully  examining the suspected portion by a magnifying glass.  The
fraud is the more easily detected if the suspected saffron be previously macerated
in hot water.   Genuine saffron consists of a filiform style, divided at one extremity
into three long, convoluted, deep orange stigmata, which are a little dilated upwards
and notched at the extremity.   Safflower, on the other hand, is composed of florets,
each consisting of a monopetalous, tubular, 5-toothed red corolla, inclosing 5 synge-
nesious stamina and a style.   Moreover, the  corolla is devoid of  the  softness and
flexibility of the stigmata of saffron; but is,  on the contrary,  dry and brittle.
  Other florets, or strips of petals, artificially dyed to give them colour, and greased
with oil to render them supple, have been  employed  to adulterate saffron. Guibourt
mentions  the marigold (Calendula officinalis), arnica, and soapwort (Saponaria),
as having been used for this purpose.  By attention to the above-mentioned charac-
ters of saffron, the fraud may be readily detected.   The dilated extremities  of the
stigmata  of saffron are  broader than  the style: whereas the extremities of the
divisions of a strip of a petal  will usually be found narrower than the body of the
strip.
1 Guibourt, Histoire des Drog. ii. 194, 4eme edit. 1849.
a App. Med. vol. v.                                            * Handb. der Pharm.
* Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. viii. p. 171, 1848.                     * Trade List for 1837-8-9
6 Lindley, Flora Medica.                                        1 Lib. i. cap. xxv. 
Composition;  Physiological Effects.
219
  Genuine saffron, from which the colouring matter has been extracted, is sometimes
found in commerce.1  The sample which I have seen had the essential characters of
the stigmata of saffron, but wanted the softness and flexibility of good saffron, and
was somewhat darker coloured.  It did not present the pale yellow filaments (styles)
of ordinary saffron, and imparted no colour to spirit of wine.
  Fibres of smoked beef are said to have been used for adulterating saffron.
  Commerce.—The  quantity of saffron on which  duty (of  Is. per lb.) is  paid is
about 5,000 lbs. per annum.   The  places from which it is imported have  been
already mentioned.  It -is brought over in cases, barrels, and boxes.
  Composition.—Saffron was analyzed, in  1811, by Vogel and Bouillon-Lagrange,2
and in 1818 by Aschoff.8
                                                 Vogel and
                                             Bouillon-Lagrange.    Aschoff.
            Volatile oil..............7.5.....1.4
            Wax................0.5.....4 0
            Polychroite..............65.0.....52.0
            Gum................6.5.....10.4
            Soluble albumen............05.....—
            Woody fibre.............10.0.....19.0
            Water...............10.0.....10.0
            Balsamic matter, soluble in ether and alcohol  .   —.....2.0
                      Saffron...........100.0.....98 8
  1. Volatile Oil  of Saffron.   (Oleum Croci)—Obtained by distilling  saffron with water.
It is yellow, heavier than water, has a burning, acrid, somewhat  bitter taste, and  is slightly
soluble in water.  By keeping, it becomes white, solid, and  lighter than water.  On  it depend
probably the medicinal properties of saffron.
  2. Colouring Matter: Polychroite  (so called from ito\ie,  many,  and XP'*'  colour, in con-
sequence of its being susceptible of numerous changes of colour).—By digesting the aqueous
extract of saffron in alcohol, and evaporating the  tincture to dryness, a substance is obtained
which  Bouillon-Lagrange and Vogel called polychroite, but which Henry4 has separated into
volatile oil and a bitter red substance (polychroite properly so called).   Pure polychroite is pul-
verulent, bitter, searlet-red, odourless, slightly soluble  in cold water, much more so in  hot water,
readily soluble in alcohol and oils (both fixed and volatile), slightly soluble in ether.  Sulphuric
acid turns it blue, then lilac.  Nitric acid makes it green, but the colour is very fugitive.   The
hypochlorites destroy the yellow colour of a solution of polychroite.
   Chemical  Characteristics.—An  aqueous infusion of saffron gives no indica-
tion of starch  on the addition of a  solution of iodine.   The hypochlorites bleach it.
Sulphuric and nitric acids act on it as on polychroite above mentioned.  Acetate of
lead causes no  precipitate.   By evaporation,  the infusion yields  an  extract from
which alcohol removes  the colouring matter and leaves a gummy substance.
   Physiological Effects. — Formerly, saffron was considered  to  be cordial,
aromatic, narcotic, and emmenagogue.  Some5 have accused  it of causing laughing
delirium; others8 have ascribed  to its use  great mental dejection;  and several7
have declared that they have seen  immoderate uterine  hemorrhage  produced by it,
which, in the case referred to by Riverius,  is said to have terminated fatally.   But
modern experience  has  proved  that most  of  these   statements  are erroneous.
Alexander8 swallowed four scruples of saffron without perceiving any obvious effects
therefrom; and Wibmer9 took a drachm without observing the slightest effect.
   By the long-continued use of saffron, the colouring particles become absorbed, and
tinge the secretions, especially the urine and perspiration.  In  some instances, the
foetus  in utero has  been stained  by  it.10  The failure  of Alexander to detect the
yellow tinge in his secretions arose probably from the short time he had been using
this medicine.   Mr. Gibson" gave a  considerable quantity of saffron  to a  pigeon,
which thereby had  its feces tinged,  yet no perceptible alteration  was produced in
its bones.

  1 Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. iii. p. 341, 1843.                  a Bull, de Pharm. iv. 89.
  ■ Ginelin, Handb. d. Chim. ii. 1331.                           * Journ. de Pharm. vii. 397.
  » Boerhanve, Hist. Plant, pars ii. p. 590.                       « Bergius, Mat. Med. t. i. p. 39.
  ' Boerhnave, op. cit.;  Riverius, Op. Med.                      « Experim. Essays, p. 88, 1763.
  • Wirk. d. Arzneim. Band. ii. S. 204.                          ,0 Wibmer, op. cit.
  " Mem. of the Lit. and Phil. Soc. of Manchester, 2d Ser. vol. i. p. 148. 
220                VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Irtdace^e.

   Headache, prostration of strength, apoplexy, and even death, have been ascribed
to the inhalation of the vapour arising from large quantities of saffron ;l and perhaps
correctly so, for it  is well known that  the odours of other plants (as  the rose, the
pink, &c.) act on some individuals as narcotic poisons.8
   Uses.—Saffron  is employed,  especially on the  Continent, as  a flavouring and
colouring ingredient in  various  culinary preparations, articles  of confectionery,
liqueurs, &c.  It was used by the ancients as a perfume as well as a seasoning agent.3
   In the modern practice  of medicine, it is used  chiefly as a colouring ingredient.
It is a popular remedy for assisting the eruption of exanthematous diseases; on the
same principle, I suppose, that  bird-fanciers give  it to birds when moulting.   It
was at one time esteemed  as an antispasmodic in asthma, hysteria, and  cramp of the
stomach; and was  formerly used as an emmenagogue, and to promote uterine con-
tractions and the lochial discharge.   Lastly, it has been employed as a stimulant to
the nervous  system in hypochondriasis.
   Administration.—It  may be given in doses of from ten grains to  a drachm, in
the form of  powder or pill.   It is popularly  used in the form of infusion or tea.
'   1. SYRUPUS  CROCI,  L. E.  D.;  Syrup  of Saffron.—(Saffron  [chopped fine, D.]
3v [Jx, E., gss, D.~\', Boiling Distilled Water  Oj;  Sugar Ibiij  [or  as much  as
may be  sufficient;  Rectified Spirit,  f^ijss or as much  as may be  sufficient, L.].
Macerate the saffron in the water for twelve hours, in a vessel lightly covered, then
strain the liquor and  add the sugar to it.  To the syrup, when cold, add the spirit.)
—It is employed principally for its colour.
   2. TINCTDRA CROCI, E.  D.;  Tincture of Saffron.—(Saffron, chopped  fine, ^ij;
Proof Spirit Oij [Oj, D.~\.   Macerate for fourteen days, strain, express,  and filter,
D.—This tinctured  to be prepared like tincture of cinchona, either by percolation
or by digestion, the former method being  the more convenient and expeditious, E.)
—Used  as a  colouring liquid.  It  is  also  employed  as a stimulant and emmena-
gogue in doses of from f 3J to f 5TJ-
   As a colouring and flavouring  ingredient, saffron is a constituent of several other
preparations.


               70.  Iris florentina,  Linn.—Florentine Orris.
                             Sex. Syst. Triandria, Monogynia.
                                      (Rhizoma.)
  The orris root (radix iridis florentina) of the shops consists of the  rhizomes of three species
of Iris; namely, I. florentina, I. pallida, and I. germanica.4  They acquire their well-known violet
odour  while drying.  They are  brought  to us in the decorticated state, in casks,  from Leghorn
and Trieste.
  Orris root consists, according to Vogel,5 of volatile oil, acrid resin, astringent extractive, gum, starch,
and ligneous matter. Raspail8 detected in  it crystals, which he  considered to be those of oxalait
of lime.  The starch of orris root7 consists of  elliptical-shaped  particles, which form interesting
objects for the polarizing microscope.  Some  of them consist of two mullar shaped particles
applied base  to  base.  Most of them are cracked at the hilum, and even at their edges.
  * See the Reports of Borellus, Tralles, Forster, and others, quoted by Wibmer and Murray, op. cit.
  * Orfila, Toxicol. Gtn.
  * Beckmann, History of Inventions and Discoveries, vol. i. p. 278.
  * According to Savi, orris root is collected in.ltaly indiscriminately from the three species named in the
text.  (F. G. Hayne, Getreue Darst. u. Bescreib. der in d. Arzneykunde gebraucht. Gewachse, Bd. xi. 1830.)
  « Journ. de Pharm. i. 481.                                             « Chim. Organ.
  " The following measurements,  in parts of an English inch, of particles of starch of orris root, were
made for me by Mr. George Jackson:—
Particles.          Length.         Breadth.
   1..........0.0011.......0.0010
   2..........0.0012.......0.0006
   3*.........0.0009.......0.0006
   4..........0.0006.......0.0004
Particles.         Length.         Breadth.
   5.........0.0004.......0.0004
   6.........0.0003.......0.0002
   7.........o.oooa.......0.0002
The most prevalent-sized particle is marked thus *. 
TACCACE.E.   Tacca.
221
Schleiden1 describes the starch particles of Iris florentina and kindred species as being perfectly
hollow, and apparently cup-shaped.
  Orris root is an acrid substance, and in full doses causes vomiting and purging.  It is prin-
cipally used on account of its violet odour.  Thus hair and tooth powders, perfumed oils, &c, are
frequently scented with it.   Issue  peas (pois d'iris)  have been made of it.   During teething,
infants are sometimes permitted to rub their gums with, and bite, the rhizome ; but the practice
is objectionable, since it is not unfrequently attended with irritation of the mouth, and disorder
of the stomach and bowels.  Furthermore, the danger of the rhizome getting into the oesophagus
or trachea is not to be overlooked.  One fatal case of this kind is  recorded.2  Powdered orris
root is sometimes used as an errhine.
  A tincture of orris root (tinctura iridis florentina), prepared by digesting one part of powdered
orris root in eight parts of rectified spirit, is used as a scent, and is frequently sold as essence of
violets, or eau de violettes.
                  Order  XIII.    TACCACE^E, Lindley.

  Chahacteiis.—A small  and imperfectly known order of endogenous plants, with tuberous
roots, leaves with curved parallel veins, hermaphrodite regular flowers, a petaloid tubular, 6-parted
perianth, 6 stamens, a 1-celled inferior ovary, and seeds with fleshy albumen.
  Properties.—The tuberous roots are bitter and acrid, but by cultivation become larger and
milder.  They yield a large quantity of nutritive farina.


                                  71.  TaCOa, Forster.
                              Sex. Syst. Hexandria, Monogynia.
                                     (Radix; Farina.)
  This genus  contains two species, which deserve a short notice.
  1. Tacca phtitatifida, Roxb. Fl. Ind. ii. 172.—A native of the Moluccas  and Malay coun-
tries.  The tuberous roots are intensely bitter when raw, but yield a large quantity of beautifully
white starch, used for  puddings, cakes, and other  articles of confectionery.  The  tubers " are
the tacca youy of some navigators;  they form an article of diet in China and Cochin China, as
also in Travancore," where, according to  Dr.  Ainslie, they attain a  large size, and are eaten  by
the natives, with some acid, to subdue their acrimony.3
  2. Tacca oceanica, Nuttal, Amer. Journ. of Pharm. vol.  ix. p. 306.—A native of Tahiti,
and other islands  of  the  South  Sea.  Until Mr. Nuttal pointed  out its peculiarities, it was
supposed to be identical with T. pinnatifida.   Ellis* says that the "pia, or arrow-root, chailea
tacca" grows on the high sandy banks near the sea, or on the  sides of the lower mountains.
  The tuberous roots yield a highly nutritious fecula.  At Tahiti (Otaheite), this fecula  is pro-
cured by washing  the tubers, scraping off their outer skin, and then reducing them to a  pulp  by
friction on a kind of rasp made by winding coarse twine (formed of the cocoa-nut fibre) regu-
larly round a board.6  The pulp is washed with sea-water through a sieve, made of the fibrous
web which  protects the young frond of the cocoa-nut palm.   The strained  liquor is received in
a wooden trough, in which the fecula is deposited; and the supernatant liquor being poured off,
the sediment  is formed into balls,  which are dried in the sun for  12 or 24 hours, then broken
and reduced to powder, which is spread out in the sun to dry.8
  Tacca starch, or  Tahiti arrow-root, sometimes called Otaheite  salep,1 is imported into London,
and sold as  "Arrow-root, prepared by the native converts at the Missionary stations  in the South
Sea Islands."   It  is a white amylaceous  powder, with  a slightly musty odour.   Examined  by
the microscope, I  find it to consist of particles8 which appear circular, mullar-shaped, or poly-
hedral.   Some of  the  mullar-shaped particles are slightly narrowed  at the  base.  Moreover,
the base of  the mullar, instead of being flat,  appears to me to be hollowed out.  The hilum is
  ■ Principles of Scientific Botany, pp. 15-16, translated by Ed. Lankester, M.D  1849
  • Kraus, Heilmittellehre. S. 541.
  » Royle, Illustrations of the Botany of the Himalayan Mountains, p. 378.
  • Polynesian Researches, vol. i. p. 361, 1829.
  • ElliB states that the rind of the root is scruped off by a courie shell, and the root then grated on a niece
of coral.                                                                             *
  • Matthews, Gardener's Magazine, vol. viii. p. 585, Lond. 1832.
  1 Keei'a Cycloptrdia, art. Tacca pinnatifida.
  * The following measurements, in parts of an English inch, of the particles of Tacca starch, were made
for me by Mr. George Jackson:—                                                  '        u<=
                                             Particles.          Length.         Breadth.
                                                *.........0.0006.......0 0005
                                                5.........0.0004.......0.0004
                                                6.........0.0003.......0.0003
                       The  most prevalent-sized particle is marked thus *.
Particles.	Length.	Breadth
1..... 2..... 3* ....	. . . 0.0012 . . . . . . 0.0011 . . . . . . 0.0008 . . .	. . . 0.0009 . . . 0.0009 . . . 0.0007
 
222
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Musace^e.
small and circular; it cracks in a linear or stellate manner.  The rings  are  few and not very
distinct.
  This fecula is used as a substitute for the West Indian Arrow-root, to which it would probably
be equal if it were prepared with  equal  care.  Its composition, like that of other starches, ii
presumed to be C12H,0O">.
Order XIV.  AMARYLLIDACEiE,.LM%.—AMARYLLIDS.

  None of the plants of this order are employed in England as articles of the Materia Medici
Yet many of them act powerfully on the system, and one of them (Harmanthus toxicariut) is said
to be used by the Hottentots to poison their arrow-heads.  The prevailing property of theordei
is acridity, which is possessed principally by the bulbs, several of which (as those of Ponero-
tium maritimum and Hamanthus coccineus) seem to be endowed with properties very similar to
those of squill.  The leaves and flowers of Narcissus Pseudo-Narcissus or Daffodil are enu-
merated among the simples of the French Codex.  In doses of  20 or 30 grains they  sometimes
cause  vomiting.  They  have been employed  in spasmodic affections (as hooping-cough), in
diarrhoea, and in agues.1  Several other species of Narcissus, as  N. Tazctta and N. orfonw,al8o
possess emetic properties.2  Narcissus  Tazetta, the Italian or Polyanthus Narcissus, is supposed
by Dr. Sibthorp to be the Narcissus of the poets.  The root and succulent leaves of  the Jgava
Americana or American aloe, a native of Tropical America, yield a saccharine juice which lathers
like soap, and when fresh is said to be  laxative, diuretic, and emmenagogue.  By fermentation
it yields an acid liquor.   The ligneous  fibres of the •eaves and roots are used as a thread (pUa
thread).
                    Order XV.    MUSACE.E, Agardh.

  Characters.—Leaves with veins curved, and  proceeding from  the  midrib to the margin
(curved-veined).  Perianth 6-parted, adherent, petaloid, irregular; Stamens normally 6, by abortion
usually 5; Anthers  2-celled.   Ovary inferior, 3-celled.  Fruit 3-celled.  Seed albuminous,
  Properties.—An important order of endogens, whose fruits (bananas and plantains) forma
valuable article of  food in some tropical regions.
             72. Musa sapientum, Lmn.—Plantain;  Banana.
                             Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Monogynia.3
                                   (Fructus; Amylum.)
   Plantains (Musa paradisiaca, Linn.) and Bananas (Musa sapientum, Linn.) are probably only
varieties of the same species.  The former have a  stem wholly green,  and persistent male
flowers; the latter have a spotted stem, deciduous male flowers, and shorter and rounder fruit,
Numerous varieties of each are cultivated in the  tropical  parts of Asia, Africa, and America;
the wild parent is found at Chittagong, and other parts of tropical Asia.   The fruit is a berry,
and in the unripe state abounds in starch; but during maturation this disappears, being con-
verted into a mucilaginous substance and this into sugar, so (hat in the ripe fruit not an atom of
starch can be detected.4
   Boussihgault5 analyzed the ripe fruit of Musa paradisiaca, and found in it sugar, gum, malic,
gallic, and pectic acids, albumen, and lignin.
   Plantains and bananas form important and valuable articles of food to the inhabitants of many
tropical regions.  " But for plantains," says Dr. Wright,6 "Jamaica would scarcely be habitable,
as no species of provision could supply their place.  Even flour, or bread itself, would be less
agreeable and less able to support the laborious negro, so as to enable him  to do his business,or
to keep in health."
   Humboldt7 calculates that,as 33 lbs. of wheat and 99 lbs. of potatoes require the samespace
as that in which 4,000 lbs. of bananas are grown, the produce of bananas is consequently to that
of wheat as 133.1, and to that of potatoes as 44.1.
   Dr. Shier,8 in an interesting report on the starch-producing plants of British Guiana, has given
  1 Merat and De Lens, Diet, de Mat. Mid. t. iv.       a De Candolle, Essai sur Us Preprints Jtfd-
  ' I have followed Roxburgh (Fl. Indica, vol. i.) in referring this genua to Pentandria, Monogyni*- ']}
Reichard's edition of LinnEeus's  Systema Plantarum (1780), it is placed in Polygamia, Monogy»i«i **»
in Loudon's Encyclopedia of Plants, it is referred to Hexandria, Monogynia.
  4 Avequin, Journ. de Pharm. t. xxiv. p. 555,1838.               » Journ. de Pharmacie, xxii. 383.
  6 London Medical Journal, vol. viii.
  1 Humboldt's PI. Mquinoc; also, Library of Entertaining Knowledge—Vegetable Substances.
  • Report on  the Starch-producing Plants of the Colon]/  of British  Guiana, Demerara, 1847;  «l«°i
Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. vii. p. 193,1847. 
Plantain:  Banana.                             223
us some interesting details respecting tbe  plantain.  He states that " a new plantain walk in
this colony will yield 450 bunches of 50 lbs. each, of which, a3 nearly as possible, 50 per cent.
will be core, containing 17 per cent, of  starch, thus producing  17 cwt. of starch per acre."  I
am indebted to this gentleman for specimens of the sliced plantain core dried,plantain meal,a.nd
plantain starch, prepared in April 1847.
Fig. 222.
Fig. 223.
The Plantain.
The Banana.
  a. Sliced Plantain core.—The sample sent to me by Dr. Shier was prepared  in April, 1847.
It was obtained by stripping off the husk of the plantain, slicing  the core, and drying  it in the
sun.  The dried slices, as I have  received them, are segments of circles from $ to £ of an inch
in diameter, and £ to ^ of an inch in thickness.   Their prevailing  tint is whitish,  like that of
dried slices of colchicum cormi, but marbled with reddish veins.   Their odour is fragrant, and
somewhat similar to that of orris  root.   Their taste is farinaceous.
  0. Plantain meal; Conquin-tay.—Obtained by powdering and sifting the thorough ly dried sliced
plantain core.  It is known among the Creoles of the colony by the name  of Conquin-tay.  It
is a whitish meal, speckled with  minute dark-reddish spots.  Its odour is fragrant, and  similar
to that of  orris root (Dr. Shier says it resembles fresh hay or tea).   Its taste is  bland, like that
of common wheat flour.  Wheu  examined  by the  microscope, it is seen to consist chiefly of
staroh grains. According to Dr. Shier's statement, plantain  meal  contains about 68 per cent.
of starch.   100.0 parts of plantain meal yielded Dr. Shier 0.88  parts of nitrogen.   If this
number be  multiplied  by 6.5 (see ante, p. 106,  foot-note), we have  5.72  as the per centage
amount of proteinaceous matter (albumen, gluten, &c.) contained in plantain meal.
  It is obvious, therefore, that plantain meal must be greatly superior to the pure starches, inas-
much as  it contains  blood- and  flesh-making principles which the latter are devoid of.  Dr.
Shier states that it is easy of digestion, and that it is largely employed in British Guiana as the
food of infants, children, and invalids;  but it will not serve for the manufacture of maccaroni,
as this, when made from it,  falls to powder when  put  into hot  water.   The  same authority
tells us that the plantain yields about 20 or 25 per cent, of meal.
  y. Plantain starch.—This is obtained  from the plantain by  rasping and washing ; but owing
to the flesh-coloured tissue in which the starch is imbedded being  somewhat denser than the
latter, it settles below the starch,  and  it is somewhat difficult to separate completely the finer
parts of it from the starch; hence the latter is not perfectly white.  The plantain yields about
17 per cent, of starch.  Examined by the microscope, I find  the starch grains' to be flat, trans-
parent disks, like those of the starch of Zingiberacea; hence they have but little lateral shading,
and when superimposed the contour of the  lower grains can be seen  through the upper ones.
Their shape is more or less elliptical and  ovate, the extremity at which the so-called nucleus
or hilum is placed being narrower than the opposite one.  When viewed edgewise, their shape
appears to be linear, and the lateral shading is stronger.
  1 The following measurements, in parts of an English inch, of the particles of plantain starch (prepared
by Dr. Shier, of Demerara) were kindly made for me by Mr. George Jackson :—
Particles.          Length.         Breadth.
    I.........0.0020.......0.0013
    2.........0.0018.......0.0009
    3.........0.0016.......0.0010
    4*........0.0014.......0.0007
Particles.         Length.         Breadth.
   5*........0.0013.......0.0008
   6.........0.0009.......0.0006
   7.........0.0007.......0.0005
                  0.0005.......0.0003
The most prevalent-died particles are marked thus *. 
224  »            VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Marantaceje.

  The lines or segments of rings seen on the flat surfaces of the grains do not extend to the
edges of the grain, nor do they surround the hilum.  When examined by the polarizing micro-
scope, these grains present the well-known crosses.  In its chemical, dietetical, and medicinal
properties, the starch of the plantains agrees with those of other starches.
               Order XVI.   MARANTACE^. Lindl
                                 Canxaceje, Agardh.

  Characters.—Calyx superior, of 3 sepals, short.  Corolla tubular, irregular, with the seg.
ments in 2 whorls; the outer 3-parted, nearly equal, the inner very irregular; one of the lateral
segments usually coloured, and formed differently from the rest;  sometimes by abortion fewer
than 3.  Stamens 3, petaloid, distinct, of which one of the lateral and the intermediate one are
either inactive or abortive, and the other lateral one fertile.  Filament petaloid, either entire or
2-lobed, one of the lobes bearing the anther on its edge. Anther 1-celled, opening longitudinally.
Pollen round  (papillose in  Canna coccinea, smooth in Calathea zebrina).  Ovary 1-3 celled;
ovules solitary and erect, or numerous and  attached  to the axis of each shell; style petaloid or
swollen; stigma either the mere denuded apex of the style, or hollow, hooded, and incurved.
Fruit capsular, as in Scitamineae.  Seeds round, without aril; albumen hard, somewhat floury;
embryo straight, naked, its radicle lying against the hilum.   Herbaceous tropical plants, destitute
of aroma.  Rhizome often tuberous, and abounding in starch. Stem often branching.  (Lindley.)
  Properties.—The rhizomes frequently abound in  starch.


73. MARANTA ARUNDINACEA,  z;«n.-THE  WEST  INDIAN
                               ARROW-ROOT.
                            Sex. Syst. Monandria, Monogynia.
           (Tuberis faecula.  Ph. Lond.—Fecula of the  tubers;  Arrow-root. Ed.,D.)

   History.—This plant was brought  from  the  island of Dominica, by  Colonel
James Walker, to Barbados, and there planted.   From thence it was sent to Jamaica.
That gentleman observed that the native Indians used the root against the poison
of their arrows, by mashing and applying it to the poisoned wounds.1
   The  valuable properties of the starch made from the root are  mentioned by
Hughes,2 in 1751,  and the mode of procuring it described by Browne,3 in  1789.
   Botany.   (Jen.  Char__Corolla unequal, one of the inner  segments  in the form
of a lip.   Stamens petaloid, with half an  anther  on its edge.   Style hooded, ad-
hering  to the edge  of a sterile  filament.    Ovary 3-celled, smooth; ovules solitary.
Fruit  even, dry, 1-seeded.—Caulescent  plants with fleshy  rhizomata or  tuberi.
Stems branched, often dichotomous.   Inflorescence terminal, panicled, jointed, with
glumaceous, deciduous bracts.  (Ijindley.)
   Sp. Char.— Culm  branched,  herbaceous.  Leaves   ovate,  lanceolate, somewhat
hairy underneath.   Peduncles 2-flowered ( Willdenow).
   Rhizome white, articulated, tuberous, placed horizontally in the earth, and giving
origin to several tuberous jointed stoles (stolones tuberosi), similar  to  itself, hut co-
vered with scales.   Those stoles are often more  than a foot long, and curved, so that
the points rise out of the earth and become  new plants (Nees and  Ebermaier).
Stem two or three feet  high.  Leaves  alternate, with  long, leafy, hairy  sheaths.
Flowers white and  small.
  The Maranta indica, Tussac,4 E., is characterized by its leaves being  smooth on both sides,
and by its seeds; those of M. arundinacea being violet.  But,  after a careful examination, Wick-
strom declares that Tussac's plant is identical with the M. arundinacea, Linn.5
   Hab.—West Indies.   It is cultivated  both in the West and East Indies, Ceylon,
Sierra Leone, &c.
   Composition of the Root.—According to P. C. Benzon,8 the root of the Maranta
1 Sloane's Jamaica, vol. i. p. 254.               » The Natural History of Barbados, p. 221,1750.
» The Civil and Natural History of Jamaica, p. 112, 1789.                 * Journ. Bot. iii. 41.
* Nees v. Esenb. and Eberm. Handb. d. Med. pharm. Bot.
' Buchner's Repertoriumfur die Pharmacie, Bd.xvi. S. 255, 1823. 
                The West Indian Arrow-root :—Commerce.             225

has the following composition: volatile oil,  0.07; gummy  extract, 0.50;  starch,
26.00;  woody fibre, 6.00; albumen,  1.58;  muriate of lime,  0.25;  and  water,
65.600.
  The per centage quantity of starch obtained from the root has been thus stated by other
authorities:  7.81 (Dr. J. Clark),1 12.5 (De Candolle),2  21.43 (Dr. Shier3 from roots scarcely
ripe).
   Extraction op the Fecula.—The starch, or fecula, is extracted from the roots
(tubers) when these are about ten or twelve months old.   The process  is entirely
a mechanical one, and is performed either by hand or by machine.
   In Jamaica, it is procured  as  follows:  The tubers are dug up, well washed in
water, and then beaten in large, deep, wooden mortars to a pulp.   This is thrown
into a large tub of clean water.   The whole  is  then well stirred,  and  the  fibrous
part wrung out by the hands and thrown away.   The milky liquor being  passed
through a  hair-sieve, or coarse  cloth, is  suffered  to settle, and the  clear water  is
drained off.   At the bottom of the vessel is a white mass, which  is again  mixed
with clean water and drained;  lastly, the mass is dried on sheets  in the  sun, and
is pure starch.*
   In Bermuda5 the roots are  first deprived  of  their paper-like  scales, and then
rasped  by a kind of wheel-rasp  (something  like Fig. 224, p. 228), and the fecula
well washed through sieves and carefully dried.      ,
   Upon the Hopewell estate, in the Island St. Vincent,6 the carefully-skinned tubers
are washed, then ground in a mill, and the pulp washed in tinned-copper cylindrical
washing-machines.   The fecula is subsequently dried in  drying houses.   In  order
to obtain  the fecula free from impurity pure water must be used, and great care
 and attention paid in every step of the  process.   The skinning  or peeling of the
 tubers must be performed with great nicety, as the cuticle contains a resinous matter,
 which  imparts colour  and a disagreeable  flavour to  the starch.   German silver
 palettes are used for skinning the deposited fecula, and shovels  of the same metal
 for packing the dried fecula.  The drying is effected in pans covered by white gauze
 to exclude dust and insects.
   Commerce.—Arrow-root is brought, in tin cases and in barrels and boxes, from
 the West India Islands  (Jamaica,  Barbados, Antigua, St.  Vincent, Dominica,
 Bermuda, St. Kitt's, Grenada, Demerara, and Berbice), Calcutta, and Sierra Leone.
   The packages of West-Indian arrow-root sent to this country are lined with paper
 attached with arrow-root paste.  When sent to this country in the  hold  of the ship,
 their contents are easily tainted by noisome  effluvia.
   Arrow-root is usually distinguished by the name of the island  or place producing
 it;  as Bermuda arrow-root, St.  Vincent's arrow-root, Jamaica arrow-root, African
 or Sierra-Leone arrow-root, &c.   Bermuda arrow-root is the  most esteemed variety.
 In 1 ^45, about 400,000 lbs. were manufactured, of which more than three-fourths
 came to England.   Dr. Ure says  that the St. Vincent's  arrow-root prepared on the
 Hopewell estate vies with the Bermuda sort.
   In commerce, the term arrow-root is frequently used generically to indicate a starch or fecula.
 The following are illustrations of its use in this way:—
   Portland Arrow-root is obtained from Arum maculatum (see ante, p.  158).
   East India Arrowroot is the fecula procured from Curcuma angustifolia, and will be described
 hereafter.  But the West  Indian plant (Maranta  arundinacea) is also cultivated in the East
 Indies, and the fecula obtained therefrom is exported from thence, and might with  equal pro-
 priety be called East India arrow-root.
   Brazilian Arrow-root is the fecula of Jatropha Manihot, and will be noticed hereafter (vide
 El'PHORBIACEiB).
   Tahiti Arrow-root  is the  fecula of Tacca oceanica, and has already been noticed (see ante
 p. 221).
1  Medical Facts and Ob.icrvations, vol. vii. 1797.            » Physiologie Vegetate, t. i. p. 187 1832
'  Report on the Starch-producing Plants of the Colony of British Guiana, p. 11, Bemerara, 1647. '
'  Wright, London Medical Journal, vol. viii.
'  Co(t»well, in Cormack's Monthly Journal of Medical Science, vol. v. p. 789, 1845.
•  Recent Improvements in Arts and Manufactures, by A. Ure, M. D., 1844.
      VOL. II.—15 
226              VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Marantactls.

   Propkrties.—The starch or fecula  (amylum vel fsecula  marantse), called in
the shops West Indian arrowroot, or simply arrow-root, is white, odourless, and
tasteless.   It is  in the form either of a light opake white  powder, or of small
pulverulent masses.   When passed  between  the fingers, it  feels firm,  and, when
rubbed, produces a slight crackling noise.   When viewed by a good pocket lens, it
is  seen to consist of  glistening particles.   When examined by a microscope, these
are seen to be convex, more or less elliptical, and moderately uniform in size.1  The
shape is more or less  irregular, but often oblong, or usually somewhat ovate-oblong,
frequently obscurely triangular, or  oyster-shaped, or mussel-shaped.3  After having
been digested for a short time in water, one, or rarely two, mammillary processes are,
in some samples, seen projecting from the surface of some of the particles.   In
some  specimens, these processes have appeared like short spines.  The rings are
very distinct, though  fine.   The nucleus, central cavity, or hilum is  usually very
distinct, generally  towards  one end of  the  particle  normally circular,  but  fre-
quently cracked in a  linear  or  stellate manner.  When viewed  by the polarizing
microscope, the particles show very distinct crosses: the junction of the arms of the
cross indicates the position of  the  hilum.
   Composition op the  Starch.—Arrow-root has been analyzed by Dr. Prout'
and by Payen,4 who obtained the following results :—
Prout.				Paten.		
Water ...... Arrow-root . .	Air dried.	Dried be-tween200° and 2123 for 20 hours.	Dried at 212° for 6 hours longer, j	Arrow-root . .	Portion most easily dis-aggregated, dried at 2123 F.	Amidon intact purified by alcoholf water, and dried at 3623 F.
	36.4 63.6	42.8 57.2	44.4 55.6		44.3 6.2 49.5	44.33 6.25 49.42
	100.0	100.0	100.0		100.0	100.00
The formula which agrees with Prout's third analysis is C12H10010.
  Dr. Prout regards arrow-root as a low variety of starch analogous to the low sugar
of honey; while wheat-starch he considers to be  the most perfect form of starch,
analogous to sugar-candy.
  Substitutions, Impurities, and Adulterations.—The presence of accidental
impurities (such as insects,  dust, &c.) may be readily detected by alterations in the
colour, odour,  and flavour of the arrow-root.
   Other  cheaper feculas are sometimes  substituted  for the genuine arrow-root;
especially sago-meal, potato-starch, and tapioca-starch  or Brazilian arrow-root.
  The  fraud is readily detected  by the microscope.5   When squeezed in the hand,
the sago-meal crackles like arrow-root; but when submitted to microscopic exami-
nation, the truncated extremity of many of the particles giving them either a mullar
shape or dihedral summit, the irregular or tuberculated surface, and the size of the
particles, readily served to distinguish it from arrow-root.

  1 The following measurements, in parts of an English inch, of the particles of West India arrow-root,
were kindly made for me by Mr. George Jackson :—
Particles.         Length.        Breadth.     Particles.         Length.        Breadth.
    1.........0.0020.......0.0013         4.........0 0008  ......0.0005
    2.........0.0012.......0.0009         5.........0.0006.......0.0004
    3*........0.0010.......0.0008         6.........0.0005.......0.0003
                   The most prevalent-sized particle is distinguished thus *.
  * Schleiden (Principles of Scientific Botany) describes the granules as being compound, without evident
central cavity, and always exhibiting the smooth connecting surfaces; but this description does not apply
to commercial West Indian arrow-root.—Ragpail has depicted the grains of the fecula of Convolvulm
Batatas for arrow-root (see Payen, Ann.  Scien. Nat. 2de Ser. t. x. Botanique, p. 18, 1638).
  1 Phil. Trans. 1827.                 « Ann. des Scien. Nat. 2de Ser. Botanique, 1838, pp. 183-184.
  * Lanest, Feb. 1,1851. 
TnE West Indian Arrow-root.   Tous les Mois.
227
  Potato-starch is sometimes sold for West Indian arrow-root.   I have met with it
in commerce  under the  name  of English  arrow-root.  It is devoid of the dull or
dead white  appearance presented  by West India arrow-root.   The naked eye, or
still better a pocket lens, readily distinguishes  its large glistening particles from
those of genuine arrow-root.  The microscope instantly detects the difference.  The
particles of potato-starch are larger than those of arrow-root, and have coarser and
more distinct rings.  Moreover, the shape of  the particles serves to distinguish
them (see Potato-starch).   Lampadius1 observed  that potato-starch evolves a peculiar
odour when boiled with  water and sulphuric acid,  and that arrow-root does  not
evolve this odour when treated in  a similar way.  Arrow-root,  moreover, " is des-
titute of that fetid, unwholesome  oil, extractible  by alcohol from potato-starch."1
Mixed with one and a half, or twice its weight, of concentrated hydrochloric acid,
arrow-root yields an opake paste, whereas that produced by potato-starch  is trans-
parent.   Arrow-root takes a longer time than potato-starch  to become viscid when
mixed with equal parts of acid and water.8
  Other kind of feculas, which are said  to have been substituted (on account of
their cheapness) for the genuine arrow-root, such as East India arrow-root or Cur-
cuma starch  (see Curcuma angustifolia), and Brazilian  arrow-root or tapioca-starch
(see  Jatropha Manihot),  are readily distinguishable by the microscope.
  Physiological Effects.—By the Indians of South  America, and even by some
Europeans, the roots (tubers) have been supposed to possess alexipharmic properties 4
But  their  chief if not their only  real value is that of yielding the  starch called
arrow-root, which is a much esteemed non-nitrogenized alimentary principle, which,
like  some  other agents of this kind (see vol. i. p. 116), are useful in the animal
economy for the production  of fatty and  saccharine matters, lactic acid,  and heat.
Arrow-root is one of the  most palatable and digestible of the starches.
  Uses.—The  roots (tubers) have  been used by the South American Indians to
counteract the  effects of wounds inflicted  by poisoned arrows.   Very  recently5 the
expressed juice  of the root has  been lauded as an antidote to poisons taken into the
stomach, and to the bites and stings of venomous insects and reptiles.
  The starch or arrowroot is employed  at  the  table  as an article of food, in  the
forms of puddings.  It forms an agreeable, non-irritating diet for invalids or infants.
In  irritation  of the alimentary canal, of the pulmonary organs, or of the urinary
apparatus, it  is especially valuable  as a nutritive, emollient, and demulcent.
   Administration.—To invalids and infants arrow-root (the starch) is  exhibited
when boiled in  water or milk and flavoured.   Milk disagrees with some patients, and
in such is of course to be avoided.   The addition of sugar improves the flavour and
increases the nutritive qualities.  Spices, lemon  juice, or wine may  be  employed
according  to circumstances.


                 74.  Canna edulis,  Ker.—Tous-les-Mois ?
                           Sex. Syst. Monandria, Monogynia.
(Canna.  Fecula of the root of an imperfectly determined  species of Canna.  Tous-les-Mois, E.__The root
                  is supposed to furnish the fecula called Tous-les-Mois, D.)
  The starch or fecula called Tons  les-Mois was  introduced to the notice  of the  British public
by the late  Mr. Olpherts6 of St. Kitts, about 1836.  It was at first stated to be  the  produce of
C. coccinea; but as this species, like C. indica, has fibrous, and not tuberous roots, it is tolerably
clear that this cannot be the  source  of the starch  in question.
  There is good renson for lielieving that C. edulis of Ker is a native of tbe West Indies, and
that it is the species which yields tous les-mois.   Descourtilz7 and Lunan8 speak  of a species of
  1 Pharmacevtisches Central-Blattfur 1832. S. 638.
  1 Ure, lit cent Improvements in Arts, Manufactures, and Mines, p. 10, 1S44.
  ' Scharluig, Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. ii. p. 417, 1843.
  4 Slounc's Jamaica, vol i. p. 251.
  ' 11:imilton, Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. vi. pp. 23 and 25, 1847.
  • Hamilton, Pharm. Journal, v..I. vii. p. 56, 1847; also, the Medico-Chirurg. Review for Oct 1  1Rlfi •
ind Ryan's Med. and Surg. Journal for August, 1S36.                                   ' ltW0'
  ' Fl. Mid dt> Antilles, p. 3, tab. 210.                 • Horlus Jamaitmsis, vol. ii. p. 417. 
228
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Marantace^e.
Fig. 224.
Canna with fleshy tuberous roots, which grows in the West Indie*, and which they call C. indica.
But the  character of the roots just mentioned shows that the West Indian plant is not C. indica,
Linn.  Ruiz and Pavon1 speak of a South American plant which  they term Canna indica of
Linnaeus, whose  fleshy tubers  are eaten by the Peruvians, who call the  plant Achira.   They
considered it to be the C. Indica of Linn.  But when their herbarium came into Mr. Lambert's pos.
session, he raised plants from the seeds of the original specimens,and found the species to bea
new one, which he named  C. edulis.2
  Mr. Lambert afterwards received seeds, from Dr.  Gillies of Mendoza, of a Canna known in
South America as " Achira."  This has been described  and figured3 as a new species under the
name of C. Achiras (more properly C. Achira); but it is not improbable that  it may prove to be
identical with C. edulis.
  C. glauca is also said to yield a valuable starch.4
  My friend Mr. Wordsworth, assistant-surgeon to the London Hospital, and  who  resided  some
                                               time  at St. Kitts,  tells  me  that  he  cultivated
                                               the Tous-les-Mois  in his garden.  Its height
                                               was about 4 feet;  and its tubers three or four
                                               times the size of the fist.   In  order to extract
                                               the fecula,  the tubers are rasped  by means
                                               of  a circular  or   wheel-rasp5 worked  hy a
                                               treddle. The  tuber is held against the edge
                                               of the rasp, at the  point marked o in  the ac-
                                               companying figure.  The  starch is obtained
                                               from this  pulp by the ordinary methods of
                                               washing, straining, decantation of the super-
                                               natant liquor, and desiccation of the deposited
                                               starch.
                                                  The quantity of starch procured from the
                                               roots  of the tous-les-mois plant  has not been
                                               satisfactorily ascertained.   Ricord Madianna8
                                               obtained from a pound of the root two ounces
                                               of a  starch of line quality: this is equal to
                                               12.5 per cent.  It is probable, however, that
Wheel-rasp used for rasping the tubers  of the
              Tous-les-Mois plant.
 on the large scale the product would be much greater.
   Tous-les-mois starch is imported from St. Kitts.  To the naked eye it greatly resembles potato-
 starch.  On account of the large size of its particles, it has  a satiny or glistening appearance,
 and is devoid of that dead white or opake appearance presented  by the West Indian arrow-
 root.  Examined  by a pocket lens, the sparkling and glistening appearance of its particles is
 very obvious.   When  submitted to examination by means of the compound microscope, its par-
 ticles are seen to be very large' (in this respect exceeding those of all other starches), somewhat
 egg-shaped, to have a  very distinct nucleus, central cavity, or hilum, and concentric rings indi-
 cative of their laminated structure.  Strictly speaking, their shape is oval  or  oblong;  but gene-
 rally more or  less ovate.   The circular hilum  is usually placed  at the narrow extremity; very
 rarely it is double; once  I have seen it treblp.  The rings are numerous, regular, close, but
 somewhat unequally so.   The hilum and the  body of the particle are frequently cracked.
   Potato-starch  is the  only amylaceous substance which can be confounded with tous-les-mois.
 The two starches maybe distinguished by a careful attention to their relative sizes and shapes,
 to the  appearance of their rings, the position of the hilum, and  the action  of polarized light on
 them.
   First,  the particles of potato-starch are on the average smaller than those of tous-les-mois,
 and are  subject to greater irregularity of size (both as regards  different sorts of potatoes and
 the different particles of the same potato).
   Secondly, the larger particles of potato-starch are more irregular in shape than those of tous-
 les-mois; the latter are more constantly rounded or oblong or ovate-oblong; the former are oval,
 often approximating in shape to an oyster-shell, a mussel-shell, or a  triangle with  rounded
corners, and being frequently gibbous or tumid  at different parts of their surface.
   Thirdly, the rings seen on particles of tous-les-mois are fine, regular, uniform, concentric, and
  1 Flora Peruviana.                           a Botanical Register, tab. 7.
  3 Ibid. tab. 1358.                             « Bennett, Ceylon and its Capabilities, p. 127,1843.
  * Piso (Hist. Nat. Brasilia, p. 53,1648) represents a somewhat similar machine as being  used in the
preparation of cassava or tapioca starch.
  6 Journ. de Pharmacie, t. xvi. p. 306, 1830.
  'The following measurements, in parts of an English inch, of the particles of " tous-les-mois," were
made for me by Mr. George Jackson:—
Particles.
               Length.         Breadth.
1.........0.0042.......0.0035
2.........0.0037.......0.0026
3*........0.0031.......0.0027
rticles. 4*.....	Length.	Breadth .... 0 0020
5#.....		. . . 0.0017
6.....	. . . . 0.0013 . . .	. . . . 0.0010
The most prevalent-sized particles are those marked thus #. 
Gingerworts.—TheX arrow-Leaved Ginger.
229
crowded; those of potato-starch are coarser, irregular, often excentric, irregularly drawn out,
distorted, or more and unequally distant from each other.   In potato-starch a greater  number
of complete rings is visible, and we can trace the  lines around the hilum, even  in the case of
many of the larger rings; but in tous-les-mois this can be  done  with a very few of the smaller
rings only.
  Fourthly, in both the hilum is situated nearer to the end of the particle;  but  in potato-starch
this character is  less obvious, the  hilum frequently being less distant from the centre of the
particle than in the case of  tous les-mois.
  Lastly, when viewed by  polarized light the  cross is less frequently regular in potato-starch
than in tous-les-mois; in the former, the arms are often distorted.
  Tous-les-mois  of commerce contains about 16.74 per cent, of hygroscopic water.  It is very
soluble in boiling water; and,according to Dr. Shier's experiments, yields a jelly, which is con-
siderably more tenacious than the jelly of any other  starch;  but which, in clearness or trans-
lucency, is inferior to that of arrow-root, and of some other substances.
  The composition of tous-les-mois starch is assumed to be the same as that of other  starches,
viz., Cl2H">0">.
   In its dietetical qualities tous-les-mois resembles other starches (see vol. i. p. 116).   It yields
very agreeable articles of food for invalids and others, and appears  to be very readily  digested.
Order  XVII.    ZINGIBERACEiE, Lindl—GINGERWORTS.
                      Drymyrhize.k, Vent.—Scitamine.e, R. Brown.

  Characters.—Calyx superior, tubular, 3-lobed, short.   Corolla tubular, irregular, with 6 seg-
ments in 2 whorls; the outer 3-parted, nearly equal, or with the odd segment sometimes differ-
ently shaped; the inner (sterile  stamens) 3-parted, with  the intermediate segment (labellum)
larger than the rest, and often 3  lobed, the lateral segments sometimes nearly abortive.   Stamens
3, distinct, of which the 2 lateral are abortive, and  the  intermediate one fertile;  this placed
opposite the labellum, and arising from  the base of the  intermediate segment of the outer
series of the corolla.   Filament not petaloid, often extended beyond the  anther in the shape of
a lobed or entire appendage.   Anther 2-celled, opening longitudinally, its lobes often embracing
the upper part of the style.  Pollen globose, smooth.  Ovary  3-celled, sometimes imperfectly so;
ovules several, attached to a placenta in the axis; style filiform; stigma dilated, hollow.  Fruit
usually capsular, 3-celled, many seeded [sometimes by abortion 1-celled];  occasionally berried
(the dissepiments generally central, proceeding from the axis of the valves, at last usually sepa-
rate from the latter, and of a different texture, R. Br.).   Seeds roundish or angular, with or with-
out an aril (allmmen floury, its substance radiating, and deficient near the hilum, R. Br); embryo
enclosed within a peculiar  membrane (vitellus, R. Br. Prodr. membrane of the amnios, ibid, in
King's Voyage, 21), with which  it does not cohere.—Aromatic,  tropical,  herbaceous plants.
Rhizome creeping, often jointed.   Stem formed of the cohering base of the leaves,  never branch-
ing.  Leaves simple, sheathing their lamina, often separated from the sheath by a taper  neck, and
having a single midrib, from which very numerous, simple, crowded  veins diverge at an acute
angle.  Inflorescence either a dense spike, or a raceme, or a sort of panicle, terminal or radical.
Flowers arising from among spathaceous membranous bracts, in which they usually lie in pairs.
(Lindley.)
   Pnoi'BitTiER—The  rhizomes contain a volatile oil and resin, which confer on them  aromatic
or ncro-aromatic qualities.  Many of them abound in starch, the particles  of which (like those
of plantain starch, see ante, p. 223) are flattened disks.  This is sometimes extracted and used
as /bod.  Some of them are  remarkable for the yellow colouring matter  which they yield.
   The seeds also contain volatile oil and resin; and possess aromatic or  acro-aromatic qualities.


75.  ZINGIBER OFFICINALE, Rosroe.-THE NARROW-LEAVED
                                     GINGER.
                                Amomum Zingiber, Linn. D.
                             Sex. Syst. Monandria, Monogynia.
                               (Rhizoma, L. E.-Radix,  D.)

   History.—Dioscorides1 and Plinv2 speak of ginger: the former calls  it  feyyi'fcptj;
the latter zingiberi  and zimgiberi.
   IJotany.   Gen.  Char.— Corolla  with the outer  limb 3-parted,  inner 1-lipped.
Filament lengthened beyond the anther into a simple incurved beak.   Capsule 3-
celled, 3-valved.   Seeds  numerous, arillate.—Rhizocarpial plants.   Rhizomes tu-
' Lib. ii. cap. 190.
1 Hist. Nat. lib. xii. cap. 14, ed. Vulp. 
230             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Zingiberace^e.

berous, articulated, creeping.   Stems annual, enclosed in the sheaths of distichous
leaves.   Leaves  membranous.   Spikes cone-shaped, radical  or  rarely  terminal,
solitary, consisting of 1-flowered imbricated bracts (Blume1).
   Sp. Char.—Leaves subsessile, linear-lanceolate, smooth.   Spikes elevated, oblong.
Bracts acute.   Lip 3-lobed.   (Roxburgh.)
   Rhizome biennial.   Stems erect and oblique, and invested by the smooth sheaths
of the leaves; generally three or four feet high, and annual.   Leaf sheaths smooth,
crowned with  a bifid ligula.   Scapes  solitary, six to twelve inches  high.   Spikes
the size of a man's thumb.   Lip dark  purple.   Ovary oval, with numerous ovults;
style filiform;  stigma funnel-shaped, ciliate.   Capside roundish, unilocular.   aSWi
numerous; mostly abortive.3
   Hab.—Cultivated in the tropical regions of Asia  and America, and at Sierra
Leone.   Native soil doubtful, probably Asia.
   Preparation.— Green ginger is sometimes imported from Jamaica.  It consists
of soft and juicy rhizomes with buds; and appears to have  undergone but little
preparation beyond picking and washing.
   The  young shoots put forth  every  spring by the perennial rhizome are used in
the manufacture of the delicious preserved ginger (conditum zingiberis).  These
shoots are carefully picked, washed, scalded, scraped, peeled, and then preserved in
jars with syrup.   (Dr.  P. Browne.)
   The finest preserved  ginger is imported from Jamaica usually in jars.  Barbados
preserved  ginger is seldom brought over.  The China preserved ginger is stringy.
It is sometimes imported in the dried state.
   The  dried  rhizomes, called in the shops ginger (radix zingiberis), are prepared
when the stalks are wholly withered, and the  rhizomes are about  a  year  old.  In
Jamaica, this happens  in January or February.   The rhizomes are dug up and
separately picked, washed, and  scraped; and  afterwards dried in the sun and open
air.   (Dr. P.  Browne.)   The product is the uncoated ginger of the shops, formerly
called white ginger (zingiber album).
   The coated ginger of the shops has obviously not undergone this careful  prepara-
tion. In Barbados, the rhizomes are dug up, scraped clean, and sun-dried.3 The black
ginger (zingiber nigrum), formerly prepared in Jamaica, is obtained by pickling and
cleaning the rhizomes, scalding them  gradually in  boiling water, and afterwards
sun-drying them.4
   Description.—The rhizome, called in  commerce ginger root or simply ginger
(radix zingiberis), occurs in flattish, jointed, branched, or lobed, palmate pieces,
called races or hands, which rarely exceed four inches in length.
   Barbados ginger, the old sorts brought from  Malabar and  Bengal, and African
ginger, are covered by a dry, shrivelled  epidermis commonly called the " coat;"
hence these sorts are usually said to be coated or unscraped; whereas the ginger of
Jamaica, and  the new sorts which of late years have been brought from  Malabar
and Bengal, have been deprived of their  epidermis, and are,  therefore, said to be
uncoated or scraped.  The external colour varies in the different sorts from pale or
bright yellow to dark  or brown:  the  palest  sort is the fine  Jamaica ginger; the
darkest being  the Bengal old sort; and  the other sorts being intermediate.  Ginger
breaks  moderately short,  but  the fractured surface presents  numerous projecting
pointed  fibres, imbedded in a mealy or farinaceous tissue.   A transverse section of
the larger and more perfect  pieces  shows an outer, horny, resinous-looking zone,
surrounding a farinaceous centre, which  has a speckled appearance from the cut
extremities of the fibres and ducts.   The internal  varies like  the  external colour;
the  best ginger is that which cuts pale but bright.  The consistence of ginger, as
  1 Enumeratio Plantarum Java.     a Roxburgh, op. cit.; and Dr. P. Browne, History of Jamaica.
  * Hughes, Nat. Hist, of Barbados, p. 233, 1750.
  4 Dr. P. Browne, op. cit.—According to Dr. Wright (Lond. Med Journ. vol. viii.; also, Memoir of the
late Dr. Wright, p. 185, 1828), two sorts of ginger are cultivated in Jamaica, viz., the white and  the
black ;  the latter has the more numerous and the larger roots. 
         The Narrow-leaved Ginger:—Varieties; Assortment.      231

ascertained by cutting, varies from soft to hard, or, as it is termed in trade, "flinty;"
the soft  being preferred.  The taste  of ginger is  aromatic, hot, and biting;  the
odour of a fresh broken piece is peculiar and pungent, though aromatic.
   Varieties.—Seven  kinds  of ginger,  distinguished  partly by their  place  of
growth, and partly by their quality, are known in English commerce.   Of these,
two are from the West Indies,  four from the East Indies, and one from Africa.
   A.   West Indian  Gingers.—This division  includes Jamaica and  Barbados
gingers.
   1. Jamaica ginger.—Imported in barrels holding 1 cwt. each.   It is an uncoated,
pale sort, and when of fine quality occurs in large, bold, fleshy races, which cut soft,
bright, and pale coloured.  Inferior samples are  small in the race, darker coloured,
more or less flinty, and  shrivelled.
   2. Barbados  ginger.—Imported in bags of about 60 or 70 lbs.  It is a coated
Bort, in short, flat races, which  are darker coloured than Jamaica ginger, and are
covered with corrugated epidermis.
   B.  East Indian Gingers.—This division includes two sorts from Malabar and
two from Bengal, all of which are more liable  to be wormy than either the West
Indian or African sorts.
   o. Malabar Gingers.
   3.  Coated Malabar Ginger; Unscraped Malabar Ginger; Old sort of Malabar
Ginger; Common Malabar Ginger;  Bombay Ginger.—Imported from Bombay in
bags or packets.   It is a coated, dark, small sort.
   4. Uncoated Malabar Ginger; New sort of Malabar Ginger; Tellicherry Ginger;
Calicut Ginger;  Cochin Ginger.—A  pale, uncoated sort, imported in chests, casks,
or bags, sometimes from Tellicherry,  but usually from Calicut or Cochin.  It re-
sembles Jamaica ginger both in external appearance and flavour; but  has exter-
nally more of a brownish  or reddish tint.   It first appeared in English commerce
about 1841.
   /3. Bengal Gingers.
   5. Coated Bengal Ginger; Common Bengal Ginger; Old sort of Bengal Ginger.
—Imported in bags.  It is a coated or unscraped dark sort, which cuts flinty and
brownish, but is plumper and  less wormy than common Malabar ginger.
   G.  Uncoated  Bengal  Ginger;  Scraped Bengal  Ginger; New sort of Bengal
 Ginger; Calient sort of Bengal Ginger.—Imported in chests of about \\ cwts.   It
is an \incoated sort, darker than Jamaica ginger.   It is not so large as the uncoated
Malabar sort, and is harder and darker.
   C.  African Ginger.—Only  one kind of African ginger is known, viz., that from
Sierra Leone.
   7.  Sierra Leone Ginger; African Ginger.—Imported in casks or bags.   It  is
a coated sort; the races being generally larger, less flat, and less plump than those
of the Barbados sort, which in other respects they resemble.
  Chinese Ginger.—The Chinese ginger described by Bassermann1 is unknown in  English com-
merce; the only ginger imported into England from China being preserved ginger.
   Assortment.—The uncoated gingers, namely, the Jamaica, uncoated Malabar,
and uncoated  Bengal, are assorted for  commercial purposes,  according to  their
qualities, somewhat thus—
      1.  Bold, soft, and bright ginger.          3. Flinty and dark.
      2.  Smaller, but soft and bright.       |   4. Shrivelled, and only fit for grinding.
  The  Barbados, African, and coated  Malabar and Bengal gingers are usually sold
unassorted.
  The  following are the quantities  of  ginger  on which  duty  was  paid  for six
years:—
1 PharmaceutischesCentral-BlattfUr 1835. 
232
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Zingiberace^.
                               British West Indies.      East Indies.  Total.
                                     cwts.               cwts.    cwts.
             In 1935........6,496......   807 =   7,363
               1836........4,426......1,912 =   6.338
               1837........9.157......3,520 =  12,877
               1638........9.305......1,911 =  11,216
               1839........6,357......   818 =   7.175
               1840........7,528......1,535 =   9,063

  Washed Ginger;  Bleached Ginger.—Ginger is sometimes washed in water,
and  then dried, by wholesale  dealers, prior to  its being  offered  for  sale  to the
retailers.
  Some of  the darker sorts are bleached by washing them  in a solution of chloride
of lime, and sometimes by exposing them  to  the fumes of burning sulphur.  By
this  treatment the ginger acquires a chalky-white character, and is then often termed
white-washed ginger.
  Ginger is said1 to be sometimes washed in whiting  and water (or white-washed)
under the pretence of  preserving it from insects.
  Adulteration.—Powdered ginger is said to be sometimes admixed with flour
and  other amylaceous substances.   The microscope would readily detect the adulte-
ration, except  in the  case of East Indian arrow-root (Curcuma angustifolia), the
particles of which are similar in appearance to those of ginger.
  Composition.—Ginger was analyzed in 1817  by  Bucholz,3  and in 1823 by
Morin.3
            Bucholz's Analysis.
Pale yellow volatile oil.............1.56
Aromatic, acrid, soft resin...........3.60
Extractive, soluble in alcohol.........0.65
Acidulous and acrid extractive, insoluble in
   alcohol....................10.50
Gum........................12.05
Starch (analogous to bassorint......... 19.75
Apotheme, extracted by potash (ulmin?) . .  .26.00
Bassorin.....................8.30
Woody fibre...................8.00
Water  ......................11.90
White Ginger..............102.31
              Morin's Analysis.
Volatile oil.
Acrid soft resin.
Resin insoluble in ether and oils.
Gum.
Starch.
Woody fibre.
Vegeto-animal matter.
Osmazome.
Acetic acid, acetate of potash, and sulphur.
  The  ashes contained  carbonate and  sulphate of
potash, chloride of potassium, phosphate of lime,
alumina, silica, and oxides of iron and manganese.

     Ginger.
  1. Volatile oil of Gingeii.—Is pale  yellow, very fluid, lighter than water, odour that of
ginger, taste at first mild, afterwards acrid and hot.                                »
  2. Soft Resiit.—Obtained by digesting the alcoholic extract of ginger first in water, then in
ether,  and evaporating the ethereal tincture.   The residual resin is yellowish-brown, soft, com-
bustible, has an aromatic odour, and a burning  aromatic taste.   Is  readily soluble in alcohol,
ether,  oil of turpentine, and hot almond oil.
  3. Stahch.—Ginger starch consists of thin flat disks, which resemble those of East Indian
arrow-root (see Curcuma angustifolia) and plantain starch (see ante,  p. 223).
  Physiological Effects.—Ginger is one of  the aromatic stimulants (see vol. i.
p. 253) which possess considerable pungency or acridity.  Its dust applied to the
mucous membrane of the nostrils acts as  an irritant, and provokes sneezing.   The
rhizome chewed is a powerful sialagogue.   The powder mixed with hot water, and
applied to the skin, causes a sensation of intense heat and tingling, and slight red-
ness.    When taken into the stomach, ginger operates as  a stimulant;  first, to the
alimentary canal;  secondly, to the body generally; but  especially to the organs of
respiration.   Like some other spices (the peppers, for instance), it acts as an  excitant
to the genital organs.   Furthermore, it  has been said to increase the energy of the
cerebral functions.   It is less acrid than pepper.
   Uses.—Its principal consumption is as a condiment.   Its powers in this way are
considerable, while its flavour is by no means disagreeable, and its acridity scarcely
sufficient to enable it, when taken with food, to  irritate or inflame.
   As a stomachic and internal stimulant,  it serves several important  purposes.  In
1 Brande. Diet, of Mat. Med.
2 Journ. de Pharm. ix. 253.
3 Gmelin's Handb. d. Chem. 
            The Narrow-leaved Ginger :—its Administration.         233

enfeebled and relaxed habits, especially of old and gouty individuals, it promotes
digestion, and relieves flatulency and spasm of the stomach and bowels.   It checks
or prevents nausea and griping, which are apt to be produced by some drastic  pur-
gatives.  It covers the nauseous flavour of many medicines, and  communicates
cordial and carminative qualities to tonic and other agents.   As a sialagogue, it is
sometimes chewed  to relieve toothache, relaxed uvula, and paralytic affections of the
tongue.  As a counter-irritant, I have frequently known a ginger plaster (prepared
by mixing together powdered ginger and warm water, and spreading the paste on
paper or cloth)  relieve violent headache when applied to the forehead.
  Administration.—Powdered ginger may be administered, in doses of from ten
grains to a scruple or more, in the form of a pill.   Made into a paste with hot water,
it may be applied as a plaster, as already mentioned.
   Preserved ginger (conditum zingiberis), though commonly used as a  sweetmeat,
may be taken with advantage as a  medicine to stimulate the stomach.   Ginger
lozenges, ginger pearls (commonly termed ginger seeds), and ginger pipe are useful
articles of confectionery, which are frequently of benefit in dyspepsia accompanied
with flatulence.
   1. TINCTURA  ZINGIBERIS, L. E. D. [U. S.]; Tincture of Ginger.—(Ginger, sliced
[in coarse powder, E. D.~], £ijss Q^viij, D. (U.  S.)]; Rectified Spirit Oij.   Mace-
rate for seven [fourteen, D.~\ days, and strain, L.  D.  "Proceed by percolation or
digestion, as directed for tincture of  cinchona," E.)—A very valuable carmina-
tive.   It is commonly employed as  an adjunct to tonic, stimulant, and purgative
mixtures.   Its  dose is f3J to f3U-   The tincture, made with proof spirit, becomes
turbid by keeping, in consequence of the mucilage it contains.
   Essence of ginger is prepared as a tincture, except that the quantity  of rhizome
should be increased.  Some preparers of it concentrate the tincture by distilling off
part of the  alcohol.                  .

_2.  SYRUPUS ZINGIBERIS, L.  E. D.  [U. S.]; Syrup of  Ginger.—(Ginger, sliced,
3ijss; Boiling  Distilled Water Oj;  Sugar tbijss, or as much  as may be sufficient
[Rectified Spirit as much as  may be  sufficient, L.~\.   Macerate the  ginger in  the
water for four hours, and strain; then add the sugar, and dissolve it.—The Dublin
 College directs  it  to be  prepared with Tincture of Ginger f^j, and Simple Syrup
f^vij.  Mix with  agitation.)—Used for flavouring.   It is scarcely strong enough
to be of much  value.  An extemporaneous  syrup may be prepared by  adding the
tincture of ginger  to common  syrup.   The Syrupus Zingiberisoi the United States
Pharmacopoeia  is  made  by adding f^ij of  tincture of ginger (prepared with Jviij
of ginger, and  Oij, wine measure, of alcohol) to  a gallon of syrup, and evaporating
the alcohol by  a water-bath.

   3.  INFUSUM ZINGIBERIS; Infusion of Ginger;   Ginger Tea.—This is a very useful
domestic remedy,  and is prepared by digesting from 3'j to 3iv of Ginger in f^vj of
Boiling Water, for two hours.   When flavoured, it is employed as a  carminative in
flatulence, &c, in  doses of one or two tablespoonfuls.

   4.  CEREVISI.l ZINGIBERIS;  Ginger Beer; Ginger Pop.—-For the following excellent
formula for the preparation of this popular and  agreeable beverage, I am indebted
to  Mr. Pollock, of Fenchurch Street:  "Take of White Sugar rbxx;  Lemon (or
Lime)  juice fjxviij ;  Honey ifej;  Ginger, bruised,  ifxxij ;  Water  cong.  xviij.
Boil the ginger in three gallons of water for half an  hour; then add the sugar, the
juice, and the honey, with the remainder of the water, and strain through  a cloth.
When cold, add the white of  one egg and fJss of essence of lemon;  after standing
four days, bottle.   The bottles are to be laid on their sides in a cellar, and the beer
is ready for use in  about  three weeks.  If a little yeast be used, the beer is ready in
a day or two; but in this case it does not keep well."  This  yields a very superior
beverage, and one which will keep for many months.  Lemon-juice may be  pur- 
234              VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Zingiberace.e.

chased for  sixpence a  pint in Botolph Lane, Thames Street.   A formula for the
preparation of Ginger Beer Powders has already  been given (see vol. i.  p. 5*23).


                     76. Zingiber Cassumunar, Roxburgh.
                            Sex. Syst.  Monandria, Monogynia.
                                       (Radix.)
   The root of  this plant is " perennial, tuberous, furnished with long, white, fleshy fibres, and
jointed like  ginger, but much larger; when fresh, of a deep yellow; possessing  a strong, noi
very agreeable, camphoraceous smell, and warm, spicy, bitterish taste," (Roxburgh.)  Sir Joseph
Banks and Dr. Comb (to whom specimens of it were given) thought that it was the true cassu-
munar of the shops.1  But  the great resemblance of cassumunar root to round zedoary leads me
to think that it is obtained from a species of Curcuma.
   About the year 1672, Dr. Pechey received from his brother, factor to the East India Company,
a  root which was called cassumunar (variously spelt casmunar, casumunar, &c), rysagone (or
risagon), and bengale (or bengalle).2  These names were probably fictitious, and  were merely
given to conceal the secret of its nature.
   This root is  still found in the warehouses of some London druggists, who call it cassumunar
root (radix cassumunar), and consider it  to be identical with zerumbet root (see Curcuma Zedoaria).
It appears to me to be the turmeric-coloured zedoary of Ainslie, the zedoaria radice lutea of Brey-
nius,3 the lommon besaar or tommon lawac of Rumphius.4  It occurs in segments (halves or quarter*)
of an ovate tuber (which in the dried state must  have  been about the size of a pigeon's e^A
the external surface of which  is marked with circular rings and the bases of the root fibres, arid
is of a dirty turmeric-yellow colour.  Internally it  is reddish-brown, and has some resemblance,
in its colour and  pellucidity, to a fresh-fractured surface of Socotrine aloes.  Its flavour is warm
and aromatic;  its odour is somewhat like that of turmeric.  It has not been analyzed.  Its effeca
must  be similar to those of zadoary and  ginger.   It was at one time used in convulsive and
other cerebral  diseases,5 but has fallen into disuse.


       77. CURCUMA LONGA, Linn.-THE  LONG-ROOTED
                                  TURMERIC.
                             Sea;. Syst.  Monandria, Monogynia.
                               (Rhizoma, L. E.—Radix, D )

   History.—Turmeric is probably  the xv*Eipo$  ivSixoe (Cyperus indicus) of Dios-
corides.6  Both he and Pliny7 state that this Indian Cyperus has the form of ginger,
and that, when chewed, it colours the saliva yellow like  saffron.   The word curcuma
is derived from kurkum, the Persian name for saffron.8
   Botany.  Gen. Char__Tube of the corolla gradually enlarged  upwards; limb
2-lipped, each 3-parted.   Filament broad.   Anther incumbent,  with 2 spurs at the
base.   Style capillary.    Capsule  3-celled.   Seeds numerous,  arillate.—Stemlesa
plants, with palmate tuberous roots.   Leaves with sheathing petioles, bifarious, her-
baceous.   Scape simple, lateral or  central.   Spike simple, erect, comose, somewhat
imbricated at the  base with bracts  or saccate  spathes.   Flowers dull yellow, 3 to 5
together, surrounded by bracteolae.9
   Sp. Char.—Bulbs small, and with the  numerous, long, palmate tubers, inwardly
of a deep, orange yellow.   Leaves long-petioled, broad-lanceolate, of a uniform green
(Roxburgh).
   Hab.—Much cultivated about Calcutta, and in  all parts of Bengal, also in China
and Cochin-China.  One acre yields  about 2000 lbs. of the fresh root.
   Description.—The  tubers, called in  the shops turmeric (radix  curcumse, seu
terra merita), are  of two kinds: one  round (curcuma rotunda), the other long (cur-

  1 Roxburgh, Asiatic Researches, vol. xi.
  * Pechey, Some Observations made on the  Root Cassumuniar, called otherwise Rysagone. imported from
the East Indies [MS. without date, in  the library of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society of  Lon-
don] ;  Sir Hans Sloane, Phil. Trans. No. 264, p. 580.
  * Prodromus, ii. 105.                                 <  Herb. Amboyn. pars 5ta. p. 163.
  * Some Observations made upon the  Root called Casmunar, imported from the East Indies, published by
a Doctor of Physic [Dr. Pechey?] in Gloucestershire.  London, reprinted in the year 169:1.
  I Lib. i. cap. iv.                                     » Hist. Nat. lib. xzi. cap. lxx. ed. Valp.
   Royle, Essay on the Antiquity of Hindoo Medicine, p. 87.
  • Blume, op. cit. 
                  The Long-rooted Turmeric:—its Varieties.             235

,   cuma longa), but both produced on the same plant.  The first are round, oval, or
'   ovate, about two inches long, and  one inch in diameter, pointed at one end, and
   marked externally with  numerous  annular wrinkles.  The second are cylindrical,
   not exceeding the thickness of the little finger; two or three inches long, somewhat
   contorted, tuberculated.   Both kinds  are yellowish externally, internally more or
   less orange-yellow passing into reddish-brown.  The fractured surface has a waxy
   appearance.   The odour  is aromatic, somewhat analogous to ginger, but  peculiar;
   the  taste is aromatic.  When chewed, it tinges the saliva yellow.  Its powder  is
   orange-yellow.  The tubers are frequently worm-eaten.
     If a  thin slice of turmeric root be examined by the compound microscope, it  is
   seen to consist chiefly of rounded or oblong, yellow, readily separable cells or vesicles,
i   which appear to be filled with a minutely granular matter, and to be  contained in
jj   an hexagonal cellular tissue.  Intermixed with these cells are observed globules of
n   a viscid, oleaginous, orange-coloured liquid.   By boiling the slices in rectified spirit,
   the oleaginous liquid is dissolved, and the cells are deprived of their yellow colour.
   The colourless cells appear still to be filled with a granular matter.  On the addition
'■   of iodine, the cells, but not the hexagonal tissue in which they are contained, acquire
"   a dark blue colour, showing their amylaceous nature.
     Varieties.—Five varieties of turmeric are known in the English market, namely,
   China, Bengal, Madras, Malabar or Bombay, and Java turmeric.  These are readily
-   distinguishable  from each  other by their  external appearance;  but  if they were
   sorted  according  to their  resemblance, the China and  Java  turmerics would be
   placed in one group, the Madras  and Malabar in a second group, and the Bengal in
   a third.
     1. China  Turmeric.—This sort consists  of smooth, plump,  round,  and long
   tubers  (curcuma rotunda et longa, Figs. 225 and 226)  of a  greenish-yellow hue
[   externally.   They yield a bright powder, and on that account  are  much  preferred
   for medicinal purposes.   Hence they fetch  a higher price than any other sorts of
   turmeric.   Probably if much of it were brought to market, it would not fetch more
   than the Bengal sort.
Fig. 225.                  Fig. 226.                      Fig. 227.
China round Turmeric.          China long Turmeric.             Bengal Turmerit
  2. Bengal Turmeric—This sort consists of thin or narrow long tubers (curcuma
longa, Fig. 227) which  are moderately smooth  externally,  and of a  grayish dull
yellow clour. ^ They break with a deep reddish fracture.   Although, from the dull
appearance of its narrow tubers, it is not a very inviting sort to the  inexperienced 
236             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Zingiberace,e.
eye, yet it fetches a higher price than the Madras  sort, on  account of its  being a
much stronger dye.
  3. Madras  Turmeric.—This is the most showy of all the kinds of turmeric.  It
consists principally of large long tubers (curcuma longa, Fig. 228), but mixed with
transverse segments of round tubers (c. rotunda, Fig. 229).   Externally, the tubera
are marked by longitudinal wrinkles, the  surface  of which is  rubbed  and bright
yellow; internally, the colour is that of a fresh-fractured surface of  gamboge.
Fig. 228.
229.
Fig. 230.
Madras long Turmeric.
Madras round Turmeric.
Malabar Turmeric,
   4.  Malabar Turmeric; Bombay Turmeric—This sort  is not constantly found
in the  market.  It consists principally of long tubers (c.  longa, Fig. 230); the
                         232>         round tubers (c. rotunda) being few and of
                                      very inferior quality.   This sort of turme-
                                      ric is smaller and more shrivelled than the
                                      Madras  sort, but otherwise  somewhat re-
                                      sembles it.
                                         5.  Java  Turmeric.—Not  frequently
                                      found in the English market.   In a general
                                      way, it may  be said to resemble the China
                                      sort.   It consists of both round and long
                                      tubers (c. rotunda et longa, Fig. 231), but
                                      chiefly the latter.  They have a greenish-
                                      yellow hue.
                                         Under the name of bulbs  of Batavian
                                      turmeric, I have received a sample of round
                                      tubers (Fig. 232)  said  to be from Java.
                                      Dr. Th. Martius notices this sort as having
                                      been brought for many years from Batavia,
                                      and adds that  it contains  much colouring
                                      matter, and  is probably the produce  of
                                     ' Curcuma viridiflora.
  Composition.—Two analyses of  turmeric have  been made;  one by  John,1 and
a second by MM. Vogel and Pelletier.3
Java Turmeric.    Batavian Turmeric.
1 Gmelin's Handb. d. Chem.
' Journ. de Pharm. i. 289. 
Turmeric:—Characteristics, Effects, and Uses; its Tincture.  237
             John's Analysis.
Yellow volatile oil..............      1
Curcumin...................10 to 11
Yellow extractive..............11 to 1'2
Gum......................     14
Woody fibre..................     57
Water and loss................7 to  5


     Turmeric................    100
        Vogel and Pelletier's Analysis.
Acrid volatile oil.
Curcumin.
Brown colouring matter.
Gum (a little).
Starch.
Woody fibre.
Chloride of Calcium.
Turmeric.
  CuncuMiw.  Yellow Colouring Matter.—Is obtained, mixed with some volatile oil and chloride
of calcium, by digesting the alcoholic extract of turmeric in ether, and evaporating the ethereal
tincture to dryness.  In the mass, curcumin is brownish-yellow, but when powdered it becomes
full yellow. It is tasteless, odourless, almost insoluble in  water, but readily soluble in alcohol
and ether.  These properties show that it is of a resinous nature.  The alkalies colour it red-
dish-brown, and readily dissolve  it.   The alcoholic  solution,  evaporated with boracic acid,
becomes red.  Hydrochloric acid, also, reddens it. The alcoholic solution of curcumin produces
coloured precipitates with several salts, as acetate of lead and nitrate of silver.
  Chemical Characteristics.—The alkalies change  an infusion  of turmeric, or
turmeric paper, to  reddish-brown.  A similar  alteration of colour  occurs  when
turmeric paper is exposed to the vapour of hydrochloric  acid gas, or  is touched with
oil of vitriol.  If, to  tincture  of turmeric, boracic acid be  added, and the mixture
be evaporated to dryness, an orange-red residue is obtained, whereas, without the
acid, the residue is yellow.   By this test the yellow colouring matter of turmeric
can be distinguished  from that  of rhubarb (see Rheum).  Sulphate  of  copper
causes a yellowish  precipitate with an  infusion of  turmeric.   A similar effect is
produced by  sesquichloride of  iron.
  Physiological Effects.—Are  those of a mild  aromatic  stimulant (see vol. i.
p. 253).  The colouring matter becomes absorbed,  and communicates a yellow tinge
to the urine.1  According to Mr. Gibson,2 the colouring  matter of turmeric is some-
what  changed by the digestive organs;  for the stools of  animals fed with this root
were  green,  whilst  both logwood and madder exhibited their respective hues after
passing through the intestines.
   Usi:s.—Employed  as a condiment,  colouring ingredient, and test.  It is a con-
stituent of the well-known curry powder and curry paste, and of many other articles
of Indian cookery.  Formerly, it had some reputation in hepatic and other visceral
diseases, and especially in jaundice.
   As a test, it is used to detect the presence of free alkalies, which change its yellow
colour to a reddish-brown.
   But alkaline earths and the alkaline  carbonates, borates,  and sulphurets, as well
as boracic and  hydrochloric acids, change the  colour of turmeric  from  yellow to
brown.   Though not  a  very delicate test, it is often  a very  useful one.
   1.  TI.VCTTRA CURCUM; Tincture of  Turmeric—.Prepared  by digesting one part
of bruised Turmeric in  six parts of Proof Spirit.   Employed for the preparation of
turmeric paper.  Diluted with water, it yields a slightly turbid yellow liquid, which
is sometimes used in the class-room as a test for alkalies, &c.

  I  CHARTA CURCUMiE; Charta exploratoria flava; Turmeric Paper.—■Prepared
with  white,  bibulous,  or unsized paper, which is to be brushed over  with, or soaked
in, tincture of turmeric, and dried in the air, the access of  alkaline  and acid fumes
being prevented.  Mr. Faraday8 directs it to be prepared with a decoction of turmeric
(prepared by boiling  one ounce of the  coarsely-powdered turmeric in  ten or twelve
ounces of  water, straining through a cloth, and allowing the fluid  to settle for a
minute or two).   Turmeric paper is employed as  a test  for alkalies, &c., which
render it reddish or brownish.
1 Lewis, Mat. Med.; and Reieer, quoted by Murray, App. Med. vol. v. p. 78.
* Mem. of the Lit. and Phil. Soc. of Manchester, vol. i. 2d ser. p. 148.
1 Chemical Manipulation. 
238
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Zingiberaceje.
78.   CURCUMA   ANGUSTIFOLIA,  Roxburgh.-TKH  NARROW-
                         LEAVED  TURMERIC.
                           Sex. Syst. Monandria, Monogynia.
                     (Fsecula tuberis. East Indian Arrow-root, Offic.)

   History.—This plant was found  by II. T. Colebrook, Esq., in the forests ex-
tending  from the  banks of the Sona to Nagpore, and was by him introduced into
the Botanic garden at Calcutta.1
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—Vide Curcuma longa.
   Sp. Char.—Bulb  oblong, with  pale, oblong, pendulous tubers  only.   Lcava
stalked,  narrow lanceolate.  Flowers  longer than the bracts.
   Hab.—East Indies;  from the banks of  the Sona to Nagpore (Roxburgh). Also
in abundance on the Malabar coast (Ainslie).
   Extraction of the Fecula.—From the tubers of several species of Curcuma
is obtained, in the East Indies, a fecula called tikor.
   According to Dr. Roxburgh,2 the biennial roots of the  genus Curcuma consist of what he calls
bulbs, tubers, and fibres.  The bulbs are formed during the first year, and support the aerial parti
of the plants ; hence they may be termed phyllophorous receptacles.   From these bulbs issue tha
palmate tubers, and chiefly the fibres or genuine roots; the latter issuing from the lower part of
the bulbs.  Some of the  fibres end in a single oblong,  pearl-coloured, solid tuber.  From thesi
tubers, and from no other parts, the natives of various parts of India obtain starch.
   At Bhagulpore this is procured from C. leucorrhiza.  " The root is dug up, and
rubbed  on a stone, or beat in  a mortar, and afterwards  rubbed in water with the
hand, and strained through a cloth; the fecula having subsided, the water is poured
off, and  the Tikor (fecula) dried for use."3
   At Travancore,  and also, according to Bennett,4 at Bombay, from the C. angmli-
folia.   " So much of it has been made of late years on  the Malabar coast, where
the  plant grows  in  abundance, that it has  become a considerable object iu trade,
and is much prized in England."5
   C. rubescens is another species which also yields the fecula called tikor.
   Description.— Curcuma starch (amylum curcuma) or tikor is  imported from
the East Indies  under the name of East India  arrow-root.   But as this name is
also applied to the starch of Maranta arundinacea, cultivated in  the  East Indies, I
have thought it advisable to distinguish it by the name of " Curcuma starch."
   Two kinds of Curcuma starch are imported from Calcutta; one.white, the other
buff-coloured.
   a.  White  tikor, or  curcuma  starch, or white  East  Indian arrow-root, is a fine
white powder, readily  distinguishable, both  by the eye and the  touch, from West
Indian  arrow-root.   To the eye it somewhat resembles a finely-powdered salt (as
bicarbonate of soda or Rochelle salt).  "When pinched or pressed by the fingers, it
wants the firmness so characteristic of West Indian arrow-root, and it does not crepi-
tate to the same extent when rubbed between the fingers.
   Examined  by the microscope, the  particles of this starch are  found to be trans-
parent flattened disks of about the -^-3\3d of an inch  in  thickness.6  Their shape
is ovate, or  oblong-ovate, with  a very short  neck or nipple-like  projection  at one
extremity, where is situated the part called the hilum.  The largest are about jiyth
of an inch in length, and ?|o-th of an inch in breadth.7
 1 Roxburgh, Fl. Indica, vol. i. p. 31.
 « Roxburgh, Asiatic Researches, vol. xi. p. 218; also, Fl. Indica, vol. i.p.21.
 » Roxburgh, Fl. Indica, vol. i. p. 30.                     * Ceylon and its Capabilities, p. 151.
 » Ainslie, Mat. Indica, vol. i. p. 19, 1826.
 » The particles of plantain-starch, like those of curcuma-starch, are flat disks (see ante, p. 223).
 ' The following measurements, in parts of an English inch, of the particles of East India arrow-root,
were made for me by Mr. George Jackson :— 
Round Zedoary.
239
  On  account of their flatness they have but little lateral shading, except when
viewed edgewise.   The hilum or  nucleus is placed at the  narrow extremity—is
circular, very small, and  not very distinct.  The rings (or rather portions of rings)
are seen both on the flat surface and on  the edges; they are numerous, close, and
very fine.
  $.  Buff-coloured tikor, or curcuma starch ; pale buff-coloured East Indian arrow-
root.—In  the form of  powder, or of pulverulent masses, which  are dirty or buffy
white.   Paddy husks, woody fibre, and various impurities, are intermixed.
  To the microscope both kinds present the same appearance, from which  it is pro-
bable that they are obtained from the same plant, but with unequal degrees of care.
The particles of East Indian arrow-root are very unequal in size, but on the average
are larger than those of West Indian arrow-root.
  Composition.—Not ascertained, but doubtless analogous to that of other starches,
viz. C12HinO«°.
   Effects and Uses.—Analogous to those of the West Indian starch.   Its com-
mercial value, however, is much below that of the latter.   At Travancore, it forms
a large portion of the diet of the inhabitants (Roxburgh).


           79. Curcuma  Zedoaria, Roxburgh.—Round Zedoary.
                             Sex. Syst. Monandria, Monogynia.
                                       (Tubera.)

  Dr. Roxburgh gave some of the  dried roots of this plant to Sir Joseph Banks, who ascertained
that they agreed well with the zedoaria rotunda of the shops.1
   1. Zkdoaria iiotunda.—The zedoary root (radix zedoaria) now found in the shops of English
druggists is the round zedoary (zedoaria rotunda) of pharmacological writers.  It occurs  in seg-
ments (halves, quarters, or flat  sections) of a roundish or ovate tuber. The external portion of
the tuber is marked by the remains, membranes, and fibres, and is of a pale brownish-gray or
whitish appearance.  When cut, it presents a yellowish marbled appearance, not very dissimilar
to the cut surface of rhubarb,   It has a warm, aromatic, bitter taste, and an aromatic odour.   It
has been analyzed by Bucholz2 and by Morin.3  Its constituents, according to the latter chemist,
arc—volatile oil, resin, gum, starch, woody fibre, vegelo-animal matter (?), osmazcmxe (?), free acetic acid,
acetate of potash, sulphur, and in the ashes carbonate and sulphate of potash, chloride of potassium,
phosphate of lime, alumina, silica, oxides of iron and  manganese.  It possesses aromatic and tonic
properties.  It is less heating than ginger and galangal, and is more analogous to turmeric.
   2.  ZEiioiniA longa.—The root  called long zedoary (zedoaria longa) is no longer found in  the
shops of English  druggists.  It is in pieces scarcely  so long and wide as  the little finger.  Its
chemical and medicinal properties resemble those of round zedoary.   It is, perhaps, the zerumbet
root (radix zerumbet), for a piece of which I  am indebted to Dr. Royle.  It is very similar in
aliape to a curved or arched piece  of long turmeric.   Its colour is yellowish-gray.
   The plant which yields long zedoary has not been satisfactorily ascertained ; but it is probably
the Curcuma Zerumbet of Roxburgh, who states that the zerumbet or kuchoora of the native drug-
gists of Calcutta are the roots of this species of Curcuma, and that they are principally obtained
from Chittagong.   He also adds, that he sent the sliced and dried  bulbous and palmate tuberous
roots to Sir J. Banks, who ascertained that they were the real zedoaria of our Materia Medica
and that the root of C. Zedoaria was the zedoaria rotunda of the shops.
   3.  ZtnoAiiiA lotka.—The  turmeric  coloured zedoary of Ainslie,* the  yellow zedoary (zedoaire
jaune) of Guibourt, is probably  the cassumunar root (radix cassumunar) of English druggists (see
ante, \>. 234).
        Particles.              Length.           Breadth.          Thickness.
           1........0.0027.....0.00131
           2........0.0020.....0.0011
           3*........0.0022.....0.0011
           **........"-W7.....0.0010 I . . Average 0.0003
           5*........0.0013.....O.OOOtl
           0........0.0012.....0.0007
           7........0.0007.....0.0004,

1 Roxburgh's Flora Indica, vol. i. pp. 23 and 21.          » TrommsdorfPs Journal, xxv  2, p  3
• Journ. de Pharm. t. ix. p. 257.                        * Materia Indica, vol. i. pp. 491 and  493. 
240             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Zingiberace^e.
     80.  AMOMUM  CARDAMOMUM, Linn.-THE CLUSTER
                       OR ROUND CARDAMOM.
                            Sex. Syst. Monandria, Monogynia.
                                     (Semina.)
   History.—The fruit of this plant is the dpa/iov of Dioscorides,1 the Amomi uva
of Pliny.8
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—Inner limb of  the corolla  one-lipped.   Filament dilated
beyond the anther, with an entire or lobed crest.   Capside often berried, 3-celled,
3-valved.  Seeds numerous, arillate.—Herbaceous perennials, with articulated creep-
ing  rhizomes.   Leaves in 2  rows, membranous,  with their sheaths split,   lnflo.
rescence spiked, loosely imbricated, radical (Blume).3
   Sp. Char.—Leaves with short petioles,  lanceolate.   Spikes half immersed in the
earth, loosely  imbricated  with villous,  lanceolate, acute, 1-flowered  bracts.   Lip.
with the  interior margin,  3-lobed.   Crest  3-lobed  (Roxburgh).
   Hab.—Sumatra, Java, and other islands eastward to the Bay of Bengal.
   Description.—The fruit of this plant  is the  round  cardamom (cardamomum
                   rotundum) of the shops.  It varies in size from that of a black
     Fig. 233.       currant to that of a cherry.  It is roundish  or roundish-ovate,
                   with three convex rounded sides or lobes, more or less striated
                   longitudinally, yellowish or brownish-white, sometimes with a red
                   tint, and when examined by a pocket lens shows the remains of
                   hairs,  the greater part of which have probably been rubbed off.
                   The seeds  are brown,  angular,  cuneiform, shrivelled, with an
                   aromatic,  camphoraceous flavour.   The fruits in  their native
                   clusters or spikes (constituting  the Amomum racemosum) are
                   rarely met with;  a fine sample is in the Sloanian collection of
 Round Cardamom.   the British Museum.
                      Composition.—It has not  been analyzed.  Its constituents
are  probably  analogous  to those of the  Malabar  cardamom (Elettaria Carda-
momum).
  Effects and Uses.—Similar to those  of the Malabar cardamom.   Round car-
damoms are rarely employed  in  this country.   They are officinal  in the French
Codex, and are principally consumed in the southern parts of Europe.  The seeds
are directed to be used by the  Dublin Pharmacopoeia, but I presume those  of the
Elettaria  Cardamomum are intended.

            81. AMOMUM GRANUM PARADISI, Afzelius-
                        et A. MELEGUETA, Roscoe.
                           Sex. Syst. Monandria, Monogynia.
                                     (Semina.)
  History.—The term " Malagueta* pepper" has been applied to the fruit or seeds
of several zingiberaceous  plants,5 as well  as to the pimento  or  allspice.6   It is
usually considered to  be  synonymous with the terms "grains of paradise," and
" Guinea  grains."

  1 Lib. i. cap. xiv.
  2 Hist. Nat. lib. xii. cap. xxviii. ed. Valp.                            » q„ ct(
  4 This word is variously Bpelt Malagueta, Malaguetta, Melegueta, Mellegetta, Meligetta, &c.  Several
etymologies of it have been given: some say the seeds have been so called in consequence of their resem-
blance to Turkey millet, termed by the Italians melica or melega.  Savary says the term is derived from
mala gente,  the designation applied by the Portuguese to the people of the coast yielding the seeds. An-
other derivation (suggested to me by Mr. R. Thomson, of the London Institution)  is Melli (also written
Mel Ie and Mali), a kingdom of Nigntia; and gilti (or  gitter), a Portuguese name for pepper.  Barbot sayi
the Portuguese word malagueta is from the native name for the pepper, emaneglta.
  4 See a paper on "Grains of Paradise," by the author, in the Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. ii. p. 443,1*43.
  ' See Ortega, Historia natural de la Malagueta, 0 Pimienta de Tavasco, Madrid, 1780.
 
Amomum Granum Paradisi;  A. Melegueta.              241
Fig. 234.
  Malagueta pepper is said to have been  known in  Italy before the discovery of
the Guinea coast by the Portuguese in the  15th century.   It was brought by the
Moors, who used to cross the great region  of Madingha and the  deserts  of Lybia,
and carry it to Mundi Barca (or Monte da  Barca), a port in  the Mediterranean.
The Italians, not knowing the place of its birth, as it is so precious a spice, called
it grana paradisi.1
  Botany.—The botanical history of these seeds is still involved in some  obscurity.
Two plants, one  called  by Afzelius and Smith Amomum
Granum Paradisi, the other  termed  by Roscoe A. Mele-
gueta, have been said to produce them.  But some doubt
exists whether these be identical or distinct species.  In
1847, in a  paper3 on Roscoe's A. Melegueta, I mentioned
that there  were slight differences in the appearance  of the
seeds of the two plants.   Since  then, I have ascertained
that there  are two sorts of grains of paradise  in the market,
and that these  are brought from  different  parts of the
African coast, are readily distinguished from each other in
trade, and are of unequal  commercial value:  one of these is
identical with the seeds of A. Granum Paradisi of Afzelius
and Smith, the other with those of A. Melegueta of Roscoe.
   1. A. Granum Paradisi, Afzelius, Remed. Guineens.
x. n. 1; Nees, Offic.  Pflanzen (fig.);  A. Grana-Paradisi,
Smith,  Rees's Cyclopaed. vol. xxiii.  art.  Mellegetta, and
vol. xxxix.  suppl.  art. Amomum.—Guinea coast,  about
Sierra Leone.
  Rhizome perennial, woody, creeping horizontally.  Stems erect,
simple,  slender, three  feet high,  leafy, but destitute of flowers.
Leaves numerous, crowded, two-ranked, alternate,  a span long and
an inch broad, lanceolate, or slightly ovate, with a  long taper point,
entire, smooth,  single-ribbed, striated  with innumerable  oblique
veins.  Their flavour is slightly aromatic, after having been dried
20  years.  Foot-stalks sheathing, linear, very long,  smooth, striated.
Flower-stalks radical, solitary, an inch or two in length, ascending,
clothed with  numerous, close, sheathing bracts,  all abrupt,  ribbed,
somewhat hairy and fringed; the lower ones very short; the upper
gradually much larger.  Of  the parts of the flower nothing could
be  made out in Sir J. Smith's specimens.
   [According to Afzelius, the flowers are large  and white, and
formed like those of A. exscupum, Sims.]   Capsule an inch and
a half  long, half  an  inch in  diameter, oblong, bluntly triangular,
scarcely ovate, beaked, of a dark reddish brown, ribbed, coriaceous,
rough, with minute deciduous bristly hairs.   When  broken, it is very
powerfully aromatic, even after being kept 20 years, with a peculiar pepper-like flavour, rather
too strong to be agreeable.  Seeds numerous, enveloped in membranes formed of the dried pulp,
roundish or somewhat angular, of a shining golden brown, minutely rough or  granulated, ex-
tremely hot and acrid (Smith).
   2. A. Melegueta, Roscoe, Monandrian  Plants,  1828;  Pereira, Pharm. Journ.,
vol. vi.  p. 412,  1847.—Cultivated at Demerara: probably from  Africa.
   Stem erect, six  feet high.  Leaves two-ranked,  subsessile, narrow-lanceolate.   Scape radical,
covered at the base with about seven imbricated, ovate, concave,  pointed, and somewhat cuspi*
date bracts.  Calyx cylindrical, of one leaf, green, spotted with red.  Flowers cylindrical, expand-
ing in a double border;  outer border in three sections, the middle section largest, ovate, the  two
others linear  and  opposite;  inner lip  very large,  broad-ovate, crenate, pale yellow at the base,
crimson at the margin.  Filament strong, erect, clavate, terminating in three lobes, middle lobe
erect and bifid, the other two pointed and recurved; a pair of hornlets on the filament, near the
base of  the lip.   Anther in  two lobes, seated in front of the filament, a little  below the apex,
bright yellow.  Style erect, tubular, expanding into  a dilated stigmaoi cup, supported at the base
 Amomum Granum Para-
       disi, Smith.

(Natural size.  From a spe-
 cimen  in  Smith's herba-
 rium in the collection of
 the Linnaean Society.)
          » De Karros, quoted in the Encyclop. Metropol. art. Guinea.
          ' Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. vi. p. 412, 1S47.
VOL. II.—1G 
242             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Zingiberacej3.

by two linear processes, about an inch in length, and one-eighth of an inch in breadth, by much
the largest specimen of this part observable in any scitamineous plant.

                                     Fig. 235.
Leaves and Flower of Amomum Melegueta, Roscoe.
  o. Stem and leaves.                        I  d. Interior limb of corolla or lip.
  6. Entire flower and floral bracts.             I  e. Filament, anther, stigma, style, and ovary.
  e. Exterior limb of corolla.                  |  f. Style and barren anthers (germinal processes).

  Capsule cylindrical, coriaceous, six inches long, yellow, spotted with orange, supported at tbe
base by the large ovate, concave, cuspidate bracts, and containing a columella or receptacle about
four inches long, covered with seeds beautifully arranged, arilled, and imbedded in a tomeutose
substance. Seeds angular, light brown, with a highly aromatic and grateful flavour (Roscoe).
  Description,   o.  Of the dried fruits__I  have met with two kinds of dried fruits
whose seeds bear the name of grains of paradise or Guinea grains.
  1.  Grains of Paradise Fruit (Fig. 240).—These are oval or oval-oblong capsules,
somewhat reddish-brown, and wrinkled longitudinally.  Their length (exclusive of
stalk and beak) rarely exceeds 1J inches;  and their diameter is about £ an inch.  The
seeds agree  with the grains of paradise brought from Cape Palm as and Sierra Leone.
I am  indebted to Dr. Daniell for specimens  gathered from the high lands  on  the
right  of the River  Congo.   Some of them  are strung  on a cord; the usual form in
which they  are sold in Africa.—These fruits appear to me to agree with the  Grain
of Paradise Amomum described by Afzelius and Smith. 
Amomum Granum Paradisi; A. Melegueta.             243
Fig. 236.
Fig. 237.
Fig. 239.
Fruit of Amomum Melegueta, Roscoe.
Fig. 2.1(1. Entire fruit preserved wet.
Fig. 237. Transverse section of ditto.
Fig. 239. Entire fruit dried.
Fig. 239. Seeds of ditto. 
244
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Zingiberace^e.
  2. Malagueta Pepper Fruit (Fig. 241).—These fruits are larger  than the pre-
ceding, and more ovate.   Exclusive of beak and stalk they are two inches long and
one inch in diameter.   They are ovate or ovate-oblong, coriaceous, wrinkled as if
Fig. 240.
Fig. 241.
      Capsule of Grain of Paradise,
(From Dr. Burgess's collection in the College
            of Physicians.)
        Malagueta Pepper Fruit.
(From a specimen in the Sloanian collection of
  the British Museum, where it is labelled
  " Melegetta—a pod from Guinea.")
 shrivelled, yellowish-brown.  The seeds are identical with those sold in the
 as grains of paradise or Guinea grains.   From the large size of this fruit, I suspect
 it may be the produce of Roscoe's A. Melegueta.
   0. Of the seeds.—The seeds, called in the shops grains of paradise [grana pa-
 radisi) or Guinea grains  (grana guineensia), are  roundish or ovate,  frequently
 bluntly angular, and somewhat cuneiform; shining golden brown; minutely rough,
 from small warts  and  wrinkles; internally  white.   Their taste is aromatic, and
 vehemently hot  or peppery:  when crushed and rubbed between  the fingers,  their
 odour is  feebly  aromatic.  Their greatest diameter rarely exceeds lj line.   The
 acrid taste resides in the seed coats.
   Two sorts are distinguished by the importers:—
   1. Guinea grains from  Acra.—These  are somewhat larger, plumper, and more
 warty than the ordinary sort.   On the umbilicus of the seeds there is a short, conical,
 projecting tuft of pale-coloured fibres.   This  sort fetches a somewhat higher  price
 than the next sort.    The seeds agree precisely in appearance with  those obtained
 from Roscoe's A. Melegueta.
   2. Guinea grains from Cape Palmas and Sierra Leone.—Smaller and smoother
 than the preceding.   They  are devoid of the projecting fibrous tuft on the umbilicus.
 Being somewhat cheaper than the foregoing sort, they form the ordinary grains of
 paradise of  the  shops.   They are perhaps the produce of Afzelius and Smith's A.
 Granum Paradisi.
   Commerce.—Grains of paradise are imported in casks, barrels, and puncheons,
from the  coast of Guinea.   The quantities  on which duty was  paid during six
years are as follows (Trade List) :—
In 1835 . .
  1836. .
14,603 lbs.
16,231
In 1837.......n,134 lbs.
  1838.......16,199
In 1839......19,036 lbs.
  1840......9,916 
The Great-winged Amomum.
245
  "Extract or preparation of Guinea grains" was formerly imported.1
  The heavy duty formerly imposed on grains of paradise was intended  to act as a
prohibition of their use.8
  Composition.—Grains of paradise were analyzed in 1811 by Willert,3 who ob-
tained the following results:  Volatile oil 0.52, acrid resin 3.40, extractive 1.27,
tragacanthin and woody fibre 82.8 [1 water and loss 12.01].
  1. The Volatile Oil has a light yellow colour, a camphoraceous smell, and a hot penetrat-
ing  taste.
  2. The Resin is brown,  soft, odourless, and has an acrid burning taste.
  Physiological  Effects.—Analogous to  those of pepper.  A very erroneous
notion prevails that these seeds are highly injurious.4
  X)sks.—Rarely employed as an aromatic.   Esteemed in Africa as the most whole-
some of spices, and generally used by the natives to season their food.5
  Its  principal  consumption  is  in veterinary medicine, and  to give  an artificial
strength to spirits, wine, beer, and vinegar.
  By 56 Geo. III. c. 58, no  brewer or dealer in beer shall have in his possession or use grains
of paradise, under a penalty of £200 for each offence:  and no druggist shall sell it to a brewer,
under a penalty of £500 for each offence.
82. Amomum maximum, Roxburgh— The  Great-winged Amomum.
                            (Fructua: Java Cardamom, offic.)

  Histort.—This  plant was first described by Roxburgh.6
  Botany.  Gen. Char.—Vide Amomum Cardamomum.
  Sp. Char.—Leaves stalked, lanceolate, villous underneath.  Spikes oval, even with the earth.
Bracts lanceolate.   Lip  elliptical.  Coronet  of one semilunar lobe.   Capsules round, 9-winged.
(Roxburgh.)
  The  capsule is "almost globular, size of a gooseberry, 3-celled, 3-valved, ornamented with
nine [seven to thirteen, Blume'] firm, short, ragged (when old and dry), membranaceous wings.
The seeds possess a warm,  pungent, aromatic
Fig. 242.
Fig. 243.
 taste, not unlike that of cardamoms, but by
 no means so grateful." (Roxburgh.)  The Nepal
 cardamom,  described by Dr.  Hamilton,7 ap-
 pears to be identical with  the  Java carda-
 mom.   Dr. Hamilton says, the plant yielding
 it " is a species  of Amomum, as that genus is
 defined  by Dr. Roxburgh, and differs very
 much from  the cardamom of Malabar."
   Hab.—The  Malay  Islands  (Roxburgh) ;
 Java (Blume).  Cultivated in the mountainous
 parts of Nepal, where it is propagated by
 cuttings  of  the  root [rhizome];  the plants
 yield in three years, and afterwards give an
 annual crop (Hamilton).
   Description.—The  fruit  of  this plant is
 known  in commerce by various names;  such
 as greater Java cardamoms (cardamomi majores
javanenses, Th. Martius; Java cardamoms, offic;
 Nepal cardamoms, desi elachi [i. e. country car-
 damoms] of Hindustan, Hamilton;  the  bura
 elachee  [i. e. great cardamoms'] of  Saharunpore
 —the bengal cardamoms of the Calcutta mar-
 ket, Royle; cardamome  aili de Java and car-
 damome fausse maniguette, Guibourt) are oval
 or oval-oblong,  frequently  somewhat ovate,
 three-valved, from eight to fifteen  lines  long,
 and  from four to eight  lines broad, usually  flattened on  one  side,  convex on  the other,
 occasionally curved, sometimes  imperfectly three-lobed,  and  resembling in their  form  the
 pericarp  of the cocoa-nut (Fig.  242).    Their colour  is dirty grayish-brown.  They have  a
                          Tig.  244.

             Java Cardamoms.
Fig. 242. The dried fruit of commerce.
Fig. 243. The fruit which has been soaked in water
          to expand the wings.
Fig. 244. Seeds.
1 Frewin, Digested Abridgment of the Laws of the Customs, 1619.
» Fourth Report of the African Institution, p. 16.     a TrommsdorfFs Journ. xx. St. 2, 1811.
* Roscoe, op. cit.                               » Fourth Report of the African Institution.
* Asiatic Researches, xi. p. 344.                    * An Account of the Kingdom of Nepal, ed. 1819. 
246              VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Zingiberace^b.
coarse, fibrous, aged appearance, are strongly ribbed, and when soaked in hot water (Fig. 243*
become most globular, and  present from nine to thirteen ragged, membranous wings, which
occupy the upper half or three-fourths of the capsule,  and are scarcely perceptible in the dried
state of the pericarp.  By the possession of wings, these cardamoms are  distinguished from all
others of commerce, and hence might be called the winged cardamoms.  Occasionally the fooi-
stalk is attached, with, now and  then, portions of brown, membranous, imbricated scales, as
long as the fruit.   At the  opposite or winged extremity of the capsule are  frequently the
fibrous remains of the calyx.  Seeds (Fig. 244) somewhat larger than grains of paradise, dull
dirty brown, with a shallow groove on  one side, internally white; taste  and  odour feebly arr>
matic.  One hundred parts of the fruit consist, according to Th. Martius,1 of seventy parts seeds
and thirty parts pericarpial coats.  They are imported from Calcutta in  bags.
  Composition.—Analogous probably to that of the Malabar cardamom,  except in the quantity
of volatile  oil which  it yields; for Martius  procured  only four scruples of it from a pound of
the fruit.  The oil obtained was white and thickish.
  Effects and Uses.—Java cardamoms are not used here. They are of inferior quality, and
when brought to this country are usually sold in bond  for continental use.  In 1839, a quantity
of them was  sold at seven-pence per lb.
        83. Amomum Korarima.—The  Korarima Cardamom.

   The fruit of this plant is the cardamomum majus of Valerius Cordus,2of Matthiolus,8 Geoffrey«
 Smith,* and Geiger.6  In Dr. Burgess's Collection of Materia Medica at the College of Physician*,
 there are several fine specimens marked " Cardamomum maximum Matlhioli." (Fig. 245.)
                                                  Under the name of Korarima, or Gurdgit
        Fig. 245.               Fig. 246.         spvx, I have received specimens of the same
                                                fruit,  which had been brought from Abys-
                                                sinia by Major Harris's embassy, by Dr. Beke,
                                                and by Mr. Charles Johnston? (Fig. 246).
                                                  In former editions of this work, I followed
                                                Sir J. E. Smith,8 in considering this fruit to
                                                be identical with the Amomum Madagasca-
                                                riense of Lamarck,9 and the A. angustifoHm
                                                of Sonnerat.10   As there is  some reason to
                                                doubt the propriety of this proceeding, 1
                                                have  considered  it advisable  to designate
                                                the plant provisionally the " Amomum Kora-
                                                rima;" the word  Korarima (pronounced in
                                                English Korahreema), being the Galla name
                                                for the fruit  which in Arabic is called Kheil
                                                or Khil.
                                                  The capsule is ovate, pointed, flattened on
                                                one  side,  striated, with  a broad  circular
                                                umbilicus or scar at  the  bottom, around
                                                which is an elevated, notched, and corru-
                                                gated  margin.  Some  authors,  who have
                                                mistaken the base of the capsule for its
                                                summit, have compared the shape to that
                                                of a fig.
                                                  Some of the fruits which I received from
                                                Abyssinia had  been perforated  and strung
                                                upon  a  cord (Fig. 246), probably for the
                                                purpose of hanging them to dry.  Dr. Beke
                                                thinks that  the  pierced or perforated fruits
                                                are those which have been gathered before
                                               they were perfectly ripe.
  The seeds (Fig. 247) are rather larger than grains of paradise, roundish or somewhat angular,
abrupt at the base, olive-brown, with an aromatic  flavour analogous to that of the Malabar
cardamom, but totally devoid of the vehemently hot acrid taste of tbe grains of paradise.
  The Korarima is brought to the market of Baso, in  southern Abyssinia, from Tumhe, (known
among the  native merchants as the « country  of the Korarima;') somewhere about 9* N. lat.
and  35° E.  long.   It  is carried  to Massowah, the port of northern Abyssinia on the Red Sea,
0  o  #
  Fig. 247.
             Korarima Cardamom.

Fig. 245. The " Cardamomum maximum Matthioli"
          of Dr. Burgess's collection in the Col-
          lege of Physicians.
Fig. 246. The " Korarima" of Dr. Beke.
Fig. 247. Seeds of ditto.
1  Pharmakognosie.
3  Comment, in vi. lib. Diosc. Venet. 1583.
*  Reee's Cyclop, art. Mellegetta.
'  Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. vi. p. 466, 1847.
s  Encycl. Botan. t. i. p. 133, HI. tab. i.
* Hist. Stirpium, lib. iv. p. 195,1581.
4 Mat. Mid. ii.366.
6 Handb. d. Pharm. Bd. ii.
8 Rees's Cyclop, vol. xxxix. Addeada.
"> Voyage aux huUs, t. ii. p. 342. 
Amomum citratum.—Clusius's Cardamom.              247
and exported from thence to India.  Dr. Ruppell was informed that the annual export is of the
value of one thousand dollars (about £200 sterling).  Although it is not impossible that the
same fruit may grow in Madagascar, yet it is highly improbable that the Korarima of Abyssinia
is the produce of Madagascar.1
  At Baso, Dr. Beke purchased it at the rate of forty for one penny sterling.  .
  The seeds are aromatic, and possess properties similar to, but more feeble than, those of the
Malabar cardamom.  In Abyssinia, they are used as a condiment and in medicine.
                           84.  Amomum citratum.

  Cardamomum ma jus.—In Dr. Burgess's collection at the College of Physicians is a capsule (in
a bad state of preservation) marked " Cardamomum majus;'  It has a fibrous tuft at one extremity,
and is  much split at the other.
The seeds  are angular,  oblong,
larger than  those of Malabar car-
damoms, shining  brownish-yel-
low, and have a large concave
depression (hilum) at one extre-
mity. They have  a warm  aro-
matic flavour, somewhat analo-
gous to that of the oil of lemon-
grass.   When  crushed,  they
evolve the  odour  of this  oil.
Hence I have  given them  the
specific  name " citratum," as by
this character they are readily dis-
tinguished from all other seeds
of this order with  which I  am
acquainted.
  I have found the same fruits
in the Sloanian collection of the
British Museum.  They are tied
together in bunches. One sample
is unnamed; another  is marked
in the catalogue " 12057.  Grana
Paradisi."
  I  have  met  with  the same
fruits in a collection at Apothe-
caries' Hall; and I am indebted
to Mr. Warrington  for the speci-
men from  which Fig. 24 b was taken.
the accompanying figure.
Fig. 248.
              Amomum citratum.
       Fruits tied together in a bunch—seeds.

The capsules are tied together in bunches, as shown in
           85. Amomum Clusii, Smith.—Clusius's Cardamom.

   Fructus, xiv., Clusius, Exotic, lib. ii. cap. xv. pp. 37 and 38; Granis paradysi sive Melkgetct
affinia fructut, Bauhin, Pinax, p. 413; Amomum Clusii, or  Long-seeded  Amomum, Smith,  Rees's
Cyclop, vol. xxxix., Addenda.—Capsule ovate, pointed, slightly triangular, cartilaginous, striated,
smooth, yellowish [reddish, Smith]  brown.  The seeds have scarcely any flavour, are oblong or
ovate, inclining to cylindrical, dark-brown, highly polished, as if varnished ; with a pale yellowish
brown, corrugated, and notched margin surrounding the scar.
  On comparing my specimen (Fig. 249), which was given to me by a druggist, with the one
marked A. Clusii,m Sir J. E. Smith's collection of fruits in the possession of the Linnean Society,
I find the  seeds of the latter are somewhat longer, and rather more cylindrical; in other respects',
the two specimens agree.
  I have subsequently received, from Dr. T. W. C. Martius, specimens of a fruit marked " Car-
damomum maximum von Amomum Clusii?"  The capsules are somewhat plumper,  but in other
respects they agree with the preceding.  I gave one of them to  Professor  Guibourt, who has
published  a figure of it.2
  I have received from Dr. Daniell specimens of an Amomum which greatly resembles, if it be
not identical with, A. Clusii.  The capsules (Figs. 250 and 251), however, are narrower and
more tapering than the latter.  The seeds  (Fig. 252) are obovate, highly polished,  smooth, and
1 Dr. Beke, Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. vi. p. 511.
* Hist. Nat. des Drog. 4eme edit. t. ii. p. 220, fig. 120,1849. 
248
VEGETABLES.—Nat  Ord. Zingiberace^.
dark brown.  Are these capsules the produce of A. Afzelii ?  Dr. Daniell1 says they grow in the
thickets at Attahpah, on the gold and slave coasts, and plentifully on the outskirts of Clarence
and Fernando Po, where they are known under the name of " bastard Melligetta."  The seeds
Fig. 250.           Fig. 251.
                                                 A  d  $   6  &
                                                         Fig. 252.

                                           Fruits and Seeds of  an Amomum from the
                                                   Western Coast of Africa.

are contained in a soft acidulous pulp of a pleasant flavour, which the natives use in lengthened
expeditions to allay thirst, and also as an adjunct to allay the irritative effects of cathartic and
other medicines.


    86.  Amomum macrospermum, Smith.—Large-seeded Guinea
                                    Amomum.
                                       (Semina.)

  Zingiber Mehguetta, Gaertner de Fructib, vol. i. p. 34, pi. xii. fig. 1; Frudus Cajeputi, Trew,
Commercium Litterarium, ann. 1737, Norimbergae, p. 129, tab. 1, figs.  7-11; also Herb. Black-
wellianum  emend, et  auctum, vol.  iii. cent. vi. tab. 584, figs. 9-13, Norimb. 1773.—Native of
Sierra Leone.
  The capsule (fructus cajeputi, Trew; cardamomum bandaense, T. W. C. Martius; grand cardamom
de Gaertner, Guibourt;  mabooboo of the natives of Sierra  Leone),2 is ovate, pointed, somewhat
striated, about two inches long, and six lines broad, with a corrugated beak.
  1 Sketches of the Medical Topography of the Gulf of Guinea, pp. Ill and 112, 1849.
  a Sir J. E. Smith (Rees's Cyclop. Suppl.) states, on the authority of Afzelius, that the African name is
" Mabooboo." But Nyberg (Remedia Guineensia, Upsal, 1813) says that the name " Mabubu" is applied
to a species which he calls Amomum latifolium, whose seeds, in size, shape, and colour, agree with grape
seeds. 
Amomum globosum.—Amomum villosum.
249
  The seeds (semina cajuputi, Trew) are ovate, or near-
ly globular, or  somewhat oblong, variously angular,
scarcely larger than grains of paradise, smooth, polish-
ed, greenish-gray, or lead coloured, with a strong urn-
bilicated scar at their base, with a whitish or  pale-
yellow margin; flavour slightly aromatic.  Smith says
that Gaertner's figure  represents them  scarcely half
large  enough.   This statement, however, does  not
apply to the seeds of my specimens.
  The seeds yield, by distillation, a volatile oil.   Car-
theuser1 obtained from half a pound of them a drachm
and a half of a pale-yellowish, aromatic, camphora-
ceous  oil, resembling, but less fragrant and penetrating
than,  cajuput oil.  Trew  erroneously supposed that
these  seeds were the source of the cajuput oil of com-
merce, and hence have arisen the erroneous denomina-
tions of " fructus et semina cajuputi," applied to  the
fruit and seeds of this species.
  The seeds are aromatic, but are  much inferior to
those  of the Malabar cardamom.
  I have received  from Dr. Daniell specimens of the
fruit of this or some closely allied species  growing at
Gambia and Cape St. Mary.   One of the specimens
consists of a stalk five inches long, supporting two
capsules, and clothed with bracts.   The seeds  are
angular, and lead-coloured.  Dr. Daniell tells me that
the natives of Africa suck the acidulous pulp of the
fruit.
Fig. 253.
Fig. 254.
(From a specimen in I (Banda cardamom of
  the  Sloanian col-    Martius3 and  its
  lection.)         ]   seeds.)

       Amomum macrospermum.
Fig. 255.     Fig. 256.
                      87.  Amomum  globOSUm, Loureiro?
                                        (Semina.)

   Mi tU, Cochinch.;  Tsao keu, Chin. Loureiro, Fl. Cochin.—Mountains of Cochinchina and
China.
   I am indebted to Professor Guibourt for the loan of this fruit, which he calls the round China
cardamom (cardamome rond de la Chine), and from  which the
accompanying figure was taken.
•w  Copau/e thin, round, or oval. Seeds in globular masses, marked,
on the surface opposed to the pericarp, by a linear depression
or groove.
   I have observed specimens in the Sloanian collection of the
British Museum, and also in a collection of Chinese medicines
at the College of Physicians.
   This fruit may perhaps be the  produce of Loureiro's Amo-
mum globosum, the seeds of which he  says are slightly cale-
facient  and stomachic.   They are frequently  employed by
medical practitioners in China and Cochinchina, and are useful
in restraining abdominal  pain, sickness, and diarrhoea.
   On comparing Professor Guibourt's specimen  with the fruit
of Alpinia  nutans  (see  p. 250) in Dr.  Wallich's collection,
in the possession of the Linnean Society, the two are scarcely
distinguishable externally.  The seeds, however, are  quite dissimilar.
      Round Cardamom.
Fig. 255. Fruit.
Fig. 256. Globular mass of seeds.
                       88. Amomum villOSUm, Loureiro?
                                        (Semina.)

  Sa nhon, Cochinch.; So Xd mi, Chin., Loureiro.—Mountains of Cochinchina.
  I am indebted to Professor Guibourt for specimens of a fruit which he calls the hairy, China
cardamom (cardamome poilu de la Chine), and which, in the collection  of the Museum d'Histoire
Naturellc, is termed (by mistake?) tsao keou.
 1 Dissert, nonnulla- select. Physico-Chem. ac Medicce, Francof. 1775.
 " Professor Guibourt (Hist. Nat des. Drog.iime edit. p. 218, fig. 119) has figured one of the specimens
iven to me by Dr  Martius; but he has erroneously stated that the figure was from a specimen in the
loanian collection of the British Museum. 
250
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Zingiberace^e.
Fig. 257.     Fig. 258.
  Capsules ovate, oblong, obtusely triangular.  Seeds have no linear depression or groove as those
                              of the preceding variety, and  by the absence of this  they may
                              be readily distinguished from  it; coherent in masses, which are
                              3-lobed, not quite globular.  In my specimens, the pericarp is
                              rugous, as if eroded ;  but, when examined by a magnifier, it is
                              seen to be covered by asperities and the remains of fine downy
                              hairs.  The flavour of the seeds is aromatic and terebinthinate,
                              but not powerful.
                                M. Guibourt thinks this fruit may perhaps be the produce of
                              Amomum villosum of Loureiro, the  oriental names of which
Hairy round China Cardamom,  however, are very different to that on the specimen in the Paris
                              Museum.   Loureiro states that the seeds of A. villosum are sub-
                              calefacient and stomachic, and are exported from the provinces
                              of Qui-nhon and Phy-yeu, in Cochin China (where they grow
                  spontaneously), to China, where they are largely used in medicine.
                    Black  Cahdamom, Guibourt.—I am indebted to  M. Guibourt for a fruit
                  which he calls the black cardamom of Gaertner (cardamome noir de Gaertner),
                  or the fruit of Zingiber  nigrum, Gaertner.  The capsule is  larger than the
                  short Malabar cardamoms, acuminate at its two extremities, and formed, as
                  it were, of two obtusely-triangular pyramids joined base to base.  The peri-
                  carp ash-brown, aromatic, but less so than the seeds.  Seeds annular, brown,
                  slightly aromatic, but devoid of the terebinthinate flavour.
                     Gaertner states  that  his plant is the Alughas of the Ceylonese.  But the
Fig. 257. Fruit.
Fig. 258. Globular mass of seeds
Fig. 259.
       ^3*
Black Cardamom
  (Guibourt).
black cardamom of Guibourt is certainly not Roxburgh's Alpinia Allughas.
         89. Alpinia Galanga, Linn.,- A. chinensis, Roscoe (?); and
                                  A. nutans, Roscoe.
                              Sex. Syst. Monandria, Monogynia.
                                        (Rhizoma.)

  Two kinds of galangal root (radix galangce), a lesser  and a greater, have long been known in
medicine: to these Guibourt has added a third, which he calls light galangal.   These three sorts
are the produce of different parts of the East, and probably of different species of Alpinia.
  1. Radix galangce  majoris ; greater or Java galangal root.—This is the root of the Alpinia Ga-
langa,  Linn.  It is a coarser and larger root, with a feebler and somewhat different odour from
that of the lesser galangal  root.  Although it  occasionally comes to Europe, I cannot learn that
it finds any use here.
  2. Radix galangce minoris; lesser or Chinese galangal root.—This is the root of a plant growing
in  China, according  to Guibourt,1 the Alpinia  chinensis, Roscoe (Hellenia  chinensis, Willd.). It
may perhaps be Alpinia alba, which Kcenig calls galanga alba.  It is brought to England from
China  either directly or by way of Singapore.  It is the only sort usually kept by English drug-
gists.   It occurs in pieces which  are as thick as the finger, seldom exceeding three inches in
length, cylindrical or somewhat tuberous, often forked, sometimes  slightly striated  longitudi-
nally, and marked with whitish circular rings.  Externally its colour is dull reddish-brown;
internally pale, reddish-white.   Its odour is agreeably aromatic; its taste peppery and aromatic.
It has been analyzed by Bucholz2 and by Morin.3  The former obtained volatile oil 0.5, acrid soft
resin 4.9, extractive 9.1, gum 8.2,  bassorin 41.5, woody fibre 21.6, water 12.3, loss 1.3.   It is a warm
and agreeable aromatic, and is sometimes  administered in  the form of infusion in  dyspepsia.
Its  effects, uses, and doses are analogous to those of ginger.  It is, however, rarely employed in
England—its principal consumption being on  the continent.
  3. Radix galangce  kvis; galanga leger, Guibourt; light galangal root.—This variety, according
to M. Guibourt, is characterized by its great lightness; its weight being not more than a third of
that of the previous sort.  Its epidermis is smooth and shining. It is, perhaps, the root of Alpinia
nutans (Roscoe), which Dr. Roxburgh4 states  is odorous, and is sometimes brought to England
for  galanga major.
1 Guibourt, Hist. Nat. des Drogues simples, t. ii. p. 200, 4eme ed. 1849.
2 TrommsdorfFs Journal, xxv. 2, p. 3.
4 Asiatic Researches, vol. xi. p. 318.
3 Journ. de Pharm. ix. p. 257. 
Alpinia alba.—The True or Officinal Cardamom.
251
                           90. Alpinia alba, Roscoe.
                                     (Semina.)
   Hellenia alba, Willd.;  Heritiera alba, Retz.; Languas  vulgare, Koenig; Amomum medium,
 Loureiro, Fl. Cochinch—The latter gives Tsdo quo as the Cochinchina        •
 name, and Thao qua as the Chinese name of the plant.                   .-Jf'°'
   Specimens of this fruit are in the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle of
 Paris, where they are labelled tsao-quo.  For my specimens, I am
 indebted to  Professor Guibourt, who calls the fruit the ovoid China
 cardamom (cardamome ovoide de la  Chine).
   The dried fruit is about the size and shape of a large nutmeg: it is
 ovoid, from  ten to fourteen lines long, and from  six  to eight lines
 broad, rather rigid, striated longitudinally, yellowish-brown with a
 reddish tint  [scarlet when recent, Kanig].  Seeds numerous, very
 large, pyramidal, brown externally, flavour and odour terebinthinate;
 albumen white, embryo yellow.
   Grows in the province of Yu-nan.  The  seeds  are aromatic, and
 are used by  the natives as a condiment.  They are said to be useful  Ovoid China Cardamom.
 in intermiitents.  Kcenig terms t^e plant galanga  alba, and says it
' is much used among the Malays.

    91.  ELETTARIA  CARDAMOMUM,  Maton.-THE TRUE OR
                       OFFICINAL CARDAMOM.
    Alpinia Cardamomum, Roxb. L.—Renealmia Cardamomum, Rose.—Amomum Cardamomum, D.
                            Sex. Syst. Monandria, Monogynia.
                   (Semen, L.—The fruit; Cardamoms,  Ed.—The seeds, D.)

    History.—A medicine, called Cardamom (xapSdpupov), is mentioned by Hippo-
 crates,1 Theophrastus,9 and Dioscorides,3 the first of whom employed it in medicine.
 But  it  is  now scarcely possible to determine what substance they referred to, as
 their notices of it are brief and imperfect;  though I believe it to have been one of
 the  fruits  which we call cardamoms.  Pliny* speaks of four kinds of cardamoms,
 but  it is almost impossible to ascertain with  any certainty what species he refers to.
    Botany.   Gen. Char.—The same as  that of Amomum, but  the  tube of the co-
 rolla filiform, and the anther naked (Blume).
    Sp. Char.—Leaves lanceolate, acuminate,  pubescent above, silky beneath.  Spikes
 lax.    Scape elongated, horizontal.   Lip  indistinctly three-lobed (Blume).
    Rhizome with numerous fleshy fibres.   Stems  perennial, erect, smooth, jointed,
 enveloped in the spongy sheaths of the leaves; from six to  nine  feet high.   Leaves
 subsessile  on  their sheaths, entire; length from one to  two feet.  Sheaths slightly
 villous, with  a roundish  ligula rising  above the mouth.   Scapes several (three or
 four) from the base of the stems, flexuose, jointed, branched, one to two feet  long.
 Branches or racemes alternate, one from  each joint of the scape, suberect, two or
 three inches long.  Bracts solitary, oblong, smooth, membranaceous, striated, sheath-
 ing,  one at each joint of the  scape.  Flowers alternate, short-stalked, solitary at
 each joint of the racemes, opening in succession as the  racemes lengthen.  Calyx
 funnel-shaped, three-toothed  at the mouth,  about  three-quarters of an inch long,
 finely  striated, permanent.  Tube  of  corolla slender, as long as the  calyx;  limb
 double, exterior of three oblong, concave, nearly equal, pale greenish-white divisions;
 inner lip obovate, much larger than the exterior divisions, somewhat curled at the
 margin, with the apex slightly three-lobed, marked  chiefly in the centre with purple
 violet  stripes.   Filament short, erect;  anther double  emarginate.   Ovary  oval
 smooth; style slender, stigma  funnel-shaped.  Capsule oval,  somewhat three-sided

    1  Pagea 205, 572, 603, 651, ed. Foes.                » Hist. Plant, lib. xi. cap. vii.
    •  Lib. i. cap. 5.                               4 Hist. Nat. lib. xii. cap. xxix. ed. Valp. 
252
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. ZiNGiBERACEiE.
 size of a small nutmeg [!], three-celled, three-valved.   Seeds  many, angular (Rox-
 burgh).
   Hab—Mountainous part of the coast of Malabar.
   Production.—Cardamoms are produced  naturally or by cultivation.   Between
 Travancore and  Madura they grow without cultivation,1 and  also at certain places
 in  the hills which form the lower  part  of  the Ghauts in Cadutinada  and other
 northern districts of Malayata.2   The  cardamoms  of the  Wynaad, which are es-
 teemed  the best, are cultivated:  the spots chosen for the  cardamom  farms are
 called Ela-Kandy, and are either  level or gently sloping surfaces on  the  highest
 range of the Ghauts after passing the first declivity from their base.8   " Before the
 commencement of the periodical rains, in  June, the  cultivators of the cardamom
 ascend the  coldest and most shady sides of a  woody  mountain; a tree of uncommon
 size and weight is then sought after, the adjacent  spot is cleared of weeds, and the
 tree felled close at  its root.   The  earth, shaken and  loosened by the force of the
 fallen tree, shoots forth young cardamom plants in about a month's time."4
   The  quantity of cardamoms brought for sale at Malabar is about 120, or, accord-
 ing to another account, only 100 candies,  from the following places :5—

                                         Candies o/640 lbs.      Candies o/640 lbs.
             Coorg..............40........30
             Wynaad.............57........65
             Tamarachery...........20........3
             Cadutinada or Cartinaad.......3........2
                                               120                  100
   The  cardamoms of the Wynaad are shorter, fuller of seed, and whiter, than those
 of Malabar, and  sell for 100 rupees a candy more.   Those of Coorg  have fewer
 fine  grains, but they have also fewer black or light ones.  The cardamoms of Sersi
 (western part of Soonda) are inferior to those of Coorg.8
   Description.—The fruit of  the Elettaria Cardamomum constitutes the small,
 officinal Malabar cardamom (cardamoms, Ed.;  cardamomum minus, Clusius, Mat-
 thiolus, Bontius, Geoffroy, Dale, Geiger, Th. Martius, and Guibourt; cardamomum
 malabarense).   It  is an ovate  oblong, obtusely triangular  capsule, from  three to
 ten lines long, rarely  exceeding  three lines in breadth;  coriaceous, ribbed, grayish
 or brownish yellow.   It contains many angular blackish or reddish-brown  rugose
 seeds (cardamomum, L.; cardamomum  excorticatum,  Offic), which are white
 internally, have  a pleasant aromatic odour, and  a warm, aromatic, agreeable taste.7
 100 parts of the fruit yield 74 parts  of seeds and 26 parts of pericarpial coats.8
                                 Three varieties of Malabar cardamoms are distin-
Fig. 261.  Fig. 262.  Fig. 263.    guished in  commerce; viz.  shorts, short-longs, and
                              long-longs.  The two latter differ  from each other in
                              size  merely.
          ft'sHm^.    ffi/riMa      *•  Shorts.  Malabar cardamoms,  properly so called; Petit
                              cardamome (Guibourt);  ? Wynaad  cardamom  (Hamilton);
                              Prima species Elettari plane rotunda et albicans (Rheede).9-
          l;  g/pjg  UVtNHE   From three to six lines  long, and from two to three lines
          vxffl^^F   yjLaBr    broad;  more coarsely ribbed, and  of a browner colour, than
                       0      the other varieties.  This is the most esteemed variety.
                                8.  Short-longs.  Secunda species Elettari oblongior  sed
     Malabar Cardamoms.       „■&,. (Rheede).—Differs from the third variety in being some-
    Fig 261.  Shorts.            what shorter and less acuminate.
    Fig! 262.  Short-longs.          y-  Long-longs.  Moyen cardamome (Guib.) :  Teriia specie*
    Fig. 263.  Long-longs.        Elettari vilissima  et plane  acuminata (Rheede).—From seven
                              lines to an inch  long, and  from  two to  three lines broad:
 1 Hamilton [Buchanan], Journey through Mysore, Canara, and Malabar, vol. ii. p. 336.
 a Hamilton, op. cit., vol. ii. p. 510.                   3  White, Trans, of Lin. Soc. vol. x. p. 237.
 4 Capt. Dickson, in Roxburgh's Fl. Indica.            *  Hamilton, op. cit., vol. ii. p. 538.
 6 Hamilton, op. cit., vol. ii. p. 538, and vol. iii. p. 228.
 1 For some drawings of the minute structure of the seeds, vide BischofTs Handb. d. botanik. Terminal'
tab. xliii. Figs. 1876 and 19*1.
 '•Th. Martius, Pharmakogn.                        9  Rheede, pars xi. tab. 4, 5, and 6. 
           The True or Officinal Cardamom:—Administration.       253

elongated, somewhat acuminate.  This, as well as the last variety, is paler and more finely
ribbed than  var. a. shorts.   The seeds also are frequently paler (in some cases resembling those
of the Ceylon cardamom) and more shrivelled.
  The three sorts are brought from Bombay in chests.  The shorts are usually the dearest, and
fetch from 3d. to 6d. per lb. more than the  longs.  The long-longs are  seldom  brought over.
From Madras, only long cardamoms (usually short-longs, rarely long-longs) are brought: they
are generally packed in bags, and are lighter by weight than the Bombay sort, and usually fetch
3d. per lb. less than the latter.
   Composition.—The small cardamom  was  analyzed by Trommsdorff in 1834.1
He obtained the following results: Essential oil 4.6, fixed oil  10.4, a salt of potash
(malate?) combined with a colouring matter 2.5, fecula 3.0,  nitrogenous mucilage
with phosphate of lime 1.8, yellow colouring matter 0.4, and woody fibre 77.3.
  1. Volatile or Essential Oil or Cardamom.—Is obtained from the seeds by distilling them
with water.   50 lbs. of good short Malabar cardamoms yielded, at one operation, about fjviss
of oil for every lb. of fruit.2  It  is colourless, has an agreeable odour, and a strong, aromatic,
burning taste.  Its sp.  gr. is 0.943.  It  is very soluble in alcohol, ether, oils (both fixed  and
volatile), and  acetic acid.   It is insoluble  in potash-ley.   By keeping, it becomes yellow, viscid,
and loses its peculiar taste and smell. It then detonates with iodine, and takes fire when placed
in contact with concentrated nitric acid.  On this oil depend the  odour, flavour,  and  aromatic
qualities of the seeds.  Its composition is analogous to that of oil of turpentine, being C10H8.
  2. Fixed Oil of Cardamom.—Is insoluble in alcohol, ether, and the  oils, both fixed and vola-
tile.  Nitric acid, assisted  by heat, reddens it.  It has some  analogy to castor oil.
  3. Starch.—Schleiden says that in these seeds he has discovered amorphous paste-like starch
in the cells.
   Physiological Effects.—The effects of cardamoms are those of a very agree-
able and grateful aromatic, devoid of all acridity.
   Uses.—Cardamoms are employed  partly on account of their flavour, and partly
for their cordial and stimulant properties.  They are rarely administered alone, but
generally either as adjuvants or correctives of other medicines, especially of stimu-
lants,  tonics, and purgatives.
   Administration.—Though  cardamoms enter into a  considerable  number  of
pharmaceutical compounds, only two  preparations derive  their  names  from these
seeds.  They are the following:—
   1. TINCTURA CARDAMOMI, E. [U. S.]; Tincture of Cardamoms.—(Cardamon seeds,
bruised, givss [£iv,  U.  S.]; Proof Spirit Oij [Diluted Alcohol,  U. S.].   Macerate
for seven days [fourteen, U. S.], and strain.  " This tincture may be better prepared
by the process of percolation in the  same way with the  tincture of capsicum,- the
seeds being first ground in a coffee-mill," E.)—This compound is agreeably aromatic.
It is used  as an adjunct to cordial, tonic, and purgative  mixtures.  Dosei"3J  to fjij.
   2. TINCTURA C.1RDAM0MI  COMPOSITA,  L. E. D.  [U.S.];   Compound  Tincture  of
Cardamoms.—(Cardamom  seeds bruised,  Caraway seeds bruised,  of  each 3iiss
[3ss, I).];  Cochineal,  powdered, 3'JSS [3U> -^->  3J>  E-j >  Cinnamon, bruised,  ^v
[oj, D.];   llaisins  [stoned]  £v [E.]; Proof Spirit  Oij [Oiij,  D.].   Macerate
for seven [fourteen, D.] days, and filter.  "This  tincture  may also be prepared by
the method of percolation, if the solid materials be  first beat together, moistened
with a little  spirit, and left thus for  twelve hours before being put into the  perco-
lator," Ed.  The Dublin College omits the cochineal and raisins.  [Take of Carda-
mon, bruised, six drachms;  Caraway, bruised, two  drachms;  Cinnamon, bruised,
five  drachms; Kaisins,  deprived of their  seeds, five ounces;  Cochineal, bruised, a
drachm; Diluted Alcohol  two pints and  a half.   Macerate for fourteen days, ex-
press, and filter through paper, U. S.])—This tincture is used for the same purposes
and in the  same doses as the former  preparation, over "which it  has the advantage
of a more agreeable flavour.   Moreover, its  colour often renders it useful  in pre-
scribing.
1 Jour*, de Chim. Mid. t. i. p. 196, 2nde Ser.
1 Private information. 
254              VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. ZingiberaoE;E.
      92. ELETTARIA MAJOR, Sni/A.-THB GREATER  OR
                          CEYLON  ELETTARIA.
                              Alpinia Granum Paradisi, Moon.
                            (Fructus;  Ceylon Cardamom, offic.)

   History.—The fruit of this plant was known to Clusius,1 who has noticed and
figured it under the name of the  Cardamomum  majus  vulgare.3
   Botany.—The flower has not yet been described, but the other parts of the plant
are so similar to the corresponding  parts of Elettaria  Cardamomum, that I  have
felt no difficulty in referring this  plant to the genus Elettaria.   Sir James Edward
Smith,3 who was acquainted  with the fruit only, observes, " we are persuaded they
must belong to the same genus as the Malabar Cardamom."
   Gen. Char.—See Elettaria Cardamomum, p. 1142.
   Sp. Char.— Capsule lanceolate  oblong, acutely  triangular, with flat sides.  Calyx
three-lobed (Smith).
   Rhizome with numerous fibres.  Stem erect, smooth, enveloped by leaf sheaths.  Leaves sessile
on their sheaths, silky beneath, acuminate ; the shorter ones lanceolate, the larger ones oblong-lan-
                                       ceolate; breadth 2 to 3 inches, length not exceeding
              Fig. 264.                 15$ inches. Sheaths about half the length of the leaves,
                                       with a roundish ligula.  Scape from the upper part of
                                       the rhizome, flexuose, jointed, 9 inches long, branched;
                                       the  branches alternate, one from  each joint of the
                                       scape, sub-erect, half an inch long, supporting two ot
                                       three pedicels of about 3-10ths of an inch.  Bradi
                                       solitary, sheathing at each joint of the scape, wither-
                                       ed;  partial ones, solitary, ovate, acute.  Flowers not
                                       present.   Capsules one or two on each branch of tha
                                       scape, with the  permanent calyx attached to them j
                                       their characters are described in the text.
                                         The plant  from which the above description haj
                                       been drawn formed part of a collection made forme
                                       in Ceylon, by my much lamented friend and  pupil,
                                       the  late Mr. Frederick  Saner,  Assistant-Surgeon in
                                       Her Majesty's 61st regiment.   He received it from
                                       Mr. Lear, Acting Superintendent of the Royal Botanic
                                       Gardens in Ceylon,  whose  letter, describing  it al
                                       "Alpinia [Amomum]  Granum paradisi," I have in
                                       my possession.   I presume, therefore, that it is the
                                       plant which  Mr. Moon,4 the  former Superintendent
                                       of the Gardens, has described under the same name.
                                       The following facts favour this conclusion :—
                                         1. Mr. Moon states that its Singalese name is En-
                                       sal,a term which both Hermann5 and Burmann'gave
                                       as the native name for cardamon.
                                         2. Mr. Moon states that it is cultivated at Candy,
                                       If the real grain of paradise plant were cultivated in
            Elettaria major.             Ceylon, it would  be  somewhat remarkable that iu
                                       seeds are never  exported.  Now, I  have carefully
examined the list of exports from that island for several years,  but the word grain  of paradise
never once occurs; and all the seeds  imported into England under  that name, I find, by the
Custom-House returns, come from the western coast of Africa.  On the other hand, the Ceylon
cardamom comes, as its name indicates, from that island.
   It is probable, I think, that the plant which yields the grains of paradise of European com-
merce does not grow in the East; and that writers who  have stated otherwise have confounded
it  with  the plant  yielding Ceylon cardamom.   But the term " grains of paradise" is so truly
  1 Exoticorum, lib. i. pp. 186 and 187.
  * For further details respecting the history of this cardamom, the reader is referred to a paper by the
author, in the Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. ii. p. 384,1842.
  3 Rees's Cyclopaedia, vol. xxxix. art. Elettaria.
  * A Catalogue of the Indigenous and Exotic Plants growing in Ceylon, Colombo, 1824.
  ' Musaum Zeylanicum, p. 66, Ed. 2nda, Lugd. Bat. 1726.
  ' Thesaurus Zeylanicus, p. 54, Arastelaed. 1737. 
The Greater or Ceylon Elettaria.  Orchids.
255
oriental in its character, that I suspect it was first applied to Ceylon cardamoms—a supposition
rendered probable by the much more agreeable flavour of the latter seeds, as well as by the
observation of Dale,1 that grains of paradise were often substituted for the Ceylon cardamom.2
  Hab— Cultivated at Candy.
  Commerce.—Bertolacci3 says that the Ceylon cardamom is collected chiefly in
the Candian territory, and that he was informed it is not indigenous, but was intro-
duced by the Dutch.  The quantity exported from
1806 to 1813  inclusive varied  from 4j to 18 can-
dies  annually.   Percival*  states that  cardamoms
grow in the south-east part of Ceylon, particularly
in the neighbourhood of  Matura.   I am  informed
that  occasionally  Ceylon  cardamoms come  from
Quillon.
  Description.—The Ceylon cardamom, or, as it
is sometimes termed in English commerce, the wild
cardamom (cardamomum zeylanicum;   cardamo-
mum medium, Matth. and Geoffr.; cardamomum
majus, Bont. and  Dale;  cardamomum majus vul-
gare, Clusius;  cardamomum majus officinarum, C.
Bauhin;  cardamomum longum, Th.  Martius and
Geiger; grande cardamome, Guib.), is a lanceolate-
oblong  capsule,  acutely   triangular, more  or less
curved with flat and ribbed sides, about an inch and
a half long and one-third of an inch broad.   At one
extremity we frequently find the long, cylindrical,
permanent, three-lobed calyx; at the other, the fruit-
stalk, which is sometimes  branched.  The pericarp
is coriaceous, tough, brownish or yellowish ash-co-
loured, three-celled.  The seeds are angular, rugged,
have a  yellowish-red tinge, a fragrant and aromatic
but peculiar odour, and a  spicy flavour.   The long
diameter of the vitellus is  parallel to that of the em-
bryo.  Th. Martius5 says  that  100 parts of these
fruits yield 71 parts of seeds, and 29 parts of pericarpial coats.
   Composition, Effects, and Uses.—Ceylon cardamoms have not been analyzed.
Their constituents, as well as their effects and  uses, are doubtless analogous to those
of  the Malabar cardamom.  Their commercial value is about one-third that of the
latter.   They  are chiefly used on the Continent.


      Order  XVIII.    ORCHIDE^, R. Brown.—ORCHIDS.
                      Ohchides, Jussieu.—Orchidace£, Lindley.

  Characters.—Flowers irregular,  gynandrous.  Perianth  adherent  (superior), coloured, or
rarely herbaceous; its parts  arranged in 2 rows. Column consisting of the stamens and style
consolidated into a central body.  Stamens 3, the central only being perfect, except  in Cypripe-
dium, where the central is abortive and the two lateral perfect; pollen powdery, or cohering in
waxy masses.  Ovary adherent (inferior), 1-celled,  composed of 6 carpels, of which 3 have
parietal placenta";  stigmas usually confluent in a mucous disk.   Capsule membranous or coria-
ceous, rarely fleshy.   Seeds innumerable, without albumen ; embryo solid.   Roots fasciculated and
fibrous, sometimes  with fleshy tubercles.  Leaves never lobed; their veins usually parallel, very
rarely somewhat reticulated.   Stem sometimes swollen and jointed, forming pseudo-bulbs.
  Properties—See Salep and Vanilla.
 1 Pharmacologia, p. 252, 3tia ed. Lond. 1737.
 * It would appear,  however, that the term Grain of Paradise is also applied, in Cevlon, to Alpinia
Allughas.  (See Burmann's Thesaurus, p. 54 ; and Sir J. E. Smith, in Rees's Cyclopcrdia,vol. xxxix. art.
Alpinia.)
 * Agricultural, Commercial, and Financial Interests of Ceylon, p. 157, IS] 7.
 * Account of Ceylon, 1805.                                      » Pharmakognosie.
Fig. 265.
Ceylon Cardamoms.
a a, The dried capsules of commerce.
 b, Transverse section of a capsule.
c c, Seeds.
 d, Magnified view of a s»ction of a
     seed, to show the embryo seat-
     ed in vitellus (Lindley). 
256
VEGETABLES.—Nat.  Ord. Orchidejb.
                                   93.  Orchis, Linn.
                              Sex. Syst.  Gynandria, Monandria.
                                      (Radix; Salep.)
  The term salep1 (radix salep) is applied to the prepared tubercles of several orchideous plants.
  1. Oriental Salep.—This  is usually  imported from the Levant, and is said to be the pro-
duce of Turkey, Natolia, and Persia.  It consists of small ovoid tubercles, frequently strung on
a cord.   In 1825-6, salep of the value of 35,000 francs was imported into France from Persia.2
Salep is the produce, probably, of different species of Orchis.   Fraas3 states that the <ra\nx ot
ereXiiti of Greece is collected from  O.  Morio, and  also from O. mascula, coriophora, and undulaiv
folia.   Dr. Royle thinks that the salep of  Cashmere  is  obtained  from a  species of Eulophia.
Caventou4 states that the constituents of salep are  gum  (which does not become coloured by
iodine), much bassorin, a little starch, common salt, and  phosphate of lime.  Others, however,
have found an abundance of starch in salep;6 and it is  probable, therefore, that the quantity
varies at different seasons, and is most abundant before the tubercle is exhausted by the nutri-
tion of the stem.6
  2. Indigenous Salep.—That prepared from Orchis mascula  is most valued; but the roots of
some of the palmated sorts, as Orchis latifolia,  are found to answer almost equally well.  Geof-
froy,7 Retzius,8 and Moult9 have each pointed out the method of preparing it.  The latter directs
the roots to be washed and the brown skin removed by  a brush or by dipping the  root in hot
water and rubbing it with a coarse  linen cloth.   The  roots  are  then  put on a tin plate and
placed in an oven heated  to the usual degree  for six or  ten  minutes, in which time they will
have lost their milky whiteness and acquired a transparency like horn.  They are then removed
and allowed to dry and harden in  the air.
  The fresh roots of the orchis contain a peculiar odorous principle (which is almost entirely
dissipated  by drying), starch, mucilaginous  matter, a small quantity of bitter extractive, ligneous
matter,  salts, and water.
  Salep possesses the dietetical properties  of the starchy and mucilaginous  substances  (seeun/e,
vol. i. p. 117).  Its  medicinal properties are  those of an emollient and demulcent.  It was
formerly in repute as an aphrodisiac and restorative, and as a preventive of miscarriage,10 but
it has no claim to these powers.  The notion  of its aphrodisiac properties  seems to have been
founded on the doctrine of  signatures.
  Indigenous salep was  recommended  by Dr. Thomas  Percival11 as a wholesome article of
food ; and in a medicinal point of view as a restorative, emollient, and demulcent.
  Mucilage of salep (mucilago radicis salep ; decoctum salep) is  prepared,  according to the Ham-
burg Codex, with  5 grains  of  powdered  salep and ^j of distilled water.  Dissolve by boiling
and constantly stirring, and strain.


                                  94. Vanilla, Swartz.
                               Sex. Syst. Gynandria, Monandria.
                                         (Fructus.)
  History.—Vanilla (so-called  from vainilla or baynilla, the diminutive of vaina or bayna, a
sheath or pod) is said12 to  have been brought to the Continent, as a perfume, about  the year
1510.   It could not, however, have obtained much attention; for Clusius,13 who received it from
England in 1602, confesses that he had not seen  it before; and he calls it bbus oblongus aroma-
ticus.   Hernandez14 describes the vanilla  plartt under the name of tlilxochitl or aracus aromaticus.
The pods were afterwards denominated benzanelles quasi benzionelles, on account of their benzoin-
like odour.15
  Botany.  Gen. Char.—Fruit a long  pulpy pod, with round seeds  not  inclosed in a loose
membrane.  (Lindley.)
  1 The term saloop is sometimes applied to sassafras tea.
  2 Chevalier, Journ. de Pharm. xv. 536, 1829.            3 Synopsis Plant. Fl. Classicce, p. 279,1815.
  4 Ann. Chim. Phys. xxxi. 345.
  1 Journ. de Pharm. xii. 201, 1826; Pfaff, Syst. d. Mat. Med. i. 131; vi. 90.
  6 Raspail, Chimie Organique.                        '  Hist, de VAcad. Royale des Sciences, 1740.
  8 Swedish Transactions, 1764.                        » Phil. Trans, vol. lix.
  10 Some Observations made upon the Root called Serapias or Salep, imported from Turkey, showing t(J
admirable  Virtues in preventing Women's Miscarriages, written by a Doctor of Physick in the Countrey
to his Friend in London, 1694.
  11 On the Preparation, Culture, and Use of the Orchis Root (in the Essays, Medical and Experimental,

  13 Morren, Annals of Natural History, vol. iii. p. 1, 1839.
  13 Exotic lib. ni. cap. xviii. p. 72, 1605.
  " Rerum Medic. Novee Hisp. Thesaurus, p. 38, Romce, 1651.
  14 Mentzelius, Index Nomin. Plant. Berol. 1682. 
Vanilla:—Species; Curing;  Description.
257
  Species.—Although, until recently, most authors have ascribed the vanilla of commerce to
the  V. aromatira of Swartz ; yet the assertion rested upon no certain or known fact, but chiefly
upon the belief that V. planifolia bore no odoriferous fruit.1   Morren,2 however,  by  artificial
impregnation, obtained fruit from the V. planifolia, which, in fragrance and other qualities, vied
with the best vanilla of commerce; and it is probable, therefore, that  this species yields part at
least of the best or Mexican  vanilla.
  But Schiede1 states that there are four forms of Vanilla in Mexico, which he calls  respectively
V. sativa, V. sylvestris, V. pompona, and V. inodora;* the first two of which he thinks have been
confounded under the name  of V. planifolia.  He did not, however, see  the flowers of any of
these species; and, therelbre, it is  impossible to characterize them.   He likewise mentions a
baynilla de mono or monkey vanilla, which  he did not examine: and also a baynilla mestiza or
hybrid vanilla, a fruit intermediate between that of V. sativa and V. sylvestris.
  But although the best vanilla comes from Mexico, there are other sorts which are  the produce
of other parts of tropical  America, and which are certainly  not  the  produce of V. planifolia;
I shall, therefore, also notice such  other  species as probably contribute some of the vanilla of
commerce.
  1. V. planifolia, Andrews, Bot. Rep.  t. 538.—Fruit  very long, cylindrical, and very  frag-
rant.—West  Indies (Aiton), Mexico (1), and Guatemala (?).—Probably yields the best Mexican
Vanilla.—Schiede's  V. sativa and V. sylvestris are perhaps referable to this species :—

  a. V. sativa, Selliede; Baynilla mansa or cultivated vanilla of the Mexicans.   Leaves oblong,
       succulent, the floral ones very small;  fruits without furrows.—Grows wild; and is also
       cultivated in Papantla, Misantla, Nautla, and Colipa.—Yields the finest sort of  Vanilla.
       This, probably, is the La Corrienti or Current Vanilla of Desvaux.5
  0. V. sylvestris, Schiede ; Baynilla cimarrona or wild vanilla of the Mexicans.   Leaves oblong-
       lanceolate, succulent,  the floral  ones very small; fruits with  two furrows.—Grows in
       Papantla, Nautla, and Colipa.—Its fruit is collected  in Papantla, and mixed  with that of
       the preceding sort.—According to the information furnished to Desvaux, this form is the
       same species as the  preceding; but, growing wild in the woods, and deprived of the
       solar  rays, it yields a  smaller fruit.

  2. V. aromatica, Swartz, in Act. Upsal. vi. 66.—Fruit  cylindrical, very long.—South Ame-
rica: Brazil.—Said by Martius to yield the true vanilla (vera; siliqua vanilla).
   3. V. ouiane.vsis, Splitberger,  Ann. Scien.  Nat., 2de  S6r.  t. xv. Bot. p. 279,  1841.—Fruit
fragrant, 6-8 inches  long,  three-edged, straight or somewhat falcate; sides 11-15 lines broad, one
somewhat convex, two flattish, angles obtuse.—Surinam.  Probably  yields La Guayra vanilla,
and the large vanilla (vanille grosse) of Guiana.
   4. V. palm arum, Lindley, Gen. and Sp. of Orchid. Plants, p. 437; Splitberger,  Ann.  Scien.
Nat., 2de Ser. t. xv. p. 283.—Fruit fleshy, 2 inches long and $ an inch diameter, cylindrical, or
slightly three-faced, obtuse at  the  extremities, bivalved.—Babia.   Yields a vanilla inferior in
fragrance to the preceding.
   5. V. pompona, Schiede;  Baynilla pompona or large vanilla of the Mexicans.—Fruit with two
furrows, rich in volatile oil,  with an agreeable odour, yet will not dry, but always remains soft,
and cannot be transmitted to Europe  as  an article of commerce.  Humboldt6 says that  it has
scarcely any sale on account of its odour.  Desvaux  observes that  it is certainly the vanilla
called  by some authors bova (vanilla bouffie, tumid or swollen vanilla), and which  is  found in
French commerce under the name of vanillon.
   Curing.—The preparation or curing of vanilla  varies  probably in  different  places.  At
 Misantla the fruits are sun-dried, and afterwards sweated in blankets; or, when  the weather
is unfavourable, they are dried by artificial heat.'   In some  places they are dipped in boiling
 water, then  suspended in the sun to dry, and afterwards oiled.8   These different processes have
for their object not merely the preservation of the fruits, but the development and  preservation
of  their odour, which is supposed  to  be  effected by a kind of fermentation; for in the  fresh
state, Aubletsays, they have no aroma.   The seat of the odour has been variously  stated to be
in  the seeds, the pulp, and the fruit coats: probably all these parts  possess it  in different
degrees.
  1 Plumier, who published a figure of V. aromatica, expressly states in his MS., published  by Geoffroy
'Tract, de Mat. Mid. t. ii. p. 303. 1741), that his plant differs from the Mexican species in being inodorous.
  * Annal* of Natural History, vol. iii. p. 1, 1^39.
  * Sehlerhtcndal's Linnata, Bd. iv. S.573, Oct. 1829; also, Pharmaceutisches Central Blatt fur 1S30, S. 46.
  4 V.inodora, the baynilla de puerco or hog vanilla of the Mexicans, is, Schiede states, a distinct species
but, being deficient in volatile oil, is not used.  Desvaux  says that in  drying it gives  out a disagreeable
odour, and from this has obtained the name of" hog" vanilla.
  » Ann. Sritnces Nat. 3mr Si r. Botumque, t. vi. p. 119,  1846.—Desvaux says there nre two varieties  of
La Corrienti; one of which is well filled with seeds and pulp, and has a fine skin—this is the most esteemed ■
the other, or Cutruda (leathery), has a thick skin, and, though inferior, is legitimate  in commerce : it is
the Let, Leq, or Leg of some pnrts of South America.
  • Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain, translated by J. Black, vol. iii. p. 26, 1822.
  ' Desvaux, op. supra cit.
  ' Aublet, Hist, des Plantes de la Guiane Francoise, t. ii. 1775.
        VOL. II.—17 
258
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Orchide^:.
    Description.—The dried fragrant fruits of several species of vanilla constitute  the Mnj'flj
 or vanilloes of tbe shops  (fructus vel capsula vanilla; siliqua vaniglia vel baniglia).
    Four sorts are  known  in the English market; viz., the Mexican or Vera Cruz, the Hondanu
 the La Guayra, and the  Brazilian or Bahia.  A fifth sort I have received by private hand.
    1. Mexican or  Vera  Cruz Vanilla.—Imported from  Vera Cruz, tied in bundles of 50 pod*
 weighing, when of good quality, about 9£ or 10 oz.  The heavier the  bundle, the better the
 quality and the greater the value per lb.  The bundles come packed  in tin cases, each holding
 60 bundles.  I have met with  two varieties:—
   a  Finest Mexican Vanilla.—This consists of pods which are 7 or 8 inches long, $ of an inch
 wide, tapering at the extremities, and  curved  at the  base.  They are longitudinally wrinkled
 soft, clammy, and dark brown.  Their odour is very fragrant, resembling, but being  more deli!
 cious  than, that of balsam of  Peru.   By keeping they become coated with  brilliant acicular
 crystals, and  are then called crystallized vanilla.
   B. Second Mexican Vanilla.—The pods of this  sort are shorter (being about 5 inches lone)
 narrower, drier, paler, and less odorous than  the preceding, with  only a few isolated or no
 crystals on them.  In other respects this sort agrees with the preceding.
   Desvaux states  that in  Mexico  five legitimate sorts of vanilla are distinguished: viz. the
 primiera (the grande fina of Humboldt), or the finest; chica-jina (the mancuerna of Humboldt)
 or  small  fine; sacate, or middlings; resacate, or  middling middlings;  and  basura,  or the
 sweepings.
   Tbe puerca and pompona are not considered to  be legitimate  sorts.
   Bourbon Vanilla, according to Bouchardat,1 differs from Mexican  vanilla only in being some-
 what smaller, redder, less brown, drier, and less unctuous.
   2. Honduras Vanilla.— Imported  from  Honduras.  Its value is  from 2s. to 4s. per lb.  The
 fruits are cylindrical, or  slightly flattened, 3| or four inches long, Ad or f ths  of an inch  in dia-
 meter, longitudinally wrinkled, brown, and dry.   Their odour is  vanilla-like, but feeble, and
 not of that fragrant kind which characterizes  the  best vanilla.
   3. La Guayra   Vanilla.—Imported  from La Guayra, in Venezuela,  in  various packages
 (mostly tins in cases).  It is an inferior  sort, chiefly used by perfumers, and fetches from 2s.to
 4s. per lb.
   The fruits are large flattened, or somewhat plano-convex, or obscurely triangulated pods, from 5
 to 7 inches long. § to f of an inch wide, somewhat narrowed at the extremities, a little twisted
 or curled,  longitudinally  wrinkled, here and there  presenting a somewhat blistered appearance,
 brown, with  a peculiar (sweetish fruity) vanilla odour.   On the flattened side, at each edge,is
 a  more or less distinct  welt-like suture.
   In the Museum of the Pharmaceutical Society are two  pods, probably of the same sort, re-
 ceived from Mr. Stutchbery.of Demerara.  They  are, however, 7J inches long, more distinctly
 triangular, blackish externally, and  appear as if oiled.  They were sent along with a  pod of
 what I believe to be V. guianensis, preserved wet.
   La Guayra Vanilla is  probably the  produce of V. guianensis of Splitberger.  It is perhaps
 the large vanilla (vanille grosse)  of Aublet; and is said by Dr. T. W. C. Martius to be sometimes
 met with under the name of vanillon.
   4. Brazilian or Bahia Vanilla.—This consists of  pods of about  7£  inches long and J of an inch
 wide.   The samples which I have  seen  have been divided longitudinally, and strictly speaking,
 therefore, are half pods.   This sort is blackish, and damp and sticky to the touch, somewhat as
 if it had been covered  with treacle or some glutinous substance.   By digestion in spirit it is
 deprived of its glutinous  coating.  It is sometimes brought over quite  wet.   By some persons it
 is  said to have been  preserved in sugar, and that to this substance  it  owes its dampness.  Its
 odour is not equal  to that of the best vanilla.
   This sort of vanilla corresponds with the fruit  neither of V. aromatica of Swartz, nor of V.
palmarum,  Lindley—the only two species of vanilla which, according to Martius, are found in
 the Brazils.   Is it V. pompona of Schiede'?
   5. Panama Vanilla.—\ have  received a single  pod only of this.  It is flat, 3$ inches long,
 nearly £ of an inch wide, dark brown, and fragrant.
   Goodness.—The best vanilla is dark shining brown, plump, heavy, pliant, and soft, and baa
 a fine fragrant smell.   The crystallized variety is  preferred.
   Shrivelled, dull, dry, pale or yellowish brown, faintly smelling, or musty or mouldy pods are
 bad.
   Sometimes dry shrivelled pods are freshened up with balsam of Peru, or are rolled in benzoic
 acid to give them  a crystallized appearance.
   Composition.—The  crystallized  vanilla was analyzed by Bucholz,2 who obtained the follow-
 ing results: Odorous brownish-yellow fixed oil, 10.8;  soft  resin, scarcely soluble  in ether,2.3;
 bitter extractive with some acetate of potash, 16.8:  acidulous, bitterish, astringent extractive,
 9.0; sweet extractive, 1.2; saccharine matter with benzoic acid, 6.1; gum, 11.2; starchy matter,

                          1 Journ. de Pharm. 3e Ser. t. xvi. p. 274, 1849.
                          3 Buchner's Repertorium, Bd. ii. S. 253, 1828. 
Yams.  Dioscorea.
259
2.8;  woody fibre, 20.0; oxidized extractive dissolved by potash, 7.1; gum extracted by potash,
59;  benzoic acid, 1.1; water and  loss, 5.7.—The ashes of the insoluble fibre consisted of the
carbonates of soda, potash, lime and magnesia, sulphate of lime, sulphates, chlorides, alumina,
oxide of iron, and oxide of copper.
  The nature of the odorous principle1 of vanilla has not been satisfactorily made out.  It pro-
bably resembles that of the balsam of Peru, and belongs to the cinnameine series.  By distilla-
tion with water, alcohol, or ether, vanilla yields no volatile oil; the liquid obtained by distillation
with water being nearly inodorous.  It is said that when the fruit is mature  it yields from two
to six drops of a liquid  which has an exquisite odour, and bears the name of balsam of vanilla—
none of which, however,  reaches Europe, though it is stated to be used in Peru.
  The soft needle like crystals which incrust the  finest kind of vanilla are usually regarded as
either benzoic or cinnamic acid.   They are slightly soluble in hot water, and the solution, ac-
cording to my experiments, reddens litmus.  Bley,2 who examined them, denies that their solu-
tion reddens litmus, and considers  them to be a peculiar solid volatile oil.  They require to be
farther examined.
  Physiological Effects.—Vanilla  is an aromatic  stimulant.   Its effects probably resemble
those of balsam of Peru.   It is considered to have an exhilarating effect on the mental functions,
to prevent  sleep, to increase the energy of the muscular system, and to act as an aphrodisiac.3
  Uses.—As a medicinal  agent it  is not employed in England.  On the continent it has been
used in hysteria, melancholia, impotency, asthenic fevers, rheumatism, &c.
  Its principal use in this country  is to flavour chocolate and various articles of confectionery
(ices, creams, Sec), liqueurs, &c.    It is also employed in perfumery.
  Administration—It is exhibited  in the form of powder or tincture.
  1. Pulvis Vanilla; Powder of Vanilla.—Vinilla  is powdered by the  intervention of sugar.
The pods being cut in small pieces are pounded in an iron mortar with sugar,  then sifted, the
residue powdered with more sugar,  and so  on.   The powders  are  then to be  mixed.   The
quantity of sugar required varies according to the state of dryness or succulency of the pods;
but in general four parts of sugar  are required  for one part of vanilla.  This  powder is used
for aromatizing various culinary and medicinal preparations.   It may be administered medici-
nally in doses of a drachm; equal to about twelve grains of the pure vanilla.
   2.  Tinctura Vanilla; Tincture of Vanilla; Essence of Vanilla.—This is prepared by digesting
one part of good Mexican vanilla in six parts of rectified spirit.  When  inferior sorts of vanilla
are used, the proportion of this substance is increased.—Vogler4 states that a tincture of balsam
of Peru is sometimes substituted for that of vanilla.
          2.  Leaves with netted (reticulated) veins.  Dictyogens; Retosa.   Lindley.
        | Flowers unisexual, with the perianth adherent to the ovary (inferior ovary).


         Order XIX.    DIOSCOREACE^,  Until—YAMS.

                                  Dioscorea, R. Brown.

  CRAnACTEBB—Twining endogenous plants with reticulated leaves, unisexual regular flowers,
a 6-parted superior perianth, 6 stamens, a 3 celled inferior ovary with  1- or  2-seeded  cells, and
capsular or berried fruit.
  Properties.—See Dioscorea and Tamus.


                       95. Dioscorea, Linn.—The  Yam.
                               Sex. Syst. Dicecia, Hexandria.
                                         (Tuber.)

  In tropical  countries (East and West  Indies, Africa, Polynesia) the  tuberous roots of many
species of Dioscorea or Yam* are used as food.  Of seventeen species described by Roxburgh,8
eleven are stated to be employed for food.  The four following are cultivated in India, and are
esteemed in the order in which they are enumerated : D. globosa, D. alata, D. purpurea, and D.
rubella.   Roxburgh also says that D. atropurpurea is  extensively cultivated at Malacca, Pegu,
  1 An odour more or less allied to that of vanilla, and  therefore called the vanilla odour, is common to
many vegetable substances (see Virey, Journ. de  Pharm. t. vi. p. 591; also, Merat and De Lens  Diet
Mat. Mid. t. vi. p. 813, nndSuppl. p. 727.)                                              '
  • Pharmaceutisches Central Blatt far 1831, p. 579.       s Sundelin, Heilmittellehre, ii. 203, 3te Aufl
  • Pharmaceuttschrs Central Blatt fur lf-1.-, S. 448.
  » The term yam is frequently, but erroneously, applied to the tubers of Tacca and Arum (see ante
p. 157).                                                                                 '
  • Fl. Indica, vol. iii. p. 797. 
260
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Dioscoreace^:.
 and the eastern islands; and that D. fasciculata  is cultivated to a considerable extent in the
 vicinity of Calcutta, not only for  food, but to make  starch  of the roots.   In the West Indies
 several species are used as food;  the chief are D. aculeata, D. alata, D. bulbifera, and D. uaka.
 The tuberous  roots  sold in the London  shops as West India yams are said to be those of fl,
 alata.
   Yams are large fleshy roots, sometimes weighing from thirty to forty pounds each.   Some of
 them are highly acrid in the fresh state, but become agreeable  articles of food when cooked
 owing to the dissipation or decomposition of the acrid  principle.
   The fresh root of Dioscorea sativa,  from the West Indies, was analyzed by Siiersen,1  who
 obtained the following results:  resin, 0.05; uncrystallizable sugar, 0.26; mucilage, 2.94; stared,
 22.66; ligneous  fibre,  6.51; nitrogenized matter,  quantity  undetermined; and water, 67.5s.
 The fresh roots yield 0.52 of ashes,  containing carbonate of lime and silica.
   The following are the  per centage  quantities of yam-starch obtained by Dr. Sheir2 from the
 fresh roots of several species of Dioscorea:—

                                  Per  Centage of Starch.              Per Centage of Starch.
           Common yam (D. sativa).....24.47 I Buck yam (D. triphylla)   . .  . 16.07
           Barbados yam (D.-----?) .... 18.75  Another sample.........15.63
           Guinea yam (D. aculeata)  .... 17.03 | A third..............14.83 (From* dark-
                                                                            coloured variety.)

   I am indebted to Dr. Sheir for  specimens of the starches of three species: viz., D.  sativa,D.
 aculeata, and D. triphylla.  They were prepared in the Colonial Laboratory at Demerara. They
 are beautifully white, inodorous, and tasteless.   Examined by the microscope, the particles of
 the three starches present a general  similarity of character.   They are large, somewhat com-
 pressed, elliptical or ovate, or somewhat obtusely triangular.  They may be compared in shape
 to the  seed of  the common scarlet runner bean (Phaseolus multiflorus), and  are  surrounded by
 rings, which, when viewed on the middle of the flat side of the particle, appear to be but slightly
 curved.   In  the  latter character they approximate  to curcuma starch.   Some of the particles
 present one or  two slight nipple-like projections analogous to those of maranta starch. In po-
 larized light, they present the usual crosses observed  with most other starches.  Their size3 is
 about j^th  of an inch  in length, and  about  jo'Vo"1'1 of an inch in breadth.
   Yams are  roasted and boiled, and eaten like  potatoes.  " They are dressed in various forms,
being boiled  in soups or broths, &c, made into pudding, or roasted in the fire."4   Some of them,
however, are violently  acrid, causing vomiting and diarrhoea, even after being carefully cooked.
This is said to be the case with D. triphylla and damona.  Yet Dr. Wright and Dr. Sheir declare
that the roots of D. triphylla are nearly equal to potatoes.


         96.  Tamus communis, Linn.—Common Black Bryony.
                                 Sea:.  Syst. Dioecia, Hexandria.
                                          (Radix.)

  'Afxm\of /ulxaira, Dioscor. lib. iv. cap. 185?; Chironia, Gynacanthe aut Apronia, Pliny, lib. xxiii.
cap.  17, ed Valp. ?;  Bryonia nigra, Gerard, 871.—Indigenous.   The root (radix bryonia nigra)
is large and fleshy, black externally,  white internally.   When fresh, it  possesses some acridity.
No analysis of  it  has been made.  Taken internally, it acts as a diuretic, and  has been  esteemed
as a  lithic (see vol. i. p. 283).  It is kept in  the  herb shops, and sold,  like Solomon's seal  (see
 ante, p. 215), as a topical application for  removing bruise  marks.  In France,  it is called the
herbe auxfemmes  battues, or the herb for bruised women.

  1 Quoted by L. Gmelin, Handb. d. Chemie, Bd.  ii. S. 1334.
  * Report on the  Starch-producing  Plants of the Colony of  British  Guiana, by John Sheir, LL.D.
Demerara, 1847.—Dr. James Clark (Medical Facts and Observations, vol. vii. 1797) obtained from41bi.of
the roots of D. triphylla 5 oz. 2 dr. of starch, and from the same quantity of the roots of D. bulbifera  8 oz.
of starch.
  3 The following measurements, in parts of an English inch, of the particles of yam starch, were made
for me by Mr. George Jackson :—

                     Guinea Yam.
 Particles.
             Length.   Breadth.        Length.
1........0.0025 . . . 0.0020......0 0019 .
2........0.0018 . . . 0.0014......*0.0019
3........#0.0015 . .  . 0.0011......#0.0016
4........#0.0012 . . . 0.0010......0 0012
5........#0.0012 ... 0 0007.....   0 0009
6........0.0010 . . . 0.0006
7........0.0013 . . . 0.0005
               The most prevalent-sized particles are those marked thus #.
Yam.	Buck Yam.
Breadth. . 0.0012 . . . . 0.0009 . 0.0010 . 0.0008 . 0.0006 . . .	Length. Breadth . . . 0.0030 . . . 0.0015 #0.0022 . . . 0.0014 #0.0017 . . . 0.0010 #0.0016 . . . 0.0008 . . . 0.0010 . . . 0.0007
* Dr. Wright, Medicinal Plants growing in Jamaica, in the Memoir of his life, p. 208, 1828. 
Sarsaparillas. Smilax.
261
            ■ft Flowers with the perianth free from the ovary (superior ovary).


    Order XX.   SMILACE-E, Lindl—SARSAPARILLAS.

  Character.—Flowers biennial or polygamous.  Calyx and  corolla both alike, free, 6-parted.
Stamens 6, inserted into the perianth near the base; seldom hypogynous.  Ovary 3-celled, the
cells 1 or many-seeded ;  style usually trifid ; stigmas 3.  Fruit a roundish berry.  Albumen be-
tween fleshy and  cartilaginous; embryo usually distant from the hilum.—Herbaceous plants or
under shrubs, with a tendency to climb.  Stems scarcely woody.  Leaves reticulated.  ( Lindley.)
  Properties.   See Smilax.—The Ripogonum parviflorum] of  R. Brown, a native of New Zea-
land, where it iscalled kareao, is said to possess virtues similar  to those of sarsaparilla, and may
be termed the New Zealand sarsaparilla. The stems yield 12 percent, of extract, which is bitter,
and contains starch-gum and traces of astringent matter.2


   97.  SMILAX, Linn, several Species  of, yielding Sarsaparilla.
                            Sea:. Syst. Dioecia, Hexandria.
(Sarsa Jamaicensis ; Smilax officinalis, Kunth?  Radix, L.—Smilax. officinalis.  Jamaica sarsaparilla.
                                   The root, D.)

  History.—The root of  sarsaparilla was  brought into  Europe from  the West
Indies,  about the year 1530, with the character of being a medicine singularly effi-
cacious  in  the cure of lues venerea.3  Monardes4  says that, when the Spaniards first
saw it, they called it carca-parilia, on account of its resemblance to the carca-parilla
of Europe (Smilax aspcra).   The Spanish term  zarzaparilla (from zarza,& bram-
ble; and paritla, a vine) signifies a thorny vine.
   Botany.  Gen. Char__Dioecious.   Perianth  6-parted, nearly  equal, spreading.
Male flowers : stamens 6 ;  anthers erect.   Female flowers '.perianth perma-
nent;  ovary 3-celled,  the  cells 1-sceded; style very short;  stigmas 3.   Berry 1- to
3-8eeded.   Sods roundish ; albumen cartilaginous;  embryo remote from the hilum.
(R. Brown, Prodrom.  p. 293.)
   Species.—Considerable uncertainty prevails as to the botanical  origin of the vari-
ous sorts of sarsaparilla of commerce.   From four species of Smilax, a great part,
at least, of this drug is obtained.
   1. S.  officinalis,  HBK.— Stem  twining,  shrubby,  prickly,  quadrangular,
smooth;  the  young shoots are unarmed, and almost round.   Leaves ovate-oblong,
acute, cordate, netted, 5- to 7-nerved, coriaceous, smooth, a foot long, and 4-5 inches
broad;   the young  ones are  narrow,  oblong,  acuminate,  and 3-nerved.   Petioles
smooth, an inch long, bearing 2 tendrils above the  base.   Flowers and fruit unknown.
—(J rows in New Granada, on the banks of the  Magdalena, near Bajorque.   It is
called zarzaparilla by the natives, who transmit large  quantities of it to Carthagena
and Mom pox;  whence it is  shipped for Jamaica and Spain (Humboldt).5   Accord-
ing to Pohl, it is  collected near the river Abait£, in the western part of the province
of Minas (Jeraes (Martius).
   This species  probably yields the sarsaparilla exported from  Colombia (Savanilla,
Santa Marta, Caracias  and  its port La Guayra, St. Margarita and its port Porta
Arenas), and  Guatemala (Costa llica).
   2.  S. medica,  Schlechtendal, in  Linnaea, vi. 47.—Stem angular, armed at the
joints with straight prickles, with a few hooked ones in  the intervals.  Leaves shortly
acuminate, smooth,  5- to 7-nerved;  inferior ones cordate, auriculate-hastate;  upper
ones cordate-ovate.  Peduncle axillary, smooth, about  an inch long.   Inflorescence
 1 Allan Cunningham, in Hooker's Companion to the Botanical Magazine, vol. ii.
 • !■><■«: a paper, by the author, in the Pharmaceutical Journal, vol v. p. 73.
 * lViirgnn, Observations on the Effects of various Articles of the Materia Medica in the Cure of Lues
Venerea, 1WK)
 ' Clusii Exotic, lib. x. cup. xxii. p. 317.                        » Nov. Gen. et Spec. i. p. 215. 
262
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Smilace;e.
an 8- to 12-flowered umbel.   Fruit red, size of a small cherry;  contains 1—3 red-
dish-brown seeds.  Embryo cylindrical, lodged in horny albumen (T. F. L. Nees).1
  Schiede2 says, that of the numerous species of Smilax which grow on the eastern
slope of the Mexican Andes, this is the only species which is collected in the villages
of Papantla, Tuspan, Nautla, Misantla, &c, and carried to Vera Cruz, from whence
it is sent into European commerce under the name of zarzaparilla.   We may, there-
fore, safely state that Mexican sarsaparilla (Vera Cruz and Tampico) is the produce
of this  species.
  3.  S. papyracea, Poiret;  S.  syphilitica, Mart, (non Ilumb.) Beise, iii. 1280;
Sipd em of the natives.—Stem 4-cornered or plane-angular, polished, prickly.  Leaves
somewhat membranous, oval-oblong,  obtuse at  both ends,  or  usually pointletted at
the  apex, quite entire, unarmed, 5-ribbed,  with 3 more  prominent ribs.   Cirrhi
inserted beneath the middle of the petiole.—Province of Bio Negro, in marshy spots
on the  Japura,  near Porto dos Miranhos (Martius) ; near Ega (Poeppig);  and near
Borba, in the province of Bio Negro (Biedel).—Yields Brazilian (also called Maran-
ham, Para, or Lisbon) sarsaparilla.
  The  " Bio Negro  Sarsa" of Dr. Hancock3 is perhaps the produce of  this species.
  The preceding are the species of Smilax, from which probably the greater part, if not all, of
the sarsaparilla of commerce is obtained.  Other species, however, which have been mentioned
in connection with this drug, require  to be noticed.
  4. S.  sarsaparilla, Linn.—It is common in the hedges and swamps of the United States of
America ; but, notwithstanding its name, it does  not yield any of the sarsaparilla of commerce:
and there is no evidence that it ever did  yield any.   Dr. Wood4 remarks  that its root would
certainly have been dug up and brought into the market, had it been found to possess the same
properties with the imported medicine.
  5. S. syphilitica, HBK.—Humboldt and Bonpland discovered it in New Granada, on  the
river Cassiquiare, between Mandavala and San Francisco Solano.5  In the former edition of
this work,' I stated, on the authority of Martius6, that  this species yielded Brazilian sarsaparilla.
But  this botanist has subsequently7 ascertained  that  he had mistaken S. papyracea  for  this
species.
  Poeppig" states that £ syphilitica, HBK., is collected at Maynas (in Colombia),  and forms the
sarsa fina which  is mixed with sarsa  gruesa (S. cordato-ovata, Pers), and sent to Para.
  6. S. cordato-ovato, Persoon.—Cayenne; Maynas.  Yields sarsa gruesa (see  supra).
  7. S.  Purhampy, Ruiz, Memoria sobre  las virtudes, &c. &c, Purhampy, p. 65.—Peru. Yield!
one of the best sorts of sarsaparilla, which Ruiz calls China peruviana.  Lindley9 thinks  this
may be the same species as S. officinalis.
  8. S.  oBLiauATA, Poiret.—Peru.  Guibourt10 ascribes to this species the Peruvian sarsaparilla
of commerce, but I know not on  what authority.
   General Description.—The  sarsaparilla or sarza (more properly  zdrza) of
commerce (radix  sarsaparilla vel sarzse) consists essentially of the  roots of  the
before-mentioned, and  perhaps also of other species of  Smilax.   In some sorts of
sarsaparilla the roots are attached to a portion  of  the rhizome.
  a. The rhizome or rootstock (rhizoma), called by druggists the chump,  is a tuberous
subterranean stem, which in  the  living plant is placed horizontally or obliquely in
the  earth.   It  grows throwing  out aerial stems  and  roots  at the more pointed
extremity, and  gradually dies off at the thicker and older end.   One or more aerial
stems are frequently found attached to the rhizome of the shops : these are rounded
or square, with nodes  and usually with aculei or prickles.   If a transverse  section
be made  of either the rhizome or aerial stem, no distinction of bark, wood, and pith
is perceptible.
  0.  The roots (radices) are called by Schleiden11 adventitious (r. adventitix): they
are usually several feet long, and of  variable thickness;  on the average about  that
  « Nees, PI. Med. Suppl.                                     2 Linnaa, Bd. iv. S. 576,1829.
  » Trans. Med.-Bot. Soc. 1829.                                 * United States Dispensatory.
  > Nova Gen. et Sp. Plant, t. i. 271.                              « Reise in Brasilien, Bd. iii.
  * Systema Materia Medica Veg. Brasil. 1843.
  8 Reise in Chile, Peru und auf dem Amazonstrome wahrend der Jahre  1827-32, Bd. i. S. 459. Pharm.
Central-Blatt.fur 1832, S. 57; and fur 1835, S. 908.
  ■ Flora Medica.
  10 Hist. Nat. d,s Drog. t. ii. p. 182, 4erne edit. 1849.
  11 Jahresbericht Uber die Fortsehritle in der Pharmacie im Jahre, 1847, p. 81. 
                   Sarsaparilla :—General Description.                263

of a writing quill.  The thin shrivelled roots are more or less wrinkled or furrowed
longitudinally, and in trade are usually said to be lean; while the  thick, plump,
swollen ones are described  as being gouty.   The  latter usually abound in starch,
and are said to be mealy.   Frequently, especially in some sorts of sarsaparilla, the
roots are said to be bearded;  that is, they give off, more or less abundantly, fibres,
which are themselves often divided into fibrils.
  The colour of the roots varies, being more or less red or brown, frequently with
a grayish tint.   The washed or unwashed condition, the greater or less care  taken
of them in drying, the time of year when they were collected, the colour and nature
of the soil in which  they grew, as well as the species or sort  of plant from which
they are obtained, and many other circumstances, doubtless  modify the colour.
The  taste  of  the  root is  mucilaginous,  and  slightly acrid.  The  acridity is  only
perceived  after  chewing  the root for  a few minutes.    The  odour  is somewhat
earthy.
  By a transverse section  the roots are seen to consist of a cortex or rind, and  a
ligneous cord  or meditullium inclosing the pith, somewhat in the manner  of an
exogenous stem.
  The cortex or rind consists 1st, of the cuticle or epidermis, composed of compact
cells;  2dly, of the outer cortical layers, composed of coloured (from golden yellow
to deep orange-red), elongated, thick, flattened cells (some  of which are  porous),
which  form a subcuticular  tissue (epiphlseum or periderm?); and, 3dly, of the inner
cortical  layers, consisting  of shorter, thinner, cylindrical, often  porous cells  with
large intercellular spaces.   In some sorts of sarsaparilla most of these cells abound
in starch, while  a few contain bundles of acicular crystals (oxalate of lime ?) called
raphides.  The  mealy cortex is frequently colourless, but sometimes  has a roseate
tint.
  The ligneous cord or meditullium consists of 1st, a cellular layer (liber?), called
by Schleiden  the Kernscheide or nucleus-sheath, whose cells are empty, thick, and
strongly coloured (like those  of the outer cortical layers);  2dly, a  woody  zone,
called  by Schleiden  the Gefcissbiindelkreis or vascular-bundle-circle, usually of  a
pale yellowish colour, and composed of woody tissue, vessels,1 and cambial  cells;
and, 3dly, medulla or pith, generally colourless, composed of cylindrical cells (like
those of the  inner  cortical layers) which often abound in starch.   Sometimes an
isolated vessel,  or a small group of vessels surrounded  by a thin layer of ligneous
cells, is seen  in  the pith.

                          Fig. 266.                               Fig. 267.
Fig. 266. Transverse section of the cortex and half of the diameter of the meditullium.
                 Fig. 2C7. Longitudinal section of the cortex.
                    Magnified Sections of Sarsaparilla.
a. Cuticle or epidermis.                       d. Cellular layer or nucleus sheath.
6. Outer cortical layers (subcuticular tissue).     e. Woody zone (vascular-bundle-circle).
c. Inner cortical luyers.  Most of the cells abound /. Medulla or pith.
    in starch; some few contain raphides (see
    Fig. 267).
  * The apertures in the woody zone, seen with the naked eye in a transverse section of the root, are those
of large vessels.  Occasionally we perceive an isolated bundle of vessels whose interior is filled up with
a yellowish-red colouring mutter. 
264
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Smilace^e.
   The chief anatomical characters, which vary in the different species of sarsaparilla
are the relative breadths of the cortical, ligneous, and medullary layers, the chart*.
ters of the cells of the nucleus sheath, and the number of layers composing the sub-
cuticular tissue.   Schleiden pretends that  he can,  by these characters, distinguish
the South American, Central American, and Mexican sarsaparillas from each other.
The following is the way in which he applies them: South American sarsapariUat
he says, have, almost without an exception, a mealy  cortex and a vascuhu-bundle-
circle whose breadth, from the nucleus sheath to the pith, is one-fourth, or at most
one-third, the diameter of the pith.   They have, therefore, a large white pith.  The
Central American and Mexican sarsaparillas have, on the other hand, a vascular-
bundle-circle whose breadth is  commonly equal to,  and sometimes exceeds, the
diameter of the pith.  Sometimes, but rarely, the pith is half as thick  again as the
vascular-bundle-circle.  The Central American and Mexican sarsaparillas  are, ac-
cording to Schleiden, readily distinguished  from  each other by the nucleus sheath
whose cells, in the  Central American  sorts, are  either quadrangular  or  somewhat
elongated transversely (tangentially), and are nearly equally thick on all sides (Fig.
268); whereas in the Mexican  sort  these cells are elongated in the direction from
within outwards (radially), and have walls which are  thicker on the inner than on
the outer side (Fig. 269).

                Fig. 268.                               Fig. 269.
Central American Sarsaparilla (Honduras). |    South American Sarsaparilla (Vera Cruz).
      Magnified Views of the Cells composing the Nucleus Sheath (according to Schleiden).
       a. a, a, a, The cells of the sheath.     |        6, A portion of the woody zone.

  The Central American and Mexican sorts are less strikingly distinguished, accord-
ing to Schleiden, by the external cortex (subcuticular tissue), which, in the Central
American, consists of only one, rarely two, layers of very thick cells, and altogether
has fewer cellular layers; while the  Mexican has  from 2 to 4 layers of very thick
cells, and altogether sometimes 6 or  7 layers.
  Commercial  Sorts.—Several sorts of sarsaparilla  are met with in commerce,
and  are well known  to our dealers; but I find that, with some exceptions, there is
a great want of precision in the names applied to some of the varieties.   The terms
Jamaica, Lima, Honduras, and Lisbon or Brazilian,  are, by English dealers,
applied  to sorts which are well known to them either by the characters  of the roots
or the mode of packing.   There is another kind, called  by English druggists gouty
or Vera  Cruz sarsaparilla, which  appears to me to be identical with  that called by
Continental and  American writers  Caraccas sarsaparilla, under which name  I
shall describe  it.
  a.  Geographical  Classification. — Sarsaparilla  is  exclusively the  produce of
America,  and  grows in the southern  part  of North America and the northern  part
of South  America.  The exact limits are not known.
  1. Mexican sarsaparilla.—This is the produce of  Smilax  medica, and is the
growth of Papantla, Tuspan, Nautla, Misantla,  &c.   It is usually shipped at Vera
Cruz, and is,  therefore, usually  known  in commerce by  the name  of Vera Cruz
sarsaparilla.  From Tampico, another Mexican port, a similar  sort of sarsaparilla
is also exported,  which is known in Europe as  Tampico sarsaparilla.   According
to Monardes, the first sarsaparilla which came  to  Europe was brought from New 
Sarsaparilla :—Commercial Sorts.                 265
Spain (Mexico).   He describes it as being whiter, somewhat yellowish, and smaller
than the Honduras sort.
  2.  Cmtral American  sarsaparilla.—Guatemala  produces sarsaparilla, which is
sometimes exported to Jamaica; but it is not distinguished in European commerce as
the  produce of Guatemala.  Honduras  sarsaparilla is  a well-known and distinct
sort in  the London  market.   Monardes  says  it was the second kind known  in
Europe.   He describes it as darker and thicker than the Mexican sort;  and says
that it  was more  esteemed.   Costa Rica sarsaparilla  is usually sold as Lima
sarsaparilla, with  which it agrees in quality.   Much sarsaparilla is  collected on
the  Mosquito coast by the Seco  Indians,  who  sell  it to  the Sambos.  The latter
carry it in  their  doreys to Truxillo, where  they barter it for goods.1   I have been
informed that sarsaparilla, the produce of the Mosquito Shore  of  St.  Juan de
Nicaragua, is sometimes  sent to England by way of Jamaica.
  3.  Colombian sarsaparilla.—Since 1831, Colombia has been divided into three
independent states, viz.,  New Granada, Venezuela, and Ecuador, from all  of which
sarsaparilla is exported to Europe, either directly or indirectly,  by way of Jamaica
or New York.
  o.  New  Granada.—According to Humboldt and Bonpland, sarsaparilla [Smilax
officinalis)  is collected on the banks of the Magdalena, and transmitted to  Car-
thagena and Mompox, whence it is shipped for  Jamaica  and Spain.  Occasionally
sarsaparilla is imported into England from Santa Marta and Savanilla.
  j3.  Venezuela.—From  La Guayra (the sea port of the Caraccas) is shipped to the
United  States of  America and  Europe  Caraccas sarsaparilla.   Sarsaparilla is
sometimes imported into England from Porta Arenas.
  y.  Ecuador.—Occasionally sarsaparilla  is imported into London from Guayaquil;
but whether it is the produce of Maynas or  of  Central America I know not.
  4.  Brazilian  sarsaparilla.—This is a  well-known sort,  and is imported from
Para; and according  to  Martius  is the produce of  Smilax papyracea.   Poeppig,
however, says that two sorts of sarsaparilla, sarsa fina  and sarsa gruesa, are col-
lected in Maynas  and transmitted to  Peru: the  first is the produce of  Smilax
syphilitica, the second of S. cordato-ovata.
   5. Peruvian sarsaparilla.—Sarsaparilla is sometimes  imported from Lima; but
whether it is the produce of Peru  or of Maynas,  or of Central  America, I know
not.  Under the name of  Lima sarsaparilla is sold, not only the sarsaparilla from
Lima, but also that from Costa Bica.  It  is probable  that no sarsaparilla  grows on
the western declivity of  the Andes, and that the sarsaparilla exported  from Lima is
either the  produce of Maynas or has been carried to Lima from  some other ports
on  the  Pacific.
  A  considerable quantity  of sarsaparilla is imported into London from Jamaica (Jamaica
sarsaparilla), from Valparaiso, and from New York; and formerly also from Lisbon (Brazilian
sarsaparilla).  But it is not  the produce of these places.
  0.  Qualitative  Classification__The various commercial sorts of sarsaparilla differ
from each other in the anatomical and other characters of the roots, in the manner
in  which they are folded and packed, and in the absence or presence and  character
of  the attached  rhizomes and stalks.
  I have  already given a sketch of Schleiden's  anatomical arrangement of  the
commercial sorts of  sarsaparilla roots.   I  shall not adopt it, because I do not con-
sider it accurate  or easily applied.  His  classification would associate Costa Bica
sarsaparilla with that of Honduras, and the Lima with the Caraccas and  Brazilian
sorts.
  I shall arrange  the sarsaparillas of commerce in two divisions: the first including
those commonly termed  mealy; the second, those which are not mealy.

  '  Young, Narrative of a Residence on the Mosquito Shore during the Years 1839, 1840, and 1841, Lond. 
266
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Smilacejs.
                         Div. 1.  Mealy Sarsaparillas.
                          (Sarsaparillas farinosae seu amylaceae.)
   These are characterized by the mealy character of the inner cortical layers, which
                      are white or pale-colored.   The meal or  starch is sometimes
      Fig. 270.        So abundant, that a shower of it, in the form of  white dust,
                      falls when we fracture the roots.   The  thickest mealy coat
                 '    which  I have measured was barely j-0 th  of an inch in thick-
                  ~e   ness.   Compared with the diameter of  the  meditullium or
                 $-d   ligneous cord, the  thickness  of  the mealy coat is sometimes
                      nearly equal to it, but usually does  not exceed |d or J of it.
                      The  thick mealy roots have a  swollen appearance, and are
                 *c   technically  called  gouty by  the  dealers: the cortex, being
                      brittle, is frequently cracked  transversely in rings, and readily
                      falls off.  The colour of the  mealy coat varies from white to
                      yellowish or pinkish.
                         The medulla or pith is frequently very amylaceous.
                         If a drop of oil  of vitriol be applied to a transverse  section
                      of the root  of mealy sarsaparilla, the mealy coat is but Utile
 Magnified view of a sec-  alt,ered in colour;  while the woody zone becomes dark pur-
   tion of mealy (Hon-  P^sn or almost  black.   Sometimes the pith also acquires a
   duras) sarsaparilla.   darkish tint.
 o. Cuticle or epidermis.      A decoction of mealy sarsaparilla, when cold, becomes dark
 b. Outer cortical layers.  biue on the addition of tincture of iodine.
 c. Mealy coat,  or inner     ml                      pi          -nii.il
    cortical layers.          Ihe aqueous  extract or mealy  sarsaparilla, when rubbed
 e' wooUdyrzoneath'       down  w*tn  distilled water  in a mortar, does not completely
 /. Medulla or pith.       dissolve, but yields a  turbid liquid, which becomes blue on
                      the addition of iodine.
   This  division includes three commercial sorts of sarsaparilla; namely, the Bra-
 zilian, the  Honduras, and a third kind, which  by English  dealers is commonly
 called gouty  or  Vera Cruz sort, but which, by Continental and American writers,
 is usually denominated  Caraccas.
   They may be subdivided thus :—

   A. Pith 2- to 4-times the breadth  of the woody layer; cells of the nucleus
       sheath elongated radially.
           a.  Pale, folded, often swollen (or gouty) roots with the rhizomes
               or stems attached........1. Caraccas.
           d.  Reddish-brown, unfolded roots with rhizomes or stems attached,
               packed in rolls or cylindrical bundles  .....  2. Brazilian.
   B. Pith 1- to l£ times the breadth of the woody layer; cells of tbe nucleus
       sheath square or elongated tangentially......3. Honduras

   1. Caraccas Sarsaparilla (Radix  Sarsaparillae de  Caraccas).—This is the
gouty or Vera Cruz sarsaparilla of most English dealers.   It  would appear to come
to this country by various routes.   One sample, which I have received, came, as I
was informed by Mr.  Price (of the firm of Price and Gifford, drug brokers), from
the Pacific  side  of South America by  way of Valparaiso.  Mr. Luckombe, of the
firm of Hodgkinson and Co., informs me  that some of  this sort of sarsaparilla has
come by way of New Orleans.   Dr. Wood1 states that it is imported in large quan-
tities into the United  States from La Guayra (the port of  the Caraccas).  He says
it comes in  oblong packages of about one hundred  pounds, surrounded with broad
strips of hide, which are connected laterally with thongs of .the same material, and
leaves  much of the root exposed.   The roots, he adds,  are  separately,  closely, and
carefully packed, and are often very amylaceous  internally.
1 United States Dispensatory. 
Sarsaparilla:—Brazilian Sorts.
267
  I have a bundle (Fig. 271) of this sarsaparilla (called by English druggists gouty
or Vera  Cruz sarsaparilla) which was imported into Liverpool from Valparaiso.  It
weighs 5* lbs.   It is flattened, about 2£ feet  long, scarcely  1 foot broad  at its
widest parts, and is 3 or 4 inches thick.   At each extremity are two rhizomes, with

                                   Fig. 271.
Bundle of Caraccas Sarsaparilla.
portions of rounded or obscurely square stems bearing a few small prickles.  The
roots are pale yellowish or reddish-gray, and are very amylaceous.   The cells of the
nucleus sheath are elongated radially, and their walls are thicker on the inner side
(Fig. 269).
  This sort is probably the produce of Smilax officinalis and S. syphilitica, HBK.
  Guibourt's Maracaibo sarsaparilla is perhaps only a variety of Caraccas sarsaparilla.
  2. Brazilian Sarsaparilla; Lisbon, Portugal, or  Rio Negro Sarsaparilla
(Radix Sarsaparillse braziliensis, seu lisbonensis; S. de Maranon;  S. de Para; S.
insipida).—Prior to the introduction of the Jamaica sort of sarsaparilla  into the
London  market, the Lisbon sort  commanded the highest price.1  This is usually
imported from  Para and Maranham.  It is brought  over unfolded, tied in rolls or
cylindrical bundles (sarsaparilla longa) of from three to five feet long, and about
a foot in diameter.
   In the  museum  of the  Pharmaceutical  Society is a roll (Fig. 272) weighing
14 i lbs.: its length is 3 feet 1 inch, and its diameter 7 inches.

                                   Fig. 272.
A Roll of Brazilian Sarsaparilla.
  It is free from the rhizome or chump.  But, as it is not easy to get at the interior
of the rolls, this sort of sarsaparilla is more  liable to false packing than any other
sort.  It has fewer  longitudinal wrinkles  than the  Jamaica  kind, fewer  radicles
especially at  one  end;  has a reddish-brown colour, and  abounds  in amylaceous
matter, both in the cortex and pith.   Its decoction is much paler coloured  than the
Jamaica variety.
  This sort of sarsaparilla is  collected on the branches of  the Amazon : according
to Poeppig, at Huallaga, Intay, Jurua, Bio de los Euganos; according to Martius
at Ucayala, lea, Jupura, and  Bio Negro.                                        '
' Pope, Med.-Chir. Trans, vol. xii. p. 344, 1623. 
268               VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Smilaceje.

  Martius1 says that the Indians gather it all the year round, according to the state
of the weather and of  the rivers.  After being dried over a fire, the roots  are tied
up in bundles with a flexible stem called Timbotitica ; and to prevent them being
worm-eaten, they are preserved in  the gables of the houses, where they are  exposed
to smoke.
  The same writer2 also states that this sarsaparilla is the produce of Smilax papy.
racea and S. officinalis.   Poeppig tells us  that there are two sorts of  sarsaparilla
which the dealers mix together; these are sarsa fina, a  thin,  lean sort, less active,
but also less liable to be worm-eaten—and sarsa gruisa, a thicker, more active sort,
but more liable to be attacked  by insects :  the first, he  says,  is the produce of S.
syphilitica, the second of S. cordato-ovata.   Schleiden  suggests that S. Purhampuy
of Buiz may perhaps yield some Brazilian sarsaparilla.
  3.  Honduras  Sarsaparilla; Mealy Sarsaparilla  (Radix Sarsaparilla de
Honduras; S. acris vel gutturalis).—It is imported from Belize,  and other parts
of the Bay of Honduras.   It comes  in large and smaller bundles, two or three feet
long, folded  lengthwise (in a kind of hank), and secured in a compact form by a
few transverse circular turns.   A large bundle (Fig.  273) in  the  museum of the
Pharmaceutical Society is 2 J feet  long, from  10 to 12 inches in  diameter, and
weighs about  17  lbs.   A  smaller  bundle  (Fig. 274) is 2 feet  2  inches  long, 3J
inches in diameter, and weighs about 2 lbs.

                                    Fig  273.
Fig. 274.
Figs. 273 and 274. Large and Smaller Bundles of Honduras Sarsaparilla.
   The bundles  are  packed in bales, weighing from 80 to 110 lbs. or more, and
imperfectly covered  by skins.  In the interior of the bundles  are found roots  of
inferior quality, rhizomes with adherent stems, stones,  chumps of wood, &c.  The
roots are furnished with a few rootlets.  The general colour  of the  roots is dirty
grayish or reddish brown.   The cortex is very mealy, and the meditullium or cen-
tral cord is thinner than in  the Jamaica sort.  The cells of the nucleus sheath are
square, or are elongated tangentially, and are equally thick on all  four  sides (see
Fig. 268).
   The taste of the root is amylaceous,  and ultimately  somewhat acrid.   Its decoc-
tion becomes intensely blue by the addition  of a solution of iodine.  Its powder is
fawn-coloured, and, when  rubbed with water  and tincture  of  iodine, becomes
intensely bluish black.  From five pounds  of  the root of  fine quality about one
pound of extract may be produced (Hennell).  A sample, examined by Mr. Batt-
ley, yielded six and a half ounces of extract from three pounds of root, which is
1 Reise, Bd. iii. S. 1260.
3 Systema Mat. Med. Brasil. 
Sarsaparilla :—Non-Mealy Sorts ;  Jamaica Sort.
269
Fig. 275.
about ten and a half ounces from five pounds: 874 grains of the cortical portions of
the root yielded 230 grains of extract (Battley).  In one operation, in the labora-
tory of a friend of mine, 170  lbs. of root yielded 45 lbs. of extract.   According to
Mr. Pope, the cortex yields twice as much extract as the meditullium.
   Nothing whatever is known respecting the botanical origin of this  sort of sarsa-
parilla.

                      Div. 2.  Non-mealy Sarsaparilla.
                      (Sariaparillse non-farinosae vel non-amylaceae.)
   The sarsaparillas of this division are characterized by a deeply coloured (red or
brown) usually non-mealy cortex.   The cortex is red and much thinner than in the
mealy sorts.   Although by the microscope starch grains can
be detected in the inner cortical layers, yet their number is
comparatively small, and is quite insufficient to give the meali-
ness which characterizes the sarsaparilla of the first division.
The diameter of the  meditullium  or ligneous cord is much
greater than  in the mealy sarsaparillas, and is  frequently six
or more times greater than the thickness of the cortex.  The
roots have never  that swollen appearance called by dealers
gouty, and which is frequently observed in the mealy sorts.
   Starch grains are  usually  recognizable in the pith by the
microscope.
   If a drop of oil of vitriol be applied to a transverse section
of the root of the non-mealy sarsaparillas, both  cortex and
wood acquire  a dark red or purplish tint.
   A decoction of non-mealy sarsaparilla, when cold, does not
yield a blue colour when a solution of iodine is added to it.
   This division includes the sorts known in commerce by the
names of Jamaica and Lima sarsaparillas, as well as  a sort
which I  have received as a lean Vera Cruz sarsaparilla.
   They  differ from the Caraccas, Brazilian, and Honduras
sarsaparillas,  in having a  red or brown  usually non-mealy
cortex.  In the relative thickness of the pith and woody layer
they agree with the  Honduras sarsaparilla; but they differ
from it in having the cells somewhat elongated  radially, in
this respect approaching the Caraccas and Brazilian  sorts.
   I have been unable to detect any anatomical difference between the roots of the
Jamaica, the so-called Lima, and the lean Vera Cruz  sorts.   The Jamaica and Lima
sorts are, I believe, not essentially different from  each other.   Both  are  probably
the  produce of Central America.  They differ in colour somewhat,  in the mode of
packing, and  in the route by  which  they reach England.   What I  have received
as lean Vera  Cruz sarsaparilla, might pass for a lean, thin, pale-coloured Lima sort
whose roots are unfolded.
   4. Jamaica Sarsaparilla, offic; Red-bearded Sarsaparilla (Radix  Sarsa-
parilla jama icensis vel rubree).—This
sort first  appeared   in  the   London
market about  1819  or 1820.1 The
roots are folded and made up in bundles
(sarsaparilla  rotunda) of about a foot
or half a yard long,  and four or five
or more inches broad.   These bundles
are neither trimmed nor closely packed.
   The bundle from  which Fig. 276
Was  taken, was  about 17 inches long,         Bundle of Jamaica Sarsaparilla.
Magnified view of a sec-
  tion of non-mealy (Ja-
  maica) sarsaparilla.
a. Cuticle or epidermis.
b. Outer cortical layers.
c. Red inner cortical lay-
  ers.
d. Cellular sheath.
e. Woody zone.
/. Medulla or pith.
Fig. 276.
1 Pope, Med.-Chir. Trans, vol. xii. p. 344, 1823. 
270
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Smilace^e.
from 5 to 7 inches wide, and 3 inches thick; its weight was 21 i oz.   In the museum
of the Pharmaceutical Society  are some plaits of Jamaica  sarsaparilla.  One of
these (Fig. 277) weighs 5} ounces, and is 4J feet long, and If inches wide.
Fig. 277.
                          A Plait of Jamaica Sarsaparilla.

  The bundles of Jamaica sarsaparilla are packed in circular bales of from  60 to
80 lbs. each.   The roots of this  sort are  long, slender, furnished with numerous
small fibrous rootlets (called the beard). Its cortex is brownish, but with an orange-
red tint,  which distinguishes it from other kinds of red sarsaparilla.   The cortex is
reddish,  and when examined by the microscope is  found  to  contain some  starch
globules.  The meditullium has frequently a reddish tint.   When chewed, Jamaica
sarsaparilla tinges the saliva.   Its taste is not remarkably mucilaginous, but slightly
bitter, and after a few minutes  slightly acrimonious.   Its decoction is deepened in
colour by a solution of iodine, but no  blue is perceptible.  Its  powder is pale
reddish-brown, and when rubbed  with water and tincture of  iodine  becomes blue,
but less  intensely so than the powder of the Honduras variety.   It yields a  larger
quantity of extract than the other varieties; its extract is perfectly soluble in cold
water.   From three  pounds of  average quality about one pound of extract may be
obtained (Hennell, also Battley);  but from the same quantity of root  of very fine
quality,  nearly one  pound  and a quarter of extract may be procured (Hennell).
874 grains of  the  cortical portion of  the root yielded  484  grains  of extract
(Battley).  According to Mr.  Pope, the cortex yields five times as much as the
meditullium.
  The following are the characters of Jamaica sarsaparilla according to the London
Pharmacopoeia (1851):—
  Reddish, copiously covered with rootlets, with a non-mealy bark.
  Jamaica sarsaparilla is not the  produce of the island whose name it bears, but,
as I have been informed by wholesale dealers, of the Mosquito shore on the eastern
coast of  Honduras and of St. Juan, from whence it is brought  to England by way
of Jamaica; and occasionally it is said to be brought from Guatemala.
  I am  indebted to Mr. G. B. Porter, of the Board of Trade, for  the following
official account of the sources of Jamaica sarsaparilla:—

Account of the Quantities of Sarsaparilla  Imported into Jamaica in each year from 1840 to 1845, distin-
                       guishing the Countries from which Imported.
	1840.	1841.	1842.	1843.	1844.	1845.
	lbs. 11,326 75,309	lbs. 11,778 125	lbs. 31,442 80	lbs. 11,176 48,527 208	lbs. 143,730 1,210	lbs. 166,148 1,512
						
						
	86,635	11,903	31,522	59,911	144,940	167,660
The Quantities of Sarsaparilla Exported from Jamaica to Great Britain was—
In 1840........157,868 lbs.
  1841........1V14
  1842........17,208
In 1843........27,271 lbs.
  1844........125,733
  1845........175,278
  This accords with  Humboldt's statement  before  mentioned  (see  ante, p. 265)
that sarsaparilla is exported from Colombia (he says from Carthagena and Mompox)
into Jamaica. 
Sarsaparilla:—Lima and Vera Cruz Sorts.             271
  But, although this table may be relied on for showing the  countries from which
sarsaparilla is imported into Jamaica, it does not establish the place of growth.
  It is probable that Jamaica sarsaparilla is the produce of Smilax officinalis.
  In the collection of Materia Medica at Apothecaries' Hall, London, is a sample of sarsaparilla
?aid to have been grown in Jamaica; but it does not resemble the Jamaica sarsaparilla of com-
merce.  Its colour is pale cinnamon brown.  Internally it is mealy.
  5. Ltma  Sarsaparilla (Radix  Sarsaparillse de Lima).—This  name  is, of
course, strictly applicable to sarsaparilla brought  from Lima only, from whence, in
fact, the first parcels came.  But of late  years sarsaparilla of the same quality has
been brought from various other places; and the dealers, to distinguish it from  other
kinds, have called it the Lima sort; and  gradually the term  Lima sarsaparilla has
been applied, rather to indicate the quality than the place of  shipment.  The true
Lima sort is brought round Cape Horn;  whereas much of the so-called Lima sort
is the produce of Costa Bica, and is brought from the Caribbean Sea.   I know of
one importation  of  99,000 lbs. from  Costa Bica.  The  Lima sort is also brought
from Guajaquil and Valparaiso.
  Although some druggists prefer good parcels of Costa Bica to  Lima sarsaparilla,
still the general run of the Lima  parcels  comes nearer to Jamaica  than the Costa
Bica sort.   On the whole, however, it is difficult to  say whether  any  dealer can
with certainty  distinguish the Lima and Costa Bica sorts.
  I am informed that the Costa Bica sort sometimes comes from St. Marta, Savanilla,
and Caraccas;  though that from  Costa Bica is  usually of a better description.
  Lima (including Costa Bica) sarsaparilla is imported folded in bundles or hanks
of about 2 or 3 feet long, and 6 or 9 inches in diameter, with the attached rhizome
(chump) contained in the interior of the bundle.   The bundle, of which a cut (Fig.
278) is subjoined, came via Jamaica: it weighed 2  lbs. 13  oz.; was 2 feet  long,
and 6 inches in diameter.

                                   Fig. 278.
Bundle of Lima Sarsaparilla.
   The bundles are usually packed in bales of from 60 to 80 lbs. each.
   In quality,  Lima sarsaparilla closely resembles the  Jamaica sort; but it yields a
smaller quantity of extract.   Its colour is brown or  grayish-brown.   Occasionally
a few roots are found in a bale of good Lima sarsaparilla, which, as well as their
rhizome and stem, are light clay-coloured.  The stems are square and prickly: the
prickles are few and small, except in the clay-coloured variety.
   Lima sarsaparilla is probably the produce of  Smilax officinalis.
   Occasionally a knobby root  or rhizome, like  the  radix Chinee, with a round
stem, and long, smooth, wiry, brown root-fibres, is found in a bale of  Lima sarsa-
parilla.   A transverse section of the stem presents,  to the naked eye, a structure
somewhat similar to  that of the  common cane.   I  have received the same  root
(under the name of Salsepareille-Squine de Macaraibo) from Professor  Guibourt,
who found it in Caraccas sarsaparilla.
   6. Vera  Cruz Sarsaparilla (Radix Sarsaparillx de  Vera Cruce).—-Much
confusion  exists about the sarsaparilla called  the Vera Cruz sort;  this name being
usually  applied  to  the gouty Caraccas sort  before described.   The sort which I
received some  years ago under the name of  "lean Vera Cruz sarsaparilla," I was 
272
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Smilace^e.
informed  came  from Vera Cruz; but  it is now seldom met with.   It is  the sort
which  Mr. Pope1 described as " lean, dark, and fibrous."   The  bundle (Fig. 279)
is 2 feet  long, and, at the widest part, 7  inches broad:  the weight is  7  ounces.
The roots are unfolded (sarsaparilla longa), and have  the chump attached at one
end.

                                    Fig. 279.
Bundle of Vera Cruz Sarsaparilla.
  They are  thin, tough, of a grayish-brown colour, with  a  shrivelled, thin, non-
mealy cortex.  They give off very few rootlets.   This sort yields a deep-coloured
decoction, which is unchanged by a solution of iodine.
  Vera Cruz sarsaparilla is the produce of Smilax medica.
   Tampico sarsaparilla is probably identical with the Vera Cruz sort.
  Therapeutical Value and Quality.—The relative therapeutical values of
the different sorts of sarsaparilla are not easily determined.   There are only two
ways by which we can attempt to arrive at them—one chemical, the other clinical
or empirical.  But while, on  the one hand, we have neither comparative analyses
of the various commercial sorts of this root, nor an accurate knowledge of its active
principle;  so, on the other, we have no clinical observations of the relative effecta
of the different sorts, and great difficulty exists  in  the way of making them, on
account of the immediate and obvious effects  of  this root being very slight.  To
this  absence  of  actual precise information must be  ascribed  the different  relative
values assigned to the various sorts in different countries.
  In the southern parts of Europe, where sarsaparilla has been the longest in use,
the thickest and most mealy roots, irrespective of  the country producing them, are
preferred.   It is, however, quite certain that starch  is not the active principle of
the root, but is regarded as being contemporaneous with it.  I believe this opinion
to be erroneous;  for, Istlyy the mealy sarsaparillas give, to the test of oil of vitriol,
slighter indications of the presence of smilacin than the non-mealy sorts; 2dly, the
mealy sorts  are  the least acrid to  the  taste;  and,  3dly, the largest quantity of
extract is obtained from a non-mealy sort, viz., that brought via Jamaica.
  In England the non-mealy sarsaparillas are almost universally, and, as I believe,
properly preferred;  and of these the  Jamaica sort is most esteemed, and next to
this, that called the Lima.
  The colour of the root is not to be absolutely  depended on, but roots having a
deep orange-red tint are preferred.   Taste, perhaps, is the best criterion: the more
acrid and nauseous the taste,  the better is the quality of the root.  This  test has
been much  insisted on  by Dr. Hancock.3  The  quantity of extract yielded by a
given  weight of the root has  been much insisted on by Mr. Battley and Mr. Pope
as a test of goodness;  both these writers have asserted the superiority of Jamaica
sarsaparilla, because it yields a larger quantity of extract.   But though a sarsaparilla
which yields very little extract cannot be regarded as good, yet it does not follow,
especially in the absence of comparative trials, that a sarsaparilla which yields the
most abundant extract is  necessarily the best, since  the  quantity may arise from
the presence of mucilage and other inert matters.   The beard is another criterion
of goodness: the greater the  quantity of root-fibres (technically called beard), the
better the sarsaparilla.

 1 Med.-Chir. Trans, vol. xii. p. 344, 1823.       3  Transactions of the Medico-Botanical Society, 1829. 
Sarsaparilla:—Commerce;  Composition.
273
  Commerce.—For the following table I am indebted to Mr. G. R. Porter, of the
Board of Trade:—

AcconwT, showing the Quantities of Sarsaparilla Imported into the United Kingdom, and distinguishing
                the Countries from which Imported, in each year from 1840 to 1848.
Countries from which imported.	1840.	1841.	1842.	1843. 1844. 1845.			1846.	1847.	1848.
	lbs.	lbs.	lbs.	lbs.	lbs. ; lbs.		lbs.	lbs. i lbs.	
	69 133	—	15	6	4,715 2.009		1	— 1 4 5,872 —	
									
	99	587		—	— 3,055		10	— —	
N. American Colonies	593	2	40	906	610 —		—	— i ______	
	156.02&	46,165	27,575	51,771	136,723 196.715		87,102 49,111 ! 70,480		
	4.554	56,927	49,236	4,581	39,164 83,701		19,7G0 41,043 , 18,067		
	13,828 94	298 3,902	39,694	34,012 9.164	12,541 20,683		37.6S6	—	180
									
	4,141 587	1,399 1,654 419	5,572 172	11,736 5,446 10,436	13,732 ! 23,064 300 , —		973 5,736	5,255 407	930
Cliili..........									
Russia.........									
	—	2,725	—	—	— 24		—	—	—
Holland ........	—	41	—	__	_ —		—	—	—
East Indies ......	_	5,878	—	—	12 —		—	11,351	—
	_	498	16,645	—	— —		—	_	_
	_	_	_	_	9 | 105		—	9,878	_
Foreign West Indies . New Grenada. &c. . .	_	_	_	_	11,51a 26,857		—	_	2,862
	_	_	_	_	2,018 1.367		47,390	6,996	5,306
	_	_	_	_	145 5,768		13,682	_	_
	—	—	—	—	—	1,659 13,010	10	—	—
Cape of Good Hope . .									
Central America . . .	—	—	—	—	—	134	10,069	161	2,427
Honduras.......	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	. 8,004	3,179
	—	86	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
	180,120	120,581	138,949	128,078	221,487 378,241		222,419	138,078 103,435	
Composition.—Sarsaparilla wa			s analv	zed by Cannobio;1 b			y Pfaff;3 by Batka;'		
and by Thubeuf.4									
Cannobio's Analysis.	Pfajps Anal		ysis.	Batka's Analysis.			Thubeuf s Analysis.		
Bitter acrid resin . . 2.8	Balsamic resin .		. . 2.0	1. A crystalline matter			1. A crystalline sub-		
Gummy extractive . 5.5	Acrid extractive		. . 2.5	(parallinic acid).			stance (salseparine).		
Starch .......54.2	Extractive sim		lar	2. A colouring (crystal-			2. A colouring matter.		
Woody fibre .... 27.8	to cinchona . .		. . 3.7	line) mutter.			3. A resinous matter.		
Loss.........9.7	Common extract		ve 9.4	3. An essential oil.			4. Ligneous matter.		
__ — —---	Gummy extracti		ire . 1.4	4. Gum.			5. Starch.		
Sarsaparilla [Hon-				5. Bassorin.			6. Chloride potassium.		
duras] .... 100.0			2.2	6. Starch.			1 7. Nitrate potash. ! 8. Fixed aromatic thick		
	Woody fibre . .		. . 75.0	7. Albumen.					
	Moistu		3.0	8. Extractiform matter. 9. Gluten and gliariine. 10. Fibrous and cellular tissue.			oil.		
			. . 0.8				9. Waxy substance.		
									
	Sarsaparilla [V		era				Sarsaparilla.		
	Cruz].....		. 100.0	11. Pectic acid. 12. Acetic acid. 13. Salts—namely, chlo-rides of calcium, po-tassium, and magne-sium; carbonate of lime, oxide of iron,					
				and Sarsa pa	alumina.				
					rilla.				
Batka5 separately analyzed the 1			>ark, w	ood, and pith of Jam			lica sarsaparilla, and		
obtained the following results:—									
Epidermis .*			Cortica	Pith.1		Wot	dy Nucleus and Pith.		
Volatile oil (with some acrid , Starch.						Yellow	soft resin.		
Colouring matter. [resin). Gum.						Starch.			
Acetates. ! Vegetab			e gluten			Gum.			
Frothing resin (parill-resin, pa- ', Extract			ve matte	r.		Pectates	.		
rillintc acid.').		A Ihu met	l.			Vegetab	le gluten.		
Extractive matter.		Resinou	s colouri	ig matter.		Froth in	r resin.		
Albumen and bassorin.		Amylacc	ous fibre	and tegument. Creasot(			: (a trace).		
Chlorides.				[ Woody			ibre.		
?tarch and gum.									
  1 Brugnatelli. Giornale di Fisica,lte., Dec. 2, vol  i. p. 421, 1818.
  1 Syn. de Mat. .17, ,1. Bd. vii. S. 90, 1824.          » Journ. de Pharm. t. xx  p. 43. 1834.
  * 76 id. xx. 682, IkII.                           ' Pharmaceutisches Central- Blatt fur 1S34, S. 902.
  • By epidermis. I presume the author means both epidermis properly so called and the outer cortical
lovers.
  s Hy corliml pith (Rindemark), the author obviously means the inner cortical layers.
        VOL. II. — IS 
274                 VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Smilace*:.

  1. Essential oil of  Sahsaparilla.—Sarsaparilla contains a small quantity of volatile oil.
  The following experiments were made by a friend, a manufacturing chemist, who gave me
the products for examination.  140 lbs of Jamaica sarsaparilla were distilled, by steam heat,
at twice, with 220 gallons of water.  50 gallons of a milky liquid were obtained, which were
again submitted to distillation until 20 gallons  had passed over.  20  lbs. of common salt were
added to the distilled product, and heat being applied, 3 gallons were drawn over.  The liquor
was milky, held  in solution carbonate of ammonia, and contained a  few drops of a volatile oil,
which was heavier than water, was soluble in rectified  spirit,and had the odour and acrid taste
of sarsaparilla.   100 lbs. of Jamaica sarsaparilla  were distilled with  100 gallons of water,
The distilled liquor was acid, and formed a white precipitate with solutions of acetate  of lead.
It was re-distilled: the liquor that first passed over was not ammoniacal, but towards the end
of the process became  so.
  2. Smilacin.—Discovered in  1824 by Palotta,1 who termed it pariglin.   Folchi, about the
same time, also  procured it, and gave  it the name  of smilacin.   Thubeuf, in 1831, called it
salseparin.   In 1833, Batka announced that the active principle of this root was an acid, which
he  termed parallinic acid.   Lastly, in  1834, Poggiale2  showed the identity of these different
substances.
   It is procured by decolorizing a concentrated hot alcoholic tincture of sarsaparilla by animal
charcoal.   The tincture  deposits, on cooling,  impure smilacin, which  may be purified by re-
peated solution and  crystallization.  Soubeiran3 has proposed a more economical  process.
   It resides both in the cortical portion  and in the  woody  zone.
   Smilacin is a white, crystallizable, odourless, and, in  the anhydrous  state, almost tasteless
substance;  very slightly  soluble  in cold water, more so in boiling water, and depositing from
the latter by cooling.   Its solution has the bitter acrid taste of sarsaparilla, and froths on agita-
tion.   It is soluble  in alcohol, ether, and  oils.   It does not  combine with  acids  to form salts,
Strong sulphuric acid  colours it red, then violet, and, lastly, yellow.  It dissolves in cold and
pure hydrochloric acid: the solution becomes red and afterwards gelatinous when  heated.  It
is soluble in strong nitric acid : if the solution be heated, nitrous gas escapes; and, by evapora-
tion, a solid residuum is  obtained, which is soluble in boiling water,  from which  it  precipitates
in white flocks as the  liquid cools.
   Smilacin is closely allied to, if it be not identical  with, saponin.  Now, as the latter is readily
converted  into an acid (esculic acid), so  probably is the former:  hence, perhaps, the parallinic
acid of Batka  may  not be absolutely identical with smilacin, but bear the same relation to it
that esculic acid does to saponin.
   Smilacin has the following composition:—

                                     Poggiale.
                                (Mean of 12 analyses.)      Henry.           Petersen.
           Carbon..............62.53  ........62.84  ........62.80
           Hydrogen............   8 67........  9.76........   9 14
           Oxygen.............28.80........27.40  ........28.06

                 Anhydrous smilacin . . .  100.00   ........100.00  [Parillina]  100.00

   Poggiale gives the following formula for its atomic constitution, C8H7£03;  while 0. Henry4
 assumes C9H903, and Petersen5 C9H803.  As  no definite  compound of smilacin has been ob-
 tained, these formulae  are of little value.  Thubeuf says  that hydrated [crystallized] smilacin
 contains 8.56 water.
   Cullerier* gave it to nine syphilitic patients.  In doses of six grains, the stomach readily sup-
 ported it; but nine grains  caused weight at  the stomach  and nausea.  It appeared to relieve
 the patients' symptoms, and, in one case, seemed to effect a cure.  According to Palotta, pariglin,
 in doses of from two to  thirteen grains, acts as a debilitant, reducing the circulation, sometimes
 producing  constriction of the oesophagus, and exciting nausea and diaphoresis.   He thinks it
 might be useful in chronic rheumatism, skin diseases, &c.
    3. Starch.—This is found  in both the cortical and  medullary cells.   It is most abundant in
 the Caraccas, Brazilian,  and Honduras  sarsaparillas, to which it gives their mealy character
 According to Schleiden,  it exists in two forms—as grains and as  paste.
    The  starch-grains are arranged in groups  of 2, 3,  4, or 6; their shapes being modified by
 their mutual compression: the prevailing form being that of a mullar.   Their average length is
 about yflVo-tn of an inch.7  The nucleus (central cavity or hilum) is scarcely  perceptible by
 ordinary light (Schleiden  says that the  grains are without evident  central  cavity); but by tbe
  1 Journ. de Pharm. x. 543.                             a j0UTn, <fe Chim. Mid. x. 577.
  » Nouv. Traiti de Pharm. ii. 166.                       4 j0UTn, ,ie Pharm. xx. 0-2.
  1 Thomson, Organic Chemistry, 279.                    e Journ. de Chim. MM. tip. 45, 2de ser
  ' The following measurements, in p;irts of an English inch, of the grains of starch of saraapurilla, were
made for me by Mr. George Jackson : — 
Sarsaparilla :—Chemical Characteristics.
275
aid of polarized light its position may be determined, as it is at the junction of the arms of the
cross.  In some  grains it can be detected  by common  light.  Towards the circumference of
some of the grains a series of faint parallel curved lines are observed.
  Starch paste, or amorphous starch, is found in some of the cortical cells.  It is more abundant
in Vera Cruz sarsaparilla,#which is sun-dried, than in the Brazilian sort, which has been dried
by exposure to the smoke of fires;  hence, probably, its formation depends  on the season, and
not on the action of heat on  the grain  starch.  Iodine  colours it blue.   This so-called starch-
paste, or amorphous  state, is, perhaps, only imperfectly formed and closely aggregated starch
grains.
  4.  Resin and Extractive.—These principles require further examination.   On them pro-
bably depends a part, at least, of the medicinal properties of sarsaparilla.
  Chemical Characteristics.—A  decoction of sarsaparilla froths greatly when
shaken.   It scarcely, if at all, reddens litmus.  Diacetate of lead and protonitrate
of mercury cause precipitates.   Alkalies deepen the colour of the  decoction.
  If a strong  decoction be added to oil of vitriol, a red  colour is  produced (owing
to the action of the acid on  the smilacin ?).
  Decoctions of mealy sarsaparilla become dark blue (iodide of starch) on the ad-
dition of a solution of iodine.  Decoctions of non-mealy sorts are usually somewhat
darkened by iodine, but the effect  frequently disappears after a few minutes.
   If a solution of a persalt of iron be added to the decoction, more or less darkening
is usually  produced.  The  greatest  effect is produced  with  decoctions' of either
Jamaica or Lima sarsaparilla: with those of  the  Honduras and Brazilian sorts the
effect is much feebler.  In some cases a flocculent precipitate slowly subsides.1
   If oil of vitriol be applied to a section of sarsaparilla, a  greater or less portion of
the  woody surface (the woody  zone, and,  in  the  case of Jamaica  and  Lima sarsa-
parilla, the cortex also) becomes dark red, and then  violet (owing to the action of
the  acid on the smilacin ?).  The same colour is also  produced by the action of the
acid on a fresh cut surface of the rhizome (chump).
   If a strong decoction of mealy sarsaparilla be poured into alcohol, a copious pre-
cipitate (starch) is produced.
   Physiological Effects,  o.  On  Vegetables.—Not ascertained.
   p.  On Animals.—Not ascertained.
   y.  On  Man.—Imperfectly determined;  no experiments  having been  made to
 ascertain its physiological effects.
   To the taste, sarsaparilla  is slightly acrid,  and somewhat nauseous.  Diaphoresis
 is by far the most common effect of its internal  use.  When the  skin is  kept cool,
 diuresis  is not unusual.  But in  estimating the diaphoretic or  diuretic power of
 Barsaparilla, we must  take  into consideration the amount  of  liquid in which  the
 medicine is usually taken, and the other medicines which  are frequently conjoined
 with it:  for, in many instances, the  diaphoresis or diuresis is referable  rather to
 these than to sarsaparilla.
   In  several cases I have given the powder of this root in  very large doses,  in order
to  ascertain  its  effects.   Nausea, vomiting,  and temporary loss  of appetite, were
alone observed.
   Dr.  Hancock" says, that on  one patient, an African, an infusion of four ounces
of  Bio Negro sarsa  acted  as a  narcotic, producing nausea, great prostration of
Btrength, torpor, and unwillingness to move.   The pulse was scarcely altered, unless
                 Single round or
              hemispherical Particles.                 Longest Diameters.
                       1..............0.0006
                       2..............*0.0005
                       3..............#0.0004
                       4..............00003
                       5..............00002
  The bulk of this specimen consisted of particles of the size of those distinguished by an asterisk.
  One of the hennsplieric:il or tuullnr-shaped particles measured 0.0007 hy 0.0005.
  A compound gr;iin, consisting of three grains, was found to be 0.0005 in diameter.

  ' S. >-,uls<>, Marqunrt'i comparative examinations of several kinds of sarsaparilla. in the Pharmaceutical
Journal, vol. iii. p. 126, 11* 13.
  1 Trans. Med.-Bot. Soc. 1829. 
276               VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Smilaceje.

it were a little retarded.  Though  the effects here stated agree, to a certain extent,
with those ascribed to  smilacin, they cannot be regarded as the ordinary effects of
this root.
   In some conditions  of system,  especially those of a cachectic kind, sarsaparilla
acts as a powerful and valuable alterative tonic.  Its continued use  is often attended
with improvement of appetite and  digestion, augmentation of strength, increase of
flesh, the production of a more healthy tone of mind, and the palliation, or, in some
cases, complete  disappearance, of various  morbid  symptoms—as eruptions, ulcera-
tions, pains of a rheumatic character, &c.   Sarsaparilla differs in several  respects
from  the bitter vegetable tonics.   Though it is  not devoid of, yet it does not, as
they do, abound in a bitter  principle.   It is not adapted for the  cure of intermit.
tents, or of simple debility.  But its best effects are seen in those depraved con-
ditions  of  system,  which the public, and even  some  medical men, ascribe to the
presence of a morbid poison, or to a deranged condition of the fluids.   Hence it is
frequently denominated a purifier of the blood.   Those  who  do not  adopt the
pathological notion here referred to, call it an alterative.
   Those varieties of sarsaparilla which abound in starch (as the Caraccas and Hon-
duras sorts) possess demulcent and nutritive properties.
   Uses.—By many practitioners  sarsaparilla is considered to possess no remedial
properties; by others it is regarded  as a medicine of great  efficacy.  Considering
that more  than 100,000 lbs.  of  it are  annually consumed  in  this  country, tbe
number of those who entertain the latter opinion cannot be small.   It has been
justly remarked by Mr. Lawrence,1 that physicians have no confidence iu it, and
surgeons  a great  deal.  I  think  that this fact is  readily explained by the cir-
cumstance  that physicians are much less frequently called  in to prescribe for those
forms of disease in the  treatment of which surgeons have found  sarsaparilla so
efficacious.
   Many practitioners have doubted or denied its remedial activity on what, it must
be  admitted, are very plausible grounds; viz., that the root possesses  very little
taste and no  smell; that, by the ordinary  mode of using it, it produces very slight,
if any, obvious effects on  the animal economy; and that it has failed in their hands
to relieve or cure  diseases in which  others  have asserted  they found it effectual.
They are, therefore, disposed to refer any  improvement of a patient's health, under
the long-continued  use  of sarsaparilla, either to natural changes in the  constitution,
or to the influence  of the remedial  means with which the sarsaparilla was conjoined.
But I would observe, that  hitherto  no experiments have  been  made to ascertain
what effects the long-continued  employment of  sarsaparilla may give rise to in the
system  of a healthy man; and we  are not warranted in assuming  that none would
result, because none are observable  from  the  employment of a few doses.  More-
over, it is to be remembered that  some of our most  powerful poisons  prove the
most efficacious remedies  when  given in such small doses that they excite no other
obvious effect on the system than the removal of morbid symptoms.   Witness  the
beneficial influence  of the minute  doses of arsenious  acid in lepra.  Furthermore,
no one  has ascribed to  sarsaparilla the power of a specific, and its warmest advo-
cates  admit  its occasional failure.  But  so often has it been  found,  that various
diseases, which  had resisted all other  tried remedial means, and were gradually
increasing, became stationary, and afterwards subsided, under the use of sarsaparilla,
that a large majority of British surgeons, including the most eminent of the present
day, have been compelled to admit its therapeutic power.
  As no obvious relationship exists between its known physiological effects and its
apparent therapeutic agency, an  argument  has been  raised against its medicinal
activity, on the ground  that we  cannot explain its  methodus medendi; but, for  the
same reason,  we might  refuse to admit the power of cinchona to  cure ague.   Mr.
1 Lectures on Surgery, in the Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. v. p. 770. 
Sarsaparilla :—Uses.
277
Lawrence1 justly observes that, although we cannot point out the manner in which
a remedy " operates, we are not, on that account, to withhold our confidence in its
power.  It is  enough for us, in medical science, to know that certain effects take
place.   In  point of fact, we  are in  many cases  unable to  distinguish  the modus
operandi of medicines—the manner in  which their influence is  produced."   The
most plausible explanation  of  the agency of alterative medicines  is that offered  by
Miiller,3 and  which I  have before had occasion to notice (see vol. i. p. 137).  It
assumes that these remedies cause changes in the composition of the nutritive fluids
(the chyle and  blood), and thereby produce slight chemical alterations in organs
morbidly changed in composition, by which already existing affinities are annulled,
new ones induced, and  the  vital  principle enabled to effect the  further restoration
and cure.   This hypothesis may be used to explain the remedial influence of sarsa-
parilla.
   Sarsaparilla has been found especially serviceable in the following  maladies :—
   1.  In inveterate venereal disease.—It is beneficial  principally when the malady
is of long continuance, and the  constitution is enfeebled and emaciated, either  by
the repeated attacks of the disease, or by the use of mercury.  In such cases it is,
as Sir William  Fordyce3 correctly observed, " the great restorer of  appetite, flesh,
colour,  strength, and vigour."   When  the disease resists, or is aggravated by, the
use of mercury,  sarsaparilla evinces its most salutary powers.  It  is given to relieve
venereal pains of a rheumatic  character; to remove venereal eruptions; to promote
the healing of ulcers of the throat; and to assist in  the cure when  the bones are
affected.  In  recent chancre, or bubo, it is of little use; nor does it appear to pos-
sess the least  power of preventing  secondary symptoms.  We cannot ascribe to it
" the same anti-syphilitic properties—that is, the same power of arresting or curing
the venereal  disease—that experience warrants us  in attributing  to mercury."4
Sarsaparilla is sometimes  given alone,  but more frequently with other remedies:
as with stimulating diaphoretics (mezereon, sassafras, and guaiacum), or with mer-
curials  in  small or alterative doses, or with  acids (especially the nitric), or with
alkaline substances (as potash or lime), or with iodine or with  the  bitter tonics.
It is difficult to lay down concise rules to guide us in the selection of these adjuncts.
In venereal pains and  eruptions, sudorifics, the copious use of warm diluents  and
warm clothing,  are especially  applicable, and should be conjoined with sarsaparilla.
In scrofulous constitutions, with enlarged glands, it will be for the most part ad-
visable to  avoid  the  use  of mercury.  In  such I have  seen  the  alkalies most
serviceable.   When  extreme  debility is present, the bitter tonics and nitric acid
are often  added  to sarsaparilla with benefit.   When  the  periosteum  is  affected,
iodide of potassium should be conjoined.
   2.  Li chronic  rheumatism  sarsaparilla is often advantageously  conjoined with
powerful sudorifics and anodynes (as opium or hyoscyamus), especially when any
suspicion exists as to the venereal origin of the disease.
   3.  In obstinate skin diseases benefit is frequently obtained by  the  use of sarsapa-
rilla.    Its employment is  not confined to cutaneous affections  of  one particular
elementary form, since it  is given with good effect in papular, vesicular, pustular,
aud tubercular  skin diseases, of a chronic kind, when they occur in enfeebled and
emaciated constitutions.   Though, in these cases, its value  principally depends on
its tonic and alterative effects, its diaphoretic operation  is to be encouraged by the
use of diluents, warm clothing, &c.
   4.  In cacliectic conditions of the system generally, sarsaparilla may be given, often
with  the best effects, and  never with any ill  consequences,  save that of producing
slight nausea.   Indeed, one of the great advantages of sarsaparilla over many other
alteratives and tonics, is, that  although  it may fail in doing good, it never does any
 1 Op. eit. p. 700.                                      a Physiology, vol. i. pp. 59 and 363.
 ' Medical Observations and Inquiries, vol. i. p. 169.
 ' Ijiwrence, op. eit. p. 769 j see, also, Mr. Pearson's Observations on the Effects of various Articles of
the Materia Medica in the Curt of Lues Venerea, p. 39,1300. 
278
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Smilace^.
 harm beyond that of now and then causing slight disorder of stomach.  In chronic
 abscesses, attended with  profuse  discharge, diseases of the bones, obstinate ulcers
 chronic pulmonary affections accompanied with great wasting of the body, enlarged
 glands, and various other maladies connected with a depraved state of the system
 sarsaparilla is often a very useful medicine.
   Administration.—Sarsaparilla is administered in substance, and in the form of
 infusion, decoction, extract, and syrup.
   1.  PULVIS SARSJE; Powdered Sarsaparilla.—The ordinary dose of this  is from
 half a drachm to one or two drachms.   Half an ounce frequently nauseates, and in
 some cases gives  rise to vomiting.  Powder  of Jamaica sarsaparilla is  to be pre-
 ferred to that of other varieties.  It is redder than that of the Honduras  kind and
 produces a much  less intense blue colour when rubbed with water and tincture of
 iodine.   I have been informed that some druggists employ, in  the preparation of the
 powder, the roots  from which the extract has been prepared.   This fraud  may be
 detected  by the powder being almost  devoid of taste, macerating it in water and
 carefully comparing the infusion with one prepared from an unadulterated sample.
 The microscope might sometimes  be carefully employed  to detect  adulterations of
 powdered sarsaparilla.  The  presence of foreign  starch  grains would  indicate the
 presence  of some other vegetable in  the suspected  powder.

   [2.  INFUSUM SARSAPARILLA [U. S.].—Take Sarsaparilla, bruised, an ounce; Boil-
 ing Wfater a pint.   Digest it for two hours in a covered vessel or strain, or by dis-
 placement.]
   3.  DECOCTUM SARS$, L. E.; Decoctum  Sarsaparilla;, D.; Decoction of Sarsapa-
 rilla.—(Sarsa, sliced [in chips, E.~], gv [|ij,  D.]; Boiling Water Oiv [Ojss, D.].
 Boil  down to two pints,  and  strain.  [" The product should  measure a little more
 than  a pint,"  D.])—An objection has been taken  to  this, as well as to all prepara-
 tions of sarsaparilla made by boiling, that the heat employed volatilizes or  decom-
 poses the active principle of the root.  " An infusion of sarsaparilla," says Soubeiran,1
 "which is odorous and sapid, loses  both its odour and taste by boiling  for a few
 minutes: these changes speak but little in favour  of  the decoction.  On  the other
 hand, it is known that the fibrous parts of vegetables always give less soluble mat-
 ters to water, when treated by decoction; and if it  be added that sarsaparilla is
 completely exhausted by hot water, I cannot see what advantages the decoction can
 possess over preparations  made by other methods."  Without denying the injurious
 effects of long boiling, and, therefore, the  superiority  of preparations made without
 it, I cannot admit that either the decoction or extract of sarsaparilla is inert. No
 objection,  however, exists  to the substitution of an infusion for a decoction.  But
 it is  advisable to employ  a somewhat  larger  quantity of the  root, and to have it
 crushed before macerating it.  The proportions of  root and water,  in the above pre-
 paration,  are  such  that one ounce of the  decoction  contains  the  extractive of one
 drachm only of the root.   Hence the extract or syrup is usually conjoined.
   Mr. Jacob Bell9 objects to taking out the roots after maceration, in order to bruise
 them, on  the ground that  by this process  the  wood may absorb a larger portion of
 the virtues of the bark in return for the inert starch which it gives out.
   An infusion or decoction of Jamaica sarsaparilla  usually produces little or no blue
 colour with tincture of iodine; whereas the corresponding preparations of Honduras
 sarsaparilla (the kind usually met with, cut in small split  lengths, in the shops) be-
 comes bluish black on the addition of a solution of iodine.  The dose of Decoctum
 Sarsse is  f|iv to f^viij three or four times daily.

  4. DECOCTUM SARSiE COMPOSITUM, L. E.; Decoctum Sarsaparilla Compositum,
D.  [U. S.];  Compound Decoction  of Sarsaparilla.—(Decoction  of Sarsaparilla,
boiling hot, Oiv; Sassafras sliced and bruised,  Guaiacum-wood  shavings, Liquorice-
root bruised, of  each 3x;  Mezereon [bark  of the root], 3iij [|ss, E.].   Boil for a
1 Nouc. Traitt de Pharm. t. ii. p. 1G8.
1 Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. i. p. 55, 1H1. 
Syrup of Sarsaparilla.
279
quarter of an  hour and strain.—The Dublin College orders of Sarsaparilla  Boot,
sliced, £ij;  Sassafras  Boot  in  chips, Guaiacum wood turnings,  Liquorice Boot
bruised, of each 3ij;  Mezereon root-bark 3J; Boiling Water Oiss.   Digest for one
hour, then boil for ten minutes, cool  and strain.  The product  should measure a
little  more  than a  pint.—[The U. S. Pharm. orders  of Sarsaparilla, sliced  and
bruised, six  ounces; Bark of Sassafras root sliced, Guaiacum wood rasped, Liquorice
root bruised, each an ounce;  Mezereon, sliced, three drachms; Water, four  pints.
Boil for a quarter of an hour, and strain.])—This preparation is an  imitation of the
celebrated Lisbon Diet Drink.  The objections made to  the use of ebullition in pre-
paring the simple decoction apply equally to the present preparation.   The additions
are for  the  most  part valueless.   The guaiacum-wood is useless, water not  being
able to dissolve the resin.  The volatile oil contained in the sassafras-wood is in part
dissipated by the boiling.   The mezereum, an  active agent, is used in  such small
quantity that it can confer  but little medicinal power.  Moreover, these acids are apt
to disorder the stomach.  The liquorice is employed merely to communicate flavour.
An improvement in the present formula would be to omit the guaiacum, to increase
the quantity of  sarsaparilla  and mezereum, to substitute  maceration for decoction,
and to add oil of sassafras.   The dose of the officinal preparation  is  from f|jiv to
f^vj  three or four times a day.  The syrup or extract is  usually conjoined with it.
During its use the skin  should be kept warm.
   A  Liquor Sarsse compositus concentratus is  usually kept in the shops for the
extemporaneous preparation of the compound decoction of Sarsaparilla.
   5.  SYRUPUS SARSjE, L. E.;  Syrupus Sarsaparillse;  Syrup of Sarsaparilla.—
(Sarsa  ibiijss;  Distilled  Water Cong,  iij; Sugar  Jxij;   Bectified Spirit  fgij.
Boil  the sarsa, in  two gallons of the water, down to one gallon; pour off the liquor,
and strain  it while  hot.  Again boil the  sarsa in the  remaining  water  down to
one-half.   Evaporate the  mixed liquors to two pints,  and  dissolve  the  sugar in
them.  Lastly,  when cold, add  the Spirit, L.—The  Edinburgh College orders of
Sarsa, in chips, %xv;  Boiling Water Cong, j; Pure Sugar Jxv.)—Simonin1 has
successfully prepared the syrup by the percolation method.
   This I conceive to be a very unnecessary preparation;  for, as the late Dr.  A. T.
Thomson8 justly observes, "it can be much better and more easily supplied  by
rubbing up a few grains of the extract with some simple syrup."   It is,  however,
frequently prescribed as an adjunct to  the  decoction.   Prepared with Jamaica sar-
saparilla, it is not liable to ferment,  and its flavour is  somewhat  agreeable, being
very analogous  to that of West India molasses.   Mr. Brande8 says that, to be an
effective form of sarsaparilla, it ought to be of such strength that one ounce is equal
to a  pint of the simple decoction.   Of this, f ^ss or f3vj  may be taken two or three
times a day, diluted  with about two  parts  of  water.   A few drops of  solution of
potas.sa sometimes prevent its  disagreement  with the stomach.
   The  Syrup of Sarsaparilla of  the United States Pharmacopoeia is intended to
represent the famous French Siroji de Cuisiuier.  It is prepared with proof spirit,
which extracts the acrid principle  of the root without taking up the inert fecula;
and the tincture being  evaporated, to get rid  of  the alcohol, is made  into syrup.
By this means the long-continued boiling is avoided.  As the editors of the  United
States Dispensatory speak most confidently of  the remedial value of  this prepara-
tion,  I subjoin the formula for its preparation,  taken from the American  Pharma-
copoeia :—
   Compound Syrup of Sarsaparilla [Syrupus Sarsaparilla? Compositus'], U. S.—" Sarsaparilla, bruised,
Ibij; Guaiacum wood, rasped, giij; Red Roses, .Senna, Liquorice-root, bruised, each ^ij; Oil of
Sassafras. Oil of Anise, each rn^v; Oil of  Partridge-berry [Gaultheria procumbens, an  astringent
aromatic] Tnjij; Sugar Ibviij; Diluted Alcohol Ox [wine measure].  Macerate the sarsaparilla,
ptiaiacum wood, roses, senna, and liquorice root, in the diluted alcohol for fourteen days; then
express and filter through paper.  Evaporate the tincture, by means of a water-bath, to four pints
1 Journ. de Pharm. xx. 110.
3 London Dispensatory, 9th edit.
1 Diet, of Mat. Mtd. 
280               VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Smilaceje.

and a-half; then add the sugar, nnd dissolve it so as to form a syrup.  With this, when cold,mix
the oil<. previously triturated, with a small  quantity of syrup."'  The dose is I5SS (equivaleut
to somewhat less than £j of the root), taken three  or four times a day.
   A Syrupus Sarsse. compositus is usually kept in the shops.
   6. EXTRlfTDI  SARS.E  LIQUIDUM, L.; Extractum Sarsse flu id, mi, E.; Extractum
SarsapariUse fluidum, D. [U.  S.]; Fluid Extract of Sarsaparilla, Offic.—(Sarsa
rbiijss; Distilled Water  Cong, v;  Bectified Spirit fgij, L.—Sarsa, in chips, Ibj j
Boiling Water Ovj, E.—Sarsaparilla  ibj; Boiling Water Oviij;  Bectified Spirit as
much as is sufficient,  D.—Boil the sarsa in  three  gallons of water down  to twelve
pints; pour off the liquor, and strain while hot.   Again boil the sarsa in the re-
gaining water to half, and  strain.  Evaporate  the mixed liquors to f ^xviij, and
when the extract has become cold add the spirit to it, L.—" Digest the root for two
hours in four pints of the water; take it  out, bruise it, replace it in the water, and
boil for two hours; filter and squeeze out the liquid; boil the residuum in the re-
maining two pints of water, and  filter and squeeze out this liquor also; evaporate
the united liquors to the consistence of thin syrup; add, when the product is cool,
as much rectified spirit as will  make  in all sixteen fluidounces;  filter.   This fluid
extract may be aromatized at will with various volatile oils or warm aromatics," E.
The C S. Pharm. orders of Sarsaparilla, sliced and bruised, sixteen ounces; Liquor-
ice root bruised, Boot of Sassafras bruised,  each two ounces; Mezereon,  sliced, six
drachms; Sugar, twelve  ounces; Diluted  Alcohol, eight  pints.   Macerate all of the
ingredients together, excepting the sugar, for fourteen  days; then express and filter.
Evaporate  the liquid, by means of a water-bath,  to  twelve fluidounces; add the
sugar to it while still hot; and remove it from the bath  as soon as the sugar is dis-
solved.])
   In this country, Jamaica sarsaparilla is preferred for the preparation of the ex-
tract ; and  next  to this the Lima sort.  If  Honduras, or any other mealy sarsapa-
rilla be employed, the product contains a large quantity of starch-gum.  Extract of
Jamaica sarsaparilla, when rubbed on  white paper  or  porcelain, exhibits a reddish
tint not observable in the extract  of  the  Honduras kind.   The  flavour and odour
are characters which  assist in  distinguishing well-prepared extract.   Bubbed up
with water, it is  almost completely soluble, and the solution, which should be clear,
by standing scarcely deposits anything.  The dilute solution should not remain blue
on the addition of a solution of iodine.   But extract prepared from a mealy sarsa-
parilla does not completely dissolve in water, and  yields a turbid liquor, which be-
comes dark blue on the addition of a solution of iodine.
   In England the fibrils  or beard of Jamaica sarsaparilla are preferred to both root
and rhizome (chump).   They contain  less starch  and woody fibre than the latter,
and they yield a greater  proportion of extract.
   The quantity  of extract obtained  from  Jamaica sarsaparilla  has  already been
alluded to (see ante, p.  270).   The  following table  is from  the papers of Thu-
beuf:—1

   6 lbs. of Sarsaparilla                                             yielded of Extract.
                       r Red Jamaica sarsaparilla................Sxxj,  Sij.
                       I  Red sarsaparilla of the  Coast [Costa Rica ?].....Sxxj, 3)j-
     Roots cleaned and de- J  Vera Cruz sarsaparilla..................Sxvij, 3vij.
      prived of rhizome  "\  Caraccas sarsaparilla  ..................Sxv,  5iij-
                       1  Honduras sarsaparilla..................Sxiv,
                       V_ Lisbon...........................Sxiij, 5i»«-
     Rhizome cut thin and bruised.............................Six,  3iijss.

   Extract made  by the  evaporation of  an  infusion  prepared by the displacement
process is devoid of starch, and is consequently richer in the active principles. By
the avoidance of ebullition, the destruction or dissipation of volatile matters is less
likely to be effected.

                  1 Journ. de Pharmacie,  t. xiv. p. 701; and t. xviii. p. 157. 
Smilax China.                              281
   In effecting the evaporation  of the decoction  or infusion, steam heat should be
employed; and the  temperature of the  liquid  should not  be allowed to exceed
212° F.
   When the concentrated decoction  (especially of the  Honduras kind) is allowed
to cool, as at  night, a kind of fermentation is readily set, and gas  is copiously
evolved.
   Extract of sarsaparilla, when it has been kept for some time, frequently  becomes
covered by cubical crystals of chloride of potassium.
   It deserves notice that though  smilacin  is said to be soluble in  boiling alcohol
and  ether, yet I find that the extract of  Jamaica  sarsaparilla yields  but little to
these liquids.
   Extract of sarsaparilla is declared by many writers to be an inert and useless pre-
paration ; but the assertions  are, for the  most part, founded rather on theoretical
than practical considerations.   I have extensively used it, and believe that, when
properly prepared from Jamaica or Lima sarsaparilla, it is  a  most valuable  and effi-
cient remedy; and the enormous quantity of  it which is  consumed by the profes-
sion generally (including some of the most eminent of its members), is a proof that
many others entertain  a similar opinion of it.  It is given  in doses  of  from half a
draclim to two or three drachms  three or  four times a day.   It should be  rubbed
down with water, and  flavoured by the tincture of orange-peel, or by some volatile
oil (as  the oil of  cloves, allspice, lemon, or cinnamon).   Alkalies render its fla-
vour somewhat disagreeable, though they frequently increase greatly its remedial
powers.

   7. EXTRACTUM  SARSJ COMPOSITUM;  Compound Extract of Sarsaparilla.—Not
in any Pharmacopoeia, though kept in the shops.  It is made by  mixing, with ex-
tract of sarsaparilla, an extract prepared  by evaporating  a  decoction of mezereon
bark, liquorice root,  and guaiacum shavings, to which a  small quantity  of oil of sas-
safras has been added.   This preparation  is employed as a  convenient substitute for
the compound decoction of sarsaparilla.   The dose of it, and the mode of exhibition,
are the same as of the simple extract.  Three-quarters of an ounce of the compound
extract are equal to  a  pint of the compound decoction.


                           98. Smilax  China, Linn.
                                      (Radix.)
   Smilax China, Kaempf.  Amoen. Exot., p. 783; Loureiro, Fl. Cochinchinensis, p. 622.—A
native of Japan, China, and Cochin China.—The China root of the  shops (radix Chinee orientalis
seu vera vel ponderosa) is said to be the produce of this species.  But, according to Roxburgh,1
the roots of & glabra and <S. lanceafolia, which  are used in the East in medicine, are not to be
distinguished  by the eye  from the roots of S. China, brought from China.
   China root is imported into England, usually in baskets, from Calcutta and Singapore.  Dr.
O'Shaughnessy2 states  that it is largely imported into  Calcutta from the eastward.  It is said to
be the produce of the province of Onansi, in China.  It occurs in large, ligneous, knotty pieces,
of from  three  to eight inches long, and an inch or two thick.   Externally it has a grayish-brown
colour, and internally a light flesh or yellowish-white colour.  It is inodorous, and has a slightly
astringent taste.
  It  has been analyzed by Reinsch,3 who found it to consist of wax 0.3, balsamic  resin 0.4,
crystalline matter  (smilacin) 2.8, with sugar, tannic  acid, Salts, and  resinous colouring matter
(quantity not stated), tannic acid with salts, reddish gummy colouring .matter,  and smilacin 4.8,
starch-gum, vegetable gluten, and salts 2.6, starch 23.5 with  salts, starch with tannic acid 34.0,
woody fibre 20.0, and water 12.0 (=100.4).
  It  was introduced into  Europe, in 1535, as an  infallible remedy for  the venereal disease, and
obtained great celebrity in consequence of the benefit which the Emperor Charles the Fifth is
said to have derived from it in gout.   Its  effects are not very obvious, but it  is said to be dia-
phoretic.  It tinges the sweat.  It has been  used in the same maladies as  sarsaparilla, viz.,
venereal diseases, rheumatism, gout, obstinate skin diseases, &c.  It is given in the form of de-
coction.
1 Ft. Indica, vol. iii. p. 792.                                       » Bengal Dispensatory.
' liufliiier'i Heptrtorium, 'iter Reihe, Bd. xxxii. S. 145, 1843. 
282
VEGETABLES.—Nat.  Ord. Smilace^e.
  Spurious China Roots.—Several smilaceous roots, the produce  of the New World, but re-
sembling the oriental China root, have been described under the name of American or occidental
China root, (radix China Americana vel occidentalis).   Their origin  is by no means well ascer-
tained, though they are usually said to be the produce of Smilax Pseudo China, Linn.  Hernan-
dez1 notices three sorts: one which he calls Olcacatzanor Mexican China root; a second termed
Phaco; and a third called Cozolmecatl.
  One or more sorts of occidental China root are frequently found in the middle  of the bundles
ofLima and some other kinds of sarsaparilla (see ante, p. 271).
  Brazilian China root, known  by the various names of  Juapecanga, Inhapecanga, Japican^a,
Jupicanga, and Raiz de China branca vel rubra, is obtained  from several species of Smilax: viz.,
S. Japicanga, Grisebach;  S. syringoides, Grisebach (Jupicanga, Piso, Med. Braz i. 99);  S. Bratili.
ensis, Grisebach (S. glauca, Martius, Reise, i. 283); and  S. syphilitica,  Humboldt.  It has not been
analyzed.  Its uses resemble those of oriental China root.2


                            99.  Smilax aspera,  Linn.
                                         (Radix.)

  Ijufxa^ rpajrua, Dioscorides, lib. iv. cap. 144.   Smilax, Pliny, lib  xvi. cap. 63.—A native of
the South of Europe.   Its roots constitute Italian sursaparilla (Sarsaparilla italica).  They have
not been analyzed.   Their effects, uses, and mode of administration resemble those of the ordi-
nary sarsaparilla brought from America3
  The roots of Hemidesmus indicus, or Indian sarsaparilla, are frequently sold in London under
the name of Smilax aspera.   They will be noticed hereafter.
                   Class  IV.  Exogcnae, DC.—Exogens,

                                 DlCOTYLEDONES, JuSsieU.

  Characters—Trunk, consisting of  bark, wood, and  pith, placed  one within  the other, the
pith being innermost.  Bark, composed of strata (the younger and inner being called endophlmim
or liber), each usually increasing by the deposit of new matter on its inner side.  Wood, con-
sisting of ligneous  strata, traversed by medullary  rays, and increasing by the deposit of new
woody matter on its outer side (exogenous growth) ; the older and inner strata are called duramen,
or heart wood; the younger and outer strata are termed alburnum, or sap wood. Leaves usually
articulated with the stems ; their veins commonly branching and anastomosing (netted, reticulated).
Flowers, if with  a distinct calyx, often  having a quinary, sometimes a quaternary, rarely a ter-
nary arrangement.  Embryo with two or more cotyledons  (dicotyledonous) ; if two, they are op-
posite ; if more than two (polyrotyledonous), they  are verticillate, radicle  naked, i. e. elongating,
without penetrating any external case (exorrhizous).
  This  class includes two sub-classes: 1. Gymnospermte, or naked-seeded exogens; 2.  Anglo-
tpermce, or covered-seeded exogens.
           Sub-class I.  Gymnospermx.— Gymnosperms.

                                   Gymnogens, Lindl.

  Characters—Ovules naked, in an open carpellary leaf or pervious disk, fertilized by direct
application of the  pollen to the foramen (micropyle) without the intervention  of  stigma, style,
and ovary.  Ligneous tissue porous at the sides, the pores being apparently surrounded each by
one or two circles.
  This sub-class includes two orders : 1.  Cycadece, or Cycads; 2. Pinacea, or Conifers.
  1 Rerum Med. Nov. Hispan. Thesaurus, pp. 212-213, Roma*., 1651.
  0 For a figure and description of Brazilian China  root, see Goebel and Kunze's Pharmaceutitekt
Waarenkunde, Bd. ii. S. 129, Taf. xviii. Fir. 2.
  3 For further details respecting the medicinal properties of Smilax aspera, see Merat nnd De Lens, Diet.
Univ. de Mat. Mid. t. vi. p. 374, 1831 j and Dierbach's Neuerst. Entdeck. in d. Mat. Med. Bd. iii. Abt. ii.
S. 1088.  1847. 
Cycads :—Cycas.—Zamia.
283
         Order XXI.    CYCADACE.E,  Lindl—CYCADS.

                            Cycadejb, Richard and R. Brown.

  Characters.—Gymnosperms with a simple continuous stem, parallel-veined pinnate leaves,
and scales of the cone antheriferous.
  Properties.—Mucilage  and starch are the useful products of this  order.  They are found
in the stems and seeds (see Cycas and  Zamia).  The seeds of Dion edule yield a starch which
is used in Mexico as arrow root. (Lindley.)


                                 100.  Cycas, Linn.
                               Sex. Syst. Dioecia, Polyandria.
  No product of this genus is  employed  in  Europe, either as medicine  or  food.  From the
stems of C. circinalis and C. revoluta a starch is obtained, of which a kind of sago is said to be
made in the East.   I have prepared starch from both of these species, and find that its micro-
scopic characters are entirely different  from those of the sago starch of European commerce.
The starch of C. circinalis consists of grains united in masses of from  2 to 6: the single grains
are rendered more or less irregular or polygonal by their mutual compression, but hemispherical
and muller-shaped particles  predominate.   Their size1 varies, but  is on the average smaller
than that of the starch grains of genuine sago.   The so-called hilum  frequently appears split
and surrounded  by rings.   In polarized light the grains show a distinct cross.—The  starch of
C. revoluta, of which Japan sago is  said to be made, resembles that of the preceding species.
None of it comes to England.   The  Dublin Pharmacopoeia, 1850, states that  sago is the farina
of the interior of the trunk of Cycas circinalis, and also of other species of Cycas, and various
Palmacece.  The facts,  however, are as I have  stated them.— A clear mucilage,  which con-
cretes  into a  gum  like tragacanth, exudes from fresh-wounded parts of several species of
Cycas.2
                                101. Zamia,  Linn.
                              Sex. Syst. Dioecia, Polyandria.

  In the Bahamas, and some other of the West  India Islands, a starch is obtained from  the
trunk of  some species of  this genus, which is  employed  as an  excellent sort of arrow-root.
None of  it, to my knowledge, comes  to Europe as an article of commerce.  In the Museum of
(Economic Botany, at the Botanic Garden, Kew, there is a specimen of a  starch, sent from
Jamaica  by Mr. Purdie, and stated to be "A nutritious powder made from the trunk of Zamia
inlegrifolia, and sold in the West India Markets."  In external appearance it resembles West
Indian Arrow-root (Maranta arundinacea): but when examined  by the microscope it is found
to consist of rather large-sized grains,3 some of which are spheroidal;  but most of them are the
  1 The following measurements, in parts of an English inch, of the starch of C. circinalis, were made
for me by Mr. George Jackson:—
Compound Grain's.
 0.0015 by 0.0008
 0.0013 by 0.0010
                  Single Grains.
                      0 0015
                      0.0013
                      0.0010
       Round  .....0.000R by 0.0007
                      0.0005
                      0.0004
                      0.0003
       h„^;.„k.,;»„i  1 0-W11 by 0.0009
       Hemispherical  j Q ^ fc» „M

  Those particles of which one diameteronly is given had a circular outline, and were probably muller-
sliuped grains seen endwise.

  1 Roxburgh, Fl. Indica, vol. iii. p. 749.
  ' The following measurements of 12 grains, were made for me by Mr. George Jackson :—

                     MEASUREMENTS OF STARCH FROM ZAMIA IXTEGRIFOLIA.
               Parts of an English Inch.
1.............0.0022 X 0.0021
2............0.0022 .< 0.0018
3.............0.0020 X O.OOtfl
4.............0 0018 X 0.0016
5.............0.0017 \ 0.0014
0.............U.0014 X 0.0013
                Parts of an English Inch.
 7.............0 00U X 0.0000
 8.............0 0013 X 0.0010
 9.............0.0009 X 0.0007
10.............0.0007 X 0.0006
11.............0 0004 X 0 0004
12.............0.0003 X 0.0003 
284
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Pinaceje.
separated parts of compound grains, and, therefore, are variously shaped, owing to their mutual
compression; some  being hemispheres, others muller-shaped grains, &c.   The  nucleus and
rings are scarcely discernible.   Most of  the grains present a superficial protuberant scar (like
the hilum of some seeds), the situation of which is remote from the nucleus (as ascertained by
polarized light).
  [Zamia Media.—This is an  intermediate species between Z integrifolia  and  Z angustifolia.
It differs from the former in having more  numerous, longer, and narrower leaflets, which are
perfectly entire, or nearly destitute of the serratures at the apex.   The footstalk is hairy at base,
and the female cone is obtuse, not pointed.  Specimens have been brought to me from Florid*
by Dr. Godon, of the U. S. Navy, which agree with those, from the  same locality, in the Her-
barium of the Academy of Natural Sciences.
  The root of this  plant is a large  spheroidal or somewhat  tapering coated tuber, rough and
dark-coloured externally, fleshy, internally white and succulent, and, when incised, pouring forth
a fluid of gummy consistence, which hardens in small tears at the point of exit.  This root is
called coonli root in Florida by the Indians and white settlers, and the farina prepared from it is
also called coonti.   As a nutriment, it is found in the shops of the northern cities of the United
States, under the name of Florida arrow root.  When carefully prepared, it has a mealy appear-
ance and feel, is of a pure white colour, and somewhat of a lustrous appearance ; it is apt to be
lumpy. The mode of preparation is the  same as that of Bermuda  arrow  root.  The  form of
the granule is that of the "half, fourth, or  third of a solid sphere."   Some of the granules are
completely muller-shaped, in fact the form is  exactly that given by Raspail for the granule of
the Maranta Arundinacea, which is invariably round.
   Florida arrowroot is employed  for the same purposes and in the  same manner as the other
species of farina in use.—J. C]
        Order XXII.   PINACE^E,  Lindley.—CONIFERS.

  Characters.—Flowers monascious or dioecious, naked.   Males monandrous or monadelphous;
each floret consisting of a singls stamen, or of a few united, collected in a deciduous amentum;
about a common rachis;  anthers 2-lobed or many-lobed, bursting longitudinally; often terminated
by a crest, which is an unconverted portion of the scale out of which each stamen  is formed.
Females in cones.  Ovary spread open, and having the appearance of a flat scale destitute of
style or stigma, and  arising from the axil of a membranous  bract.   Ovule naked; in pairs or
several, on the face of the  ovary, inverted, and consisting of one or two membranes, open at
the apex, together with  a  nucleus.  Fruit consisting of a cone formed of the  scale-shaped
ovaries, become enlarged and indurated, and occasionally of the bracts also, which are some-
times obliterated, and sometimes extend  beyond the  scales in the form  of a lobed appendage.
Seed with a hard crustaceous integument.  Embryo  in the midst of fleshy, oily albumen, with 2
or many opposite cotyledons; the radicle next the apex of  the seed, and  having an organic con-
nection with the albumen.—Trees or shrubs, with a branched  trunk abounding in resin.   Wood
with a ligneous tissue marked  with circular disks.  Leaves linear, acerose or lanceolate, entire
at the margins; sometimes fascicled in consequence of the non-development of the  branch to
which they belong; when fascicled, the primordial  leaf to which they are then axillary is mem-
branous, and enwraps them like a sheath.  (Lindley.)
  Properties.—Every part of coniferous plants contains  an oleo-resinous juice, which, by dis-
tillation, is resolved  into volatile  oil and resin.   The medicinal properties of this juice  have
been before noticed (see  vol. i. pp. 254-256).
   Sub-order I.  Abiete^e.
Ovules inverted; pollen oval, curved.
                       102. PINUS, DC.-THE PINE.
                             Sex. Syst. Monoecia, Monadelphia.
                                     (Oleo-resinee.)

   Botany.  Gen. Char.—Flowers monoecious.   Males :—catkins racemose, com-
pact and terminal; squamose;  the scales staminiferous at the apex.   Stamens 2;
the anthers 1-celled.   Females : catkins or cones simple, imbricated with acuminate
scales.    Ovaries 2.   Stigmas  glandular.   Scales of the cone oblong,  club-shaped,
woody;  umbilicato-angular at the apex.   Seeds [nuts, DC] in pairs, covered with 
The Pine:—its Species.—The Fir.
285
a sharp-pointed membrane.   Cotyledons digitato-partite.   Leaves 2 or many, in the
same sheath (DC. and Dubuy, Bot. Gall).—Hardy, evergreen trees.
   Species.—1.  Pinus sylvestris, Linn.; Wild Pine or Scotch Fir.—Leaves in
pairs, rigid.    Cones ovato-conical, acute; young ones stalked, recurved, as  long as
the leaves; generally in pairs.  Crest of the anthers very small.  Embryo  5-lobed
(Bot.  Gall).—Highlands of Scotland, Denmark, Norway, and other northern coun-
tries of Europe.  Flowers  in May and June.   A tall, straight, hardy, long-lived
tree, determinately-branched.  Its wood is the red or yellow deal.  It yields com-
mon turpentine, tar, and pitch.
   2. Pinus Pinaster, Aiton, Lambert; P. maritima, DC.; the Pinaster or  Cluster
Pine.—Leaves twin, very long, rigid, pungent,  furnished at the base with a reflexed
scale.   Cones  oblong-conical, obtuse, very  smooth, bright, shorter than  the leaves.
Scales bristly  (Bot. Gall.).—Southern maritime parts of Europe.  Very abundant
in the neighbourhood of Bordeaux, and between  this city and Bayonne.   It is a
much larger tree than  the Scotch Fir.   Flowers in May.  It yields Bordeaux tur-
pentine, galipot, tar, and pitch.
   3.  Pinus palustris, Lambert; the  Swamp Pine.  Leaves 3, very long.   Cones
subcylindrical, armed with sharp  prickles.  Stipules pinnatifid, ragged, persistent
(Lambert).—A very large tree, growing in dry sandy soils, from the southern  parts
of Virginia to  the Gulf of Mexico.   "Its  mean elevation is 60 or 70 feet, and the
diameter of its trunk about 15 or 18 inches for two-thirds of this height.   The leaves
are about a foot in length, of a brilliant green  colour, and united in bunches at the
ends of the  branches.   The  names by which  the tree is known in the Southern
States are longdeavcd pine, yellow pine, and pitch pine; but the first is the most
appropriate, as the last two are applied also to other species.   This tree furnishes
by far the greater proportion of turpentine, tar, &c, consumed in the United States,
or sent from this to other countries."1
   4.  Pinus T^;da, Lambert; the Frankincense Pine.—Abundant in Virginia.
Yields common turpentine, but of a less fluid quality than that which flows from the
preceding species.
   5.  Pinus Pinea, Lambert, DC.; the Stone Pine.—Grows in the south of Europe
and northern  part of Africa.  Yields the  cones called, in the shops, pignoli pines,
the seeds of which, termed pine nuts (ttitvib'sc, Diosc.; pityida, Pliny; nucleipinese
pineoli) are used as a dessert.
   G.  Pinus Pumilio, Lambert; the Mugho or Mountain Pine.—A native of the
mountains of the south of Europe.  An oleo-resin, called Hungarian balsam (BaU
xamum Uungaricum), exudes spontaneously from the extremities of the branches,
and from other  parts of the tree.  By  distillation of  the  young branches  with
water, there is obtained in Hungary an essential oil, called Krummholzbl, or oleum
tcmplinum.
   7.  Pinus Cembra, Lambert, DC.;  the Siberian Stone Pine.—The seeds, like
those of Pinus Pinea, are eaten.  By distillation the young shoots yield Carpathian
balsam 'balsamum carpathicum; b. Libani).


                      103.  ABIES, DC-THE FIR.
                          Sex. Syst. Moncecia, Monadelphia.
                                 (Oleo-resina'.)

   Botany.  Gen. Char.—Flowers  monoecious.   Males :  catkins  solitary,  not
racemose; the scales staminiferous at the apex.  Stamens two; the anthers 1-celled.
Fkmales: catkins simple.   Ovaries 2.   Stigmas glandular.   Scales of the cone
imbricated;  thin at the apex, rounded (neither  thickened, angular,  nor umbili-
cated on  the back).   Cotyledons digitato-partite.   Leaves solitary in each  sheath
(Bot.  Gall.).
1 United States Dispensatory. 
286
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Pinace^.
   Species.—1. Abies excelsa, DC; A. communis,  Hort.; Pinus Abies, Linn.;
the Norway Spruce Fir.—Leaves tetragonal.   Cones cylindrical; the scales rhom-
boid, flattened, jagged, and  bent backwards  at  the margin (Bot. Gall.)—A native
of Germany, Russia, Norway, and other parts of Europe; also of the northern parts
of Asia.   Commonly cultivated  in England.   Flowers in May and June.   A very
lofty tree, growing sometimes to the height of 150 feet.   It yields by spontaneous
exudation common frankincense (abietis  resina ; thus, L. D.),  from which is pre-
pared Burgundy pitch, D. (pix  burgundica, L. E., pix abietina).
  The leaf-buds (gemma seu turiones abietis) of this species of Abies, as well as of the Silver
Fir (Abies Picea), are used on the continent, in tbe form of decoction or beer; or, with the woods
of guaiacum and sassafras, and  juniper berries, in  the form  of tincture (tinctura pini composita,
Ph. Bor.).  They are employed in scorbutic, rheumatic, and gouty complaints.
   2. Abies Balsamea, Lindley; Pinus balsamea, Linn., Lambert; the Canadian
balsam Fir; Balm of  Gilead Fir.—Leaves solitary, flat, emarginate, subpectinate,
suberect above.   Scales of the flowering cone acuminate, reflexed.—An elegant tree,
seldom rising more than 40 feet.  Inhabits  Canada, Nova Scotia, Maine, Virginia,
and Carolina.   Yields  Canadian balsam ( Terebinthina canadensis,  L.; Balsamum
canadense, E.  D.).
   3. Abies canadensis, Lindley;1 Pinus canadensis, Linn., Lambert;  the Hem-
lock Spruce Fir.—Said to yield an oleo-resin analogous to Canada balsam.
   4. Abies Picea, Lindley; Abies pectinata, DC;  Pinus Picea, Linnaeus;  tk
Silver Fir.—Mountains of Siberia, Germany, and Switzerland.  Yields Strasburgh
turpentine.
   5. Abies nigra, Michaux;  Pinus nigra, Lambert;  the Black  Spruce Fir.—
The concentrated  aqueous decoction of the young branches is essence of spruce, used
in the preparation of spruce beer.2
   Essence of spruce (essentia abietis) is prepared by boiling the young tops of some coniferous
plant (in America, those of Abies nigra, or  black spruce, are used) in water, and  concentrating
the decoction by evaporation.  "It is a thick liquid, having the  colour  and consistence of mo-
lasses, with a bitterish, acidulous, astringent taste."3  It is  used in the preparation of spruce
beer.
   Spruce beer (cerevisia abietis) is thus  prepared:  " Take of Essence of Spruce half a pint; Pimento
(bruised), Ginger (bruised),  Hops, of each  four ounces; Water three gallons.  Boil for five or
ten minutes;  then strain, and add, of Warm Water eleven gallons; Yeast a pint; Molasses six
pints. Mix, and allow the mixture to ferment for twenty hours.''4  It is sometimes taken as an
agreeable and wholesome  drink in summer. It is diuretic  and anti scorbutic, and is, in conse-
quence, employed in long sea-voyages as a  preventive of scurvy.


     104. LARIX  EUROPCEA, DC.-THE  COMMON LARCH.
                           Sex. Syst.  Moncecia, Monadelphia.
                             (Terebinthina Veneta, L. D.)

   Botany.   Gen. Char.—Flowers monoecious.  Character as in Abies; but the
cotyledons are simple, and never  lobed.  Cones  lateral.   Leaves, when first expand-
ing, in tufted fascicles,  becoming somewhat  solitary  by the  elongation  of the new
branch (Bot. Gall.).
   Sp. Char.—Leaves fascicled,  deciduous.   Cones ovate-oblong.  Edges of scale*
reflexed, lacerated.  Bracts panduriform (Lambert).
   Hab.—Alps of Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Siberia, &c.   Cultivated in woods.
   Products.—This species yields  larch or Venice turpentine.  When the larch
forests of Russia take fire, a gum issues forth from the medullary part of the trunks,
during combustion, which is  called  Orenburgh  gum (gummi orenburgense).  A
saccharine  matter exudes from  the larch, about June,  which is  called manna of
the larch, or manna de Briangon.  Lastly, a  fungus, called Polyporus officinalis
(see ante, p. 92),  is nourished on this tree.
1 Loudon's Encyclopadia of Plants.
» Ibid.
3 United States Dispensatory.
* Ibid. 
Turpentine.
287
Medicinal  Substances obtained from the preceding Coniferous Plants.

   The term  turpentine (terebinthina) is ordinarily applied  to a liquid  or soft solid
oleo-resinous juice of certain coniferous plants, as well as of the Pistachia Terebin-
thus, a plant of the order Terebintacese, Juss.  Indeed, this last-mentioned plant,
Pistachia Terebinthus, is probably the  true Terebinthus of the ancients (Tspp.lvOo{,
Theoph. and Dioscorides). When submitted to distillation, these juices are resolved
into volatile  oil and resin.   The roots, and other  hard parts  of coniferous  trees,
yield, by a kind  of distillafio per descensum, the thick liquid  called  tar, from
which pitch is procured.  Hence it will be convenient to speak of the coniferous
terebinthinates  under four heads:  1st, the oleo-resinous juices; 2dly, the  volatile
oil obtained  therefrom by distillation; 3dly, the resinous residuum; 4thly,  tar and
pitch.

          1.  Oleo-Resinae Terebinthinae.—Terebinthinate Oleo-Resins.

   At first these oleo-resins are liquid, but  by age and exposure to the air they be-
come, more or less speedily in the different varieties, solid, partly by the volatiliza-
' tion, and partly by the resinification of the volatile oil.  They have a certain general
similarity in  taste and odour.   They soften and become very fluid by heat, readily
take fire in the air, and burn with a white flame, and, if the supply of air be  limited,
with the copious deposition of finely-divided carbon (lamp black).   They are almost
completely soluble  in  alcohol and ether;  and yield, by distillation,  a volatile oil
and a resinous  residuum.  It must not be inferred  that  the  identical volatile oil
and resin into which  these oleo-resins  are resolved by distillation pre-exist in the
juices which  yield  them; for in  some cases it  is certain  they do not, but  are pro-
ducts, not educts, as I have elsewhere1 shown.  Thus balsam  of Canada possesses
 the property of right-handed  circular polarization; and, by  distillation, yields  a
volatile  oil and a residual resin,  both of which  enjoy the  power of left-handed  cir-
cular polarization.   It is obvious, therefore, that  during distillation some molecular
 change  must have been effected in the proximate principles of the balsam.  Ameri-
 can turpentine, on the other hand, possesses the power of left-handed circular polariza-
 tion ; but, by distillation, yields a volatile oil (oil of turpentine of English commerce)
 which produces right-handed polarization.
    Water acquires a terebinthinate flavour when  digested with them; and by the
 aid of the yolk or  the white of an egg, or, still better, by that of vegetable mucilage,
 forms an emulsion  with them.
    1. Common Turpentine (Terebinthina vulgaris).—Under this name we find
 oleo-resins brought from various parts of the world, obtained from different species
of Pinus, and, though agreeing in the main  in their properties, possessing certain
distinctive characters.   At the  present time, the London market is  almost exclu-
sively supplied from  the United States of America, a small quantity only being
occasionally imported from Bordeaux.
   o. American or  White Turpentine,  Terebinthina Americana, L. (the  TSrSbenthine
d< Boston of the French) "is procured chiefly from the Pinus palustris, partly, also,
from the Pinus Taeda, and  perhaps some other species  inhabiting  the Southern
States.  In  former times, large  quantities were collected in New England:  but the
turpentine trees of that  section  of the Union are said to be nearly exhausted • and
our commerce is almost  exclusively supplied from North  Carolina  and the south-
eastern parts of  A'irginia."9
   The method of procuring  this turpentine is as  follows: A  hollow is cut in the
tree, a few inches from the ground, and the  bark removed for the space of  about
1 Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. v. p. 67, 1815.
1 United States Dispensatory. 
288                VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Pinace^e.
 18 inches above it.   The turpentine runs into these excavations from about March
 to October; more rapidly, of course, during the warmer months.  It is transferred
 from these hollows into casks *
   It is imported from New York in casks;  those from North  Carolina  holding 2
 cwts., while  those from South Carolina contain 2j cwts.   It  is yellowish-white,
 with an aromatic odour, and a warm, pungent, bitterish taste.   It is translucent or
 opake.  Its consistence varies, being semifluid, or,  in  cold weather, that of a soft
 solid.  It contains various impurities (leaves, twigs,  chips, &c).  That got from the
 first tappings is the best, and  is called  virgin turpentine.   Recent American tur-
 pentine is said3 to yield  17 per cent, of essential oil.
   This sort of turpentine possesses the property of left-handed circular polarization;
 but it yields by distillation a volatile oil having right-handed polarization.
   American  turpentine is melted and strained, and  in this state it is sometimes
 called refined turpentine.
   Old and concrete American  turpentine  is sometimes sold for frankincense (thus
 vel abietis resina).
   p. Bordeaux Turpentine is  obtained  by  making incisions in the Pinus Pinaster,
 Lambert (P. maritima, DC), and  collecting the turpentine in hollows at the foot
 of the tree.  Every month these hollows are emptied, and the oleo-resin conveyed
 in pails to a reservoir.   In  this state  it is called soft gum (gomme molle).  It is
 purified either by  heating  it  in large boilers, and  filtering through straw (tSriben-
 thine galipot), or by exposing it in a barrel, the bottom of which is perforated by
 holes, to the  sun;  the liquid which drains through is  called  tdrdbenthine au soleil.
 The last method yields the best product, since less volatile oil  is dissipated by it.'
 The turpentine which flows during the winter is called galipot in Provence, barrat
 in Guienne.  It is in the form of semi-opake, solid,  dry crusts of a yellowish-white
 colour, a terebinthinate odour, and a bitter taste.4
   Bordeaux turpentine is whitish, thickish,  and turbid.   It has a disagreeable odour,
 and an acrid, bitter, nauseous taste.  On standing, it separates into two parts: one
 thinner, yellow, and almost transparent; another  thicker, whitish, and of the con-
 sistence of thick honey, having a granular consistence.   Bordeaux turpentine readily
 becomes hard and dry by exposure to  the air.   It possesses the  property of left-
 handed circular polarization;  and yields by distillation an oil which also has left-
 handed polarization.   It enjoys, with balsam of copaiva, the property of solidifying
 with magnesia,  and in this respect is distinguished from Strasburgh turpentine.
   Common turpentine  has been  analyzed  by MM. Moringlane, Duponchel, and
 Bonastre,5 and  by Unverdorben.8  The last-mentioned chemist  found  it to consist
 of two volatile oils (oil of  turpentine), pinic acid, a little sylvic acid, a trace of an
 indifferent resin not  soluble in oil of petroleum, and a small  quantity of bitter ex-
 tractive.   The quantity of volatile oil varies from 5  to 25 per cent, of the weight
 of the turpentine.   Laurent has discovered in Bordeaux turpentine a resinous acid,
pimaric acid, isomeric with pinic acid.
   2.  Larch or Venice Turpentine (Terebinthina veneta;  Terebinthina laricea).
 Obtained from Larix Europoea, DC, by boring the trunks of the trees, and adapt-
 ing to each hole a wooden gutter, which conveys the juice into a tub or trough, from
 which it is afterwards withdrawn for filtration.7
   Through the kindness of Professor Guibourt I have received an authentic sample
 of larch turpentine.   It was  collected in the wood of the Bishop of Maurienne, in
 Savoy, by order of the bishop, and at the urgent solicitation  of  M. Bonjean, pbar-
 macien, naturalist  of  Chambery.  The same kind of turpentine, collected in Swit-

  1 Michaux, N. Am. Sylv. iii.; Way, Trans, of the Society of Arts, vol. xxviii. p. 89; Dithamel, Traiti
des Arbres, t. ii. p. 146,  Paris. 1755.
  2 United States Dispensatory.
  3 Guibourt, Hist des  Drog. t. ii. p. 578; Duhamel, Traiti des Arlres, t. ii. p. 147.
  4 Guibourt, op. cit.                                      » Journ. de Pharm. t. viii- P- 389.
  8 Berzelius, Traiti de Chim.; and Gmelin, Handb. de Chem.
  1 Duhamel, Traiti des Arbres, t. i. p. 335. 
Venice Turpentine; Canadian Turpentine.
289
zerland (Swiss turpentine)1 is sold in Paris as Strasburg turpentine (Tlrlbenthe de
Strasbourg),3 and was formerly called Venice turpentine.  It is a thick and  con-
sistent fluid, flowing with difficulty, is sometimes transparent, but more frequently
cloudy, has a yellow or  greenish-yellow  tint, an odour which is peculiar, not  very
agreeable, weaker than  that of either Strasburg or common turpentine, but less
disagreeable than the latter, and  an acrid,  very bitter  taste.   It has  little or  no
tendency to  concrete by keeping—a  property known to Pliny,3 and which distin-
guishes it from common turpentine.
  A factitious substance (terebinthina veneta factitia) is sold by London druggists
for Venice turpentine.   It is prepared  by melting together oil of turpentine and
black rosin.   A  similar preparation is found in the shops of the United States of
America,4  and is probably identical with that imported  from  America under the
name of Venice turpentine.5
  Berzelius and  Unverdorben8 have submitted Venice turpentine to examination,
and with the following results:—
            Berzelius's Analysis.
1. Oil of turpentine, probably composed of two oils.
2. Resin insoluble in cold oil of petroleum.
3. Resin soluble in cold oil of petroleum.
Old Venice Turpentine.
           Unverdorben's Analysis.
1. Volatile oil, which readily distils.
2. Volatile oil, which distils less readily, and has a
     tendency to resinify.
3. Succinic acid  (small quantity).
4. Much pinic acid
5. A little sylvic acid.
6. Indifferent resin, insoluble in oil of petroleum.
7. Bitter extractive.
Fresh Venice Turpentine.
  Larch resin yields, according to Berzelius,7 from 18 to 25 per cent, (according to
Guibourt only 15 to 24 per cent.) of volatile oil which possesses the power of left-
handed circular  polarization.   Its odour is citron-like, and on this  account the oil
might  be substituted for essence of lemons in the preparation of  scouring drops.
Its  sp. gr.  is 0.863.
  3. Strasburg  Turpentine  (Terebinthina  argentoratensis;  TMbenthine au
citron, ou  Tidbenthine d'Alsace, Guib.)—This is obtained from Abies Picea.   The
peasantry, in the vicinity of the Alps, collect it by puncturing the vesicles adhering
to the  bark with  sharp-pointed hooks, and  receiving  the  juice in  a bottle.   It is
afterwards filtered through a rude kind of bark funnel.8
   Strasburg turpentine is very fluid, transparent, of  a yellowish colour, has a very
agreeable odour of citron, and a taste moderately acrid and bitter.   It consists, accord-
ing to Caillot,8of volatile oil 33.5, resin insoluble  in alcohol 6.20, abietin (a crystal-
lizable resin) 10.85,  abictic acid (? pinic and sylvic acids) 46.39, extractive and
succinic acid 0.85, loss (principally volatile oil) 2.21.
   4.  Canadian  Turpentine, or Canada Balsam (Terebinthina canadensis;  Bal-
samum canadcnse), is obtained  from Abies balsamea in  Canada and  the State of
Maine.  Between the bark  and the wood of the trunks and branches of these trees
are vesicles containing this oleo-resin, which exudes when  they are  broken, and is
received in a bottle.   It is imported in casks containing each about one cwt.   When
fresh it has the consistence  of thin honey, but by age gradually solidifies:  it is yel-
low, transparent,  very tenacious, of a peculiar and agreeable terebinthinate odour
and of a slightly bitter, somewhat acrid, taste.   Like  Bordeaux turpentine, it solidi-
fies when mixed with a sixth of its weight of calcined magnesia.   It is imperfectly
soluble in alcohol.
  Canada  balsam  has been analyzed  by Bonastre,10 who obtained the following
1 Guib. MSS.
s Idem. Hist, des Drag. 3me ed. t. ii. p. 577.
• HiJl. fiat, lib. xvi. cap. 19, ed. Valp              * United States Dispensatory.
» Dr. Maton, in Lambert's Description of the Genus Pinus; and Dr. A. T. Thomson, London Dis-
pensatory.
 * Berzelius, Traiti de Chim. t. v. p. 477; and Gmelin, Hand. d. Chim.
 1 Ucrzt lius, op. cit.
' Diihinncl. Traiti des Arbres, t. i. p. 9.
w Journ. de Pharm. viii. 337*.
      VOL. II.—i\)
' Journ. de Pharm. xvi. p. 436. 
290
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Pinaceje.
results:  volatile  oil  18.6, resin easily soluble  in alcohol 40.0, subresin difficultly
soluble 33.4, fibrous caoutchouc, like subresin, 4.0, acetic  acid traces, bitter ex-
tractive and salts 4.0.
   Balsam of  Canada possesses the property of  right-handed circular polarization;
but both  the oil  and resin, into which it is resolved by distillation, have left-handed
polarization.1
   Canada balsam is used by varnish-makers, by opticians as a cement, and by micro-
scopists as a medium for mounting objects in.
   The great value of Canada balsam for optical purposes depends on its transparency and its
refractive  power, which is nearly equal  to that of glass.  When  used to connect the pieces of
an achromatic lens, it prevents the to*s of light by reflexion, and excludes moisture and other
foreign bodies from the space between  the surfaces of the glasses.  In  Nicol's  prisms (single
image prisms of Iceland spar), it serves the important purpose of transmitting the ordinary ray)
and of interrupting the passage of  the extraordinary one; its index of refraction  being interme-
diate between that of Iceland spar for the ordinary ray and that of the same substance for the
extraordinary ray.   The following table  of indices of refraction serves to illustrate the preceding
statements:—
                       Indices of Refraction.                         Indices of Refrattiim.
  Canada balsam..........1.528 to 1.549     Flint glass.............1.570 to 1,648
  Plate gliiss.............1.5(10 to 1.550     Iceland spar, ordinary ray  ....       1.651
  Crown glass............1.525 to 1.544     Iceland spar, extraordinary ray .       1.483

   5.  Common Frankincense (Abietis  resina;  Thus).—This  is the  spontaneous
exudation of Abies excelsa.   I  am indebted for an authentic sample of this oleoresin
to Mr. Daniel Hanbury, who collected it, in the autumn of 1849, from the A. excelsa,
in Switzerland.   It is a soft solid, glistening  in  places, as if covered with a film of
water.   Its colour is not uniform:  it is whitish, yellowish,  pinkish, or pale violet
red, and dark in different portions.   The pinkish or violet red or peach-blossom hue
seems to  have been produced by exposure of  the resin to the air and light, and in
this circumstance resembles  the peach-blossom red colour which assafetida acquires
under similar circumstances.   It is probable, however,  that  this tint is not perma-
nent.  Its odour  is not disagreeable, but is somewhat like that of Strasburg turpentine.
Guibourt says it is analogous to  that of castoreum.   The  taste is balsamic, und
without any bitterness.
   When  melted in water, and  strained through a coarse cloth,  it forms Burgundy
pitch (pix abietina vel burgundica ; poixjaune ou blanche).   An authentic sample,
prepared  by Mr. D.  Hanbury from thus collected by himself, is of an opake whitish-
yellow colour, somewhat resembling emplastrum plumbi.
   The substance sold as common frankincense in the London shops is usually con-
crete American  turpentine; and most of the so-called Burgundy  pitch found in
commerce is a fictitious article.
   Common frankincense or thus has been analyzed by Caillot,2  who obtained the
following results:  volatile oil 32.00, resin insoluble  in  alcohol 7.40, abietin (a
crystallizable resin)  11.47, abietic acid (? pinic  and sylvic acids) 45.37, extractive
and succinic acid 1.22, loss (principally volatile  oil) 2.54.
   Physiological Effects.—The effects of terebinthinate substances have been
before noticed (see vol. i. p. 254).   Locally they operate as irritants.   Applied to
the skin they cause  rubefaction, and  sometimes a vesicular  eruption.  Swallowed
they  give rise to a sensation of warmth at  the stomach, in large doses occasion sick-
ness, and promote the peristaltic movement of the intestines.   After their absorption
they  operate on  the  general system as stimulants,  and excite the vascular system,
especially of the abdominal and pelvic viscera.   Their influence is principally directed
to the secreting  organs, more especially to the mucous  membranes and the urinary
apparatus.   They act as diuretics, and  communicate  a violet odour to the urine.
This  odour depends on a portion of the oil having undergone a slight  change in its
nature during its passage through the system.   Part of the oil, however, is thrown
1 Sec a paper by the author, in the Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. v. p. 67, 1915.
1 Journ. de Pharm. t. xvi. p. 436. 
Turpentines:—Uses;  Administration.
291
off unchanged; for Moiroud1 has observed that, at the same time that the turpentines
cause a violet odour, they flow in part with the urine.   "I have verified," says he,
" this double phenomenon on many horses, to whom turpentine  has been given, for
some days, in  the enormous dose of ten or  twelve ounces."   But the kidneys are
not the only parts engaged in getting  rid  of the  absorbed  turpentine.  All the
secreting organs,  but  more especially the bronchial surfaces and the skin, are occu-
pied in tbe same way.   By these the oil  is exhaled  apparently  unchanged, or at
least with  its usual odour.  During  the circulation of the  terebinthinate  particles
in the system, they  exercise  a local iufluence over the capillaries and secerning
vessels, in  the vital activity of which they effect a change.   In certain morbid con-
ditions, this change is of a most salutary nature.  In  catarrhal  affections  of the
mucous membranes the secerning vessels become constringed under the use of tere-
binthinates, and the discharge is, in consequence, checked.
  The most important, because by far the most active, constituent of the terebin-
thinate oleo-resins is volatile oil.   Hence their effects are almost identical with those
of the  latter, and will be noticed hereafter (see p. 1193).   Some  slight  differences,
however, are to be noticed.  They are  less  rapidly absorbed, are  more  permanent
in their operation, confine their influence principally to the apparatus of organic life,
not affecting, at least to the same extent, the brain, and act less powerfully  on the
cutaneous  system.
   We have few data  on which to rely in judging of the comparative influence of the
different terebinthinates; but. as their most active constituent is volatile oil, we may
fairly  infer that those which possess the greatest liquidity, and which, in  conse-
quence, contain  the  largest quantity of oil, are the most  powerful  preparations.
 Venice and Strasburg  turpentines  stand  in this respect pre-eminent.   Canada
balsam is valuable on account of its purity and agreeable  flavour.   In activity,
purity, and flavour, common turpentine holds the  lowest rank.
   Uses.—The terebinthinate oleo-resins are, with  some exceptions, applicable for
the same purposes as  the volatile oil.  The following are the principal cases in which
they are employed:—
   1.  In mucous discharges from the urino-genital organs;  as gonorrhoea,  gleet.
leucorrhcea, and chronic cystirrhoea.
   2.  In chronic  catarrh, both  mucous and piluitous,  occurring in old persons of a
lax fibre and lymphatic temperament.
   3.  In chronic  mucous diarrhoea, especially when  accompanied with  ulceration of
the mucous follicles.
   4.  In colic and other cases of obstinate  constipation, Cullen8 found a turpentine
emulsion  used as a clyster " one of the most certain laxatives."
   5.  In chronic  rheumatism, especially sciatica and lumbago, the turpentines are
occasionally used.
   6.  As detergents and digestives they have been sometimes applied to indolent and
ill-conditioned ulcers.
   Administration.—The dose of the terebinthinate oleo-resins  is from a scruple
to a drachm.  They are given in the form of pill, emulsion, or electuary.   To com-
municate to the softer kinds a consistence fit  for making pills, liquorice powder may
be added to them.  Bordeaux turpentine and balsam of Canada, mixed with about
one twenty-eighth part of their own weight of calcined magnesia,  solidify in  about
twelve hours;  the acid resins combine with the magnesia, and form solid resinates
which  absorb the volatile oil.  A turpentine  emulsion is made with the yolk of egg
or mucilage of gum Arabic, sugar, and some  aromatic water.   To form an electuary
the turpentine is mixed with sugar or honey.  An emulsion, containing from half
an ounce to an ounce  of  turpentine, may be used as  a clyster,  in obstinate constipa-
tion, a-scarides, &c.
1 Pharmacol.-Vitirin p. 312.
J Treat, of the Mat. Med. 
292                VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Pinace*:.

  The terebinthinate oleo-resins yield several officinal  substances, and enter into
several preparations:—
  1. Tehebinthina vulgaris yields Oleum Terebinthina and Resina; and enters into the com-
      position of Emplastrum Galbani, L., and Unguentum Elemi, L.
  2. Terf.bintiuna veneta  is a constituent of Emplastrum Cantharidis compositum, E, and
       Unguentum Infusi Cantharidis, E.
  3. Abietis Resina; Tbcs. yields Pix Burgundica, L. E. D.; and enters into the composition
      of Emplastrum Galbani, L., Emplastrum Opii, L., Emplastrum Picis, L., Emplastrum Cab-
      faciens, D., Emplastrum Ferri, L. D., and Emplastrum Cumini, L.

                2. Oleum Terebinthinae, E. D.—OU of Turpentine.

  This essential oil is frequently, though  erroneously,  called spirits or essence of
turpentine.
  Preparation.—It is obtained by submitting to distillation a mixture of American
turpentine (which has been melted  and strained) and water  in due proportions, in
the ordinary copper still, with  a naked  fire.   The distilled product is found to consist
of oil of turpentine swimming on water; the residue in the  still  is  resin.  If no
water be employed, a much higher temperature  is required to  effect the distillation,
and danger  is thereby incurred of causing empyreuma.  Mr. Flockton, a large
distiller of turpentine in this metropolis, informs me that the average quantity of oil
yielded by American  turpentine is from 14 to 16  per cent.   He also tells me that
Bordeaux turpentine yields an oil having a more disagreeeble odour, and a rosin of
inferior quality.
  To deprive it of all traces of  resinous and acid matters, oil of turpentine should
be redistilled from a solution  of potash, and this is actually done, as Mr. Flockton
informs me.   The British Colleges,  however, direct  it to be purified by distillation
with water only.
  The directions of the Edinburgh College for the preparation  of Rectified Oil of Turpentine
(Oleum Terebinthina purificatum, E.), areas  follows:—
  Take of Oil of Turpentine  Oj;  Water Oiv.  Distil as long as oil comes over with the water.
  The London College gives no directions for the rectification of the oil; but places
the  rectified oil (oleum e lerebintho destillatum,  rectificatum, L.).
  Properties.—Pure oil of turpentine  is  a colourless, limpid,  very  inflammable
fluid.  It has a peculiar,  and, to most persons, disagreeable odour, and a hot taste.
When pure, it is neutral to test  paper.  Its  sp. gr. is 0.86 at about 70° F.  It boils
at about 314°  F.; the density of its vapour is  4.76 (Dumas).  It is very slightly
soluble in hydrated alcohol; but 100  parts of alcohol, of sp.  gr. 0.840, dissolve 13
or 14 parts of it, and absolute alcohol takes up a still larger proportion.   The oil is
also soluble  in ether.   Exposed  to  the  air, it absorbs oxygen,  becomes yellowish,
and somewhat  denser, owing to the  formation of  resin (pinic and sylvic acids).
This resinification is accompanied with the production of a small quantity of formic
acid.
   Oil of turpentine enjoys the  power of rotating the ray of  plane-polarized light;
but the direction of rotation  is different in  the English and French  oils—in th«
former being right-handed, in the latter left-handed. 
Oil of Turpentine:—its Properties.
293
    Plan of the apparatus for showing the circular polarization of oil of
                             turpentine.
a. A ray of common or unpolarized  light.
b. A glass  reflector, placed at an angle  of 56°.45, for effecting the plane-
    polarization of the light.
c. The reflected plane-polarized ray.
d. The oil of turpentine, which effects the  double  refraction and rotation
    of the  plane-polarized light.
e. The emergent circularly-polarized light.
/. The analyzer (a double refracting  rhomb  of calcareous spar), which
    produces two-coloured images: one caused by ordinary refraction, and
    called the  ordinary image (o) ; the  other  by extraordinary refraction,
,   and termed the extraordinary image (x).
g. A lens employed to produce well-defined images.

   When the  eye is applied to the aperture above or  in front of the lens g'
two circular disks of coloured light (Fig. 281) are  perceived; one (o) the

                              Fig. 281.
                  Ordinary and extraordinary images.

ordinary, the  other (x) the extraordinary image.  The colours of these
images are complementary to each  other.  By rotating the analyzer (/)
on its axis, the extraordinary image  (x) revolves around the  ordinary
image (o) ; each image undergoing  a succession of changes of colour; the
sequence of colours being different for the English and French oils of  tur-
pentine.
Fig. 280.
3s;:^0

Sequence of Colours for Oil of Turpentine as obtained by the right-handed
                         Rotation of the Analyzer.
          English Oil of Turpentine.
(Obtained from American turpentine, the produce of
         Pinus palustris and P. tatda.)
Ordinary Image.         Extraordinary Image.
     Red..............   Green.
     Orange............   Blue.
     ^■ow............JVfiK?:
     Green  ............   Red.
     Blue.............   Orange.
     viffij...........   ™°-
     Red..............   Green.
          French Oil of Turpentine.
(Obtained from Bordeaux turpentine, the produce of
              Pinus Pinaster.)
Ordinary Image.         Extraordinary Image.
     Red..............   Green.
     Violet)                   ,r ,,
     Indigo*...........   Yellow.
     Blue.............   Orange.
     Green.............   Red.
     Yellow . . . •.......\ Vi"let"
                             ( Indigo.
     Orange...........   Blue.
     Red..............  Green.
   Moreover, the degree of rotatory power is not uniform.
   English  oil of turpentine (obtained  by distillation with water from American
turpentine) is remarkable  for its  comparatively feeble  odour.   A  sample of  oil
whose sp. gr. was 0.863, had a molecular power of right-handed rotation of  18.5
to 18.7.
   French oil of turpentine (obtained by distillation from Bordeaux turpentine) enjoys
the power of  left-handed rotation; the  intensity of which, however, is  subject to
some  variation, as the following table shows:—
                                                        Sp. Gr.
Unrectified oil..............................0.880(5
I'imt product of the rectification with water.............0 8736
Latter product of the rectification with water.............0ba9
Oil rectified without water......................U 873
Oil rectified without water preserved 10 years with potash.....0.87
  Left-handed
Rotatory Power.
. .  . 28.83
. .  . 31.657
. .  . 22.327
. .  . 32.23
. .  . 33.95 
294
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Pinace^b.
  It is obvious, therefore, that the molecular constitution of oil of turpentine is not
constant.
  Bouchardat found that the unrectified oil was an imperfect solvent of caoutchouc;
and  the oil rectified without water a better  one.  But the same oil distilled from
bricks was pyrogenous, had a slight lemon-yellow colour, a sp. gr. of 0.84'22, a rota-
tory power of only 8°.68, and a much increased power of dissolving caoutchouc.
  Rectified oil  of turpentine is sold in the shops under the name of camphenc, for
burnino- in lamps.  When it has become resinified by exposure to the air, it is unfit
for the purposes of illumination, and requires to be rectified from carbonate of potash,
or some similarly active substance, to deprive it of resin.
  The sweet oil of turpentine or sweet spirits of turpentine—sold in the shops for "painting without
smell''—does not appear  to differ from the rectified oil of turpentine of English commerce.
  The common or unrectified oil of turpentine,  sold in the shops under the name of
turps, contains resin, and is, in consequence, denser and more viscid than camphene.
Its sp. gr. varies from 0.87 to 0.884.
   Oil of turpentine is composed of
                                         Atoms.         Eq. Wt.          Per Cent.
     Carbon........................20.........120.........88.23
     Hydrogen.......................16......... 16.........11.76
             Oil of Turpentine............ 1.........136.........99.99

   Hydrates  of oil of turpentine.—Four hydrates of  oil of turpentine  are known.
When the commercial oil is exposed to an intense cold, crystals  either of the binhy-
drate C20!!16, 2110, or of the hexahydrate C20H1G,6IIO, are deposited.   The latter
forms large prismatic  crystals, which, at a temperature of about 217 J° F., became
converted into the quadhydrate O'H^HO.   The monohydrate, (MI^HO, is a
liquid which List calls terpinol.
   Hydrochlorate of oil of  turpentine; Artificial Camphor.—When hydrochloric
acid is passed into oil of turpentine, surrounded by  ice, two compounds  are obtained
—one solid, called solid or Kind's artificial camphor;  the other fluid,  and  termed
liquid artificial camphor, terebene, or terebylene.
   Solid  artificial camphor, CajIIt8,HCl, is  white, transparent,  lighter  than water,
and has a camphoraceous taste.   It is neutral to test  paper, fuses at  a  temperature
above the boiling point of water, and is volatilizable  usually with the  evolution of
hydrochloric acid.  It burns in the air with a  greenish sooty flame ; and when the
flame is blown out, evolves a vapour which has a terebinthinate  odour.  Distilled
with lime, it yields chloride of calcium, water,  and  a volatile  oil called camphilene,
which is isomeric with  oil of turpentine, but  has no rotatory power in relation to
polarized light.
   The quantity of solid artificial camphor yielded by oil of turpentine depends  on
the sort of oil employed.   From Thenard's experiments, it would appear that French
 oil of turpentine yields the largest produce.
   Artificial camphor  does  not produce the lesion of the nervous system which is
 caused by ordinary camphor.   Orfila found  that half an ounce of it,  dissolved in
 olive oil, and given to a dog, caused merely a few small ulcers in  the mucous mem-
 brane of the stomach.
   Characteristics of Oil op Turpentine.—As  a volatile  oil, it is recognized
 by its combustibility, its burning with a  very sooty flame, its almost insolubility in
 water, its solubility in alcohol and in ether, its volatility, and its  evaporating without
 leaving any greasy stain on paper.
    It is  sometimes used to adulterate other more costly volatile oils; and it may then
 be detected by one or more of the following characters :  1st, its remarkable odour;
 2dly, its rotatory power in  relation  to polarized light;  3dly, its being only very
 slightly soluble in diluted spirit;  4thly, its ready admixture with, and  solubility in,
 the fixed oils; 5thly, its not being able to dissolve,in the cold, santaline (thecolour-
 ing  principle  of the wood of Plerocarpus santalinus), whereas some  of the other 
Oil of Turpentine:—Physiological Effects.            295
volatile oils (as oil of lavender) do dissolve it; 6thly, by the violent action of both
chlorine and iodine on it.
  Physiological Effects,   o.  On  Vegetables.—Plants exposed to the vapour of
this oil are rapidly destroyed.1
  0.  On Animals.—On both vertebrated  and invertebrated animals it operates as
a poison.  Injected into the veins of horses and dogs it excites pneumonia.*  Two
drachms thrown into the veins of a horse caused trembling, reeling, falling, inclina-
tion  to pass urine and stools, and frequent micturition.  Inflammatory fever, with
cough, continued  to the 8th day; then putrid  fever appeared.   On the 9th day
death took place.   The body presented all the signs of putrid fever and pneumonia
(Hertwich).   Schubarth3 found that two drachms of the rectified oil, given to a dog,
caused tetanus, failure of the pulse and breathing, and death in three minutes. The
Bkin of the horse is very sensible to the influence of oil of turpentine, which produces
acute pain.   "It is a remarkable circumstance," says Moiroud,4 " that  this pain is
not accompanied with any considerable hyperaemia.  It is quickly produced, but is
of short duration."  Oil of turpentine is sometimes employed  by veterinarians as a
blister, but it is inferior to cantharides, and, if frequently applied, is apt to blemish
(i. e., to cause the hair of the part to fall off).  In  doses of three ounces it is a most
valuable antispasmodic in the colic of horses.5  In small doses it acts as a diuretic.
Tiedemann and Gmelin8 detected oil of turpentine in the chyle of a dog and a horse,
to whom  this agent had been given.
   y.  On  Man.—In small doses (as  six or eight drops  to f5j) it creates a sensation
of warmth in the stomach and bowels, becomes absorbed, circulates  with the blood,
and in this way affects the capillary vessels, and is thrown out of the system by the
different excretories, on the secerning  vessels of which it acts in its passage through
them.  The  exhalations of the skin  and  bronchial  membranes  acquire a  marked
terebinthinate odour, while the urine obtains the smell of violets.   By its influence
on the renal vessels it proves diuretic.   By the same kind of local influence on  the
cutaneous vessels it proves sudorific.   It  appears  to have a constringing effect on
the capillary vessels of the mucous membranes, for, under its use, catarrhal affections
of, and hemorrhages from, these  parts are frequently checked, and  often are com-
pletely stopped.  Its  continued  use sometimes  brings on irritation of the  urinary
 organs, or when this state pre-existed, it is often aggravated by the use of turpentine.
   In a medium dose (f3j or f3ij) its effects are not constant.   Dr. Ed. Percival7  saw
 two drachms given without any unpleasant effect being produced either on the diges-
 tive  or  urinary organs; they  acted as an agreeable stomachic, and promoted  the
 catamcnia.    Mr. Stedman,8on the other hand, has seen this dose produce strangury,
 bloody urine, suppression of this  secretion, fever, thirst,  and vomiting.   These  two
cases, however, may be regarded as  the opposite extremes; and, in general,  we may
expect, from  a medium dose, a feeling of heat in the stomach and bowels, accelerated
peristaltic motion, increased frequency of pulse, diaphoresis, diuresis, and sometimes
irritation of the urinary organs.   Occasionally it provokes the catamenia.
   In a large or maximum dose (f$iv to fjij) its effects are not constant.  It usually
causes a  sensation of  abdominal  heat, sometimes nauseates, and in general operates
as a tolerably  active purgative, without  causing  any  unpleasant effects.   I have
administered from one to two fluidounces  in a considerable number of cases of tape-
 worm, and haw rarely seen any  ill consequences therefrom.  " It has been given,"
says Dr. Duncan,9 "even  to  the extent  of four ounces in one dose, without  any
 perceptible bad effects, and scarcely more  inconvenience  than  would follow  from an
equal quantity of gin."   Cases  are  reported,  however, in which  it has  failed to
' De Cnndollr, Phys. Vig. p. 1347.
a Ucrtwicli and Guspard, quoted by Wibmer, Wirk. d. Arzn. u. Gifte. Bd. iv. p. 212.
* Wibmer, op. cit.                            * Pharm.- Vilir. p. 314.
' Youatt, The Horse, in Library of Useful Knowledge.
* Versuch u. d. Wege auf welch. Subst. ins Blut gelang.
' Ed. Med. and Surg. Journ. v.ol. ix.              » Edinb. Med. Essays, vol. ii. p. 42.
 Edinb. Difjunsatory. 
296
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Pinace*:.
 produce purging, and in such it has acted most violently on the system, accelerating
 the pulse, depressing  the muscular power, and giving rise to a disordered state of
 the intellectual functions, which several persons have compared to intoxication.  A
 remarkable  and well-detailed instance of this occurred in the person of Dr. Copland'
 who refers the disorder of the cerebral functions, in his case, to diminished ciroula-
 tion of blood  in the  brain;  while the gastric heat, &c., he ascribes  to increased
 vascular activity in the abdominal region.  The oil passed off most rapidly by the
 skin and  lungs (principally by  the  latter), and the air of the apartment became
 strongly impregnated with its effluvia.  In some cases it causes sleepiness,  l'urkinje1
 experienced this effect from one drachm of the oil.   Dr. Duncan has sometimes seen
 it produce "a kind of trance, lasting twenty-four hours, without, however, any sub-
 sequent bad effect."   The same  writer adds,  " the largest dose  L have known given
 has been three ounces, and without injury."   A scarlet eruption  is mentioned by
 Wibmer as being produced in one case by an ounce of the oil.
   Uses.—The following are the principal uses of the oil of turpentine:—
   1. As an anthelmintic.—It is the most effectual remedy for tape-worm we possess.
 It both causes the  death of, and expels  the parasite from the body.   To adults it
 should be given in doses of an ounce at least.   I  have frequently administered an
 ounce and a  half, and sometimes  two ounces.  Occasionally,  as in  Dr. Copland's
 case, it fails  to  purge, but  becoming absorbed, operates most  severely  on the
 system, causing disorder of the cerebral functions.    It is said to be more apt to act
 thus in persons of  a  full and plethoric habit.  To prevent these ill consequences,
 an oleaginous purgative should be either conjoined with it, or given at an interval
 of four or five hours after it.   An excellent and safe method of employing it is to
 combine it with a castor-oil emulsion.   Chaberl's  empyreumatic oil (described at
 vol. i. p. 263) used by Bremser3 against tape-worm, consists principally of oil of tur-
 pentine.  A very effectual remedy for  the small thread-worm (Ascaris vermicukrit)
 is the turpentine enema.
  ^ 2. In blennorrhoea.—Oil of turpentine sometimes checks or  stops profuse chronic
 discharges from the mucous membranes.   It appears  to effect this by a topical in-
 fluence  over the capillary and secerning vessels, in its passage through  them out of
 the system.^   In many cases, it would appear to confine its operation to the produc-
 tion of an increase of  tonicity in the vessels which  pour out mucus; but in other
 instances, especially in  blennorrhoea  of the urinary apparatus, it seems to set up a
 new kind of irritation  in the affected  membrane, which  supersedes the previously
 existing disease.   Hence its  use is  not admissible in acute or recent affections of
 these tissues.  In gonorrhoea and gleet I have frequently employed it as a substitute
 for balsam of  copaiba with success.   In leucorrhoea it has occasionally proved ser-
 viceable.  In catarrhus vesicae or cystirrhoea, it now and then acts beneficially; but
 it requires to be used in small doses and with great caution.  In chronic pulmonary
 catarrh, either mucous or pituitous, it is said to have been employed with advantage.
 In  chronic  diarrhoea and dysentery it has proved advantageous: in these cas.es it
 has a direct local action on  the affected part, besides exerting its influence over this
 in common with other mucous membranes after its absorption.
   3.  In hemorrhages.—In sanguineous  exhalations, called hemorrhages, from the
 mucous surfaces, oil of turpentine may, under some circumstances, act efficaciously.
 On the same principle that it checks excessive secretion of mucus in catarrhal con-
 ditions of these tissues, so we  can readily conceive  it  may stop  the  exhalation of
 blood.  But  it is only admissible in  cases of a passive or atonic character, in the
absence of plethora and a phlogistic diathesis.4   In purpura  haemorrhagica it has
been recommended as a purgative, by Dr. Whitlock Nichol/ Dr.  Magee,8and others.

 ! *r1>nd. Med. and Phys. Journ vol xlvi. p. 107.            > Quoted by Wibmer, Wirk. d. Arzn.
 5 Traiti sur les Vers Infest, p. 488.                                       '
 * Adair, Med. Facts and Observ. vol. iv. p. 25;  Copland, Lond. and Med. Phys. Journ. vol. xlvi. p. M-
 » Ed. Med. and Surg. Journ. vol. xviii. p. 510.             « Ibid. vol. xxiv. p 307 
Oil of Turpentine :—its Uses.
297
I have seen  it act injuriously in this disease, while blood-letting has  seemed  to
relieve.
  4. In puerperal fever.—The use of the oil  of  turpentine  as  a specific  in this
disease was introduced by Dr.  Brenan, of Dublin;1 and strong testimonies were
subsequently borne to its efficacy by several highly respectable practitioners.3  Dr.
Brenan gave one or two tablespoonfuls of  the oil, every three  or four hours, in cold
water, sweetened; and applied flannel soaked in the oil to the abdomen.  But the
apparent improbability of a stimulant like turpentine curing an  inflammatory disease,
has prevented  many practitioners placing any  faith in it, or even giving it a trial.
In other instances, the unconquerable  aversion which patients  have manifested to  it,
has precluded  its repetition.  Lastly, it has failed, in the hands of some  of our
most accurate observers, to produce the good effects which Dr. Brenan and  others
have ascribed  to it,  and in some instances has appeared to aggravate the malady.
These reasons  have been  conclusive against  its employment, at least in the way
advised  by Dr. Brenan.   But there are two valuable  uses which may be made  of
turpentine, in  puerperal fever:  it may be given in the form of clyster, to relieve a
tympanitic condition  of the intestines, and for  this purpose no  remedy  perhaps  is
superior  to it; secondly, flannel soaked in the hot oil may  be applied to the abdo-
men, to cause rubefaction, as a substitute for a blister, to the employment of which
several objections exist.
   5.  In ordinary fever.—As a powerful stimulant in  some forms of low fever,  oil
of turpentine has been well spoken of by  Dr.  Hoist,3 Dr. Chapman,4 Dr. Douglas,s
and more recently by Dr. Wood.8  When the skin is dry, the bowels flatulent, and
ulceration  of the mucous membrane suspected,  it often proves most serviceable.
   6. In  rheumatism.—In chronic  rheumatism, oil of turpentine has  long been
celebrated.   Its  beneficial influence depends on its stimulant and diaphoretic ope-
ration, and is  more  likely to be evinced  in old  and  debilitated persons.  I have
found medium doses occasionally succeed when small ones  have failed.  But for
the most part I have not met with that success with it in  chronic rheumatism,  to
induce me to  place  much confidence in  it.   In the form of liniment it has often
proved serviceable.
   7.  In sciatica and other neuralgic  affections.—Oil of turpentine was proposed  as
a remedy for sciatica by Drs. Pitcairn and G-. Cheyne.   Its efficacy was subsequently
confirmed  by  Dr.  Home.7  More recently it  has been extensively employed, and
with great success, in France, in sciatica  as well  as in various  other neuralgias.3
But it has proved more successful in  those which affect the  lower extremities.  My
own experience  does not lead me to speak very favourably  of it.  In a disease the
pathology of which is so imperfectly understood as is that of neuralgia, it is  vain to
attempt  any explanation  of the methodus medendi of an occasional remedy for  it.
I have known oil of  turpentine now and then act  most beneficially in sciatica, with-
out giving rise to any remarkable evacuation by the bowels,  skin, or kidneys, so that
the relief could not be ascribed  to a cathartic, a diaphoretic, or a diuretic operation.
   8.  In suppression of urine.—I have seen oil  of turpentine succeed in reproducing
the urinary secretions when other powerful diuretics had failed.
   9.  In  infantile diabetes.—Dr. Dewees9  has  cured three cases  of diabetes [?]  in
infants under fifteen  months old "by  keeping the  bowels freely open, and putting a
quantity of spirits of turpentine upon the clothes of the children, so as  to keep them
in a terebinthinate atmosphere."
   10.  hi  nephritic diseases.—In some diseases of the kidneys, as  ulceration, the
use of oil of  turpentine has been much extolled.   It has proved successful in renal
hydatids.10
1 Thoughts on Puerperal Fever, and its cure by Spirits of Turpentine, Lond. 1814.
» Vide Hnyle. Bibl. Thtrap. t. iv.                  » Hufeland's Journ. Bd. 20, St. 2. S  146
* Elem. of Therap. 4th «-<lit vol. ii. p. 120           • Dubl. Hasp. Rep. vol iii.
• iV,/r/A Amer. Med and Surg. Journ. April, 1826.     ' Clin. Experiments.
■ .Martinet, Lond. Mrd. and Phys. Journ. March, 1829; Bayle, Bibl. Thtrap. t. iv.
• Treatise on the Physical and Moral  Treatment of Children.                 »o Bayle op cit 
298
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Pinace^.
   11. In dropsy.—Oil  of  turpentine has occasionally  proved serviceable  in the
chronic forms of this disease.1   Its efficacy depends, in part, on its derivative opera-
tion as a stimulating diuretic; and in part, as I conceive, on its powerful influence
over  the capillary and  secerning vessels, by which it exercises a  direct  power of
checking effusion.   It is inadmissible, or is contraindicated, in dropsies accompanied
with  arterial excitement, or with irritation of the stomach or the  urinary organs.
When the effusion depends  on obstruction to the return of venous blood, caused bj
the pressure of enlarged or  indurated viscera, tumours, &c, turpentine can be of no
avail.  But in  the  atonic forms of dropsy, especially in leucophlegmatic subjects.
attended with deficient secretion of the skin and kidneys, this oil is calculated to be
of benefit.  Dr. Copland2 has  used it in the stage of turgescence, or invasion of acute
hydrocephalus,  as a drastic  and derivative.
   12. In spasmodic diseases.—Oil  of turpentine  has been  employed  successfully
in the treatment of epilepsy, by Drs. Latham, Young, Ed. Percival, Lithgow, Cop.
land, and Pritchard.8   No  benefit can be expected from this  or any other medicine
when the disease depends  on organic lesion within  the osseous envelops of the
nervous  centres.  But when the disease is what Dr. Marshall Hall terms centripetal
or eccentric (as  the convulsion of infants frequently is), that is, takes its origin in
parts distant from the cerebro-spinal axis, which becomes affected only  through the
incident or excitor nerves,  we can easily understand  that benefit  may  be obtained
by the use of  agents like  this, which,  while it  stimulates  the abdominal viscera,
operates as a cathartic  and anthelmintic, and  produces  a derivative action on the
head.  A more extended experience of  its use  in chorea, hysteria, and tetanus, is
requisite to enable us to speak with confidence of its efficacy in these diseases, though
a few successful cases have  been published.4
   13. In inflammation of  the  eye.—Mr. Guthrie5 has employed oil of turpentine
in inflammation of the iris and choroid coat, on the plan recommended by Mr. Hugh
Carmichael.6   In some  cases, especially those of  an  arthritic  nature, it  succeeded
admirably, in others it was of little or no  service.   It was  given  in doses  of a drachm
three times a day.
   14. In  tympanites.—To  relieve flatulent distension of the stomach and bowels,
and the colic thereby induced, both in infants and adults, oil of turpentine is a most
valuable remedy.   It should be given in full doses, so as to act as  a purgative; or
when, from any circumstance, it cannot   be exhibited  by the  mouth, it  may be em-
ployed in the form of clyster.   Dr. Bamsbotham7 speaks  in the highest terms of the
efficacy of the oil of turpentine in the acute tympanites of the puerperal state, and
thinks that most of the cases  of the so-called puerperal fever, which yielded to this
oil, were in fact cases of acute tympanites;  and in this opinion he  is supported by
Dr. Marshall Hall.
   15. In obstinate constipation.—-Dr. Kinglake,8 in a case of obstinate constipation,
with a tympanitic condition of the  intestines, found  oil  of turpentine a successful
cathartic, after the ordinary  means of treating these cases  had been assiduously tried
in vain.   Dr. Paris9 also speaks highly of it in obstinate constipation depending on
affections of the brain.
   16. To assist the passage of biliary calculi.—A mixture of three parts sulphuric
ether and two  parts oil of turpentine  has been recommended as a  solvent for
biliary calculi.10   But there  is no foundation for the supposition that  the  relief which
may be obtained by the use of this mixture in icterus, and during the passage of a
biliary calculus, depends on the dissolution of the latter.
  1 See the authorities quoted by Dr. Copland, Lond. Med. and Phys. Journ. vol. xlvi. p. 201.
  a Op. cit. p. 202.                               a Copland's Did. of Pract. Med. p. .-08.
  4 Copland, Lond. Med. and Phys. Journ. vol. xlvi  p. 199; Phillips, Med.-Chir. Trans, vol. vi.; Elliot-
eon, Lancet, May. 1830;  Gibbon, Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. vii. p. 428.
  * Lond. Med.  Gaz. vol. iv. p. 509.                  • Luc. cit. vol. v. p. 836.
  ' Lond. Med.  Gaz. vol. xvi. p. 118.                 » Lond. Med. and Phys. Journ. vol. xlvi. p-272
   Pharmacologia.
  *° Durande. Observ. sur I'Efficacite du Mtlange d'Ether sulph. et d'Huile volatile de Ttrtb. dans Col*
ques hipat. produites par des Pierres Biliaires, 1790. 
                   Oil op Turpentine :—Administration.                299

  17.  As an external remedy.—Oil of turpentine is employed externally, as a rube-
facient, in numerous diseases, on the principle of counter-irritation, before explained
(vol. i. p. 170).  Thus in the form of liniment, it is used, either hot or cold, in chronic
rheumatism, sprains, sore throat, neuralgic affections of the extremities, &c.   In the
form of fomentation the hot oil is applied to produce redness of the skin in puerperal
peritonitis, as  I have already mentioned.   As a powerful local stimulant, it was
recommended  by Dr. Kentish1 as an application to burns and  scalds, his object being
to restore the  part gradually, not suddenly,  to its natural state, as in  the treatment
of a case of frost-bite.   The practice  is most successful when  the local injury is
accompanied with great constitutional depression.   I can bear testimony to its efficacy
in such cases,  having employed  it in several most severe and dangerous  burns with
the happiest results.  In that form of gangrene which is not  preceded by inflamma-
tion, and is called dry or chronic, oil of turpentine may occasionally prove service-
able, especially when the disease affects the  toes and feet of old  people.  There are
many other topical  uses  to which it has been  applied;  but as they are for the
most  part obsolete, at  least  in this country, I omit any further mention of them.
They are fully noticed in the works of Voigtels3 and  Richter.8   Oil of  turpentine
is the principal ingredient in Whitehead's Essence of Mustard, which contains also
camphor and  a portion of the spirits of rosemary.   St.  John Long's liniment con-
sisted of oil of turpentine and acetic acid, held in suspension  by yolk  of egg.4
   Administration.—When given  as a diuretic, and to affect the capillary and
Becerning vessels (in catarrhal affections of the  mucous  membranes, dropsy, sup-
pression of urine, hemorrhage, &c.) the dose is from six or eight minims to f 3J;  as
a general stimulant (in  chronic rheumatism, chorea, &c.) or  to produce a change in
the condition  of the intestinal coats (in chronic dysentery), from f5j to  3ij;  as an
anthelmintic  (in tape-worm) or as a revulsive (in apoplexy, in epilepsy previous  to
an expected paroxysm, &c), from  f^ss to f^ij.   It  may be  taken floating on some
aromatic water, to which some  hot aromatic tincture, as tinctura capsici, has been
added; or it may be diffused through water by the aid of mucilage  or an emulsion;
or it may be made into a linctus with honey or some aromatic syrup.
   1. ENEMA TEREB1NTII1M, L.  E. D.; Clyster of Turpentine.—(Oil of Turpentine
f gj ; the Yolk of one Egg;  Decoction of Barley  f £xix. Bub the oil  with the yolk,
 and add the decoction, L.—The Edinburgh College substitutes  plain Water for
 Barley Water.—The Dublin College orders of Oil of Turpentine f Jj; Mucilage of
 Barley f^xvj.)—Used as an anthelmintic  in  ascarides;  as an antispasmodic and
purgative in colic, obstinate constipation, and tympanites.   Dr.  Montgomery5 says,
" it is much used in cases of peritoneal inflammation."
   2. LIXFHEXTEM TEREBINTHINA,  L.  D.; Linimentum Terebinthinatum, E.;  Tur-
pentine  Liniment. — (Soft  Soap   gij;  Camphor %j; Oil  of  Turpentine f3xvj.
"Shake them together until they are  mixed," L.—Resinous Ointment |iv; Oil
of Turpentine f 3v; Camphor gss.  Melt the ointment, and gradually mix with it
the camphor and oil till a uniform liniment be obtained," E.—Ointment of White
Resin  ^viij ; Oil of Turpentine f^v, D.)—Introduced  by Dr. Kentish6 as a dressing
for burns and scalds.  The  parts  being first bathed with  warm oil  of  turpentine,
alcohol, or camphorated spirit, are to be covered with pledgets of lint  thickly spread
with this liniment.   When the peculiar inflammation, excited by the fire,  has sub-
sided,  milder  applications are then to be resorted to.  This  liniment may also be
used in  any other cases requiring the employment of  a more stimulant  application
than the ordinary soap liniment.
1 Essay on Burns.
• Ibid. Bd. ii S. 71 .
1 Observations on the Dublin Pharmacopoeia.
J Arzneimittell. Bd. ii. S. 260.
4 Dr. Macreight, Lancet, for 1S37-S, vol. ii. p. 485.
s Essay on Burns. 
300
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Pinace^i.
                3.  Resinae Terebinthinae.—Terebinthinate Resins.
             1.  Resina, L. E.  D.  [U. S.]—Rosin, or Common Resin.
                (Quod restat Terebinthinae postquam oleum destillatum est, L.)

   Preparation.—This is the residue of the process for obtaining oil of turpentine.
It is run, while  liquid, into metallic receivers coated with  whiting to prevent adhesion,
and from these is ladled into wooden moulds or casks.   When the distillation is
not carried too  far, the product contains a  little water, and  is  termed yellow  rosin
(resina flava).   A more continued heat expels the water  and produces transparent
rosin; and if the  process be pushed as far as it can  be without producing a com-
plete alteration of properties,  the  residue acquires  a deep colour, and  is termed
brown or black rosin, or colophony (resina nigra seu colophonium).   If melted rosin
be run into cold water contained in shallow tanks, and a supply of cold water be
kept  up  until  the rosin has  solidified,  a pale yellow  product is  obtained, called
Flock-ton's patent rosin.
   Properties.—Rosin is compact, solid, brittle, almost odourless and tasteless,
with  a  smooth,  shining  fracture,  becomes  electric by friction,  is  fusible at a
moderate heat, decomposable at a higher temperature, and burning in the air with
a  yellow smoky flame.   It is  insoluble in water,  but soluble in alcohol, ether, and
the volatile oils.   With wax and the fixed oils it unites by fusion; with the caustic
alkalies it  unites  to  form a resinous soap (the  alkaline resinates, principally the
pinates).   Heated with concentrated sulphuric or nitric acid mutual decomposition
takes place.
   By distillation, rosin yields rosin oil and tar.   Rosin  oil is a mixture of four car-
burets of  hydrogen:  retinaphte,  C14H8;  retinyle,  C10!!13;  retinole, C3aII16;  and
metanaphthaline, C^II8.   The rosin oil which distils  over at from 22Gj° F. to
302° F. is a mixture of retinaphte and retinyle.   It is sometimes used in the arts
as a substitute  for oil of  turpentine.   The  part  which boils  at  about 464° F. is
retinole;  it enters into the composition of some printing  inks.   Mixed with lime,
it  forms  a sort of grease  for  wheels, machinery,  &c.   Rosin  oil has been used in
the preparation of rosin gas.1
   Yellow  rosin is  opake and yellow, or  yellowish-white.   Its opacity  is owing to
water, with which it is incorporated.  By continued fusion this  is got rid of, and the
rosin then becomes transparent (transparent rosin).    Brown rosin, or colophony, is
more or  less brown and transparent.
   Composition.—Rosin is a  compound  or  mixture of pinic acid (principally),
colophonic acid (variable in quantity), sylvic acid (a small quantity), and traces of
an indifferent resin.2
   Pinic  and sylvic acids  are isomeric: according to Laurent, their equivalent is
expressed by the formula C^HWjHO; and their salts by the formula MO^IM)3.
   1. Pinic Acid.—It is  soluble in cold alcohol of sp. gr. 0.883.   The solution forms a precipi-
tate (pinate of copper) on the addition of an alcoholic solution of acetate of copper. Pinate of
magnesia dissolves with difficulty in water.
  2. Colophonic Acid  (Colopholic Acid).—Formed by the  action of heat on pinic acid, and
therefore the quantity of it contained in  rosin varies according  to the  heat employed.  Rosin
owes its brown colour  to it.  It is distinguished from pinic acid by its greater affinity for sali-
fiable bases, and its slight solubility in alcohol.3
  3. Sylvic Acid.—Is distinguished from pinic acid by its insolubility in cold alcoholofsp.gr.
0.883.
  4. Indifferent Resin.—Is soluble in cold alcohol, oil of petroleum, and oil of turpentine.
It forms with magnesia a compound readily soluble in water.
   Physiological Effects.—Not  being used internally, its effects when swallowed
are scarcely known.   It is probable, however, that they  are  of the same  kind as
those of common  turpentine, though very considerably slighter.  In the horse it
1 Pelouze and Fremy, Cours de Chimie gtntrale, t. iii. p. 543, 1850.
2 Unverdorben, in Gmelin, Hand. d. Chem. ii. 520.
■ Berzelius, Traiti de Chim. t. v. p. 489. 
Burgundy Pitch :—Preparation; Uses.               301
acts as a useful diuretic, in  doses of five  or  six drachms.1   Its local influence is
mild.   " It may be considered," says Dr. Maton,3 " as possessing astringency with-
out pungency."
  Use.—Powdered rosin has been applied  to wounds to check hemorrhage, and is
occasionally used for this purpose in veterinary practice.  But the principal value
of rosin is in the  formation of plasters and ointments, to which it communicates
great adhesiveness and some slightly stimulant properties.
  1. CERATni RESIM, L. [U. S.]; Unguentum  Resinosum, E.; Unguentum Resinae,
D.;  Yellow Basil icon or  Basilicon  Ointment, offic.—(Resin,. Wax, of  each gxv;
Olive Oil  Oj.  Melt the resin and the wax together with  a slow fire; then add the
oil, and press the cerate, while hot, through a linen cloth, L.—The  Edinburgh
College orders of Resin |v;  Axunge §viij; Bees' Wax gij.^  Melt  them together
with a gentle heat, and then stir the mixture  briskly while  it cools  and concretes.
[The U. S. Pharm. directs the same.]—The Dublin College orders of Resin, in coarse
powder, Ibss; Yellow Wax £iv; Prepared Lime Ibj.)—A mildly stimulant,digestive,
and detergent application to ulcers which follow burns, or which are of a foul  and
indolent character, and  to blistered surfaces to promote a discharge.
   f. EMPLASTRIM RESINS, L. D. [U. S.]j  Emplastrum Resinosum, E— Has been
already described  at vol. i. p. 715.

                2. Pix Burgundica, L. E. D.—Burgundy Pitch.
        •              (Resina impura e terebinthina praeparata, L.)
   Preparation.—True Burgundy  pitch is prepared by  melting common frankin-
cense (Abides resina;  Thus) in hot water, and  straining through  a coarse cloth.
By this  process part of the volatile oil and  the impurities  are  got rid of.   The
substance  sold  as Burgundy pitch  in  the shops is rarely prepared in  this way,
but is fictitious.   Its principal constituent  is rosin, rendered opake by the incorpo-
ration of  water, and coloured by palm oil.  One maker of it informed me that he
prepared it from old and concrete American turpentine.
    1 have a sample of genuine Burgundy pitch prepared by Mr. D. Hanbury from Thus
 collected by  himself in Switzerland (see ante, p. 290).  In colour it somewhat resem-
 bles emplastrum plumbi,  Its odour resembles the  Burgundy pitch imported from
 Hamburgh,  and which, when strained, constitutes the best commercial Burgundy pitch.
    Hamburgh Burgundy pilch  is of a dark colour,  and contains  many impurities.
 It would appear to be melted but unstrained Thus.   It yields, when re-melted and
 strained, a  Burgundy pitch  which is darker  coloured,  but which otherwise agrees
 with the genuine sample prepared by Mr.  Hanbury.
    Properties.—Genuine  Burgundy pitch is hard, brittle when  cold, but readily
 taking the form of the vessel in which it  is  kept.   It softens by the  heat of  the
 hand, and strongly adheres to the skin.  Its colour  is yellowish-white; its odour is
 not disagreeable; its taste  slightly bitter.   Fictitious Burgundy pitch is usually of
 a fuller yellow  colour than  the genuine,  and has  a somewhat less agreeable odour.
    Composition.—Consists of resin principally and a small quantity of volatile oil.
    Physiological Effects.—Its effects are  similar to those of the other  terebin-
 thinate resins.   In  activity it  holds an intermediate  station  between common
 turpentine and rosin;  being considerably  less active than the first, and somewhat
 more so than the last of these substances.  Its local action is that of a mild irritant.
 In some persons it excites a troublesome vesiculo-pustular inflammation.3
    Uses.—It is employed as an external agent only, spread on leather, forming tbe
 well-known  Burgundy pitch plaster (emplastrumpicis burgundies), which is applied
 to the chest in  chronic pulmonary complaints, to the loins in lumbago,  to the joints
 in chronic articular affections, and to other parts to relieve local pains of a rheumatic
 character.   It acts as a counter-irritant  or revulsive.
1 Youatt, The Horse, in the Library of Useful Knowledge.                 » Lambert's Pinus
' Kiiycr, Treatist on Diseases of the Skin, by Dr. Willis, p. 3G6. 
302
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. PinacejB.
  EMPLASTRUM PICIS, L. E.; Plaster of Pitch.—(Burgundy Pitch Ibij;  Frankin-
cense [Thus] Ibj; Resin, Wax, of each giv; Expressed Oil of Nutmeg |j; Olive
Oil,  Water, of each  f§ij.  Add  the oils and water to  the  pitch, resin,  and wax,
melted together.  Lastly, mix them all, and boil  down to a proper consistence,
L.—The  formula of the Edinburgh College is as follows:  Burgundy Pitch lbjss,
Resin and Bees' Wax,  of  each gij; Oil of  Mace gss; Olive Oil fjj; Water f$j.
Liquefy the pitch, resin, and wax, with a  gentle heat;  add  to the other articles;
mix  them well together, and boil till the mixture acquires a proper consistences-
Stimulant and rubefacient; used in the same cases  as the simple Burgundy pitch.

                           [4. Pix Canadensis, U. S.

   Canada  Pitch;  Hemlock  Pitch;  the  prepared concrete juice  of the Abie*
Canadensis, Mich.—As a substitute for Burgundy Pitch, this article is employed
in the United States, over which  it has the advantage of  being in a state of purity.
It is the product of  the
   Abies Canadensis, or Hemlock  Spruce, a large  tree,  attaining a height  of
seventy or eighty feet,  with  a circumference of six or nine feet.   The  leaves  are
six or eight lines long,  very narrow, flat, and downy at the time of their expansion.
The cones are a little longer than the leaves, oval, pendulous, and situated at the
extremity of  the branches.
   This species of Abies is solely a native of North America, and belongs to  the
coldest regions of the continent,  beginning to appear about Hudson's  Bay* In the
vicinity of Lake St. John and near Quebec, the forests  are  filled with it, and it is
found in  all the Northern States.  It  prefers high  situations, and  those the most
humid and gloomy.
   The wood of this tree is  of little value; the bark contains a  large  amount  of
tannin, and is used  in the tanneries where the oak is scarce.
   Hemlock resin does not  flow from the bark by incision, but is invariably the
result of  spontaneous exudation  from  knots or excrescences, the heat  of the sun
bringing  it to the surface; and  it is  always obtained from old  trees or those ap-
proaching decay.   The proportion of trees  from which  any resin can be procured
is not more than one in a hundred.   Mr. Ellis (Journ.  of  Pharm.,  vol. ii. p. 20)
informs us that the mode of obtaining it is as follows:  "Trees  are  selected upon
whose bark the resin is incrusted, which are easily designated by  a streak of a dark
brown colour  on one side  of the tree,  from near the top  to the bottom.   These are
cut  down, and the bark, upon which the resin has hardened, stripped off and thrown
into a kettle containing water, with weights placed upon it to prevent its floating.
By boiling the water, the  resin is melted  and rises to the surface, is skimmed off,
and thrown into cold water.   It is then put into a coarse linen bag and submitted
to a second ebullition, treating  it as in the former instance, which  deprives it of
many of  its impurities."
   The quantity from good-sized trees  is from six to ten pounds, the average from
four to five.   The colour of it as it exudes is nearly white; it hardens immediately,
and changes to yellow, brown, and sometimes  nearly black.  Hemlock resin is in
masses, very brittle. It is a resin in combination  with a small quantity of volatile
oil.   It is heavier than water, sp. gr.  1.034.   The odour is peculiar,  and  unlike
turpentine.  To purify it, it should be melted and strained.   From its adhesiveness
and stimulating properties, it affords a plaster which is equal to that made with Bur-
gundy Pitch, if not superior.  It may be employed for the same purposes.]

                 5. Pix liquida and Pix solida.—Tar and Pitch.

                        1. Pix  Liquida.— Vegetable Tar.
              (Bitumen liquidum e ligno igne prseparatum, Z,.—Pix liquida, L. E. D.)
   History.—This  is the ttltta  of Theophrastus,1  the nlava iypa (liquidpitch), or
x^voc of  Dioscorides,3 and the pix liquida of Pliny.3 
Vegetable Tar :—History ;  Preparation.              303
  Preparation.—Two kinds of tar are known in commerce; namely, coal tor and
wood  tar.  They are obtained in  the destructive distillation—the first of coal, the
second of wood.
  Of  wood tar there are two sorts: one procured in the northern parts of Europe
and in America, from the waste of fir timber, and known in commerce as Stockholm
tar, Archangel tar, American tar, &c.;  the other obtained as a secondary product
in the manufacture of pyroligneous acid and gunpowder charcoal.  The former is
the kind used in medicine.   That which is procured from  Pinus sylvestris, in the
northern parts of Europe, is considered to be much superior to American tar.
  The process now followed seems to be identical with that practised by the Mace-
donians, as described by Theophrastus.  It is a kind of distillatio per descensum of

                                   Fig. 282.
Preparation of Tar.
the roots and other woody parts of old pines.   As  now carried on in Bothnia, it is
thus described  by Dr. Clarke:4   "The  situation most favourable to the  process is
in a forest near to a marsh or bog, because the roots of the fir, from which tar is
principally extracted, are always most productive in such places.   A conical cavity
is then made in the  ground (generally in the  side of a bank or sloping hill); and
the roots of the fir, together with logs and billets of the same, being neatly trussed
in a stack of the same conical shape, are let  into this cavity.  The whole  is then
covered with turf, to  prevent  the volatile parts from being  dissipated, which, by
means of a heavy wooden mallet and wooden stamper, worked  separately by two
men, is beaten  down, and rendered as firm as  possible about the  wood.  The stack
of billets is then kindled, and a slow combustion of the fir takes place, without flame
as in working charcoal.  During this combustion the tar exudes, and a cast-iron pan
being at the bottom of the funnel, with a spout which projects through the side of
the bank,  barrels are  placed beneath this spout to collect the fluid as it comes away.
As fast as the barrels are filled, they are bunged, and ready  for immediate expor-
tation. .
  Wood-tar is  also obtained as  a secondary product, in the manufacture of acetic
acid, by the dry distillation of wood.
1 Hist. Plant, lib. ix. cap. ii. and iii.              i Lib i cap xciv
• Hist. Nat  lib. xxiv. cap. 24, ed. Valp.
♦ Travels in  Scandinavia, part iii. p. a51;  see also Duhamel, Traitt des Arbres. 
304                VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Pinace*.
   Commerce.—Wood-tar is imported into  this country chiefly from the northern
parts of Europe (Russia, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and North (iermany)—partly
from the United States of America.   It usually comes in barrels, each holding 3U
gallons; twelve barrels constituting a last.  Tar is also produced in  this country.
   Properties.—It is a dark brown, viscid, semi-liquid substance, which preserves
during  a long period its softness.  It is soluble in alcohol, ether,  and the oils both
fixed and volatile.   Submitted to distillation, it yields an aqueous  acid liquor (pt/ro-
ligneous acid), and a volatile oily matter (oil of tar); the residue in the still is pitch.
   Composition.—Wood-tar is  a very complex substance.   It consists principally
of pyretine (pyrogenous or empyreumatic resin), pyroliene (pyrogenous oil), acetic
acid, and  water.—Reichenbach  has  obtained  from it creosote, paraffin, tupinn
picamar, kapnomor,pittacal, and cedriret.—Pyren and chrysen have likewise been
found in it.
   The  tar obtained from coniferous woods contains also colophony and oil of tur-
pentine.
   Physiological Effects.—The effects of  tar are analogous to those  of turpen-
tine, but modified by the  presence  of acetic  acid  and  the pyrogenous products.
Locally it acts as a stimulant; and when applied to chronic skin  diseases and indo-
lent ulcers, it frequently induces a salutary change  in the action of the capillary and
secerning  vessels, evinced  by the improved quality of the secretions, and the rapid
healing of the sores.  In such cases, it is termed detergent, digestive, or cicatrisant.
Swallowed, it acts as a local irritant and stimulant, becomes absorbed, and stimulates
the  secreting  organs, especially  the  kidneys, on  which  it  operates as a diuretic.
Slight1 states that a sailor swallowed  a  considerable quantity of liquid tar, which
caused  vomiting, great lassitude, and violent pain in bowels and kidneys.  The urine
was red, and, as well as the other evacuations, had the odour of tar.   The head and
the  pulse  were unaffected.  The vapour of tar, inhaled, acts as a stimulant and
irritant to the  bronchial membrane, the secretion of which it promotes.
   Uses.—Tar is rarely employed internally.   It  has, however, been administered
in chronic bronchial affections, and in  obstinate skin diseases.
   The  inhalation of tar vapour was recommended by Sir Alex. Crichton2 in phthisis;
but  at  best it proves only a palliative, and it  frequently, perhaps generally, fails to
act even thus, and in some cases occasions a temporary increase of cough and irrita-
tion.3  In chronic laryngeal and bronchial affections  it  has more chance of doing
good.4   Sir A.  Crichton's  directions  for  using it in phthisis are as follows:  The
tar employed should be that used in the cordage of ships; to every pound of which
half  an ounce of carbonate of  potash must  be added, in  order to neutralize the
pyroligneous  acid  generally found mixed with the tar, the presence of which will
necessarily excite coughing.  The tar thus  prepared  is  to  be placed in a suitable
vessel over a lamp, and to  be kept slowly boiling in the chamber during the night
as well  as the day.   The vessel, however, ought to be cleansed and replenished every
twenty-four  hours, otherwise  the residuum  may  be burned and decomposed—a
circumstance which will occasion increased cough and oppression  on the chest.
   Applied externally, tar is used in various forms of obstinate skin diseases, espe-
cially those which  affect the scalp, lepra,  &c.
   Administration.—Internally, tar is administered either in substance, in the
form of pills, made up with wheat flour, or of electuary, with sugar; or in the form
of tar water.   In substance, it may be taken to the extent of several drachms daily.
   1.  AQUA PICIS LIQIUM;  Tar  Water.—(Tar Oij;  Water Cong, j [wine measure).
Mix, stirring with a stick for a quarter of an hour; then, as soon  as the tar subsides,
strain the liquor, and keep it in well-stoppered jars.)—Tar water has the colour of

  1 Wibmer, Wirk d. Arzneim. Bd. iv. S. 215.
  a Practical Observations on the Treatment and Cure of several varieties of Pulmonary Consumption
and on the Effects of the Vapour of boiling Tar in that Disease, 18-23.
  2 Dr. Forbes. Translation of Laennec's Treatise on Diseases of the Chest, p 365
  * Trousseau and Pidoux, Traiti de Thtrap. t. i. p. 459. 
Tar Ointment ; Oil of Tar.—Black Pitch.
305
Madeira wine, and a sharp empyreumatic taste.   It  reddens litmus, but does not
effervesce on the addition of a  solution of carbonate of potash, though its colour
becomes  deepened.  With a solution of bicarbonate of potash a very slight  effer-
vescence takes place.   By persulphate of iron, taf water is  rendered very  dark, or
even  blackish.   The volatile oil contained in tar water is partly held in solution by
acetic acid, which, as is well  known, dissolves creasote.  It consists of water  hold-
ing in solution  acetic acid, and pyrogenous oil and resin.  Notwithstanding  the high
eulogies passed on it by Bishop Berkeley,1 tar water is now rarely employed.  It is
occasionally administered  in chronic catarrhal and nephritic complaints, to the extent
of one or two  pints daily.  As a wash in  chronic  skin diseases, especially those
affecting the scalps of children, I have frequently seen it used, and sometimes with
apparent benefit.

   2. UNGUENTUM PICIS LIQUID!, L. E.  D.  [U. S.];  Tar  Ointment.—(Tar,  Mut-
ton Suet, of each Ibj.  Melt them together, and press through a linen cloth.  The
Edinburgh  College takes  of  Tar ^v, and Beeswax, 3 ij ; melt the wax with a gentle
heat, add tbe tar, and stir the mixture briskly, while it concretes on cooling.  The
Dublin College orders of  Tar Oss; Yellow Wax 3iv.)—Its principal use is as  an
application  to ringworm of the scalp and scalled head, in which it  sometimes suc-
ceeds, but more frequently fails to cure.  It is now and then applied to foul ulcers.

   3. OLEUM  PICIS LIQUIDjE;   Oleum Pini rubrum;  Oil of  Tar.—This is obtained
by distillation from tar.   It is a reddish, limpid fluid, having the odour of  tar.  It
is a mixture of various volatile constituents of tar.   By redistillation  it  may  be
rendered colourless, and then becomes very similar to oil of turpentine.   It is  occa-
sionally used as an application to ringworm of the scalp and scalled  head.   Swal-
lowed in a large dose it has proved fatal.2


                        2.  Pix nigra.—Black Pitch.
               (Pix,L.; Bitumen aridum e Pice liquida praparata ; Pix arida.)

   History.—This is the  rtUoo.  S»?pa (dry  pitch)  of Dioscorides,3 which, he says,
some call rtaupmaaa (pitch  re-boiled).
   Preparation.—The residuum in the still after the distillation of wood-tar is
pitch (pix nigra, L.)
   Properties.—At  ordinary temperatures it is a black solid, having  a brilliant
fracture.  It softens at 99° F. and melts in  boiling water.   It dissolves in  alcohol
and in solutions of the alkalies and of the alkaliue carbonates.
   Composition.—Pitch is composed of pyrogenous resin and colophony.
   Physiological Effects.—Made into pills with flour or any farinaceous sub-
stance,  pitch may be  taken  to a great  extent, not  only without injury, but  with
advantage to the general health.   It affords  one of the most effectual means of con-
trolling the  languid circulation, and the inert and arid condition of the skin.4   As
a local remedy it  possesses great adhesiveness, and  when applied to wounds and
ulcers acts as a stimulant  and digestive.
   Uses.—Batenian5 speaks favourably of the  internal use of pitch in  ichthyosis.
It has been  employed also in other obstinate skin diseases.  But the principal use of
pitch is in the form of ointment, as an application to cutaneous affections of the scalp.
  Administration.—Dose  from grs.  x to 3j, made into pills with flour.   The
unpleasant pitchy flavour of the pills is materially diminished by keeping them for
some time.

  I Mil KMlill PICIS,  L.;  Unguentum Picis  nigri;  Unguentum  Basiticum  nigrum
vel Tetrapharmacnm.—(Black   Pitch,  Wax, Resin,  of each £xj;  Olive  Oil Oj.

 * .Sin'j, a Chain of Phil. K<fler. and Inq. concerning Tar Water, new edit. Lond. 1744
 • Lancet for IKte-3, vol. ii. p 598; also March 8, h-31.                      » Lib. j. ca„ 9-
 4 lintemnn. Synopsis of Cutaneous Diseases, p. 53, 6th ed.                   *• &p \\t    ''
       VOL. 11.—20 
306
VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord. Pinace.e.
Melt them together, and press  through  a linen cloth.)—Stimulant and
used in the obstinate cutaneous eruptions of the scalp.1
festive:
Sub-order II.  CuPRESSEyE.
   Ovules erect; pollen spheroidal.
  105.  JUNIPERUS COMMUNIS,  Lum-COMMON JUNIPER.
                            Sex. Syst. Dioecia, Monadelphia.
(Fructus; et Oleum e fructu destillatum, £.—Cacumina ; Fructus; Oleum, E.—Cncumina; Bacca, D ]
                    [Juniperus. The fruit of Juniperus Communis, U. S.]

   History.—The tree which in our translation of the  Bible9 is called the juniper,
is supposed  to have  been  a leguminous plant, either  broom  or  furse (genista vel
ulex).
   Juniperus communis is a native of Greece, and must, therefore, have been known
to the ancient Greeks.   Sibthorp3 thinks that it may perhaps be the  dpxtvBos utxfi
of Dioscorides,4 a  name which  Fraas5 considers to have been applied to duniperm
oxycedrus.   The last-mentioned authority  is  of opinion that  the xiJpot  u\.x$a. of
Dioscorides6 is our juniper.    The fruit mentioned in the Hippocratic  writings under
the name of doxtvOic,  and which was used  in some disorders  of  females, was  the
produce of a  species  of Juniperus; perhaps of the J. phsenicia, which  is very
common in Greece and the  islands of the Archipelago, and whose fruit is yellowish,
but has the size, form, and  powers of that of the common juniper.
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—Dioecious, rarely monoecious.  Males:  Catkins.ovate;
the  scales verticillate, peltato-pedicellate.  Anthers 4 to 8,  unilocular.  Females:
 Catkins globose; the  3  concave  scales  united.   Stigma gaping.   Galbulus com-
posed of the united and  fleshy scales, and containing 3  triquetrous osseous seeds.
   Sp.  Char.—Leaves 3  in each whorl, spreading, linear-subulate, keeled, mucronate,
longer  than the galbulus.
                                              A  bushy shrub.  Leaves evergreen,
                                            numerous,  with a broad, flat,  shallow
                                            channel above,  the keel beneath with a
                                            slender  furrow, pungent, glaucous  on
                                            the  upper  side, dark green  beneath.
                                            Flowers  axillary, sessile,  small;  the
                                            males  discharging  a  copious cloud of
                                            yellow pollen: females green, on scaly
                                            stalks.    Fruit  commonly  called a
                                            berry, but  is in reality  that  kind of
                                            cone  called by botanists a galbulus,
                                            which  has  fleshy coalescent  carpella,
                                            whose  heads are  much   enlarged.   It
                                            requires two seasons to arrive at matu-
                                            rity.   The galbulus is black tinged with
                                            blue, and is scarcely more than  half the
                                            length  of the leaves.
                                              Loudon7 mentions no less than seven varie-
                                            ties ; but some of these are  probably distinct
                                            species.
                                              Juniperus  nana (Smith),  Dwarf Alpi<"
                                            Juniper, has a procumbent stem; imbricate':
                                            incurved, linear lanceolate leaves;  and  fro'
                                            nearly as long as the leaves.—Indigenoui
                                            On  mountains.
2S3.
 Female flower and fruit of Juniperus communis.

a. Female amentum (magnified).
6. Ditto at a later stage of evolution (magnified!.
c.  Two ovaries; the  third having been removed to
     expose the ovules.
d. Fruit approaching maturity.
e.  Ripe galbulus, seen from the vertex.
/.  Ditto, seen from the base.
1 Vide Unguentum Picis liquidee.
1 Prod. Fl. Grtzcce.
* Synopsis Plant. Fl. Classicce, p. 259, 1845.
' Arboretum, vol. iv. p. 2489.
5 Job, xxx. 4 ; 1 Kings, xix. 4.
* Lib i. cap. 103.
• Ibid. 105. 
Common Juniper:—Botany; Description; Uses.
307
   Hab.—North  of Europe.   Indigenous, growing on hills and healthy downs, es-
pecially where the  soil is chalky.   It flowers in May.
   Description.—In this country the fruit and tops, and on the continent, the wood,
are officinal.
   Juniper berries (baccas juniperi), as the dried fruit of  the  shops is commonly
termed, are about the size of a pea, of a blackish-purple colour, covered by a glau-
cous bloom.   They are marked superiorly with a triradiate groove, indicating  the
adhesion of the succulent carpella; inferiorly with the bracteal scales, which assume
a stellate.form (see Fig. 283, e and/).  They contain three seeds.   Their taste is
sweetish, with a terebinthinate flavour; their odour is agreeable and balsamic.
   Juniper tcrps (cacumina seu summitates juniperi) have a  bitter  terebinthinate
flavour and a balsamic odour.
   Juniper wood (lignum juniperi)  is obtained  either from the stem or root; it
evolves a balsamic odour in burning, and, by distillation with water, yields volatile
oil.   On old stems there is sometimes found a resinous substance (resina juniperi;
saudaraca germanica).
   Sandaiiach or Juniper Resin.—The resin called sandarach (sandaraca), or gum juniper
(gummi juniperi), is imported from Mogadore.  It is the produce of Callitris quadrivalvis, Vent.
(Thuja arliculata, Desf.).  Though  sold by chemists  and apothecaries, it is not employed in
medicine.  It is used in the manufacture  of varnishes.  Its powder is pounce.
   Commerce.—Juniper berries are imported in bags and  barrels from Botterdam,
Hamburgh, Leghorn, Trieste, and other European ports.   In 1838, duty was paid
on 5896 cwts.                                                                   *
   Composition.—Juniper berries were analyzed in 1822 by Trommsdorff,1 and in
1831*by Nicolet.8   Trommsdorff obtained volatile  oil 1.0, wax 4.0, resin 10.0, a
peculiar species of sugar with acetate and malate of lime 33.8, gum with salts of
potash and lime  7.0, lignin 35.0, water 12.9 ( = 103.7, excess  3.7).
   1. Oil op Juniper (see below).
   2. Rksi>.—Is green, according to Trommsdorff.  Nicolet obtained it in the crystallized state,
and found it to consist of C5,H2,0'.
   3. Wax.—Is brittle.  Consists, according to Nicolet, of C,3,H8i,0«.
  4. ISi'gar—Is crystallizable, and analogous to grape sugar, according to Trommsdorff.  But
Nicolet describes it as being like molasses.
   Physiological Effects.—Juniper berries and tops are analogous in their opera-
tion to the terebinthinate substances.  Three ounces of the berries act on the larger
herbivorous animals as a diuretic.8 On man, also, these fruits operate on the urinary
organs, promoting  the secretion of urine, to which they communicate a violet odour.4
In large doses they occasion  irritation of the bladder and  heat in  the urinary pas-
sages.  Piso* says  their continued use causes bloody urine.  They promote sweat,
relieve flatulency, and provoke the catamenia.   Their activity is principally depend-
ent on the volatile oil which they contain, and  which, according to Mr. Alexander's
experiments,0 is, in doses of four drops, the most powerful of all the diuretics.7
   Itsks.—Juniper berries or oil are but  little used  in  medicine.  They may be
employed, either alone or as adjuncts to other  diuretic medicines, in dropsical dis-
orders indicating the employment of renal stimuli.  Van Swieten8 speaks favourably
of their use in mild cases of ascites and anasarca.  In some affections of the urino-
genital apjxiralus  juniper may be  employed with  advantage.  Thus in mucous
discharges (as gonorrhoea, gleet, leucorrhoea, and cystirrhoea) it may be used under
the same regulations that govern the employment of copaiba and the terebinthinates.
Hecker0 praised it in the first stage of gonorrhoea.
  Juniper has been advised in some other diseases, but I do not  think it necessary
to enumerate them.10
 1 Gmrlin'i Handb. d. Chem. ii. 1330.           a Thomson's Organic Chemistry, p. 699.
 * Moiroud, Pharm.  Vittr.                   * Cargillus, in Ray, Hist. Plant, t. ii. p. 1412
 J Murray, App. Med.                       • Experimental Essays, p. 119, 176S.
  See his Table, at p. 251.                    • Commentaries, English edit. 12mo. vol. xii p 431
  Anweisung d. vener. Krankh. quoted by Voigtels, Arzneim. Bd. ii. Abt. 2, S. 510.
 " Consult on this subject, Vogt, Lehrb. d. Pharmakodyn.; Richter, Arzneimittell.; and Sundelin, Spec
Uxlmittell.                                                                   ' * 
308                VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Pinace*:.

   Administration.—The dose of  the  berries  is one  or  two drachms, triturated
with  sugar.   The infusion (prepared with  an ounce of the berries aud a pint of
boiling water) is a more convenient mode of exhibition;  the dose is f^iv every four
.hours.

   1. OLEUM  JUMPERI,  E. D.  [U.  S.];  Oleum  Juniperi (Anglicum),  L.; Oil of
Juniper;  English Oil of Juniper.—Is obtained by submitting  the fruit, tops, or
wood, to distillation with water.   The full-grown green fruit yields more than tbe
ripe fruit, for, in the  act of ripening, a portion  of the oil becomes converted into
resin.    It is  limpid, transparent, nearly colourless, and lighter than water, and
causes  the left-handed rotation  of polarized  light—in this respect  agreeing with
French  oil of  turpentine.   It has the odour of  the fruit and an  aromatic  balsamic
taste.    It dissolves with difficulty in alcohol.   According  to Blanchet, it consists
of two isomeric oils, carburets of hydrogen, C^H16:  one colourless, and more vola-
tile :  a  second coloured, and less volatile.  Both, when agitated with a solution of
salt, form crystalline  hydrates.   The more volatile oil almost entirely constitutes
the  oil  obtained from  the ripe fruit.   It is  soluble in alcohol and in hydrochloric
acid, with which it  forms a liquid artificial camphor.   Its density is 0.839.
   The oil is, perhaps, the best form  for exhibiting juniper.   The dose is two to six
drops, either in the form of pill or diffused through water by the aid of sugar and
mucilage.      »
   Oleum empyreumaticum Juniperi.—By the dry distillation of the wood of Juniperus Ozy-
cedrus there is obtained, in France, a tarry oil called huile decade (oleum cadinum).  It is a brown-
ish, inflammable liquid, having a strong empyreumatic and resinous odour, and an acrid caiuiic
taste.  It is employed in veterinary medicine;  to cure ulcers in horses, and, formerly^" cure
the itch in sheep.   Oil of tar, which is often substituted for it, is considered to be inferior.  It
lias also been used in the human subject, both externally and internally;  in obstinate skin dis-
eases, worms, toothache, &c.  Dose, a few drops.
   2.  SPIR1TLS JUNIPERI  COMPOSITUS, L.  E.;  Compound Spirit of Juniper.-(Oil
of Juniper  f3iss>  Oil of  Caraway, Oil  of Fennel, of each ir^xi) [n\,x, U. S.]\
Proof Spirit, Cong. j.  Dissolve, L.—Juniper Berries,  bruised, rbj; Fennel bruised,
and Caraway bruised,  of each ^iss; Proof Spirit Ovij ; Water Oij.   Macerate the
fruits in the spirit  for two days, add the water, and distil off seven pints, E.)—
This preparation, when  sweetened,  may be regarded as an officinal substitute for
genuine Hollands and English gin, both of which compounds  are flavoured with
juniper.   It is used as an adjunct to diuretic mixtures.  The dose is f*3»j to f3iv.


       106. JUNIPERUS SABINA, iim.-COMMON SAVIN.
                            Sex. Syst. Dioecia, Monadelpliia.
           (Cacumen recens et exsiccatum. Oleum e cacumine destillatum, L.—Tops, E.)
                                    [Sabina,  U.  S.]

   History.—This is the  PpdOv of Dioscorides,1 the  sabina of Pliny.*  Each of
 these  writers  notices both  the cypress-leaved and the tamarisk-leaved varieties of
 savin.
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—Vide Juniperus communis.
   Sp. Char.—Leaves ovate, convex, densely  imbricated, erect, decurrent, opposite;
 the oppositions pyxidate (Bot. Gall.).
   A  small bushy  shrub.  Branches closely  invested  by the very small  glandular
 leaves.  Galbulus round, purple, somewhat smaller than that of Juniperus communis.
   London3 mentions  five varieties.  Of these the most interesting are the two following —
   a. J.  S. cupressifolia, Aiton.—The Cypress-leaved Savin.   La Sabine  male.  Leaves acute,
 more spreading, three lines long.
   0  J.  S. tamariscifolia, Aiton.—The  Tamarisk-leaved  or  berry-bearing Savin.  La Sabin
 femelle.  Leaves shorter, almost appressed and obtuse.
1 Lib. i. cap. 104.                      7 Hist. Nat. lib. xxiv. cap. 61, ed. Valp.
1 Arboretum, vol. iv. p. 2499. 
Common Savin :—Description ; Detection.
309
  Another variety, /.  S. foliis variegatis, has variegated leaves.  A fourth, J. S. prostrata, is  a
low trailing plant.  The fifth, /. <S. alpina, is procumbent, and more slender than the fourth.
  Hab.—Midland  and southern  parts of  Europe, Asiatic  Ilussia.   Cultivated  in
gardens in this country.  Flowers in April.
  Juniperus Virginian*, Linn., the  Red Cedar (the wood  of which  is used for black-lead
pencils) is used in the United States as a substitute for savin.
  Description.—The officinal parts of the plant are the tops (cacumina, summi-
fates), which consist of the young branches with their attached leaves.  They have,
in the fresh state  (cacumina  recentia), a strong, peculiar, heavy odour, especially
when rubbed; and a nauseous, resinous, bitter taste.   The dried tops (cacumina
exsiccata) are yellowish green,  and less odorous than the fresh ones.
   Composition.—Some experiments  on tbe composition  of savin were  made by
Berlisky.1   In 1837, an analysis of this  plant was made by a young chemist of the
name of Gardes.8   The constituents are volatile oil, resin, gallic acid, chlorophylle,
extractive, lignin, and calcareous  salts.
  Oil or Savin (see p. 311).
   Chk.mical Characteristics.—An aqueous infusion of savin is  yellowish, has
the odour and bitter taste of the herb, and forms a soluble green compound (gattate?
of iron) on  the addition of sesquichloride of iron, but is unchanged by a solution of
gelatin.   Oxalate  of ammonia causes, in  the infusion, a white precipitate (oxalate
of lime).   Alcohol acquires a green  colour when digested with  the  tops: on the
addition of water to the alcoholic tincture some resin is separated.   By distillation
with water, both the fresh and dried tops (but especially the first) yield volatile oil.
   Detection.—Savin is sometimes employed for criminal purposes,  and, therefore,
occasionally becomes the subject  of medico-legal inquiries.   Powdered savin in the
stomach and bowels might,  on account of its  green colour, be  mistaken  for bile;
but, when mixed with  distilled water,  it entirely subsides; and, provided no bile  be
intermixed, the supernatant liquor will be devoid of a green  colour.   The  powder,
when  dry,  may be  detected to be that of savin by the peculiar odour of this herb.
The odorous principle (volatile oil) might, if the  quantity of powder be  sufficient,
be separated by submitting  this to distillation with water.   Moreover, savin powder
yields a green colour to alcohol, and its aqueous infusion strikes a green colour with
the tincture of the sesquichloride of iron.   If the powder be coarse, the microscope
may give us important aid in  detecting savin.  A careful examination of the woody
fibres  will detect their circular pores (Fig. 284, A b),  characteristic of the  Gymnos-
perms (see ante, p. 2^2); and by the shape of the apex of  the leaves (when these
can be  obtained),  savin (Fig. 284, cd)  may be detected  from another poisonous
gymnospermous plant  (Fig. 284, e), namely, the Yew (Taxus baccata).*

                                     Fig. 284.
                     Juniperus Sabina.                          Taxus baccata.
a n. Woody fibres (magnified) of Savin ; showing a a, the pores.
c i). Magnified extremity of the leal oi Sa/in, showing the subulate linear leaves.
 k. Magnified extremity of the leaf of Yew (Taxus baccata), showing the linear acute leaves.
  1 Trommmlorff's Journ. viii. 1, 94.               3 Journ. de Chim. Mid. t. iii. p. 331, 2de Ser.
  1 Si'e an interesting report of n case of poisoning by savin, in which the above characters were success-
full)' made n«e of to detect the poison, by Dr. A. Taylor and Mr. Charles Johnson, in the Lond. Med. Gaz.
for Aug S, 1.-15, p. 616. 
310
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Pinace^e.
  Physiological Effects,   a.  On Animals.—Savin acts on animals as an acrid
poison.   Orfila1 applied two drachms of the powder to an incised wound in the leg
of a dog; inflammation and infiltration of the limb took place, and death occurred
in about thirty-six hours.    Four drachms introduced into the stomach of a dog, and
the oesophagus tied, caused death in thirteen  hours; the stomach was  bright  red,
and the rectum a little inflamed.   Orfila infers  that its effects depend principally
on its absorption and its action on the nervous system, the rectum, and the stomach,
A drachm of oil of savin was given by Hillefield2 to a cat.  It caused a flow of
saliva, anxiety, frequent discharge of urine, dulness, trembling, and, in an hour and
a quarter, bloody urine.   The animal having been strangled, the bladder was found
contracted, with some coagulated  blood contained in its cavity.
  |3.  On Man.—Oil of savin, the active principle of the herb, is a powerful local
irritant.   When applied  to the skin, it acts as a rubefacient and vesicant.  On
wounds and ulcers its operation is  that of an acrid (not chemical) caustic. Swallowed
in large  doses, it occasions vomiting,  purging, and other symptoms of gastrointes-
tinal  inflammation.   In  its operation on  the system  generally, it is powerfully
stimulant.  "Savin," says Sundelin,3 "operates  not merely as  irritants generally
do, as a stimulant to the arterial system, but it also eminently heightens the vitality
of  the venous system, the circulation in which  it quickens.  It next powerfully
stimulates the absorbing vessels and glands, the  serous, the fibrous, and the mucous
membranes, and the skin.  It operates as a specific excitant and irritant on the
kidneys, and yet more obviously on the uterus.  The increased secretion of bile and
the augmented volume of the liver, both of which conditions have sometimes been
observed after the copious and long-continued use of  savin, appear  to be connected
with its action on the venous system."  Mohrenheim* mentions the case of a woman,
30 years of age,  who swallowed an infusion of savin to occasion abortion.   Violent
and incessant vomiting was induced.   After some days she experienced excruciating
pains, which were followed by abortion, dreadful hemorrhage from the uterus, and
death.   On examination, the gall-bladder was found ruptured, the bile effused in
the abdomen, and  the intestines  inflamed.   The popular notion  of its*tendency to
cause abortion leads, on many occasions, to the improper use of savin; and the above
is not a  solitary instance  of the fatal  consequences thereof.   A fatal case of its use
as an  emmenagogue  is recorded  by Dr.  Dewees.5  That it  may frequently fail to
provoke premature labour is shown  by the  case, related by Fode>6,8 of a woman
who, in order to produce abortion, took every morning, for twenty days, one hundred
drops of this oil, and yet went her full time and brought forth a living child.  It
ought to be well known that, in those cases in which it may succeed in causing mis-
carriage, it can only do so at  the risk of the woman's life.   Vogt7 says that it has
a tendency to induce an apoplectic state in the foetus.  The emmenagogue power of
savin is fully established.   Perhaps the observations of Home8 are the most satis-
factory of any on this subject, confirmed as they are by the reports of many other
accurate observers.
   Uses.—Savin is  not much  used internally; but, in cases of amenorrhcea and
chlorosis depending on or accompanied by a torpid condition or  deficient action of
the uterine vessels, it may be  given as a powerful uterine stimulant.  In such cases
it proves a most  efficient remedy.   According to my own observation, it is the  most
certain and powerful emmenagogue of the whole materia medica.   My experience
of it, therefore, confirms the statements  of Home.8   Though I have employed it in
numerous cases, I never saw any ill effects result from its administration.  Of course
its use is contraindicated where irritation of the uterus, or indeed of any of the pelvic
viscera, exists.
' Toxicol. Gen.                     » Wibmer, Wirk. d. Arzneim. u. Gifte, Bd. iii. H. 1, P- Wl-
• Heilmittellehre, Bd. ii S. 180, Auf. 3te.  * Murray, App. Med. vol. i. p. 59.
* Compend. Syst. of Midwifery, pp. 133-4. s Mid. Ltg.
' Pharmakodyn.                     » Clinical Experiments,?. 419.            • Ibid. 
Nat. Ord. Taxaceje :—Characters.
311
  In chronic rheumatism, with a languid circulation in the extreme vessels, Chap-
man1 speaks in very high terms of it.  It has been used as an anthelmintic.
  As a topical agent, savin is frequently  employed, mostly in the form of the cerate,
to make prrprfual blisters.   Equal parts of savin and verdigris, in powder, form one
of the most efficacious applications for the removal of venereal warts.   The powder,
an infusion, or the expressed juice of the plant, is occasionally applied to warts, to
old  and indolent ulcers, and in cases of psora and  tinea.
  Administration.—By drying, savin  loses part of its volatile oil, and hence  the
ponder is not the  best preparation of it.   It is, however, sometimes given in doses
of from five to fifteen grains.  A decoction and extract are also objectionable prepa-
rations, on account of  the heat employed in making  them.  An infusion  may be
prepared  by digesting 3j of tbe fresh herb in t'3viij of  boiling water: the dose is
one or two tablespoonfuls.  The oil is by  far the most convenient and certain pre-
paration of savin, and is the only one which I employ.   A conserve of the fresh
leaves is sometimes used.
   1. OLEDI SABN.-E, E. D. [U. S.]; Oil of Sarin.— This is obtained by submitting
the fresh tops to  distillation with water.  It is a limpid, almost colourless liquid,
having the unpleasant odour of  the  plant, and a bitter acrid taste.   Its sp. gr. is
0.915.  Its composition is analogous to  that of oil of turpentine, being C20!!18.   It
agrees with English oil of turpentine in its power of effecting the right-handed rota-
tion of plane polarized light.  Wiuckler2 states that he dissolved one ounce of savin oil
in  the same  quantity of concentrated sulphuric acid, and then distilled it from milk
of lime (to remove the sulphurous acid), and obtained two drachms of an oil which was
undistinguished from the volatile oil of thyme.   The dose  of oil of savin, as an em-
menagogue, is from two to six drops, diffused in a mucilaginous oroleaginous mixture.
    3.  I'XGUEKTm SABIM,L. D.; Savin  Ointment,^. [U. S.];  Ceratum Sabina}.—
(Fresh Savin, bruised, tbss;  White Wax 5iij;  Lard Ibj.   Mix  the  savin  in  the
lurd and wax melted together, then press  through a linen cloth.   The Edinburgh
 College orders of  Fresh  Savin two parts;  Beeswax one part; Axunge four part*.
Melt the wax and axunge together, add the savin and boil  them together till  the
leaves are friable; then  strain.   The Dublin College orders Savin Tops, dried and
 in  fine powder, 3J; Ointment of White Wax 3vij.  Mix the powder intimately with
 the ointment by  trituration.  [The U.  S. Pharm. directs  Savin, in  powder, 3ij;
 Besin Cerate ibj.   Mix the savin with the cerate previously melted.])—The boiling
 is  considered objectionable on account of the loss of a portion of the oil.  The colour
 of this cerate should be fine green, and its odour that of the plant;  the former pro-
 perty depends on chlorophylle, and  the  latter on  the oil of savin.   Savin cerate is
 used as a dressing  to blistered  surfaces, to  produce  what is  termed  a perpetual
 blister.   It  is preferred  to the ceratum cantharidis as being less acrid, and  not
 liable to  cause strangury.   It is sometimes applied to seton tapes, to increase  the
 discharge from setons.
    Antiuotks—In a case of poisoning  by savin herb or its oil, the first indication
is  to remove the  poison  from the stomach and  bowels.   Opiates and demulcent
drinks should then be given.   The warm  bath may be advantageously employed.
 Bloodletting should be resorted to if the inflammatory symptoms indicate, and the
 condition of the system permit it.


          Order XXIII.  TAXACE.E, Lindl—TAXADS.
                                 Taxineje, Endl.

  Characters.—Naked seeded exogens,  with repeatedly branched, continuous stems, simple
 /raw* often furk-veined, solitary female/ouw*, 2-celled anthers opening longitudinally, membrane

    1 Eltm. of The rap.              » Buchner's Repertorium, 2ter Reihe, Bd. xlii.S. 330, 1846. 
312
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Taxaceje.
next the nucleus of the ovule inclosed,seed usually supported or surrounded by a succulent imper-
fect cap-shaped pericarp, embryo straightened, dicotyledonous, and albumen fleshy.
  Properties.—The Taxactae agree with the Pmacea in the resinous quality of their juice«
but abound more in bitter astringent, and some of them in narcotico acrid principles.
                107.  Taxus baccata, Linn.—Common Yew.

                               Sea:. Syst. Dioecia, Monudelpliia.
                                     fFolia et semina.)

  Zfju>ag, by some  called Su/xaXof, by the Romans termed -tb^o?, Dioscorides, lib. iv cap. 80.—
Taxus, Pliny, lib xvi. cap. 2D et 33; and lib.xxiv. cap. 72.—A  tree often attaining aconsiderable
bulk.   Leaves scattered, nearly sessile, 2-ranked, crowded, linear,  acute, entire,  very slightly
revolute. about 1 inch long, dark green, smooth and shining above, paler with a prominent mid-
rib beneath, terminating in a small harmless point.   Flowers axillary sessile.   Fruit drooping,
consisting of a succulent, sweet, internally glutinous, scarlet cup, inclosing an oval,  brown, nuci-
form seed, unconnected with the fleshy part.— In  1828, Peretti1 analyzed yew (the leaves?),and
obtained a bitter volatile oil. a bitter non crystallizable substance, a  yellow colouring  matter, resin,
tannin, gallic acid, chlorophylle, mucilage, sugar, and malate of lime.  In 1S18, Chevallier and
Lassaigne2 examined  the pulpy cup of the fruit, and found in it a  non crystallizable ferment-
able sugar, gum, malic and phosphoric acids, and a carmine-red fatty matter.  In 1843, Martin3
analyzed the seeds, and obtained from them  a volatile oil having a terebinthinate odour, fixed
oil, a green very bitter resin, sugar, albumen (in small quantity), sulphate of lime, and vegetable
fibre.
  The poisonous properties of  yew were known to the ancient Greeks and Romans, and have
been fully established by modern experience, although some few writers have expressed doubts
concerning them.   Percival4 states that three children were poisoned by  the fresh leaves. Dr.
Mollan5 has mentioned the case of a lunatic who died in  11 hours after taking yew-leaves: the
symptoms were  giddiness, sudden  prostration of strength, vomiting, coldness of the  surface,
spasms, and irregular  action of the heart.  Mr. Hurt6 has reported an interesting case of a child,
three years and a half old, who died in less than four hours after  eating the fruit: the symptoms
were vomiting, convulsions, purple lips, and dilated pupil. Considered both in a toxicological
and therapeutical point of view, the yew appears  to hold an intermediate  position between
savin and foxglove.  To savin it is allied  by  its  botanical affinities  and chemical composition,
but  also by its acrid, evacuant,  diuretic, arid emmenagogue properties.  But, on the other hand,
its relation to the neurotics,  especially  to sedatives (see vol. i., p. 258), is marked  By the giddi-
ness, irregular and  depressed action of  the  heart, convulsions, and insensibility which it pro-
duces.   It is said that, when used for medicinal purposes, it is unlike digitalis, in not being apt
to accumulate in the system.  As a poison it belongs to  the class of acro-narcotics; as a medi-
cine it  is used as a  sedative, antispasmodic, emmenagogue, lithic,  and resolvent.  As a sedative
it has been proposed  by Rempinelli and Martin  to be used as a substitute for, and under the
same indications as, digitalis.   As an emmenagogue it has been  given in cases similar to those
for which savin is sometimes administered.   Dr. A. Taylor' says that " infusion of yew-leaves,
which  is popularly  called  yew-tree tea. is sometimes used for  the purpose of procuring abortion
by ignorant midwives."   As a  lithic it has been employed in calculous complaints; as an anti-
spasmodic in epilepsy and convulsions; as a resolvent  in hepatic  and gouty complaints.  In
pulmonary and vesical catarrh  it has likewise been used. The  powder of the leaves or seeds
is given in doses of from  half a grain to two or three grains.  The extract of the leaves (extractum
taxi, Cod. Hamb.). prepared by evaporating the expressed juice  of  the leaves, is  administered
in doses of one or two grains, and gradually increased.   The  alcoholic and ethereal  extract of the
seeds is employed in doses of from  £th or jd of a grain.   In cases of poisoning by  yew, the first
indication is to expel the poison from the stomach by the means already pointed out (see vol. i.
p. 201).   The sedative and narcotic effects are to be counteracted  by stimulants such as ammonia
(see the treatment for poisoning by foxglove).
            Sub-class II.    Angiospermx.—Jlngiosperms.
                                     Exogens, Lindl.
  Characters —Ovules  inclosed in an ovary, and fertilized by the application of the pollen to
the stigma.
1 Journ de Pharm. t. xiv. p. 537. 1828.                         a Ibid. t. iv. p. 558,1819.
* Jahresbericht uber d. Fortschritte d. Pharm. in Jahre 1843, S. 18.
4 Essays, Med. Phil, and Exper. vol. iii. p. 257.
4 Dublin Hospital Gazette, May 15, 1S45, p. 109.
• Lancet, Dec. 10, 1836.                                    ' On Poisons, p. 790. 
Nat. Ord. Liquidambarace^e.—Liquidambars.             313
  In accordance with the classification followed by De Candolle, the natural orders of this sub-
class will  be arranged in the four following subdivisions:  1 st, Monochlamydea; 2dly, Corolli-
ftorce; 3dly, Calycifloree,- and 4thly, Thalamiflora.


          SUBDIVISION  I.  MONOCHLAMYDEiE,  De  Cand.

                                  Apetals, Endlicher.

Flowers frequently unisexual.  Perianth absent, rudimentary or simple, calycine or coloured, free or
                                  connate with the ovary.



       Order XXIV.   LIQUIDAMBARACE^,  Richard.—

                              LIQUIDAMBARS.

          Balsamiflu^, Blume, Endl.—Altingiace.zb et. olim BALSAMACEiB, Lindley.

   Characters.— Tall trees, with amentaceous unisexual flowers;  a 2 celled, 2-lobed, many-
 seeded capsule; and winged seeds, with the embryo inverted in fleshy albumen.
   Propeuti fcs.—Balsamic,  fragrant.


                            108.  Liquidambar, Linn.

                                   Altingia, Noronha.

   As  this is the only germs of the order, its characters  are  necessarily those of the latter.   It
 consists of a very small number of species, of which none probably are officinal.  But, as their
 balsamic  products have been confounded with storax arid balsam of Peru (two  officinal sub-
 stances), a short notice of them is requisite.
   1. L. styraciflua, Linn ;  Street  Gum; White Gum.—A  native of the United  States and
 Mexico, attaining, in the southern districts, an immense size.   In Louisiana and Mexico there is
 obtained,  by makina incisions into the stem, a fluid balsamic juice called liquidambar or copalm
 balsam.   In this fluid state  it constitutes the liquid liquidambar, or oil of liquidambar of Guibourt.
 It  is transparent, amber-yellow, Has the  consistence of a thick oil, a balsamic odour, and an
 aromatic, acrfd, bitter taste.  By time it concretes, and becomes darker coloured.  The soft solid
 called by Guiljourt soft or white liquidambar, is perhaps a mixture of the opake deposit of the
 fluid balsam, and of the latter rendered concrete by keeping.   It  is a soft, almost opake solid,
 very similar in appearance to concrete turpentine.  Its odour is similar to, though weaker than,
 the liquid balsam.  Its taste is balsamic and sweetish.   Bonastre1 analyzed a very fluid sample,
 recently received from America, and found it to consist  of—volatile oil, 7.0 , semi-concrete matter,
 11.1; benzoic acid, 1.0; crystalline matter soluble in water  and alcohol, 5.3; yellow colouring matter,
 2.05; oleo-ic*in, 4 9.0 ;  styracin, 24.0; loss. 0.55.  The volatile oil consists, according to Henry,
 of CI0H7.   Styracin is a fusible, crystalline substance, soluble in boiling  alcohol, and composed,
 according to Henry, of C"H502.   The proportion of benzoic  [cinnamic?] acid is increased by
 time.  Mr. Hodgson2 obtained from a sample which he  examined 4.2 per cent.
   Liquidambar has been confounded with both white  balsam of Peru and liquid storax.  The
 liquidambar which I have  received from  M. Guibourt is quite different from a genuine sample
 of the white balsam of Peru received hy me from Guatemala, and  it  is equally different from the
 liquid storax of the shops.  And Dr. Wood8 observes that some of  the genuine juice  of liquid-
 ambar styraciflua brought from New Orleans, which he examined, had an odour entirely distinct
 from that of liquid  storax.
   A thick, dark-coloured, opake, impure substance is obtained from tbe young branches of this
 species by boiling them in water and skimming off the  fluid balsam which rises to the surface.
 This also has been confounded with  liquid storax, but none of it comes to this country.
   The effects and uses of liquidambar are similar to those of storax and other balsamic sub-
 stances.   The dose of it is from ten  to twenty grains.
   2. L. Alti.vgia, Blume; Altingia excelsa, Noronha.—A native of Java, where it  is called
 Rassamala  (Rusumulla or Rosa-mallas, Auct.)  It yields a  fragrant  balsam, which  by some
 writers has been  regarded  as the  liquid storax of the shops.   But the latter substance comes to
 F.ngland  by way of Trieste, and, according to Landerer,4 is the produce of Styrax officinale, and
 as such I shall describe it hereafter (sec S'yrax offirinale).*   Petiver says  that the Rosa-mallas
 grows in  Cobross, an island at the upper end of the Red Sea, near  Cadess, which is three days'
* Journ. dt Pharm. t. xvii. p 338, 1831.
* Journal of the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, vi. 190.         3 United Slates Dispensatory.
' Pharmacculisches Central-Blatt fur ls40, p. 11.                  » Phil. Trans, vol. xxvi. p. 44. 
314
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Salicace^.
journey from Suez.  Its bark is removed annually, and boiled in salt water until it come9 to a
consistence like birdlime; it is then separated, put in barrels (each  holding 420 lbs ), and sent
to Mot ha, by way of Judda.   The Arabs and Turks call it Cotter Mija.
  Dr. Marquart' analyzed some  of the genuine resin  of L. Mingia, and,  by distillation with
carbonate of soda, obtained a volatile oil resembling styrol, and a substance resembling styracin
but which had a different composition.
  3. L. orientale, Miller;  L. imberbe,  Aiton;  Platanus orientalis,  Pocock.—This  tree grows
in Cyprus, where it is called Xylon Effendi (the wood of our Lord).  By incisions made in the
bark, it yields a kind of white  turpentine, and a very fragrant oil.  Dr. Lindley thinks it is
probable that the liquid storax of the shops is collected from this tree; but 1 do not agree with
him in this opinion.
   Order XXV.   SALICACEiE, LindL—WILLOW WORTS.
                                 Salicine^, Richard.
  Charactf.rs.—Flowers unisexual, amentaceous.  Stamens distinct or monadelphous; anthert
2-celled.  Ovary superior, 1-celled ; ovules numerous, erect, at the base of the cell, or adhering
to the lower part of the sides; style 1 or 0, stigmas 2 or 4.  Fruit coriaceous, 1-celled, 2 valved,
many-seeded.  Seeds either  adhering to the lower part of the axis of each valve, or to the base
of the cell; comose; albumen 0;  embryo erect; radicle inferior.—Trees or shrubs.  Leaves alter-
nate, simple, with deliquescent primary veins, and frequently with glands; stipules deciduous
or persistent (Lindley).
  Properties.—The barks of the species of this order are astringent and tonic; the astringency
being due to tannic acid, the tonic property to salicine or some other bitter principle.  An oleo-
resinous or balsamic substance, of a stimulant nature, is secreted by the buds of some of the
species.

                      109.  SALIX, Zm«-WILLOW.
                              Sea;. Syst. Dioecia, Diandria.
                   (Cortex e speciebus salicis diversis; cortex salicis, offic.)

   History.—Dioscorides2 speaks of the  astringent qualities of the Iria, ortnT-
low (Salix alba?), which was  employed in medicine by the ancients.   For a long
series of years  it fell into disuse,  but was  again  brought into  notice in  1763, by
the Rev.  Mr. Stone,3 who published  a paper on  the  efficacy of the bark  of Salix
alba, as a remedy for agues.   The  broad-leaved willow bark (Salix  Caprea) was
subsequently introduced into practice by Mr.  James,4 whose observations on its
efficacy were afterwards  confirmed  by Mr.  White5 and Mr. G. Wilkinson.8
   Botany.  Gen. Char.—Flowers dioecious, or rarely monoecious, amentaceous;
scales imbricated ; a gland surrounding the stamens or ovary.  Males:  Stamens
2 to 5, usually 2, sometimes  the 2 united into 1,  and then  the anther is 4-celled.
Females :  Seeds comose ;  the radicle inferior (Bot.  Gall.).
   Species.—Sir J. E. Smith7  mentions sixty-four indigenous species of Salix; but
pharmacological and botanical writers are  not agreed  as to which species possesses
the most medicinal power.   The best practical rule to follow is this :   Select those
whose barks possess great  bitterness, combined with  astringency.  The  following
are those which  are in the greatest repute  :—
   1.  Salix  Russelliana,  Smith;  the Bedford   Willow.—Leaves lanceolate,
tapering at each  end, serrated  throughout, very  smooth.  Footstalks  glandular or
leafy.   Germen  tapering, stalked,  longer than the scales.   Style as  loug as tbe
stigmas (Smith).—A tree.   In marshy woods, wet meadows, &c, in various parts
of Britain.  Flowers in  April and May.   Its  bark abounds  in tannic acid.  On
account of its astringency, Sir  J. E.  Smith regards it  as the  most valuable  officinal

  1 Jahrb.fitr prakt. Pharmacie, Bd. v. p. 486 (quoted by Dierbach, in the Erganzungsheft to Geiger'l
Handb. d. Pharm. '2te Aufl 1843).
  1 Lib. i. cap. 136.                                           » Phil. Trans, vol. liii- P-!&•
  * Observations on a particular Species of  Willow, 1792.
  * Observations and experiments on the Broad-leaved Willow Bark. 8vo. Bnth, 1798.
  ' Experiments and Observ. on the Cortex Salicis Latifolia, Svo Newcaitle-upuu-Tyne [1603].
  ' Engl. Flora, iv. 
              Willow:—Description; Physiological Effects.           815

species;  and  he observes, that if it has occasionally disappointed medical practi-
tioners, they probably chanced in such cases to give the S. fragilis.^
  2.  Salix alba, Linn.; the Common White  Willow.—Leaves elliptic-lanceolate,
pointed,  serrated, silky on both sides; the  lowest  serratures glandular.   Stamens
hairy.   Germen smooth, almost sessile.   Stigmas deeply cloven.   Scales rounded
(Smith).—A tall tree.   River-sides, moist woods, &c, in various parts of Britain.
Flowers  in May.  Its bark, called cortex salignum, or cortex anglicanum of  some
writers, is astringent, but less so than that of the preceding species.
  3.  Salix Caprea, Linn.; Salix latifolia rotunda, Bauhin ;  Great Round-leaved
 Willow.—Stem erect.   Leaves roundish-ovate, pointed,  serrated, waved;  pale and
downy  beneath.  Stipules  somewhat  crescent-shaped.   Catkins  oval.   Germen,
stalked,  ovate, silky.   Stigmas nearly  sessile,  undivided.    Capsules  swelling
(Smith).—A  tree.   Indigenous,  very common ;  growing  in  woods  and hedges.
Flowers in April.   Its bark is the  broad-leaved willow bark  (cortex salicis  lati-
folise) recommended by James, White, and Wilkinson (see  ante, p. 314).
  4.  Salix frauilis, Linn.; the Crack  Willow.—Leaves ovate-lanceolate, pointed,
Berrated throughout,  very smooth.   Footstalks glandular.   Germen ovate, abrupt,
nearly sessile, smooth.   Scales  oblong, about equal to the stamens and pistils.
 Stigmas cloven, longer than the style (Smith).—A tree.   Indigenous;  about the
 banks of rivers.  Flowers in April and May.
   5.  Salix pentandra, Linn.; Sweet Bay-Leaved  Willow.—This species is offi-
 cinal in the Prussian Pharmacopoeia, and is preferredjjy Nees  von Eseubeck  to all
 other species.   Its bark is the cortex salicis laurese of some pharmacologists.
   6.  Salix purpurea, Linn.; Bitter I*urple Willow.—This species deserves notice
 on  account  of the intense bitterness of its bark.
  Description.—Willow bark (cortex salicis) varies, in its appearance  and quali-
 ties, according to the species and the age of the  tree from which it is procured.  In
 the dried state it is usually quilled and odourless.  It should have a bitter and as-
 tringent taste.
   Composition.—The  bark of Salix alba was analyzed  by MM.  Pelletier and
 Caventou,1  who obtained the  following results  :  Bitter yellow colouring matter,
green fatty matter similar to that found in cinchona, tannin, resinous extract,  gum,
 wax, woody fibre, and a magnesian salt containing an organic acid.
   These celebrated chemists failed to isolate salicine, which must have been  con-
 tained  in their bitter yellow colouring matter, either mixed or  combined with some
 other matter.  Their resinous extract is  probably identical with what  Braconnot
 calls  corticin.
  1. Tannic Acid.—This is the astringent principle of willow bark.  Sir H. Davy2 gives the
 following as the quantities  of tannin [impure tannic acid] in the bark of two willows:—
                             480 lbs. of bark.                        lbs. of tannin.
          Leicestershire Willow [Salix Russelliana'} large size..............33
          Common willow     [Salix    ?]      large................11
. 2. Salicine.—See p. 316.
  Chemical  Characteristics.—A decoction  of  the bark,  made with distilled
water, is coloured dark green (tannate of iron) by sesquichloride of iron; but,  made
with spring water, dark  purple.  Solution of gelatin  produces  a precipitate  (tan-
nate of gelatin) in the decoction, but tincture of nutgalls causes no turbidness.   A
strong decoction of willow bark, containing  much salicine,  is reddened by concen-
trated sulphuric acid.
  Puysiologioal Effects.—Willow bark  possesses both bitterness and astrin-
gency.   It  belongs,  therefore, to  the astringent bitters, whose eflFects  have been
already noticed (see vol. i., p. 244).  It is less apt to disturb the stomach than cin-
chona, but its tonic and  febrifuge powers  are less than  the  latter.   Yogt3 ascribes
to it balsamic properties.
1 Journ. de Pharm. t. vii. p. 123.
' Pharmakodynamik, Bd. i. S. 658.
1 Elements of Agricultural Chemistry, 4th edit. p. 83. 
316               VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Salicace^e.
   Uses.—It has been  employed as  an indigenous substitute for cinchona.   The
indications for its use, therefore, are  the same as those for the latter.   It  is given
in intermittents, dyspeptic complaints accompanied with, or dependent on, a debili-
tated condition of the digestive organs, passive  hemorrhages, chronic mucous dis-
charges, in  the stage of convalescence  after fever, and as  an anthelmintic.  As a
local astringent, the powder or infusion is sometimes employed, but there are many
more efficient remedies  of  this kind.
   Administration.—The dose of the powder  is Jss  to 5J-  The infusion or de-
coction  (prepared with 3J  of  the  bark and Oj of water) may be  given in doses of
from f£j to fgiij.
   SALICINUM;  Salicine.—Obtained in a more or less  impure state by Brugnatelli,
Fontana,1  in 1825, and  Buchner2 in  1828, and in  a pure state  by Leroux3 in
1829.  Has  been found  in  about fourteen  species of  Salix and eight species of
Populus.*   It has been detected in the bark, leaves, and flowers.   Herberger ob-
tained 250  grains, Merck  251 grains, from 16 ounces of the bark and young twigs
of Salix Helix;  Erdmann,  however,  procured,  by another process,  300 grains
from the bark of Salix pentandra.5   Merck's process for obtaining it, as stated by
Liebig,8 is as follows :—
   " Dried or fresh willow bark is  cut  small, and exhausted  by repeated boiling with water
The decoctions are concentrated,  and while boiling treated with litharge till the liquor appears
nearly colourless.  The dissolved oxide of lead  is  removed, first by sulphuric acid, afterwards
by sulphuret of barium, and, aftec- the  separation of sulphuret of lead, evaporated, when sali-
cine crystallizes; and is purified  by repeated solution and crystallization (Merck).  From wil-
low  bark, which is fresh and  rich in  salicine, it  may be obtained by cautious evaporation of
the cold aqueous infusion  (Merck).  The  oxide of lead removes from  the solution gum, tan-
nin,  and extractive matter, which would  impede the  crystallization of the salicine. It also
combines with the salicine, forming a  kind  of salt which  is  decomposed by the  sulphuric
acid  and sulphuret of barium.   If the latter be carefully added, neither sulphuric acid nor
baryta remain in the solution ; and the  sulphuret of lead, which separates, acts as a decolor-
izing agent."
   Salicine crystallizes  in  silky needles and  laminae.   It is white, very bitter, in-
odorous, neutral  to  vegetable  colours, fusible at. 230° F., and  combustible at a
higher  temperature.   It  rotates to the  left  a ray of plane  polarized light.   It is
much more soluble in boiling than in cold water, 100 parts  of  which dissolve only
5.6  parts of salicine.   It is also soluble in alcohol, but not so in  ether  or the vola-
tile  oils.  It is not precipitated by any agent.   Oil of  vitriol colours it blood-red.7
By this test the presence of salicine is  detected  in its  solutions, and in decoctions
of willow and poplar barks.   Chromic  acid (or  a  mixture of bichromate of potash
and  sulphuric acid)  converts salicine  (C26HlsOu) into hydruret of salicyle  (also
called salicylous acid),  C14Hs04,H  (oil of meadow-sweet) carbonic acid  and formic
acid.   Hence this acid  may be  employed as  a test for  salicine.   For this purpose
3  parts of  salicine, 3  of  bichromate of potash, and  24  of water, are to be dis-
solved in water, and  to the solution 4 \ parts of  oil of vitriol diluted with 12 parts
of water are to be added.   On the  application  of heat, the well-known odour of
the  flowers of meadow-sweet (Spirsea  ulmaria) is  evolved.    If  diluted hydro-
chloric  or sulphuric  acid  be  boiled with  a  solution of salicine,  the fluid  becomes
suddenly turbid, and deposits a precipitate of saliretine, glucose  being at the same
time formed.
                      C»H,80" +  4HO  =  C»H80«  +  C'*H»0'«
                       Salicine.   Water.   Saligenine.   Glucose.
' Journ. de Chim. M£d. t. i. p. 216, 1825.
1 Repert.fUr d. Pharm. Bd. xxix. S. 411, 1828.  Also Journ. de Pharm. xvi. 242.
* Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. t. xliii. p. 440.  Also Journ. de Chim. Mtd. t. vi. p. 340, 1800.
4 Herberger. Pharmaceutisches Central-Blatt fur lfe3s, S. &4c<.
* Ibid. S '-5J.          s                             « Turner's Chemistry, 7th edit. p. 816.
 Phloridzin, veratria, piperin, oil of bitter almonds, &c. are also coloured red by oil of vitriol. 
Common British Oak :—History.
317
  By the prolonged action of heat, saligenine loses  the elements of water  (2HO)
and becomes saliretine (C14H8Oa).
  Salicine has been repeatedly subjected to analysis.
                                                                Piria.1
                   Atoms.   Eg. Wt.    Per Ct.     .-----------------"----------------->
                             H                     I.         II.        III.       IV.
Carbon..........26  ...  156  ...  54.54  ... 54 87  ...  54.24  .  . .  54.73  .  . .  54.48
Hydrogen......... 18  . . .   18  . . .   6 29  . . .  6 36  . . .   6.39  .  . .   6.43  .  . .   6.31
Oxygen.......... 14  ...  112  ...  39.17  . . . 38.77  ■ ■ ■  39.37  .  . ■  38.84  .  . .  39.21
Salicine. . . .".'.....  1  T.7~286  . . . IOO'.OOTTTTToO.OO  . . . 100.00  .  . .  100.00  .  . . 100.00

  Salicine possesses tonic properties analogous  to disulphate of quina,  than which
it is less liable to irritate the stomach.  In its passage  through the  system  salicine
undergoes oxidation, and is converted into hydruret of  salicyle, which  is  found  in
the urine.   Its presence is detected by a  persalt  of iron, which  strikes  an  intense
violet colour  with urine  containing  it.a   It is  employed in dyspepsia,  intermit-
tents, and other  diseases for which cinchona and disulphate of quina  are  usually
exhibited.   In the event of the latter becoming scarce, salicine would  prove an
exceedingly valuable  substitute.   The dose  of  it  is from 10  to 30   grains.   It
may  be given in  powder mixed with  sugar or  dissolved in some aromatic water.3
Its quickest action in intermittents  is said  to be  obtained when  it is  given  in
powder.4
              Order XXVI.    CUPULIFERiE, Richard.

                                 ConTLACKiE, Mirbei.

  Characters.—Flowers unisexual: males amentaceous;  females  aggregate or amentaceous.
Males: Stamens 5 to  20, inserted into  the base of the scales, or of a membranous  valvate
calyx, generally distinct.  Females: Ovaries crowned by the rudiments of an adherent (supe-
rior) calyx, seated within a coriaceous involucre (cupule)  of various figure, and with  several
cells and several ovules, the greater part of which are abortive; ovules twin or solitary, pen-
dulous or peltate: stigmas several, subsessile, distinct.  Fruit a bony or  coriaceous, 1-celled nut,
more  or  less inclosed in the involucre.   Seeds solitary, 1,2, or 3: embryo large,with plano-
convex, fleshy  cotyledons, and a minute superior  radicle.—Trees or shrubs.  Leaves with  sti-
pules, alternate, simple, often with veins proceeding straight from  the midrib to the  margin
(Lindley).
  Properties.—The prevailing quality of this order is astringency, owing to the presence of
tannic acid.
  Besides the species presently to be described, the following may be here briefly referred  to:
Quercus tinctoria, or the Black Oak, is a native of America.  Its bark, called quercitron, is used
by dyers.  In the United States it is employed medicinally, but it is said to be disposed to irri-
tate the bowels.—The large capsules or acorn cups of Quercus JEgilops are imported from  the
Levant, under the name of Velonia. They are astringent, and are employed by dyers.—A sac-
charine substance exudes from the leaves of Quercus mannifera in Kurdistan.5


    UO. QUERCUS PEDUNCULATA,  WW—THE COMMON
                                 BRITISH OAK.
                                 Quercus Robur, Linn.
                             Sex. Syst.  Mnncecia, Polyandria.
                              (Cortex, L.—The Bark, E. D.)

  History.—The oaks (Quercus  of botanists)  were held sacred  by the Greeks,
Romans, Gauls, and Britons.   They are mentioned in  the Old Testament.6   Both
Dioscorides and  Galen were acquainted  with  their  astringent qualities.  " Every
part of  the oak" (fipvj;  Q- sessilifiora and pedunculata  according  to  Fraas,  but

  1 Ann. de Chim. »t de Phys. 3me S»r. t. xiv. p. 257,1845.
  * Lavernn nnd Millnn. Comptes Rendus. t. xix. p. 347;  and Annuaire de Chimie, p. 5So, 1845  These
writer* state that snlicylir ncid win also produced; but YVohlerand Krericlis found that hvdruret of sali-
cyle did not become changed into salicylic acid in its pasmige through the system.
  ' Blom, Beobacht. u. Beitr. «2. die Salicine, Potminqi, ls35.       « Lond. Med. Gaz. Fe\ 28 1810
  1 Lindley, Botanical litgister, May and June, 18J0.            • Isaiah, i. 29 30. 
318
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Cupulifer^.
according to Sibthorp  Q. jEgilops), says Dioscorides,1  " but  especially the liber,
possesses an astringent property."
  Botany.  Gen.  Char.  Monoecious.   Male flowers :  Catkins lax and pen.
dulous.   Perianth  lacerated.   Stamens 5 to  10.   Female flowers : Involucre
scaly; the scales numerous, imbricated; combined with  a coriaceous, hemispherical
cup.  Perianth 6-lobed,  adnate to the  ovary.   Ovary 3-celled ; 2 of the cells
abortive.   Stigmas 3.   Nut 1-celled, 1-seeded,  surrounded  at the base by the
cupule (acorn-cnp).   (Bot. Gall.)

                                   Fig. 284*.
«. Male catkins,  b. Magnified male flower, c. Female flower with the stigmas magnified,  d. Acorn
            in embryo,  e. Sections of young acorn.  /. Cotyledon with the radicle.

   Sp. Char.—Leaves deciduous, shortly-stalked, oblong-obovate, deeply sinuate; their
sinuses rather acute,  lobes obtuse.   Fruits 2 or 3 upon a long peduncle (Hooker).
   A large and handsome tree, remarkable for its longevity.  Twigs round, smooth,
grayish-brown.  Leaves bright green, furnished  with a single  midrib sending off
veins into the  lobes.   Male flowers yellowish ; females greenish, tinged with brown.
   The long peduncles which support the  female  catkins have given the name of
pedunculata or long-stalked to this species of Quercus or Oak.
   Hab.__Indigenous,  growing in  woods  and hedges.   Flowers in April.  It is
found in most European countries.
   Barking.—In the spring, the barks  of trees contain more  astringent matter,
and are more readily separated from the wood.   The usual time for barking the
oak is from the beginning of May to  the middle of July.  The barkers  make a
longitudinal incision with a mallet furnished  with a sharp edge, and a circular inci-
sion by means of a barking-bill.  The bark is then  removed  by  the peeling-irons,
the separation being promoted, when necessary, by beating the bark with the square
end of the mallet.   It is then carefully dried in the air, by setting it on what are
called lofts or ranges, and is afterwards stacked.2
   Description.—Oak bark (cortex quercfis) consists of pieces of from one to two
feet long, which vary in their appearance according to the age of the stem or branch

  1  Lib. i. cap. 142.                  ' Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Agriculture, 3d edit. pp. 65M- 
      Oak Bark.—Composition; Chemical Characteristics; Uses.    319

from which they have been taken.   The  bark of young stems  is thin, moderately
smooth, covered externally with a  silvery or  ash-gray cuticle, and  is frequently
beset with lichens.   Internally it is, in the fresh state, whitish;  but,  when  dried,
brownish, red,  fibrous.   The bark  of old stems  is  thick, very rough externally,
cracked, and wrinkled,  and is usually of  inferior quality.
  Composition.—According to Braconnot,1 oak bark contains—tannic "acid, tan-
nates of lime, magnesia, potash, &c, gallic acid, uncrystallizable sugar, pectin, and
lignin.
  The quantity of Tannin [impure tannic acid] obtained by Davy2 from oak bark, is as fol-
lows:—
         480 lbs. of                                         Tannin afforded.
             Entire bark of middle-sized oak, cut in spring...........£!9 lbs.
                 "      coppice oak...................... 32
                 "      oak, cut in autumn..............". . . . 21
             White interior cortical layers of oak bark..............72
  Biggins3 obtained 30 parts of tannin from the bark of an oak felled in winter, while the same
weight of the bark of  an  oak felled in spring  yielded him 108 parts.
   Chemical Characteristics.—Decoction  of oak  bark reddens  litmus, and be-
comes dark blue or  purple  (tannate of iron) on  the  addition  of»sesquichloride of
iron.  A solution of gelatin causes  a precipitate (tannate of gelatin) with it.  It
is somewhat remarkable, however, that a solution of emetic  tartar causes no  pre-
cipitate with the decoction.   [If alcohol be added to the decoction, concentrated to
the consistence of a syrup, it causes the  precipitation of pectin.   A decoction, ren-
dered alkaline by a  fixed alkali, deposits a gelatinous matter (pectic acid) on  the
addition of acetic acid.   Braconnot.']
   Physiological Effects.—The effects of oak bark are similar to those of other
vegetable astringents containing tannic acid, and have  been already described  (see
vol.  i., p. 201).
   Uses.—The principal  value  of oak bark in medicine arises from its astringent
property.  Thus we employ a  decoction  of it as a gargle in relaxed conditions of
the  uvula, and in chronic  inflammatory affections  of the throat ;* as a wash in
flabby, ill-conditioned, or bleeding ulcers; as an injection in leucorrhcea, in piles, or
in prolapsus of the  uterus or rectum ; as an  internal astringent in old diarrhoeas,
in the last stage of  dysentery,  in alvine  hemorrhages, &c.   Poultices made of pow-
dered oak  bark have been  applied with benefit to mortified  parts.5  Mr. Lizars6
states that he  has obtained " wonderful success" in the cure of reducible herniae by
bathing the groin (the  hernia having been previously reduced) three or four times
daily with a warm inspissated  decoction  of oak  bark, and then applying a truss.
The practice, however,  is not a new one.7
   The inhalation  of  finely-powdered oak bark is said to have proved very beneficial
in supposed cases of pulmonary consumption.8   I  have already noticed (see vol. i.,
p. 175) the inspiration of impalpable powders of other  astringents  as a remedy
for phthisis.   Connected with this, the popular opinion of the  exemption of  ope-
rative tanners  from phthisis pulmonalis deserves to be mentioned.   Dr. Dods,9 who
has paid some  attention to this subject, concludes, that  the popular notion is cor-
rect; and he ascribes the exemption to "the  inhalation of that peculiar aroma, or
volatile matter, which is constantly arising from tan-pits during the process of tan-
ning with bark."  Hitherto, however, no sufficient evidence has been  advanced to
prove that tanners are exempt from the disease.
  As a tonic,'oak bark has been employed in  medicine, but it is much inferior to
the cinchona.   Baths made of a decoction of this substance have been used by Dr.
Eberle in the intermittents of very young children with benefit; and Dr.  Fletcher  '
-                         ^                 .  .-----------------------------
  1 Ann.de Chim.  etde Phys. t. I. p.381.               » Elem. of Agricult. Chem. 4th edit, p  83
   1'ialf, Syst. d. Mat. Med. Bd. ii. S. 207.              * Cullen, Mat. Med. vol. ii. p. 45.
  ' Hartnn, Collection towards a Mat. Med. of the United States.
  1 Ed. Med. and Surg. Journal, July 1822.
  ' See the references in Plouequet's Literatura Medica, t. ii. p. 297.
  " Eberle, Treatise on Mat. Med. 2d edit. vol. i. p.  208.   * Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. iii. p. 479 
% 320
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Cupulifer^i.
of Virginia, has recommended the same remedy in tabes mesenterica.1   The decoc-
tion, powder, and  extract, have been taken internally in intermittcnts, but they are
very apt to irritate the stomach.   Dr. Cullen8 says, that  both by itself,  and  joined
with chamomile flowers, he has prevented the paroxysms  of intermittents.
   Administration.—Dose  of the powder  from  half a  drachm to one or two
drachms.                       #

   DECOCTUM QUERCUS, L. E. D.; Decoction of Oak Bark.—(Oak Bark, bruised, Sx
[|iss,Z>.J; Water  [Distilled, L.] Oij [Oiss., Z>.].   Boil down to a pint and strain!)—
Used as a local astringent for various purposes, in the form of gargle, injection or
lotion.   Administered in doses of f,§ii to f3vi.   Sometimes  employed  as a bath
especially for children.                                                       '


      III. QUERCUS  INFECTORIA, Olivier.-THE  GALL, OR
                               DYER'S  OAK.
                           Sex. Syst. Monoecia, Polyandria.
(Galla; Tumor ramuli aCynipe; Gallee  tinctoriseexcitatus, L.—GalloR ;  Excrescences, £.—Galli tbe
                ■   excrescences formed by Diplolepis Gallae tinctorium, D.)              '
   History.—Hippocrates employed the nutgall (xrxic) as  an astringent, both in-
ternally and externally.3   Dioscorides4 describes it as the  fruit of  the oak; and the
same error is found in the works of comparatively recent  writers,  as of Pomet.5
   Botany.  Gen. Char.—Vide Quercus pedunculata.
   Sp. Char.—Leaves  ovate-oblong, sinuate-dentate, very smooth, deciduous.  Fruit
sessile, very long.8
   Small tree or shrub, from four to six feet  high.  Stem crooked.   Leaves on short
petioles, with a few short mucronate teeth on each side.  Acorn two or three  times
as long as the cupules.
  Hab.—Asia Minor, from the Bosphorus to Syria, and from the Archipelago to
the frontiers of Persia.
  Formation of  Galls.—The term gall (galla) is applied to an excrescence or

                                    Fig. 285.
Chinese Galls, or Woo-pei-tsze.
tumour formed on any part of a  vegetable, in consequence of the puncture of an
insect.
 Eberle, op. cit. vol. i. pp. 267-3.             i Mat. Med. vol. i. p. 45.
* Ed. Fees. pp. 609. 2(57. Sec.                 * Lib i. can. 146.
 Hist, of Drugs, Engl, translation, 1712.       « Olivier, Voy. dans VEmpire Oltom. t. ii P«- 
The Gall, or Dyer's Oak:—its Formation.
321
   In general, the insects which give rise to galls  are the gall-flies, constituting the
gpnu.s Cynips, and forming the tribe Ga/licolse (Diphloleparise, Lat.) of the  order
IJymenoptcra.  But sometimes they are plant-lice, or Aphidii of the order Hemip-
tera.   Thus the  very  astringent  Chinese galls  called  Woopei-tze (Fig.  285), of
which I  have elsewhere1 given a description, are produced, as the late  Mr.  Double-
day* has shown, by an  Aphidian.
   The gall-flies (Cynips) are those by  whose  puncture  the officinal  galls  are pro-
duced, and to which, therefore, our attention must be  principally directed.   The
females  of these insects are supplied  with an  ovipositor, called  by Latreille the
borer (tercbra), channelled  with lateral teeth.—By means  of  this  instrument  they
are enabled to perforate tbe foliaceous  or cortical parts of plants for the purpose of
depositing their eggs, along with  an acrid liquor, in the wound thus  made.   The
irritation thereby produced gives rise to an influx of the juices of the  plant to the
wounded part, and an excrescence  is formed, which is termed a gall (galla).   Here
the insect usually undergoes its transformations: the  egg produces the larva (or
maggot), which feeds on  the juices  of the plant, and  is  changed into the pupa.
This afterwards becomes the perfect insect (imago),  and,  perforating the  gall, pro-
duces a  small, round hole,  through which it escapes  from its prison-house.
   The external form and appearance of galls are very constant when formed by the
same insect, on the same part of the same plant; but the galls of different species
of vegetables, and  of different parts of the  same plants, as  well  as  those of the
same vegetable species, produced by a different insect, vary considerably.   There is
reason for believing that  the form and appearance of the gall is determined more
by the insect than by the plant; for  we sometimes have on the same oak two kinds
of galls, of very dissimilar appearance, produced by different insects.
   Oak  Galls.—Most, if  not all  plants, but especially the oaks, are  liable to the
production of galls.   The oak galls vary considerably in  size, shape,  texture, and
other properties, according  to the  species and part of the oak in which they grow,
and the  insect by whose puncture  they are produced.   From  their fancied resem-
blance to nuts, apples, currants, &c, they have been respectively called, nut-galls,
apple-galls, currant-galls, grape-cjalls, cherry-galls, artichoke-galls?
   The larpest species of British oak-galls is the oak-apple  or  oak sponge, produced by Cynips
Quercus terminalis. They are astringent, like nutgalls.
   The small round currant-galls are produced by C. Q pedunculi.  They are scattered over the
rachis of the amentum, giving  it the appearance of a bunch of currants.
   The artichoke-gall or oak-strobile is a beautiful foliose gall, produced by C.  Q. gemma.
   Galls of various species are produced on oak-leaves.  One of the larger sons is red and suc-
culent, and has been  called the cherry gall.  A smaller one is called by Reaumur the currant-
gall. Mr. Westwood  states that the large ones (as large as a boy's marble) are formed by C. Q.
folii.
   The large Mecca or Eussorah galls,* sometimes called Dead-sea apples, mad-apples (mala insana),
or apples of Sodom (poma  sodomitica), are produced on  the Quercus infectoria by a species of
Cynips which Mr. Westwood calls C. insana.
   A very irregular,  deeply-furrowed,  angular gall is  formed  on the capsule of the Quercus
pedunndata by the Cynips Quercus calycis.  This is the acorn gall.  It is sometimes used in Ger-
many hy dyers as a substitute for nutgalls under the name  of Knoppern or Knobben.  These
gulls appear to me to be identical with  some which I have  received from  M. Guibourt under
the name of gallon de Hongrie ou du Picmont.  The acorn, with its capsule, is usually attached
to it.  A very similar shaped gall, attached by its middle to a young branch, is frequently found
intermixed: this M. Guibourt calls the horned gall (galle comiculee).
   Nutgalls.—The nutgalls (gallse  officinorum) of commerce are produced by the
Cynips gallse tinctorise on the Quercus infectoria.   Ollivier5  says that this insect
lives on this species of  Quercus only.
   On the sides  and at the ends of  the  branches and  shoots of this tree, the female
 1 Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. iii. p. 394, 1844.        » Ibid. vol. vii. p. 310, 1848.
 * For further details respecting galls, the reader is referred to Reaumur's article on this subject, in his
Nfmotres pour strvir d VHistoire des Insectes, 4to. vol. iii. 1737. Also to Westwood's Introduction to the
Modern Classification of Insects, 2 vols. Svo. 1833-40.
 ' See n notice of this gall, by the author, in the Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. viii  p. 422.
   Op. cit.                                                           r
       VOL. II.—21 
322
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Cupuliferjb.
makes a puncture and deposits her egg.   An excrescence is soon formed, within
which the larva is developed, which is changed first into  the  pupa and then into

                                     Fig. 286.
Mecca or Bussorah Galls.
            a. Branch, bearing a gall.                     j. Section of a gall.

the imago.  As soon as the perfect insect is produced, it eats  its way out.  If we
examine those galls from which the animal has escaped, we observe externally a
circular hole,  of about a line in diameter, leading to a canal of from 2£ to 3J lines
long,  which passes to the centre of  the gall.   But  in  those galls in which the in-
sect has not put off  its pupa state, we find neither an  external hole nor an internal
canal.  In the imperforated  gall, the part sometimes called " the kernel" is the
cocoon  of the insect  in the  pupa  state (Kirby and  Spence).   Guibourt1 states
that in the immediate envelop of the central cavity of the  gall he detected starch
grains, and, in the exterior covering, chlorophylle and volatile oil.   Guibourt has
also observed, around the spherical  amylaceous  mass, cells serving for the respira-
tion of the insect.
  Bluish black,  heavy,  not yet perforated.  Ph.  L.
  Those  galls from  which the insect  has escaped  are commonly larger, lighter
coloured,  and  less astringent:  they are termed white galls.
  The nutgalls of different countries vary in their size, shape, weight, and quality
of surface.
  1.  Levant Nutgalls (Gallse  Levanticse).—These are the ordinary nutgalls of the
shops.  They  are in general about the size of  a nut, somewhat round, tuberculated
or warty; whence they  were formerly called spiny or prickly galls  (galles d PipM
gallse spinosa;),  to  distinguish  them  from the smooth French and other galls.
They are imported from Syria  and Turkey.  The most  esteemed Syrian galls (gaU*
syricse) are the produce of Mosul on the Tigris: these are the Mosul galls (Jote
mossulicse).   The Aleppo galls (gallse haleppenses) usually pass for  Mosul gall*
Tripoli galls (gallse tripolitanse) come from Tripoli (also called Taraplus or Tan
1 Hist. Nat. des Drogues simples, 4rae edit. t. ii. 1849. ' 
The Gall, or Dyer's Oak:—its Composition.             323
bulus, whence the corrupt name of " Tarablous galls"),  and  are inferior to the
Aleppo galls.   The  Turlcey galls (gallse turcicse) usually come from Constantinople
or Smyrna.    Smyrna  galls  (gallse smyrnenses) are  not so heavy,  are lighter
coloured, and  contain  a larger admixture of white galls than those  brought from
Aleppo.   The  galls brought from  Bombay (East  India  galls)  are probably the
produce of Persia or neighbouring parts.1
  In commerce, three kinds of Levant galls are distinguished, viz., black or blue,
green, and white ; but there is no essential distinction between the first two.
  a. Black or blue nutgalls (gallse nigrse  seu cserulese) ; green nutgalls (gallse
virides).—These are gathered  before the insect has escaped, and are  called by the
natives yerli.   They vary from the size of a pea to that of a hazel-nut, and have a
grayish colour.   The smallest have  a blackish-blue tint, and are  distinguished by
the name of black or blue galls; while the larger and greener varieties are called
green galls.   Externally they  are frequently tuberculated,  but the  surface  of
the tubercles and of  the intervening  spaces  is usually smooth.  Their texture is
compact, but fragile.  They have no odour, but a styptic and powerfully astringent
taste.
   0.  While galls (gallse albas).—These are for the most  part gathered after the
insect has escaped, and hence  they  are perforated with a  circular hole.  They are
larger,  lighter coloured (being yellowish or whitish), less  compact, less  heavy, and
less astringent.   They are  of  inferior value.
   y.  The marmorine nutgalls (galles marmorines, Guibourt) of the French writers
are a sort of  Levant gall about the  size of the  black or blue galls,  but without
 tubercles  or  warts.   The surface,  however, is dull and  roughish, something like
 orange berries.  Their shape is round, with sometimes a little elongation where the
peduncle is attached.
   h.  Small Aleppo nutgalls.—Occasionally there is imported from Aleppo a small
 sort of nutgall, called the coriander gall.
   Somewhat larger  than these is another sort  of small Aleppo gall, called the small
 crowned Aleppo galls  (gallse haleppenses coronatse).   They are about the size of a
 pea, or a little larger, and crowned  superiorly  by a circle of points or tubercles like"
 the fruit of the  myrtle  or Eugenia.  Although very small, they are  often  perfo-
 rated by a large hole, so that they must have attained their maximum  size;  and,
 therefore, are a distinct sort from the usual Aleppo kind.
   Somewhat larger than these, and  having  a speckled surface, is  a sort which I
 have received under the name of Turkish diamonds.
   2. Europe mi  Nutgalls.—Various sorts of nutgalls are produced in Europe.
 The htria nutgalls  are intermediate in size between the usual Levant galls and the
 small Aleppo sort.   They are somewhat turbinate or pear-shaped, wrinkled, and
 usually have a short peduncle.  The Mored nutgalls are about the size of the pre-
 ceding.   French nutgalls  are spherical,  very light, usually very smooth or  even
 polished,  but sometimes very slightly wrinkled.   Hungarian, Italian, Bohemian,
 (fcc. nutgalls are but little known in England.
   Composition.—Nutgalls were analyzed by Sir II. Davy,2 who obtained the fol-
 lowing results:—
                             ( Tannin...............................26.0
 Matter soluble in water  = 37; viz. } ?,""'? acid< ™ith » little "tractive . .............   6.2
                             \ IVlucilnge and matters rendered insoluble by evaporation  . .   2.4
                             ( Curbonate of lime and saline matter..............   2 4
 Mutter insoluble in water (lignin).................................'.'.'.'.  63 0
                  Good Aleppo nutgalls................................jqo q

 Pelouze8 found in 100 parts of nutgalls the following constituents :  tannic acid
 40.0, gallic  acid 3.5, el/agic  acid and  insoluble matter  50, extractive colourina
 matter 6.5 = 100.0.
' Mat. Indien. vol. i. p. 145.                            » phil. Trans, for 1P30.
 Ann. de Chimie et de Physique, t. liv.p. 337.
• 
324
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  CupuLiFERiE.
  1. Tannic Acid (see p. 325).
  2. Gallic Acid (see p. 326).
  3. Ellagic or Bezoardic Acid  (Jcidum Ellagirum vel Bezoardicum), CI4I1'07,3H0.—Dis-
covered by Braconnot, who called it ellagic acid, from  the  French word galle spelt backward*
It is probably produced by the slow decomposition of the  tannin contained  in the nutgall. Ii
is a yellowish gray insipid  powder, scarcely soluble in cold water, a little more so in alcohol,
but insoluble in ether.   Like the tannic and gallic acids it forms a bluish black precipitate with.
the persalts of iron.  Hot nitric acid, according to Braconnot, gives it a blood-red colour. The
acid has recently acquired additional interest in  consequence of the discovery by Mr. Tliomm
Taylor1 (subsequently confirmed by Merklein and Wohler2) that the Oriental Bezoar is an el-
lagic acid calculus formed in the intestines of animals (usually a species of wild goat, termed
by the Persians Pasen), which feed on vegetable substances containing tannin, from which the
ellagic acid is produced.  Ellagic acid, therefore, must be regarded as identical with bezoariiu.
(Bezoarstoff of John).
   Chemical Characteristics.—Infusion of  nutgalls reddens litmus paper, forms
an  inky compound (tannogallate of iron)  on the  addition of a sesquisalt of iron,
and a yellowish white precipitate (tannate of gelatin) with  a  solution  of gelatin.
If  a piece of  skin, depilated by lime, be immersed in  the infusion, and  agitated
with it from  time to  time, all the tannic acid is absorbed, the filtered liquor striking
a blue colour (gallate of iron)  with  the  sesquisalts of iron, but giving no precipitate
with a solution of gelatin.   Infusion of galls forms  precipitates (metallic  tannata
or tanno-gallates) in  many metallic  solutions;  it also produces a precipitate (a tan-
nate) in aqueous solutions of the vegetable alkaloids.

              Table of Metallic  Precipitates bt a Strong Infusion of Galls.'
Metal.	Solution employed.	Precipitate according to*	
		Brande.	Dumas.
			
		Straw-yellow .... iYellowish.	
Tin.......... Tin..........			
			
	Chloride...............	ft........ .	0
			?
			fJrnv
		Dingy yellow .... IWhite.	
			
Cobalt.........	Tartrate of bismuth and potassa . .	Yellow-and copious . 0 ..........•	Orange.
			
   Physiological Effects.—As nutgalls contain a larger portion of tannic acid
than any other known vegetable  production, they possess in the highest degree the
properties of an astringent (see vol. i. pp.  200 and 243).
   Uses.—The following are the principal  uses of nutgalls :—
   1.  As  a tonic in intermittents.—Notwithstanding Poupart's favourable report of
the use of galls in these cases, they scarcely deserve notice, as we have in arsenic,
cinchona, and sulphate of quinia, much more effective and certain febrifuges.
   2.  As  an astringent in hemorrhages,  especially passive alvine hemorrhages.
   3.  In  chronic mucous discharges, as old  diarrhoeas.
   4.  As  a chemical antidote (see vol. i., p.  198).—Nutgalls may be given in poison-
ing  by ipecacuanha,  emetina, the  organic  alkalies generally, and those vegetable
productions whose activity depends on an organic alkali; as opium, white hellebore,
colchicum, nux vomica, &c.   Their  efficacy arises from the  tannic  acid, which
combines with the vegetable alkali to form a tannate  possessing less  activity than
the other salts of these bases;  perhaps because of its slight solubility.  Nutgalls

  1 Lond. and Edinb. Philosoph. Magazine for May  1844, and also for January 1846; and Catalogue oj
the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons,  published in July 1S45.
  ' Ann. der Chem. u. Pharm. Bt\.  Iv. S. 129, lt-45.
  a Brande's Manual of Chemistry. 1SI8.
  ' Discrepancies arise from the strength of the solutions as  well as from their acid or basic characters,
so thataeutral solutions should as  fur as possible  be used. 
             Galls :—their Infusion, Tincture, and Ointment.          325

 are recommended as an antidote in cases of poisoning by emetic tartar, but I very
 much doubt their efficacy (see vol. i. p.  670).
   5.  As a topical astringent.—Nutgalls are applicable in any cases requiring the
 topical use of a powerful vegetable astringent.   Thus, in the form of gargle, in re-
 laxation of the uvula;  as  an injection, in gleet and leucorrhcea; as a wash, in
 flabby ulcers, with profuse discharge; prolapsus ani seu vaginse;  in  the  form of
 ointment, in piles, &c.
   Administration.—The dose of the powder is from ten to twenty grains.  Nut-
 galls arc also used in  the form of infusion and tincture.
   Roasted nutgalls (gallse torrefactse) are used  in the manufacture of copying-ink
 (see p.  329).
   Besides the following officinal formulas for the use of galls, others have  been
 published by Mouchon.1

   1. INFUSUM GALLE ; Infusion of Galls.—Prepared by digesting  %W of  coarsely
 powdered nutgalls  in fgvj  of boiling  water.—Employed as a  chemical  antidote
 and as a reagent or  test (see ante, p.  324).   The  dose  is from f|ss to fgij;  or,
 in cases of  poisoning by the vegetable alkalies, f§iv.

   2, TIXTTORA GALLE.L.D. [U.S.];  Tinctura Gallarum, E.; Tincture of Galls.—
 (Galls, bruised, gv;  Proof  Spirit Oij.  Macerate for seven [fourteen, D.] days, and
 filter.   [Galls, bruised, £iv; Diluted Alcohol Oij.  Macerate for fourteen days, and
 filter,  U. X]  " This tincture may be prepared  either by digestion or percolation,
 as  directed for tincture  of capsicum,"  E.)—A  powerful astringent.   Dose  from
 f3ss to f3ij.  Diluted with  water, it forms a very useful and convenient astringent
 gargle and wash.  Its principal use is as a chemical  test, especially for the persalts
 of iron, gelatin, and the vegetable alkaloids.   After it has been kept for some time
 its tannic acid becomes converted  into  gallic  acid, and it then ceases to occasion
 precipitates in solutions of gelatin and of the  vegetable alkaloids.

   3. UNGUENTUM  GAIM, D.  [U. S.] ;  Ointment of Galls.--(Galls, in very fine  pow-
 der. 3j ; Ointment of  White Wax  3vij.  Mix them.)—[Galls, in powder, gj ; Lard
 gvij.   Mix them, U. X]—Astringent.   Mixed with zinc ointment it is applied to
 piles after the inflammatory stage is passed.  The above is Dr. Cullen's formula; but
 Mr. B. Bell9 recommends an  ointment  composed of  equal parts of powdered galls
 and hog's lard or butter, in external hemorrhoidal swellings.   [A smoother  oint-
 ment, and one which  leaves no gritty, rough  deposit on irritable surfaces, is pre-
 pared by adding  3j of Aqueous Extract of Galls to £j  of Simple Ointment.—Ed.]
   4. UNGUENTUM  GALLIC  COMPOSITUM, L.;  Unguentum GaUm et Opii, E. ;  Com-
pound^ Ointment of  Galls.—(Galls,  in fine powder, 3vj ; Opium, powdered, 3iss;
 Lard Jvj.   Mix.—The  Edinburgh College orders of Galls, in fine  powder, 3ij ;
 Opium,  in  powder,  3j; Axunge |j.)—An excellent astringent  application to
 blind piles  (i.  e. piles  without  hemorrhage)  and  prolapsus ani.   The  opium
 diminishes the pain which the galls  might  otherwise  occasion, where the hemor-
 rhoidal tumours are very sensible.   From 3ss to  3i of camphor is frequently added
 to this ointment.

  5. ACIDDI  TAXMCUM, L. D.  [U.S.];  Acidum  Quercitannicum ;  Tannic  Acid:
 in the  impure state  called Tannin,  the Tanning Principle, or Materia Scyfode-
phira (oxvroht^tx6c, belonging to curriers).—Extracted from nutgalls by ether in the
percolation or displacement apparatus.3  The ether employed is that of commerce
(which contains about 10 per  cent,  of water).   The tannic acid at first dissolves in
the ether, but is afterwards  precipitated, in the form  of a thick  syrup, by the water
contained iu the ether.   The  syrupy layer is to be repeatedly washed with  pure
ether, and afterwards  evaporated in vacuo, or at a temperature  not exceeding 212°
P  The residue is almost pure tannic acid.
■ Gaz. des Hop. Civ. et Milit. 13 Avril, 183T.
* Pelouze, Ann. de Chim. et de Physique, t. liv.
* Syst. of Surgery. 
326
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Cupulifer^e.
   Galls, in tolerably fine powder, ^viij: Sulphuric  Ether Oiij;  Distilled Water :• v.  Incorpo-
rate the water and ether  by agitation, and pour the resulting  solution, in succet-ive portions.
upon the galls, previously introduced into a glass or porcelain  percolator.  The liquid winch
accumulates in the lower bottle will coi>M*t of two distinct strata, the heavier of which  is to
be separated and evaporated to dryness, finally applying an oven heat, which, however,should
not exceed 212°.  From the lighter liquid the ether may be removed  by distilling it by means
of a water-bath, and with the aid of a Liebig's condenser.—D.
   Tannic acid is a spongy, brilliant, light, odourless white, or commonly yellowish
solid.   It dissolves  in water, alcohol, and ether; but less so in  ether than in al-
cohol.   In the solid state  it is unalterable in  the air; but, dissolved in water it
absorbs oxygen, and is  transformed  into  carbonic  acid, which escapes, and gallic
acid,  which remains in solution :  hence it should be dissolved only at the time we
are about to use it.
   The following are the  characteristics  of this substance:  It  has an intensely
astringent taste, and produces, with a solution of gelatin, a white precipitate (tan-
nate of gelatin);  with a  solution of a sesquisalt of iron, a deep blue compound (tan-
nate of iron: see vol. i.  p. 711) ; and with solutions of the vegetable alkalies, white
precipitates (tannutes)  slightly soluble  in water, but very soluble  in acetic acid.
The mineral acids also cause precipitates with concentrated solutions of tannic acid
as do the alkalies and  their  carbonates.   Gelatinous alumina rapidly absorbs  tan-
nic acid from its solution,  and forms an insoluble compound with  it.
   Almost colourless; its solution in water  is strongly astringent;  with a solution of isinglass it
produces a white precipitate.  In other respects it agrees  with the characters assigned to gallic
acid.  Ph. Lond.
   Tannic acid  is composed  of C18HS013=C1SH50B,3II0; consequently its equiva-
lent or atomic weight is 212.   Its symbol is Tan,3HO ; or Qt,3IIO.
   Tannic acid is employed in medicine, in chemistry, and in  the arts.
   Considered as a medicine, tannic acid is a powerful agent of the astringent class.
As a  topical remedy it is probably the most  powerful of all vegetable astringents
or styptics.  Its chemical  action on fibrine, albumen, and gelatin explains this.  It
is the  active principle of a very large  proportion of vegetable astringents (see vol. i.,
pp. 200 and 243).   Given to a dog in doses of from 1\ grains to about 93 grains,
it did not affect the  health of  the animal :  it caused  constipation, but its appetite
remained the same.   The urine gradually became darker coloured and opake,'and
was found  to  contain  both gallic and pyrogallic acids  and  humus-like substances.
The tannic acid had become converted into these bodies in its passage through  the
animal system.1   The  gallic  acid was detected by the  blackish  blue  precipitate
produced by the persalts of iron, and  by no precipitate being produced with gelatin.
Pyrogallic acid was detected by the bluish black precipitate produced by the proto-
salts  of  iron.   On the human subject tannic acid also operates as  a constipating
agent when given in a sufficient dose  and frequently repeated.   Cavarra9 states  that
2£ grains taken three days successively produced this effect  on himself.   There-
mote effects of tannic acid are  not so obvious, but  they appear  to  be astringent,
though in a much feebler degree.  As the tannic acid becomes changed into gallic
acid in its passage through the system, it is  probably the latter  agent which  ope-
rates  on remote parts as an  astringent when  tannic acid  is administered.   If  this
opinion be correct, tannic acid would  act,  as Dr.  Garrod3 has suggested, less power-
fully as a remote astringent than  an equal weight of gallic acid.  But, as a topical
astringent,  tannic is  far more  powerful than gallic acid; because its chemical reac-
tion on albumen, gelatin, and fibrine  is more energetic.
   Tannic acid is used as an  astringent  chiefly in hemorrhages and profuse secre-
tions ; and also to constringe  relaxed  fibres.  In hemorrhages, it has been used both
topically, as a  styptic (in bleeding  gums, piles, and uterine  hemorrhage), and re-
motely, as an astringent  (in hemorrhage from the lungs, stomach, bowels, kidneys,

  1 Wehler and Frerichs, Chemical Gazette, vol. vi. p. 231, 1618.
  * Cavarra, Lond. Med. Gaz.  vol. xx. p. 171, la37.                       * Lancet, Dec. 50, lrl8. 
Gallic Acid.
327
and uterus).   In chronic fluxes it has likewise been employed both as a topical and
a remote remedy: topically in gonorrhoea, gleet, leucorrhcea, and ophthalmia; re-
motely  in pulmonary catarrh,  diarrhoea, dysentery,  leucorrhcea, gonorrhoea, and
cystirrhoca.  To restrain the phthisical sweatiug it has been recommended by Charvet
and others, and Giadorow1 states that, given in combination with opium, he cured
(?) two cases of diabetes by it.   To constringe fibres,  it is applied to spongy gums
and prolapsed  bowel.  As an application to sores, it has been employed by Ricord
in chancres, and  by Mr. Druitt3 in  sore nipples.   Dr.  Scott  Alison3 has recently
recommended its use  in various other cases :  as a tonic  or peptic in dyspepsia;  as
an " histogenetic" to promote the genesis and improve the quality of the blood, in
rickets, &c.; as a nervine in nervous debility and languor;  and to  arrest or retard
the growth of  heterologous formations (tubercle, malignant disease, &c).   It has
likewise been given as an antidote to check excessive vomiting from ipecacuanha or
emetina.—Tannic acid may be administered  in  doses of  from 3  to  10 or more
grains, in powder, pill, or solution.  When we employ it as a remote agent, the
pill-form  seems to  be the  most appropriate  mode  of exhibition.—As a  lotion or
injection, it may  be  used in the form of aqueous solution containing from 4 to 6 or
more grains in the fluidounce.   It has also been employed in the form of ointment
composed of 3ij of the acid dissolved in f3ij of distilled water and mixed with £xij
of lard.
   In chemistry, tannic acid is employed as a reagent or test.   Its solution  should
be fresh  made  when used.
   In the arts it  serves various useful  purposes.   It is the active  principle of the
 tanning substances.   In the manufacture of white wines it is used to coagulate the
 substance called gla'iadine, which is apt to excite  the  viscous fermentation in these
wines.
   6.  ACIDUM GALLICUM, L. D. [U. S.] ;  Gallic Acid.—It is usually prepared  by ex-
posing for a long time an infusion  of nutgalls to the  air;  removing now and  then
 a mouldy skin  which forms on  the  surface of the  liquid.   A sediment of impure
 gallic acid is obtained, which requires  to be  purified by solution in boiling water,
 decolorized by  animal charcoal, and crystallized.
   In this process the tannic acid of the nutgalls  absorbs atmospherfc oxygen, and
 is converted into gallic acid, carbonic acid, and water.
                  C'"H«Ol«  +  0»  =  StCTTO')  +  4CO'   +  2HO
                 Hydrated             Gallic acid.    Carhonic    Water.
                tunmcacid.                           acid.

 This process is favoured by the  presence of  a nitrogenized matter which acts  as a
 ferment; and  the decomposition  is termed  the gallic fermentation.  The mouldy
 skin which forms on the surface  is  called  mycoderma, and  resembles mother of
 vinegar (see ante, p. 85).
   (■ills, in  conrse powder, lb. j;  Distilled  Water, as much as may be necessary.  Having
 placed the galls  in  a porcelnin dish, pour on as much water as will convert them  into a thick
 paste, and keep them in this moistened  condition  for six weeks, at a temperature of between
 60° and 70°, adding water  from time to time, so as to supply what is lost by evaporation. Let
 the residue he boiled for twenty minutes, with forty-five ounces of water, and then  placed on
 a calico filter.  The filtered solution, on cooling, will afford a  copious precipitate.   Let this be
 drained on a calico filter, then subjected to strong expression,  after having been first enveloped
 in blotting paper, and n»ain dissolved in ten ounces of boiling water.  When, upon ceasing to
 apply heat, the solution has cooled down to 80°, pour it off from the crystals which have formed,
 and, having washed these with  three ounces  of ice-cold water, dry them—first in blotting
 pnper, and finally by a  steam or water heat.
   By boiling the undissolved portion of the galls with forty-five additional  ounces of water.
 filtering into a capsule containing the liquor decanted from the crystals  formed in the preceding
 process, evaporating down to the bulk of ten ounces, and cooling to 80°, an additional quantity
 of the crystallized acid  will be obtained.

   ' Annali universali, di Medicina, quoted by Dr. Dunglison, in his New Remedies,  5th edit 1846
   » Provincial Med. Journal, Oct. 9, 1844.                   »  London Journal of Medicine, 1850. 
328
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Cupuliferje.
   Or: Galls lb. j;  Oil of Vitriol of commerce f^xxvj; Water Ov. £xiv.   Steep the galls for
twenty-four hours in one pint of the water, then transfer  them to a glass  or porcelain perco-
lator, and pour on a pint and a half of the water in successive portions.  Dilute five ounces
of the oil of vitriol with an equal bulk of water, and, when the mixture has cooled, add it
to the infusion obtained by percolation, stirring well, so as to bring them into perfect  contact.
Let the  viscid precipitate which forms be separated by a filter,and to the solution which passes
through, add five ounces more of the oil of vitriol, which will yield an additional precipitate.
This being added to that previously obtained, let  both be enveloped in calico, and  subjected
to powerful pressure.   Dissolve the  residue in the  rest of the oil of vitriol, this latter being
first diluted with  what remains of the water; boil the solution for twenty minutes, then allow
it to cool, and set it by for a  week.   Let  the  deposit which has formed  at the end of this
period be pressed, dried, and then dissolved in three times its weight of boiling water, clear-
ing the  solution, if necessary, by filtration, and,  when it has cooled down  to S0°, decant the
liquid from the crystalline sediment which has formed, and wash the latter with three ounces
of ice cold water.  Finally, let it be transferred  to blotting paper, and, when deprived by this
of adhering liquid, let it be dried perfectly, at a  temperature not exceeding 212°.
   The  gallic acid obtained by either of the  preceding processes may be rendered nearly
wbite by dissolving it in twenty times its weight of boiling distilled water, and causing the
solution to traverse a stratum  of prepared animal charcoal spread upon a calico filter.   When
the liquid passes through  colourless, it should  be evaporated to one-sixth of its volume, and
then suffered  to cool, in order to the separation of the crystallized acid.—D.
   Pure gallic acid is a colourless,  crystallizable  acid,  with an acidulous and styptic
taste.  It is soluble in water, alcohol, and slightly so  in ether.   It produces  a deep
blue colour  with the salts of the sesquioxide of iron, in which circumstance  it agrees
with tannic acid, but it differs from the  latter acid in not  precipitating gelatin or
the salts of  the alkaloids.   To detect gallic acid mixed with tannic acid, the latter
is to be previously removed from its  solution  by immersing in it  a  piece of skin
depilated by lime.    The tannic acid is absorbed.    The gallic acid may then be de-
tected  by the  salts of the sesquioxide of iron.
   Colourless; destroyed by fire.  Soluble both  in water and in rectified spirit.  It strikes a
bluish black colour with solutions of the sesquioxide of iron; but produces no precipitate with
a solution of isinglass.  Ph. Lond.
   It does not occasion any  precipitate with the salts of the protoxide of iron.  By
this it  is distinguished from pyrogallic acid.
   Gallic acid  consists of C7H303;  hence its equivalent or atomic weight  is 85.
When  heated  fb 410°  or 420°  F., it gives  out  carbonic  acid,  and is resolved into
pyrogallic acid (C6H303).   If this acid is heated  to 480° F., it gives out water and
becomes melagallic acid (C12H303).
   Gallic acid  is employed  in medicine as an astringent;  but as a topical agent it is
greatly inferior to tannic acid.   Unlike the  latter acid it causes precipitates neither
in gelatinous nor in albuminous solutions :  and  a  piece  of skin  does not  absorb
gallic acid from its  aqueous solution,  as  it does  tannic acid from its solution.   Its
chemical action on the constituents of the-animal tissues is thus much weaker than
that of tannic acid.  Nu obvious effects result from the introduction of a few grains
into the stomach.   Twenty-four grains have produced a sweetish taste and a slight
feeling of internal heat; but no other effect1   It has been administered  in doses
of from fifteen to thirty grains against the Taenia  Solium, but  without any benefit.
For the reasons already stated (see ante, p. 326)  it is  probable that, in equal doses,
it is more  powerful, as a remote astringent,  than tannic  acid.   Dr. Todd" says
that in all  cases of hemorrhage, whether  haemoptysis, haematemesis, hematuria,
or any other form dependent on hemorrhagic tendency, he  considers  it to  be  the
best styptic we possess.   The dose  of it is from three to ten grains or more three
or four times a  day.   It may be  used in the same forms  as tannic acid (see ante,
p. 326).
   7. ACIDUM PYROGALLICDI; Pyrogallic Acid.—At a temperature of from 410° to 420° F.,
gallic acid is converted into pyrogallic acid and carbonic acid.
1 Chevallier, Diet, des Drogues, U i. p. 93, Paris, 1827.
a London Medical Gazette, N'. S. vol. viii. p. 101, January 19, 1849. 
Black or Dyer's Oak.—White Oak.                 329
                    C'H'O'      =      C«H»0»      -f      CO3
               Hydrous gallic acid.     Pyrogallic acid.       Carbonic acid.
Pyrogallic acid is a crystallizable volatile acid.  It is more soluble in water than gallic acid.  It
produces a very intense blue colour with tbe salts of the protoxide of iron, and by exposure to
the air it absorbs oxygen, and is converted into a dark brown substance,  which is insoluble in
water and alcohol.
  Pyrogallic acid, in an impure form, is employed in the preparation of a hair dye and of copy-
ing ink.  By the dry distillation of galls, it is obtained partly in the form  of a sublimate, partly
in the fluid form.  The sublimate and fluid are to be dissolved in distilled water, the solution
deodorized by animal charcoal, concentrated by evaporation, and then mixed with spirit of wine
and some agreeable volatile oil.  The resulting compound  is a hair-dye,  which stains the hair
dark brown; and the tint is not removed by sweat or moisture.  It must  be cautiously applied,
as it  stains the hands.1  Roasted nutgalls are used in the manufacture of copying ink on account
of the dark colour  which  the pyrogallic acid produces with the sulphate of the protoxide of
iron.

          [Quercus Tinctoria,  Bartram.—Black or Dyer's  Oak.
                            Sex. Syst. Moncecia, Polyandria.    \
   Gen. Char__See ante, p. 318.
   Sp. Char.—The leaves are obovate or oblong, sinuate, lobed,  pubescent beneath.
Male flowers  in slender,  long,  filiform aments.   Cup turbinate.   Acorn small,
ovoid, flattened at top.
   This is one  of the largest forest-trees of the  United States, attaining,  in favour-
able situations, the height of ninety or one hundred feet, with spreading branches,
and  a rough, dark-coloured bark.
   Tbe  bark when separated is thick and rugged, full of fissures, and black exter-
nally; internally, it is fibrous and of a red colour increased by drying. It breaks with
a rough fracture.   That obtained from  the young shoots and smaller  branches is
smoother externally, and the inner  fibres are finer.  The odour  is strong, and  the
taste is bitter  and styptic, tinging  the  saliva yellow when chewed.   The cellular
integument contains a yellowish-brown colouring principle.  The interior layer when
separated constitutes Quercitron Bark, used for  the purpose of dyeing; it is shipped
to Europe.
  ^ In consequence of the colour imparted to leather, it is not as  much used for tan-
ning.   As it soils the clothes  an  objection is urged against it in medicine.
   The medical properties and uses are the same as those  enumerated  under Q.
pedunculata.

                     Quercus  Alba, Linn.—White Oak.
                           Sex. Syst.—Monoecia, Polyandria.
   Gen. Char—See ante, p. 318.
   Sp. Char.—Leaves obovate, oblong; obliquely divided into  obtuse  lobes; seg-
ments,  oblong entire;  cup  hemispherical, tuberculated;  acorn ovoid, oblong;  fruit
in pairs.
   This tree is less elevated than  the Q. tinctoria.  It forms, however, a larger and
more regularly-expanded head, with numerous  horizontal branches.   The   trunk
and  branches have a whitish hue, hence the name White Oak.   The leaves are of
a silvery appearance, with  a  hoary under surface.  The young leaves  are covered
with a fine silky down.
  The bark  is  rough  externally,  of  a light  colour;  the effete  epidermis  being
arranged in flat layers   On drying, the internal  layer becomes  brown.   It breaks
with  a stringy fracture.   The odour is decided and  tan-like; taste astringent and
bitter.   This bark is used in tanning.   For medicinal  purposes  it  is preferred to
the black oak.
• Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. iii. p. 385, 1844. 
330
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Cupulifer*:.
   DECOCTUM  QUERCIS  ALM, U. S.; Decoction of  White  Oak Bark.—(Take  of
White Oak Bark, bruised, an ounce:  Water  a  pint and  a half.   Boil down to a
pint and strain.)—Used as the Decoctum Quercus, p. 320.]
               112.  Quercus  Suber, Linn— The Cork-Tree.
                               Sex. Syst. Monoecia, Polyandria.
                                         (Cortex.)
  <JsXXo'c, Theophrast, Hist. Plant, lib. iii. cap. 16;  Suber, P.liny, Hist. Nat. lib. xvi. cap. 13, and
lib  xxiv. cap. 8—This species of Quercus has a cracked fungous bark, and ovate-oblong, blunt
ish, coriaceous, entire or sharply serrated leaves, which are downy beneath.  It is a native of
northern parts of Africa and of the southern  parts of Europe, especially of Spain, Portugal, and
                                            France.   It grows to the height of twenty or thirty
                Fig. 286.*                   f"eet-   According to  Mohl,1 the lark of a young
                                            branch of  Quercus Suber consists of four distinct
                                            parts: 1st, an  exterior layer or epidermis;  2dly,
                                            colourless cellular tissue, the cpiphlceum of Link the
                                           phlceum (<f>Xoio;. the  bark  of trees) or periderms of
                                            Mohl, the  suberous  envelop of some writers;  3dly
                                            green parenchyma, the mesophlceum of Link, the her-
                                            baceous or tellular  integument of others; 4thly, a
                                           fibrous layer called endophlamm  or liber.  Of these
                                            four layers, two (namely the 2d and 4th) are use-
                                            ful in pharmacy and  medicine.
                                             1.  Sub kr ;  Cork ; Cortex exterior Quercus Suberis;
                                            Exterior  Bark of  the Cork-Tree—The substance
                                            known in commerce as cork is the  epiphlacumm
                                            suberous  envelop,  above  mentioned.   When the
                                            branches arc from three to five years old, the epi-
                                            dermis cracks by distension, anil  the second layer
                                            enlarges on the inner side by the deposition of new
                                           layers.  These constitute corA;.2  It falls naturally
                                            every eight or nine years, but for commercial pur-
                                            poses is usually removed one or two years before
this period.  That season of the year is selected  when the  bark  adheres the most firmly to the
wood, in order that the cork may be raised without endangering the separation of the liber  from
the alburnum.  By this precaution, the trees are  not at all injured by the corking  process; nay,
they are said to be more healthy  and vigorous than when the cork is allowed to  accumulate on
their  stems.   The trees yield these crops  from the age of fifteen  to one hundred and fifty
years.
  To remove the cork, an incision is made from  the top to  the bottom of the tree, and a trans-
verse circular incision at each extremity; the cork is then stripped off.   To flatten it, a number
of layers are piled up in a pit of water, and loaded with weights  to keep them down.* Subse-
quently they are dried, and  in that  state exported.   Our  supply is  principally derived  from
Spain and Portugal.   To close the transverse pores, cork is charred.
  The physical  properties of cork are too well known to need description.   Its leading charac-
ter  is elasticity.   In  this respect it  is  similar to  the wood of Anona palustris, called cork  wood,
and which is used in Jamaica by the country people, instead of corks, to stop up their jnys and
calabashes.3   When thin slices of cork are examined by the microscope, they present a cellular
appearance, the cells being four-cornered and tabular.
  The most important chemical examinations of cork  are those of ChevreuM and Doepping.1
According to Chevreul, cork contains traces of a volatile  oil,  wax (cerin), soft resin, red and ytlloie
colouring principles, tannin, a  nitrogenous brown substance, gallic acid, acetic acid, calcareous  tain,
and suberin.
  The substance to which the name of suberin has been given is the body which remains after
cork  has  been successively  treated with alcohol,  ether, water, and  diluted hydrochloric acid.
In its form and physical characters it differs  but little from  ordinary cork.   According to Doep-
ping,  it  cannot be obtained  pure, but  always contains  cork cellulose (C2*H5020), some cork wax
(C25Hs03), and a small quantity of a nitrogenous body.   He  found it to consist of carbon 67.8,
hydrogen  8.7, nitrogen  2.3, and  oxygen  21.12.   When cork is treated with  nitric acid, the
1 Lond. and Edinb. Phil. Mag. vol. xii. p 53, 1838.
* See also Dutrochet. Comptes Rendus, t. iv. p. 48, Paris, 1838.
3 The Civil and Natural History of Jamaica, by P. Brown, M. D. p. 256, Lond. 1789.
4 Ann. Chimie, t. xcvi. p. 155.
* Annalen d. Chem. u. Pharm. Bd. xiv. S. 286, 1843; also The Chemical Gazette, July 1, 1843. 
Nat. Ord. Ulmace^e:—Properties.
331
suberin yields suberic acid (CBH«03), which  imparts a  peculiar character to cork, and to all
bark* containing cork.1
  The uses of  cork  for making floats for fishermen*s  nets, anchor-buoys, stoppers to vessels
(obturamerda cadorum), and women's winter shoes, are mentioned by Pliny.   On account of the
astringent matter which it contains, cork is an improper substance for closing vessels containing
chalybeate liquids (especially such as are intended for analysis), as the iron  is in part absorbed
by the cork.
  Cork was formerly employed in medicine.  Reduced to powder, it was applied as a styptic:
hung about the necks of nurses, it was thought to possess the power of stopping the secretion
of milk;  lastly, burnt cork, mixed  with sugar of lead and lard, has been used as an application
to piles.
  2. Cortex Alcornoc v. Europ.t?;b; European Alcornoque2 Bark;  Cork-Tree Bark—The bark
of the cork oak, which  I received from Spain under  the  name of alcornoque bark, bears consider-
able resemblance to oak bark, and was probably obtained from the younger branches of the cork-
tree.  It  is ash-gray  externally, and wrinkled  or grooved internally.  The bark imported from
Italy,  Spain, and Barbary, under the name of corktree bark, and which  is used by tanners, ap-
pears to  be the inner bark of older stems.  It consists apparently of the third and fourth layers
above mentioned.   It is in fibrous or stringy  pieces, externally rusty red, internally deeply
grooved  or furrowed.  It has very little odour, and  an  astringent taste.   For tanning purposes
the Italian bark is considered inferior to the Spanish and Barbary barks.  In its medicinal pro-
perties, European alcornoque bark resembles oak bark.  It  owes its astringency to tannic acid.
Its powder, in  the dose of a drachm, has been used' in hemorrhages and diarrhoea.3
   3.  Cortkx Alcor.nocb AMEiucAN.a5;  American  Alcornoque Bark.—This  is  the genuine al-
cornoque bark  of French and German pharmacologists.  The  Spanish colonists  have  applied
the name of alcornoque bark to one or  more American barks which possess some real or fan-
cied resemblance to the alcornoque bark of  their  mother-country.  Humboldt4  says  that the
Bowdichia virgilwides (HBK.) is called  hy the inhabitants  of the districts  where it grows, in
t-outh America, the  alcornoque.   In another place,6 he states that the same  name is given to a
Malpighia (Byrsonima) on account of the suberous bark of the trunk.  Nees von Esenbech8
considered Byrsonima crassifolia (Malpighia crassifolia, Auct.) to be the source of the American
alcornoque bark.  The bark which comes from  South America, and is considered to be genuine
alcornoque bark, occurs  in  large, flat, occasionally arched pieces, having some resemblance to
coarse, fiat Cinchona bark.   The epidermis is usually wanting.   Externally the bark is reddish,
or dark cinnamon brown; internally it is pale.   The  taste  is slightly bitter.  It has  been re-
peatedly subjected to analysis.   Biltz7 gives  as  the  constituents—peculiar crystalline matter (al-
kornin),  1.15;  matter soluble in alcohol, tiot in ether (oxydized tannin?), 1.67;  tannin with a lime
salt, 14.27 ; gummy  extractive with starch, a nitrogenous substance, and a  supersalt of lime, 33.74;
woody fibre and loss,  47.71; ashes of the woody fibre, 1.46=100 0.
   American alcornoque bark possesses astringent properties.  It was introduced info European
 practice, in 1 SI 1, as a remedy for phthisis, but, after a short trial, it soon fell into disuse; and
 there are no grounds for supposing that it has any curative  powers whatever in this disease.—
 Dose, in powder, J) j to 3J.   It may also  be  used in the form of infusion or decoction (prepared
 with ^ss of bark and f'3 viij of water), in doses  of f|j or f^ij.   The dose of the extract is from
 gr. x. to 9J."
       Order  XXVII.  ULMACE^E, Mirbel—ELM WORTS.

  Characters.—Flowers hermaphrodite or by abortion unisexual, in loose  clusters, never in
catkins.  Calyx membranous, imbricated, campanulate, inferior, irregular.  Petals 0.  Stamens
definite; inserted into the base of the calyx ; erect in aestivation.  Ovary superior, 1- or 2 celled •
ovules solitary;  pendulous; stigmas 2, distinct.  Fruit 1- or 2 celled, indehiscent, membranous, or
drupaceous.  Seed solitary, pendulous; albumen none, or in very small quantity; emhryo straight
or curved, with foliaceous cotyledons; radicle superior.—Trees or shrubs, with rough, alternate,
deciduous leaves, and stipules.
  I'hoi'khths.—The plants of this order bear some analogy to those of Cupulifera?, in their
chemical and medicinal properties. Their  bark contains tannic acid ;  combined, however, with
mucilaginous and bitter matters.   Hence it is  reputed astringent and tonic.

  1 Mulder, The  Chemistry of Vegetable and Animal Physiology, p. 478, 1840.
  1 Alcornoque is the S|mni»h name for the cork-oak.  It is of Arabic origin, being derived from dorque
ilgnifying " denuded  or bndly clothed," adding the article al, changing d  into c, and introducing the
lyllulile  /«o.into  the middle of the word.  (Diccionario de la Lengua Castellana, compuesto por la°Real
Acailtmia Ks/ianola, 17:20-39.)
  * CI101111-I. Abrtgt dt I'Hist, des Plantes usuelles, t. ii. p. 339, 1761.
  • ,Y»ra Cntra et Species Plantarum, t. vi. p. 295.       » Personal Narrative, vol. vi. part  i  n  6
  » linger-* Hand.d. Pharm. 2te Aufl. 9te Abth. 2te Hulfte, 8. 1651.                       '
  ' Hiumle's Archil', xii.;  also L. Umelin's Handb. d. Chemie, Bd ii. p. 13-J2.
  • For further detuils respecting alcornoque  bark, the reader is referred to a paper by the author in the
Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. vi. p. 362, 1&4.7. 
332
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Ulmace^.
  Dr.  M'Dowall, of Virginia, has proposed the bark of Ulmus fulva for bougies, tents, cathe-
ters, &c.'
  113. ULMUS CAMPESTRIS, Linn.-THE  COMMON  SMALL-
                              LEAVED  ELM.
                            Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Digynia.
                                 (Cortex interior, L.)

   History.—Dioscorides3 speaks  of the astringent property of  the bark of the
elm (tttixia), as does also Pliny.3
   Botany.   Gen.  Char.—Flowers  hermaphrodite.    Calyx  campanulate, 4- to
5-toothed, coloured, persistent.   Stamens 3 to 6.   Ovary compressed.  Stigmas 2.
Fruit (a samara) suborbicular, with a broad membranous margin (Bot.  Gall.).
   Sp. Char.—Leaves  doubly  serrated,  rough.   Flowers  nearly  sessile, 4-cleft.
Fruit oblong, deeply cloven, naked (Sir J. E. Smith).
   A large tree, with rugged bark.   By the  latter character it is readily  distin-
guished from  Ulmus glabra,  which has a smooth, dark, lead-coloured  bark.
   Hab.—Southern parts of England.  Flowers in March or April.
   Description.—The officinal part of  the  elm is  the inner  cortical portion, or
liber.   To obtain it, the bark should be separated from the tree in  spring; and,
after the epidermis  and a portion  of the external cortex have  been  removed, the
liber should be quickly dried.
   As met with in  the shops, the  inner  elm bark (cortex  ulmi)  consists of thin
tough pieces, which are  inodorous, and  have  a  brownish-yellow colour, and a mu-
cilaginous, bitter, very slightly astringent taste.
   Composition.—According to llink,4100 parts of elm  bark contain—resin 0.63,
gum and  mucus  20.3, impure gallic acid (tannin?) 6.5,  oxalate  of lime G.3
(?), chloride of sodium (?) 4.6.
   1. Tannic acid.—Davy* states that 480 grs. of elm bark yielded 13 grs. of tannin.
   2. Ulmic acid;  Ulmin.—On many trees, especially the elm, there is  not unfrequently ob-
served a substance which was supposed to be a morbid production.  When dried, it consists  of
a mucilaginous matter, and carbonate or acetate of potash.  By the combined agency of the air
and tbe carbonate, the organic matter is altered in its properties, and is converted into a brown
substance, which combines with  the potash.   This  brown matter  has been termed ufon'n,  or
ulmic acid.   It may be formed, artificially, by a variety of processes;  as  by heating a mixture
of  wood and  potash, by the action  of sulphuric acid on vegetable matters, and by other
methods.
   Chemical Characteristics.—Infusion of elm bark becomes green (tannate  of
iron) on the addition of a salt of the sesquioxide of iron, and  forms a precipitate
(tannate of gelatin) with a solution of gelatin.
   Physiological Effects.—The effects of elm bark are those of a mild astringent
tonic, containing a considerable quantity of mucilage, which  gives it a demulcent
property.   Hence, in the classification of Richter,8 it is arranged as a  mucilaginous
astringent.   The decoction, taken  in full doses, accelerates the  pulse and acts as a
diaphoretic and diuretic.
   Uses.—Lysons7 recommended the decoction of this bark in cutaneous eruptions,
and Dr. Lettsom8 found it successful  in  ichthyosis.   It has now fallen almost into
disuse.   It has been employed as  a cheap substitute for sarsaparilla.8
   Administration.—Used only in the  form of decoction.
   DECOCTUM ULMI, L.;  Decoction of Elm  Bark.—(Fresh  Elm Bark, bruised, 3'ijss;
Distilled Water Oij.   Boil down to  a pint, and strain.)—Formerly given in skin
diseases; now fallen into disuse.   Dose, fjiv to  fgvj  three or  four times a day.

  ' Brit, and For. Med. Review, July 1838, art. Elm Bark Surgery, p 259.
  » Lib. i. cap. 111.                                       a Hist. Nat. lib. xxiv. cap. 33.
   Geiger, Handb.d. Pharm.; and Wittstein's Handworterbuch.
  1 Phil. Trans. 1803, p. 233.                                 •  Arzneimitt. Bd. i.
  ' Medical Transactions, vol. ii. p. 203.  .                     »  Medical  Memoirs, p. 152.
  * Jeffreys, Cases in Surgery, Lond. Ib20. 
Nat. Ord.  UrticacejE :—Wall Pellitory.
333
             [ULMUS PULVA, Mcft.-SLIPPERY  ELM.
                              (Slippery Elm Bark, IT. S.)

  Sp. Char.__Leaves  very scabrous  above, rather unequal, and somewhat  cordate
at base.   Buds clothed  with  a  fulvous  tomentum.   Flowers in dense  subsessile
fascicles.   Samara orbicular, naked on the margin.  (Beck. Bot.)               _
  This tree is sometimes called also  Red Elm.   It is from 20 to 40 feet high, witb
rugate branches.   The leaves are from 4 to 6 inches long, and 2 or  3 inches broa/1,
lanceolate  oval, or obovate  oblong,  conspicuously acuminate, doubly serrate,  the
upper  surface scabrous,  beneath tomentose  pubescent, especially along the  nerves
and midrib, petioles about one-third  of  an inch  long,  pubescent.   Stipules pilose.
Flowers on  short pedicels, numerous, in dense lateral  clusters.   Calyx about 7
cleft; segments obtuse, clothed and ciliate, with a reddish tawny pubescence.  Sta-
mens often 7, much exserted; anthers dark-purple.   Styles granular pubescent, pur-
ple.    Samara  orbicular, about  half an inch in diameter, radiately veined, pubes-
cent in the centre, on a slender  pedicel as long as the  calyx; margin smooth, cleft
at apex between  the styles; segments acuminate by the pubescent  adnate styles,
and so incurved and over-lapped as  to  give the margin the appearance of  being
entire at apex.  (Darlington.)
   This plant is common in the  United  States, growing  in low grounds and along
fences.
   The inner bark is fibrous, and is removed from the trunk  and large branches of
 the tree in long pieces.  It is found in the shops in this form or ground into powder.
 It is bland and demulcent, and is used as a substitute for flaxseed and other demul-
 cent articles.   From the powder can be made  an excellent poultice by mixing with
 the requisite quantity of hot water.
   INFUSUM ULMI, U.  S.;  Infusion  of Slippery Elm  Bark.—Made  by macerating
 an ounce of Slippery Elm Bark in a pint of boiling water.   Used  for the ordinary
 purposes of a demulcent solution.


    Order  XXVIII.  URTICACiE, Endl—NETTLE WORTS.
                                  Urticee, Jussicu.

   Characters.—Flowers  herbaceous, inconspicuous, polygamous.  Calyx membranous, lobed,
  persistent.  Stamens definite, distinct, inserted in the base  of  the calyx, and opposite its lobes.
  Ovary superior, simple.  Ovule solitary, erect. Fruit a simple, iudehisceut nut, naked or sur-
  rounded by the persistent calyx.  Embryo straight, with fleshy albumen ; cotyledons flat; radicle
  superior—Trees, shrubs, or herbs.  Leaves  frequently  covered with  asperities  or stinging hairs.
  Stipules mostly persistent, rarely deciduous or absent.
   Phopkrti es.—The order is now very circumscribed; and contains but few properties interest-
  ing to the physician.  The most remarkable property of the order is the acridity (sometimes
  very extreme) of the liquid contained in the epidermoid gland  at the base of the stinging hair.
  Endlioher1 says  that it is bicarbonate of ammonia; but this is an obvious error, as ammonia, in
  any known form, is incompetent to produce the violent effect ascribed  to some of the East Indian
  Urticacete.
   Ur'iration, or flagellation by a bunch of nettles (Urtica dioica), is an old method of treating
  palsy1.


      114. Parietaria officinalis,  Linn.—Common Wall-Pellitory.
                            Sear. Syst. Tetrandria, Monogynia.
                                       (H. rba.)

   This is a common indigenous plant,  which was formerly in great repute  as a diuretic and
  lithontriptic  By some practitioners it  is still  highly esteemed.  It is used in calculous and
  other  urinary affections, and  also  in dropsies.   The expressed juice may  be taken in doses
  of one or two fluidounces.   Or the decoction (prepared by boiling ^j of the herb in a pint of
  water) may be substituted.  The extract has also been used.  On account of a nitrate which
  the plant contains, the extract is said to have taken fire in making it.3
1 Knchiridion Bolanicon.                                       » Celsus, lib. iii. cap. 27
* Withering, Arrangement of British Plants, Tth edit. vol. ii. p. 237. 
334             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Canxabinaceje.
 Order  XXIX.  CAXNABINACE/E,  LhtdL—HEMPWORTS.
                                 Cannabineb, Endl.

  Characters—Flowers dioecious.  Males:  in racemes or panicles.  Calyx herbaceous,ecalr
imbricated.   Stamens 5, opposite the sepals ; filaments filiform ; anthers terminal, 2-celled.open.
ing longitudinally.  Females: in spikes or cones.  Sepal 1. enwrapping the ovary. Ovary free
1-celled.  Ovule  solitary, pendulous.  Stigmas '2, subulate.  Fruit 1-celled. indehiscent. Embrm
without albumen, hooked, or spirally coiled, radicle superior, lying against the back of the coty.
ledon.
  Properties—There are only two species in this family,and each of these will he separately
noticed.  One of these (Cannabis  sativa) is remarkable for the tenacity of its fibre, and the
narcotic intoxicating quality of its juices: the other (Humulus Lupulus), for its bitter principle,
and its fragrant oil, whose vapor is soporific.
          115.  CANNABIS  SATIVA—COMMON HEMP.
                             Sex. Syst. Dioecia, Pentandria.
                            (Herba et Resina. The Extract, D.)

  History.—This plant was well known  to the ancient Greeks and Romans, but
they do not appear to have been acquainted with  its narcotic properties.  Diosco-
rides1 merely mentions  that the expressed juice of the  seeds of xdwafiic allays ear-
ache, and  the same statement is  made by Galen.9  Herodotus3  mentions it, and
states  that the Scythians cultivated it and made themselves garments of it.  He
also adds  that  they threw  the  seeds on red-hot  stones, and used the  perfumed
vapour thereby obtained as a  bath,  which excited from  them cries of exultation.
This I presume refers to the intoxicating properties of its smoke.   The hemp may
have been, as Dr. Royle4 suggests, the " assuager  of grief" or the nepenthes (vtjittv
eic) of which Homer5 speaks as having  been given by Helen  to Telemachus in the
house of Menelaus.   Helen is stated to have received the plant  from a woman  of
Egyptian  Thebes.   It. is known  in India,  as the " increaser of  pleasure," the
" exciter of desire," the " cementer  of  friendship," the " causer of a reeling gait,"
the " laughter mover,"  &c.8
  Pliny7 mentions it under the name of Cannabis.
  Botany.   Gen.  Char.—Flowers  dioecious.  Males:  Flowers racemose.  Ca-
lyx 5-parted, imbricated.   Stamens 5.  Females: Flowers in  spikes.  Calyx
(bract 1)  1-lCaved, acuminate, rolled round  the  ovary.   Ovary  roundish.   Style
short.   Stigmas 2, filiform, pubescent.   Fruit 1-celled, 2-valved.
  Sp. Char.—The  only species.
  Annual.  Stem 3 to 5 or 6 feet high, erect, branched,  angular.   Leaves on long
weak petioles, digitate, serrated, roughish.   Stipules subulate.   Flowers in clusters,
axillary.   The  whole plant has a clammy feel.
  Cannabis sativa, var.  indica; Indian Hemp.—The plant which grows in India.and has
been described by some botanists8 under the name of Cannabis indica or Indian Hemp*does not
appear to possess any specific differences from the  common hemp.  Roxburgh10 and most
other distinguished botanists have accordingly considered it identical with the Cannabis sativa of
  » Lib. iii. cap. 165.  The Kan-x&tc iynitt of this author (lib. iii. cap. 166) is the Althma canabina of modern
botanists.
  J De Simpl. Med. Facult. lib. vii. cap. 5.                 » Lib. iv. Melpomene, lxxiv. and lxxv.
  * Illustrations of the Botany of the Himalayan Mountains, p. 331.             ■ Odyssey, iv. 220.
  6 Royle, op. supra cit.; also, Dr. O'Shaughnessy, On the Preparation of the Indian Hemp or Ounjah,
Calcutta, 1&39.
  1 Hist. Nat. lib. xix. cap. 56; and lib. xx. cap. 97.
  9 Rumphius, Herbarium Amboinense, vol. v. t. 77.
  9 In the United States of America, the denomination of Indian hemp is applied, both in the Pharmaco-
poeia and Dispensatory, to the Apocynum cannabinum ; and it has been imported and sold in London for
the real Indian hemp (Cannabis sativa, var. Indica), according to the statement of Dr. Fred. J. Farre
(Lond. Med. Gaz. May 5, 1813, p. 209).                   8
  10 Flora Indica, vol. iii. p. "'2. 
Common Hemp :—Description.                     335
Linn;pus and Willdenow.  C. indica branches from the ground
up to within two feet of the top; whereas common hemp izrows
three or four feet before it branches.-  The fruit also of C. indica
is smaller arid  rounder.  I have  carefully compared C. indica
(both that grown in the Chelsea Garden and that contained in
Dr. Wallich's Herbarium in the possession of the Linnean Society)
with the C. saliva in Linnauss collection, and I cannot discover
any essential distinction between them   The male plant appears
to me to be in  every respect the same.'  In the  female plants,
the flowers of C. indica were more crowded than  those of com-
mon hemp.
   Hab.—Persia, Caucasus, hills in  the north  of India.
Cultivated in  various other countries.
   Disciuption.—The  parts  employed in Asia for the
purposes  of intoxication, and in Europe for medicine, are
the herb  (leaves) and the resin.
   1. Herba  Cannabis  sativa;.—This is  used  in India
in  two forms; one  called gunjah, the other bang.   The
hashish of the Arabs differs somewhat from  gunjah.
   o. Gunjah.—This is the dried hemp plant which has
flowered, and from  which  the resin has  not been re-        Cannabis sativa.
moved.   It is sold in the  Calcutta bazaars, for smoking
chiefly, in bundles of about two  feet long and three inches in diameter, each con-
taining twenty-four plants.  That which I have received  from Dr. O'Shaughnessy,
 and also  found in commerce, consists of cylindrical or fusiform masses (about the
 Bize and  shape of the fingers)  of a grayish or greenish-brown colour, and composed
 of stems, leaves, and petioles  pressed together.  It has  a faint  odour and  feeble
 bitterish  taste.   In commerce  it is known by the name of guaza  or guazah.
   (3. Bang,  Subjee, or Sidhee.—This consists of the larger leaves and  capsules
 without the stalks.   .1 have not met with this in commerce.
   y. Hashish or Hashish.—This, according to Steeze,3 consists of the  tops  and
 tender parts of the plant collected after inflorescence.
    2.  Resina Cannabis sativse.—The concreted resinous exudation from the leaves,
 slender stems, and flowers, is  called Churrus.   The mode of collecting it  is some-
 what analogous to that adopted in Crete for the collection of ladanum.  In " Cen-
 tral India and the Saugor territory, and in  Nipal, Churrus is collected during  the
 hot  season  in  the following  singular  manner: Men clad in leathern dresses run
 through the  hemp fields, brushing through the plant with all possible  violence; the
 soft resin adheres to the leather, and is subsequently scraped off  and kneaded into
 balls, which  sell from five to  six rupees the seer.   A still finer kind—the Momeea
 or wa.ren Churrus—is collected by the hand in Nipal, and  sells for nearly double
 the  price of the ordinary kind.  In Nipal, Dr. M'Kinnon informs me, the leathern
 attire is  dispensed with, and the ro.^in is gathered on the skin of  the naked coolies.
 In  Persia,  it is  stated  by Mirza Abdul Razes that the  Churrus is  prepared by press-
 ing the resinous plant on coarse cloths, and then scraping it from these and melting
 it in a pot with a little warm water.  He considers the Churrus of Herat as the
 best and most powerful of all the  varieties  of the drug."3  I have a specimen of
 spurious Churrus.
    Churrus, such as  I have received it from Dr. O'Shaughnessy, is in masses having
 the shape and size of a hen's  egg, or of a small lemon, and formed by the adhesion
 of superimposed elongated pieces.  It has a  dull grayish-brown colour, and not
 much  odour.   It consists  of resinous and various foreign matters (fragments of
 flowers,  leaves,  seeds, &c.)
    3. Fructus Cannabis sativse.—The fruits, called usually hempsced (semen can-
 * Thii agrees with a remark in the Hortus Cliffortianus: "Quod mas in Horto Malabarico exhibitus
nostru nit plunu nullum dubiuni detur; fnMiiinu autem parum recedit foliis tcrnatis, tumen et ejusmodi
plontaa in sole macro npud no» observamus non infrequenter."
 1 Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. v. p. S3, 1815.       • O'Shaughnessy, op. supra cit. p. 6. 
336             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Cannabinace^:.
Salts of ammonia, potash, lime, and magnesia
Alumina
Silica.
nobis), are small, ash-coloured, shining, nut-like or seed-like bodies.  They are demul-

cent and oleaginous, but not narcotic.   They are employed for  feeding cage-birds.

They are said by Burnett1 to possess the singular property of changing the colour

of the  plumage of bullfinches and goldfinches from red and yellow to black, if the

birds are fed on the seeds for too long a time or in  too large a quantity (?).

   Composition.—The leaves of  common  hemp have  been  submitted to analysis

by Tscheepe,8 by Schlesinger,3 and by Bohlig.4   The  results  of  the two former of

these are as follows:—


                 Tscheepe.                                  Schlesinqer.
Chlorophylle.      )                           Bitter matter  .................  \ jj
Gluten.           > Green fecula.               Chlorophylle soluble in  ether  ....•...'  475
Phosphate of Lime. )                           Chlorophylle soluble in  alcohol .......  9375
Brown extractive.                             Green resinous extractive..........  50
Sweetish bitter extractive.                      [Colouring matter...............10 U
Brown gum.                                  1 Gummy extract................19^5
Lignin.                                      |Malate of lime with extractive.......  5775
Soluble albumen.                              Extractive...................  6.875
                                            Vegetable albumen..............  % jj
                                            Lime, magnesia, and iron..........  9.5
                                            Lignin.....................UO
                                            Loss......................  6.875

Leaves of Cannabis sativa.                      \ Leaves dried at 2003 f............100.000


Bohlig  found  a great agreement between the constituents of common hemp and

those of the stinging nettle (Urtica dioic'a).

   Dr. Kane5  has made an ultimate analysis of the leaves and herb of hemp as well as of their
ashes; but the results have no medical interest.

Hempseeds have been analyzed  by Bucholz,8  who  obtained—-fixed oil 19.1,  ram

1.6, sugarmth extractive 1.6, gummy extract 9.0, soluble albumen  24.7, woody fibre

5.0, husk 38.3, loss 0.7=100.0.

   1. Volatile Oil of Hemp.—This has hitherto been  procured in such small quantities that
its properties are but imperfectly known.  When  the dried  plant is  distilled with a  large
quantity of water, traces of the  oil  pass over, and  the distilled liquor has the odour of the
plant.
   2. Cannabin; Resin of Hemp.—This appears  to be the  active principle of hemp. It is a
soft,  neutral resin, soluble in alcohol and in ether, and separable, by the addition of water, from
its alcoholic solution, in the form of a white precipitate.  It has a warm, bitterish, acrid,  some-
what balsamic taste, and a fragrant odour, especially when heated.   Messrs. T. and H. Smith'
say that  it very much resembles jalap resin or jalapine, except in remaining soft even after
continued drying, and in  its odour and taste.
   3. Fixed Oil of Hempseed; Hempseed Oil; Oleum Cannabis.—This is a drying oil obtained
in Russia, by expression, from hempseeds, which yield about 25 per cent, of it. At first it is green-
ish-yellow, subsequently yellow.   It hasan acrid odour,but a mild taste.  Its sp. gr. is 0.9278 at
52°.  It dissolves readily in boiling alcohol, in 30 parts of cold alcohol.  At—17° F. it freezes.
It is used in the preparation of a soft soap, in paint, and in lamps for the purpose of illumina-
tion; but it is apt to clog the wick by the formation of a viscid adherent varnish.  When  boiled
it makes a good varnish.

   Physiological Effects.—A  general statement of  the effects  of Indian  hemp

has  already been made (see  ante, p. 236).   Its action as  a neurotic is essentially

that of  a cerebro-spinal (see ante, p. 235).   It operates as a phrenic:  in moderate

doses producing exhilaration, inebriation with phantasms, and more or  less confu-

sion of  intellect, followed by sleep;  in large doses causing  stupor.   Hence it may

be called an exhilarant, inebriant, phantasmatic, hypnotic or soporific, and stupe-

facient or narcotic.

   On Orientals, the inebriation or delirium produced by  it is usually of an agreeable or cheerful
character, exciting the individual to laugh, dance, and sing, and to commit various extravagancies
—acting as an aphrodisiac, and augmenting the appetite for food. In  some, it occasions a kind
of reverie.  It renders others excitable and  quarrelsome, and disposes  to acts  of violence.*


  ' Outlines of Botany, p. 560, 1835.                  > Gmelin, Hand, de Chemie, Bd. ii. S. 13M.
  » Pharmaceutisches Central-Blatt fiir 1840, S. 490.    ♦ Ibid. S. 519.
  * Lond. Edinb. and Dubl. Phil. Mag. for February 1844 ; also, Industrial Resources of Ireland.
  B Quoted by  L. Gmelin, Handb. de Chemie.         ' Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. vi. p. 127,1M*-
  8 It has been stated that the men who  attempted the assasination of Lord Cornwallis in India were
intoxicated by Indian hemp (Thornton, History of the British Empire in India, vol. ii. p. 4ti6, 1648.) 
Common Hemp :—Physiological Effects.
337
The singular form of insanity said to be brought on by it has already (see vol. i. p. 237) been
noticed.
  It acts as an  anaesthetic (see vol. i. p.  238).  It  relieves pain, and is, therefore,
employed  as an ai»dyne or paregoric.  Moreover, Mr. Donovan1 found that under
its influence his sense of touch and feeling gradually became obtuse, until at length
he lost all feeling unless he pinched himself severely;  and Dr. Christison2 states he
felt a pleasant numbness of  his  limbs after its use.
  Its influence as a  cinetic  (see  vol. i. p. 240) or agent affecting the action of the
muscles, is remarkable.   It relieves spasm, and  is, therefore, frequently used  as an
antispasmodic.   On  Orientals large doses produce  a cataleptic condition (in which
the muscles are moderately contracted, but flexible and pliant, and the limbs retain
any position or attitude in which they may be placed).
  The following illustrative cases  are taken  from  Dr.  O'Shaughnessy's paper on  Indian
hemp:—
  At two P. M. a grain of the resin  of hemp was  given to a rheumatic patient. At four P.
M. he was very talkative, sang, called  loudly for an extra supply of food,  and declared himself
;.i perfect health.  At six  P. M. he was asleep. At eight P. M. he was found insensible, but
breathing with perfect  regularity, his pulse and skin natural, and the pupils freely contractile
on the approach of light.   Happening by chance to lift up the patient's arm, the " professional
reader will judge of my astonishment," observes Dr. O'Shaughnessy, "when I found that it re-
mained in the posture  in which I placed it.  It required but a very brief examination  of the
limbs to find that tbe  patient had by the influence of this narcotic been thrown  into that
strange  and most extraordinary of all nervous conditions, into  that state which so few have
-ooii, and the existence of which so many still discredit—the genuine catalepsy of the nosologist.
We raised him to a sitting posture, and placed his arms and limbs in every imaginable attitude.
A waxen figure could not be more pliant or  more stationary in each position, no mntter how
contrary to the natural  influepce of gravity on the part.  To all impressions he was meanwhile
almost insensible."  He continued in this  state till one A.  M., when consciousness and  volun-
tary motion quickly returned.
  Another patient who had taken the  same dose fell asleep, but was aroused by the noise in
the ward.  He  seemed vastly amused at the  strange aspects of the statue-like attitudes in
which the first patient  had been placed.  " On  a  sudden  he uttered  a loud peal of laughter.
and exclaimed that four spirits were springing with his bed into the air. In vain we attempted
to pacify him; his laughter became momentarily more and more uncontrollable.  We now ob-
served that the limbs were rather rigid, and in a few minutes more his arms and legs could be
bent,, and would remain in any desired position.  He  was  moved to a separate room,  where
he soon became tranquil, his limbs in less than an  hour gained their natural condition, and in
two hours he expressed himself perfectly  well and excessively hungry."
  On Europeans I have never heard of a cataleptic state  being produced by this drug.   In  a
i :isf> of tetanus under my care in the London Hospital,and which was carefully watched by Dr.
O'Shaughnessy and myself, the resinous extract of Indian Hemp was given in increasing doses
up  to twenty grains.  It caused stupor and cessation of spasms; but no perfect cataleptic state.
The only tendency to this condition which was observed was when the arm of the patient was
lifted and then cautiously  let go: it  fell slowly and gradually, not quickly, as it would have
done under ordinary conditions : the  patient was at this time quite insensible.
   By internal  use it acts as a mydriatic (see vol. i. p. 246), causing preternatural
dilatation  of the pupil.   But Dr.  Lawrie3 states that when applied around the eye
it does not cause dilatation of the pupil.
   Indian hemp does not appear  much to affect  the  secretions.   It  neither excites
nausea nor lessens the  appetite.   It neither causes  dryness of the tongue  nor con-
stipation of the bowels.  It does not appear to check or otherwise affect the bron-
chial secretions.   1 am  disposed to think that it is  somewhat sudorific.   Drs. Bal-
lard and Garrod4 state  that in large  doses it communicates an odour  to  the urine
like (bat evolved when the  tincture is mixed  with water, and in part like that  of
tbe Tonquin bean.
  Compared with opium, Indian hemp differs  in  its operation  on the system  in
several remarkable circumstances : as by its  inebriating, phantasmatic, and aphro-
'lisiac effects;  by  its causing catalepsy  and  dilatation of pupil; and by  its not

  1 Dublin Journal of Medical Science,  Jan. 1845.                              a Dispensatory
  ' Lond. and Edinb. Monthly Journal of Medical Science, Nov. 1644, p. 947.
 ' Elements of Materia Medica.
     VOL.  11.—'2'2 
338             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Canxabinaoeje.
causing  nausea,  loss  of appetite,  dry tongue, constipation,  or diminution of the
secretions.
  Dr. Hooke, in his account of Indian hemp (Bangue) read to the Royal Society, Dec. 18,1C89
notices the various odd tricks shown by persons while in the ecstasy ca11-<*! by this plant; and
adds that, when this condition subsides, the patient  finds  himself mightily refreshed and ex-
ceedingly hungry.
  The general effects of Indian  hemp on man, as stated by Dr. O'Shaughnessy, from his own
observations, are alleviation of  pain (mostly), remarkable increase  of appetite, unequivocal
aphrodisia, and great mental cheerfulness.  Its more violent effects were delirium of a peculiar
kind, and a cataleptic state.
  Its effects on  animals were analogous: he gave ten grains of Nipalese Churrus dissolved in
spirit  to a middling-sized dog: " In half an hour he became stupid and sleepy, dozing at in-
tervals, starting up, wagging his tail as  if extremely contented ; he ate some food greedily, on
being called to  he  staggered  to and fro, and his face  assumed a look of utter and helpless
drunkenness.  These symptoms lasted about two hours, and then gradually passed away in
six hours he was perfectly well  and lively."
  It would appear that Indian hemp acts more powerfully in India than in Europe.  My ex-
periments (detailed in the 2d  edition of this work, pp.  1097-8) fully bear out this  statement.
Dr. O'Shaughnessy, when  in  England, satisfied  himself of the difference of the effect of In-
dian hemp in this country  and in Bengal; and he observes,1 that while in  India he had seen
marked effects from half a grain of the extract, or even less, and had been accustomed to con-
sider one grain and a half a large dose, in England he had given ten  or twelve or more grains
to produce the desired effect.
   Uses.—Indian hemp is chiefly  employed  as  a  medicine,  for its hypnotic, ano-
dyne, and antispasmodic  properties;  occasionally, also,  for its mental  influence
(/'.  e. as a phrenic  and nervine).   Compared with opium, it is less certain  than
the latter  agent; over  which, however, it  has several advantages.   Thus it  does
not constipate the bowels, lessen the appetite  or create nausea, produce dryness of
the tongue,  or check  the  pulmonary secretion, as  opium is well  known  to do.
Moreover, in  some patients  in whom opium causes headache, and various distress-
ing  feelings,  Indian  hemp occasionally  acts without any of these inconveniences;
but I have heard others object to  its  continuance on  the ground  of its very un-
pleasant effects.
   As a hypnotic, I have used  it with advantage  in spirit-drinkers,  and  have suc-
ceeded in one or two  cases in producing sleep with  it  where large doses of morphia
had failed.  In some hysterical patients, and in cases of chorea, I have occasionally
employed  it to induce sleep, where the use of opium was from some cause objection-
able.  Dr. Clendinning3 speaks favourably of its soporific  influence  in pulmonary
affections and low fever.  It  has  the great  advantage  over  opium  of neither re-
pressing the secretions  nor lessening the appetite for food.
   As an  anodyne, it is, I  think,  in general, decidedly  inferior to opium;  but
there  are occasions where  its use is to be preferred to the latter agent.   In acute
and subacute  rheumatism, in gout, and in neuralgia, it frequently alleviates the pain.
   As an antispasmodic, it has been employed in tetanus,  hydrophobia, malignant
cholera, chorea, and infantile convulsions.   In the  cases of tetanus (both  traumatic
and idiopathic) and of hydrophobia which I have seen treated with it, it completely
failed to give permanent relief.  In one case  of traumatic tetanus, it alleviated the
pain and spasms, but the  patient notwithstanding  died.  In a case  under the care
of Professor Miller,3 it was given, and the patient recovered.   It has failed, however,
in the  hands of  Mr. Potter* and others.  And in a  case of idiopathic  tetanus in
Guy's Hospital,  under  the care of Dr. Babington,5 it proved  useless.  In chorea, 1
have found it serviceable,  sometimes as  an antispasmodic, at  others  as a hypnotic;
and the same  may be said of its use in hysteria.
   As a phrenic or medicinal agent affecting the mental functions, Indian  hemp has
also  been employed.   Dr. Clendinning  speaks favourably of its use as a nen'ine
stimulant, in removing languor and anxiety, and raising the pulse and spirits; and

  1  Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. ii. p. 594, 1843.         a Medico-Chirurg. Transactions, vol. xxvi.
  3  Lond. and Edinb. Monthly Journal of Medical Science, Jan. 1845.
  * Lancet, vol. i. p. 36. Jan. 11,1815.                 » Ibid. vol. ii.'p. 351, Dec. 14, 1844. 
Resinous or Alcoholic Extract of Indian Hemp.            339
Dr. Conolly thinks that it may be useful in some chronic  forms of mania.1   Dr.
Sutherland has not obtained any good effect from it.8
  Administration.—In England, Indian hemp is usually administered  in  the
form of resinous or alcoholic extract and of tincture.
  1.  EXTRACTl'M  CANNABIS IXDICE ALCOHOLICUM;  Resinous  or Alcoholic Extract of
Indian limp.—This is the  preparation usually sold  in the shops under the name
of resin  of fndian hemp or cannabin (see ante, p. 336).   Dr. O'Shaughnessy
directs it to be prepared  by boiling the rich adhesive tops of  the dried gunjah in
rectified  spirits until all  the resin is dissolved.   " The tincture  thus obtained is
evaporated to dryness in a vessel  placed over a pot of boiling water.   The extract
softens at a gentle heat, and can be made into pills without  any addition."  Mr.
Robertson,3 of Calcutta, prepared it by a kind of percolation process; the vapour of
alcohol being transmitted through the dry herb.   At first a thin tarry matter con-
taining much resin, latterly a brown liquor containing little resin but much extractive
passed over.  At this point, water was substituted for the spirit in the still, and as
much as possible of the spirit retained by the plant thus
expelled  from it.   Part of the alcohol was  removed           Fig. 288.
from the fluid by distillation; but the rest  was dissipated
by evaporation at a temperature not exceeding  150° F.
From  1 cwt. of the plant about 8 lbs. of extract were
obtained at one operation, which was so slowly conducted
as in all its stages to last a fortnight.                     (
   The following  is the  process  given by  the Messrs.
Smith, of Edinburgh,4 for the preparation of this  ex-   Apparatus for the  percolation
tract:  Digest  bruised  gunjah  in successive quantities     j£ ™l^If ^Indian
of  warm water till the  expressed water comes  away     hemp.
colourless;  and again for two days, at  a moderate heat,     „,   ....  ,    .   . .
       ,  /    „  ° ,        -.   y  '.  ,.         ,.    '   a. The still, charged with strong
in a solution ot carbonate ot soda, in the proportion of     spirits.
one part of the salt to  two  of  gunjah. _ Colouring mat-   »■ T^«ft &*£*&*%
ter, chlorophylle, and  inert concrete oil being  thus  re-      which the nose of the still
moved, express and wash the  residuum,  dry it, and ex-   c. CoVmmo,ntrcondensing worm.
haust  it  by percolation with  rectified spirit.  Agitate
with the  tincture, milk of  lime  containing an ounce of lime for  every  pound of
gunjah, and, after filtration, throw down the excess of lime by a little sulphuric acid.
Agitate with  the filtered  liquor a little animal charcoal, which is afterwards to be
removed  by filtration.  Distil off most of the  spirit, add  to  the residual tincture
twice its weight of water  in a porcelain basin, and  let the remaining  spirit evaporate
gradually.  Lastly, wash the resin with fresh water till it comes away neither acid
nor bitter, and dry the resin in thin layers.  This resin contains the peculiar taste
and odour of the gunjah.    A temperature of 180° F. acting for eight hours on thin
layers  of it exposed to  the air does not impair its activity.   100 lbs. of dry gunjah
yield about 6 or  7 lbs.  of this extract.
   The Dublin College  directs the Extractum  Cannabis Indicse purificatum to be
prepared as follows :—
  Take of Extract of Indian Hemp of Commerce gj; Rectified Spirit f§iy.   Dissolve the ex-
tract in the spirit, and when the dregs have subsided, decant the clear liquid, and evaporate, by
means of a water-bath, to the consistence of a soft extract.
   The dose of the alcoholic extract of  Indian hemp  is usually from gr. j to grs. v.
I have usually found one  grain  of the extract kept in the London shops to act as a
narcotic.    The Messrs. Smith state that two-thirds of a grain of the  pure resin pro-
duced on themselves and others  powerful narcotic effects.  In a case of tetanus under
my care in the London Hospital, the dose  of the extract (supplied by Dr. O'Shaugh-
nessy, who watched the case with me) was gradually increased  to grs. xx.   It may

  * 9eo alto Mnreau, Du Hasehisch tt de I'Alitnation Mentale, Etudes Psychologiques, Paris 1815
  1 Further Report of the Commissioners in Lunacy,  p. 39*2, 18-17.                        '
  ' Pharmaceutical Journal,  vol. vi. p. 71, 1846.                            4 jjJ(j p jyj jg^g 
340             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Cannabinace e.

be  administered in the form of pill; or better by diffusion through an emulsion
(prepared  by rubbing  the extract with olive oil, in a warm mortar,  and gradually
adding mucilage, and afterwards water), or by solution in rectified spirit, and drop-
ping the tincture into water immediately before its administration.
   2. TINCTURA CANNABIS INDICT, D.; Tincture of Indian  Hemp.—(Purified Extract
of Indian Hemp £ss; Rectified Spirit Oss.   Dissolve the extract in the spirit,  D.)
—These are the proportions directed to be used by Dr. O'Shaughnessy; but, probably
by a typographical error, he has ordered proof spirit instead of rectified spirit. Dose
from m„x to f3j.   Dr.  O'Shaughnessy gives in tetanus 3j every half hour, until the
paroxysms  cease, or catalepsy is induced; in  cholera, ten drops  every half hour,
It may be administered in an emulsion or mucilaginous mixture, or in water sweet-
ened with sugar.   It should be swallowed soon after it has been added to the aqueous
liquid, as the resin precipitates, and is apt to adhere to the side of the vessel.
  Other Preparations of Indian Hemp.—By the Asiatics, Egyptians, and others who employ
Indian  hemp for the purposes of intoxication, various preparations of this drug are in use.  In
some of these the plant itself is employed, either rubbed up with water and made into a draught
or formed into an electuary.  But a favourite mode of using it is  to extract the active principle
by some fatty matter (generally butter or oil), by which an oleaginous solution or fatty extract
is obtained.  For this purpose the hemp is boiled in butter or oil, with a  little water, usually
until the water is boiled away.  It is said that the fatty extract thus obtained will preserve its
intoxicating powers for years.  It is usually mixed up with other ingredients, and taken in the
form of an electuary, confection, or pastile.  The majoon used at Calcutta,1 the mpouchari em-
ployed  at Cairo,2 and the dawamesc of the Arabs,3 are preparations of this kind.  Lastly, hemp
is also used for smoking in pipes.
   Antidotes.—In a case of poisoning by  Indian hemp the treatment should be
the same as that for poisoning by opium (which see).

    116.  HUMULUS  LUPULUS, Zin».-THE  COMMON HOP.
                             Sex. Syst. Dioecia, Pentandria.
(Amentum, L.—Catkin, E.—The dried strobiles. Lupulina ; the yellow powder separated from the stro-
                             biles by rubbing and sifting, D.)
   History.—This plant is probably the Lupus salictarius of  Pliny.4   Its culture
was introduced into this country from Flanders, in the reign of Henry VIII.5
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—Dioecious.  Males:—Calyx 5-partite. Stamens 5.  Fe-
males :—Strobiles consisting of large, persistent, concave scales [bracts], having a
single  flower  in the axilla of each.   Ovary 1.  Styles 2.  Seed  1, with an arillus.
Embryo spirally contorted (Bot. Gall.).
   Sp. Char.—The only species.
   Perennial.  Stems annual, long, weak, and climbing, scabrous.  Leaves petiolate,
3- to 5-lobed, serrated, veiny, rough.  Flowers  greenish  yellow.
   Hab.—Thickets and hedges in many parts of Europe.   Indigenous [?].  Flowers
in July.
   Cultivation.—The female plant is  cultivated  in several counties in England,
especially Kent,  Sussex,  Surrey,  Worcestershire, and Herefordshire.  The third
year after planting  it generally comes  into full  bearing.  Stacking or setting the,
poles is performed in April or May.   The gathering or picking takes place in  Sep-
tember.  The cones are dried in kilns, and are then packed in hempen sacks, called
bags or pockets.   This operation is  called bagging.6
   Description.—The aggregate fruits of the  Humulus Lupulus are strobiles or
catkins (strobili seu amenta lupuli), in commerce termed hops.   They consist of
scales, nuts, and lupulinic glands or grains.  The scales are the enlarged and per-
sistent bracts, which enclose the nuts: they are  ovate, membranous, and at their

  1 O'Shaughnessy, op. supra cit.
  3 Buchner's Repertorium, 2te Reihe, Bd. xlix. S.359, 1848; also 3tte Reihe, Bd.i.S.94,1848.
  » Moreau, op. supra cit.
  4 Hist. Nat. lib. xxi. cap. 50, ed. Valp.              » Beckmann,  Hist, of Invent, vol. iv. p. 340.
  6 Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Agriculture. 
Common Hop:—Description;  Composition.
341
base glandular.   The nuts (achenia) are small, hard, nearly globular, and covered
                                             The lupulinic glands or grains (com-
with aromatic, superficial, globose glands
monly termed yellow powder or
lupulin) are the  most import-
ant parts of the strobiles.   By
thrashing, rubbing, and sifting,
Dr.  Ives1  procured  14 ounces
from six  pounds  of hops;  and
he therefore concluded that dry
hops would  yield about a sixth
part of  their  weight of these
grains.  They are usually inter-
mixed  with sand.    They are
rounded, of a cellular texture,
golden  yellow,  and  somewhat
transparent.  They arc sessile,
or  nearly  so.    The  common
centre, around which the cells
are  arranged, has  been  called
the hilum.   By drying they lose

                290.
Fig. 289.
Dried Lupulinic grain, with Us hilum
           (magnified).

their spherical form.  Placed in
water they give out an immense
number of  minute  globules.                    Humulus Lupulus.
\ rndcr other circumstances they
become ruptured, and allow an
inner envelop to escape.  Ac-
cording to Turpin,9 they consist of tico vesicles, one enclosing the other.   The inner
one contains globules, an aromatic oil, and a gas.  lie also states that, in the bubbles
of the disengaged gas,  an immense number of crystals are formed.
   Composition.—Payen, Chevallier, and  Pelletan3 analyzed the scales and lupu-
linic grains.   Dr. Ives' also examined the latter.
a. Male flower.
     d. Bract.
 b. Female do.  c. Sepal or bracteole.
e. Embryo. /. Lupulinic gland.
                     I.li'ulinic Grains.
  Payen, Chevallier, and Pelletan's
             Analysis.                ^"c«'» Analysis.
Volatile oil............   2.00  Tannin .  . .
Bitter principle (Lupulite)  . .  .  10.30 !
Resin.............50 to 55.00  Extractive .
Lignin . . •............  32.00
Fatty, astringent, and gummy]       [ Bitter princi-
  matters,  osmazome,  malic           pie  ....
  and carbonic neids, several
  ■alts (malate of lime, acetate > traces.
  of ammonia,  chloride of po-
  tassium, sulphate of potash),
  ^-................;
Wax .
Resin
Lignin
1)9.30
  4.16

  8.33


  9.16
 10.00
 30.00
 38.33

100.00
             Scales.
  Payen, Chevallier, and Pelletan's
            Analysis.
Astringent matter.
Inert colouring matter.
Chlorophylle.
Gum.
Lignin.
Salts (of potash, lime, and ammonia,
  containing acetic, hydrochloric, sul-
  phuric, nitric, &c. acids).
The scales usually contain a portion of
  lupulinic matter, from which it is al-
  most impossible to free them.
' Journal of Science, vol. xi. p. 205.
\ :lI'"l0iT" deJ'Acad.  Royaledes Sciences, t. xvii. p. 104, 1840; see also Raspail, Chim  Or'
1 Journ de Pharm. t. vm. p. 209; and Journ. de Chim. Mid t  ii p  5"7       '         e
4 Journal of Science, vol. xi. p. 205. 
342             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Cannabinace.e.

   1. Volatile oil of Hops.—Resides in the lupulinic grains.   Obtained by submitting these
or hops which contain them, to distillation with water.  Its colour is yellowish, its odour that
of hops, its taste acrid. It is soluble in water, but still more so in alcohol and ether. Its sp.pr.
is 0.910.  By keeping, it becomes resinified. It is said to act on the system as a narcotic.  The
water which comes over, in distillation, with the oil, contains acetate of ammonia, and blackens
salver: from which circumstance the presence of sulphur is inferred.
   2. Bitter  Principle  of Hops ; Lupuiite.—It is procured by treating the aqueous extract of
the lupulinic grains, united with a little lime, with alcohol.  The alcoholic  tincture is to he.
evaporated to dryness, the residue treated with water, and the solution evaporated.  The residue,
,when washed with ether, is lupuiite.  It is uncrystallizable, yellowish white, very bitter, soluble
in 20 parts of water, very  soluble in alcohol, and  slightly so in ether.   The aqueous solution
froths by  agitation; it forms no  precipitate with either tincture of nutgalls or acetate of lead,
Lupuiite  contains no nitrogen.   It is devoid of the narcotic property of the oil. In small doses
it is said  to have caused loss of  appetite and diminished digestive power; but a repetition of
the experiment is  very desirable.
   3. Tannic Acid; Tannin.—In the manufacture of beer, this  principle serves to precipitate
the nitrogenized or albuminous matter of the barley, and, therefore, for clarification.
   4. Resin.—Is of a golden yellow colour, and becomes orange-yellow by exposure to the air,
It is soluble in both alcohol and ether.  It appears  to be the  oil changed into resin, partly by
oxidizement.
   Chemical Characteristics.—A decoction of hops reddens litmus, owing to
the presence of free acid.   Sesquichloride  of iron strikes an  olive green  colour
(tannate of iron).   A solution of gelatin renders the filtered decoction  turbid (tan-
nate of gelatin).  Chloride of barium occasions with it a white precipitate (sulphate
of baryta).   Oxalate of ammonia also causes a white precipitate (oxalate of lime),
   Physiological Effects.—The odorous emanations  (vapour of the volatile oil)
of hops  possess  narcotic properties.   Hence  a pillow of these cones promotes sleep,
as I have several times witnessed.   Moreover, we are told that stupor has occasion-
ally been induced in  persons who have  remained for a  considerable time in  hop
warehouses.
   The lupulinic grains are aromatic and  tonic.  They appear also to possess sooth-
ing, tranquillizing, and, in a slight degree, sedative  and  soporific properties.  But
the  existence  of any  narcotic quality has been  strongly denied  by Dr. Bigsby,1
Magendie,2 and others.  " I  have tried, at different times," says Magendie, " both the
lupuline [lupulinic grains]  in substance, and its different preparations, on animals,
but I  have never observed that it is a narcotic, although  this property is one which
is most  strikingly displayed  in experiments on animals."  Dr. Maton3 found that it
allayed  pain, produced sleep, and reduced the frequency of the pulse from 96 to 60
in twenty-four hours.
   Both  infusion and tincture of hops are mild but agreeable aromatic tonics.  They
sometimes prove diuretic, or, when the skin is kept warm, sudorific.  Their sedative,
soporific, and anodyne properties are very uncertain.
   Uses.—A pillow of hops (cervicale seu pulvinus,pulvinar lupuli) is occasionally
employed in mania, and other cases in which inquietude and  restlessness  prevail,
and in which  the use  of opium is considered objectionable.  In hop countries it is
a popular remedy for want of sleep.   The benefit said to have been obtained from
it by  George III., for whom it was  prescribed by Dr.  Willis,  in 1787, brought it
into more general use.
   Hops are  given  internally to relieve restlessness consequent upon  exhaustion and
fatigue,  and to induce  sleep  in the watchfulness of mania and  of other maladies;
to  calm  nervous irritation;  and to relieve pain in gout, arthritic rheumatism, and
after accouchement.   Though  they sometimes produce the desired  effect, they fre-
quently  fail to give relief.   Dr. Maton used  it, with good effect, as  an anodyne in
rheumatism.
   As  a  tonic, it is applicable in dyspepsia, cachectic conditions of the system, or
any other  maladies characterized by debility.
   Hops have been applied,  topically,  in the form of fomentation or poultice, as a
1 Lond. Med. Rep. vol. iv. p. 287.                                     a Formulaire.
* Vbservations on Humulus Lupulus, by A. Freake, 2d edit. 
              Nat. Ord. Morace^e.—Characters ;  Properties.           343

resolvent or discutient, in painful swellings and tumours.  Freake employed an oint-
ment, composed of lard and the powder of the hop, as an anodyne application to
cancerous sores.1
  But the principal  consumption of hops  is in  the  manufacture of beer  and ale,
to which they communicate a  pleasant, bitter, and aromatic flavour, and tonic pro-
perties; while, by their  chemical influence, they check the  acetous  fermentation.
Part of the soporific quality of beer and ale is usually ascribed to the hops used in
the manufacture of these beverages.
  Administration.—The best preparation of hops, for internal use,  is the yellow
powder (lupulinic grains or  lupulin).  The infusion and tincture are less eligible
modes of exhibition.  The extract is still more objectionable.   Wcll-hopped-beer is
a convenient  mode  of administering  hops, when  fermented liquors are not contra-
indicated (see ante, p. 118).

  I. INFl'SUM  LUPULI, L.;  Infusion of Hops.—(Hops Jvj; Boiling Distilled Water
Oj  [Hops 3ss; Boiling Water Oj, U. &].   Macerate for four [two,  U. S.~\ hours
in a vessel lightly covered, and strain.)—Dose, fjj to f ^ij.

_ 2. TINCTURA  LUPULI, L. [U.S.];  Tinctura  Humuli; Tincture of Hops.—(Hops
3vj [Iv, U. #.];  Proof Spirit Oij.   Macerate for seven days, and strain.)—Dose,
f^ss tof3ij.

   I EXTRACTUM  LUPULI,  L.  E.; Extractum Humuli,  D.;  Extract of Hops.—
(Hops  ibjss  [ibj, E.~\;   Boiling  Distilled Water Cong,  ij  [Cong, j,  E.~\.  Ma-
cerate for twenty-four hours, then boil down to a gallon [Oiv, E.], and strain  the
liquor while hot;  lastly, evaporate [in the vapour bath, E.J to a proper consistence.
The directions of the Dublin College are nearly the same as those of the Edinburgh
College.)—Dose, grs. v to 9j.  Whatever virtue this preparation possesses is owing
to the bitter principle or lupuiite.

  4. LUPULIN A; Yellow Powder;  Lupulinic  Grains or Glands.—(Separated from
the strobiles by rubbing and sifting.)—Dose, grs. vj to grs.  xij, taken in  the form
of powder or  pills.

   :5. TINCTURA LUPULINjE, D.;  Tinctura Lupuli, E.—(Lupulin §v; Rectified Spirit
Oij.   Macerate for  fourteen  days, strain, express, and filter,  D.—Take  any con-
venient quantity of  Hops, recently dried;' separate by friction and sifting the yel-
lowish-brown  powder  attached to the scales.  Then take of this powder  £v [giv,
 I.  S.]; and  of Rectified Spirit  Oij;  and prepare  the tincture by percolation or
digestion,  as directed for tincture  of capsicum.   Ph. Ed.)—Dose, 3ss to 31'j.
                      Order  XXX.   MORACE^E.

                                 Moiie<e, Endlicher.

  CnAiucTF.ns.—Ffour/s unisexual.  Males:— Calyx 0,or 3—4 parted.  Stamens3—4,inserted
into the base of the calyx and opposite  its  segments.  Females -.—Calyx 0, or 4—5-parted.
Ovary 1-celled, rarely 2-celled.  Ovules solitary, pendulous, or amphitropal, with the foramen
uppermost.  Fruit small nuts or utricles, 1-seeded, inclosed within the succulent receptacle, or
collected in a fleshy head formed by the consolidated succulent calyx.  Seed solitary, with a thin
brittle testa; embryo lying in fleshy albumen, hooked, with the radicle long, superior, folded
down  towards the cotyledons.— Trees or shrubs,  with a milky juice.  Leaves furnished with
stipules.
  PnopEHTiKs.—Various.   The milky juice  of some species is bland and potable; of others
acrid and poisonous. In India, Fiats elastica yields caoutchouc. Madura tinctoria furnishes the
dye wood called Fustic, whose colouring principle is termed morine.
1 Op. cit. p. 13; see also Annals of Medicine, vol. ii. p. 403. 
344
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Morace.e.
291.
   117. MORUS  NIGRA, Linn.—THE COMMON MULBERRY.
                           Sex. Syst. Monoecia, Tetrandria.
                                (Fructus Succus, L.)

  History.—The mulberry (popia) is mentioned by Hippocrates1—"Moracalefa-
ciunt et humectant ac alvo secedunt," says the Father of Physic.   Dioscorides' also
speaks of the mulberry.
  Botany.—Gen. Char.—Monoecious.   Catkins unisexual.   Calyx 4-lobed; the
lobes concave.   Stamens 4, alternate with the segments of the calyx.  Ovary free.
Stigmas 2.   Seeds 1-2,  covered by the pulpy calyx  (Bot.  Gall).
  Sp. Char.—Leaves cordate, ovate, lobed, or unequally dentate; rough and thickish.
Fruit dark purple (Bot. Gall.).
                                   A  small tree,  with  rugged  bark.  Flowm
                                 greenish.   " Fruit, consisting of the female flow-
                                 ers, become fleshy and grown together, inc
                                 a dry membranous pericarp."   (Lindley.)
                                   Hab.—Native  of  Persia  and China.  Culti-
                                 vated for  its fruit.  Flowers in  May.
                                   Description.—The fruit is usually called a
                                 berry  (bacca  mori nigrse),  but is, in fact,  that
                                 kind called by botanists a sorosis.  Its odour is
                                 peculiar and agreeable; its taste is peculiar, plea-
                                 sant, acidulous, and  sweet.   The juice is dark
                                 violet red.
                                   Composition.—The fruit has not  been  ana-
                                 lyzed.   Its principal constituents are—viobi-red
                                 colouring  matter, tartaric acid, sugar, and woody
                                 fibre.  The root has been analyzed by Wacken-
                                 roder.3
                                   Physiological Effects.—Mulberries are ali-
mentary in  a slight degree;  they allay thirst, diminish  febrile heat, and, in large
quantities, prove laxative.
   Use.—They are employed  as an agreeable aliment, and are well adapted to check
preternatural heat and relieve thirst in fevers, but are objectionable when a tendency
to diarrhoea exists.  They owe their retention in the Pharmacopoeia to their colour
and flavour.
   SYRUPUS MORI, L.; Syrup of  Mulberry.—(Juice of  Mulberries, strained, Oj;
Sugar Ifeijss; Rectified Spirit ffijss.  Dissolve the sugar in the mulberry juice
with a gentle heat, and  set aside for twenty-four hours; then remove the scum, and
pour off the clear liquor from the dregs if there are any.   Lastly, add the spirit.)—
Used as a colouring and flavouring substance.   Its acidity  prevents its being used
with alkalies, earths, or their carbonates.
Morus Nigra.
         118. FICUS CARICA, Zm-THE  COMMON FIG.
    Sex. Syst. Polygamia, Tricecia, Linn.—Polygamia, Dioecia, Willd.—Dioecia, Triandria, Ptrs.
                   (Fructus praeparatus, L.—Fici: the dried fruit, E. D.)

  History.—In  the Old Testament we are  informed that Hezekiah (who lived
600  years  before  Christ) used  figs as a topical  application to a  boil.4   The fig-
1 De victus ratione, lib. ii. p. 360, ed. Fees.
3 Gmelin's Handb. d. Chem. ii. 1324.
1 Lib. i.eap. 1H).
4 Isaiah, xxxviii. 21. 
Common Fig :—Botany; Description;
Uses
345
Fig. 292.
           Ficus Carica.
a. Section of Fruit.  6. Stamens,  c. Styles.
 tree is the ovxij of Dioscorides,1 the Ficus
 of Pliny."
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—Monoecious.
 Flowers numerous, pedicellated, inclosed
 within a fleshy receptacle, which is urn-
 bilicated, and nearly closed at the apex,
 hollow   within.   Calyx  3—5-lobed :
 lobes acuminate.  Mdefiowers near the
 umbilicus.  Stamens 3—5.  Ovary free
 (Desf.); 4semi-adnate (Gacrtn.).   Style
 I.   Stigmas 2.  Drupe  or  utricle  1-
 seeded, sunk into the pulpy receptacle.
 Coat of the nut fragile, crustaceous(Bot.
 (in//.).
   Sp. Char.—Lea res cordate, palmate;
 scabrous above, pubescent beneath (Bot.
 Call.).—A small tree. Flowers in June.
 Receptacle green.  At the base of each
 receptacle  are  two  or   three  bracteal
 scales.
   Hab.—Native of  Asia and South of
 Europe.
   Description.—Figs (fieisen caricse)
 constitute  that kind  of collective  fruit
 called, by Mirbel, a syconus.   They consist of fleshy, hollow, pyriform receptacles,
 within  which are numerous,  small, seed-like bodies (achenia, Lindley;  utricles,
 Auctor).  In the unripe  state they contain  an acrid and  bitter juice, but which,
 when they are ripe, is replaced by sugar. Ripe figs are dried in the sun or in ovens,
 and  are afterwards  packed  in drums and baskets, in  which they  are imported.
 As  met with in the shops, they are more  or less compressed, are covered with  a
 whitish, saccharine  efflorescence,  have a brownish  or  yellowish  colour, and  are
 somewhat  translucent.   They have a peculiar and agreeable  odour,  and contain
 a  sweet,  viscid pulp, in which are the achenia.   Turkey  or  Smyrna  figs are
 the  largest, most juicy, and sweetest;  hence they are  sometimes termed  fat figs
 (carim  pingucs) :   they are  distinguished into pulled  and fiat.    Of 20,406
 rwls. of figs, imported in 1830, no less than 18,801 came from Turkey (Parliam.
 Return).
   Composition.—Bley3 analyzed Smyrna figs, and obtained  the following results :
 Sugar  of figs 02.5, fatty  matter 0.9,  extractive with chloride  of calcium 0.4,
 gum with phosphoric acid 5.2,  ivoody fibre  and  seeds  [achenia]  15.0, and water
 16.0 = 100.0.
   Physiological Effects.—Figs are  nutritive, emollient,  demulcent, and  laxa-
 tive.   In  the fresh state they are  both  agreeable and wholesome : when dried, as
 we receive them, they readily  disorder the stomach  and bowels, and occasion flatu-
- lence, griping, and mild diarrhoea.
   Uses.—In those countries where they are plentiful, figs are used as  food.  Here
 they are chiefly employed as  a dessert.  Internally they are given in the form of
 demulcent decoctions (as  the  Decoctum  Hordei compositum, L. D.) in pulmonary
 and nephritic affections.   As laxatives they are sometimes taken with  the food to
 relieve habitual  constipation, and enter  into the composition of  Confectio Senrne,
 L. (Elcctuarium Senna-, E.j.   Roasted  or boiled, and split open, they are employed
 as suppurative cataplasms in gum-boil, &c.
1 Lib. i. cap. is).
1 Pharm. Ccntral-Elattfur 1^31. S. 27.
a Hist. Nat. lib. xxiii. cap. 63. 
346
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Morace.e.
           11& DORSTENIA CONTRAJERVA, Linn.;  and
                         D. BRASILIENSIS, Lam.
                           Sex. Syst. Tetrandria, Monogynia.
                                     (Radix.)

  History.—The earliest notice of this  plant is that by  Monardes,1 who state?
that the word contrayerva  is the Indo-Spanish term for alexipharmic or counter-
poison.   In  1581,  Clusius3  received from Sir Francis Drake  a root,  which h«
called, after  the donor, drakena radix, and which has been  supposed,to be con-
trayerva root.
  Botany.   G-en. Char.—Monoecious.  Flowers arranged  upon a fleshy recep-
tacle, usually flat and expanded, and  extremely variable in form: males on the
                                              surface  of  the receptacle, 2-lobed
                                              fleshy, diandrous; females immersed
                                              in  the  receptacle,  also  2-lobed in
                                              most  species.   Ovary  1—2-cellcd,
                                              with a  single  suspended ovule in
                                              each cell.   Style  1.   Stigma 2-
                                              lobed.  Achenia lenticular, imbedded
                                              in  the fleshy receptacle, from which
                                              they are projected  with elasticity
                                              when ripe.—Dwarf herbaceous plants
                                              with scaly rhizomata (Lindley).
                                                Species. — 1.   D.  Contra jerva,
                                              Linn. — Caulescent;  stem  covered
                                              with spreading green scaly stipules.
                                              Leaves palmate; the lobes lanceolate,
                                              acuminate,   coarsely  serrated  and
                                              gashed,  occasionally almost pinnati-
                                              fid.    Receptacle   on  a very long
                                              stalk, quadrangular, wavy, or plated
(Lindley),  A native of New Spain, Mexico, Peru, Tobago, St. Vincent's (Willd.).
The root of  this is not met with in commerce.
  2.  D. brasiliensis,  Lam.—A native of Jamaica,  Brazil,  and Trinidad.  This
yields the contrayerva root usually met with in the shops.
  Description.—The contrayerva root (radix contrajervse)  usually found in the
shops, is imported from the Brazils.   It consists  of an ovoid or oblong rootstock,
terminating  inferiorly in  one or several long, tapering, more  or less  curved root-
fibres.  From the sides  of the rootstock also arise numerous slender fibres.  Ex-
ternally the  colour is yellowish-brown.   The odour of  the root is peculiar, but aro-
matic.  The taste is warm, bitterish, slightly acrid.
  I have also found  another kind  of  contrayerva root in the  shops.  The root-
stalk is smaller,  cylindrical,  blackish-brown, with fewer  fibres.   The receptacle
and leaves are attached;  the latter are  reniform.   Is this  the  drakena radix of
Clusius ?
  Composition.—The root has not been analyzed. It contains, according to Geiger,'
volatile oil,  bitter  extractive, and starch.  To which may be added resin, free acid,
and woody fibre.
  Physiological Effects.—Stimulant, tonic, and diaphoretic.  Its operation  is
very  analogous to that of  serpentary root,  between which  and  the  rhizome of the
sweet flag it deserves to be arranged.   The root of the Dorstenia brasiliensis often
proves emetic.4
Fig. 293.
            Dorstenia Contrajerva.

A. Entire receptacle.
B. Section of ditto : a. Female flowers; J. Male ditto.
C. Male flower in its superficial hollow.
* Clusius, Exolicorum, lib. x.p. 311.        3 Ibid. p. S3.
3 Hand, d  Pharm.                      * De Candolle, Essai sur les Proprittls Mid. 
                Nat. Ord. Artocarpace;e.—Antsjar or Upas.             347

  Uses.—Obsolete, or nearly so.   It has been employed in fevers of a low type,
and in other diseases requiring a mild, stimulant, and diaphoretic treatment.
  Administration.—The dose ot  the  root in powder is 9j  or 5ss.   The infusion
(prepared  by digesting from 3iv in f£vj  of boiling water)  may be given  in  doses
of f'3j or fSjij.   The puhus contrajervse  compositus (composed of powdered  con-
trayerva root £v,  and prepared shells rbjss) is no longe* officinal.
            Order  XXXI.   ARTOCARPACE^E, Lindley.

                             AETOCAHPEiE, R. Brown : Endl.

  Characters.—Flowers unisexual, in dense heads.  Males:—Calyx 0, or consisting of 2—4
sepals.  Stamens opposite the sepals.   Females :—Flowers arranged over  a fleshy receptacle.
Calyx tubular, with a 2—4-cleft or entire limb.  Ovary free, 1-celled. Ovules suspended.  Fruit
surrounded by a dry or fleshy receptacle, or composed of consolidated fleshy calyxes, within
which lies a multitude of nuts.  Seeds erect, parietal or pendulous.  Embryo more or less albu-
minous, straight, with the radicle directed  towards the vertex of the ovary.—Trees or shrubs,
with a milky juice.  Leaves alternate.   Stipules large, convolute.
   Properties.—The milky juice is variable in quality:  in  some  species being poisonous, in
some edible, in others  neither.  It usually, if not invariably, contains caoutchouc.—The Arto-
carpus incisa, or  Breadfruit tree, and the A. integrifolia or  Jak fruit, deserve notice on account
of their important alimentary uses.   Artocarpus incisa is a native of the islands of the Pacific
and of the Moluccas.   Its fruit is to the inhabitants of Polynesia  what corn is to the people of
the other parts of  the world.  Artocarpus integrifolia is cultivated  throughout southern India,
and all the  wanner  parts of Asia.   Its fruit forms a very considerable article of food in
Ceylon.'


          120.  Antiaris  toxiearia, Leschinauit.—Antsjar  or Upas.

   This is the celebrated Antsjar or Upas poison tree of Java, rendered  notorious principally in
consequence of certain gross falsehoods concerning it, about the year 1780, by a person of  the
name of Foersch.said to have been a surgeon in the service of the Dutch East India Company.
Malefactors, says this person, when they receive sentence of death, are offered the chance of
life, if they will go to the Upas-tree for a box of poison; and although every precaution is taken
to avoid the injurious influence of the emanations of the tree, yet of 700 criminals who went to
collect the poison, scarcely two out of twenty returned.  Foersch further adds, that for fifteen or
eighteen miles around this tree no living animal of any kind has ever been discovered.2   Dr.
Horslield* and M.  Leschinauit4 have shown that  the above  statements are for the most part
fabulous.   From their observations it appears that the true poison tree  of  Java is the Antiaris
toxiearia5 (Fig. 295).  It is one of the largest forest trees of Java, being from 60 to 100 feet high.
The milky juice is collected by incision, and is  then inspissated by boiling  along with the juice
of arum, yalanga, onions, &c.   The poison, when brought to this country, is found  to be a thick
fluid of a grayish-brown  or fawn-colour, and  an unpleasant odour.  It consists, according  to
Pelletier anil Caventou,6 of a peculiar elastic resin, slightly soluble gummy matter analogous to bassorin,
and a bitter matter, soluble in water.  This bitter matter is  composed of a  colouring  matter ab-
sorbable by charcoal, an undetermined acid, and anliarin, the active principle of the  plant, and
which is precipitable by tincture of galls.  More  recently, Mulder? has submitted this juice  to
analysis, and found it to consist of vegetable albumen 16.14, gum 12.34, anliar-resin 20.93, myricin
7.02, antiarin 3.56, sugar 6.31, and extractive 33.70.  The antiar-resin was composed of C'6H,20.
Antiarin consisted  of  CMH'°()5.  Sir B. Brodie8 says, the poison renders the heart  insensible  to
the stimulus of the blood.  Magendie and Delile^ found that, besides acting on the brain and
spinal marrow, it  proved  emetic.  According  to  Andral.it causes convulsions, with alterna-
tions of relaxation.
  1 Hooker, Bot Mag. vol. ii. N. S.
  » S.-* the tranMation <>i l'oersch's paper, in Burnett's Outlines of Botany, 552; also, Penny Magaz. vol.

  ' Quarterly Journal, vol. ii. p. 331.                    « Ann. du Mus. d'Hist. Nat. t.xvi. p.476.
   V or n  v.i y elaborate account of this tree, by M. I.J. Bennett, see Dr. llorsfield's Planta Javanicte
ran ores, p. 52.
  ' Ann. C/ttm. et Phys. t. xxvi. p. 44.
  1 Pharmaciunsches Central-Blatt fUr 183S, S. 511.     • Phil. Trans  for 1911
  • Orfila, Toxical. Gin. 
348
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Piteraceje.
Arbor toxiearia. Ipo., Rumph.; Antiaris toxiearia, Leschinauit.
                (From Blume's Rumphia.)
 Order XXXII.   PIPERACE^, Richard.—PEPPERWORTS.

   Characters.—Flowers naked, hermaphrodite, with a bract  on the outside.  Stament 2 ot
 more, arranged on one side, or all round the ovary; to which they adhere more or less; an-
 thers 1—2-celled, with or without a fleshy connective; pollen roundish, smooth. Ovary superior,
 simple, 1-celled, containing a single erect, orthotropal ovule ; stigma sessile, simple, rather ob-
 lique.  Fruit superior, somewhat fleshy, indehiscent, 1-celled, 1-seeded.  Seed erect, with tbe
 embryo lying in a fleshy sac, placed at the apex  of the seed  on the outside of the albumen,-
 Shrubs or herbaceous plants.  Stems articulated.  Leaves opposite, verticil late, or alternate, in con-
 sequence of the abortion of one of the  pair of leaves.  Stipules 0, or in pairs, or single and
 opposite the leaf.  Flowers usually sessile, sometimes pedicellate, in spikes which are either
 terminal or axillary ; or opposite the leaves (Lindley).
   Properties.—Fruits remarkable for their hot taste, and acrid and stimulant properties. These
 qualities they owe to the presence of an acrid oil and resin.


       121. PIPER  NIGRUM, Linn.-THB BLACK  PEPPER.
                             Sex. Syst. Diandria, Trigynia.
                     (Fructus immaturus, L.—Dried unripe berries, E. D.)

   History.—The   ancient  Greeks were  acquainted with pepper (ttittty-i),  tue'r
knowledge of which must have been derived, directly or indirectly, from the Hindoos.
Hippocrates1 employed it in  several diseases.  Pliny2 notices its uses as a condiment,

     1 De morb. mul. &c.                           » Hist. Nat. lib. xii. cap. 14, ed. Valp. 
          Black Pepper:—Botany;  Preparation; Description.       349

and expresses his astonishment that it should have come into general use, since  it
has neither flavour nor appearance to recommend it.
  Botany.   Gen. Char.—Spadix  covered  with flowers on all  sides.   Flowers
hermaphrodite, rarely dioecious, each supported by a scale.   Stamina  2 or more.
Orarium with 1 solitary erect  ovule.  Stigma puncti-
t'orm, obtuse, or split.  Berry 1-seeded.  Embryo dico-           F;o. 2Q5
tyledonous  [monocotylcdonous,   Blume'],   inverted
(Blume).1
  Sp. Char.—Stem  shrubby, radicant, climbing, terete.     vS^^v
Leaves ovate or elliptical, acuminate, occasionally some-     \ V vf§''' ji
what oblique,  subcordate,  5—7-nerved,  coriaceous,       \^iJlP^y>*!\
smooth, recurved at the margin, glauco-greenish beneath.            {L/       //
Spadices shortly pedunculated, pendulous.  Fruits dis-
trict (Blume).2
   Stem 8—12 feet  long, jointed, dichotomous.   Fruit
at first green, then red, afterwards black.                 »..          y,^.
  According to Dr. Roxburgh,3 Piper trioicum  is cultivated, and    gj           ^^
yields excellent pepper.
   Hab.—Cultivated in various parts of India and  its           iper mSrum-
islands (Roxburgh), also in the West Indies.
   Preparation.—When any of the berries on a spadix change from green to red,
the whole are considered fit for gathering; for, if they are allowed to become fully
ripe, they are somewhat less acrid, and, moreover, easily drop  off.  When collected,
they are spread out and dried in the sun, and  the stalks separated by hand-rubbing.
They are afterwards winnowed.4  The dried and  shrivelled berries constitute black
pej/jxr (piper nigrum).
   White pepper (piper album) is prepared from the best and soundest grains, taken
at their most perfect stage of maturity.   These  being soaked in water, swell and
burst their tegument, which is afterwards carefully separated  by  drying  in the sun,
hand-rubbing, and winnowing.5
   Commerce.—The pepper countries extend from about the longitude of 90° to
that of  115° E., beyond which no pepper  is to be found;  and they reach from 5°
S. latitude to about  12° N., where  it again ceases.  The following estimate of the
production of pepper is drawn up by Mr. Crawford.6

                              Production op Pbppke.
               Sumatra (west coast)................20,000,000 lbs.
               Sumatra (east coast).................8,000.000
               Islnnds in the Straits of Malacca..........31600,000
               Malay peninsula....................3,733.333
               Borneo.........................2,666,667
               Siam..........................8,000,000
               Malabar........................4,000,000
                                 Total............50,000,000

   Description.—Black pepper (piper nigrum) is round, covered externally with
;i brownish-black corrugated layer (the remains of the succulent portion of the berry),
which may be readily removed by softening it in water.  Internally we have a hard,
whitish, spherical, smooth seed, which is horny externally, but farinaceous internally.
The taste of both nucleus and covering is acrid and hot.   Amongst wholesale dealers
three sorts are distinguished:—
  1. Malabar pepper.—This is the most valuable: it is brownish-black, free from
stalks, and nearly free  from dust.
  2. Pinang pepper.—This  is brownish-black, larger, smoother, free from  stalks,
but very dusty.   It is sometimes used in England to  manufacture white pepper.
1 Enum. Plant. Java', p. 61.            ' Op. cit.
' Fl. Indica, vol. i. p. 153.             * Marsden, History of Sumatra, 3d edit. p. 137
1 Mnr»den, op. cit.                    • M'Culloeh, Diet, of Commerce. 
350
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Piperace^e.
   3. Sumatra pepper.—This is the cheapest sort.   It is black, mixed with stalks
and contains much dust.  (Under the name of Sumatra pepper, some dealers include
the Penang or brownish-black sort, and the black Sumatra sort.)
   The heavier the pepper is, the more it is esteemed in the market.  The heaviest
of  all, being hard  and smooth, is called  shot pepper, which is  either  Malabar or
Sumatra sort; the Penang sort never yielding this kind of pepper.
   Most  dealers sift their black pepper before offering  it for sale, and  use the dust
(called P. D.) for pickling or grinding.
   Fulton's decorticated pepper is black pepper deprived of its husk by mechanical
trituration.
   Bleached pepper or English bleached pepper is Penang pepper bleached by chlo-
rine.  In  this state it ought perhaps to be classed among the white peppers.
   White pepper (piper album) is the fruit deprived of the external fleshy portion
of the pericarp.   The grains are larger than those of black pepper, spherical, whitish
and smooth, horny externally; internally they are farinaceous or hollow in the centre!
They are less acrid and pungent  than black pepper.   In commerce three sorts arc
distinguished:—
   1. Tellicherry pepper, which  is of two kinds.  Large or fine Tellicherry pepper
is larger and whiter than any other description of white pepper, and fetches a higher
price.   Small or coriander-like pepper is shrivelled.
   2. Common white pepper comes from Penang by Singapore.   It is round and
not shrivelled.   Its value depends on its size  and whiteness.
   3.  English bleached white pepper.—When  the  two  preceding sorts are scarce,
brown Penang pepper is bleached.   The yellowest and largest grains are chosen for
this purpose, for neither an expensive nor small sort would pay.
   Composition.—In 1819, Oersted discovered piperin in pepper.   In 1821, black
pepper was analyzed by Pelletier.1   In 1822, white pepper was analyzed by LucaV
Acrid resin
White Peppeh. (Lucd).
ig:jo
Volatile oil...................   ]_j|
Extractive, gum, and salts....... .  . .  liili
Starch......................  18.5(1
Albumen....................   250
Woody fibre..................  29.WI
Water and loss.................  19.'><i
          Black Pepper (Pelletier).
 Acrid soft resin.
 Volatile, oil.
 Piperin.
 Extractive.
 Gum.
 Bassorin.
 Starch.
 Malic acid.
 Tartaric acid.
 Potash, calcareous and magnesian salts.
 Woody fibre.

 Black pepper.                                             White pepper........10000

  Dr. Ure3 obtained from 100 parts of white peppercorns, a trace of volatile oil, SJ grains of a
 pungent resin containing a small fraction of piperin, about 60 grains of starch with a little gum,
 and nearly 30 grains of matter (lignin) insoluble in  hot or cold water.
   Luca found no piperin in white  pepper, but  Poutet4 subsequently detected it.
 Probably, therefore, in Luca's analysis the piperin was contained in the resin.
  1. Resix of Pepper (resina piperis).—This is a very acrid  substance, soluble in alcohol and
 ether, but not so in volatile oils.   It possesses in high perfection the acrid properties of pepper.
 Dissolved in ether, it was employed by Dr. Lucas in intermittents, and  in two  out of three
 cases with success.5 In the museum of the Pharmaceutical Society there are two kinds of pep-
 per resin: one called the " green resin," the other the " red resin."
  2. Volatile Oil of Pepper (oleum piperis).—When pure, this is colourless; it has the odour
and taste of pepper. Its sp. gr. is 0.9932 (Lucii).  Its composition  is C'°HS.  It absorbs hydro-
chloric acid in large quantity, but does not form a crystalline compound with it.  According to
Meli.e it possesses the same febrifuge properties as piperin, perhaps because it  retains some of
the latter principle.  It has  been used in  some forms of dyspepsia depending on general de-
bility.
1 Ann.de Chim  et de Phys. xvi  344.                 » Schwartze, Pharm. Tabelltn.
3 Supplement to Ure's Diet, of Arts, p. 200,1814.       * Journ. de Pharm t vii
4 Dierbach, Neuest. Entd. in d. Mat. Med. Bd. i. S. 252, 1837.
6 Dierbach, op. cit. 
Black Pepper:—Adulteration; Physiological Effects;  Uses.   351
  3. Pipeiun.—This substance was discovered by Oersted in 1819, but was more accurately
examined by Pelletier in 1821.  It exists in black, white, and long pepper, and also in cubebs.
  It is a crystalline substance, the crystals being rhombic prisms, with inclined bases.  It fuses
at 212° F., is insoluble in cold water, and is only very slightly soluble in  boiling water.  Its
best solvent  is alcohol: the solution throws down piperin when water is added  to it.  Ether
dissolves it,  but not so readily as alcohol.  Acetic acid likewise is a solvent for it.
  Piperin, when pure, is white ; but, as met with in commerce, it is  usually straw-yellow.  It
is tasteless and  inodorous.  It was at first supposed to be an alkali; but Pelletier has shown that
it possesses  no analogy with vegetable alkalies, and that it  is related to the resins.  With strong
sulphuric acid it forms a blood-red liquid. Nitric acid colours it first greenish-yellow, then orange,
and afterwards red.  The action of hydrochloric acid is similar.
  Its formula, according  to Regnault,  is  C34Hl9N06.
  Piperin has been recommended and employed by Meli  and several other physicians1 as a
febrifuge in  intermittent  fevers.  It is said to bo more certain and speedy, and also milder in its
action, than  the cinchona alkalies.  Moreover, wo are told that it might be procured at a cheaper
rate than sulphate of quina. Its dose is about six or eight grains in powder or pills.  Sixty grains
have been taken in twenty-four hours, without causing any injurious effects.  Meli considers two
or three scruples sufficient to cure an intermittent.  Magendie2 proposes it in blennorrhagia, in-
stead of cubebs.
  4. Staiich.—Both black and white peppercorns contain abundance.of very minute starch
gruins.
   Adulteration.—Sago is said  to have been used to adulterate ground white
pepper.  The microscope would  readily detect the  fraud;  the starch grains of sago
being  very much larger than those of pepper, from which they also  differ in shape.
The following are the  adulterations recently discovered3  in  pepper by the micro-
scope :  wheat-flour, linseed  meal, pea-flour, mustard-seed, and starch grains.
   Physiological Effects.—Pepper is  one of the acrid species  whose general
effects have been already noticed (see vol. i. p. 252).  Its great acridity is recognized
when we apply it to the tongue.   On the skin it acts as a rubefacient and vesicant.4
Swallowed, it stimulates the stomach, creates a sensation of warmth in  this viscus,
and, when used in small doses, assists the digestive functions, but if given in large
quantities  induces an inflammatory condition.   Thirty white peppercorns,  taken
for a stomach complaint, induced violent burning pain, thirst, and accelerated pulse,
which continued for three days,  until the fruits  were evacuated.5  Wendt, Lange,
and Jager0 have  also  reported cases in which inflammatory  symptoms  supervened
after the use of pepper.  On the  vascular and secerning  systems pepper acts as a
stimulant. It accelerates the frequency of the pulse, promotes diaphoresis, and  acts
as an  excitant to the  mucous surfaces.   On one of  my patients (a lady)  the copious
use of pepper induced burning heat of skin, and a few spots of Urticaria cvanida
usually on the face.   "I have seen," says Van Swieten,7  "a most ardent and dan-
gerous fever raised in a person who  had  swallowed a great quantity of beaten
pepper."   It has long been regarded as a stimulant for the urino-genital apparatus.
The opinion  is  supported by the well-known influence of  the peppers over  certain
morbid conditions of these organs.   Moreover, the beneficial effect of pepper in some
affections  of  the  rectum  leads us  to suspect  that  this viscus is  also influenced by
these fruits.
   I'ses.—It is employed as a condiment, partly for its flavour, partly for its stimu-
lant influence over the stomach,  by which it assists digestion.   As a gastric stimu-
lant it is a useful  addition to difficultly-digestible foods, as fatty and  mucilaginous
matters, especially in persons subject to stomach complaints from a torpid or atonic
condition of this  viscus.  Infused  in ardent spirit it is a popular remedy for  pre-
venting the return of the  paroxysms of  intermittent fevers, given  shortly before
the expected  attack.   The  practice  is not recent, for Celsus8 advises warm water
with pepper to relieve the cold  fit.   The febrifuge power of this spice has been fully
proved, in  numerous cases, by L. Frank,9Meli,10 Riedmuller (Dierbach), and others-

  1 Dierbach, Neuest. Entd. in d. Mat. Med. Bd. i. S. 176, 1828.  » Formulaire.
  ' Lancet, teb. 8, 1651.                                * Richard, Diet. d» Mid. t. xvii d 307
  • Wibmer, Arzneim. u. Giftt, Bd. iv. S. 220.              « Quoted by Wibmer, op. cit S 119  '
  1 Commentaries, Ku^lisli trnnsl. vol. v. p. 57              • Lib. iii. cap. 12.
  ■ Juurn. Complim. du Diet, des Scienc. Mid. t. viii. p. 371.    10  Ibid.  t. xiii. p. 121. 
352               VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Piperaceje.

though Schmitz1 denies it.  Barbier3 says that, in some instances, where large doses
were exhibited,  death occurred in consequence of the aggravation of a pre-existcnt
gastritis.  It has been employed in gonorrhoea as a substitute for cubebs. In relaxed
uvula, paralysis of the tongue, and other affections of the mouth or throat requirine
the use of a powerful acrid, pepper may be employed  as a masticatory.  In the form
of ointment it is used as an application to tinea capitis.  Mixed with mustard  it is
employed to increase the acridity of sinapisms.
   Administration.—The dose of black pepper (either of corns or powder) is from
five to fifteen grains; the powder may be given in the form of pills.

   1. CONFECTIO PIPERIS, L.; Confectio Piperis Nigri,!).;  Elcctuarium Piperis,^.;
 Confection of Black Pepper.—(Black Pepper,  Elecampane-root  [Liquorice-root in
powder, E.% of  each  ibj;  Fennel  Ibiij;  Honey, White Sugar,  of each ftij.
Bub the dry ingredients together to  a very fine powder, L. E.—Black Pepper in
fine  powder, Liquorice  Root in  powder, of each £ss; Refined  Sugar sj- Oil of
Fennel 3ss; Clarified Honey, by weight, £ij, D.   The London College keeps  this
in a covered vessel, and  directs  the Honey to be added when  the Confection is to
be used.   But  the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges order the Honey to be added
immediately after the ingredients have been mixed.)—This preparation is intended
to be a substitute for a quack medicine, called " Ward's Paste," which has obtained
some celebrity as  a remedy for fistulae, piles, and ulcers about the rectum.  Its ef-
ficacy doubtless depends  on  the  gentle stimulus  it gives to the affected parts.  Sir
B. Brodie3  observes that severe cases of  piles  are  sometimes cured  by it; and he
thinks that it acts on them topically,  the  greater part of the paste passing into the
colon, becoming blended  with the faeces,  and in  this way  coming into contact with
the piles, on which  it operates as a local application, much as vinum opii acts on
the vessels of the  conjunctiva in  chronic ophthalmia.   In  confirmation of this view
he mentions the case of a patient attended by Sir  Everard Home, who was cured bv
the introduction of the paste into  the rectum.  Confection of black pepper is adapted
for weak and leucophlegmatic habits, and  is objectionable where much irritation or
inflammation is  present.  The dose of it is from one to two or three drachms twice
or thrice a day.   " It is of no use," says Sir B. Brodie, " to take this remedy for a
week, a fortnight, or a  month;  it must  be persevered in for two,  three, or four
months."   As it  is apt  to accumulate in and distend  the  colon, gentle aperients
should  be exhibited occasionally during the time the patient is taking the confec-
tion.

  2. UNGUENTUM PIPERIS NIGRI;   Ointment  of Black  Pepper.—(Prepared Hog's
Lard ibj ; Black Pepper,  reduced to powder, f iv.   Make an ointment.)—Formerly
in vogue for the cure of tinea capitis.

  [I EXTRACTUM PIPERIS FLUIDUM, U. S.; Fluid Extract of Black repper.-TAt
of Black Pepper a pound; Ether a sufficient quantity.   Put the powder into a  per-
colator, and pour ether  gradually upon it until two pints of filtered  liquor are ob-
tained.   From  this distil  off, by means of a water-bath, at a gentle heat, a pint and
a half  of ether, and expose the residue, in a shallow vessel, until the whole of the
ether has evaporated and the deposit of piperin and crystals has  ceased.   Lastly,
separate the piperin  by  expression through a cloth and keep the liquid portion.
  This  preparation  is of semifluid consistence,  of  a dark  colour, and possessed
strongly of  the odour and taste of black pepper.   It  may be used where the article
is usually employed.  Dose, gtt.  xx—f 5ss.]
1 Rust's Magaz. Bd. xvi.
a Traitt Elim. de Mat. Med. 2de edit. t. ii. p. 57
' Lectures in Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xv. p. 710. 
         Common Long Pepper :—Synonymes;  History;  Effects.      353


    122. CHAVICA1 ROXBURGHII, Miqud.*—COMMON  LONG
                                  PEPPER.
                            Sex. Syst. Diandria, Trigynia.
                        (Fructus immaturus, L.—Dried Spikes, E.)

   Synonymes.—Piper longum,  Linn,  in  part; figure, in  Xees' Plant. Medic.
tab. 23.
   History.—Long pepper (ttitttpt, paxpov) is mentioned  both by Dioscorides3 and
Galen.4
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—Woody.   Spikes solitary, opposite to the leaves.  Flow
ers sessile, dioecious.   Bracts with short stalks, nearly quadrangular, peltate.  Style
very short or 0.   Berries sessile,  united with the permanent  bracts and the thick-
ened rachis of the spike.  Seeds oblong or almost lenticular, with a crustaceous
finely scrobiculate testa and a mealy albumen.
   Sp. Char—Rather hairy;  lower leaves roundish ovate, 7-nerved; female spikes
cylindrical, about as long as their stalk.
   Hab.—India.   Found wild among bushes on  the banks of watercourses, up to-
wards the Circar Mountains.   It flowers and bears fruit during  the  wet and cold
seasons (Roxburgh).   It is cultivated in Bengal,  and in the valleys amongst  the
Circar Mountains.   The roots and thickest parts  of the stems, when cut  into small
pieces and dried, form a considerable article of commerce all over  India under the
name of Pippula moola.
   Description.—When fully grown, but yet unripe, the spadices are gathered and
dried by exposure to the sun.   They are then packed in bags for sale.
   As met with in commerce, long pepper (piper  longum) is grayish brown, cylin-
drical, an inch or more in length, having a mild aromatic odour but a violent pun-
gent taste.
   The long pepper imported from our  possessions in India is the produce of Chavica Roxburghii,
Mi-  But that which is brought to  Europe from the Dutch colonies is the  produce of Chavica
officinarum, Miq.
   Composition.—This pepper was analyzed by Dulong  in 1825.5  The following
are  the  substances he obtained from it: Acrid fatty matter (resin?), volatile oil
piperin, nitrogenous extractive, gum,  bassorin, starch, malates and other salts.
   The volatile oil of log PEPPF.u is colourless, and has a disagreeable odour and an acrid
taste.
   Physiological Effects and Uses.—The effects of long pepper are analogous
to those of black pepper.  Cullen0 and Bergius7 consider it less powerful; but most
other pharmacologists are agreed on its being more acrid.  Medicinally it  may be
employed  in  similar cases.   It is  used  principally for  culinary purposes.  It  is a
constituent of several pharmacopoeial preparations.

               123.  Chavica Betle,  ii/(?M(>/._ Betle Pepper.
  Pipeti Bktle, Linnceus.—The leaf of this plant (as well as of Chavica Siriboa, Miq ) is exten-
sively used  by  the  Malays and other nations of the East, who  consider it  a necessary of life
The mode of taking it in Sumatra consists simply in spreading  on the sirih (the leaf of the
Chavica Betle) a small quantity of chunam (quick-lime prepared from calcined shells) and fold-
ing it up with a slice of  pinang or Areca nut (see  ante, p. 170).  From the mastication there
proceeds a ju.ee which tinges the saliva of a bright red, and which  the leaf and nut  without
the lime, will not yield.   This hue being communicated to the mouth and lips, i* esteemed
ornamental, and an agreeable flavour is imparted to the breath.  The juice is usually, but not

 '  Cliaviea is tlic Sanscrit nnme for plants of this kind



   Mat. Med. ed. 2nda, t. i. p. •_'[>.                               l
       vol. n.—23 
354
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Piperace^:.
always, swallowed.  To persons who are not habituated to this composition it causes giddinessi
astringes and  excoriates the mouth and fauces, and deadens  for a time the faculty of taste-
Individuals, when toothless, have the ingredients  previously reduced to a paste, that tliey may
dissolve without further effort.1

   124.  CUBEBA OFFICINALIS, ffi?.-THE CUBEB PEPPER,
                              Sex. Syst. Diandria, Trigynia.
                      (Fructus immatu'rus, L.—Fruit, E.—The berries, D.)
                                 [Cubeba; Cubebs, U.S.]
   Synonyme.—Piper Cubeba, Linn. fil. Blume.   Ph.  L.
   History.—It is somewhat doubtful when cubebs were first employed in medicine
and by whom they were first noticed.   I am inclined to believe, however, that they
are mentioned in the Hippocratic writings2 under the name of pvptlSavov; forlstly,
the remedy termed pvpti-Savou is distinguished from  pepper (rtsTttpv), and is  said to
be a round Indian fruit which the Persians call pepper.  2dly, the modern Greek
name for cubebs is pvptlSavov.3
   The  word cubebs  is derived  from  the Arabic name for these fruits, which first
occurs in the writings of Serapion,4 Rhazes,  and Avicenna.   From the same source
Actuarius5 derived the name xopjiipae, by  which he  has designated cubebs.
   Cubebs were in use in England  more than 500 years ago, for in 1305 Edward I.
granted to the corporation  of  London the  power of levying a toll of one farthing a
pound on this article in its passage over London Bridge.8
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—Woody.   Spikes solitary, opposite  the leaves.   Flovom
dioecious.   Ovary sessile.   Stigmas 3—5, sessile.   Berries, by the contracted basis,
apparently stalked (pseudo-pedicillate).   Seed roundish, with leathery or horny testa
and mealy albumen.   (Condensed from Miquel).
   Sp. Char.—Leaves smooth; the lower ones unequal, somewhat cordate at the base,
ovate, acute;  the  upper  ones more  oblong-ovate, with rounded  base and smaller;
those of the male plant 5-nerved, of the female plant 5—9-nerved.    Fruit globose,
shorter than their stalks.—A  climbing shrub.
   Hab.—Grows wild in  Bantam,  the western  part  of  Java;  also on some of the
neighbouring islands.—Cultivated  in the lower parts of Java.
  The above is, according to Miquel, the mother-plant of the genuine cubebs.  But a neighbour-
ing species—Cubeba canina, Miquel—yields a fruit which, according  to Blume, also forms part
of the cubebs of commerce.  This plant grows on the Sunda and  Molucca islands.  The fruits
and seeds of the two species are thus distinguished.
            C OFFICINALIS, Miq.
Berries far more numerous, crowded, almost glo-
  bose, scarcely acuminate,-  when  dry, rugous,
  blackish brown, having  a very acrid, aromatic,
  almost bitter taste
Seed-coat (spermoderm), grayish brown,  traversed
  by about eight longitudinal nerves, oblong-globu-
  lar.
Fruit-Stalks f formed of the thin lower portion of the
  berry) longer than the berries.
              C canina, Miq.
Fewer, more remote, ovate;  when dry, remarkably
  beaked (rostrate), black, smaller, scarcely rugoui,
  having a weaker, almost anise-like taste.

Reddish, almost shining, lined (striolata) longitu-
  dinally, spherical.

Nearly of the same length as the berries.
  Description.—The dried unripe fruit of this plant constitutes the cubebs (culebx
vel piper caudatum) of the shops.
  In appearance, cubebs resemble black pepper, except that they are lighter coloured,
  1 Marsden, Hist, of Sumatra, 3d edit. p. 281.
  2 De Morbis Mulierum, lib. ii. p. 672, ed. Fojsii.—The term uvtiifttvcv was also used to signify a myr-
tle-like plant, and likewise a rough excrescence growing on the pivprin (Ruscus aculeatus).  See Dios-
corides, lib. i. cap. 156.
  3 Pharmacopaia Gr/zca, Athenis, 1837.
  4 In his account of cubebs, Serapion has translated what Dioscorides has said of (Jtup<rir»\Ruscus acu-
leatus) and added everything which Galen has stated  respecting K^STjisw.  But Galen expressly statei
that x.xc~r?!7ios resembles tn (the root of Valeriana Dioscorides) ;  and it is improbable, therefore, that
cubebs and carpesium should be identical.
  5 C. Bauhini finax.So Greek edition of Actuarius has been published, and I am, therefore, obliged to
quote his writings at second-hand. In my copy of the Latin translation (De Medica-mentorum composite
one, J. Ruellio interprete, p. 69 b, 1546), the phrase runs thus—" carpesii (cubebe barbari vocant)."
  6 Liber Niger Scaccarii, vol. i. p. *478; also The  Chronicles of London Bridge, p. 155. 
Ccbeb Pepper:—Composition;  Effects.                355
and are each furnished with a stalk two or three inches long, and from which circum-
stance they have received their name caudatum ("fructus pedicellatus," Ph. Lond.).
The cortical  portion of cubebs (that which constituted the fleshy portion of the fruit)
appears to have been thinner and less succulent than in black pepper.  Within it
is a hard  spherical seed, which  is whitish and oily.  The taste  of cubebs is acrid,
peppery, and camphoraceous; the odour is  peculiar and aromatic.
  Composition.—Three analyses of  cubebs have been  made  :  one by  Tromms-
dorff, in  1811 ;l  a second by Vauquelin, in  1820 ;a and a  third  by Monheim, in
1835.8
       Vauquelin.
1. Volatile oil, nearly solid.
2. Resin, like that of copaiva.
3. Another coloured resin.
4. A coloured gummy matter.
5. Extractive.
6. Saline matter.
Cubebs.
                Monheim.
1. Green volatile oil...............  2.5
2. Yellow volatile oil..............  1.0
3. Cubebin....................  4.5
4. Balsamic resin.................  15
5. Wax......................  3.0
G. Chloride of sodium..............  1.0
7. Extractive...................  6.0
8. Lignin.................•. • •  •  65.0
  Loss......................  15.5

              Cubebs............100.0
   1. Esbential Oil of Cibf.tis—(See p. 350.)
   2. Rksin of Cubebs—Vauquelin  has described two resins of cubebs: one is green, liquid,
 acrid, and analogous, both in odour and taste, to balsam of copaiva; the other is brown, solid,
 acrid, and insoluble in ether.
   3. O'kkbin  (Piperin).—From cubebs is obtained a principle to which the term cubebin has
 been  applied.   It is very analogous  to, if not identical with piperin.   Cassola, a Neapolitan
 chemist,4 says, it is distinguished  from the latter principle by the fine crimson colour which it
 produces with  sulphuric acid, and which remains unaltered  for twenty or twenty-four hours;
 moreover, cubebin is not crystallizable.
   Monheim,6 however, declares cubebin to be identical with piperin, and that it is combined
 with a soft acrid resin.   In this state it is soluble in ether, alcohol, the fixed oils, and acetic acid;
 but it is insoluble in oil of turpentine and dilute sulphuric acid.  It fuses at 68° F.
   Dr. Gorres6 gave cubebin, in both acute and chronic gonorrhoea, to the extent of one drachm,
 four times daily.   But he premised the use of phosphoric acid.
   4. Extractivk Mattkr of Oubbbs.—Vauquelin says, the extractive matter of cubebs is
 analogous to that found in leguminous plants.  It is precipitable by galls, but not by acetate of
 lead.
   Physiological Effects.—Cubebs belong to the acrid species already (see ante,
 p. 221} noticed.  Their sensible operation is very analogous to that of black pepper.
 Taken in moderate doses,  they  stimulate the  stomach, augment the appetite,  and
 promote  the digestive  process.  In  larger quantities,  or taken when the stomach is
 in an irritated or inflammatory condition, they cause nausea, vomiting, burning pain,
 griping, and even  purging.   These are  their local  effects.  The constitutional ones
 are those resulting from the operation of an excitant—namely, increased  frequency
 and fulness of pulse,  thirst, and augmented heat.  It  probably stimulates all the
 mucous surfaces, but unequally so.   In  some instances cubebs give rise to an erup-
 tion on the skin like  urticaria.   Not unfrequently  they cause headache;  and occa-
 sionally disorder of the cerebrospinal functions, manifested by convulsive move-
 ments or partial paralysis, as in a case related by Mr.  Broughton.7
   Cubebs appear to exercise a  specific  influence over the urinogenital apparatus.
 Thus  they frequently act as  diuretics, and at  the same time  deepen the colour of
 and communicate a peculiar aromatic odour  to the urine.  Their stimulant opera-
 tion on the bladder is well  illustrated by a case  related  by Sir Benjamin Brodie.8
 A gentleman, labouring under chronic  inflammation of the bladder, took  fifteen
grains of  cubebs, every eight hours, with much relief.   Being  anxious to expedite
his cure, he, of his own accord, increased  the dose to a drachm.   This was followed
by an  aggravation  of the symptoms: the irritation of the  bladder was  much  in-
1 Schwartz. Pharm. Tabell.
■ Journ. de Pharm. xx. 403.
» Op. cit.
' Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. i. p. 405.
4 Ann. Phil. 2d series, vol. iii. p. 202.
4 Journ. de Chim. MSd. t. x. p. 685.
6 Dierbach, Neuesten Entd. in d. Mat. Med S 253 1837
■ Ibid. vol. i. p. 300.                       ' 
356
VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord. Piperace*:.
creased, the mucus was secreted in much larger quantity than before, and ultimately
the patient died—"his death being, I will not say occasioned," adds Sir Benjamin,
" but certainly very much hastened, by his imprudence in overdosing himself with
cubebs."
  Three drachms of cubebs caused in Piil1 nausea, acid eructations, heat  at the
pit of the stomach, headache, uneasiness, and fever.
  Uses.—The principal use of  cubebs is in the treatment of gonorrhoea.   They
should be given in as large a dose as the stomach can bear,  in the early part of the
disease;  for experience  has  fully proved that, in  proportion to the  length of time
gonorrhoea has existed, the less amenable is it to the influence of cubebs.  In some
instances an immediate stop is put to the progress of the malady.   In others the
violent symptoms only are palliated; while in many (according to my experience in
most) cases no obvious  influence over the disease is manifested.  The presence of
active inflammation  of the urethra does not positively preclude the  use of cubebs,
though I have more than once seen them aggravate the symptoms.   Mr. Jeffreys'
thinks the greatest success is met with in the more inflammatory forms of the dis-
ease.   Cubebs have  been charged with inducing  swelled testicle; but I have not
observed this  affection to be more frequent after the use of  cubebs than when they
were not employed.  Mr. Broughton3 gave them to fifty patients, and in forty-five
they proved successful.   Of these only two had swelled testicle.  The explanation
of the methodus medendi is unsatisfactory.   Sir A. Cooper* thinks that cubebs pro-
duce a specific inflammation of their  own  on  the urethra,  which has the effect of
superseding the gonorrhceal inflammation.  The occasional occurrence of a cutaneous
eruption from the use of cubebs deserves especial attention,  as I have known it cre-
ate a suspicion of secondary symptoms.
  Cubebs have been recommended in gleet and leucorrhcea.5  In abscess of the
prostate  gland, twenty or thirty grains of cubebs, taken three  times a day, have in
many cases appeared to  do good.6  They seemed to give a gentle stimulus to the
parts, and  to  influence the  disease much in the same  way that Ward's  Paste ope-
rates on  abscesses and fistulas, and  ulcers of the  rectum.   In  cystirrhcea also they
have occasionally proved  serviceable in small doses.7   In piles, likewise, they are
given with advantage.8
  The efficacy of cubebs in  mucous discharges is not confined to the urinogenital
mucous membrane.   In catarrhal affections of the membrane lining  the aerian pas-
sages, it  proves exceedingly useful, especially when the secretion is copious and the
system relaxed.
  Formerly cubebs were employed  as  gastric stimulants and  carminatives in dys-
pepsia, arising from  an atonic condition of the stomach.  They have also been used
in rheumatism.  The Indians macerate them in wine, and  take them to excite the
sexual feelings.
  Administration.—Cubebs, in the form  of powder, are  given in doses varying
from ten grains to three drachms.   In affections of the  bladder and prostate gland
the dose is from ten grains to thirty grains.  In gonorrhoea, on the other hand, they
should be administered in large doses.  Mr. Crawford9 says, that in Malay countries
they are given in doses of three drachms, six or eight  times during the day.
  1.  OLEUM CUBEBjE, E.; Volatile Oil of Cubebs.   (Prepared by grinding the fruit,
and distilling  with water.)—By distillation, cubebs yield about 10.5 per cent, of a
transparent, slightly-coloured (when pure, colourless) volatile oil, which is  lighter
than water (sp. gr.  0.929), and  has the cubeb odour, and a  hot, aromatic, bitter
taste.  Its formula is CinIIs.
1 Arzneim. u. Giften, Bd. iv. S. 217.
3 Observations on the Use of Cubebs, or Java Pepper, in the Cure of Gonorrhoea, 1821.
3 Med.-Chir. Trans, vol. xii. p. 99.           ♦ Lancet, vol. iii. p. 201, l-:i\.
s Dr. Orr, Ed. Med. Journ. vol. xviii. p. 318.   • Sir B. Brodie, Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. i. p. 39"'
' Ibid. p. 300.                           » Ibid. xv. 747.
9 History of the Indian Archipelago, vol. i. p. 465. 
           Cubebs:—their Extract; Tincture.—Matico-plant.        357

  By keeping, it sometimes deposits crystals (cubeb siearoptene or cubeb camphor),
the primary  form  of  which is the  rhombic octohedron.1  They form a hydrate
whose composition  is C10H8,H0.   Their odour is that  of cubebs; their taste, at
first, that of cubebs and camphor, afterwards cooling.  They are fusible at 133° F.,
soluble in alcohol, ether, and oils, but  are insoluble in water.   Oil of cubebs is an
excellent and  a most convenient substitute for the powder.   The  dose of it, at  the
commencement of its use, is ten or  twelve drops.   This quantity is to be gradually
increased as long as the stomach will bear it.  In  some  instances, I  have given it
to the extent of a fluidrachm  for a dose.   It may be  taken suspended in water  by
means of mucilage, or dropped on sugar; or in the form  of gelatinous capsules of
cubebs, a combination of oil of cubebs and oil of copaiva forms a very useful medi-
cine in some cases  of gonorrhoea.
   2. EXTRACTDI OLE0-RESIN0SDI  CUBEb\E; Oleo-resinous Extract  of  Cubebs.—
Dublanc directs this to be prepared by adding  the oil  to the resinous extract of
cubebs, which is prepared by digesting the  cake, left after the distillation of the
oil, in alcohol, and distilling  off the  spirit.3  The process of Mr. Procter, Jun.,8
appears  to be a better  one.   It  consists  in  exhausting  cubebs  by ether in the
displacement  apparatus, and submitting  the ethereal tincture to distillation  in a
water  bath.    The residual ethereal extract of  cubebs has   a  dark olive  brown
colour, and contains all the volatile oil, cubebin, and resin (the active principles of
the fruit) as well as most of the waxy matter, but  none of the extractive.   1  lb.
avoirdupois of cubebs yields  2 oz.  of  ethereal extract.   One  drachm  of it, there-
fore, is equal  to one ounce of cubebs.  It may be administered in  the  form of emul-
sion, pills, or capsules.   Dose from grs. v to 3ss.
   [3. EXTRACTDI  (T BEB.E FLUIDUM, U. S.j Fluid. Extract of  Cubebs.—Take of
Cubebs a pound; Ether a sufficient quantity.   Put the  cubebs into  a percolator,
and having packed it carefully, pour ether gradually upon it  until two pints of fil-
tered liquor  are obtained, then distil off,  by means of a  water-bath  at a gentle
heat, a pint and a  half of the ether, and expose  the residue, in a shallow vessel,
until the whole of the  ether has evaporated.   The above are the directions in full
adopted  by the C S. Pharm. from Mr. Procter.   The  dose is as above stated.]
   \.  TINCTURA CI BEB <E, L. [U. S.] ;  Tinctura Piperis  Cubeba;,  D. ;  Tincture of
 CubtU.<,.—(Cubebs, powdered, ibj  [§v,  D.  (giv,  U. S.)~\ ; Proof [Rectified,  D.)
 Spirit Oij [Diluted Alcohol Oij, U. S.~\. Macerate for seven [fourteen, D. (V. S.j]
days, then express and strain.—Dr. Montgomery4 says, "I have found this tincture
cure gonorrhoea, both speedily and  satisfactorily."  The dose of it  is one or two
drachms three times a day.
   Some druggists  keep a more concentrated tincture.

             125.  Artanthe elongata, Miquel—Matico-plant.
                            Sex. Syst. Diandria, Monogynia.
                            (Ilerba; folia.—The Leaves, D.)
   Piper angustifolium, Ruiz and Pavon, Fl. Peruv.; Piper elongatum, Yahl.; Stephensia elongata,
Kunth ; Mvho Moho id  est Nodus Nodus, vernacul. name.—This plant has long  been in use
among the natives of Peru in venereal diseases; and having been employed on some occasion
by a soldier :>s  a mechanical agent to staunch  blood, it got the name of the Soldier's herb, and,
in 1839, was introduced into this country as an internal or chemical styptic.  The term matico
(matero or malica)  is  not exclusively applied to the leaves of this plant; but to those of others
also.  Dr. Lindley has given to the Museum of the Pharmaceutical Society some leaves of the
Fuptiii.niim gluttnosum, Kunth.  They  are marked Matico, and are said to be  excellent in
powder lor staunching blood and healing wounds.  In appearance and texture they closely re-
semble the leaves of  Arlanthe elongata; and would, I doubt not, be equally valuable as me-
chanical styptics.
  Artanthe elongata is a shrub of about 12 feet high, with jointed stem and branches.  Its
leaves are liar>h, short-stalked, oblong lanceolate,  acuminate : pubescent beneath, tessellated or
rough on the upper side on account of the sunken veins.  The  spikes are solitary, cylindrical,

  1 llrooke, Ann. Phil.  M.S. vol. v. p. 450.         a Journ. de Pharm. t. xiv. p. 40.
  * Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. vi. p. 319,  1S46.   4 Observations on the Dubl. Pharm. p. 439, Lond. 
358              VEGETABLES.—Xat. Ord. Eupiiorbiace;e.
and opposite the leaves; the bracts  lanceolate; and  the flowers hermaphrodite.—It grows at
Huanuco, Cuchero, Panao, Chaclea and Muna in Peru;  and flowers from July to September.
   Matico (herba matico vel niatica) is imported in  serons, and  consists of the dried leave?, sinlb
and spikes (some unripe, others ripe), ami more or less compressed into a lump.  The  colour
of the dried plant is greenish;  and the leaves, which are from '2 to 8 inches long, in structure
somewhat resemble those of sage, and are easily, reducible to powder.   The plant has an aro-
matic odour somewhat similar  to that of cubebs.
   Matico has been analyzed by Dr. J. F. Hodges,1 who found  the following substances in it:—
an aromatic volatile oil, a  bitter principle (maticine), o soft dark green resin, a brown colouring mat-
ter, a yellow colouring matter,  chlorophylle, gum and nitrate of potash, salts, and lignin.—The oil
of matico has a light green colour, and when recent, the consistence of good castor oil, but be-
comes thick and  crystalline on keeping.  The bitter  principle called maticine,  is soluble in al-
cohol and water, but not in ether.
   Infusion of matico yields a dark greenish  colouring  and precipitate with the sesrpiichloride
of iron;2 but undergoes  no change on the  addition of  gelatin, emetic tartar, or  perchloridc  of
mercury.  It, therefore, contains little or no tannin.   Acetate  of lead  and infusion of mitgalla
each occasion copious coloured precipitates.
   Matico is an  aromatic  bitter stimulant, which agrees with cubebs  and the pepper  in the
character of its effects.   Its active principles are volatile oil, resin, and the bitter principle.     \
   Matico maybe used (like lint, felt, cobweb, &c.) as a topical application for staunching blood,
or from  slight cuts and other  wounds, leech-bites, the  nose, gums, &c.   It acts mechanically as
a styptic by the structure of its leaf, which divides the blood  and promotes its coagulation.
   As an internal remedy it is  applicable as  a substitute for cubebs, in discharges from the mu-
 cous surfaces,  as  leucorrhoea, gonorrhoea, &c.  It  might, perhaps* be useful in affections  of the
 rectum, in similar cases to  those in  which the confection of pepper has  been serviceable. The
 Indians use the infusion as an aphrodisiac.3
   Matico has  been greatly  lauded4 as an internal styptic or astringent in internal hemorrhages
 (from  the lungs,  stomach, bowels, and  uterus).   But  the  botanical,  chemical, and sensible
 qualities of matico are  opposed to the idea  of its astringent properties;  and with regard to the
 supposed therapeutic evidence, it may be observed that from  the often temporary character and
 uncertain duration of internal  hemorrhages generally, it is very difficult  to determine  the thera-
 peutical influence of the agents called astringents, and  to  distinguish post hoc from  propter hoc
 phenomena.   If matico have any styptic  power,  it is  derived not from  tannic or gallic acids,
 but from the volatile oil which the  plant contains; and in that case the oils of  pepper, cubebs,
 or turpentine, would be much more energetic and preferable.
   [Dr. Ruschenberger, who became acquainted with  it  during a visit to Peru in  1834, and intro-
 duced it into the United States, has  used it locally in chronic ophthalmia with advantage. With
 regard to its anti-hemorrhagic power, the latter gentleman informs me that he applied it to arrest
 hemorrhage after an operation on the side  of the neck below the  angle of the jaw, in which
 there was considerable  bleeding and difficulty in taking up the  divided vessels, owing to indu-
 ration of the part from chronic inflammation; and the application was  successful.   The same
 arrest of the discharge  of blood followed its use in h&matemesis.J
   Matico is administered in the form of powder, infusion, and tincture.   The dose of the pow-
 der is from gss to 5Jij.
   1.  Infusum Matico, D.; Infusion  of  Matico.—(Matico Leaves, cut small, ^ss;   Boiling
 Water  Oss.   Infuse for one hour, in a covered vessel,and strain.  The  product should measure
 about eisihr ounces, D.)—Dose from f%) to fjij.
   2.  Tinctura Matico,  D.; Tincture of Matico.—(Matico  Leaves, in  coarse  powder, *viij;
 Proof Spirit Oij.  Macerate for fourteen days, strain, express, and filter, D.)—Dose from I3J
 to fgij.


 Order XXXIII. EUPHORBIACE.E, Jiw.—SPURGE WORTS.
                                      EuphohbijE, Juss.

   Characters.—Flowers unisexual.   Calyx free (inferior), with various glandular or scaly in-
 ternal appendages; sometimes wanting.   Corolla usually absent, sometimes  polypetalous or
 monopetalous.  Stamens definite or indefinite, distinct or monadelphous; anthers  2-celled.  Ovary
 free (superior).   Ovules solitary or  twin, suspended from the  inner angle of the cell,  ttwi
 generally tricoccous, consisting of 3 carpels splitting and  separating with elasticity from their
 common axis, occasionally fleshy and indehiscent.  Seeds solitary or twin, suspended often with
 an aril-  embryo enclosed in fleshy albumen;  cotyledons flat; radicle superior.—Trees, shrubs, u
 herbs, often abounding in a milky juice.  Leaves opposite or alternate, simple, rarely coinpouw,
 often  with stipules. Flowers axillary or terminal, sometimes inclosed within an involucre re-

   1 Memoirs and Proceedings of the Chemical Society, vol. ii. p. 123, 1844.
   3 Peppermint  and other labiate plants yield infusions which produce a dark green colour with  the «»-
 nuichloricle of iron.                    , ..    __,.,.      . _   _ _  .  _    .  * -,  .   iaii
   3 Martius, Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. 11. p. 600, 1813.    4 Sec Jeffrey's Remarks on Matico, VHi. 
Canary Euphorbium :—History ; Botany.              359
sembling a calyx.  Some of the Euphorbiaceae are succulent or fleshy, and have a considerable
resemblance to Cacteaceae;  from which they may in general be distinguished by tbe presence
of an acrid milky juice.
   Pbopertieb.—Mostly acrids; operating, toxicologically, as acrid, narcotic-acrid, or acronarcotic
poisons;  and medicinally, as rubefacients, suppurants, emetics, diuretics, and cathartics.  The
acrid or poisonous principle or principles resicje in the roots, stems, leaves and seeds.  It is a
constituent of the acrid milky juice found in many of the species.   " M. Berthollet has recorded
a remarkable instance of the harmless quality  of the sap in the interior of a plant, whose bark
is filled with a milky proper  juice of a poisonous  nature.   He described the natives of Tene-
riffe as being in the habit of removing the bark from the Euphorbia canariensis, and then sucking
the inner portion of the  stem  in order to quench their thirst, this part containing a considerable
quantity of limpid and non-elaborated sap."'  In some cases an acrid principle (see voL  i. p. 206)
is found  in the embryo,  but not in the albumen of  the seed.  Thus Anblet2 states that the ker-
nels of Omphulea diandra are edible if the embryo be extracted; but if this be left in, they prove
cathartic.  In some cases, however, as those of Croton and Rici7ius, the albumen also possesses
acrid and poisonous  properties.  The chemical nature of the acrid principle or principles has
not  been determined.  In some cases  it appears to be volatile, in others  fixed.  If it be true
that persons have been poisoned by sleeping under the Manchineel tree (Hippomane Mancinella),
this species  must give out a poisonous vapour.   In some cases, however, resin appears to be the
active principle;  as in the officinal substance called gum euphorbium.
   The expressed oils of the seeds of several of the Euphorbiacere  (as Croton, Ricinus, Jatropha,
Euphorbia, and Anda) are purgative; in some cases violently so.   They probably owe this to
some active principle dissolved in the fixed oil;  for the residual oil cake acts as a drastic purga-
tive, in some cases more so than the expressed oil.  Soubeiran3 thinks that some of the euphor-
biaceous seeds owe their purgative qualities  to resin.  The fixed oil of some of the seeds is
 remarkable for its more  ready miscibility with,or solubility in, alcohol, than most other fixed oils.
   Some  euphorbiaceous plants are devoid of acridity, or possess it in a very slight degree only.
Some of these are aromatic, resiniferous, and tonic.   Von Buch4 says, the branches of Euphorbia
balsamifera contain a mild sweet juice, which is eaten  by the inhabitants of the Canary Isles.
The aromatic tonic bark of the Croton Eleutheria is another exception to the very general acrid-
ity of these  plants.
   Some  of the roots are harmless and nutritious.   Others of neighbouring  species abound in
nutritive starch (e. g., tapioca-starch), which resides in a poisonous  juice.


                        Tribe.   Eupiiorbieje,  Bartling.

Ovules solitary.   Seeds albuminous.  Flowers monoecious, apetalous; male and females mixed
                                in a cup-shaped  involucre.


     126. EUPHORBIA CANARIENSIS,  Linn.-THE  CANARY
                                 EUPHORBIUM.
              Sex. Syst. Dodecandria, Trigynia.  Linn.—Moncecia, Monandria, Smith.
                (Euphorbium; gurami-resina, L. D.—Concrete resinous juice, E.)

   niSTORY.—The  plant which yields the saline waxy-resin called in the shops gum
euphorbium, is  said both by Dioscorides5  (who calls it tv$6p$iov) and Pliny6  to have
been first discovered in the time of Juba, king  of Mauritania; that is, about,  or a
few years before, the commencement of the  Christian era.  Pliny says that Juba
called it after his physician, Euphorbus;  and that he wrote a volume concerning it,
which was extaut in Pliny's time.   Salmasius, however, states tfoit this word occurs
in  the writings of  Meleager the poet, who lived some time before Juba.   But in
the  passage in question  the commonly received reading in the present day is not
tvtyopiiyc, but ix (j>opf3>jj.7
   Botany.   Gen. Char— Flowers collected in monoecious  heads,  surrounded by an
involucrum consisting  of 1 leaf with 5 divisions, which have externally 5  glands
alternating  with them.   Males naked,  monandrous, articulated with their  pedicel,
Burroundiug the female, which  is in the centre.   Females naked, solitary.  Ovarium
stalked.   Stigmas  3,  forked.    Fruit hanging out of the involucrum,  consisting of

  « lfenslow, Botany, in  Lardner's Cyclop, p. 217.     ' Histoire des Plantes de la Guiane, t. ii. d 844
  • Journ. de Pharm. t. xv. p. 5(11, lft>9.                                        '     P'  *'
  ' Ners and Ebermaiur, Med. Pharm. Bot. Bd i. S.355.                    s Lib. iii can 96
 • Hul. Sat. lib xxv. cap. 38, ed. Vaip.  Pliny calls the plant euphorbia, and the'resin euphorbium
(lib. xxvi. cap. .;i).                                                              r
  ' Dr. GrecnliilK Diet, of Gretk and Roman Biography, art. Euphorbus,  vol. ii. p. 97. 
360             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Euphorbiaceae.

3 cells, bursting at the back with elasticity, and each containing  1  suspended seed
(Lindley).
   Sp. Char.—Branches channelled, with  4, rarely  5, angles, armed  with double,
straight, spreading, dark, shining spines.
  These specific characters apply to the branches found mixed with the euphorbium of com-
merce.  They agree with the description and figure of Tithymalus aizoides lactifluut sen Euphorbia
canariensis of Plukenet.1  This agrees with the statement of Miller,2 who states that hy looking
over some euphorbium in a shop, he  "found several spines amongst it, which exactly agreed
with those of  that plant."  I feel very little hesitation, therefore, in referring the euphorbium
of English commerce to E. canariensis; the species still retained by the Dublin  College.
  From the E. canariensis of Willdenow and of some other botanists, this plant is distinguished
by its straight spines; but on examining the E.  canariensis at the Kew Garden,  I find as many
of the spines straight as uncinate.   The diameter of the steins, however, and even of the young
shoots, is greater  than that  of stems found in  the euphorbium  of commerce. The species
which most closely agrees with the  latter in the sizes of the stems, the number of angles, and
the number  and directions of the  spines, is Euphorbia telragona.  This  species  has mostly
square stems;  though some of the  larger stems are somewhat  channelled.  The dried stems
found  in the euphorbium of commerce, however, appear to be uniformly channelled.  The E,
qffirinarum (adopted  by the London College) has many angles :  the Der^muse of Jackson3 has
many scolloped angles.   Euphorbia antiquorum has been said to yield euphorbium, but the state-
ment is denied by both Hamilton4 and Royle.5
   Hab.—The Canary Islands; Africa, in the neighbourhood of Mogadore?
   Extraction.—Euphorbium  is thus procured:  The  inhabitants  of  the  lower
regions of the  Atlas range make incisions in the branches of the plant,  and from
these a milky juice exudes, which is so acrid that it  excoriates the fingers when ap-
plied  to  them.  This exuded juice hardens by the heat of the  sun, and forms a
whitish-yellow  solid,  which drops off in  the month of  September, and  forms the
euphorbium of commerce.  " The plants," says Mr. Jackson,6  " produce abundantly
once only in four  years; but  this fourth  year's produce is  more than all Europe
can consume."   The people who collect  it,  he adds, are  obliged  " to tie a cloth
over their mouth and  nostrils to prevent  the small  dusty  particles  from  annoying
them, as they produce incessant  sneezing."  The acrid resinous juice residesin the
outer or cortical portion of the stem (see ante, p. 359).
   Properties.—Euphorbium consists of irregular yellowish, slightly friable tears,
usually pierced with one  or two holes, united  at the  base, and in  which we find the
remains of a double aculeus.   These tears are almost odourless; but their dust, ap-
plied  to the olfactory  membrane, acts as a powerful sternutatory.   Their taste is at
 first slight,  afterwards acrid and burning.
   When heated, euphorbium melts, swells up imperfectly, evolves an  odour somewhat
like that of benzoic acid vapour, takes fire, and  burns with a pale flame.   Alcohol,
ether, and oil of turpentine are its best solvents; water dissolves only a small por-
tion of it.
   Composition.—Euphorbium  has been the subject of  several analyses—namely,
in  1800,'by Laudet;? in  1809, by  Braconnot;8  in 1818, by  Pelletier" and by
Muhlmann;10 in 1819, by  Brandes;11 and more  recently by Drs. Buchner and Her-
berger.13
        Pellttier's Analysis.                           Brande's Analysis.
Resin................60 8   Resin..............................43.77
Wax.................14.4   Wax  ..............................H.93
Bassorin..............."2.0  Caoutchouc...........................4-84
Malate of lime...........12.2  Malate of lime.........................18 --
Malate of potash.......... 1.8 |  M.-date of potash........................*00
Water and loss...........8.S  Sulphates of potash and lime, and phosphate of lime. . . .  0.70
                          -----   Water and  loss.........................'•'*
                                  Woody fibre..........................5.60
         Euphorbium......100.0               Euphorbium...............100.00

  ' Almagest. Bot. vol. ii. p. 370.                 2 Gardener's Dictionary, vol. i.  art. Euphorbium.
  3 Account of Morocco, 3d edit. p. 134.           * Trans, of the Linn. Soc. vol. xiv.
  ' Bot. of the  Himalayan Mountains, p. 328.       6 Op. cit.
  1 Gmelin, Hand. d. Chem.                    ' Ann. Chim. lxviii. 41.
  s Bull. d. Pharm. iv. 502.                    ,0 Gmelin, op. cit.
  11 Ibid.                                   " Christison, Treatise on Poisons. 
          Canary Euphorbium :—Physiological Effects; Uses.       361

  Resin is the active ingredient of euphorbium.  It coincides in many of its properties with
ordinary resins; thus, it is reddish-brown, hard, brittle, fusible, soluble in alcohol, ether, and oil
of turjicntine, and somewhat less so in oil of almonds.  Its leading and characteristic property is
intense acridity.  It differs from some resins in being slightly soluble only in alkalies.  It is a
compound of two resinous substances.
  a. One re«inous substance is soluble in cold alcohol. Its formula, according to Mr. Johnston,'
      is C*°H3lO«.
  B. The other resinous substance is insoluble in cold alcohol.  The mean of Rose's analyses3 of
      it gives as the composition of this resin, carbon 81.58, hydrogen 11.35, and oxygen 7.07.
  Physiological Effects, a.  On Animals generally.—Euphorbium acts on horses
and dogs as a powerful acrid substance, irritating  and inflaming parts with which
it is placed in contact, and affecting the nervous system.  When swallowed in large
quantities, it causes gastro-enteritis (two ounces are  sufiicient to kill a horse); when
applied to the skin,  it acts as a rubefacient and epispastic.   Farriers  sometimes
employ it, as a substitute for cantharides, for blistering horses, but cautious and
well-informed veterinarians  are  opposed to its use.
  £. On Man.—The leading effect of euphorbium on man is that of a most violent
acrid,  but under  certain  circumstances a narcotic  operation has been  observed.
When euphorbium dust is inhaled, and also applied to the face, as in grinding this
drug, it causes sneezing, redness, and swelling of the face, and  great irritation about
the eyes and nose.  To prevent as much as possible these effects, various contrivances
are adopted  by different drug-grinders; some  employ masks with glass eyes, others
apply wet sponge  to the nose and face, while  some cover the face with crape.  The
pain and irritation,  I am informed,  are sometimes  very great.  Individuals who
have been exposed for some time to the influence  of this dust, suffer with headache,
giddiness, and ultimately  become delirious.    All  the workmen of whom  I have in-
quired (and they comprise those  of three large firms, including the  one  alluded to
by Dr. Christison) agree that these are the effects  of euphorbium.   An old labourer
assured me that this substance  produced in  him a  feeling  of intoxication ; and I
was informed at one drug-mill of an Irish labourer who was made temporarily insane
by  it, and who, during the fit, insisted on saying his prayers at the tail of the mill-
horse.
   Insensibility and  convulsions  have been  produced by euphorbium.    The  only
instance I am acquainted with is the following : A man was engaged at a mill where
euphorbium  was being ground, and remained  in the room longer than was considered
prudent.    Suddenly he  darted  from the mill-room, and ran with great velocity
down two pairs of stairs.   On arriving at the ground-floor or yard he became insen-
sible, and fell.   Within five minutes I saw him : he was lying on his back, insen-
sible and convulsed ; his  face was red and swollen, his pulse frequent and full, and
his skin very hot.  I bled him, and within  half an  hour he  became quite sensible,
but complained of great headache.   He had no recollection of his flight down stairs,
which seems to have been performed in  a fit of delirium.
   When jmicdercd  euphorbium is applied to the  skin, it causes itching, pain, and
inflammation, succeeded by vesication.
   When  swallowed, it causes vomiting and  purging,  and,  in large doses, gastro-
enteritis, with  irregular hurried pulse and cold perspirations.
   Uses.—Notwithstanding  that it  is still retained in  the Pharmacopoeia, it is
rarely  employed in medicine.   It was formerly used as an emetic and drastic pur-
gative  in dropsies, but the violence aud danger of  its operation have led to its disuse.
Sometimes it  is employed as an  errhine in chronic affections of the eyes, ears, or
brain; but its  local  action  is so violent that we can only apply it when  largely
diluted with  some mild powder, as starch or flour.
  Mixed with turpentine  or Burgundy pitch  (or  rosin), it is employed in the form
of plaster, as a rubefacient, in chronic affections of the joints.  As a vesicant, it is
rarely employed.  As a caustic, either the powder or alcoholic tincture  (Tinctura
Euphorbii, Cod.  Ilamb.,  prepared  by digesting euphorbium 3j, in  rectified spirit
ibjj is sometimes employed in carious ulcers.
1 Phil. Trans. 1SI0, p. 365.                      » PoggendorfPs Annalen, xxxiii. 52. 
362
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Euphorbiace*:.
   Antidote.—In a case of  poisoning  by euphorbium, emollient  and  demulcent
drinks, clysters (of  mucilaginous, amylaceous,  or oleaginous liquids), and opium
should be  exhibited, and blood-letting and warm baths employed.   In fact, as we
have no  chemical  antidote,  our object  is  to  involve the  poison in demulcents to
diminish the sensibility of the living part by opium, and to obviate the inflammation
by blood-letting and the warm bath.  If the circulation fail, ammonia and brandy
will be required.


             127. Euphorbia Lathyris,  Linn.— Caper Spurge.

                                       (Semina.)

   This is an indigenous or naturalized biennial plant, which is cultivated in  gardens.  iS'.fwt
solitary, erect,2 or 3 feet high, purplish, round,smooth, like every other part.   Leaves numerous,
spreading in 4 rows, opposite, sessile, oblong, acute,  entire, of a dark glaucous green; their base
heartshaped: the lower ones gradually diminishing.   Umbel solitary, terminal  large, or 4 repent.
edly forked branches.   Bracts heartshaped, entire, tapering to a point.  Flowers sessile in each
fork, solitary, variegated with  yellow and  dark  purple.  Nectaries rounded with  blunt horns.
Capsules  large, smooth  (Smith)—The seeds (sem. euphorbia lathyris; sem. cataputia minorit,■
grana regia minora) are about the size of peppercorns.   They yielded Soubeiran1 a yellow fixed
oil, stearine, a brown acrid oil, a crystalline mutter,  a brown resin, an extractive colouring nviinr, awl
vegetable albumen.   The yellow fixed oil is  purgative, but it owes this property to matters which
it  holds in solution.   The brown  acrid  oil is the active principle:  it has a disagreeable odour,
approaching that of croton oil, and readily dissolves in alcohol and ether.  Oil of caper spurge
(oleum euphorbia lathyris) may be obtained by  expression, by alcohol, or by ether.  The ex-
pressed oil, unlike that of croton oil, is insoluble in alcohol.  It is less active than the oil prepared
by alcohol (as 3 is to 2).  Both  the  milky juice  of the plant and the seeds are acrid, and vio-
lently purgative.   In a  case of poisoning by the seeds, narcotic symptoms also were present'
The oil may be employed as an indigenous  substitute for croton oil.  The dose of it is from
three to ten drops.3  The capsules are pickled and  used as a substitute for capers, which they
resemble  in  size, appearance,  and pungency.   When recent, they are certainly acrid and
poisonous; and it is  probable, therefore,  that the  pickling  process lessens  or destroys their
virulence; but the free  use of the pickled fruits is dangerous.


     128.  Euphorbia Ipecacuanha, Linn— Ipecacuanha  Spurge.
                                        (Radix.)

   This plant (also called American  Ipecacuanha) is a native of the United States of America.
The dried root (radix  euphorbia ipecacuanha; vel rad. ipecacuanha spuria alba)  is cylindrical,
grayish yellow, inodorous, and has a sweetish, not unpleasant taste.   According to Dr. Bigelow,
it contains caoutchouc, resin, gum, and probably starch.  Its active principle is perhaps  resin.
This root is " an energetic, tolerably certain emetic, rather milder than E. corollata, but, like that,
disposed to act upon the bowels, and liable, if given in  over doses, to produce excessive nausea
and vomiting, general prostration, and alarming hypercatharsis.   It is, therefore, wholly unfit to
supersede ipecacuanha.'*  The dose of  the powdered  root  is  from ten to fifteen grains.  In
small doses it is diaphoretic.


                            Tribe.   Crotone^e,  Blume.

  Ovule solitary.  Flowers usually having petals, in clusters, spikes, racemes, or panicles.


   129.  CROTON TIGLIUM, Lam.—THE  PURGING CROTON.
                               Croton Jamalgota, Hamilton.
                             Sex. Syst. Alonoeeia, Monadelphia.
            (Oleum e semine expressum, L.—Expressed Oil of the Seeds, E. D. [U. S.])

   History.—Croton  seeds  are  mentioned by Avicenna5 and by Serapion6 under
the name of Dend or  Dende.   The earliest European describer of them is Christopher

  * Journ. de Pharm. t. xv. p. 507, 1829; also Nouveau Traiti de Pharmacie, t. ii.
   Christison, Treatise on Poisons.
  * Dierbach,  Xeuesten Entd. in d. Mat. Med. S. 76, 1837  ; Badly, Lancet, June 10th,  1826.
   United States Dispensatory.
   Lib. ii. cap. -J19.                                            « De Simplicibus, cccxlviii. 
Purging Croton:—Botany; Description.              363
d'Acosta, in 1578,1 who terms  them  pini nuclei malucani.   When  Commeline
wrote, they were known in the shops  by the name of cataputia  minor, although
they were  sold by  itinerants as grana  dilla or grana tilli.   They were much em-
ployed by medical men in the 17th century, and were known by various names, but
principally by that  of grana tiglia.  They, however, went out of use, probably in
consequence of the violence and uncertainty of their operation.  Their re-employment
in modern  practice is owing partly to  the  notices of them by Dr. White and Mr.
Marshall, in the first edition of  Dr.  Ainslie's work;3 but principally to the  intro-
duction of the oil,  in 1820, by Dr. Conwell.3
   Botany.   Gen.  Char.—Flowers  monoecious,  or very rarely dioecious.   Calyx
5-parted.  Males:  petals  5;  stamens  10 or  more, distinct.  Females: petals
0; styles 3, divided into two or more  partitions.   Capsule tricoccous [with one seed
in each cell] (Adr. de Jussieu).
   Sp. Char.—Arboreous.   Leaves oblong-ovate, acuminate,  3—5-nerved,  slightly
serrate, smooth.    Stamina 15, distinct.   Each cell of  the fruit filled by the seed.
   A  middle-sized  tree,  from  15 to 20 feet high.   Bark smooth, ash-coloured.
Leaves thin and membranous, sometimes cordate, and with  two flat round glands at
their base; when young, covered on both surfaces, but especially the lower one with
minute stellate hairs.   At the base of the leaves are  two flat round glands.    Raceme
terminal, erect, simple.   Petals of male flower white.
   Hab.—Continent of India, islands forming the Indian Archipelago, and Ceylon.
  The Cnrrrov Pavaxa4 is said also to yield  tiglium or croton seeds.  It is distinguished from
C. Tiglium by having only ten  stamina, and by the seeds being much smaller than the cells in
which they are placed.  C. Pavana is a native of Ava, north-eastern parts of Bengal?  Am-
boyna ??  Dr. Hamilton thinks  it is the Granum Moluccum  of Rumphius.
   Description.— Croton seeds (semina tiglii seu semina crotonis, grana tiglii, purg-
ing nuts of some authors) in size and  shape are very similar to castor seeds.   Viewed
laterally, their shape is oval or oval-oblong;  seen from either extremity, they have
a rounded or imperfectly quadrangular form.   Their length does not exceed G lines,
their thickness is 2£ to 3 lines, their breadth 3 or  4 lines.   Sometimes the surface
of the seeds is yellowish, owing to the presence of an investing lamina (epidermis?).
The testa  is dark  brown or blackish, and  is  marked with  the ramifications of  the
raphtf.  The endocarp,  or internal seed-coat, is thin, brittle, and of a light colour.
It encloses a yellowish oily albumen, which envelops the  embryo,  whose cotyledons
are foliaceous or membranous.   The seeds are without odour;  their taste is at first
mild and oleaginous, afterwards acrid and  burning.  When heated, they evolve an
acrid  vapour.   The proportion of shell and  kernel in  100 parts  by  weight of  the
seeds is thus stated by two authorities:—
                                                 Nimmo.         Caventou.
             Shell or seed-coats.........30  ...   .  3.1.3
             Kernel or nucleus.........64  ...   .  6ti.6

                                                   100             99.9
   Composition.—Croton seeds  were analyzed in  1818 by MM.  Pelletier and  Ca-
ventou,5 in 1S22 by Dr. Nimmo,8 and in  1823 by Brandes.7   The  following  are
their results:—
  1 CIusiiir, Eroticor. p. 292.                          » Materia Medica of Hindostan. 1813.
  ' Sec Ins Rfcherch. sur les Propr. Mtd. et I'Emploi en Mid. de I'Huile de Croton Tiglium. 1.-24 —For
further historical details, consult Prof. 11. II. Wilson's paper in  the Transactions of the Med and Phvs
Society of Calcutta, vol. i. p. 249.                                                      " '
  * 11 ii m 11 ton. Trans. Linn. Soc. vol. xiv. 257.
  * Journ. de Pharm. t. iv. p '269, 1«I8; and f. xi. p. 10, 1825. In the first paper, croton seeds were bv
mistnke, snid to b« the seeds of Jatropha Curcas.  Caventou corrected this statement in the second paper
In the Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim. for March 1^-50, M. Guibourt states that he lias recently ascertained
that the seeds of J. Curcas are sold by respectable dealers in Paris for croton seeds.  It is stated by Mr
I  u.st (Lond. Medic. Reposit. v.d. xvn. p.  161, 1622; and vol. xviii. p. 471, 1822) that in Ensland 'the
former credit hnve been mist'iken for the Intter.                                          '
  • 'Quarterly Journal of Sei.nce, vol.  xiij. p. 02, l-.>2.  Soubeiran (Journ de Pharm. t xv p 514  18291
•tales, though I know not on what authority, that the oil which Dr. Nimmo analyzed under the name of
croton oil, was rxtrnrtcd from the Jatrnphn.
i*v.^,e*Jr '''f ''if'*,'4' rr[f'i!"r\m ".bT»l  Teul'\Man<t- B<). «v. Snored by L. Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. ii
1320).  See also Berlin Jahrb. fiir d. Pharm. Bd. xxvi. Abt. i. S. 222, lfc21. 
364
VEGETABLES.— Nat. Ord. Euphorbiaceae.
Pelletier lr Caventou. I     Nimmo.     |                      Brandes.
Fixed oil and cro- ) ,JAcrid   purga- ).,. Volatile oil.........................incn
  tonic acid  .  . .J     tive principle J  ' Fixed oil, with crotonic acid, and an alkaloid (erototiin) i;^
Gum........)    Fixed oil  . .-.  33,Crotonates and colouring matter  .   ...........  'u\.
Albumen (emulsinv. > 50 Farinaceous   ) .„ Brownish yellow resin, insoluble in ether.......'  | (w.
Lignin......)   I        matter J    Stearineand wax  ...................'  '  „j,
                                    I Extractive sugar, and malates of potash and lime  . .  .  -im
                                     Starchy matter, with phosphate (if lime and magnesia  .  5 71
                                     Gum and gummoin   .................... j0 jj
                                     Albumen  ..........................  j j.
                                     Gluten............................ odd
                                     Seed-coats and woody fibre of the nucleus  ....... 39'Qj
                                     Water.............................>> jj
Kernel  . .  .100;   Kernel . . . 100'                    Croton seeds
101.41
   1.  Volatile Oil of Crotox Seeds.—This is but imperfectly known, traces only of it having
 been obtained.  Brandes regards it as extremely acrid, and thinks that by the united agencies o|
 air and water it is converted into crotonic acid; for the distilled water of the seeds becomes more
 acid by keeping.
   2.  Fixeii Oil of Croton Seeps.—This also is but imperfectly known.   It must not be con-
 founded with croton oil of the shops, which  is a mixture of this and other constituents of the
 seeds.  Fixed  oil of croton seeds is, probably, a combination of crotonic and other fatty acidi
 with glycerine.
   3.  Crotonic Acin.  (Jatrophic Acid.)—Discovered by Pelletier and Caventou.  Though tbii
 acid exists in the free state in the seed, yet an additional quantity of it is obtained when the oil
 is saponified.  For this purpose the oil is saponified by potash, the resulting soap decomposed
 by tartaric acid, and  the watery fluid, from  the surface of which  the separated common fatty
 acids have been removed, is to.be submitted to distillation.  In this way is obtained an aqueous
 solution of a solid, very volatile, fatty acid, which congeals  at 23° F., and, when heated a few
 degrees above  32° F., is converted  into vapour, having a strong nauseous odour, and which irri-
 tates  the eyes and nose, and has an acrid taste.
   At first Pelletier and Caventou  regarded this acid as the active principle of the oil; but Ca-
 ventou subsequently expressed doubts on the subject, and stated  that fresh experiments induced
 him to think that the irritating and volatile principle of the oil, and which so strongly irritated
 the nose and eyes, is  not of an acid nature.  My colleague, Mr.  Redwood,  informs me that he
 has ascertained that crotonic acid and the crotonates are inert, or nearly so; and in experiments
 with  crotonic acid prepared by him support his statements.
   Crotonic acid unites with bases forming a class of salts called crotonates, which are inodorous.
 The crotonate of ammonia precipitates the salts of lead, copper, and silver, white; and the sul-
 phate of iron, yellow.  Crotonate of potash is crystalline, and dissolves, with  difficulty.in alcohol.
 Crotonate of barytes is soluble in water; but crotonate of magnesia is very slightly soluble only in
 this liquid.
   4.  Crotonin.—The crystallizable substance which Brandes thought to be a peculiar alkaloid,-
 and which he  called crotonin, and which appeared to be identical with  tbe tiglin of Adr.de
 Jussieu, has been found by Weppen1 to be (as  formerly suggested by Soubeiran2) a niagnesian
 sap with an alkaline reaction.
   5.  Resin.—Is brown and soft; and has a disagreeable odour, on account, doubtless, of the oil
 which it retains. It is soluble in alcohol, but insoluble in ether and in water.  The alkalies dis-
 solve it by separating a whitish matter.  It contributes to the purgative properties of croton oil.
   Physiological Effects.   1.  Of the Seeds,   a.  On Animals generally.—-Cro-
 ton seeds are powerful local irritants or acrids, causing inflammation in those living
 parts with which they are placed in contact.  Orfila3 found that three drachms being
 introduced into the stomach of a dog, and the oesophagus tied to prevent vomiting,
 caused death  in three hours;  and on examination of the  body, the alimentary canal
 was found to be in a state of inflammation.   In another experiment, a drachm caused
 death under the same circumstances.   A drachm, also, applied to  the cellular tissue
 of the thigh,  was equally fatal.   A dose of from twenty to thirty grains of the pow-
der of  the kernel given to the horse  causes, in six or eight  hours, profuse watery
 stools,  and  is  recommended  by some veterinarians as a purgative;  but the  uncer-
 tainty of its operation,  and  the  griping  and  debility which  it occasions, are objec-
tions to its use.*  Lansberg5 found that twenty of the seeds killed a horse, by caus-
ing gastro-enteritis.   The pulse was frequent, small, and soft.
   /3.  On Man.—In the human subject a grain of croton seed will frequently  pro-

  1 Ann. d. Chem. u. Pharm. Bd. Ixx. S. 254, 1849; also Chemical Gazette, vol. vii. p. 355,1-19.
  2 JSouv. Traits de Pharm. t. ii. p. 103.                ' Toxicol. Gin
  1 Youatt, The Horse, in Library of Useful Knowledge.  » Wibmer, Arzntim. u. Gifle, Bd. ii. S- 222- 
Purging Croton :—Physiological Effects.              365
duce full purgation.   Mr. Marshall1 says that this quantity, made into two pills, is
about equal in power  to half a drachm of jalap, or to nix grains of calomel.   The
operation, he  adds, is  attended with much rumbling of  the bowels;  the stools are
invariably watery and copious.   Dr. White recommends the seeds to be torrefied,
and deprived  of  their seed-coats, before employing them.2   Dr. Wallich informed
me that the labourers in the Calcutta Botanic Garden were in the  habit of taking
one of these seeds as  a purgative, but that on one  occasion  this dose proved fatal.
   The seed-coats, the embryo,  and the albumen, have each in their turn been  de-
clared to be the  seat  of the acrid principle;  I believe  the remarks which  I  shall
have to make with respect to the seat of  the acridity of castor-oil seeds, will apply
equally well to that of croton seeds.
   The following is a case of poisoning by the inhalation of the dust of the seeds:—
  Thomas Young, aged  31, a labourer in  the East India warehouses, was brought into the
London Hospital on the  8th of December, 1841, labouring under symptoms of poisoning by the
inhalation of the dust of croton seeds.  He bad  been occupied about eight hours  in emptying
packages of these seeds,  by which he was exposed to their dust.  The first ill effects observed
were loss of appetite, then a burning sensation in the nose and  mouth, tightness  at his chest,
and copious lachrytnation, followed by  epigastric pain.   Feeling himself getting worse, he left
the warehouse, but became very giddy, and fell down insensible.  Medical assistance was pro-
cured, an emetic was administered, stimulants were exhibited, and he was wrapped in warm
blankets.  When he became sensible, he complained of his mouth being parched,  and that his
throat was swelling.  He was then removed to the hospital.  On his admission  he  appeared in
a state of collapse, complained of burning pain at the stomach, in the throat, and  in the head,
and of swelling and numbness of his tongue.  The epigastrium  felt hot and tense, the pupils
were dilated, the breathing short and  hurried, the countenance distressed, pulse 85,  surface cold.
He stated thnt his tongue felt too large for his mouth, and appeared  to be without feeling, and
he had bitten it two or  three times to  ascertain  whether there was any sensation in it.  On
examination, however, no change could  be observed in the size or appearance of the tongue or
parts aliout the  mouth.   Hot brandy and water were given to him, and lie was put into the hot
bath with evident relief.   He continued iu the hospital  for several days, during which time he
continued to improve, but still complained of epigastric pain.  It deserves notice that his bowels
were not acted on, and on the day following his admission several doses of castor-oil were given
to him.
   It would be interesting to know  whether the seeds of Croton Pavana are  equally
active with those of Croton Tiglium;  and,  also, whether the seeds of both  species
are found in commerce.
   2.  Of the Oil.   a.  On Animals generally.—On vertebrated animals (horses, dogs,
rabbits, and birds), it acts as a powerful local irritant or acrid.  When taken inter-
nally, in  moderate doses, it operates  as a drastic  purgative; in large doses, as an
acrid poison, causing gastro-enteritis.  Moiroud3  says, that from  twenty to thirty
drops of the  oil  are, for the horse,  equal  to two drops for a man; and that twelve
drops  injected  into the veins  cause  alvine evacuations  in  a few minutes.  Thirty
drops administered in the same manner, have caused, according to this veterinarian,
violent intestinal inflammation and speedy death.   A much less quantity (three or
four drops) has,  according to Hertwich,4  terminated fatally when  thrown  into  the
veins.   After death the large intestines  have been found to be more inflamed than
the small ones.   Flies, which had eaten some sugar  moistened  with  the oil  of
croton, died in  three  or four hours—the wings being  paralyzed or immovable be-
fore death.
   $.  On Man.—Rubbed on the skin  it causes rubefaction and a pustular  or vesi-
cular eruption, with sometimes an  erysipelatous  swelling of the surrounding parts.
When rubbed into the abdomen,  it sometimes, but not invariably, purges.   Kayer5
mentions a case in which  thirty-two drops  rubbed upon  the  abdomen produced
purging, large vesicles, swelling,  and  redness of the face,  with small, prominent,
white, crowded vesicles on  the cheeks, lips, chin, and nose.  Applied to the eye, it
gives rise to violent burning pain, and inflammation of the eye and face.   In one

 1 Ainslie, Mat.  Indica, vol. i. p. 104.                a Ibid.
 J Pharm. Vttir. p 272.                          « Wibmer, Arzneim. u. Gifte, Bd. ii. S 218
 * Treatise on Diseases of the Skin, by Dr. Willis, p. 367. 
366             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Euphorbiaceae.

case it produced giddiness.1  Ebeling obtained relief by the application of a solution
of carbonate of potash.   Swallowed in small doses, as of one or two drops, it usually
causes an acrid burning taste in the  mouth and throat, and acts as a drastic purga-
tive, giving rise to watery stools, and frequently increasing urinary secretion.  Its
operation is very speedy.  Frequently it causes evacuations in half an hour:  yet it
is somewhat uncertain.   Sometimes  six, eight, or even ten drops may be eiven at a
dose without affecting  the bowels.   In moderate doses it is  less disposed to cause
vomiting or purging  than some other  cathartics of  equal power.  Mr. Iliff» l10ff.
ever, observes  that it produces nausea and griping more  frequently than has been
supposed.
   The following is a case of poisoning by  an excessive dose of croton oil: A ynune
man, aged 25, affected with severe typhoid fever, swallowed by mistake two and a
half drachms of croton oil.  At the  end of three-quarters of an hour the skin was
cold and covered  with cold sweats, the pulse and action  of the heart scarcely per-
ceptible, respiration  difficult;  the points of the toes  and fingers,  the parts around
the eyes and the lips, blue, as in malignant cholera;  abdomen sensible to the touch-
but no vomiting.   In an hour  and a half there were excessive and involuntary alvine
evacuations, sensation of burning in the oesophagus,  acute sensibility of the abdr>
men, skin colder, respiration and circulation difficult, the cyanosis  extended over the
whole body, the  skin  became insensible;  and  death occurred, with some of  the
symptoms of asphyxia,  four hours after the poison was swallowed.   No lesion was
found in the gastric  membrane.  The intestines presented ulcerations such as are
characteristic of typhus fever.3
   In comparing croton oil with other violently acrid  purgatives,  we  find it distin-
guished  by its  speedy operation, the great depression of the vascular system as well
as the general  feeling of debility which it  produces, and by  the uncertainty  of its
operation.
   Uses.—The value of croton oil as  an internal remedial  agent depends principally
on two circumstances—first, its powerful and  speedy action  as a drastic cathartic,
by which it is adapted for obviating constipation, or for operating on the bowels as a
counter-irritant; and secondly, on the smallness of the dose, which in practice pre-
sents many advantages.   These circumstances render it peculiarly applicable in cases
requiring powerful and  speedy catharsis, and in which the patient cannot swallow,
or does so with extreme difficulty, as in trismus, coma, and  some affections of the
throat; or where he  will not swallow, as in mania.   In all such  cases  the oil may
be dropped on the tongue.  In obstinate constipation, whether from the poison of
lead or from other causes, it has sometimes succeeded where other powerful cathar-
tics had  been tried in vain.  It is especially serviceable where the stomach is  irrita-
ble, and  rejects more voluminous purgatives; and it  is of course objectionable in all
inflammatory conditions of the  digestive tube.   In stercoraceous vomiting, with other
constitutional symptoms of hernia, but without local evidence of displacement,  and
where the  stomach rejected" the ordinary senna draught, I have known oil of croton
prove most effectual.   In torpid conditions of  the intestinal canal, in tendency to
apoplexy, in dropsy  unconnected with inflammation, in  paralysis—in a word, in
any cases in which a powerful and speedy  intestinal irritant is required, either for
the purpose of evacuating the  canal merely, or for acting as a revulsive or counter-
irritant, and thereby  relieving distant parts, croton oil is a very useful, and, on many
occasions, most valuable cathartic.   In employing  it, two cautions are necessary:
it must be avoided, or at least used with great caution, in extreme debility;  and it
is improper in  inflammatory affections of the  digestive organs.   The great drawback
to its use is its uncertainty.   In one case it  acts with extreme violence, in another
it scarcely produces any effect.  In the diseases of children, where a powerful pur-
gative is required, croton oil has been administered, on account of the minuteness
of the dose and the  facility of its exhibition.   In  hydrocephalus, and other head

       ' Dierbach, Neuesten Entd. in d. Mat. Med. 1S37, p. 201.
       2 Lond. Med. Rep. vol. xvii.          3 Journ. de Chim. Mid. 2nde ser. t. v. p. 509, 
        Purging Croton:—Uses; Administration.—Croton Oil.       367

affections of children, I have several times used it where other cathartics have failed,
or where extreme difficulty was experienced in inducing the patients to swallow the
more ordinary remedies of this class.   In some of these it has disappointed me.
In the case of a child of four years of age, affected with incipient hydrocephalus, I
gave six doses, of one drop each,  of  the oil without any effect.   In uterine obstruc-
tions (chlorosis and amenorrhoea) it  has occasionally proved serviceable.   In tape-
worm it has been recommended, but I have no experience of its efficacy.
   Rubbed on the skin, croton oil  has been employed to produce rubefaction and  a
pustular eruption,  and thereby to relieve  diseases of internal organs, on the prin-
ciple of counter-irritation, before explained1 (see vol.  i. p. 170).   Injiammation of
the mucous membrane lining the  air-passages, peripneumonia, glandular  swellings,
rJieumalism, gout,  and neuralgia, are  some of  the diseases against  which  it  has
been applied in this way; and-doubtless frequently with  benefit.  It is sometimes
used in  the undiluted  form, but more commonly with twice or thrice its volume of
olive oil, oil of turpentine, soap  liniment, alcohol, ether, or some other convenient
vehicle.  But, in all the cases just enumerated,  it has never appeared to me to pre-
sent any advantage over  many other counter-irritants in common use—as emetic
tartar; while  the  chance of causing purging  is, in  some cases, an objection  to its
use, and its  greater cost sometimes precludes  its employment  on a  large scale in
pauper establishments.   Frictions with it on the abdomen have  been used to pro-
mote alvine evacuations, but it frequently fails  to produce  the  desired effect.  To
promote the absorption of the oil in these cases, it shouid be dissolved in ether or
alcohol, and the frictions are to be assiduously made.
   Administration.— Croton seeds are rarely or never used in this country.   Their
farina may, however, be given in doses of a grain or two.
   CROTONIS OLEUM, E.;  Tiglii Oleum,L.; Oleum Tiglii, U.S.;  Croton Oil.—This
is the expressed oil of the seeds.  It is imported from the East Indies, principally
from  Madras  and  Ceylon, but in part from Bombay.   I have been informed  by an
oil-presser  at  Calcutta that it is  prepared like  castor oil, except that it is strained
instead of being boiled.  In shelling the seeds,  the women often suffer severely with
swelling of the face, &c.  Croton oil is also expressed in England.   The operation is
usually effected by a Bramah's press in a room  heated to about 75° F.   The men
engaged in the process are usually much affected by  it; they suffer redness of the
face,  irritation of  the eyes and air-passages, and purging.   The following are the
results obtained at two operations:  the weights are avoirdupois  :—
            Croton Seeds
            Ditto^.  .  .

                        Total......7   3  27.....201

This gives a per centage produce of about 22.46.  The colour of the  oil thus ob-
tained, when viewed by transmitted light, was that of dark sherry.  No use is made
of the cake.
  In Franco, the croton  cake is subjected to the action of alcohol,  and  the oil thus
obtained mixed with the previously expressed oil.  Guibourt3 obtained by expres-
sion 41.6 per cent,  of  oil from the kernels of  the  seeds,  and subsequently 10.4 per
cent, by the action of alcohol: making together 52 per  cent.   Calculating the shells
at one-third the weight of the entire seeds, this product would be equal to nearly"
35 per cent, for the entire seeds.
  Genuine croton oil varies  in colour from very pale  yellow (like that of Canada
balsam) to dark reddish-brown (like the deepest-coloured sherry).   Its consistence
is unctuous, and increases with age.  It has an unpleasant but marked odour and
1 Uinnb rper, De olei crot nis erttrne adhibiti efficacia. Rcrol. 1S33.
* Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim. 3d ser. t. atvii. p. ts3. XtoV.
    Seeds.           Oil obtained.
cwts. rjrs. lbs.            lbs.
.2   0  17.....51
.5   3  10.....150 
368
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Euphorbiaceae.
an acrid taste, and leaves behind an acrid sensation in the fauces.   It reddeDs litmus
and is soluble in ether and in the fixed and volatile oils.
  The following are the characteristics  of  the goodness of the oil according to the
Edinburgh College:—
  When agitated with its own volume of pure alcohol and gently heated, it separates on stand-
ing, without having undergone any apparent diminution.
  This statement is  not  correct, according to  my observations.  Pure croton oil
expressed  in London dissolves in  alcohol  (sp.  gr. 0.796) without requiring to be
" gently heated."   The oil imported from the East Indies does, however, require to
be heated with  the alcohol  to effect its solution.   In  the second place, separation
does not take place, at ordinary temperatures, in  the case of a mixture of English
croton oil  and alcohol.   But by a low temperature, separation takes place on stand-
ing,  but in that case the volume of oil  is  found  to be slightly augmented.  East
India croton oil mixed with alcohol separates by repose: the volume of the oil, how-
ever, is increased and that of  the alcohol proportionately  lessened.
  In one experiment, S vols, of E. I. croton oil were  mixed with 8 vols, of alcohol, sp. gr. 0.796
and gently  heated.  In two days separation had  taken place:  the oil now measured Sj vols.
and the alcohol 7£ vols.  In a second experiment, 7  vols, of another E. I. croton oil were mixed
with 7 vols, of alcohol: in four days separation had taken place:  the oil measured 7 J vols., and
the alcohol  6| vols.
According to Dr. Maclagan, only 96  per cent,  of  the oil separates.   It is obvious,
therefore,  that commercial croton oils, believed to be  genuine, are not uniform in
their relation to alcohol.
  According to Mr. Twining,1 there are two kinds of croton oil  met with in com-
merce.   One is dark yellow and thickish, the other is straw-coloured.   The first is
the most energetic.  These  oils, he thinks,  may perhaps be obtained from different
plants; the one from Croton Tiglium, the other from Croton Pavana.
  The croton oils found in the London market are of two kinds; one exotic, im-
ported from India and Ceylon—the other expressed in  London.   These differ both
in their appearance and relation to alcohol.
  a.  Oleum Crotonis exoticum ; Foreign or East Indian Croton Oil; Pale Croton Oil.—This is
imported from Ceylon and the continent of India.   It is paler than London expressed oil.  Some
samples are very transparent  and  pale yellow, like Canada balsam.  Others (the more usual
sort) are of a pale amber colour.  If equal volumes of East India  oil and alcohol (sp. gr. 0.796)
be shaken together, an opake milky mixture  is obtained: but, if  the  heat of a  spirit-lamp be
applied, the mixture becomes  transparent and  uniform.  By  standing, however, for twenty-
four hours,  it separates into two strata:  the lower one consisting of the oil which has taken up
a small  quantity of alcohol, and has, in consequence, become  somewhat  augmented in bulk,
and the upper one, the alcohol, which has suffered a corresponding diminution in volume (see
above).
  0.  Oleum Crotonis  angliccm; English Croton Oil; Dark  Croton Oil.—The oil expressed
from croton seeds in London is darker coloured  than that usually imported from India.  By
transmitted light it is of a reddish-brown colour, like that of the deepest sherry, almost approach-
ing to chestnut brown.  By reflected light it has a greenish tinge.  The dark colour of the oil
may  perhaps depend on some change which the  seeds have suffered by keeping.  After the oil
has stood for a few months it is found to have deposited some white fat (margarine?).  If equal
volumes of alcohol (sp. gr. 0.79G) and this oil  be shaken together  at ordinary temperatures,
they  form a uniform transparent mixture, and no separation takes place on standing for many
weeks, unless the mixture be exposed to a low temperature.  This fact, which was mentioned
to me by Mr. Redwood, he has verified with various samples of croton oil expressed respectively
by himself,  by Mr. Morson, by Messrs. Herrings, and by Me^rs. May and Co.   I have verified
it with a sample  expressed by Messrs. Herrings.  Exposure'to artificial cold  (as a freezing
mixture) or to the atmosphere during a very cold night will cause a separation:  tbe oil  is then
found to have slightly increased in bulk, and. the  alcohol to have suffered a corresponding dimi-
nution of volume.
  On what, it may be asked, does  this difference in the properties of the East In-
dian and  English croton oils  depend?  Does it arise from  some difference in the
mode of preparation ?   Or is  the East Indian oil contaminated with jatropha oil?
  Dr.  Christison observes, that croton oil " is not  easily adulterated with the com-
1 Dierbach, op. cit. 
Sea-Side Balsam:—History.                      369
 mon fixed oils, with the exception of castor-oil, because this is the only common oil
 which possesses  suflBcient thickness to impart due unctuosity.   Castor-oil  may be
 detected by the test mentioned in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia.   Absolute alcohol
 shaken with the adulterated oil  will dissolve out the impurity, and thus lessen its
 volume;  but no visible diminution is  produced on pure croton oil.  Five per cent.
 of castor-oil may be thus detected; but the application of heat, as recommended by
 the College, is unnecessary."   It is obvious, however,  that this test is not  applica-
 ble to English croton oil adulterated with castor-oil, both of  which oils  are soluble
 in the cold in alcohol.
   If any fraud be practised  in  respect to croton oil, the adulterating ingredient is,
 I suspect, jatropha oil, which is less soluble in alcohol  than croton oil.
   Croton oil  is exhibited in doses of one, two, or three drops.  In some instances
 it is simply placed on the tongue—as in coma,  tetanus, mania, &c.; or it  may be
 taken in a teaspoonful of syrup.    These methods of administering it are objectiona-
 ble, on account of the acrid taste produced.  The usual mode of  employing it is in
 the form of pill, made with conserve of roses or bread-crumb.   Some have employed
 it in  the form of emulsion, flavoured with some carminative oil  or balsamic  sub-
 stance; but the burning of the mouth and  throat to which it gives rise is an objec-
 tion to its use.
   o.  Tinctura Crotonis ;  Tincture of Croton.—This is prepared by digesting  the
 seeds, or dissolving the oil  in rectified spirit.   Soubeiran's formula is one drop of
 croton oil, and half a drachm of rectified spirit.
   (3.  Sajw Crotonis; Croton Soap.—This is prepared with two parts of croton oil
 and one part of soap boiler's lye.  It is, in fact, a crotonate of soda.  A croton soap
 is sold by Mr. Morson, of Southampton Row, Russell Square.   It may be  used as
 a purgative, in doses of from one  to three grains.  It has been said that the alkali
 diminishes the acrimonious property of  the oil without affecting its cathartic powers—
 a statement, however, which is highly improbable.
   2.  LINIMENTUM CROTONIS, D.;   Croton Liniment—(Croton Oil f l'i;  Oil  of Tur-
 pentine  f 3vii.   Mix them with  agitation, D.)—A croton liniment is frequently
 prepared by mixing one part of croton oil with four or five parts of olive oil.   Rubbed
 repeatedly on the skin, it occasions redness  and a pustular  eruption.  It  is  used as
 a counter-irritant.
   Antidotes.—In a case of poisoning  by  the seeds or oil, the first object is to re-
 move the oil  from the stomach.   Mild, demulcent, and emollient drinks are then
 to be given.   Alkaline substances have been  recommended as chemical  antidotes,
 but  their efficacy is not proved.   Full  doses of opium will be requisite to check  the
 diarrhoea.   To relieve a failing circulation, ammonia and brandy may be given, and
 the warm bath employed.

 130. CROTON  ELEUTERIA,  Swam.-THE  SEA-SIDE BALSAM
                            OR  SWEET-WOOD.
                           Sex. Syst. Monoecio, Monadelphia.
 (Cortex, L.—Cascarilla. Bark probably of Croton Eleuteria, and possibly of other species of  the same
                              ginus, E.—The bark, D.)
  History.—Great confusion has existed with  regard both  to Cascarilla or Eleu-
 theria bark and the plant yielding it.
  The bark is said  to have been first noticed by Vincent-Garcias Salat,1 a Spaniard,
 in l(59i>.  In the following year, Stisser,9a German professor, gave a more extended
 notice  of it, and states that he had some of  it given him by a person of distinction,

 1 Uuica ijiiaslieuncula in qui examinatur pulvis de quarango vulgo cascarilla in curatione tertiana-, in
4to. Valentia;, JGOT.  (Duval, Journ. de Pharm. et de Chimie, 3ineser. t. viii.p. 91,1815: see also \libert
Souv. Eltm. de Thirap. t. i. p. 74, 5me edit. 1826.)
 1 Acta laboratorii chymiei, specimen ii. Helmstada, 1693 (quoted by Geoffroy). Stisser was the author
ofn letter to the Fellows of the Royal Society, entitled De machinis fumiductoriis, and published at
1 l.unburgli, in li>Mi.
       VOL. II.—24 
370             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Euphorbiaceae.

at that time  just  returned from  England, who  told him that it was  then the
custom in  England to mix it with tobacco, in order to render it more agreeable for
smoking.
   By Dale1 and  some other pharmacologists, it was thought to be cortex thuris, or
frankincense  bark, and  by Geoffroy9 and others  to be a species of cinchona bark.
Its name cascai-illa (the diminutive of cascara, the Spanish name for  the rind or
bark of trees) is  also a Spanish name for Peruvian bark.
   In 1754, Catesby3 noticed and figured a plant, which, he said, grew plentifully
on most of the  Bahama Islands, and yielded  Cascarilla bark, or, as he called it,
"  The Ilatheria  bark,  La Chacrilla."   This plant  is generally supposed to be
the Croton Cascarilla, Linn.  (C. lineare, Jacq.); and  several reasons led me, at
one time,4 to  think  that it might be the source of the cascarilla bark of the shops
—an  opinion also entertained by Dr.  Wood ;5 but Dr. Lindley8 adduced several
reasons for believing that the Croton Eleuteria was the  true species, as J)rs. Wright
and Woodville had  already asserted; and the  subsequent  receipt, by Dr. Lindley,
of specimens  of  the plant, from the Hon. J. C. Lees,  Chief Judge in the Bahamas,
has fully  confirmed the  accuracy of Dr. Lindley's opinion.7   " The plant," saya
Mr. Lees, " is scarcely known  here  by the name  of Cascarilla, but is commonly
called  Sweet Wood Bark, and often  Eleuthera Bark,  because it is chiefly gathered
on the island  of  Eleuthera.  It is the only bark  receiving the name of Cascarilla
exported from the Bahamas, where the tree grows in  abundance."
   The Croton  Cascarilla, Don, L. (C. Pseudo China,  Schiede), yields Copalchi (not Cascarilla)
bark.
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—See Croton  Tiglium.
   Sp. Char.—A small  tree;  leaves  ovate,  obtuse, entire,  beneath  silvery  and
densely downy; racemes  axillary and  terminal, compound;  flowers subsessile,
monoecious (Lindley).
   Branches and  twigs angular, somewhat compressed.   Leaves  stalked, alternate,
with a short  but obtuse point.  Flowers monoecious, subsessile.  Males : petals
whitish; stamens 10—12.   Ovary roundish ;  styles 3, bifid; stigmas obtuse.  Cap-
sules roundish, minutely warted, not much bigger than  a pea, with three furrows,
3  cells, and 6 valves.8
   Hab.—The Bahama Islands, Jamaica.
   Description.—Eleutheria or  cascarilla bark  (cortex eleuterise seu cascarillx,
chaquerille vel schacharilla) is in the form of fragments, or quills, of about one or
two, more rarely three or four, inches long; the fragments being thin, aud usually
curved both longitudinally and transversely, the quills varying in size from that of
a  writing pen to that of the little finger.   The bark  is  compact, hard, moderately
heavy, and has a short  resinous  fracture, not  fibrous or splintery, as in cinchona
bark.   Some  of  the pieces are partially or wholly covered with  a whitish rugous
epidermis, cracked both longitudinally  and transversely.   If a longitudinal section
of the  bark  be  examined  by the  microscope,  cells are  observed filled with an
orange-red matter (oleo-resin ?).   The cortical layers are  of a  dull brown colour.
The taste  of  this bark is warm, spicy, and bitter; its odour is peculiar, but agree-
able.    When burned, it  evolves a  pleasant odour (which has been compared by
Pfaff to that of vanilla or amber when  heated), on which account it is a constituent
of fumigating pastiles.
   F6e9 has enumerated  no less  than forty-three species of lichens found on this
bark.   With one exception (Parmelia perlata, which I have  never seen on casca-
rilla),  every one of these lichens has an adherent, crustaceous, amorphous thallus.

   ' Pharmacologia, 3tia ed. p. 316, 1737.  Many of the synonymes for  this bark given in Dale's work art
erroneous.
   a Treat, on Foreign Vegetables, by R. Tliicknesse, M . D. (chiefly taken from Geoffroy), Lond. 1749.
   3 Nat. Hist, of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands.
   ' See Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. jcx. p. 1.-9.                         « United States Dispensatory.
   6 Fl.  Med. p. 179.
   1 Specimens of the stems and bark uccompanied the specimens of the plant.  The former were  kindly
presented to me by Dr. Lindley.
   s Swartz, Fl. Ind. occ.                                    » Essai sur Cryptogames. 1M*. 
Cascarilla :—Administration.                    371
 A very common species is Lecidea Arthonioides, Fee; the thallus of which is very
 white, and the apothecia minute, round, and black.
   Commerce.—It  is imported from  Nassau, in New Providence (one of the Ba-
 hama Islands).
   Composition.—Cascarilla  bark was analyzed  by Trommsdorff,1 who obtained
 from it the following substances :  Volatile oil 1.6, bitter resin 15.1, gum and bit-
 ter matter with trace of chloride of potassium 18.7, woody fibre, 65.6.   Meissner2
 detected in the ashes of  the bark the oxide of copper.  Brandes3 has  announced
 the existence of a peculiar alkaline substance (cascarillina).
   I. Volatile Oil of Cascarilla  (Oleum Cascarilla).—It  possesses the odour  and taste of
 the bark.  Its sp. gr. is 0.938.  Its colour is variable, sometimes being greenish, at others yel-
 low or blue.  It consists of two oils, one boiling at 344°, and which contains no oxygen (its
 formula probably being C|0H8) ; the other less volatile and oxygenated.   Nitric acid converts it
 into a yellow, pleasant smelling resin.  By distillation with water the bark yields about l-120th
 of its weight of this oil.
   2. Resin.—Separated from the alcoholic tincture  of the cascarilla by the addition of water.
 It is reddish brown ; has a balsamic, slightly bitter, not astringent taste;  and, when thrown on
 hot coals, evolves an agreeable odour.
   3. Extractive.— Has a  bitter, but not balsamic taste.  Its watery solution reddens litmus,
 and is unchanged by either ferruginous solutions or  tincture of nutgalls.
   Chemical  Characteristics.—The sesquichloride of iron  deepens the colour
 of the infusion of cascarilla.  The tincture of nutgalls causes turbidness, and at
 the end of twenty-four hours  a  very slight precipitate.   A very concentrated  alco-
 holic tincture  deposits some resin  on the addition of water.
   Physiological  Efeects.—Cascarilla bark  belongs to the aromatic bitters, be-
 fore noticed (see ante, p. 244) : that is, it produces the combined effect of an aro-
 matic and of a moderately powerful tonic; but it does not possess any astringency.
 Some pharmacologists place it with aromatics, others with  tonics.   Cullen,4 though
 at one time uncertain as  to which of  these classes  it belonged, ultimately classed it
 with the tonics.   Krauss5 states that moderate  doses  give rise, in very susceptible,
 especially  in sanguine subjects,  to narcotic  effects; but though I have frequently
 employed  it, I  never observed  an effect of this kind.  Mixed with  tobacco, and
 used for smoking, it is said to cause giddiness and intoxication.8
   Uses.—Cascarilla has been employed as a  substitute for cinchona; and although
 it is inferior to the latter in tonic and febrifuge qualities, its  aromatic quality fre-
 quently enables it to sit easily on the stomach,  without causing either vomiting or
 purging, which, in irritable affections of the alimentary canal, cinchona is apt to
 produce.   In this country it  is  principally employed in  those forms of dyspepsia
 requiring an aromatic stimulant and  tonic.   It  is  also  used  in cases  of  debility
 generally;  and in  chronic bronchial affections,  to check excessive secretion of
 mucus.  In Germany, where  it is a  favourite remedy, it is  used in  many other
 cases; such as low nervous fevers, intermittents, the latter stages of diarrhoea, and
 dysentery.
   Administration.—The powder may be given in doses of  from ten  grains  to
 half a drachm; but it is  a less agreeable form than the infusion.

   1. INFUSUM CASCARILLA, L. E. D.;  Infusion of Cascarilla.—(Cascarilla Bark,
 bruised, £iss [£j, D.];  Boiling  [distilled, L.~\ Water Oj  [Oss,  Z>.].   Macerate for
 two [one, D.] hours in a vessel  lightly covered, and strain [through linen or calico,
 A'.].  The product should measure about eight ounces, D.)—A light and aromatic
 bitter tonic.   It is a good vehicle for acids and alkalies.  The  tincture of cascarilla
 is usually joined with it.   Dose, from  f^j to fjij.

   2.  TI.\CTI RA  C.1SCARILLE, L. Iv D.;  Tincture of Cascarilla.—(Cascarilla Bark,
bruised [in moderately tine powder, E.~\, £v; Proof Spirit Oij.   Macerate for seven
[fourteen, D.~\ days, then express and filter, L.   " Proceed by percolation or diges-

      1 Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. ii  1319.                   * Ibid.
      ' Birl. Jahrb. xxiii.                               « Mat. Med.
      * Heilmittellehre, S. 401.                           « United States Dispensatory 
372              VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Euphorbiaceae.

tion, as afterwards directed for tincture of cinchona," E.)—Generally employed as
an adjunct to tonic and stomachic infusions.   Dose, from f5j to f5ij.


         131.  Croton Pseudo-China, Schkctmdai—Copalche Bush,
                               (Cortex Copalche vel Copalchi.)

   Croton Pseudo-China, Schlectendal, Berlin, Jahrb. f. d. Pharmacie, 1829, p. 1 (with a figure)-
Linnsea, Bd. v. S. 84, 1830; and Bd. vi. S. 359, 1831.— Croton Cascarilla, Don,  Ed.  New P|,i|'
Journ. vol. xvi. p. 3G8.
   This species of Croton was discovered by Schiede  (Linnsea,  Bd. iv. S. 211, and 579, 18291
between Plan del Rio and Puente in Mexico.  A small  variety (C. Pseudo-China var. minor!
was found between Laguna Verde and Actopan.   Both plants yield a bark very similar to that
of cascarilla, and which is called in the apothecaries' shops of Jalapa quina blanca or copakht.
   According to v. Bergen and v. Santen four  serons of this bark were imported in  1817 into
Hamburgh from Cuba under the name ot cascarilla de Trinidad.  In 1827, more than 30,000 lbs.
of it came along with cinchona bark from Peru to Hamburgh, by  way of Liverpool.   Of tins 32
serons were shipped at Payta and 300 serons  at Guayaquil.  It was *aid to be a cinchona called
copalchi (quina dit copalchi).  The Prussian Minister, v. Altenstein, received it from Mexico under
the name of cop alike.1  In  1825, Mercadieu5 published an analysis of it; and stated that it was
known in Mexico as copalchi or cortex  amarus.  He showed a sample of it to Humholdt who
suggested that it might be the produce of Croton suberosum, HBK.
   I have met with two sorts of copalche bark  in English commerce:—
   1. Quilled Copalche.—Under the name of a new kind of cinchona bark I received copalche hark
in the form of small thin quills, which in shape, size, and general appearance, resemble that
kind of cinchona bark called by druggists " ash cinchona."   In flavour, it closely resembles cas-
carilla bark; and in  burning  evolves a similar  odour.  It is the  kind figured by Gobel and
Kunze, and is doubtless the sort which the late Mr. Don mistook  for genuine cascarilla bark. It
might with propriety be called Mexican cascarilla.   From genuine or Bahama cascarilla it isdis-
tingui.-hed by the length of the quills, their colour, and the absence of transverse cracks.
   2. Corky Copalche Bark.—Under the name of copalche or  chiquique bark, I have received a bark
in coarser larger quills  and twisted  pieces covered with a  very thick and much cracked corky
coat.   Its taste is very bitter.   In burning, it evolves an aromatic  odour.   Is this the produce of
Croton suberosum ?  Dr. Stark8  states that  he received it from Chili under the name of natri;
and that at Santa Cruz  it is known as chiquique.
  Copalche bark has been analyzed  both by Mercadieu and Brandes.  According to the latter
chemist, 100 parts of the bark yield a yellow bitter extractive with  malates 13.3, brown tasteless ex-
tractive obtained by potash 3.3, acrid aromatic soft resin 6.3, green resin 1.0, semi-resin 8.\i,fat with
green resin 1.1, wax urilh malate of lime 0.7, glutinous nitrogenous matter 33.3, albumen 8.7, malate of
lime 3.3, oxalate of lime 4.1, phosphate of lime 1.4, sulphates and muriates 0.7, ligneous fibre 1S.0, Ions
in water and volatile oil 6.2.
  The medicinal properties of copalche resemble those of cascarilla bark.  In Mexico it i- used
as a substitute for cinchona in  the treatment of intermittents.  It may be exhibited in powder,
infusion, decoction, tincture, or spirituous  extract, in  the  same doses as  cascarilla.  Dr. Stark
says the infusion or decoction is best made by half an ounce of bark to a pint of water: the dose
being a tablespoonful or small wineglassful.  The tincture he prepares with an ounce of bark
to one  pint of proof spirit;  the dose being one  or two teaspoonfuls.


       132. RICINUS  COMMUNIS, ii««.-THE  CASTOR-OIL
                     PLANT, OR PALMA CHRISTI.
                              Sex. Syst. Monoecia, Monadelphia.
    (Oleum e semine calore aut vi comparatum, L.—Expressed oil of the seeds, E.—The seeds from
                      which the oil is expressed; Oleum ricini, D. [U.S.])

   History.—The castor-oil plant was known  in the most  ancient times.   Caillaud
found the seeds of it in some Egyptian  sarcophagi,  supposed to have been at least
4000  years  old.4   Whether  this is, as  some  persons  imagine,5 the plant called
kikayon in the Bible,6 and which, in our translation, is termed the gourd, I cannot
pretend to decide.    The pious  fathers, Jerome  and Augustin, differed so  much in

  1 -Martiny, Encycklop. d. med.-pharm. Naturalien- und Rohrwaarenlcunde, Bd. i. 1813; also, Gohel and
Kunze. Pharmaceut. Waarenlcunde.
  5 Journ. de Chimie Mid. t. i. p. 236 bis, 1825.
  3 Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. ix. p. 463. April, 1650.          * Diet. Univ. de Mat. Med. t. vi.
  " See Dr. Canvane's Dissertation on the Oleum Palmce Christi, 2d edit. Lond. 1769.
  b Jonah, iv. 0. 
Castor-Oil Plant :—its Botany.                   373
Fig. 296.
their opinions as to what was the particular plant meant in the passage just referred
to, that from words we are told, they proceeded to blows I1
  The ancient Greeks were  acquainted with the ricinus, for both Herodotus2 and
Hippocrates8 mention it; the latter employed the  root in medicine.   Dioscorides4
calls it the xlxt, or xpotuv.   It was termed xpdiw by the Greeks, and ricinus by
the I'omans,5 on account of the resemblance of its seeds to a little insect bearing
these  names, which infest dogs  and other  animals, and whose common  name in
English is the  tide.
  Botany.    Gen. Char. — Flowers  monoecious.   Calyx  3—5-parted,  valvate.
Petals 0.   Filaments  numerous, unequally polyadelphous ; cells of the anther dis-
tinct, below  the apex of the filament.    Style short;  stigmas  3, deeply bipartite,
oblong, coloured, feathery; ovary globose, 3-celled, with an ovule in each cell.  Fruit
generally prickly, capsular, 3-coccous, with 1  seed in  each cell.—Trees, shrubs, or
herbaceous plants,  sometimes  becoming  arborescent.   Leaves  alternate,  palmate,
peltate, with glands at the apex of the petiole.  Flowers in terminal panicles, the
lower male, the upper female; all articulated  with their peduncles, and sometimes
augmented by  bi-glandular bracts (Lindley, from Endlicher).
   Sp. Char.—Stem herbace-
ous, pruinose.  Zenrcspeltato-
palmate, in 7 lobes; the lobes
ovate   acuminate,  serrated.
Flowers in long glaucous ra-
cemes.   Stigmas  3,  bifid at
the  apex.   Capsule  covered
with spines.
   The stems of plants grow-
ing in this country are round,
greenish or reddish-brown, and
blue pruinose,  and branched.
Leaves on long round petioles,
S- or  10-lobed.  A large scu-
telliform gland on the petiole,
near its  junction with the la-
mina.    Filaments capillary,
branched.   Stigmas  reddish.
Capsules supported on stalks,
which are  somewhat  longer
than the capsules  themselves.
  Hab.—India.   When cul-
tivated in Great Britain, Rici-
nus communis is an annual,
seldom exceeding three or four
feet high ; but in other parts
of the world it is  said  to be
perennial, arborescent, and to
attain  a  height of fifteen or
twenty feet.   Dr. Roxburgh"
says that in India several va-
rieties  are  cultivated,  "some
of them  growing to the size
of a pretty large  tire, and of
many years' duration."  Clusis7
saw it, in  Spain  with a branch-
               Ricinus communis.
a. Stamens. 6. Anther, c. Stigmas,  d. Capsule, e. Seed.
                  /. Embryo.
 '  Hurris, Nat. Hist, of the Bible ; also Kitto's Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature, vol. ii. p. 203 art-
Kikayon.                                                                      '
                                                 3 De Nat. Mulieb. p. 573, ed. Fres.
                                                 * Pliny, Hist. Sat. lib. xv. cap. 7.
                                                 ' Exoticorum, p. 299.
' Lib. ii. Euterpe, 94.
4 Lib. iv. cnp. 161.
* it. Indica, vol. iii. p. 6S9. 
374
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Euphorbiaceae.
ed trunk as thick as a man's body, and of the height of three men.  Belon1 also tells
us that in Crete it endures for many years, and requires the use of ladders to mount
it.   Ray3 found it in Sicily as large as our  common  alder trees, woody, and  loop-
lived; but it has been a question with botanists whether these arborescent and other
kinds are mere varieties of, or distinct species from, the ordinary Ricinus communis.
  The following (varieties or distinct species) are enumerated by Nees and Ebermaier* as
common  in gardens, and as distinguished principally by the colour and pruinose condition of
the stem—characters which, however uncertain in  other cases, appear here to  be constant.
  1.  Ricinus africanus (Willd.).—Stem not pruinose, green, or on one side reddish.  The fruit-
racemes  abbreviated, the  fruit-stalk longer  than the capsule.  Seeds attenuated on one side,
marbled gray and yellowish-brown.  [Arborescent.   Cultivated in  Bengal.4]
  2.  Ricinus macrophyllus (H. Berol.).—Nearly allied to  the foregoing: stem quite green, not
pruinose.   Fruit-racemes elongated, fruit-stalk shorter than the fruit.
  3.  Ricinus leucocarpus (H. Berol.).—Stem pale green, white pruinose.  Fruit stalk as long
as the fruit.  The unripe fruit and prickles almost quite  white.
  4.  Ricinus lividus (Willd.).—Stem,  petiole, midrib purple red,  not pruinose.   Nearly allied
to R. africanus, and, like this, more woody and perennial.  [Arborescent.  Cultivated in Bengal
(Hamilton).]
  5.  Ricinus viridis (Willd.).—Stem pale  green, blue pruinose, by which it is distinguished
from R. macrophyllus.  Seed somewhat smaller, more oval,  marked with white and fine brown.
[Herbaceous.  Cultivated in Bengal (Hamilton).]
   Description.— Castor  seeds  (semina ricini  seu sem.  cataputise maforis) are
oval, somewhat compressed, about four  lines long, three lines broad,  and a line and
a half thick ; externally they are pale gray, but marbled with yellowish-brown spots
and  stripes.   The seed-coats consist, according to Bischoff,5 of a smooth external
coat  (epidermis seminalis).   2dly, a difform, hard testa, consisting of two layers—
an external thick and dark brown one, and an internal one,  thinner and paler.  Sdly,
a cuticula nuclei or membrana interna.   The fleshy tumid  cicatricula stomatis  (also
termed strophiola) is very evident at the upper end of  the seed;  beneath  it  is a
small hilum, from which passes downwards the longitudinal  raphe'.6   The chalaza
is colourless.7  The nucleus of the  seed consists of oily albumen and  an embryo,
whose cotyledons are membranous or foliaceous.
   Composition.—The only analysis  of these  seeds, as yet  published, is  that of
Geiger.8   The following are his results  :—
                    ( Tasteless resin and extractive  ..................1.911
  a. Seed coats.....< Brown gum   ............................1.91)23.82
                    ( Ligneous fibre   ...........................20.00)
                    f Fatty oil  ..............................46.19
  6.NacieaBofthe.eed.|g^in-(kl-b--nj ;;; ;;;;  ; ;;;;;;  ; ; ; ;;;;;;;;;  20;450  69.09
                    ( Ligneous fibre with starch ? (hardened albumen ?).......20.00 J
  Loss (moisture)............................................  7.09
                                      Castor seeds....................100.00

  1.  Volatile acrid  principle (? ricinoleic acid).—This principle is not mentioned by Geiger,
and its existence has been  doubted or denied by others.   But  the following  as well  as other
facts establish, in my opinion, its presence:  First,  Guibourt9 experienced a peculiar feeling of
dryness of the eyes and throat, in consequence of  having been exposed to the vapour arising
from  a vessel in which bruised castor seeds and  water were boiling.  Secondly, Planche ob-
tained a permanent odorous principle by distilling a  mixture of water and castor-oil.  Bus>yaml
Lecanu10 ascribe the occasional acridity of the oil to the  production of fatty acids, by the action
of the air on  it.
  2.  Fixed Oil.—(See Oleum Ricini.)
  3.  Acrid Resin?—Castor seed  appear to contain a fixed  acrid principle, probably of a
resinous nature,as suggested by Soubeiran.11   The acrid principle (whatever its nature may be)
appears to reside in both the albumen and embryo of the seeds.   Jussieu12 and some others have
asserted that it resided exclusively in the embryo; while  Boutron-Charlard and Henry, jun.1
declared  the albumen to be the exclusive seat of  it.   But any unprejudiced  person may soon

   »  Observ. lib. i. cap. 18.                             * Hist. Plant, vol. i p.  166.
   3  Handb. d. med.-pharm.  Botan.                     * Hamilton, Linn. Trans, vol. xiv.
   s  Handb. d. bot. Term. pp. 508, 510, and 512, tab. xl. fig. 1575.
   6  Bischoff, Ibid, p 515, &c. tab. xii. fig. 1747.            ' Ibid. p. 51S, tab. xliii.  fig. 1901.
   s  Handb. d. Pharm. Bd. ii. S. 1671.                   8 Journ. de  Chim Mid.  t. i. p. 111-
   10  Journ. de Pharm. t. xiii. p. 80.                    " Ibid. t. xv. p. 507, 1829.
   li Quoted by De Candolle, Essai sur les Propr. des Planus, p. 263.
   13 Journ. de Pharm. t. x. p. 466. 
Castor-Oil :—its Preparation.
375
satisfy himself, by tasting separately the embryo and albumen, that both parts possess acridity.
Dierbach1 states that in fresh seeds  the innermost seed-coat  contains the acrid principle.   If
this be correct, it is most remarkable that the same coat, when dry, contains none.
  Calloud* found that castor cake (the residual cake left after the expression of the oil from the
seeds), after having been deprived  of all its principles soluble in alcohol, still contains an acrid
principle, and excites vomiting when given in doses of about 7£ grains.
   Physiological Effects.—Castor seeds possess considerable acridity.   Bergius3
states that a man masticated a  single seed at bedtime:  the following morning he
was attacked with violent vomiting  and purging, which continued the  whole day.
Lanzoni also states that the life of a woman was endangered by eating three grains
of the seeds.*   More recently, a girl, 18 years of age, was killed by eating " about
twenty" seeds:  the cause of death was  gastro-enteritis.5

   OLEUM RICIM, L. E.  D.; Castor-Oil.—This  may be obtained from the seeds by
expression, by decoction, or by  the agency of  alcohol.   The  chief part, if not  the
whole of the oil consumed in  England,  whether imported or extracted in  England,
is procured  by expression.
   Soubeiran6 considers all processes in which heat is employed as objectionable, as a quantity
of fatty acids  is produced  which  renders the oil acrid.   In America, on the contrary, heat is
considered useful by expelling a volatile acrid principle.7  It cannot be doubted but that too high
a  temperature develops acrid  matter.  In England, the oil  is expressed, either  by-Bramah's
hydraulic press or by the common screw-press, in a room artificially heated.  It is  purified by
rest, decantation, and filtration.  It is bleached  by exposure to light on the tops of houses.
   In Calcutta, it is prepared  as follows:  The fruit is shelled by women; the seeds are crushed
between rollers, then placed in hempen cloths, and pressed in the ordinary screw or hydraulic
press.   The oil thus procured is afterwards heated with  water in a tin  boiler until the water
boils, by which the mucilage or albumen is separated as a  scum.  The oil is then strained through
flannel  and  put into canisters.  The  castor seeds are distinguished according to the country
yielding them.  Two principal kinds are known, the large and  the small nut;  the latter yields
the most oil.3   The best East Indian castor-oil is sold in  London as cold drawn.
   In the Southern provinces of India, according to Ainslie,9 castor-oil is obtained by decoction.
   Much of  the American castor-oil is prepared by mere expression, rest, and  decantation;
but the  following  are the  outlines of the process usually employed  in  the United States by
those who prepare it on the large scale.  The seeds, cleansed  from the dust and  fragments of
the capsules, are placed in a shallow iron reservoir, where they are submitted to a gentle heat
insufficient to scorch or  decompose them, and not greater than can be readily borne by the hand.
The object of this step is to  render the oil sufficiently liquid for easy expression.  The seeds
are then introduced into a powerful screw-press, and submitted to pressure, by which a whitish
oily liquid is obtained, which  is boiled with a considerable quantity of water in clean iron boilers,
and the impurities skimmed off as they rise to the surface.   The water dissolves the mucilage
and starch, and the heat coagulates the albumen, which forms a whitish layer between  the oil
and water.   The  clear oil is now removed, and boiled with a minute  portion of water until
aqueous vapour ceases to arise, and till a small portion of the liquid taken out in  a phial  pre-
serves a  perfect transparency when"it cools.   The effect  of this operation is to clarify the oil,
and to render it less irritating by driving off the volatile acrid matter. But much care is requisite
not  to push  tlio  heat too far, lest  the oil acquire a brownish hue, and an acrid peppery taste
similar  to the West India medicine.  On>e basket of the seeds yields five or six quarts,or about
twenty-live per cent., of the best oil.10
   In the West Indies the  oil  is obtained by decoction; but none of it comes to this country  in
the way of commerce.  In Jamaica, the bruised  seeds  are  boiled with water in  an iron pot,
und the liquid kept constantly stirred.   The oil, which separates, swims on the top, mixed
with a white froth, and is skimmed off.  The skimmings are heated in a small iron pot. and
strained  through a cloth.   When cold, it is  put in jars or bottles for use.11 The object of the
second heating is to dissipate the volatile acrid principle; but if the process be not suspended
immediatolyafterthe watci is driven off, theoil acquires a reddish-brown colour, an acrid  flavour
and irritating qualities.  It is  said that  the  seeds are sometimes roasted to increase the pro-
duct. By this process also the oil is coloured and rendered acrid.
   In Armenia, the oil is obtained by decoction; in Russia,  by expression.12
   On the continent of Europe, castor-oil is sometimes obtained by the agency of alcohol.  The
process is more expensive, and the product is inferior.
 i Quoted by Nees and Ebermnier, Handb. d. med.-pharm. Botan.
 • Journ. de Pharm. 3me ser. t. xiv. p. 169, 1848.                » Mat. Med. t. ii. p. 823, ed. 2nda
 « Marx, Die Lehre von d. Giften. i. 128.                       » Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xix. p. 914
 » batman Traiti de Pharmacie.                             ■< United States Dispensatory
 • Private information from an oil-presser of Calcutta.           9 Materia Indica  vol i p 256
'•> United States Dispensatory.     » Wright, Med. Plants of Jamaica, in Lond. Med. Journ. vol. viii
l» Chemical Gazette, vol. I. p. 210, 1843. 
376               VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Euphorbiaceae.

   The oleum ricini alcoholicum, in use in Italy, is apparently an alcoholic extract, composed of
72 per cent, of oil and 28 per cent, of alcohol and water.  The dose is from half an ounce to
an ounce.1
   Properties.—Castor-oil is  a viscid  oil, usually of  a pale yellow  colour, with a
slightly nauseous odour and a mild taste.   It is lighter than water, its sp. gr. being,
according  to Saussure, 0.969 at 55° F.  When cooled down to about 0°, it con^ala
into a transparent yellow mass.    By exposure to the  air it  becomes rancid, thipk,
and ultimately congeals,  without becoming opaque; and hence it is called a drying
oil.   When heated to a little more than  500° F. it begins to decompose.
   Solubility.—Castor-oil is remarkable for  its ready solubility in alcohol.  Strictly
speaking,  castor-oil  and  alcohol exercise a  mutual  solvent  action  on each other.
When  they are shaken together, an homogeneous transparent mixture is obtained.
Rectified spirit of wine3 may be  substituted frequently with  a similar result; but
with some samples of genuine oil the mixture does  not become clear until heat is
applied; and moreover by standing a separation takes  place  into two strata, an upper
spirituous one holding oil in solution, and an inferior oleaginous one containing spirit.
In one experiment, 65 vols, of oil and 65  vols, of rectified spirit were mixed, and
by shaking a  transparent uniform mixture was obtained: after several weeks a
separation had taken place: the upper stratum measured 12 vols., the lower one 118
vols.  Of  three samples of  genuine  oil, one English, a second West  Indian, and
the  third East Indian,  I  find the English to be the  most, and the  East Indian tbe
least soluble in rectified spirit.—I find that castor-oil  enables  other fixed oils (olive,
nut, lard,  and other oils) to  dissolve  in  alcohol.   Thus, if one  vol. of olive oil, 2
vols, of castor-oil, and 2  vols, of rectified spirit be mixed and heated, a transparent
homogeneous solution is  obtained.— Kther  readily dissolves  castor-oil.
   Varieties.—In  the London market there are  chiefly three  sorts of castor-oil;
namely, the oil expressed in  London from  imported seeds, East  Indian  oil, and the
American.  West Indian and Australian oils are rarely  to be met with.
   1. English Castor-Oil.—By this is  meant castor-oil drawn in England  from imported seeds.
It  differs somewhat from the imported oil.  I am informed that it never bleaches so  completely
by exposure to light as the East Indian oil.  This is usually  ascribed to the seeds having suffered
some change before they are pressed.  But something is probably due to  the mode of prepara-
tion: in England the oil is not heated in boiling water, as it is in Calcutta.
   2. East Indian Castor-Oil  is the principal kind employed in this country. It is imported
from Bombay and Calcutta.  It  is an oil  of  exceedingly good  quality (both with respect to
colour and taste), and is obtained at a very low price.  It is procured from Ricinus communis and
R. lividus.   I am informed that occasionally it solidifies by keeping.
   3. American or United States Castor-Oil is, for the most part, imported from New  York.   All
the samples which I have examined have been of very fine  quality, and, in my opinion, had a
less unpleasant flavour than the East Indian variety.   Ouwr druggists object to it, on  the  ground
of its depositing  a white substance (margaritine)  in cold weather—a circumstance  which has
led some persons to imagine it had been mixed with some other fixed oil  (lard oleine'?).
   4.  West Indian Castor-Oil.—For an authentic specimen of this oil I am indebted to Mr. Spen-
cer, of Lamb's Conduit Street, who received it some years since from the wife of the Governor of
the Island of Tobago, on whose estate it was procured.   Its colour is that of golden brown sherry.
   5.  Australian Castor-Oil.—Of this I have seen but one sample, which was dark coloured.
   Commerce.—Castor-oil is  imported in casks,  barrels, hogsheads, and duppers-
The latter are made, as I am  informed, of gelatin (prepared by boiling  the cuttings
of skin) moulded  in earthen  moulds.   In this country the oil is  purified  by decan-
tation and filtration, and is bleached by exposure to solar light on the tops  of houses.
   Composition.—The following is the ultimate composition of castor-oil,  according
to the analyses of Saussure and Ure :—
                                                Saussure.           Ure.
            Carbon...........74.178 ....   7400
             Hydrogen..........11.034 ....   10.29
            Oxygen...........14.788.....15.71

                         Castor-oil......100.000 ....  100.00
  1 Pharmaceutical Journal, v"l. vii. p. 354, 1848.
  2 According to Stoltze, benzoic acid augments the solubility of castor-oil in spirit containing 75 per cent.
of alcohol;  that is, in spirit whose sp.gr. is 0.860.  Camphor has a similar influence. 
Castor-Oil :—Decomposition ;  Adulteration.
377
The proximate principles have not been accurately determined.   From Bussy and
LecanuV researches we may infer that castor-oil contains three fats, each  composed
of oxide  of glyceryle and a fatty acid.   But according  to the  more recent investi-
gations of  Saalmuller,3 there  can be but two fats in this oil.    In addition to these
fats  there is  probably a small  proportion of  an acrid  resin.   The following  table,
therefore, represents the

                         Presumed Composition of Castok-Oil.
                                       Ricinoleine.
                                       Margaritine.
                                       Acrid resin?
  1. Ricinoleine.—This has  not  been isolated.  It is the constituent of castor-oil which by
saponification yields oxide of glyceryle and a liquid  acid, the ricinoleic arid, C36H3505.  Bussy
and Lecanu regard this acid as a mixture of two acids, which they term  ricinic and ela'iodic acids.
  2. Margaritine ; or Ricino-slearine.—This is a solid, white crystalline fat which separates from
castor-oil in cold weather.  By saponification it yields oxide of glyceryle and a solid crystalliz-
able fatty  acid called marguritic acid, which in its melting point (165° F)  and composition ex-
hibits a great resemblance to stearic acid, C68H6807.  But with a margaritic acid obtained from
another sample of castor-oil, he found  the composition to approach more to  that of palmitic
acid, C3iH320'.
  According to  Lecanu and Bussy, margaritic acid constitutes only 0.002  of the products of
saponification of castor-oil:  it follows, therefore, that  the  proportion of margaritine in  the oil
must be small.  But it is probable that the quantity is variable, and that the differences observed
in the action of alcohol in  the different specimens of castor-oil depend on variations in the rela-
tive  proportions of the margaritine and ricinoleine.
  3. Acrid Resin?—Some years since, Soubeiran3 obtained from castor-oil by a complicated pro-
cess  what he supposed to be a soft  resinous oil, but which was evidently a complex  product.
To this he in part ascribed the purgative qualities of castor-oil.
   Products of decomposition.—By  saponification and distillation castor-oil yields
certain peculiar products  by which it is characterized.
      Products of Saponification.
      100 Parts of Castor-Oil yielded:
 Fatty acids (viz. ricinic, elalodic, and
   margaritic acids).............   94
Glycerine...................    8
                                                       Phoducts of Distillation.
                                                      'Average of Two Experiments:)
                                                Distilled liquid................33.5
                                                  (a.) Water.
                                                  (6.) Acetic acid.
                                                  (c.) Acroleine la small quantity).
                                                  (d.) (Enanthol.               [acids.
                                                  (e.) Ricinic, ela'iodic, and cenanthylic
                                             2. Solid residuum................63.0
                                             3. Loss (inflammable gas)............  3.5

                  Total............  102 '                Castor-oil.........100.00

   1.  OCnanthol.—Described by Bussy and Lecanu as volatile oil; but more recently by Bussy4 as
 cenanthol.  It is a colourless limpid  aromatic liquid, whose formula is Cl4Hl402.  It is scarcely
 soluble in water, but dissolves in alcohol and ether.   It rapidly oxidizes in the air, and becomes
 cenanthylic acid (C,3HI303,H0).   It combines with  water, forming a crystalline hydrate, CH14
 02.HO.  By the action of nitric acid it yields  at a  low temperature  an isomeric  compound
 called metananthol; and at a high temperature, besides cenanthylic and other volatile fatty acids,
 a volatile oil resembling oil of cassia.
   2.  Solid residuum of distillation.—Pale, yellow, elastic, spongy, having the consistence  of  soft
 new bread,  gelatiniform, odourless, tasteless, combustible, solid.  It is insoluble in alcohol, ether,
 and the oils (both  fixed and volatile).

   By the action of  hyponitric acid on castor-oil  Boudet obtained  a solid  odorous
 fat called palmine, which, by saponification, yielded palmic acid, C^H^O^HO, and
 glycerine ;  and by the action of nitric  acid on castor-oil, Mr.  Tilley5 obtained cenan-
 thylic acid.
   Adulteration.—Two kinds of frauds have been practised with regard to castor-oil.
   One consists  in the  admixture of a small quantity of croton  oil to it, with the
 view  of  increasing  its activity.   This  mixture is  introduced into  gelatine capsules,
and sold as concentrated castor-oil.   This fraud is a very dangerous one.   I  have
1 Journ. de Pharm. t. xiii. p. 57, 1**27.
j Annal. d. Chem. u. Pharm. Bd. lxiv. S. 108, 1818 : also The Chem. Gaz. vol. vi. p. 74. 1848
1 Journ. d. Pharm. t. xv. p. 507. lrJ9.
4 Ibid. 3mc sttr. t. viii. p. 321, 1S15;  also, Chemical Gazette, vol. iii. p. 3tl, 1845.
* Memoirs of the Chemical Society, vol. i. p. 1, 1813. 
378             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Euphorbiaceae.

heard  of  several cases in which very violent and dangerous effects were produced
by these capsules on pregnant females.
  The other fraud consists in the adulteration of  the castor-oil with some blaud
viscid cheaper oil.  I have been informed that  the oleine of lard, called lardoil,ht$
been used for this purpose, but I have not been enabled to procure evidence of it.
This kind of  fraud is said  to be detected by  alcohol, which dissolves the {renuine
castor-oil, but not the admixed oil;  and accordingly, in  the Edinburgh Pharmaco-
poeia, the test of the  purity  of the oil is that " it is  entirely dissolved by its own
volume of alcohol."  Unfortunately, however, for this  test, castor-oil may be adulte-
rated with 33 per cent, of another fixed oil, and yet be soluble  in its own volume of
alcohol.
  Physiological Effects.—o.  On  Animals generally castor-oil acts as  a laxa-
tive or mild purgative.   Large animals, as the horse, require a pint or more for a
dose; smaller ones  need only a  few ounces.1   Mr. Youatt, however, declares this
oil  to be both uncertain and dangerous in the horse.2
  |3.  On Man.—Injected into the veins castor-oil gripes and  purges, and causes  a
nauseous  oily taste in the mouth :3 hence it would appear to have a specific influence
over the mucous lining of the alimentary canal.   Swallowed to the extent  of one
or two ounces, it usually acts as a mild but tolerably  certain purgative or laxative,
without producing any uneasiness in  the bowels.   " It has this  particular  advan-
tage," says Dr.  Cullen,4 " that it operates sooner after its exhibition than any other
purgative I know of, as it commonly operates in two or three hours.   It seldom
gives any griping, and its operation is generally moderate—to one, two, or three
stools only."   It not unfrequently occasions nausea, or even vomiting, especially  if
somewhat rancid; in many cases, I believe, rather from its disgusting flavour than
from any positively emetic qualities.
  It has  been stated by continental writers that castor-oil is  most  unequal in its
action, at one time operating with considerable  violence, at another with great mild-
ness ; but I  have never  found it so, nor  is it usually considered to be so in this
country.  I can, however, readily believe that a difference in  the mode of  its pre-
paration,  especially with reference to the  heat employed, may materially affect its
purgative property.
  When  castor-oil has been  taken by the mouth, it may be  frequently recognized
in the alvine evacuations; but it presents itself under various forms, "sometimes
resembling caseous flakes, or  a soap-like scum,  floating on the more fluid part of the
dejection  : occasionally it had been arranged in  a form  not unlike bunches of grapes,
or more nearly of hydatids of a white colour;  more generally, however, it is found
mixed up with the faeces as a kind of  emulsion, and in some few instances it has
been discharged under the form of solid tallow-like masses."5   Mr. Brande6 says
in one case it was discharged from the bowels  in the form of indurated nodules,
which  were at first regarded as biliary concretions.  A  remarkable case is mentioned
by  Dr. Ward, of a woman on whom this oil does not act as a  purgative, but exudes
from every part of her body.7
   Uses.—Castor-oil is used  to evacuate the contents of the  bowels in all cases
where  we are particularly desirous of avoiding the production of abdominal irrita-
tion (especially  of  the bowels  and the urino-genital organs).   The  principal, or  I
might say the only objection  to its  use in these cases, is its nauseous taste.  The
following are the leading cases in which we employ it:—
  1. In  inflammatory affections of the  alimentary canal, as  enteritis, peritonitis,
and dysentery, a mild but certain purgative is oftentimes indicated.  No substance,
I believe, answers the indication better, and  few so  well, as castor-oil.
  2. In obstructions and spasmodic affections of the bowels, as intussusception, ileus,
and colic, especially lead colic, this oil is the most effectual evacuant we can employ.
1 Moiroud, Pharm. Vitir. p. 280.
2 The Horse, in Library of Useful Knowledge, pp. 212 and 387.
3 Dr. E. Hale,  in Begtn's Traiti de Thirapeutique, p. 114.          4 Mat. Med.
* Dr Golding Bird, Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xv. p. 225.             • Diet, of Mat. Mtd.
1 Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. x. p. 377. 
Physic Nuts.                                379
  3.  After surgical operations about the pelvis or abdomen (for example, lithotomy,
and the operation for strangulated hernia), as well as after parturition, it is the best
and safest purgative.
  4.  In inflammatory or  spasmodic diseases  of the  urino-genital organs, inflam-
mation  of the kidneys  or bladder, calculous  affections, gonorrhoea,  stricture, &c.;
castor-oil is a most valuable purgative.
  5.  In affections of the rectum, especially piles, prolapsus, and stricture, no better
evacuant can be employed.
  6.  As an  anthelmintic  for tape-worms, castor-oil was first employed by Odier.
Arnemann, however, has shown that it  possesses no peculiar  or specific vermifuge
properties.
  7.  As a purgative for children, it has been  used on account of  its mildness, but
its unpleasant taste is a strong objection to its  use.
  8.  In habitual costiveness, also, it has been recommended.   Dr. Cullen observed
that, if  castor-oil be frequently repeated,  the dose  might be gradually diminished;
so that persons who, in the first  instance, required half  an ounce or more, after-
wards needed only two drachms.
  Administration.—The dose of  castor-oil for children is one or two  teaspoonfuls;
for adults, from  one to  two or  three tablespoonfuls.  To  cover its unpleasant
flavour, some take it floating on spirit (especially gin), but which is frequently con-
tra-indicated;  others on coffee, or on peppermint or some other aromatic water; or
it may be  made into  an emulsion  by the aid of the  yolk of egg or mucilage of
tragacanth.


      133. Curcas Purgans, Adanson,- and  C. multifidus, Endlkher.—
                                 Physic Nuts.
                                      (Semina.)
  The seeds of both these species of  Curcus are met with under the name of physic nuts; and
as their effects and uses are similar, I include thtm under a common head.
  Gen. Char.—Flowers monoecious.   Calyx very short, 5-parted.   Males: Corolla  globose-
campanulate, 5-cleft.   Stamens 10, united at  the base, the 5 exterior alternating with  the same
number of conoid glands; filaments  filiform; anthers turned inwards,  2-celled.  Females:
Corolla much larger than the calyx, convolute; consisting of 5 petals.  Ovary on a 5-lobed  disk,
3-celled,  with 1 ovule in each cell.   Styles 3, filiform, distinct.  Stigmas thick,  2-lobed.   Cap-
sule 3-coccous, with 1 seed in each cell.—Tropical shrubs of America.  Leaves alternate, petio-
lated, angulate-5-lobed, quite  entire, truncated at the base,  reticulate-7-nerved, quite smooth.
Corymbs with long peduncles; the males terminal; the females axillary (Endlicher).
  Species.—1. Cuhcas purgans, Adanson;  Jatropha Curcas, Linn.; English Physic Nut, Wright;
Physic nut tree, Hughes ; Browne ; Angular-leaved Physic Nut, Miller ; Pinheiro de purga, Pinhao
paraguay,  Mart., Syst. Mat.  Med. Brasil.—Leaves long-stalked,  broadly cordate,  angular,
roundish; panicles terminal or axillary, in cymes.—West Indies; Brazils;  Coast of Coroman-
del;  Ceylon.
  The fruit is a tricoccous capsule about the  size and shape of a walnut.
  The seeds  (semina  curcadit), sometimes called American or English physic  nuts, or  simply
physic nuts (nuces cathartica umericanct), Barbados seeds or nuts (nuces barbadenses), semina ricini
majoris or gros pignon d'Inde, have the  shape of castor seeds, but are somewhat rough to the
touch, and black, but marked with numerous minute  cracks.   The kernels are covered with a
fine white pellicle (cutirula nuclei). The seeds have been analyzed by Cadet  de  Gassicourt1
and by Soulx-iran.2  The latter chemist  found  in them a fixed oil, a peculiar fixed  acrid resin,
saccharine matter, gum, a small  quantity of fatty acid,glutine (emulsin 1), a free acid (malic1?), and
some salts.
  The expressed oil, commonly called jatropha oil (oleum jatropha curcadis vel oleum infernale),
was imported a few  years ago under the name of oil of wild castor  seeds.  It is  sometimes ex-
pressed in England.   As commonly met with, it has a yellowish colour, with a feeble odour,
nnd during the  cold weather deposits a white solid fat (margarine  or stearine). When fresh
and pure  it  is  described as  being odourless,  colourless,  and quite limpid.  1000 parts of the
seeds yielded  Guibourt 656 parts of kernels, from which he obtained 265 parts of a colourless
very fluid oil, which in the cold deposited a considerable quantity of stearine.  Jatropha oil
differs from castor and croton oils in its slight solubility in  alcohol; but  mixture  with castor-oil

        1 Journ. de Pharm. t. x. p. 170, lb-'l.                  a Ibid. t. xv. p. 503, 1829. 
380              VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Euphorbiaceae.

augments its  solubility.   According to  Mr. Quekett,1 it is well  adapted for  burning in lamps-
for which purpose it is employed in India.
  Jatropha seeds and oil resemble the seeds and-oil of croton  in the character of their effects.
Mr. Bennett2  swallowed four seeds, and experienced a very unpleasant sensation in the stomach
and bowels, with nausea, which, after an interval of nearly  two hours, terminated in vomiting:
their purgative effects followed soon afterwards, and were  mild ;  the sickness had then passed
away, but the burning sensation continued  for some time  longer.  The kernels of live seeds
caused in a labourer  vomiting, purging,  perspiration, debility, giddiness, and delirium.  Four
hours after taking the poison he walked to the London Hospital:  the pupils  were natural, the
countenance  pale, the hands cold, and the pulse   140.  An opiate and a mild cordial were
given to  him, and he soon recovered.3  Jatropha oil is occasionally used as a drastic purgative,
It is less powerful than croton oil.   Dr. Christison  states that twelve or fifteen drops of it.are
about equal to  one ounce of castor-oil.   The residual cake from  which  the oil has  been ex-
pressed  is  very active.  The last-mentioned  authority found  that a few grains of it caused
violent vomiting and purging.   The juice of the plant4 has been successfully applied exter-
nally as a remedy for piles.  Dr. Mc William6 says, that a decoction of the leaves is  used by
the natives of the Cape Verde Islands  to excite a secretion  of milk in women who have borne
a child, and who are not past child bearing.
   2. Cviicas  mdltifidus, Endlicher, Encbir. Botan.;  Jatropha mullifida,  Linn.; Adenorhopium
multifidum, Pohl; French Physic Nut;  Spanish Physic  Nut.—Leaves large, stalked, palmate ot
digitate,  many-lobed, smooth;  lobes  pinnatifid, cuneate.—West Indies; Brazils.—The capsule
is yellowish,about the size  of a walnut, obtusely 3-cornered, somewhat tapering above, 3 celled ;
each cell containing I seed.  The seeds, called French physic  nuts  (semina  curcadis multifidi;
nuces purgantes: avellana purgatrices ;  ben magnum), are about the size of those of a common
nut, rounded  externally, with  two flattened surfaces separated by an  ovule internally.  The
seed coat is marbled and smooth : the kernel is white.—The composition  of these  seeds  i*,
according to  Soubeiran," similar to that of the seeds of the  Curcas purgans.—The expressed oil
(oleum curcadis multifidi; oleum pinhoen),  as well as the seeds, are drastic  cathartics.   In  their
operation they resemble the preceding oil and seeds.   Death is said  to have been produced by
them.7
   3. The seeds of the Jatropha gossypifolia, Linn.; Bastard French Physic Nut, Belly-ache,ot
Wild Cassada,  have also been used  as  purgatives in dropsies.8


                          134. Anda brasiliensis, Raddi.
                                         (Semina.)
  Anda,  Piso, I. 72 ; II. 148: Anda brasiliensis, Raddi, Quarante piante, &c. 1821 ; Anda Gomesii,
Ad. Jussieu,  De Enphorb.  Generib.  1 h24 ; Anda-acu, Indayapu,  Pnrga  de Gentio;  Cocco de
Purga, Purga dos Paulistas, Frutta d'Arara, Brazil.—Brazil.—The fruit is  about  the size of an
orange, with  2 large and 2 smaller  angles.  It  contains two  roundish nut-like seeds (semina
anda brasiliensis) about the  size of  small chestnuts.  By pressure they yield a fixed oil (oleum
anda brasdiensis; oil of anda-agu).   Botli seeds  and oil are purgative.   One seed, according to
Von Martins,9  is a dose for a man.  The expressed oil is clear  and  pale  yellowish.  Like
jatropha  oil, it is not  very  soluble in alcohol;  but its solubility  is  increased by the  addition of
castor-oil.  Mr. Ure10 found that in  doses of 20 drops it operated moderately as a purgative.


    135. MANIHOT UTILISSIMA, PoM."-BITTER  CASSAVA,

                              Sex. Syst. Moncecia, Monadelphia.
                        (Fecula of the root; Tapioca, E. D. [U. S.])

   Synonymes.—Jatropha Manihot,  Linn.;  Janipha  Manihot,  HBK.  ii.  8o;
Hooker, Bot. Mag. t.  3071.
   History.—Monardes13  describes  the Indian method of  making cassava bread;
and Piso13  notices  the  mode  of  preparing  the farina  called cream of   Tipiocn
[Tapioca],
   Botany.    Gren. Char—Flores   monoecious.    Calyx corolline,  campanulate,
5-cleft,  convolute.   Corolla 0.    Stamens  10, inserted on the margin of a fleshy

  1 Practical Treatise on the Use of the Microscope, p. 138, 1848.      * Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. ix. p. 8.
  3 Letheby, Lond. Med. Gaz. N. S. vol. vii. p. 116, 1848.
  4 Lunan, Hort. Jamaicensis, vol. ii. p. 62, quoted by Dr. Hamilton in the Pharmaceutical Journal, vol.
v. p. -26. 1845.
  * Report on the Boa Vista Fever. 1847.
  6 Journ. de Pharm. t. xv. p.506, 1*29.            " Sloane's Jamaica, vol. i. p. 30.
  ' Hamilton, Pharmaceutical Journal, vol.  v. p. 27. 1845.
  " Systema Mat. Med. Veget. Brasil.  .           '" Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. ix. p. 0, 1^49.
 11 Plant. Brasil. Icones et Descript.. fol. Vindob. 1627-31.
 12 Clusii Exoticor. lib. x. cap. p  53, 330.         " De Medicina Brasil. p. 52. 
                Bitter Cassava:—Description;  Composition.            381

disk, free, the alternate ones shorter: filaments filiform;  anthers turned  inwards,
2-celled.   Ovary placed  on the  fleshy, disk, 3-celled, with 1 ovule in each cell.
Style short. Stigmas 3, many-lobed, the lobes consolidated into a conical sinuated-
sulcated mass.   Capsule 3-coccous;  the cocci 2-valved and 1-seeded (Endlicher).
   Sp. Char—Leaves  with  very  long  petioles, deeply 7-parted,  palmate;  the seg-
ments lanceolate, acuminate, attenuated at  the base, quite entire, the outer ones
smaller, unequal, diverging, straggling.  Root whitish-yellow (Pohl).
   Root large, thick, tuberous, fleshy ;  containing an acrid,  milky, highly poisonous
juice.   Flowers axillary, racemose.1
   Hab—Native of the Brazils; where, as well as in other parts of South America,
it is cultivated.
   Manihot Aipi, Pohl.—Sweet Cassava, Bancroft, Nat. Hist, of Guiana, 1769.—This is usually
regarded as a variety of the above; but Pohl considers it to be a distinct species;  characterized
by the leaves  which  are 5-parted, and by the  root, which is  reddish, and contains a milky
non-poisonous juice.  It is cultivated  in the Brazils, and in Spanish America.
   Manihot Janipha, Pohl; Jatropha Janipha, Linn.; Janipha Loeflingii, HBK.—This species is
said to yield the sweet  or white cassava  of the West  Indies.  Dr. Hamilton2 says it  so closely re-
sembles the Janipha  Manihot, Linn.  (Manihot utilissima, Pohl), that an  experienced eye can
hardly distinguish it with certainty.   Is not the  sweet cassava of the West Indies the Manihot
Aipi of Pohl?  Like the latter, it is devoid of poisonous properties.
   Description.—1. Bitter cassava root is a large tuberous root3 which abounds in
a poisonous milky juice.   It is difficult to distinguish  by its appearance from the
sweet cassava root; but it is devoid  of the tough, fibrous, or woody filaments  found
in the heart of the sweet cassava root; and  it does not become  soft, like the latter
root,  by boiling or roasting.   The rasped  root  mixed with water, boiled, and then
fermented, yields a spirituous liquor called cassiri.*   Cassava meal is  obtained by
subjecting the grated  root to pressure to  express  the juice, and then  drying and
pounding the residual  cake.   Of  this  meal cassava bread is made.   The expressed
juice by  repose deposits the farina called cassava starch, of which tapioca is made.
A sauce  called casareep or cassireepe,  is made from the juice.5
   2.   Swtel cassava root resembles the bitter cassava root in external appearance;
but, unlike the latter, it is not  poisonous.   It has  a bundle of tough, fibrous, or
woody filaments at the heart, running longitudinally through the root.  By boiling
or roasting it becomes soft,  and is used at table.
   A few pounds of dried sweet  cassava root  have recently been sent  to England
from Jamaica on speculation, to ascertain whether it was likely to prove a profitable
article of commerce.  It consisted of  transverse and longitudinal segments, which
were beautifully white, had  a very faint agreeable odour,  and were mucilaginous or
farinaceous to the taste.   The circular disks were from one to two or more  inches
in diameter, and had in  the  centre the ligneous cord above alluded to.   Some of
the pieces were worm-eaten: a few were slightly scorched or burnt, apparently by
over-heating in the drying process.
   Cassava meal and bread,  cassava starch, and tapioca, are prepared from the sweet
as well as from the bitter cassava root.
   Composition.—The  bitter cassava root  has been  analyzed  by MM. 0.  Henry
and Boutron-Chalard,0 who  inferred that it contained free hydrocyanic  acid, starch,
a small quantity of sugar, an organic salt of magnesia, a bitter principle, a  crystalli-
zable fatty matter, an  azotized matter (vegetable osmazome), phosphate  of lime, and
woody fibre.
  1 II(i"kcr, Bot. Mag. t. 3071.           a Hamilton, Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. v. p. 27, 1815.
  ' A li(rure ot" the root is given in the Journ. de Pharm. t. xxii. 183(5.                        •
  * Dr. Hamilton, Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. v. p. 29, 1819.
  * Casareep is the concentrated juice of the  roots of the bitter cassava flavoured by aromatics.  Dunn"
the evaporation, the poisonous principle of the juice is either dissipated or destroyed. Casareep is used
to flavour M'ffpg and other dishes:  and is the basis of the West Indian dish pepper-pot.  It is a powerful
antiseptic (Shier, Report on the Starch-producing Plants of the Colony of British Guiana, Demerara
ls>47; Hamilton, Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. v. p. 30, 1845).—In French Guiana, the term cabiou or
cabion is applied to a similar condiment (Henry and Boutron-Chalard, Journ. de Pharm. t xxii. p. 123).
The inspissated juice flavoured with capsicum pods is used in the  Brazils as n sauce, under the name of
Tycupt or Tucupi (.Martius, Syst. Mat Med. Veg. Brasil, p. 01).
  • Journ. de Pharm. t. xxii. ji. lit*, 1*30.                                             • 
382
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Euphorbiaceae.
   1. Hydrocyanic Acid.—According to O. Henry  and Boutron Chalard, the active principle
of the root is hydrocyanic acid.  Their statement is confirmed by Dr. Christison, who examined
some well-preserved juice from Demerara.
   2. Volatile Acrid Principle?—The vomiting and purging, and other abdominal symptoms
ascribed to bitter cassava, would lead us to suspect that, like other euphorbiaceous plants, it con-
tains an acrid principle.
   Physiological Effects.—The fresh roots  as well as the expressed  juice are
virulent poisons, destroying life in  a very short  period of time.   0. Henry and
Boutron-Chalard described the effects on  guinea-pigs as resembling those caused by
hydrocyanic acid; but death did not occur until from forty to fifty-five minutes after
the  use of  the  poison.   Ricord Madianna1 has  killed dogs in ten minutes  with a
poison obtained from this  root.  The symptoms described by Barhama are pain and
swelling of the  abdomen, vomiting and  purging, dimness of sight, syncope, rapid
diminution of the powers of  life, and death in a few hours.   Half a pint  of the
juice has produced death  in an hour.3
   Uses.—Dr. "Wright4 says  that the scrapings of the fresh root  are  successfully
applied to ill-disposed ulcers;  and Dr. Hamilton5 speaks of the instantaneous relief
which he experienced on himself from the application  of a cataplasm of the  rasped
roots, with all their juices unexpressed, to the spot where a nest of chigres (Pnh-x
penetrans) had been dislodged.  The root is used to catch birds, which, by  eating
it, lose the power of flying.6   It yields cassava meal and cassava starch.
   1. FARINA MANDIOCjE;  Cassava  or Cassada Meal;  Farinha de Pao, or simply
Farinha; Farine de Manioc.—This is obtained by washing and scraping the roots,
then rasping or  grating them, and  subjecting the pulp to pressure, by which the
poisonous juice is expressed.  The residual compressed pulp is then dried  over a
fire, being stirred during the whole time.   In this way is obtained cassava meal.7
   Cassava meal  is a mixture of cassava starch, vegetable fibre, and proteine or albu-
minous matters.   Dr Shier8 found that in the sliced and  dry roots the percentage
of nitrogen is 0.78, but in the cassava  meal (the juice expressed) only 0.36.  If
these numbers be multiplied by  6.5 (see  foot-note at p. 106), the percentage quan-
tity of  protein or albuminous  matters in  the dried  root will be 5.0, and in cassava
meal 2.34.
   I have received from  Dr. Shier two kinds of  cassava meal; one called cassava
meal, the other termed cassava flour.  I shall distinguish them as coarse and fine meal.
   o.  Coarse Cassava Meal;  Cassava Meal, Shier;  Couaque or  Couac, Guibourt.
—This is meal which in coarseness is about equal to sawdust or small dried crumbs
of bread.   I have found a similar  preparation  in English commerce  under  the
name of "Tapioca Flour from  Bahia."
   Coarse cassava meal has a slight yellowish or  brownish  tint, varying in  different
samples.
   (3.  Fine Cassava Meal; Cassava  Flour, Shier; Farine de Manioc, Guibourt.
—This is a finer and whiter  meal than  the preceding.   In fineness it resembles
wheat flour.
   Cassava  bread or  cassava  cakes  are  made by baking the compressed cassava
pulp on a hot plate, in the manner muffins and crumpets are baked in  England.
   Cassava meal  and cassava bread are important and  valuable  articles  of food to
the inhabitants of tropical America.  The flavour of cassava cakes reminds me of
Scotch oatcakes.
   %. AMYLOI MANDIOCjE ;  Mandioca or  Cassava  Starch; Tapioca.—The juice
whiqh is expressed from the rasped root deposits on standing an amylum or  starch
(cassava starch), of which tapioca  is made.

  1 Quoted by Sloane, Jamaica, vol. ii. p. 363.           a Hortus Americanus, p. 34, Upl.
  * Journ. de Pharm. t. xvi. p. 310, 1f30.                * Med. Plants of Jamaica.
  5 Martius, in Wibmer, Arzneim. u. Gifte, Bd. iii. S.273.  8  Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. v. p. 28,lei".
  1 The details of the process for making cassava meal vary somewhat in different localities.  According
to Piso (De Medicina Brasil. lib. iv. p. 53i, the roots are grated by a handmill somewhat similar to that
used in the preparation of Tous-les-Mois (see ante, p.  228, Fig. 224). Edwards (Voyage up the Rittr
Amazvn, p. 24, Lond. 1847) says they are grated upon stones, and the pulp compressed in a slender bag of
ratlin six feet in length.                            e Report, p. 15. 
Turnsole.                                383
  a. Cassava Starch;  Tapioca  Meal;  Brazilian  Arrow-root;   Moussache or
Cijn'pa.—The fecula or starch  deposited from the expressed juice  of the cassava
root, after being washed and dried in the air  without heat, constitutes the tapioca
meal or Brazilian arrow-root of commerce.   It is usually imported into this coun-
try  from Rio  Janeiro.   For  some years past it  has been imported into France
from Martinique, and is sold as  arrow-root (Guibourt).   It is white and pulve-
rulent, and resembles in external appearance  genuine arrow-root (maranta starch).
When examined by the microscope, however, it is readily distinguished.
  Cassava starch, when examined by the microscope, is found to consist  of small
Bingle  grains,1 which, in the  living plant, were united  in  groups  or compound
grains, each composed of 2, 3,  or 4 grains.   Most of the grains are mullar-shaped,
and, therefore, have been united in groups of two each : when seen  endwise, they
appear circular or globular.   Some of them are truncated egg-shaped grains, with
one or two facets at the truncation.  The  nucleus, central cavity, or hilum,  is cir-
cular, surrounded with rings, and bursts in a stellate manner.
  These statements apply equally to bitter cassava starch and sweet cassava starch
sent to me from Demerara by Dr. Shier, as well  as  to  starch obtained by myself
from sweet cassava root received from Jamaica.
  Cassava starch has not been analyzed; but there  can be no doubt but that its
composition is similar to that of other starches, and  that  its formula is C12H10O10.
Its  effects and uses are also like those of other starches (see  ante, p.  119).
  /3. Tapioca.—This is imported from Bahia and Rio Janeiro.   It is cassava meal,
which  while moist or damp has been heated, for  the purpose of drying it, on hot
plates.   By this treatment  the  starch  grains swell, many of  them  burst,  and
the whole agglomerate in small irregular masses or lumps.   In  consequence of the
change thus effected  in the starch grains, tapioca is partially soluble  in cold water;
and the filtered cold  infusion strikes a blue colour with tincture of iodine.   The
drying to which it has been subjected renders it difficult  of  solution.  In boiling
water it swells up,  and forms a transparent viscous jelly-like mass.   Submitted to
prolonged ebullition in a  large quantity of water, it leaves an insoluble  residue,
which precipitates.   This, when diluted  with water and coloured by iodine, appears
to consist of mucous flocks.
   Made into  puddings, tapioca is employed  as a dietetical  substance.   Boiled in
water  or milk, and flavoured  with sugar, spices,  or wine,  according  to circum-
stances, it is used  as an agreeable, nutritious,  light,  easily digestible  article of
food for the sick and convalescent.  It  is devoid of all irritating and stimulating
properties.

              136.  Crozophora tinctoria, Necker.—Turnsole.
                                     (Succus.)*
  Heliotropium  tricoccum, Pliny, lib. xxii. cap.  29; Croton tinctorium, Linn.—South  of France:
Mediterranean coast.   Cultivated since 1833 in the  neighbourhood of Grand Gallargus, in  the
department of  Gard, in France.  The expressed juice is green: but, under the combined in-
fluence of the air and ammonia, it becomes purplish.  Coarse sacking stained purple by this
juice is termed  turnsole  rags (tournesol en drapeaux), or bezetta* ccerulea.  These rags are exclu-
sively employed by the Dutch ;  but for what  purpose is not well known, though it  has been
supposed for colouring cheese, confectionery, liqueurs, &c.3
 1 The following are the measurements, in parts of an English inch, of ten grains of cassava starch. Thev
were made by Mr. George Jackson :—                                                   '
                Lengths.  Breadths.
1............0.0012 X 0.0012
2............0.000S X 0.0006
;t............0 0008 X 0.0007
4............0.0007 X 0.0000
5............0.0005 X 0.0004
                 Lengths. Breadths.
 6............0.0005 X 0.0001
 7............0.0004 X 0 0004
 8............0.0003 X 0.0003
 9............0.00025 X 0.0002.5
10............0.0002 X 0.0002
 1 Bezetta, the diminutive of the Spanish word btzo, a lip, a term originally applied to pigments used to
color the lips.
 1 Sre »n interesting notice ot Turnsole by Mr. D. Hanbury, jun. in the Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. ix 
m
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Aristolociiiace.t-.
      Order XXXIV.   ARISTOLOCIIIACE^E, Lindley.—

                               BIRTHWORTS.

                      Aristolochie.b, Jussieu; Asarin^, Bartling.

  Characters.—Flowers hermaphrodite, axillary, solitary.  Calyx adherent (superior), tubu-
lar, monosepalous, with the segments valvate or  induplicate in aestivation, sometimes regular
sometimes very unequal.  Stamens G to 12, epigynous, distinct, or adhering to the  style and
stigmas.  Ovary inferior, 6-celled, very rarely 3—4-celled; ovules numerous, anatropal, horizon'
tally attached to the axis.  Style simple.  Stigmas radiating, as numerous as the  cells of the
ovary.   Fruit  dry or succulent, 3—4—6-celled, many-seeded.   Seeds thin, with a very mi-
nute embryo placed at the base of fleshy albumen —Herbs or shrubs, the latter often climb-
ing.    Wood without concentric zones  and  inseparable wedges.   Leaves  alternate, simple
stalked.
  Properties.—Not important.  The roots possess stimulant properties, owing to the presence
of volatile oil.   Some of them are acrids.  Bitter extractive renders them somewhat tonic.
   137.  ARISTOLOCHIA  SERPENTARIA,  Linn.—THE VIRGI-
                           NIAN  SNAKE-ROOT.
                        Aristolochia officinalis, Nees and Ebermaier.
                             Sex. Syst. Gynandria, Hexandria.
                              (Radix, Z..—The root, E. D.)

   History.—The first writer  who  distinctly mentions  Virginian  snake-root, or
snakc-tceed, is Thomas Johnson, an apothecary of London, in his edition of Gcrarde's
Herbal,  published in 1633.
   Botany.  Gen. Char.— Calyx  tubular, ventricose at  the  base,  dilated at the
apex,  and  extended  into a ligula.   Anthers 6,  subsessile, inserted on the style.
Stigma  6-lobed.   Capsule 6-angled, 6-celled (Bot. Gall.).
   Sp. Char.—Stem flexuous, ascending.   Leaves cordate, acuminate, on both sides
pubescent.   Peduncles nearly radical, unifloral.   Lip of the calyx lanceolate (Nees
v. Esenbeck).
   Hab.—North America.
   Collection and  Properties.—The root (radix scrpentarise)  is collected in
Western Pennsylvania  and Virginia, in Ohio, Indiana,  and Kentucky.1  It is im-
ported in bales, usually containing about  100 lbs.   As met with in the shops, it
consists of  a  tuft of long, slender, yellowish or brownish fibres, attached to a long,
contorted head or caudex.   The odour is aromatic, the taste warm and bitter.
   Composition.—It was analyzed by Bucholz in 1807;3  by  Chevallier in 1820;'
and by Peschier in 1823.4
        Bucholz's Analysis.
Volatile oil............  0.50
Greenish-yellow soft resin  ...  2 85
Extractive matter........  1.70
Gummy extractive........18.10
Lignin...............62.40
Water............... 14.45
Serpentary root
100.00
       ('hevallier's Analysis.
Volatile oil.
Resin.
Extractive.
Starch.
Ligneous fibre.
Albumen.
Malate and phosphate of lime.
Oxide of iron and silica.
Serpentary root.
  1. Volatile Oil.—Grassmann5 obtained only half an ounce from 100 lbs. of the root.  Its
colour is yellowish, its odour considerable, its taste not very strong.6  Grassmann  compares the
odour and taste to those of valerian and camphor combined.
  2. Bitter Principle; Extractive, Bucholz and Chevallier.—This is very bitter and slightly
acrid.  It is soluble in both  water and spirit.  Its solution, which is yellow, is rendered brown
by alkalies, but is unchanged by the ferruginous salts.
1 United Slates Dispensatory.
3 Journ. de Pharm. vi. 365.
s Quoted by Dr. W. C. .Martius, Pharmacogn.
2 Gmelin, Hand. d. Chem.
4 Gmelin, op. cit.
s Lewis, Mat. Med. 
Common Asarabacca :—History;  Description.           385
  Physiological Effects.—These have been examined by Jorg and his pupils.1
  In small doses, serpentary promotes the appetite.   In large doses, it causes nausea,
flatulence, uneasy sensation at the stomach, and more frequent but not liquid stools.
After its absorption, it increases the frequency and  fulness of the pulse, augments
the heat of the skin, and promotes secretion and exhalation.  Furthermore, it would
appear, from  the experiments before  referred to, that it causes  disturbance of the
cerebral functions,  and produces headache, sense of oppression within the skull, and
disturbed sleep.
  In these properties, serpentary bears some analogy to, but is much weaker than,
camphor.   It is more powerful than contrayerva.
  Uses.—Its employment is indicated in cases of torpor and atony.  It was form-
erly termed alexipharmic, on account of its fancied power of curing the bite of a
rattlesnake and of a mad dog.'   At the present time it is rarely employed.  It has
been much esteemed as a  stimulant in fevers, both continued and intermittent.  A
scruple of serpentary, taken in three  ounces of wine, is mentioned  by Sydenham3
as a cheap remedy for tertians in poor people.  Dr. Cullen4 considered it as suited
for the low and advanced  stage of  typhus only.   In an epidemical affection of the
throat (called the  throat-distemper), it was  given internally as a diaphoretic, and
used with sumach  berries, in the form of a decoction, as a gargle,  with benefit.5
   Administration.—The dose of it in substance is from ten to thirty grains.   The
infusion is the best form for the administration of serpentary.
   1. INFUSUM SERPENTARLE, L. E.[U. S.]; Infusion of Serpentary, or Snake-root.
—(Serpentary ^ss;  Boiling Water Oj.   Infuse for four hours in a covered vessel,
and strain [through linen or  calico, E.].)—Dose, fjj or f|ij  every two or three
hours, according to circumstances.

   I TINCTURA SERPENTARIJ, L. E. [U. S.];  Tincture of Serpentary, or Snake-root.
—(Serpentary, bruised [in moderately fine powder, E.], Jiijss, L.; Proof Spirit Oij;
and Cochineal, bruised, 3j, E.   Macerate for seven days, and filter.   "Proceed by
percolation or digestion as for  the tincture of cinchona," E.—[Take of Virginia
Snake-root, bruised, giij; Diluted Alcohol  Oij.   Macerate for fourteen days, ex-
press, and filter through paper, U. S.])—Used  as an adjunct  to tonic infusions.
Dose, from f3j  to  f3ij.

138. ASARUM EUROPiEUM,  Linn.-COMMON ASARABACCA.
                          Sex. Syst. Dodecandria, Monogynia.
                                  (Folia, I.. D.)

   History.—This plant was used in medicine by the ancients.   Dioscorides8 calls
it aaapov.
   Botany.  Gen. Char.— Calyx  campanulate, 3-lobed.   Stamens 12, inserted on
the ovary; anthers adnate to the middle of  tbe filaments.  Style short.   Stigma
stellate, 6-lobed.   Capsule 6-celled. (Bot. Gall.)
   Sp. Char.—Leaves  '2 on each  stem,  kidney-shaped,  obtuse  rsomewhat hairvl
(Smith).7                                                                   JJ
  The branching  root-fibres arise from  an underground stem  or rhizome.  The
aerial stems are several from each rhizome.   Leaves petiolated.   From the  axil of
the two leaves springs a solitary, rather large, drooping flower, upon a short peduncle
of a greenish-brown colour and coriaceous substance.   Segment of the calyx in-
curved.    Capsule coriaceous.    Seeds ovate, with horny albumen.
  Hab.—Indigenous.   Perennial.  Flowers in May.
  Description.—The whole  plant (root-fibres, rhizome, and  aerial  stems,  with

  i n'ibmoV Arzneirl- " GiS", Bd- '• s '■*" i a'«o, Journ. dc Chim. Mid. t. vii. p. 493
  ' «#' '%rmaeolo'ia-                    \ "'<»«*'.translated by Dr. Pechey, 4th edit. p. 233.
  1 i .k V                                 Med- 0bs- and Inquir. vol. i. p. 211.
   Lib. i. cap. n.                          i £nff. Flora.             V 
386            VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Aristolochiace*:.
leaves and flowers) is kept in the shops under the name of asarabacca (radix cum
herbd asari), but the leaves only are directed  to be  used in  the Pharmacopeia
Dr.  Batty1 states that the plant is gathered for medicinal uses in  the woods near
Kirk by Lonsdale, Westmoreland.   The rhizome  is about as thick as a goose-quill
grayish, quadrangular, knotted.   It has  a pepper-like  odour, and  an acrid taste*
The leaves are almost inodorous, but have an acrid, aromatic, and bitter taste.
   Composition.—(jroerzJ  published an analysis  of  the root in  1784;  Lassaigne
and  Feneulle another in  1820;3  Kegimbeau a third in 1827 :* and Grader a fourth
in 1830.5
                                   Grager's
                   Root.
Volatile oil      )
Asarum-camphor >..............   0.630
Asarin [? Asarite] )
Asarin  .....................   1.172
Tannin.....................   1.072
Kxtractive...................   3.972
Resin......................   0.156
Starch.....................   2.048
Glutin and albumen..............   1.010
Citric acid...................   0.316
Ligneous fibre.................  12.800
Salts (citrates, chloride, sulphate, and phos-
   phates)  ..................   3.042
Water.....................74.600

     Fresh root of asarabacca.......100.818
Analyses.
                  Herb.
 Asarin......................  O.I0
 Tannin......................  oqj
 Kxtractive....................  j'^g
 Chlorophylle..................  i jj
 Albumen   ....................  g |jj
 Citric acid....................  q.J4
 Ligneous fibre  .................15J0
 Water......................74^
 Loss.......................  Qjj
Fresh herb of asarabacca
100.00
   1. Volatile Oilt Matters.—By submitting asarabacca root to distillation with water, three
 volatile oily mutters are obtained;  one liquid and two solid, at ordinary temperatures.
   it. Liquid Volatile Oil (Oleum Asari).—It is yellow, glutinous, lighter than water, and has an
 acrid, burning taste, and a penetrating valerian-like odour.   It is slightly soluble in water, more
 so in alcohol, ether, and the oils (volatile and fixed).  Its constituents are C8H40.
   B. Asarite of Griiger.—In small needles of a silky lustre.  It is odourless and tasteless.  It is
 fusible and volatilizable  by heat;  its  vapour being white and very irritating.  It is soluble in
 alcohol, ether, and  the volatile oils, but not in water.  Both  nitric and sulphuric acids dissolve
 the crystals without the evolution of gas: if water be added to the sulphuric solution, the asarite
 is thrown down  unchanged.
   y. Asarum-camphor.—Is distinguished from asarite by the following characters: Water throws
 it down from its alcoholic solution  in cubes or six-sided prisms, whereas asarite is precipitated
 in delicate flexible  needles.   It dissolves in nitric acid without effervescence.  Water added to
 its sulphuric solution throws down a brown resin.  After fusion, it has the form of a crystalline,
 striated mass. Its  composition is CeH502.  Blanchet and Sell  regard it  as tbe hydrate of the
 liquid volatile oil.
   2. Bitter. Piunciple of  Asarabacca (Asarin of Griiger  and of some other pharmacolo-
 gists).—Brownish,  very bitter, soluble in alcohol.
   Physiological Effects.—Every part  of the plant  possesses acrid  properties.
 Applied to  the mucous membrane of the nose, it excites  sneezing,  increased secre-
 tion of mucus, and even a discharge  of  blood.  Swallowed,  it causes vomiting,
 purging, and griping pains.  It is also  said to  possess diuretic and diaphoretic  pro-
 perties.   Dr. Cullen has  enumerated it in  his list  of diuretics,  but expresses his
 doubts whether it possesses any specific power of stimulating the renal vessels.
   Uses.—Asarabacca has been employed in medicine  to  excite vomiting, and as an
 errhine.   As  an  emetic,  it is now superseded  by ipecacuanha and  tartarized anti-
 mony.   As an errhine, to excite irritation and a discharge of mucus from the nasal
 membrane, it  has been used  in  certain affections of the brain, eyes, face, mouth,
 and throat,  on  the principle of counter-irritation: thus in paralytic affections of the
mouth  and tongue, in toothache, and in ophthalmia.
   Administration.—We may administer either the root or leaves, recollecting
that the latter are somewhat  milder than  the former.   As an emetic, the dose is
half a  drachm to a drachm.  As an errhine, one or two grains of the root, or three
1  Eng. Flora.
*  Journ de Pharm. t. vi. p. 561.
4  'ioebel and Kunze, Pharm. Waannk.
3 Pfaff, Mat. Med. Bd. iii. S. 2*>
« Ibid. I. xiv. p. 200. 
Nat. Ord. Laurace^:.—Characters;  Properties.
387
or four grains of the  dried leaves, are snuffed  up  the nostrils every  night—The
powder of this plant is supposed to form  the basis of cephalic snuff.

   PULVIS  ASARI  COMPOSITUS;   Compound  Powder   of Asarabacca.—(Asarabacca
Leaves, dried, 3j; Lavender Flowers, dried, 3J-  Reduce them together to powder.)—
Used as  an errhine in headache and ophthalmia.  Dose, from  grs. v to grs. viij.


  139. Aristolochia  rotunda, Linn.,-  et  A.  longa, Linn.—Round  and
                                Long Birthwort.
                             Sex. Syst. Gynandria, Hexandria.
                                        (Radix.)

  Both of these plants are natives of  the South  of Europe.  Their roots are still kept in  the
shops.  The long aristolochia root is several inches  in length, one or two inches broad, and has a
more or  less cylindrical  lorm.  The  round aristolochia  root has a more rounded and knobby
form.  Both kinds are  bitter and  acrid, and have, especially when powdered,  a disagreeable
odour.  They contain extractive matter and starch.  Las«aigne found ulmin in the long species.
Their  effects are stimulant  and tonic.   Their stimulant  effects are supposed  by some to be
principally directed to the abdominal and pelvic viscera.  They have been employed in amenor-
rhea as  an emmenagogue.   Their dose is from ^j l0 3J'  Round  aristolochia  root  is a con-
stituent of the Duke of Portland's powder for the gout, which consisted of equal quantities of the
roots of  Gentian and  Birthwort  (Aristolochia rotunda), the tops and leaves of Germander
(Chamadrys), Ground Pine (Chamerpilys), and lesser Centaury (Chironia Centaurium), powdered
and  mixed together.1
       Order XXXV.    LAURACEiE,  Lindley.—LAURELS.

                     Lauri,  Jussieu.—Lauiune.tj, Vent, and Bob. Brown.

   Character.—Calyx 4- to  Ocleft, with imbricated aestivation, the limb sometimes obsolete.
 Petals 0.  Stamens definite, perigynous opposite the  segments of the  calyx, and usually twice
 as numerous;  the 3 innermost, which are opposite the 3 inner segments of the calyx, sterile or
 deficient; the ti outermost scarcely ever abortive; anthers adnate, 2- to 4 celled;  the cells burst-
 ing by a longitudinal persistent  valve from the base  to the apex;  the outer anthers valved in-
 wards, the inner valved outwards [or both valved inwards, Lindl~]   Glands usually present at
 the base of  the  inner filaments.  Ovary single, superior, 1-celled [formed of 3 valvate carpel-
 lary leaves, and as many rib-like placentae stationed tit the sutures, all generally imperfect except
 one, Endli], with 1 or 2 single pendulous ovules; style simple; stigma obtuse,  2-or  3 lobed.
 Fruit baccate or drupaceous, naked or covered.   Seed without albumen ; embryo inverted; cotyle-
 dons large, planoconvex, peltate near the base! radicle very short, included, superior; plumule
 conspicuous, 2-leaved.—Trees, often of great size.   Leaves without stipules, alternate, seldom
 opposite, entire, or very  nearly lobed.  Inflorescence panicled or umhelled (Rob. Brown).
   Phopeiitiks.—The plants of this order owe their most important qualities to the presence of
 volatile oil,  which is found, more or less abundantly,  in all parts  of the vegetable.  This oil is
 sometimes liquid and  highly aromatic, as oil of cinnamon; at others, it is solid  in ordinary tem-
 peratures, and is endowed with narcotic properties, as camphor.  The acrid principle of some
 species is probably a volatile oil.
   In the bark  and leaves, the volatile oil is  usually associated with tannic acid, which gives
 them  astringency, as in  cinnamon.   In  the  fruit and seeds, on  the other hand, it is usually
 combined or mixed with fixed oil,  as in bay-berries.
   Besides the oflicinnl lauraceous  barks,  presently to be de.-cribed, there are several others
 which  have obtained  considerable celebrity, in  the countries producing  them,  on account of
 their aromatic qualities.
  Two of these benr the name of  clove bark; on account of their odour.  The  Indian clove bark
 or cortex culilawan is a large Hat bark, and is obtained from Cmnarnomum Culilawan, Blume, a
 native of the Indian  islands.   Its  properties are analogous to those of Cas>ia-li<jnea.2  It'is
 rarely met with  in London.   I have  received  from  Dr.  Martiny, of Hesse Darmstadt, a bark
 marked Culiliwnn papuanus.  It is, I presume, the  produce of  Cinnamomum xarlhoneuron of
 Blume.

  ' See Dr. Cleplmne'a Inquiry into the Origin of the Gout Powder, in the .!/</. Observ. and Inn. vol  i
 I.onil.  Dr. Clrplinm; concludes tll.it '• Ciclius Amelianus's diacentaureon and  Aetius's antidotui e>
Juobus centnureer gentribus were  the same medicine, and are the did names lor the Duke of I'm I land's
  * See Pereira, in Lindley*s Flora Medica, p.331. 
3S8                VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Laurace.e.

  The Brazilian clove bark, or clove cassia bark, cortex cassia iaryophyllata>, is the produce of Dicy.
pellium caryophillatum, and grows in Para and Rio Negro.  Its bark occurs in tubular quills.
  Massoy bark (in commerce Misoi) is the cortex oninus of Rumphius.  It  is U3ed in the cos-
metics of the natives of India.1  I have never found it in the London shops.
  Sintoc bark is the produce of Cinnamomum Sinloc, Blume.  Its  properties are analogous to
those of Culilawan.
  The folia malabathri of India are obtained from Cinnamomum nilidum, Hooker and Blume;
and from C. Tamala.   They are aromatic tonics, but are not  found in the London matket.


  140.  CINNAMOMUM  ZEYLANICUM, Nees.—THE  CEYLON
                                  CINNAMON.
                               Laurus Cinnamomum, Linn.
                            Sex. Syst. Enneandria, Monogynia.
  (Cortex;  et Oleum e cortice destillatum, L.—Bark ; and volatile oil of the bark,  E.—The batk, D.j

   History.—Cinnamon (Kinman, Hebr.) is  mentioned in  the  Old  Testament,'
about 1490 years before Christ.   In all probability the Hebrews received it from
the Arabians, who must, therefore, have had commercial dealings with India at this
early period.3  The first  notice  of cinnamon (xiwaumpov) by the  Greek writers
occurs in  Herodotus,* who died  413 years before Christ.   Probably both the He-
brew and Greek names for this bark are  derived from  the Cingalese cacyn-nama
(dulce lignum), or the Malayan kaimanis.b  Hippocrates6 employed cinnamon ex-
ternally.   Dioscorides7 describes several kinds of cinnamon.
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—Flowers .hermaphrodite or polygamous.   Calyx 6-cleft,
with the limb deciduous.  Stamina 12, in 4 rows;  the 9 external ones fertile, the
3 inner ones capitate, abortive;  the  3 most internal  of  the fertile  stamina having 1
sessile glands at the base: anthers 4-celled, the 3 inner turned outwards.    Ovary
1-celled, with 1 ovule.  Fruit  (a berry) seated  on a cup-like calyx.  Leaves rib-
bed.  Leaf buds  naked.  Flowers  panicled, rarely fascicled.    (Condensed from
Endlicher.)8
    Sp. Char.—Branches  somewhat  4-cornered,  smooth.   Leaves   ovate or  ovate-
oblong,  tapering into an  obtuse point, triple-nerved,  or  3-nerved, reticulated  on the
under side, smooth, the  uppermost  the  smallest.   Panicles terminal and axillary,
stalked.   Flowers  hoary  and  silky;  segments oblong, deciduous in the  middle
(Nees).9
   Botanists admit several varieties of this species; tbe most important are—
                                               a. Broad-leaved,  Moon;10  Mupal  (Cinga-
                                             lese).—The plant above  described.
                                                $. Narrow-leaved, Moon; Cinnamomum 2ty-
                                             lanicum, var. y; Cassia, Nees; Heen-pal (Cin-
                                             galese).—This variety, which I have received
                                             from Ceylon under the name of Bastard Cin-
                                             namon, has oblong or elliptical leaves, much
                                             tapering to the point, and acute at the base.
                                                Percival"  mentions four varieties which
                                             are  barked:  1st, Rasse curundu, or honey cin-
                                             namon, with  broad  leaves, yields the best
                                             bark; 2dly, Nai curundu, or snake cinnamon,
                                             also with large leaves, not greatly inferior to
                                              the former; 3dly, Capuru curundu,ox camphor
                                              cinnamon, an inferior  kind;  4thly, cabaitt
                                              curundu, or astringent cinnamon, with smaller
              Cinnamomum zeylanicum.           leaves; its bark has a harsh taste.
                                              Hab.—Cultivated in  Ceylon and Java.
    Production.—The cinnamon  bark of Ceylon is obtained by the cultivation of
 the plant.   The principal cinnamon gardens lie in the neighbourhood of Columbo.

   1 Crawford, Hist, of the Ind. Archip. vol. i. p. 510.   a Exod. xxx. 23.
   3 Pictorial Bible, vol. i. p. 222.                   4 Thalia, cvii. and cxi.
   5 Royle, Essay on Hindoo Medicine, pp. 81 and 141.   6 Pp. '265, 575, and 609, ed. Fees.
   1 Lit), i. cap. 13.                               8 Gen. Plant.
   9 Systtma Laurinarum.                         ,0 Cat. of Ceylon Plants.               „.,
   11 Account of the Island of Ceylon.                " See Percival's Account of Ceylon, 2d ed. two-
 
Ceylon Cinnamon:—Commerce; Description.
389
The bark-peelers, or choliahs, having selected a tree of the best quality, lop off such
branches as arc three years old, and which appear  proper for the purpose.   Shoots
or branches, much less than  half  an inch, or more  than  two or three inches  in
diameter, are  not peeled.   The peeling is effected  by  making  two  opposite,  or,
when the branch is thick, three or  four, longitudinal incisions, and then  elevating
the bark by introducing  the  peeling-knife beneath  it.  When  the  bark adheres
firmly, its separation is promoted  by friction with the  handle  of the knife.  In
twenty-four  hours, the epidermis and  greenish  pulpy matter (rete  mucosum) are
carefully scraped off.   In a few hours, the  smaller quills are introduced into the
larger ones, and in this way a congeries of quills formed, often measuring  forty
inches long    The bark is then dried in the sun, and afterwards made into bundles
with pieces of split  bamboo twigs.1
  Cinnamon walking-sticks.—The  hazel-like walking-sticks, so much esteemed by  visitors  to
Ceylon, are obtained from the shoots which spring almost perpendicularly from the roots after
the parent bush or tree has been cut down.2
   Commerce.—Cinnamon is imported in bales,  boxes, and chests, from  Ceylon
principally; but in  part also  from Madras, Tellicherry, and rarely from Java and
other places.
   In order to preserve and improve the quality of the bark, black pepper is  sprin-
kled among the bales of cinnamon  in stowing them at Ceylon (Percival).  Mr. Ben-
nett states that ships are sometimes  detained  for  several weeks, through the want
of pepper to fill the interstices between the bales in the holds.
   When cinnamon arrives  in London, it  is  unpacked  and  examined; all  the
mouldy and broken pieces are  removed from it.   It  is then re-made into  bales.
These are cylindrical, 3 feet  6 inches long, but of variable diameter, perhaps  16
inches on the  average.  These bales  are enveloped by  a  coarse cloth, called gunny.
The cinnamon  in  boxes and chests is usually the  small, inferior, and mouldy
pieces.
   Description.—Four kinds of cinnamon3 are distinguished in the London mar-
ket;  namely,  Ceylon,  Tellicherry, Malabar, and Java  cinnamon.  The  latter,
however, is rarely met with.   A fifth kind, called Cayenne, occurs in French com-
merce.
   The Chinese cinnamon of continental writers is Cassia lignea of English commerce.
   1. Ceylon  Cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum seu  Cinnamomum acutum).—
This is the most esteemed kind.   The fasciculi  or compound quills, of which the
bales are made up,  are about 3 feet 6 inches long, slender, and shivery, and are
composed of several smaller quills  inclosed one within  the other.  The bark is thin
(the finest being scarcely thicker  than drawing paper), smooth, of  a light yellow-
brown or brownish-yellow, moderately pliable, with a  splintery fracture, especially
in the longitudinal  direction.    The inner side or  liber is darker and browner, and
contains, according  to Nees, small  medullary rays filled with a red juice, and which
he regards as the peculiar bearers of the aroma.    The odour of the bark  is highly
fragrant.  The flavour is warm, sweetish, and  agreeable.   Inspection and tasting
are the methods resorted  to for ascertaining the qualities of cinnamon.*
   Ceylon cinnamon is characterized  by being cut obliquely at the  bottom of the
quill, whereas the other kinds are  cut transversely.   In the London market  three
qualities of Ceylon cinnamon  are distinguished;  viz. first, seconds, and thirds.  In-
ferior kinds are thicker, darker, browner, and have a pungent, succeeded by a  bitter
taste.
  Thin, very much convoluted, smaller quills being inclosed in larger ones.  Ph. Lond.
   2.  Tellicherry or Bombay Cinnamon is grown on one estate only, at Tellicherry,

  ' Perciviil, op. cit.; mid Marshall,  in Thomson's Ann. of Philosophy  vol  x
  * Bennett, Ceylon and its Capabilities, 1843.
  • In the yearn 1KW and 1M0, I examined above 1000 bales  of cinnamon in the Dock warehouses   In
,s,°-  ',was V'1 \y i,"i,,8te'' in my "animation by Mr. Carroll,  of Mincin-  Lnne, one of the most exne-
rirner<l I...i«l..ti dc-.ilern, who attended with me. und from whom  I derived much practical information
  • >i■<• Percival,  op. supra cit.; also, Marshall, op. supra cit. 
390                VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Laurace*:.

by Mr. Brown, and is wholly consigned  to  Messrs. Forbes and Co.  Only 120 or
130 bales are annually imported.   In appearance it is equal to the Ceylon kinds;
but the internal surface of the bark is more  fibrous, and the flavour is inferior.  It
is superior to the Malabar variety.
  3. Madras or Malabar Cinnamon is of inferior quality.  It is  grown, I am in-
formed, on the  Coromandel coast.   It is coarser and inferior in flavour to the other
kinds.  In  thickness  it approximates to Cassia lignea.   Its  quality has annually
deteriorated since its introduction into the market.   It does not meet  with a ready
sale, and it is expected that its importation  will cease.
  4. Java Cinnamon.—This is said to be equal in quality to the Ceylon sort.1
  5.  Cayenne Cinnamon.—This is unknown in the London market.  Its volatile
oil is more acrid and peppery than the oil from Ceylon cinnamon.8
  Substitution.—In commerce, Cassia lignea (called on the continent Chinese
cinnamon) is frequently substituted for cinnamon.  It is distinguished by its greater
thickness, its  short resinous fracture, its less delicacy but greater strength of flav-
our, its shorter quills, and its  being  packed in  small bundles.  Moreover,  it may
be distinguished chemically by the action of iodine on its  infusion (see  infra).  The
difference of flavour  is  best distinguished when the  barks are ground to powder.
The great consumers of cinnamon are the chocolate-makers of Spain, Italy, France,
and Mexico, and by  them the difference of  flavour between cinnamon and cassia is
readily detected.   An extensive dealer in cinnamon informs me that the Germans,
Turks, and Russians  prefer cassia, and  will not  purchase cinnamon, the delicate
flavour of which is not strong enough for them.   In illustration of this, I was told
that some cinnamon (valued at 3s. 6d.  per lb.) having been  by  mistake sent to Con-
stantinople, was unsaleable there at any price;  while cassia lignea (worth about 6d.
per lb.) was in great request.
   Composition.—In 1817, Vauquelin3 made a comparative analysis of the cinna-
mons of Ceylon and Cayenne.   The constituents of both were found to be volatik
oil, tannin, mucilage, colouring matter (partially soluble in water and in alcohol,
but insoluble in  ether), resin, an acid, and  ligneous fibre.  Starch is a constituent
of cinnamon, though not mentioned in this analysis.
   Chemical Characteristics.—Sesquichloride of iron causes a greenish floccu-
lent precipitate (tannate  of iron)  in  infusion of  cinnamon.   Solution of gelatine
also occasions a precipitate (tannate of gelatine) in  the infusion.
   A  decoction of cinnamon may be distinguished from a decoction of cassia lignea
by tincture of iodine; which gives a blue colour (iodine  of starch) with the latter,
but not with the former.    Both barks contain starch, but cinnamon appears to con-
tain a larger proportion of  some principle  (tannic  acid ?) which destroys the blue
colour of iodide of starch; for, if the decoction of cassia lignea rendered blue by
iodine be added to the decoction of cinnamon, the blue colour  disappears. .
   Physiological Effects.—Cinnamon produces the effects of the spices already
described (see  ante, p. 221).   In moderate doses,  it  stimulates the  stomach, pro-
duces a sensation of  warmth in the epigastric region, and promotes the assimilative
functions.   The repeated use of it disposes  to costiveness.
   In full doses, it acts as a general stimulant to the vascular and nervous systems.
Some writers regard it as acting specifically on the  uterus.4
   Uses.—The uses of cinnamon  are those  of the species generally, and which
have been  before  noticed.  It  is employed by the cook  as  an agreeable  condi-
ment.  In medicine, it  is  frequently added to other substances: as to  the bitter
infusions,  to  improve their flavour;  and  to  purgatives,  to  check  their  griping
qualities.  As a cordial, stimulant, and tonic, it is  indicated  in all  cases charac-
terized by feebleness  and  atony.   As an  astringent, it  is employed in diarrhoea,
usually in combination with chalk, the-vegetable infusions, or opium.   As a cordial

  1 Proceedings of the Committee of Commerce and Agriculture of the Asiatic Society, p. 147.
  2 Vauquelin, Journ. de Pharm. t. iii. p. 434.                ' Journ. de Pharmacie, t. iii. P'**J"
  * Sundelin, Heilmittel. Bd. ii. S. 199, 3tte Cufl.; and Wibmer, Wirk. d. Arzn. u. Gifte, Bd. ii.* 137. 
Oil of Cinnamon.
391
and stimulant, it is exhibited in  the latter stages of low fever.   In flatulent and
spasmodic affections of the alimentary canal, it  often proves  a very efficient car-
minative and antispasmodic.  It checks nausea  and vomiting.  It has also been
used in uterine  hemorrhage.
  Administration.—The dose  of it in substance is from ten grains to  half a
drachm.
  1. OLEUM  CDJNAMOMI, L. E. D. [U. S.];  Oleum Cinnamomi veri, offic.;  Oil of
 Cinnamon.—(Obtained in Ceylon  by macerating the inferior pieces of the bark,
reduced to a  gross powder, in sea-water for  two days, when  both are submitted to
distillation.)—As  imported, the oil varies  somewhat in  its colour from yellow to
cherry-red ; the paler varieties are most esteemed; hence  London  druggists fre-
quently submit the red oil of cinnamon to distillation, by which they procure two
pale yellow oils;  one lighter (amounting to about the  quarter of the whole), the
other heavier than water.  The loss on this process is considerable, being  near 10
per cent.   Percival says that the oil obtained from  the finer sorts of cinnamon is
of a beautiful gold colour,  while that from the coarser bark is darker  and brownish.
   Its odour  is pleasant, and purely cinnamomic.   Its  taste is at first sweetish,
afterwards cinnamomic, burning, and acrid.
   Cinnamon oil of commerce is a  complex substance, consisting of  a mixture or
compound of two or more  bodies.  The principal  constituent, and which  is consi-
dered to  be cinnamon oil  properly so called, is the hydruret of cinnamyle, whose
formula, according to Mulder,1 is C30!!1^2;  but, according to Dumas and Peligot,3
 is C'H'KX  Mulder3 supposes that the differences  in these formulae depend on the
oil analyzed by Dumas and Peligot not having been quite fresh.
   By exposure to the air,  oil of cinnamon  absorbs oxygen, and produces cinnamic
 acid, two resins, and water.
  3(C*oH"0-!)   -f     80    =     C'sflvos   -|_   CI2H50  -f C3°Hl50« -f  6HO

Oil of cinnamon.     Oxygen.     Cinnamic acid.     a resin.      0 resin.     Water.
 With nitric  acid, oil  of cinnamon combines to  form  a white crystalline nitrate
 (C,sHsOfl,NOs) and a red oil.  With ammonia, the oil unites to form a crystalline
 solid amide, called cinnhydramide, whose formula is C54!!24^1'2.
   On  account  of  their great difference in commercial value, and resemblance in
 physical  and chemical  properties, oil of cassia is sometimes substituted for, or ad-
 mixed with,  genuine oil of cinnamon.  The finer  and more delicate  odour  of the
 latter is the ohief distinction between them.
   The Edinburgh College  gives the following characters of oil of cinnamon:—
   "Cherry-red when old; wine yellow when recent;  odour purely cinnamomic: nitric acid
converts it nearly into a uniform crystalline mass."
   These characters, however, are not peculiar to  this oil, as they are  also possessed
 by oil of cassia.
   Zetter4 says  that oil of  cinnamon is a thinner  and specifically lighter oil, which
does not become  turbid at a lower temperature  than the oil  of cassia.   Most, if
not  all,  the  other characteristic differences which  he has  given  probably relate
rather to  particular samples of the oils than to their peculiar natures.
   Oilof cinnanwn root.—In 1848 some of this oil was imported.  Its colour was pale  yellow
and its odour that of cinnamon; but not so delicate as the oil of the bark.
   Oil of cinnamon is sometimes employed as a powerful stimulant in paralysis of
the tongue, in syncope, or  in cramp of the stomach.  But its principal use is as an
adjuvant to other medicines.  The dose of it is from one to three minims.

   I OLEUM riWAMIWI FOLIORUM;  Oil  of  Cinnamon Leaf—It is exported from
Ceylon, and is sometimes called,  on account of its odour, clove oil.
* Berlinisches Jahrbuchfur d. Pharmacie, Bd. xxxviii. p. 176, 1837
» Ann. de Chim. et de Phys.
* Pharmaceutisches Central-BlattfUr 1839, p. 879.
4 Jahrbuchfurpraktische Pharmacie, Bd. xix. S. 3, and General-Tabelle, 1849. 
392
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Laurace*:.
   I am informed by a gentleman on whose estate in  Ceylon it is obtained, that it
 is procured by macerating the leaves in sea-water, and afterwards submitting both
 to  distillation.   It  is a yellow liquid, heavier  than water, and has  an odour and
 taste analogous to those of oil of cloves.
   Bennett1 declares it to be  equal in aromatic pungency to the oil  made from the
 clove at the Molucca Islands.  Oil of cinnamon leaf is, however, specifically lighter
 than genuine oil of  cloves; but, like the latter, yields a dark blue colour with the
 tincture of  the sesquichloride of iron.   Its effects and uses are similar to those of
 oil of cloves.

   I  AQUA CINNAMOMI, L.  E.  D.  [U.S.]; Cinnamon Water.—(Cinnamon, bruised,
 Ibiss; Water  Cong.  ij.   Let a gallon distil.   Or, Oil  of Cinnamon f5ij;  Powdered
 Flint  5ij; Distilled Water Cong. j.   Diligently  rub the oil, first with tbe flint
 afterwards with the water, and  strain  the  liquor, L.—Cinnamon  Bark bruised'
 gxviij; Water  two  gallons;  Rectified Spirit fJiij.   Mix them together,'and dig!
 til  off  one gallon, E.—Essence  of Cinnamon f|j; Distilled Water half a gallon.
 Mix with agitation, and filter through  paper, I).—[Take Oil of  Cinnamon fW
 Carbonate of  Magnesia 3j; Distilled  Water Oij.   Rub  the oil of cinnamon, first
 with the  carbonate  of magnesia, then with the  water gradually added, and filter
 through paper,  I'. S.])—Cinnamon water is principally  employed as a vehicle for
 other medicines.  It is aromatic and carminative.   Gceppert says it is poisonous to
 plants.  By dissolving iodine  and iodide of potassium in cinnamon water, a crys-
 talline compound is  produced, consisting of iodide of potassium 12.55, iodine 28.14,
 oil of cinnamon 59.31.2

   4.  SPIRITUS CINNAMOMI, L.  E.  ; Spirit of Cinnamon.—(Oil of Cinnamon 3ij;
 Proof  Spirit  Cong, j; Water  Oj.    Dissolve, L.—Cinnamon, in coarse powder^
 ibj ;  Proof Spirit Ovij.   Macerate for  two  days  in a covered vessel; add a  pint
 and a half of water; and distil off seven pints, E.)—Stimulant.   Dose, f3j tofjiv.
   5.  ESSENTIA  CINNAMOMI,  D.; Essence of  Cinnamon.—(Oil  of Cinnamon 13J;
 Rectified  Spirit t|ix.    Mix with  agitation,  D.)—Used for  making  cinnamon
 water.  A few drops may be  taken on a lump of  sugar as a stimulant.

   6.  TINCTURA  CINNAMOMI, L. E. [U. S.];  Tincture  of Cmnamoa.—(Cinnamon,
 bruised, giijss [in moderately fine powder, E.]; Proof Spirit Oij [U. S.].  Mace-
 rate for seven days,  and strain.  [Proceed by percolation or digestion, as directed
 for tincture of cassia, E.])—Commonly used as an adjuvant to cretaceous, astring-
 ent, tonic, or purgative mixtures.  It has also been  employed in uterine  hemor-
 rhage.3  Dose, f3j to f3iv.

   7.  TINCTURA CINNAMOMI COMPOSITA, L. E. D. [U. S.]; Compound  Tincture of
 Cinnamon.—(Cinnamon, bruised [in  fine powder, if  percolation  be followed, E],
 3}  [Iij> D-] 5 Cardamom, bruised, Jss [gj, E. I).]; Long Pepper, powdered [ground
 finely, E.], 3ijss [3iij, E.] [not used by the Dublin  College]; Ginger 3ijss  [not
 used by the 1M. College [gss, D.]];  Proof Spirit Oij.  Macerate for  seven [four-
 teen, D. ( U. S.)] days, express and strain, L.   " This tincture is best prepared by
 the  method of percolation as directed  for the compound  tincture  of cardamom.
 But it may  also be made in the ordinary way by digestion for seven days, straining
 and expressing  the  liquor, and then  filtering it,"  E.   [The formula of the U. S.
 is like  that of the London Pharm.])—Cordial and aromatic.  Used in the same
 cases as the last.  Dose, f3j to f3ij.

   8.  PULVIS CINNAMOMI COMPOSITUS, L.; Pulvis Aromaticus, E. D. [U. S.]; Cm-
pound Powder  of Cinnamon; Aromatic Powder.—(Cinnamon  gij ; Cardamom
 Jiss [gj, D. (U. S.)]; Ginger gj fjij, D.];  [Long Pepper gss,  L.; Nutmeg gj,
 D. ( U. S.)].  Rub them together, so that a very fine powder may be made, L. D.—

  1 Ceylon and its Capabilities, p. 70, 1843.
  a Apjohn, Athenceum, No. 517, for 1;J7; aud No. 559, 183;.      * Voigtels, Arzneim. Bd. ii. S.465. 
Cinnamon Cassia :—History; Botany.                393
The Edinburgh College employs cinnamon, cardamom  seeds, and ginger, of each
equal parts.)—Aromatic and carminative.   Dose, grs. x to grs. xxx.   Principally
employed as a corrigent of other preparations.

  9. CONFECTIO AROMATICA, L. D. [U. S.]; Electuarium Aromaticum, E.; Aromatic
Confection.—(Cinnamon, Nutmegs,  each  gij;  Cloves gj ; Cardamom Seeds gss;
Saffron  gij;  Prepared Chalk |xvj;  Sugar  Ifeij;  Distilled Water as much as
may be sufficient.   Rub  the dry ingredients  together  to  a very fine powder, and
preserve  in  a stoppered  vessel.  "When the confection is required for use, add two
fluidrachms of water to each ounce of the powder, and mix them  together  until
they form one mass,  L.   The  Edinburgh  College orders  of Aromatic Powder
one part; Syrup of Orange Peel two parts.   Mix  and triturate them into a uni-
form pulp.—The Dublin College orders of Aromatic Powder |v; Dried Saffron,
in fine powder,  gss;  Oil of  Cloves f3ss; Simple Syrup f|v; Clarified Honey,
by weight, gij.  Rub the aromatic  powder with  the saffron, add the syrup and
honey, and beat them together till thoroughly  mixed;  lastly, add the Oil of
Cloves.)—The preparation  of the London Pharmacopoeia differs essentially from
the aromatic confection of the Edinburgh and Dublin Pharmacopoeias, in not con-
taining chalk.  The London College directs the water to be  added when  the  pre-
paration is wanted,  with the view of preventing fermentation, to which  the prepa-
ration is subject.    Some druggists substitute  a  strong infusion of saffron  for the
solid saffron ;  the volatile oil of the  spices for the spices themselves; and precipi-
tated carbonate of lime for chalk.
   Aromatic confection, Ph.  L., is antacid, stimulant, and carminative.  It is usually
added to the ordinary chalk  mixture in diarrhoea, and is employed on various other
occasions where spices are indicated.   Dose, grs. x to 3J-
   [The If. S. Pharm. directs of Aromatic Powder five ounces and a half; Saffron,
in powder, half an ounce; Syrup of  Orange Peel six ounces;  Clarified Honey two
ounces.]


    141. CINNAMOMUM CASSIA, Blume— THE  CINNAMON
                                  CASSIA.
                           Cinnamomum aromaticum, Nees.
                           Sex. Syst.  Enneandria. Monogynia.
             (Cassia-bark.  Oil of Cassia, E.— Cassia lignea, and Cassia buds, offic.)

   History.—It is highly  probable that the bark, now  called  cassia lignea, was
known to the ancient Greeks and Romans;  but we cannot  positively prove this.
The barks termed by the  ancients cinnamomum (xtwdpiupov) and cassia1  (xdaata),
as well as the trees yielding   these substances, are too imperfectly described to
enable us  to  determine with   precision  the  substances referred to.   The cassia
tree is called in Chinese Kwei (Qui).  Cassia lignea is  called Kwei Pe, or Cas-
sia skin ;  while Cassia buds are termed Kwei Tsze, or Cassia seeds.   Cinnamon is
called Yuh  Kwei (vulgarly  Yoke Qui), or Precious Cassia.   It is not a product
of China.
   Botany.   Gen  Char.—Vide Cinnamomum zeylanicum.
   Sp. Char.—Leaves opposite, sometimes alternate, oblong-lanceolate, triple-nerved;
the nerves  vanishing  at the   point of the leaf.  Petioles and  younger branches
silky-tomeutose.  Stem arborescent (Blume).2
   Hab— China ;  cultivated in  Java.
  Tin? tn-o known in  Ceylon as the Daund Kurunda was erroneously supposed by Linnseus to
be the source of cassia birk, and hence he termed it Laurus Cassia   The Dublin College has
been led into the same error.  Many years since, Mr. Marshall3 stated that the bark of Dawul
Kurundn was not aromatic like cinnamon, but  had  the bitter taste and the odour of myrrh.
1 Psalm xiv. 9.
' Ann. of Phil. vol. X. 1817.
1 Bijdrag. 
394               VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Laurace,e.

This tree is the Litsaa Ceylanica of recent botanists.1  Mr. Marshall declares8 that in Ceylon it
is never decorticated, and that the coarse cinnamon (i.e. cinnamon procured  from thick shoot*
or large branches of Cinnamomum  zeylanicum) "has been imported into England, and sold
under the denomination of cassia."  It has been erroneously inferred  from this statement thai
the  cassia lignea of European commerce  was merely coarse  cinnamon;  but if this were the
case, it would be somewhat remarkable that cassia lignea is not imported from Ceylon. It ]%
not  at all improbable that coarse Ceylon cinnamon may have been sold in the London market
as cassia lignea; but  this by no  means establishes the  identity of  the two  barks.  Snob an
occurrence can now scarcely  happen, seeing that all cinnamon (coarse as  well as tine) ex-
ported from Ceylon pays a duty of 3s. per lb., while the  value of cassia lignea in bond is about
6d.  per lb.
  In the Pun tsaou (a Chinese herbal) is a drawing of the Cassia tree. It is represented "row-
ing  on a hill, and as having a very crooked arid knotted  stem.
  Description.—Two substances are believed to  be obtained  from this species*
namely, the bark called cassia lignea, and the flower buds termed cassia buds.
  1.  Cassia lignea (cortex cassia?) is regarded on the continent of  Europe,  nnd in
America,3 as a sort of cinnamon.  In English commerce, it is always distinguished.
It is imported in chests.   It resembles  cinnamon in many of its qualities.   It is
made up in bundles, which are tied with slips of bamboo.   It has the same general
appearance, smell, and taste  as cinnamon ; but its  substance is thicker, its appear-
ance  coarser,  its  colour darker,  browner, and duller;  its flavour, though cinnamo-
mic, is much less sweet and fine than  that of Ceylon cinnamon, but is more pungent,
and is followed by a bitter taste; it is less closely quilled, and breaks shorter, than
genuine cinnamon  (see ante, p. 390).   It  is imported  from Singapore, Calcutta,
Bombay,  and Manilla.
  1.  China cassia lignea (sometimes called China cinnamon) is the best kind.  It
is usually imported from Singapore, rarely from Canton direct.  Mr. Reeves4 says
vast quantities of both cassia buds and cassia lignea are annually brought to Canton
from  the province of Kwangse,  whose principal city 'Kwei Lin Too), literally the
city of the  Forest (or Grove) of Cassia trees, derives its name from the  forests of
cassia around it.
  The Chinese themselves  use a much thicker bark (which they call  Gan Kwei Pe),
unfit  for the  European market.   Mr. Reeves informs me  that  they esteem it so
highly as to pay nearly 10 dollars per lb.  for it.    A very fine quality is occasion-
ally met with, and commands the enormous  price  of 100 dollars per catty (1$ lb.)
A specimen of it, with which he  has kindly furnished me, is straight, semi-cylin-
drical, 11 inches long, rather more than an  inch wide, and about one-sixth or one-
eighth of an  inch thick.   Externally it is  warted, and covered with crustaceous
lichens.   Internally, it is deep  brown.  Its odour and flavour are  those of cassia.
Mr. Reeves also informs  me that the  best cassia lignea  is  cut in the  3d or 4th
moon, the second sort in the 6th or 7th  moon.
  2.  Malabar cassia lignea.—This  is brought from Bombay.  It is thicker and
coarser than that of China, and is more subject to foul  packing; hence  each bun-
dle  requires separate  inspection.5   It may,  perhaps, be  coarse cinnamon; for Dr.
White states that the bark of the older  branches  of the  genuine cinnamon plant is
exported from the Malabar coast as cassia.
  3.  Manilla cassia lignea.—This, I am informed, is usually sold in  bond for con-
tinental consumption.   I  have received a specimen  of bark  ticketed " Cassia vera
from  Manilla," the epidermis of which was imperfectly removed.
  4.  Mauritius cassia lignea.—This is occasionally  met with.
  2.  Cassiae buds (flares cassise immaturse; clavelli cinnamomi) are  not contained
in any of the British  Pharmacopoeias.   They are  the produce  of  China, and are
probably  procured from the same plant  which yields cassia lignea.   Mr.  Reeves

 1 C.  G. Nees. ab Esenbeck, Syst. Laurinarum, Berol. 1836; also Dr. Wight,  in Jameson'*  Journal,
vol.  xxviii. Edinb. 1«40.
 2 Annals of Philosophy, vol. x. 1817.                                                 ,
 3 In  the American pharmacopoeia, both  cinnamon and cassia lignea are included  under the name oi
cinnamon.
 4 Trans. Med. Bot. Society for 1828, p. 26.                         *  Milbunrs Orient.  Comm. 
Cinnamon Cassia :—Composition j  Effects ; Administration.    395
tells me that he has always understood and has no doubt that both cassia buds and
cassia lignea are obtained from the same trees.   The buds are gathered, he informs
me, in the 8th or 9th moon.   Dr. T.  W. C Martius1 says "that, according to the
latest observations which  the elder  Nees has made  known,  cassia buds  are the
calyces  (Fruchtkelche)  of  Cinnamomum  aromaticum, about  one-fourth of  their
normal  size.   It is  also  said  that  they  are collected from  Cinnamomum  dulce
(Nees), which is found in China."  Cassia buds bear  some resemblance to cloves,
but are  smaller, or to nails with round heads; they have the  odour and flavour of
cassia lignea or cinnamon.   The exports  from Canton  in 1831 were 177,866 lbs.,
and the imports  into Great  Britain  in 1832 were 75,173 lbs.2  In 1840, 6,406
lbs. paid duty.   Cassia  buds have not yet been analyzed; their constituents are
similar  to those of cassia lignea; they yield a volatile oil by distillation, and contain
tannic acid.
   Composition.— Cassia lignea was analyzed  by Bucholz,3 who  obtained the fol-
lowing  results:  Volatile oil, 0.8; resin, 4.0; gummy (astringent)  extractive, 14.6;
woody fibre with bassorin,  64.3; water and loss, 16.3 = 100.0.
   Chemical Characteristics.—Sesquichloride of iron renders decoction of cassia
lignea dark green, and  causes a precipitate (tannate of iron).   Gelatine also pro-
duces a precipitate (tannate  of gelatine).   If tincture of  iodine  be added to it, a
blue colour (iodide of starch) is produced.   By this  cassia lignea  may be distin-
guished from genuine cinnamon (see  ante, p. 389).
   Physiological Effects.—Similar to those of cinnamon.   Sundelin4 regards it
as being more astringent.
   Uses.—Are the same as those of cinnamon.
   Administration.—Dose, grs. x to 3ss.

   1.  OLEUM CASSIiE, E.;  Oil of Cassia;  Oil of Chinese  Cinnamon.—(Obtained
from cassia lignea by distillation with water.)—Its properties  and  composition are
similar to those of oil of cinnamon, before described (see ante, p. 391).   Its odour
and flavour, however, are  inferior to  those of the latter.  Its colour is usually pale
yellow.  Nitric acid converts it into a crystalline mass.   Its effects and  uses are
similar to those of  oil of cinnamon.   It  is employed  in the  preparation of Aqua
and Spiritus Cassise.—Dose, gtt. j to gtt. iv.

   2.  AQUA CASSIE, E.;  Cassia  Water.—(Cassia  bark,  bruised, sxviij ; Water  Cong.
ij; Rectified Spirit f^iij.   Mix them together, and distil off; one gallon.)—Used  as
an aromatic vehicle for other medicines.   It is usually prepared from the oil in the
same way that cinnamon  water is commonly made.

   3.  SPIRITUS  CASSIvE,  E.;  Spirit  of Cassia.—(Cassia, in  coarse powder, Ibj ;
Proof Spirit Ovij.   Macerate for two days in a covered vessel, add a pint and a half
of water, and distil  off  seven pints.)—Dose f3j  to f3iv.  It is usually prepared by
adding oil of cassia to proof spirit.

^ 4.  T1MTURA CASSIiE, E.; Tincture of Cassia.—(Cassia, in moderately fine powder,
liijss;  Proof Spirit Oij.   Digest for seven days, strain, express the residuum
strongly, and  filter. _ This tincture  is more conveniently made by the process of
percolation, the cassia being allowed  to macerate in a little  of the spirit for twelve
hours before being put into the percolator.)—Dose fjj to f^fij.   Used as an adjuvant
to tonic infusions.
1 Pharmacognosie, S. '213.
* M'Cullocli's Dirt, of Comm.
* Parliam. Keturns, No. 50, S.ss. 1829; No. 367, Sess. 1832: No. 550, Sess. 1833.
• Hetlmtttell. Bil. n. S. 119, 3tte Aufl. 
396                VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Lauracejs.
   142.  CAMPHORA OFFICINARUM, A««.-THE CAMPHOR
                                 LAUREL.
                             Laurus Camphora, Linn.
                          Sex. Syst. Enneandria, Monogynia.
         (Concretum e ligno sublimatione comparatum, purificatum, I..—Camphor, E. D.)

   History.—The ancient Greeks and Romans do not appear to have been acquainted
with camphor.  C. Bauhin and several subsequent writers state that Aetius speaks of
it;  but I have been unable to find any notice  of it in  his writings; and others1'have
been  equally unsuccessful in their search  for it.   Avicenna2 and Serapion3 call it
cdfur; the latter erroneously cites Dioscorides.   Symeon Seth,4  who lived in the
11th  century, describes it, and calls it xa^ovpa (the name by which it is designated
in the Pharmacopoeia  Graca, 1837);  and his description  is considered,  both by
Voigtels5 and Sprengel0, to be  the earliest on record.
   Botany.  Gen. Char.—Flowers hermaphrodite, panicled, naked.  Calyx 6-cleft,
papery, with a deciduous limb.  Fertile stamens 9,  in 3 rows; the inner with 2,
stalked,  compressed  glands at the base;  anthers 4-celled, the outer turned inwards,
the inner outwards.   3 sterile stamens, shaped like the last, placed in a  whorl alter-
nating with the stamens of the second row; 3 others stalked, with an ovate, glandular
head.  Fruit placed on the obcoftical base of the calyx.  Leaves triple-nerved, glandu-
lar in the axils of the principal veins.   Leaf buds scaly (Lindley).
   Sp. Char.—Leaves triple-nerved,  shining above, glandular in  the axils of the
veins.  Panicles axillary and terminal, corymbose, naked.
   Flowers smooth on the outside (Nees).
   Young branches yellow and smooth.   Leaves evergreen, oval, acuminate, attenuate
at the base, bright green and shining above, paler  beneath.   Petioles from  1 to 1}
inches long.   Panicles axillary and terminal, corymbose.  Flowers small, yellowish-
white.   Berry round, blackish-red, size of a black  currant.   Seed solitary.
   Every part of  the  tree, but  especially the flower, evinces by its smell and taste
that it is strongly impregnated with camphor.
   Hab.—China, Japan, and Cochin-China.   Introduced into Java from Japan.
   Extraction  and Description.—Two kinds  of  unrefined or crude camphor
(camphora cruda vel rudis) are known in commerce; one is the produce of Japan,
the other of China.
   1.  Japan Camphor.—This is always brought to Europe by the Dutch, and is,
therefore, called  Dutch camphor.
   Kjempfer7 and Thunberg8  have described the method of extracting this kind of
camphor in the  provinces of Satzuma, and the islands of Gotho in Japan.  The
roots and wood of the tree, chopped up, are boiled with water in  an iron vessel, to
which an earthen head, containing straw, is adapted.  The camphor sublimes and
condenses on the straw.
   Japan or Dutch camphor is brought to Europe by way of Batavia.   It is import-
ed in tubs  (hence it is called tub camphor) covered by matting, and each surrounded
by a second tub,  secured on the outside by hoops of twisted cane.  Each tub con-
tains from  1 cwt. to  \\ cwts.  or more.    It consists  of pinkish  grains, which, by
their mutual adhesion, form various-sized masses.   It differs from the  ordinary
crude camphor in having larger grains, in being cleaner, and in subliming (usually)
at a lower  temperature.   In consequence of these properties, it generally fetches
10s. per cwt. more.   There is not much brought to  England, and of that which docs
come the greater part is re-shipped for the continent.
1 Alston, Led. on the Mat. Med. vol. ii. p. 406.
3 De temp, simpl. ccexxxiv.
5 Arzneim. Bd. i. S. 83.
' Amaen. Exot. p. 772.
a Lib. ii. tract, ii. cap. 134.
4 De aliment, facult.
• Hist.de la Mtd.t. ii. p. 228.
• Fl. Japonica. 
Camphor Laurel :—Refinement; Properties.            397
  2. China Camphor; Formosa Camphor.—This is  the ordinary crude camphor.
The method of obtaining crude camphor in China has been described by the Abbe
Grosicr,1 Dentrecolles,3 and Davis.3  The  chopped branches  are  steeped in water,
and afterwards boiled, until the camphor begins to adhere to the  stick used in stir-
ring.  The liquid is then strained, and, by standing, the camphor concretes.  Alter-
nate layers of a dry earth, finely powdered, and of this camphor, are then placed in
a copper basin,  to which another inverted one is luted, and sublimation effected.
  This kind of crude camphor is imported from Singapore, Bombay, &c, in square
chests  lined  with  lead-foil, and containing  from \\ to \\  cwts.   It  is chiefly
produced in the island of Formosa, and is brought by the Chin-Chew junks in very
large quantities to  Canton, whence foreign markets  get  supplied.4  It consists of
dirty grayish grains, which are smaller than those of  Dutch camphor.  Its quality
varies;  sometimes it is wet and impure, but occasionally it is as  fine  as the Dutch
kind.
  Refinement.—Crude camphor is  refined by sublimation.   Formerly, this pro-
cess was carried on  only  at Venice.   Afterwards, it was successfully practised in
Holland.*  The method at present adopted in this metropolis is, as I  am informed,
as follows :8  The vessels in which this sublimation is effected are called  bomboloes
(boinbola, Ital. $op.jiv\ibs).  They are made of thin flint glass,
and  weigh about 1 lb. each.   Their shape is that  of an oblate
spheroid, whose shorter or vertical axis is  about ten inches,
and  the longer  or horizontal axis about twelve inches.  They
are furnished with  a  short neck.7  When filled with crude
camphor, they  are  imbedded  in  the sand-bath, and  heated.
To the melted camphor lime is added,  and  heat raised so as
to make the liquid boil.  The  vapour condenses on the upper
part of  the vessel.   As the sublimation proceeds, the height
of the sand around the vessel is diminished.   In  about forty-       ^Bombolo
eight hours the process is usually completed.   The  vessels
are  then removed, and their mouths clothed with tow; water is sprinkled over them
by watering-pots, by which they are cracked.   When quite cold, the cake  of cam-
phor (which  weighs about eleven pounds) is removed, and trimmed by paring and
scraping. In this process the  lime retains the impurities and a portion of the cam-
phor ;  hence, to extract the  latter, the lime  is  submitted  to  a  strong heat in an
iron pot with a head  to it, and the  sublimed product refined by a  second subli-
mation.
  Properties.—Refined Camphor (camphora raffinatavel elaborala; camphora,
officin.) is  met with in the  form of large  hemispherical  or convex-concave cakes,
perforated in the middle.  It is translucent, has a crystalline granular texture;8 a
strong, peculiar, not disagreeable, aromatic odour, and an aromatic,  bitter,  after-
    '•■ cooling  taste.   It  is solid  at ordinary temperatures,  soft, and somewhat
                                                                            to
                                                         -- burns in the air like
the volatile oils generally.   It fuses at 347° F., and forms  a transparent liquid,
which boils at  400° F., and  in close vessels condenses unchanged.  It is  lighter

  1 Hist. Gin. de la Chine, X. xiii. p. 335.                                o /-> . , , ~T[
  » The Chinese, vol. ii. p. 355, 1835                                      Quoted by Davis.
  ' Hctvcs, Trans. Me,L Bot. Soc. for 1828, p. 26: Gutzlaff and Reed, China Opened  vol ii n S4 1«S
Date""   ( °"r'1- "' Pharmt'P- 13«- lb^ !»• Scribed the refining ?££.,'«, prt'seu' ofthe


-pp-ratua.  -'J j,,.. of crude camphor, m.Wwiiha'dS^


^/^ m«^coVK                                      but ^rneo or dryobalanops
but Its primary form is a right rhombic prism i^l^iAS^^S!SSiS. *    °M™> 
398                VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Laurace^.

than water, its sp. gr. being 0.9867;  or, according to some, 0.996.1  Small pieces,
when thrown on this liquid, are violently agitated, and present a  gyratory motion
which ceases directly a drop of oil is let fall on the water.  If a cylinder of camphor
of the ith  or }th of an inch in diameter, be placed  vertically in water, it commu-
nicates  a to-and-fro  movement to  this  liquid, and, in  a  few days,  becomes cut
through at the surface of the water.  These phenomena are due to the simultaneous
evaporation of the camphor and water, and which  is most active where the two
bodies are  in contact.
   Camphor is but very slightly soluble in water; 1000 parts of the latter dissolv-
ing only one  part  of camphor at the ordinary pressure of the atmosphere.  But
under augmented pressure it becomes more soluble.
   Alcohol readily  dissolves camphor; but if water be  added to the  solution, the
camphor is precipitated.   Ether, bisulphuret of carbon, the oils (both  fixed and
volatile), and the acids, also dissolve  it.  The liquid obtained by dissolving camphor
in nitric acid  is sometimes termed camphor oil: it is a  nitrate of camphor, and n
decomposed by water, the camphor being precipitated.   The camphor  absorbs sul-
phurous and hydrochloric acid gases, with which it unites and forms respectively a
sulphite and a hydrochlorate of camphor.   Camphor is insoluble in alkaline solu-
tions.   The vapour of camphor passed over red-hot lime is converted into naphtha-
line, and an oily liquid called camphrone.
   Composition.—Camphor has the following composition:—
                                                                     Blanche!
                         Atoms.    Eq.Wt.     Percent.       Dumas.     and Sett.
     Carbon...........20.....120  .....78.91  .....7H.02 .....77.06
     Hydrogen.........  16.....16.....10.53  .....  10.39.....10.61
     Oxygen  ..........  2.....10  .....  10.53  ..... 11.59.....1L4J
        Camphor .......  1.....152  .....100.00  .....100.00.....1UO.O0

  Dumas has suggested that camphor may be rpgarded as an oxide of a base (as yet hypothetical)
whifh he calls camphogen, and  whose composition is C'°HS.
   Chemical Characteristics.—In its combustibility,  volatility, powerful odour,
solubility in alcohol  and ether, and almost  insolubility in  water, camphor agrees
with the volatile oils.  Being concrete or solid at ordinary temperatures, it obviously
belongs to the class of stearoptenes, or solid volatile oils.
   It is further distinguished by the remarkable character of its  odour, by its not
blackening in  burning,  and by its not being converted into resin by the oxygen of
the air or by nitric acid.  Bj repeatedly distilling  nitric acid from camphor, the
latter is converted into camphoric acid (C80II14O8,2IIO).  Before the whole of the
camphor has  been converted  into camphoric acid, there are produced intermediate
compounds of camphor  and this  acid, which we may  regard  as camphorates of
camphor.
   The camphor which we have now described may be designated common or laurel
camphor, in order to distinguish it from  Borneo camphor, or camphor of the Dryo-
balanops, as well as from artificial camphor (see ante, p. 294).
   Common or laurel camphor absorbs hydrochloric acid gas, and forms a transparent,
colourless liquid; Borneo camphor, on the contrary, is scarcely acted on by this acid
gas.   If Borneo camphor  be boiled in nitric  acid, it  is converted into common
camphor.
   Artificial camphor (see  ante,  p. 294) usually evolves some hydrochloric acid
when volatilized, and  burns in the air with a greenish sooty flame: if the flame be
blown  out, the evolved vapour has a  terebinthinate odour.  By these characters,
artificial camphor may be distinguished from laurel camphor.
  Ort or Lacrkl Camphor.—Pelouze and Fremy state that when the branches of Camphora
Officinarum.  are distilled with water, a mixture, of camphor and a liquid essential oil  is obtained,
which is called  oil of camphor.—This oil  has a den.-ity of 0.910: its composition  is C2''H"0.
  1 The density of camphor varies considerably, according t'> the temperature. At 32°, it is sail t' ^
denser than water 'Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. v. p. 473, lelGj. 
Laurel Camphor-.—its Physiological Effects.            399
By exposure to oxygen gas, or to the action of nitric acid, it absorbs oxygen  and becomes solid
camphor, C20H'6O2.  It is probable, therefore, that its formation precedes that of solid camphor
in the camphor tree.  I have met with this oil in commerce under the name of oil of camphor.
By keeping, it depos-its crystals of camphor, and, from this circumstance, may be distin;jni*hed
from the 01/ of Borneo camphor (see Dryobalanops),  By the action of hydrochloric acid, I find
that these crystals liquefy, like common or laurel camphor.  A considerable quantity of the oil
vvas purchased some years ago by a London manufacturer of scented soap, who submitted it to
distillation, and obtained from CO lbs. of it, 40 lbs. of colourless liquid oil, and 20 lbs. of crystal-
line camphor.  The oil has been described and analyzed by Dr. Th. Martins.1
   Physiological Effects,  o.  On Vegetables—Gceppert2 has satisfactorily shown
—first, that solutions of camphor act in the same deleterious manner on plants as
the volatile oils; secondly, that they destroy the mobility of contractile  parts with-
out previously  exciting them; thirdly, that they have no influence either  on the
germination  of phanerogamia, or the vegetation  of the cellular  cryptogamia;  and
fourthly, that  the vapour  only is  sufiicient to  destroy  fleshy  plants  and  ferns.
Miquet'  has confirmed these results.
   0. On  Animals  generally.-1—The action of camphor  on animals has been the
subject of numerous experiments made by Ilillefield,4 Monro,"'  Menghini and Car-
minati,8 Viborg, Hertwicly  Orfila," and Scudery.9
   Air impregnated with the  vapour of camphor  proves injurious to  insects  (the
Tineae, which destroy wool, excepted).   Sooner or later it causes frequent agitation,
followed by languor,  insensibility,  convulsions,  and  death  (Menghini).   To  am-
phibials (frogs) the vapour also  proves noxious.   It produces preternatural move-
ments, difficult respiration, trembling, and stupor (Carminati).   Given to birds and
mammals, in sufiicient doses, camphor proves poisonous;  but the symptoms which
it gives  rise  to do not appear to be uniform.   Indeed, there are few remedies whose
action on the animal economy is  so variable  as that of camphor.   Three  drachms
dissolved in  oil and given to a dog, the oesophagus being  tied, caused violent con-
vulsions, somewhat  analogous to  those of epilepsy,  followed by insensibility and
death (Orfila).   When  administered in substance, it inflamed the digestive tube,
caused ulceration, and, after its absorption, gave rise to convulsions (Ibid.).   Given
to horses, in doses of two drachms, it excites spasmodic  movements, and quickens
the pulse, but does not determine any serious result.10   Tiedemann and Gmelin"
detected the odour of camphor in the blood of the vena portae and  of the mesenteric
vein of a horse to whom  they had given camphor;  but they  could  recognize it
 neither  in the chyle  nor in the urine.  It is evolved from  the  system  principally
 by  the  bronchial surfaces;  for the breath of animals to which  this substance has
 been  administered has  a strong odour of camphor.   Moiroud13 observed  that  the
 skin of  a horse, into whose  jugular vein camphor  had been injected, smelt of this
 substance.
    "The general sedative effects  of camphor on animals are rarely well  marked;
 however, when administered in a proper dose, and in cases really  requiring its use,
 it  sometimes  causes  a  diminution in the force and frequency of the  pulse, and
seems to allay pain" (Moiroud).
   Scudery" observed that the convulsions caused in animals by camphor were ac-
companied with a peculiar kind of delirium, which caused them to run up and down
 without apparent cause.   He  also found the urinary organs generally affected, and
for the most part with strangury.
   y.  On Man.—So article of the materia medica has had more contradictory state-

   1 Berlinisches Jahrbuchfur d. Pharmacie, Bd. xl. S. 155, 1S>?.
   * PogirenriiH'flT, Ann. d  Phys. u. Chem. I>28.
   ' Meyen's Report on the  Progress of Vegetable Physiology during the year 1>37, p. 139, translated by
 \V. 1'rutins.
   1 ((noted by Wibmer, Wirk. d. Arzneim. u. Gifte, Dd. iii. S. 'J 15.
    1 -says and Ubs-.rv. Phys. and Lit. vol. iii. p. 351.                        • Wibmer, loco cit.
   ' Ibid.                                                          » Toxicol. Gin.
   ' Wibmer, op. cit.
   "' .Moiroud, Pharm. Viler.
   "  1. rsuchr a. d. Wege auf welchen Subst. aus d. Mag. u. Darmk. ins Blut gelang. S 21 and 2.5.
   '* Op. cit.                                               «» quoted by Dr. Christison. 
400               VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Laurace*:.

ments made respecting its effects and mode of action than  camphor.   These, how-
ever,  have principally referred to its influence over the functions of circulation and
calorification; for, with regard to  the  modifications which  it induces in the other
functions, scarcely any difference of opinion prevails.
   Its local action on the  mucous  surfaces, the denuded dermis, and ulcers, is that
of an acrid.   A piece of  camphor held in the mouth for half  an hour caused the
mucous lining of this cavity to  become red, hot, swollen, and painful;  and it is
highly probable that, had the experiment been persevered in, ulceration would have
followed.1  The pain and uneasiness which camphor, when swallowed in substance
sometimes produces in the stomach, are likewise imputed  to  its local action as an
acrid.  Rubbed  on the  skin covered with cuticle, Dr. Cullen  says  that it causes
neither redness nor  other mark of  inflammation ;3 but Dr. Clutterbuek3 declares this
to  be "undoubtedly  a mistake."    When applied  to  the denuded dermis, or to
ulcers, it produces pain, and appears to act as an irritant.   These observations re-
specting the  local action of camphor on man are confirmed by the ascertained effects
of this substance on other animals.
   Camphor has been  charged with  producing brittleness of the teeth when it has
been  used for a  considerable time as a dentifrice,4 but I believe without any valid
foundation.
   Camphor becomes  absorbed, and is thrown out of the system by the bronchial
membrane principally, but also by the skin.   Trousseau and Pidoux5 recognized its
odour in  every case  in  the  pulmonary exhalation, but  failed  to detect  it in the
cutaneous perspiration.   Cullen, however,  says6 that " Mr. Lasonne, the father, hag
observed, as I have  done frequently, that camphor, though given very largely, never
discovers  its  smell  in the urine, whilst it frequently does in the perspiration and
sweat."   The  non-detection of it in the urine agrees with the observation of Tiede-
mann and Gmelin with regard to horses, already noticed.
   Camphor  specifically affects the  nervous system.—Regarding the symptoms of this
effect, but little  difference of opinion prevails.   In moderate  doses, it exhilarates
and acts  as  an anodyne.7  Its exhilarating effects are well seen in nervous and
hypochondriacal cases (see vol. i. p. 237).   In large doses, it causes disorder of the
mental faculties, the  external senses,  and volition; the symptoms  being lassitude,
giddiness, confusion of ideas  and  disordered vision, noise  in the ears, drowsiness,
delirium or stupor,  and convulsions.  These  phenomena, which have been observed
in several cases,  agree with those noticed in  experiments on brutes.   In its power
of causing stupor, camphor agrees with opium;  but it differs from  the latter in its
more frequently  causing delirium  and  convulsions.   Epilepsy has been ascribed to
the use of camphor.
   The quality of the influence which camphor exercises over the vascular system has
been  a subject of much contention.   From my own limited  observations of its use
in  small  or  medium doses (from  five to ten  grains),  I am  disposed to regard its
leading effect as  that of a vascular excitant, though I am not prepared to deny that
slight depression may not have preceded  this  effect.  Combined with diaphoretic
regimen (warm clothing and tepid diluents), I have seen camphor increase the ful-
ness  of the pulse, raise the temperature of the  surface,  and operate as a sudorific.
If opium be conjoined, these effects are more manifest.3
   In excessive doses, it acts as a powerful poison.  The  best related case  is that of
Mr. Alexander,9 who swallowed two scruples in syrup of  roses.  In about twenty
minutes, he experienced lassitude and depression of spirits, with frequent yawnings:

  1 Trousseau and Pidoux, Traits de Thirap. t. i. p. 43.                a Mat. Med. vol. ii. p. 298.
  3 Inquiry into the Seat and Nature of Fever, 2d edit. p. 424.
  4 See Lond. Med. Gazette, N. S. vols. iii. and  iv. 1846-7: and Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. vi. p. 234.
1646.
  5 Op. supra cit. p. 49.                                        e Op. cit. p. 305.
  1 Harrup, On the Anodyne Effects of Camphor, in  The London Medical Review, vol. iv. p. 200, Lond.
1800.
  ■ See p. 427, for some remarks on the comparative operation of ammonia and camphor.
   Experimental Essays, p. 128, 1768. 
          Laurel Camphor:—its Physiological Effects;  Uses.        401

at the end of three-quarters of an hour his pulse had fallen from 77 to 67.   Soon
after he felt giddy, confused, and almost incapable of walking across the room.   He
became gradually insensible, and in this  condition was  attacked with violent  con-
vulsions and maniacal  delirium.  From  this state he  awoke  as from a profound
sleep;  his  pulse was 100, and he was able to reply to  interrogatories, though he
had  not completely recovered his recollection.   Warm  water  being administered,
he vomited up the greater part  of the camphor, which  had been swallowed,  three
hours previously;  and from this time he gradually recovered.
  In another case,1 a man swallowed four ounces of camphorated spirits containing
160  grains of camphor.   The symptoms were burning heat of skin, frequent, full,
and  hard pulse, brilliancy of the eyes, redness of the face, heaviness  of the head,
anxiety, agitation, violent  sense of  heat  in  the stomach; then  intense headache,
giddiness,  indistinctness of sight,  and ocular  hallucinations.    The  patient com-
plained of heat only, which he  said was  intolerable.  In the night, copious sweat-
ing came on, followed by sleep.   The  pulse  continued  full and  frequent,  and  the
voiding of urine difficult.
  In some other well-reported cases, camphor, in large  doses, caused depression of
the vascular system.  In the instance related  by Fred. Hoffmann,2 Pouteau,3 Griffin,4
Cullen,5 Callisen,8 Edwards,7 and Trousseau  and  Pidoux,8 sedation  of the vascular
system was observed.  It was  manifested by a languid, small,  and slower pulse,
coldness of the surface, and  pallid countenance; in some cases with cold  sweat.
In  some of  these  instances, symptoms of vascular excitement  followed  those of
depression.   The pulse became  more frequent and fulbfr than natural, and  the heat
of the surface augmented.   Trousseau and Pidoux9 ascribe  the symptoms of seda-
tion to the depressing  influence which camphor exerts  over  the  system  by sym-
pathy; while the sanguineous excitation  they refer to the passage of camphor into
the blood, and the efforts of the organism to  eliminate this unassimilable principle.
But in some  of the cases in which excessive  doses of camphor  have been taken, no
symptoms  of depression were manifested;  as in the  instance mentioned by  Dr.
Eickhorn (in whom great heat,  rapid but  small pulse, copious sweating, and agree-
able exhilaration, were produced by 120 grains),10 by Dr. Wendt,11 by  Scudery,13
and  by Hergondi.18
  Camphor has long  been celebrated as an  anapbrodisiac;  the smell  of it even is
said to be attended with this effect;  hence tbe  verse of  the  School of Salernum—
" Camphora  per  nares fastrat odore marcs."   Trousseau and Pidoux14 experienced
the anapbrodisiac property of  36 grains of camphor taken into the stomach.
  Strangury has  also been ascribed to this substance by Heberden,15 by  Scudery,16
and  others.
  Uses.—The discrepancy among  authors  as to the physiological  effects  of cam-
phor has had the effect of greatly circumscribing the use of this substance.   Indeed,
until its operation on the system be  more  satisfactorily ascertained, it is almost im-
possible to lay down general rules which should govern its exhibition.  The follow-
ing are the principal  maladies in which it has been found useful:—
  1. Fcctr.—Cainphor has been employed in those forms of fever  which  are  of a
typhoid type.   It  is chiefly valuable by causing determination  to the surface, and
giving rise to diaphoresis.  Hence those remedies should be conjoined with  it which
promote these effects: such are  ipecacuanha, emetic tartar, and the vegetable alka-
line  salts.   Opium greatly contributes to the  sudorific effects of camphor; and,
when it is admissible, benefit is  sometimes obtained by  the administration of one
 1 Lond. Mid 6'nz. vol  v. p. 635, from Rust's Magazin.
 ' Op. omnia, t. iv. p. 2(i, Geneva, 1748.      ' M.irray, App. Med. vol. iv.
 4 Quoted by Alexander.                 » Mat. Med. vol. ii. p. 295.
 • Murrny. App Med.                   ' Orfilu, Tox. Gin.
 • Traitf dt Thlrap. t. i. p. 4^.            • Op. cit. p. 51.
*• Lond. Mnl  Gaz. vol. xi. p. 772.         " Quoted in Dr. Christison's Treatise on Poisons, p. 810.
'* Wibmer, op. supra cit.                '* Ibid.
" Op. cit. p. 48.                       " Comment, art. Stranguria.
" Supra cit.
      VOL. II.—26 
402               VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Laurace/e.

grain of opium with five or eight of camphor.  But in a great number of cases of
fever, the cerebral disorder forbids the use of opium.   From its  specific influence
over the cerebral functions, camphor has been frequently used in fever to allay the
nervous symptoms—such as the delirium, the watchings, the subsultus  tendinum,
&c.; but it frequently fails to give  relief.  Dr. Home1 did not find any advantage
from its use in the low nervous fever; and Dr. Heberden9 has seen one scruple of
camphor given every six hours, without  any perceptible  effect in  abating the con-
vulsive catchings, or composing the patient to  rest.
   2.  In inflammatory diseases.—In the latter stages of inflammation of internal im-
portant  parts (as the serous and  mucous membranes, the stomach, intestines, uterus,
&c), after proper evacuations had been made in the earlier periods of the disease,
when great exhaustion is manifested by a small feeble pulse and a cold flaccid skin,
small but repeated doses of camphor have been employed to  determine to the skin,
and  to  promote diaphoresis.   It is particularly serviceable in rheumatic inflamma-
tion, and especially when produced  by metastasis.3
   3.  In the exanthemata.—Camphor  has been employed in smallpox,  as  also in
measles, scarlatina, and miliary fever: but it is admissible only when the  circulation
flags, and the temperature of the surface falls  below the natural standard.  In such
cases it  is sometimes employed along with a diaphoretic regimen to determine to the
skin.  It  is to be carefully avoided when inflammation  of the brain or its mem-
branes is  feared.   It has  been  asserted  that if a camphorated ointment  be  applied
to the face, no smallpox pustules will  make their appearance  there; but the state-
ment is not correct.
   4.  In mania, melancholia, and  other forms  of mental disorder.—Camphor is
occasionally  taken to cause  exhilaration.  I am  acquainted  with two  persons
(females), both  of nervous temperament, who use it for this purpose.   To relieve
despondency  I have often found it serviceable.  In  mania and melancholia, it has
now and then  proved serviceable  by its  narcotic effects: it induces mental quiet,
and causes sleep.  It was used in these affections by Paracelsus and several succeed-
ing writers,4 especially,  in more modern times, by Dr. Kinneir;5  and by Aven-
brugger.8   The latter regards it as a specific in the mania of men, when accompanied
with a small  contracted penis, corrugated empty scrotum, or when both testicles are
so retracted that they appear to be introduced  into the abdominal cavity.
   5.  In spasmodic affections.—The narcotic influence  of camphor has occasionally
proved  serviceable in some spasmodic  or convulsive affections;  viz.,  spasmodic
cough, epilepsy, puerperal convulsions, hysteria, and even tetanus: its use, however,
requires caution.
   6.  In irritation of the urinary or sexual organs.—A  power of diminishing irri-
tation of the urinary organs has long been assigned to  camphor.   In strangury and
dysury, especially when  produced by  cantharides, it is said to have been used with
benefit—a statement  apparently inconsistent with that more recently made of its
producing irritation  of the  urinary  organs.   In  satyriasis,  nymphomania,  and
onanism,  it  is said to  have proved advantageous  by its anaphrodisiac properties.
In dysmenorrhosa, it sometimes proves serviceable as an  anodyne.
   7.  In poisoning.—Small doses  of  camphor (administered by the mouth or by
the rectum)  have been  exhibited with  apparent benefit in  cases of poisoning by
opium.7   It has also been employed to mitigate  the effects  of cantharides, squills,
and mezereon;8 but toxicologists, for  the most part, do  not admit  its  efficacy: at
any rate,  further evidence is required to  establish it.  Nor  does there' appear any
valid testimony for  believing that camphor  possesses the power of checking mer-
curial salivation, as some have supposed.
   8.  In chronic rheumatism and gout.—A mixture of camphor and opium, in the
1 Clin. Hist. p. 36.                                  » Comment, art. Febris.
' Sundelin, Handb. d. spec. Heilmittell. Bd. ii. S. 145.        4  Murray, App. Med. vol. iv. p. 499.
s Phil. Trans, vol. xxxv.
s Experim. de rented, specif, in mania virorum, Vind. 1776.    * Orfila, Toxicol. Gin.
8 Hahnemann, smd Van Bavegem, in .Marx's Die Lehre v. d. Giften, Bd. ii. S. 202 and 358. 
Camphor Mixtures.
403
proportions before mentioned, is useful in chronic rheumatism, by its sudorific and
anodyne properties.   Warm clothing and diluents should be conjoined.  In chronie
gout, also, camphor is said to have proved beneficial.
  9. In cholera.—The  combination of camphor and opium above  referred to,  I
have seen used with benefit in cholera.
  10. Externally, camphor is employed in the form of vapour, in solution, or, more
rarely, in the solid state.  The vapour is occasionally inhaled in spasmodic couo-h;
and is applied to the skin to  alleviate  pain  and promote sweat, constituting the
camphor fumigations (fumigationes camphorse).   Dupasquier1 recommended these
fumigations  in  chronic  rheumatism.   The patient may be in  bed  or seated in  a
chair;  and, in either case, is to be enveloped by a blanket tied round the neck.
About half an ounce of camphor is then to be  placed on a metallic plate, and intro-
duced within  the blanket (under the chair, if the patient be seated).  In  solution,
camphor is used either as an anodyne or a local stimulant.   The nitric solution of
camphor is used to relieve toothache.   A solution of camphor in oil  has been used
as an injection into the urethra, to relieve ardor urinae in gonorrhoea, and  into  the
rectum to mitigate tenesmus arising from ascarides or dysentery.  The  acetic and
alcoholic solutions of camphor are mostly employed as stimulants.  In substance,
camphor is not frequently used.  A scruple or half a drachm " added to a poultice,
and applied to the perineum, allays the chordee, which is a painful attendant upon
gonorrhoea."3  Powdered camphor is a constituent of some tooth-powders,  to which
it communicates its peculiar odour.
  The foregoing are some only of the maladies in which camphor has been  exten-
sively used and lauded.   I must  refer to the works of Murray8 for various other
uses which have been made of  this substance.   It is scarcely necessary to add that
camphor-bags possess no prophylactic properties against contagion.
  Administration.—The medium dose of  it is from five to ten grains; but it is
frequently exhibited  in  much smaller doses (as one grain); and  occasionally a
scruple has been employed.  It is given in the form of a  pill or emulsion.   That
of pill is said to  be objectionable, " as in this state the camphor is  with difficulty
dissolved in the gastric liquors, and, floating on the  top,  is apt to excite  nausea, or
pain or uneasiness at the upper  orifice of the  stomach."4   It has  been charged with
causing ulceration of the stomach when given in the solid form.  The emulsion is
made by rubbing up the  camphor with loaf sugar, gum Arabic, and water; and the
suspension will be rendered more complete by the addition of a little myrrh.5
  Antidote.—In a case of poisoning  by camphor, first  evacuate the contents of
the stomach.   Hufeland8 recommends  the use of opium to relieve  the effects of
camphor.  Phoebus7 directs chlorine water to be administered as  the  antidote, and
afterwards purgatives  and clysters.  Vinegar and  coffee,  he states, promote the
poisonous operation.  Wine assists the  patient's recovery.
  1. MISTURA  CAMPHOR!, L. E.  D.; Aqua Camphorse [U. S.]; Camphor Mixture;
Camphor  Water.—(Camphor  3ss;  Rectified Spirit ttlx;  Distilled  Water  Oj.
First rub the  camphor with the spirit, then with the water gradually poured in, and
strain through linen, L.—The Dublin College orders of Tincture of Camphor f 3 j ;
Water Oiij.   Shake the tincture and water together in a bottle, and,  after  the mix-
ture has stood for twenty-four hours, filter through paper.   The  Edinburgh Collrge
employs Camphor 9j;  Sweet Almonds and Pure Sugar, of each ^ss; Water Oj.
Steep the almonds in hot water, and peel  them; rub the camphor and sugar well
together in a  mortar;  add the almonds; beat the whole  into a  smooth pulp;  add
the  water  gradually, with constant stirring, and  then strain, E.)—The camphor
mixture kept in the shops is often prepared by suspending camphor in water with-
out the intervention of any third body.   The  quantity of this substance dissolved
2  United States Dispensatory.
*  United States Dispensatory.
6  Marx, Die Lehrt von d. Gift. Bd. ii. >v 202.
1 Revue Mid. t. ii. p. 218, 1820.
' App. Med. vol. iv.
» Ibid.
' Handb. d. Arziuivcrord. 2te Ausg. 
402               VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Laurace.e.

grain of opium with five or eight of camphor.   But in a great number of cases of
fever, the cerebral disorder forbids the use  of opium.   From its specific influence
over the cerebral functions, camphor has been frequently used in fever to allay the
nervous symptoms—such as the delirium,  the watchings, the subsultus  tendinuni,
&c.; but it frequently fails  to give relief.  Dr. Home1 did not find  any advantage
from its use in the low nervous fever; and Dr. Heberden8 has seen  one scruple of
camphor given every six hours, without  any perceptible  effect in abating the con-
vulsive catchings, or composing the patient to rest.
   2.  In inflammatory diseases.—In the latter stages of inflammation  of internal im-
portant parts (as the serous and mucous  membranes, the stomach, intestines, uterus,
&c), after proper evacuations had been made in the earlier periods of the disease,
when great exhaustion is manifested by a small feeble pulse and a cold flaccid skin,
small but repeated doses of camphor have been employed to  determine to the bkin,
and  to  promote diaphoresis.   It is particularly serviceable in rheumatic iuflanuua-
tion, and  especially when produced by metastasis.3
   3.  In the exanthemata.—Camphor has  been employed in smallpox, as also in
measles, scarlatina, and miliary fever: but it is admissible only when the circulation
flags, and the temperature of the surface falls below the natural standard.   In such
cases it is sometimes employed along with a diaphoretic regimen to determine to the
skin.   It is to be carefully avoided when inflammation  of the brain or its mem-
branes  is feared.  It  has been asserted that if a camphorated ointment be applied
to the face, no smallpox pustules will make their appearance  there;  but the state-
ment is not correct.
   4.  In mania, melancholia,  and other forms  of mental disorder.—Camphor is
occasionally  taken to  cause  exhilaration.   I  am acquainted  with two  persons
(females), both  of nervous  temperament, who  use  it for this purpose.   To relieve
despondency I have often found it serviceable.   In mania and melancholia, it haa
now and  then proved serviceable by its narcotic effects:  it induces mental quiet,
and causes sleep.   It was used in these affections by Paracelsus and several succeed-
ing writers,4  especially, in more modern  times, by Dr. Kinneir;5  and by Aven-
brugger.6 The latter regards it as a specific in the mania of men, when accompanied
with a small contracted penis,  corrugated empty scrotum, or when both testicles are
so retracted that they appear to be introduced into the abdominal cavity.
   5.  In spasmodic affections.—The narcotic influence of camphor has occasionally
proved  serviceable in  some  spasmodic  or convulsive affections; viz.,  spasmodic
cough, epilepsy, puerperal convulsions, hysteria, and even tetanus: its use, however,
requires caution.
   6.  In irritation of the urinary or sexual organs.—A  power of diminishing irri-
tation of the urinary organs has long been assigned to camphor.   In strangury and
dysury, especially when produced by cantharides, it is said to have been used with
benefit—a statement apparently inconsistent with that  more recently made of its
producing irritation  of the urinary organs.   In  satyriasis,  nymphomania,  and
onanism,  it  is said to have proved advantageous  by its anaphrodisiac properties.
In dysmenorrhcea, it sometimes proves serviceable as an  anodyne.
   7.  In poisoning.—Small doses of camphor  (administered by the mouth or by
the rectum)  have been exhibited with  apparent benefit in  cases of poisoning by
opium.7   It has also been employed to mitigate the effects of cantharides, squills,
and  mezereon ;8 but toxicologists, for the most part, do  not admit  its  efficacy: at
any rate,  further evidence is required to establish it.   Nor does there' appear any
valid testimony for believing  that  camphor possesses the power of checking mer-
curial salivation, as some have supposed.
   8.  In chronic rheumatism and gout.—A mixture of camphor and opium, in the
1 Clin. Hist. p. 38.                                   a Comment, art. Febris.
1 Sundelin, Handb. d. spec. Heilmittell. Bd. ii. S. 145.        * Murray, App. Med. vol. iv. p  1W.
s Phil. Trans, vol. xxxv.
6 Experim. de  remed. specif, in mania virorum, Vind. 1776.    * Orfila, Toxicol. Gin.
8 Hahnemann, and Van Bavegem, in Marx's Die Lehre v. d. Giften, Bd. ii. S. 202 and 358. 
Camphor Mixtures.
403
 proportions before mentioned, is useful in chronic rheumatism, by its sudorific and
 anodyne properties.  Warm clothing and diluents should be conjoined.  In chronic
 gout, also, camphor is said to have proved beneficial.
   9.  In cholera.—The combination of camphor and opium above referred to,  I
 have  seen used with benefit in cholera.
   10. Externally, camphor is employed in the form of vapour, in solution, or, more
 rarely, in the solid state.   The vapour is occasionally inhaled in spasmodic cough;
 and is  applied to the skin to alleviate pain  and promote sweat, constituting the
 camphor fumigations (fumigationes camphorse).   Dupasquier1 recommended these
 fumigations  in  chronic rheumatism.   The  patient may be in  bed or seated in  a
 chair; and, in either case, is to be enveloped by a blanket tied round the neck.
 About half an ounce of camphor is then to be  placed on a metallic plate, and intro-
 duced within the blanket  (under the chair, if the patient be seated).  In  solution,
 camphor is  used either as an anodyne or a local stimulant.   The nitric solution of
 camphor is used to relieve toothache.   A solution of camphor in oil has been used
 as an injection into the urethra, to relieve ardor urinse in gonorrhoea, and  into  the
 rectum to mitigate tenesmus arising from ascarides or dysentery.  The  acetic and
 alcoholic solutions of camphor  are mostly employed as stimulants.   In substance,
 camphor is not frequently used.  A scruple or half a drachm " added to a poultice,
 and applied to the perineum, allays the chordee, which is a painful attendant upon
 gonorrhoea."8  Powdered  camphor is a constituent of some tooth-powders,  to which
 it communicates its peculiar odour.
   The foregoing are some only of the maladies in which* camphor has been  exten-
 sively used and lauded.   I  must refer  to the works of Murray3 for various other
 uses which have been made of this substance.   It is scarcely necessary to add that
 camphor-bags possess no prophylactic properties against contagion.
   Administration.—The medium dose of it is from five  to ten grains; but it is
 frequently exhibited in much  smaller  doses (as one grain); and occasionally  a
 scruple has been employed.  It is given in the form of a pill or emulsion.   That
 of pill is said to  be objectionable, " as in this state the camphor is with difficulty-
 dissolved in the  gastric liquors, and, floating on the top, is apt to excite  nausea, or
 pain  or uneasiness at the  upper orifice of the stomach."4  It has  been charged with
 causing  ulceration of the stomach when given  in the solid form.   The emulsion is
 made by rubbing up the camphor with loaf sugar,  gum x\rabic, aud water; and  the
 suspension will  be rendered more complete by the addition of a  little myrrh.5
   Antidote.—In a case  of poisoning by camphor, first  evacuate  the  contents of
 the stomach.  Hufeland8 recommends  the use of opium to relieve the effects of
 camphor.  Phoebus7 directs chlorine water to be administered as  the antidote, and
 afterwards purgatives and clysters.   Vinegar  and coffee,  he states,  promote  the
 poisonous operation.   Wine assists the patient's recovery.

   1. MISTURA  CAMPHORS,  L. E. D.; Aqua Camphorse [U. S.]; Camphor Mixture;
 Camphor  Water.—(Camphor  3ss;  Rectified  Spirit ttlx;  Distilled  Water   Oj.
 First  rub the camphor with the spirit, then with the water gradually poured in, and
 strain through linen, L.—The Dublin College orders of Tincture of Camphor f 3j;
 Water Oiij.   Shake  the tincture and water together in a bottle, and, after the mix-
 ture has stood for twenty-four hours, filter through  paper.   The Edinburgh College
 employs  Camphor 9j; Sweet Almonds and Pure Sugar, of each Jss; Water Oj.
 Steep the almonds in hot water, and peel them; rub the  camphor and sugar well
 together in a  mortar; add the almonds; beat the whole  into a smooth pulp; add
 I he water gradually, with constant stirring, and  then strain, E.)—The  camphor
mixture kept  in the shops  is often prepared by suspending camphor in water with-
out the intervention of any third body.  The quantity of this substance dissolved
1  United States Dispensatory.
4  United States Dispensatory.
'  Marx, Die Lehre von d. Gift. Bd. ii. :>. 202.
1 Revue Mid. t. ii. p. UIH, 182fi.
' App. Med. vol. iv.
• Ibid.
' Handb. d. Arziieivt rord. 2te Ausg. 
406               VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord. Laurace^e.

are light, odorous, not fibrous, but spongy or corky.   The  epidermis is  brownish-
gray :  the cortical layers and inner surface reddish  cinnamon brown,  or almost
rust-red,  becoming  darker  by  age.   Sometimes small, white, micaceous crystals
(like those found on sassafras nuts) are observed on the  inner surface of the bark.
Sassafras wood (lignum radicis sassafras vel lignum sassafras) occurs in the form
of large stems or branches, frequently more or  less covered with the bark.  The
wood is soft or spongy, light,  of a grayish-reddish tint, and has a fragrant aromatic
odour.   It is  usually  sold cut up into chips : sassafras chips.
  Brazilian Sassafras ; Pdo Sassafras.— This is the produce of Nectandra cymbarum of Neei,
the Ocolea amara of Martius.  It grows in Rio Negro.  Its bark is  bitter and aromatic, and is
used as a tonic  and carminative.
  Sassafras Ncts ; Pichurim Beans;  Faba> Pichurim.—These  seeds  (or rather cotyledons!
are the produce of Nectandra Puchury major of Nees, and Nect. Puchury minor of  Nn>, trees
growing in the  province of Rio Negro.  " They were imported from Brazil into Slockholm in
the middle of  the last  century, and were found  a valuable tonic and astringent medicine
during the continental  war they were used as a bad substitute for nutmegs."  They are still to
be found in some of the old drug-houses of London.  By keeping in a bottle, small micaceous
crystals form on their  surface.  These seeds have been analyzed by Bonastre.1  Their nro
matic qualities depend on a volatile oil.
   Composition.—Neither the  bark  nor  the wood have been analyzed.  They eon-
tain volatile oil, resin, and extractive matter.
   Physiological Effects.—The wood  and the bark are  stimulant and sudorific.
Taken in the form of infusion,  and assisted by warm clothing and tepid  drinks,
they excite the vascular system  and  prove  sudorific.  They owe their activity to
the volatile oil, which possesses acrid properties.
   Uses.—Sassafras is employed as a sudorific  and alterative in cutaneous, rheu-
matic, and venereal  diseases.    On account  of its stimulant properties it is inad-
missible in febrile or inflammatory conditions of the system.   It is rarely or never
used alone, but generally in combination with sarsaparilla and guaiacum.
   Administration.—Sassafras  is  administered  in the form of oil or infusion.
The dose of the oil is from two to ten  drops.   Sassafras tea, flavoured with  milk
and sugar, is  sold at daybreak in the streets of London, under the name of sahop.
Sassafras is a constituent of the  Decoctum  Sarzse Compositum ; but  the volatile
oil is dissipated by  boiling (see ante, p. 279).
   OLEUM SASSAFRAS, [U. S.] ;  Volatile Oil of Sassafras officinale, E.; Oil of Sas-
safras.—(Obtained  by submitting the  wood to  distillation  with water.)—It is
colourless, but, by keeping, becomes yellow  or red.   Its smell is that of  sassafras;
its taste hot.   Sp. gr. 1.094.   Water  separates it into two oils;  one lighter, the
other  heavier than  water.    By keeping, it deposits  large crystals (stearoptene;
sassafrol, C10H5O2), which are readily soluble.  Oil of sassafras is rendered orange-
red by nitric  acid.   It is said to be adulterated with  oil  of lavender or oil of tur-
pentine ;9 but the statement,  I  suspect, does not apply to the  oil found in English
commerce.   Oil of  sassafras is stimulant and diaphoretic.   It may be employed in
chronic rheumatism, cutaneous  diseases, and venereal maladies.  It is a constituent
of  the  Compound Extract of Sarsaparilla  (see ante, p. 281).


        144.  LAURUS NOBILIS,  Zmn.-THE SWEET BAY.
                           Sex. Syst. Enneandria, Monogynia.
                                    (Fructus, L.)
   History.—The "green bay-tree" is mentioned, though erroneously in our trans-
lation of the Bible ;3  the  Hebrew word, translated  bay,  meaning native.*  Hippo-
crates5 used both the  leaves and berries of the bay-tree (id^vv) in medicine.  Bay-
leaf is analogous to  the malabathrum of the ancients.6
1 Journ. de Pharm vol. xi. p. 1, 1825.
3 Psalms, xx?vii. 3>, 36
• Opera, pp. 267, 623, 621, &c. ed. Fas.
a Bonastre. Journ. de Pharm. vol. xiv. p. 645,1823-
' Carpenter's Script. Nat. Hist.
' Royle, Hindoo Med. pp. 32 and 65. 
Tue Sweet Bay:—Botany; Description;  Composition.       407
  Botany.   Gen. Char.—Flowers dioecious or hermaphrodite, involucrated.  Calyx
4-partcd;  segments  equal, deciduous.  Fertile stamens 12, in 3  rows;  the outer
alternate with the segments of the calyx;  all with 2 glands in the middle or above it.
Anthers oblong, 2-celled, all looking inwards.  Female flowers, with 2 to 4 castrated
males, surrounding the  ovary.   Stigma  capitate.   Fruit succulent, seated  in  the
irregular  base of the calyx.— Umbels axillary  stalked.  Leaf buds with  valvate
papery scales.  Leaves evergreen (Lindley).
  Sp. Char.—The only species.
  A bush or  small tree.  Bark aromatic, rather bitter.   Leaves  alternate, lanceo-
late, acute, or acuminate, wavy at the edge, somewhat coriaceous.  Flowers yellow-
ish.   Fruit (called by Nees a 1-seeded flesh berry, by De Candolle, a drupe) bluish-
black, oval, size  of  a small  cherry.   Seed pendulous; funiculus compressed, as-
cending  from the base of the fruit, and attached  at the top of the  testa;  testa
papery;  tunica  interna very thin; embryo exalbuminous, composed of  two large
oleaginous cotyledons inclosing superiorly the radicle.
  Hab.—South  of Europe.   Cultivated  in gardens.
  Description.—Bay leaves (folia lauri)  have a bitter  aromatic  taste, and a
somewhat aromatic odour.  Their infusion  reddens litmus.  Dried  bay  berries
(baccse lauri, offic.) are covered externally by a dark-brown brittle coat, which is
produced by  the  epidermis and succulent covering of the fruit.
  Composition.—In 1824, bay berries were analyzed by Bonastre,1 who found the
constituents  to be—Volatile oil 0.8, laurin 1.0, fixed oil 12.8, wax (stearin) 7.1,
resin 1.6, uncrystallizable sugar 0.4, gummy extractive 17.2, bassorin  6.4, starch
25.9, woody fibre 18.8, soluble albumen  traces, an acid 0.1, water 6.4, salts 1.5.
—The ashes (amounting to 1.2)  consisted of carbonate of potash and the carbonate
and phosphate of lime.
  1. Volatile Oil of  Laurel Berries; Oil of Sweet Bay.—Obtained from the berries by
distillation with water.  The crude oil  is  pale yellow, transparent, readily soluble  in alcohol
and ether.  By redistillation it  yields two isomeric  oils (C20H,6O) ;  one having a sp. gr. of
0.857, the other 0.885, while a brown balsamic matter remains in the retort.2
  2. Laurin;  Camphor of the Bay berry.—A  crystalline solid, fusible and volatile.   Has an
acrid bitter taste, and an odour analogous to that of the volatile oil.  It is soluble in ether and
in boiling alcohol.  Sulphuric acid renders it yellow; nitric acid liquefies it.  Alkalies are
without action on it.  It is extracted from bay berries by rectified alcohol.
  3. Fixed Oil of Bays (see below).
   Physiological Effects.—The berries, leaves, and  oil are said to possess aro-
matic, stimulant, and  narcotic  properties.    The  leaves, in  large doses, prove
emetic.8
  User.—Bay berries or leaves  are rarely, if ever,  used in medicine in this coun-
try.  They might, therefore, with great propriety be expunged from the Pharmaco-
poeia.   The leaves are  employed by the  cook on account of their flavour.   Both
leaves and berries have been used to strengthen the stomach, to expel flatus, and to
promote the catamenial discharge.
  Administration.—Both berries and  leaves are used in the form of infusion.
  0LED1  LAURI;  Oltum Lauri cxpressum ;  Oleum Laurinum;  Laurel Fat; Oil
of Bays.—This may be obtained from either the fresh or dried berries.   Duhamel4
status that it  is  obtained from the fresh and ripe berries by bruising them  in a
mortar, boiling them for three hours  in water, and  then  pressing them in a sack.
The expressed oil is mixed with the decoction, on which, when cold, the butyraceous
oil is  found floating.   From the dried berries it is  procured by exposing them to
the  vapour of water until they are  thoroughly soaked, and then rapidly subjecting
them  to the press between heated metallic plates.  By the latter method they yield
one-fifth of their  weight of oil.5   Oil of  bays is imported in barrels from Trieste.

  ' Journ. de Pharm.  x. 30.            » Brandes, Pharmaceutisches Central-Blatt fUr 1840, S 314
  * Merat and De Lens, Diet. Unw. de Mat. Mid. t.  iv. p. 62.                          >  ■    •
  • 7'rot'/^ des Arbres et ArbusUs qui se cultivent en France en pleine Terre, t. i. p. 351.
  1 Soubeiran, Nouveau Traitt de Pharmacie, t. ii. p. 32, 2de ed. 
408               VEGETABLES.—Nat.  Ord. Laurace*:.

In 1839, duty was paid on 1737 lbs. of it.   It has a butyraceous consistence and a
granular appearance.   Its colour is greenish  ; its odour is that of  the berries.  It
is partially soluble in alcohol, completely so in ether.   With alkalies it forms soaps.
It  is  occasionally employed externally  as a  stimulating  liniment in  sprains and
bruises, and in  paralysis.   It has also been used to relieve colic, and agaiust deaf-
ness.1   Its principal use, however, is in veterinary medicine.
  Oleum Lauri  jethebeum  ivativcm; Native Oil of Laurel, Hancock, Trans  of the Medico-
Bot. Society of Lond., p. 18, 1826; Laurel Turpentine, Stenhouse, Mem. of the Cheniical Soi-iely,
vol. i. p. 45, 1843.—Imported from Demerara: obtained by incision in the bark of a large tree
called by the Spaniards " Jlzeyte de Sassafras," growing in the vast forests between the Orinoco
and the Parime.  By Dr. Hancock this tree was thought  to belong to the nat. ord. Lauracea"
but Dr. Stenhouse thinks that it is a species of pine.  The oil is transparent, slightly yellow
and smells like turpentine, but more agreeable, and approaching to the oil of lemons.  Its ?p.
gr. at 56° F. is 0.8645.  The commercial oil consists of two or more oils isomeric with each
other and with oil of turpentine, C2oH16.  Its yellow colour is due to a little resin.  A volatile
acid (formic acid ?) is also present in very small quantity.  In its  medicinal qualities it resem-
bles turpentine; being stimulant, diuretic, and  diaphoretic.  It has  been used externally as  a
discutient in rheumatism, swellings of the joints, cold tumours, paralytic disorders, &c. It isan
excellent solvent for caoutchouc.


       145.  NECTANDRA RODLffil,  Schomburgk—THE  BIBIRU
                       OR GREENHEART TREE.
                           Sex. Syst. Dodecandria, Monogynia.
                                      (Cortex.]

   History.—In 1769, Bancroft3 noticed the  valuable qualities of the wood of this
tree, which he  called the  Greenheart or Sipeira.    In 1834, Dr. Roder8 discovered
that the bark was a good  substitute for cinchona, and that  both  it  and the fruit
contained an alkaloid, which he used with great success in intermittents: he terms
the tree the Bebeeru, and the alkaloid Bebeerine.  In 1843,4 Dr. Douglas Maclagan
published  an account of the chemical and therapeutical properties of the bark, and
confirmed the discoveries  of Dr. Roder.   The following year  a full botanical de-
scription of  the tree, which he  terms Bibiru, or Sipiri, was  drawn up by Sir Ro-
bert Schomburgk, aided by Mr. Bentbam.5
   Botany.  Gen. Char.—Flowers hermaphrodite.   Calyx  6-parted, rotate; seg-
ments deciduous, the 3 outer rather the broadest.   Stamens  12,  in  4 series; the
9  outer fertile, the 3  inner sterile;  glands  in  pairs, globose, sessile, at the base
of the 3 inner fertile stamens;  the anthers in the first and  second series turned
inwards, those  of  the third series  turned outwards, all ovate, nearly sessile with  4
cells arranged in a curve,  and distinct from the  tip of the  anther, with as many
ascending dehiscing valves; sterile stamens either tooth-shaped and biglandular  at
the base, or glandless, and then with a small ovule head.   Ovary 1-celled, with  1
ovule  in each cell.   Style very short; stigma short and truncated.  Berry 1-seeded,
more or less immersed  in the tube of the calyx changed into a truncated cup.—
 Trees  of tropical  America, with  alternate,  feather-veined leaves, and panicled  or
corymbose, axillary, lax, ample flowers (Endlicher).
   Sp. Char.—Leaves nearly opposite, oblong-elliptical, shortly acuminate,  coria-
ceous, smooth, shining, and obscurely netted on the upper side; panicles few-flowered,
  1 M'irray, Apparatus Medicam. vol. iv. p. 533.
  2 Xatural History of Guiana, 1769.
  1 See the circular issued by Dr. Roder,  and dated November 22, 1834; also, Sir Andrew Halliday'i
notice of Dr. Roder's discoveries, in the Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journal, vol. xliv. Oct. 1835.
  * Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. xv. p. 423, 1843.
  ' Hooker's London Journal of Botany, December, 1844, p. 624. 
     The Bibiru or Green heart Tree:—Description;  Composition.   409

axillary, much  shorter  than  the leaves, finely downy; anthers  all  thick oblong,
without glands  (Bentham).
   A large forest tree, of 60 or more feet high, with  a trunk frequently above  50
feet  high, undivided by branches  till near the  top, and  covered by an ash-gray
smooth bark.   Lea res 5 or 6  inches long, and  2 or  3 inches broad.    Flowers yel-
lowish-white.   Berry somewhat  obovate, globular, slightly compressed,  the longer
extension  7 J inches in circumference, the less about  6 \ inches :  the pericarp gray-
ish-brown,  speckled with whitish dots, hard, very brittle,  and about  a  line thick.
Seed 1 in each fruity about the size and shape  of a walnut, and  containing 2 large
plano-convex cotyledons.
   Hab —British Guiana: on rocky hill-sides  on the borders of rivers  (the Esse-
quibo, Cuyuni, Demerara, Pomeroon,  Berbice, &c).—The  timber is  used for ship-
building, under the name of  Greenheart.
   Description.—Bibiru or  beeberu bark (cortex bibiru), is  derived from the
trunk.   It consists of large, flat, heavy pieces, from 1 to 2 feet  long, from 2 to 6
inches broad, and about 3 or  4 lines thick.   It is covered externally withabrittle
grayish-brown  epidermis.  Internally, its colour is dark  cinnamon-brown.  The •
fracture is rough and somewhat fibrous.  The taste is strong,  persistent, bitter, with
considerable astringency, but with aroma, pungency, or acridity.
   The fruit (fructus bibiru) commonly called a nut, has. been described above.
The seeds (semina bibiru) yield  starch, which is used as food by the Indians.  A
section of the cotyledons, when moist and fresh, was  pale yellow, and  became brown
by exposure to the air.   The juice had an acid reaction, and was intensely bitter.
   Composition.—The bark and seeds  have been analyzed  by Dr.  Maclagan, and
his results are  as follows :—
                                                      Bark.             Seeds
                                                               (much dried by keeping).
          Alkalies [bibirina and sipirina] (not quite pure) . . .  2.56........   2 20
          Tannin and resinous matter   ..............  2.53........   4.04
          Soluble matter (gum, sugar, and suits)........   4.34  ........   9.40
          Starch...........................   —  ........53 51
          Fibre and vegetable albumen  .............62.92  ........11.24
          Ashes (chiefly calcareous) ...............  7.13........   0.31
          Water...........................14.07........18.13
          Loss............................  6 45  ........   1.17
                         Total.................100.00........100.00

   1. Bihihina;  Beebeerina; Biberine; Bebeerine, CS5H2oN06.—Obtained  by decomposing com-
mercial sulphate  of bibirina by ummonia; the precipitate is  washed with cold water, triturated
while still moist  with moist hydrated oxide of lead, and the  magma dried on a  water-bath, and
exhausted by rectified spirit.  In this  way is obtained an alcoholic solution of bibirina and sipi-
rina, while the oxide of lead, tannin, and other  impurities are left behind.  The alcohol is to
be di.Ntillcd off, and the resinous-looking residue treated with pure ether, which dissolves the
bibirina, but leaves behind  the sipirina.
   Bibirina is uncrystallizable.  When obtained by evaporation from its ethereal solution, it is a
yellow, amorphous, resinous-looking  substance; but in the form of powder it  is white.  It is
very soluble in alcohol, less so in ether, and  very sparingly in water.  Its alcoholic solution
reacts as an alkali on reddened litmus paper.   It dissolves in acids, and neutralizes them, form-
ing amorphous yellow salts.  Colourless or crystallized salts  have not yet been  procured.  Ac-
cording to Maclagan  and Tilley,1 its composition is identical with  morphia.   Winckler2 says,
that bibirina resembles in many respects paraeine, but differs from the  latter  in  the circum-
stance of its hydrate being gelatinous.
  2.  Sipirina; Sipeerina;  Sipirine;  Sipeerine.—This  substance, which Dr. Maclagan at first
thought to be a second alkaloid, he now regards as a product of the oxidation of bibirine.
  3.  Bininic  Acm;  Bebeeric Jcid.—A white, crystalline, deliquescent, volatile acid  obtained
from the seeds.
  4.  STam u.—I  am  indebted to Dr. Maclagan for some of the  starch obtained  from the seeds
of this plant.  It  is grayish-white, and almost tasteless.   When examined by the  microscope,
it is found to consist of  particles which are somewhat smaller  than  those of cassava starch'
but in their  external form quite agree  with the latter.  Schomburgk states that the Indians are
1 Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. v. p. 228. 1945.
> Ibid. vol. vi. p. 493, lbl7; also, Iluchner's Repert. 2ter Reilie, Bd. xlvi. p. 231, 1646. 
410                VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Lauracm.

obliged to live for months on it.  It is prepared by grating  the seeds  and immersing them in
water.  Repeated washing he found did not deprive the starch  of its bitterness.  The starch
mixed with decayed wood, chiefly of the Walaba tree (Epema falcata), is baked into cakei
Winck ler has discovered starch in the bark as well as in the seeds.
   5. Tannin.—This agrees very much with that  found in the cinchona bark; and, like the
latter, it yields  a green colour with the salts of iron.
   Physiological Effects.—Bibiru bark appears to possess the tonic, antiperiodic
febrifuge, and astringent  properties of cinchona barks.    Like the  latter, its bitter
tonic, and  antiperiodic  powers reside in a vegetable alkaloid;  and its astringent
property in that kind of tannic acid which strikes a green  colour  with the salts of
iron.
   Sufficient experience has not yet been obtained with bibiru bark and its alkaloid
(bibirine), to enable us to form an  accurate opinion  of their  therapeutical power in
comparison with cinchona  bark and quinia.  In some cases, bibirina  has appeared
to  produce its peptic and  tonic effects with less tendency to cause  headache, giddi-
ness, ringing in the ears, and feverishness, than quinia;  and it can iu consequence
be administered to some patients with whom quinia disagrees.   On the other hand
it appears inferior to the latter in febrifuge and antiperiodic power.
   Uses.—Bibiru bark and bibirina (in the form of sulphate) have been used as a
peptic in anorexia and dyspepsia; as a general  tonic  in debility, protracted phthisis,
and strumous affections; as a febrifuge in  intermittent and remittent diseases;  and
as  an antiperiodic in periodical headache  and intermittent neuralgias.1
   BIBIRIM  SUBSULPIIAS;  Bebeerine  Sulphas;  Sub-sulphate of  Bibirine; Sul-
phate of Bebeerine.—The process for obtaining this is essentially the same as that of
the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia for sulphate  of quinia.  The bark is first boiled with
a solution of  carbonate of soda to  remove  the tannin and colouring matter; it is
boiled with water  acidulated with sulphuric acid, by which sulphate of bibirine is
obtained in solution.  To  the strained liquor carbonate of soda is added, and  the
impure  bases thus thrown down  washed, dissolved, and  neutralized with sulphuric
acid, and the solution decolorized  by animal charcoal, concentrated, filtered,  and
finally evaporated  in flat open vessels; excess of acid being avoided in order to pre-
vent  charring on evaporation.
   There are two compounds of sulphuric acid and bibirina—the sulphate (BiSO3)
and the sub-sulphate (Bi2S03):  the latter is the commercial  salt which has been
prepared for medicinal use by Mr.  Macfarlane, of Edinburgh:—

                    Maclagan                           Macfarlane''s
             (Trans. Royal Soc. Edinb.)               basic commercial sulphate.
        Bibirina..................86.39 ..................90.83
        Sulphuric acid..............  13.61 ..................  9.17
             Neutral sulphate of bibirina . .  . 100.00   Sub-sulphate of bibirina .  . 100.00

The sub-sulphate of bibirina (Macfarlane's basic commercial sulphate of bebeerine)
is not absolutely pure.   It contains sub-sulphate of sipirina, sulphate of lime, and
colouring matter.   It occurs in brownish-yellow, thin, glittering scales, which form
a yellow powder, and by incineration  leave a  mere  trace  of ash only.   It' has a
very persistent bitter taste.  It is soluble in alcohol.   It is slightly soluble in cold
water, with which it yields a turbid solution, partly from the excess of base, partly
from the decomposing tendency of the sipirina.   Its solution in water is  rendered
more complete by a few drops of sulphuric acid.
   Its effects and uses have already been alluded to.
   It may be administered in doses of  from one to three grains as a tonic, and from

  1 For farther information respecting the therapeutical value of bibiru bark and bibirina, the reader is  ■
referred to Dr. Maclagan's papers on this subject, in the Trans, of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,?™-  ■
xv. 1843; Cormack's Lond. and Edinb. Monthly Journal of Medical Science, for August  1&43; and the
Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journal, No. 163.  In these papers  will be found the observations not only ot !»■
Maclagan, but also of Drs. Rodie and Watt, of Demerara, Drs. Bennett and Simpson of  Edinburgh, ami oi
several army medical officers serving in the East Indies. 
The True Nutmeg Tree:—its Botany.
411
five to twenty grains as a febrifuge.  In substance, it is given in the form of pill made
with conserve of roses; and  in solution, with dilute sulphuric acid.   The follow-
ing is  given as a convenient form  for its exhibition as a tonic:  Sub-sulphate of
bibirine  3ss; diluted sulphuric  acid  rr^xxv;  syrup |j; tincture of  orange-peel
3j; water |iv.   Dose, one tablespoonful three times a  day.
   It has been recommended as an economical substitute for quinia; its price  being
about 6s. per oz.; while disulphate of quinia has been lately more than double that
price.


  Order  XXXVI.  MYRISTICACE.E, Lindley.—NUTMEGS.
                              Mthistickjb, R. Brown.
   Characters.—Flowers completely unisexual.  Calyx trifid, rarely quadrifid; with vulvular
activation.  Males:—Filaments either separate, or completely united  in a cylinder.  Anthers 3
to  12,  2-celle.d, turned outwards, and  bursting  longitudinally; either connate or distinct.
Females:—Calyx deciduous.  Ovary superior, sessile, with a single erect ovule ; style very short;
stigma somewhat lobed. Fruit baccate, dehiscent, 2-valved.   Seed nut-like;  albumen ruminate,
between  fatty  and  fleshy; embryo small; cotyledons  foliaceous; radicle inferior; plumule con-
spicuous.—Tropical trees, often yielding  a red  juice.  Leaves alternate, without  stipules, not
dotted, quite entire, stalked, coriaceous; usually, when full grown, covered beneath with a close
down.  Inflorescence axillary or terminal, in racemes, glomerules, or panacles ; the flowers often
each with one  short cucullate bract.   Calyx coriaceous, mostly downy outside, with the hairs
sometimes stellate, smooth in the inside (Lindley, from R. Brown, chiefly).
   Properties.—The  bark and  pericarp contain an acrid juice.  The seed (?) and arilloid
abound in an aromatic  volatile oil, which is mixed with a fixed oil.

  146. MYRISTICA FRAGRANS, Houtt.—THE TRUE NUTMEG
                                    TREE.
                             Sex. Syst. Dioecia, Monadelphia.
(Semen putamine nudatum ; oleum  esemine expressum, concretum L.—Kernel of the fruit; volatile oil
       from the kernel; concrete expressed oil from the kernel, E.—The kernel of the fruit, D.)
   Synonymes.—Myristica fragrans,  Houttuyn,  Nat. Hist. (1774), vol.  ii. part
iii. p. 333 ; Blume, Rumphia, 1.180,1835.—M. officinalis, Linn. (1781) ; Hooker,
Bot. Mag. vol.  i. N. S. tab. 2756 and 2757.-3/. moschata, Thunberg (1782) —
 M. aromatica,  Lamarck  (1788).
   History —Both nutmegs and mace1 were  unknown  to the ancient Greeks and
 Romans; unless, indeed, the  nutmeg be the aromatic Arabian fruit used in unguents,
and which Theophrastus8 calls xupaxov.  Pliny3 says that the  cinnamum quod  coma-
cum appellant is the expressed juice of a nut produced in Syria.   Does he refer to
the expressed oil of nutmeg, as some have suggested?   Both  mace and nutmegs are
referred to by Avicenna.4
   The modern  Greek names for  the nutmeg and mace are respectively poax°*dpva
and pooxopaxtp.
   Hotany.   Gen. Char.—Anthers  united throughout their whole length into  a
cylindrical column.   Stigma emarginate, somewhat 2-lobed.   Cotyledons folded
(Blume).
   Sp. Char.—Leaves oblong, subacute at  the base, smooth.  Peduncles axillary,
few-flowered.   Calyx urceolate.   Fruit nodding, obovoid, globose, smooth (Blume).
   A tree from 20 to 25 feet  high, similar in appearance to a pear tree.   Bark dark
grayish-green, smooth, with  a yellowish juice.  Leaves  aromatic.   Racemes  axil-
lary.   Peduncles and pedicels glabrous, the latter with a quickly  deciduous  ovate
bract at  its summit, often pressed close to the flower.   Flowers usually dioecious,
sometimes  monoecious.  Males :—3 to 5  on a  peduncle ;  calyx fleshy, pale yellow,

  1 The pa'xu of Dioscorides (lib. i. cap. 110 , the macir of Pliny (lib. xii. cap. 16), was an astringent
bark, and not, as some have supposed, our mace.
  ' Hist. Plant, lib. ix. cap. 7.  Fraas (Syn. Plant. Fl.classicce, p. 135,1835) considers kuuxkcv to be our
nutmeg.
  * Hist. Xat. lib. xii cup. 63, ed. Vulp.                     «  Lib. ii. tract, ii. cap. 436 and 503. 
412               VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord. MyristicacejE.

with a reddish  pubescence.   Females:—scarcely different  from  the males, except
that the pedicel  is frequently solitary.   Fruit  pyriform, smooth  externally, about
the size of a peach, marked  by a longitudinal groove.   Pericarp fleshy, dehiscing
by two nearly  equal longitudinal valves.   Arillode1 (false aril), commonly called
Mace,  large, fleshy, branching,  scarlet;  when  dry, yellow, brittle, and somewhat
horny.   Seed  (nutmeg  in the shell, offic.) within  the  arilloid, oval or ovate* its
outer  coat (testa, tunica externica, or shell) is dark  brown, hard, glossy; its inner
coat (endopleura  seu tunica  interna) closely invests the  seed,  and dips down into
the substance of the albumen, giving it a marbled or ruminated appearance.  The
nucleus or nut (the  round or  true nutmeg of the  shops) consists chiefly of the olea-
ginous  albumen; the so-called  veins of  which are  processes of  the  endopleura
which have a reddish-brown  colour, and abound in oil;  the embryo is at the  base of
the  seed;  radicle inferior, hemispherical; cotyledons 2,  large, flat, foliaceous, fan-
shaped; plumule 2-lobed.
   Hab.—Molucca  Islands, especially the group called the Banda or Nutmeg Isles.1
Cultivated in Java, Sumatra, Penang (Prince of Wales Island), Singapore, Denial
Bourbon Islands, Madagascar, and some  parts of the West Indies.
   Myhistica fatua, Houtt, Blume;  M. tomentosa^ Thunbrrg; M. dactyloides, Gaertn. (die
synonymes excluded); Nux moschata fructu oblongo, C. Banh.;  Nux myristica mas, Clusius.—A
native of  the Banda Isles.—Fruit  elongated,  ellipsoidal,  rusty,  tomentose.   Seed  elongated,
ellipsoidal, covered by a membranaceo fleshy,  orange coloured, insipid  arilloid (mace); outer
coat (testa) dark brown, hard ; nucleus acerb, slightly aromatic, grayish ash-coloured, cylindrical,
ellipsoidal, rugous, marked by a furrow.—Yields the long  nutmeg of the shops.
   Colonel  Sykes3 says, that M. doctyloides is frequently imposed upon the ignorant for  the real
nutmeg.
   Closely allied to this is the IM. malabarica, Lam, or Malabar Nutmeg; it is the Panam-pdlca
of Rheede (Hist.  Malab. part iv. tab. 5).   The  latter authority says that the nucleus resembles
the date in size and figure.   Unlike, the  male or long nutmeg, it has  scarcely any flavour or
odour.   Rheede  adds, that " the  Turkish  and Jewish  merchants mix  these nutmegs with the
true long ones, and  the  mace with good  mace, selling  tliem together.   They also extract from
these inferior articles an oil, with which they adulterate that of a more genuine quality."1  Tim
Malabar nutmeg, according  to Rheede, differs  from the long  nutmegs in size, hardness, and
especially in flavour.
   Curing.—In the  Banda  Isles there are  three harvests  annually;  namely, the
principal one in July or  August, the second in November, and the third in .March
or April.  The ripe fruit is  gathered by  means of a barb attached to a long stick;
the mace separated from the nut, and both separately cured.
   Mace is prepared for the  market  by drying it for some days in the  sun.   Some
flatten it by the hands in single layers;  others  cut  off the heels, and dry the mace
in double blades.*  In rainy weather, artificial heat is employed  for drying it.  At
first, the mace is crimson or  blood-red, but after a few months acquires the golden
colour  preferred  by  the  dealers.5  The  Dutch  sprinkle  the  mace with salt water
prior to packing it in the sacks called sokkol.6

  1 The laciniate envelope of the nutmeg, usually  called the aril, and which  constitutes the substance
callecfwiace. is  said by M. Planchon to be nothing  but an expansion of the exostome, and, therefore, un
arillode or false aril.
  3 The Dutch endeavoured to confine the growth of the nutmeg to three of the Banda Isles ; viz., Lantmr
or Banda proper, Banda-Neira,and Way (Pulo Ay); but their attempts were partly frustrated by a pigeon,
called the nutmeg bird or nut-eater (a. species of Carpophaga*, which, extracting the nutmeg from its pulpy
pericarp, digests the mace, but voids the nutmeg in  its shell, which, falling in a suitable situation, readily
germinates. Young plants thus obtained are used  for transplanting into the nutmeg parks.  During tbe
time that the English had possession of the Molucca Islands tnamely, from 1796 to 1802; and, again, jrora
1810 to 1814), they exported plants to Bencoolen in Sumatra, to Penang, India, and other places.  In I"'■>■
the nutmeg tree was sent from Bencoolen to Sumatra, where it is now largely cultivated. (For a i»e'™
of the culture and trade in nutmegs, and of the monopolizing policy of the Dutch, the reader is *£'"""
to Crawford's History of the Indian Archipelago, vol. i. p. 505;  vol. ii. p. 437; vol. iii. p. 406.)  To seep
up the price of  this spice, the Dutch used to burn  nutmegs when the crops were superabundant!  (SW
Hooker's Bot. Mag. vol. i. N. S. i.  1827, t 2756-2757 ; also Stephenson and Churchill's Med. Bot. vol. in.
pi. 104)
  3 Madras Journal of Science, No. 22, p. 161 (quoted by Graham in his Catalogue of the Plants growing
in Bombay and its Vicinity, 1839).                                                    .  „.
  ' Newbold, Polit. and Statist. Account of the British Settlem'nts in the Straits of Malacca, vol. l  >■•>*■
  5 Oxley, Some Account of the Nutmeg and itsCultivation^in the Journal of the Indian Archipelago ani
Eastern Asia. October 1848, p. 611,  Singapore.                                            .
  6 C.  B. Valentini,  India, Literatm, Kpist.  xxv., contained in  .\I. B. Vulentini's Historia StmplHH""
reform. 1716. 
Nutmegs:—Description and Varieties.
413
  Xittmeg.i require more care in curing, on account of their liability to the attacks
of an insect (the nutmeg insect).   It is necessary to  have them  well and  carefully
dried in their shells, as in this state they are secure from the attack of this insect.1
In order to effect this they are placed on hurdles or  gratings, and smoke-dried for
about two months by a slow wood-fire, at  a heat not exceeding 140°F.   (In the
Banda Isles they are first sun-dried for a few days.)   When thoroughly dried, th:
nuts rattle  in  the shells, which are then  cracked with wooden mallets, and the
worm-eaten and shrivelled nuts thrown out.
  To prevent  the  attacks of the  insect the nuts  are frequently limed.  For the
English market, however, the brown or unlined nutmegs are preferred.   The Dutch
lime them by dipping them  in  a  thick mixture of lime  and water;  but this pro-
cess is considered   to  injure  their flavour.  Others  lime them  by rubbing  them
with recently prepared, well-sifted lime.   This  process is sometimes  practised in
London.
   After being garbled, the  nutmegs are packed for  transportation  in tight casks,
the insides of which have been  smoked and covered with a coating of  fresh water
and lime.   Newbold says the unlimed nutmegs are mixed with cloves.
   The dried produce of a nutmeg tree consists of nutmeg, mace, and shell, in the
following proportions :  In 15 parts of the  whole produce there are 2 parts of mace,
5 of shell, and K  of nutmegs.  Hence, although nutmegs in the shell may keep
better than the clean or shelled  nutmegs, yet the heavy allowance required for the
shell (viz. about one-third) is a serious objection to their preservation in this form.
   Description.   1.  Of Nutmega (JVuces moschatse).—In
commerce, two kinds of nutmegs are met with; one called        Fig_ 099.
the true or round,  the other  the long or wild.
   o.  True  or  Round Nutmeg;  the female nutmeg;  nux
myristica fsemina, Clusius;  nux  moschata fruclu rotundo,
C.  Bauh.—This -sort is the  produce of Myristica  fragrans.
It  is about an inch in length.    Its shape is  roundish or
elliptical, like that of the French olive.   Externally, it is
marked with reticular furrows.  The colour of the unlimed
or brown  nutmegs  is ashy brown;  that of limed nutmegs is
brown on the  projecting parts, and white (from the pres-
ence of lime) in the depressions.   Internally, nutmegs are
pale n;ddish-gray, with  red  veins.   The  odour is strong,
but pleasant, peculiar, and aromatic.   The taste is agreeable
and aromatic.
   Occasionally, the round nutmeg  is imported in the shell.   Tme or Round NulmeS'
This is  dark and shiny.                                      surrounded by Us mace.
   A very small nutmeg,  not larger  than  a pea, has been   (From8e%eTwetT pre'
described under the name of the  royal nutmeg (nux mos-
chafa regiit).
  In the London Market, the following are the sorts of round nutmegs distinguished by the
dealers:—
  1. Penang nutmegs.—These are unlimed or brown nutmegs, and fetch the highest price.  They
:irc sometimes limed here for exportation, as on the continent the limed sort is preferred.  Ac-
cording to Newbold, the average amount annually raised at Penang is  400 piculs (of 133A lbs
each).
  2. Dutch or Batavian nutmegs— These are limed nutmegs.  In London, they scarcely fetch so
high a price as the Penang sort.
  3 —Singapore nutmegs —These are a rougher,  unlimed, narrow sort, of  somewhat  less value
than the  Dutch kind.   According to Mr. Oxley, 4,085,361 nutmegs  were produced at Singa-
pore, in IMS, or  about 252 piculs (of 133^ lbs. each); but the greater  number of the trees
had not come into full bearing, and  it was estimated  that the amount would, in  1849 be 5U0
piculs.                                                                   '
1 Crawford, Hist, of the Ind. Archip. 
414
VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord. Myristicace^:.
      Fig. 300.           (3.  Long or Wild Nutmegs;1 the male nutmeg ; nux myris.
                     tica mas, Clusius; nux moschata fructu oblongo, C. Bauhin.—
                     This is the produce of Myristica fatua.   It is met with in com-
                     merce in three forms: in the shelled or clean state (long or
                     wild  nutmegs), contained within  the shell  (long  or wild nut-
                     megs in the shell), and with mace dried around  them (long or
                     wild nutmegs covered with mace).
                        The  long or wild nutmeg  in the shell  in shape is oblon?
                     like that  of the  date; its  length about an inch and a halt'.
                     The  shell is bony,  somewhat brittle, externally shiny aud
                     brown,  internally dull, grayish-white.   The contained seed is
                     paler coloured and less  aromatic than in the preceding sort.
                     Some specimens are almost insipid.   Are  these the Malabur
                     wild  nutmegs before  referred to (see ante, p. 412)?  The
                     mace which is sometimes found in the long nutmeg is insipid.
                        2.  Of Mace (Macis).—Two  kinds of mace are found  iu
                     commerce; one called true or genuine, the  other wild or/a7«.
                        a.  True or genuine mace.—This is the produce of the round
                     or  true  nutmeg.   It  occurs  in  single or double  blades, fiat,
                     irregularly slit, smooth,  slightly  flexible or brittle membrane,
                     of  a pale cinnamon-yellow  or golden-yellow colour, and'an
odour and taste  analogous to those  of nutmegs.    Although the natural colour of
mace is red, yet red-coloured  mace is looked on suspiciously.
  The London dealers distinguish three sorts of genuine mace :—
  1. Penang mace.—This fetches the highest price.  It is  flaky and spread.  The annual quan-
tity produced in Penang is about  130 piculs (of 133£ lbs. each).
  2. Dutch or Batavian mace.—This is a fleshy  sort; it scarcely fetches so high a price as the
Penang sort.
  3. Singapore mace.—This is a somewhat inferior kind.
  j3.  Wild  or false mace.—This is  a dark  red mace, the  produce of  the long or
wild nutmeg, and is also devoid of aromatic flavour.
  Composition.—Nutmegs were analyzed in 1823  by Bonastre.3  In 1824, an
analysis  of  mace was made by N. E. Henry.3
Long or Wild Nutmeg,
surrounded by its mace.
(From a dry commercial
     specimen.)
            Nutmeg.
       Bonastre's Analysis.
Volatile oil.............   6.0
Liquid fat.............   7.6
Solid fat..............24.0
Acid (?)...............   0.8
Starch  ...............   2.4
Gum  ................   1.2
Ligneous fibre...........54.0
Loss  ................   4.0
Nutmeg
100.0
           Mack.
    N. E. Henry's Analysis.
Volatile oil.
Red fat oil soluble in alcohol.
Yellow fat oil insoluble in alcohol.
Alcoholic extractive.
Amidin.
Ligneous fibre with lime.
Mace.
  The volatile oils and  the fats will be noticed hereafter, as they are employed in medicine.
The starch occurs in small compound grains.
   Chemical  Characteristics.—The presence of starch in  both nutmegs and
mace may be detected by a solution of iodine, which gives them a blue tiut (iodide
of starch).  Both of these  substances yield, by distillation  with water, a volatile
oil, characterized by its  peculiar  odour;  and  both yield, by  expression, a JUvl
butyraceous oil.
   Physiological Effects.—The activity of both nutmegs and  mace depends ou
the volatile oil which they contain.   Swallowed  in  moderate quantities, they pro-
duce the before-described effects of the spices  (see vol. i. p. 250).   In large doies

  1 Sir J. E. Smith (Rees's Cyclopcedia) says that in 1797 they were received from  Banda under thenameol
iY«w Guinea nutmegs.  A specimen of the fruit and leaves, preserved in spirit in  the Banksian collection,
is marked the long nutmeg from Sumatra.
  * Journ. de Pharm. t. ix. p. 281, 1823.                          ' Ibid. t. x. p. 281, 1824. 
Oils of Nutmeg.—Essential Oil of Mace.             415
they prove narcotic, and cause giddiness, delirium, praecordial anxiety, sleepiness,
or actual stupor.   Instances of this kind are mentioned by Bontius,1 Rumphius,3
Lobel,3 Schmid,4 and Cullen.5   In the case related by the last-mentioned authority,
two drachms of powdered nutmegs  produced drowsiness, which gradually increased
to complete stupor and insensibility.  The patient continued for several hours alter-
nately delirious and sleeping,  but ultimately recovered.   Purkinje8 has confirmed
these statements by experiments made on himself.  I am acquainted with a case in
which the narcotic effects of a whole nutmeg have been several times experienced.
  Uses.—The principal consumption of nutmegs  and mace is for dietetical  pur-
poses.   They serve to flavour,  and, by their stimulant properties, to assist the diges-
tive process.  Food highly seasoned with substances may prove these  injurious in
cerebral affections (apoplexy, for example),  on account of their narcotic properties.
  Medicinally  they are  used, like other spices, as stimulants, carminatives,  and
flavouring ingredients.   Nutmeg is  an important constituent in the confectio  aro-
matira (see p. 393) so frequently employed as a cordial  and antacid in bowel
complaints.  In  mild cases of diarrhoea, I  frequently employ nutmeg as a substi-
tute for opium.   It may be taken in warm brandy and water, unless the use of
spirit be contraiqdicated.
  Administration.—Either nutmeg or mace may be taken to  the extent  of a
scruple or half a drachm, in powder obtained by grating; or the volatile oil of
these substances  may be used in doses of ny to niv.
   1. OLEUM MYRISTICSE,  B.  D.  [U.  S.];   Oleum  Nucis  Moschatse;  Oleum
Nwistn: sethereum ;  Essential Oil of Nutmeg; Volatile  Oil of Nutmeg.—(Pro-
cured by submitting Nutmegs and  Water to distillation.)—The usual produce of
volatile oil in the  distillations  at Apothecaries' Hall, London, is 4.5 per cent.; but
the oil is generally imported.  It is colourless, or pale yellow, has  the  odour  and
taste of nutmegs, and a  viscid consistence.   By agitation with water it separates
into two oils, one  lighter, the other heavier than water.  By keeping, it deposits
crystals of stearoptene (myristicine), which  are fusible at 212° F., volatile, soluble
in alcohol, in ether, and  in boiling  water;  from the latter liquid myristicine sepa-
rates in a crystalline form as the liquid cools.  According to Mulder, the stearop-
tene consists of Cl8H,BOs.  Volatile oil of nutmegs is seldom employed medicinally.
Its  dose is tr\j to "Iv, taken on sugar,  or dissolved in spirit.
  2. OLEUM MACIDIS J  Essential  Oil of  Mace.— This is colourless or  pale yellow,
lighter than water, and has the flavour and odour of mace.   Its composition, effects,
and uses are similar to those of  nutmegs.

  S. MYRISTICSE ADEPS,E.;  Myristicce Oleum, L.; Oleum vel Balsamum Nucistie ;
Butler of Nutmegs; Expressed  or  Concrete Oil of Nutmegs.—In  the shops,  it is
usually denominated expressed oil of mace.   It is prepared by beating the nutmegs
to a paste (which is to be inclosed in a bag, and then  exposed to the vapour of,,
water), and afterwards expressing by heated plates.   It is imported in oblong cakes
(covered by some monocotyledouous leaves, commonly called flag leaves), which
have the shape of common bricks, but whose size is somewhat smaller.  Its colour
is orange, its consistence firm, its odour fragrant, like that of the seeds from which
it is obtained.   In 1804, it was  examined by Schrader,7  who found that 16 parts
of concrete oil, expressed by himself, consisted of 1 part  of  volatile oil, 6 parts of
brownish-yellow fat,  and U parts of white fat.   In 16 parts  of the  commercial
concrete oil, he found J volatile  oil, 8 J- yellow fat, and 7 parts of white fat.   The
volatile oil and  yellow fat are soluble in both cold alcohol and  cold  ether.   The
white fat (known "by the  name of corpus pro balsamis, or mater  balsamorum), is

  1 De Med. lndor.                                        > Herb. Amboyn. vol. ii. p. 21
  • Quoted by Murray, App. Mctl. vol. vi. p. 115.                  < ibid
  • Mat. Med. vol. ii'  p.'201.
  ■ Quoted by Wibmer, Die ]Yirk. d. Arznrini U. Gifte, Bd. iii. S. 3fM
  ' Btrlini.-clns Jahrbuch Jur 1. Pharmaci,. 1-U4, p. S3. 
416
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Thymelace.e.
 soluble in boiling alcohol and boiling  ether ; but is  insoluble  in  cold alcohol and
 ether.   It has been more recently examined by Dr. L. Playfair,1 who calls it myris.
 tine (formerly sericine).   By saponification it yields glycerine and myristic acid (C
 H2r03, HO).   Playfair mentions a  false butter of nutmegs, composed of animal fat
 boiled with powdered nutmegs, and flavoured  with sassafras.   The specimen  may
 be relied on as pure, if it dissolve in four times its weight of strong boiling alcohol
 qt half that quantity of  ether.
   Expressed oil of nutmegs is occasionally employed externally in chronic rheuma-
 tism and  palsy.   It  is a constituent of Emplastrum Picis (see ante, p. 302).

   4. SPIRITUS  MYRISTICSE, L. E. [U. S.] ;  Spirit of Nutmeg.—(Nutmegs, bruised,
 gijss  [gij. U. &.];  Proof Spirit [Diluted Alcohol,  U.  £.], Cong. j.; Water Oj.
 Mix them, then [with a  slow fire, L.~\ let a  gallon distil.)—It is frequently pre-
 pared by mixing volatile oil of nutmegs with>proof spirit.  It is cordial and carmi-
 native; and is employed  in doses of f3J to fjiv, as a pleasant  addition to stimulant,
 narcotic, or purgative draughts.

   5. ESSEMA MYRISTICSE MOSCHATiE, D. ; Essence  of Nutmeg.—(Volatile  Oil of
 Nutmegs  f^j; Stronger  Spirit  f^ix.   Mix with agitation, D.)—Used as  a  sub-
 stitute for the Spirit of Nutmeg.  Dose, a few drops on a lump of sugar.



   Order XXXVII.  TIIYMELACEiE,  LindL—DAPHNADS.

                        Thtmele.'e, Jussieu.—Daphnoideje,  Endl.

   Characters.—Calyx  inferior,  tubular, coloured; the limb  4 cleft, seldom 5 cleft, with an
 imbricated  aestivation.   Corolla 0, or sometimes, scale-like petals in the orifice of  the calyx.
 Stamens definite, inserted in the tube or  its orifice; often 8,  sometimes 4, less frequently, 2;
 when equal in number to the segments of the calyx, or fewer, opposite to them;  anthers 2-celled,
 dehiscing lengthwise in the  middle.   Ovary composed of a single carpel, with 1 solitary pendu-
 lous anatropal ovule; style 1 ; stigma undivided.  Fruit hard, dry, and nut-like, or drupaceous,
 Albumen U,  or thin and fleshy; embryo straight;  cotyledons plano-convex, sometimes  lobed and
 crumpled ; radicle short, superior; plumule  inconspicuous.—Stem shrubby, very seldom herbaceous,
 with tenacious bark.  Leaves without stipules, alternate or opposite, entire.   Flowers capitate ot
 spiked, terminal or axillary, occasionally solitary, sometimes unisexual by abortion,often inclosed
 in an involucre  (R. Brown, with some additions).
   Properties.—The prevailing property of the plants  of this order is acridity.  This depends
 on a principle contained in the bark and  pericarp.  The liber of many species is remarkably
 tough, and is applied to various useful purposes; as for making ropes, whips, a kind of cloth,
 &c.—The Lagetta lintearia or the Lace Bark Tree, which  possesses the medicinal  proper-
 ties ot mezereon, and has been used in the same cases,2 is provided with a  bark, which maybe
 separated into 20, 30, or more laminae,  which  are fine and  white like gauze; and of these,
caps, ruffles, and even whole suits of ladies'  clothes, have been made.3  Some few years since.
a quantity of the stiffened lagetta cloth was  imported into Liverpool under the name of guana.


            147.  DAPHNE MEZEREUM, ZtVm.-COMMON
                  MEZEREON  OR  SPURGE-OLIVE

                             Sex. Syst. Octandria, Monogynia.
                          (Radicis cortex, L.—Root-bark, E. D.)

   History.—Tragus* is the earliest author who mentions this  plant.5  He  calls it
 Thymelsea.  The  Mezereon of Avicenna,6 and of other Arabian authors, is declared
by 0. Bauhin  to be  Chamelsea tricocca (now  called  Cneorum trirocron), a plant of
the order Euphorbiaceae;  but it  is probably identical with the ^a^aia of Diosco-
rides, which is declared by Sibthorpe7 and Fraas8 to be Daphne dleoides.

  1 Lond. Ed. Dub. Phil. Mag. vol. xviii. p. 102, 1841; and Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. 3me sir. t.  iii- P-
228,1841.                                                                        „
  a Wright's Med. Plants of Jamaica.              3 Ploane's Nat.  Hist, of Jamaica, vol. u. p.»-
  * Hist. Stirpium. 153-2.                          * Sprengel. Hist. Rei Herb. Prsef. xi.
  8 Lib. 2ndus, tract. 2ndus, cap. 461.               ' Prod. Fl. Graces.
  ■ Synops. Plant. Fl. Classicce, 1845. 
Common Mezereon:—History; Botany; Description.        417
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—Flowers  hermaphrodite.   Calyx funnel-shaped; limb
 in 4 segments;  throat without scales.   Stamina 8, inclosed within  the  tube, in-
 serted in 2 rows near the throat.  Hypogynous scales 0.   Ovary 1-celled.   Style
 terminal, very short; stigma capitate.   Drupe baccate, 1-seeded, naked,  with  a
 crustaceous putamen  or  stone.   Seed inverted; albumen 0; embryo orthotropal;
 cotyledons plano-convex (Endlicher).
   Sp. Char.—Flowers naked on  the stem, sessile, about 3 together.   Leaves lan-
 ceolate, deciduous (Smith).
   Stem bushy, 4 or f> feet high, with upright, alternate, smooth, tough, and pliant
 branches; leafy  wbile young.   Leaves  scattered, stalked,  lanceolate,  smooth, 2
 inches long, appearing after  the  flowers, and soon accompanied  by flower-buds for
 the next season.   Flowm highly, and  to many persons  too powerfully,  fragrant,
 seated in little  tufts  on the naked  branches, with several  brown, smooth, ovate
 bractcas  underneath.   Calyx like a corolla in texture, crimson all over; the tube,
 externally hairy.  Berries scarlet.
   Hab.—Indigenous.   Plentiful near Andover.  Flowers  in  March.   Collected
 for medicinal purposes in Kent and Hampshire.
   Var. flore albo has white flowers and yellow fruit.
   Var. autumnale has larger leaves and flowers in the autumn.
   Description  of the Bark.—The root-bark (cortex radicis mezerei) is alone
 employed in  this country.   It is tough,  pliable, and when dry fibrous;  externally
 brown and corrugated; internally white, tough, and cottony.  It occurs  in strips of
 several inches long.  When chewed, the taste  is  at first sweetish; afterwards an
 acrid burning sensation  is felt in the mouth and fauces, and  extends  to the gullet
 and stomach  if the bark and saliva be  swallowed.  This  sensation  continues for
 several hours. The odour of the fresh root is faint, but marked.
   The  stem-bark (cortex caudicis vel caulis  mezerei) is usually considered to be
 somewhat less active  than the root-bark; but  in  the Dublin, United States, and
 most of the continental Pharmacopoeias, the bark of both root and stem is  included
 under the general name of mezereon bark (cortex mezerei).   The stem-bark, in the
 fresh state, is externally somewhat darker and rougher than the root-bark;  but  it
 is most readily recognized, in  the fresh state, by the green  colour of the cellular
 integument beneath the epidermis.
   In Germany,  the bark of the stem  and larger branches is removed  in spring,
 folded in small bundles, and dried for  medicinal  use.  It is  imported from Ham-
 burgh.
   I am informed by Mr. M'Culloch,  of Covent  Garden Market, that the root-bark
 commands nearly three  times the price of  the  stem-bark.  The  bark is  stripped
 from the  crushed roots while fresh and soft.
   Sometimes  the entire root (bark and wood) of mezereum is used instead of the
 root-bark; but this proceeding is  highly  objectionable, as the wood possesses only
 a feeble acridity.
   The bark of other species of Daphne (as of D. Gnidium  and D. Laureola) is
 taid to be sometimes substituted for that of the mezereon.
   Mr. Squire1 states that
      13^ lbs. of fresh mezereon ) 3'^ lbs. of wood.
       root produced by drying  J 3]^ lbs. of bark, dry ; equivalent to &A lbs. of fresh bark.
      3 lbs. of stems produced % lb. of dried  bark.

   Composition.—The bark of the stem  was analyzed by C. G. Gmelin and Bar,''
and found to consist of wax, an acrid resin, daphnin, a trace  of volatile  oil, yellow
colouring  principle,  uncrystallizable  but  fermentable sugar,  nitrogenous  gummi/
matter, reddish brown extractive, woody fibre, free malic acid, and malates of pot-
ash, lime,  and  magnesia.
' Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. i. p 395, 1842.       ~» L. Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. Bd. ii S 1317.
     VOL. II.—'-'7 
418
VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord. Tiiymelacejb.
  1.  Acrid Resin.—Obtained by boiling the bark in alcohol; when the solution cools.some
wax  is deposited.  The supernatant liquid is to be evaporated, and the residual extract washed
with  water.  The resin then left behind is dark green, and soluble in both alcohol and ether.
To this substance mezereon owes its acridity.  There is, however, some reason to suspect that
this resin is itself a compound of two principles, viz. an acrid, vesicating, fixed oil, and another
substance.  The  resin  is rendered soluble in water by means of the other constituents of the
bark.   Mr. Squire could not obtain any blistering effect from the resin extracted by alcohol.
  2.  Daphnin.—A peculiar crystalline principle, having a bitter, slightly astringent taste. It js
soluble in alcohol and ether, but possesses neither  basic nor acid properties.  Gmelin and Bar
consider it to be analogous to  asparagin.   It  is not the active principle of  mezereon.
  3.  Acrid Volatile Oil?—According to Mr. Squire, mezereon contains a volatile acrid sub
stance which is carried off by the vapour of water, but not by the vapour of alcohol.  He says
that "the pungent odour given off by boiling mezereon root in water over a lamp is so power-
ful, that, after holding my head over it for  a short time, great irritation was produced, and it
was  difficult to carry on respiration."                                                    .
   Physiological Effects.—All parts of  the plant, but more especially the bark
and  the fruit, are endowed with excessive acridity; in  virtue of which they cause
irritation and inflammation in tissues to which  they are applied.  When swallowed,
therefore,  in  large quantities, they prove poisonous.  The topical action of meze-
reon bark is that of an irritant, and, when  the bark has been applied to the skin,
vesicant.
   A decoction  of mezereon bark, taken in moderate quantities, sometimes  appears
to promote the action of  the secreting  and exhaling organs (especially  the  kidneys
and  the skin).   But Dr. Alex. Russell1 could not observe, upon the strictest inquiry,
" that it sensibly increases any of the secretions, more than  the same  quantity of
any  small liquor would do."   In some cases it proves laxative, where  the  patients
are easily  moved, and large doses disturb and irritate  the stomach.  Richter* says
that,  under the  long-continued use of  mezereon, the  saliva  acquires a peculiar
odour.  In larger doses it causes dryness and  heat in  the throat, increased saliva,
pain in  the stomach and bowels, and sometimes  vomiting and  purging—the stools
being occasionally bloody.  The urinary organs are sometimes  specifically affected
by it; irritation,  analogous to that produced by cantharides, being set up by it.  An
affection of  the cerebro-spinal system (marked  by great feebleness, giddiness, inca-
pability of keeping  the erect posture, and slight convulsive movements) is occasion-
ally brought on.3   I am unacquainted  with  any cases which  have proved fatal from
the  use of mezereon bark.  Vicat* mentions the case of a dropsical patient, in whom
the  wood  caused diarrhoea, pain, and vomiting, which continued for six weeks.
   Uses.—In this country, mezereon is scarcely ever employed alone.   It is usually
administered in  conjunction with  sarsaparilla (see ante, p. 278), and  is employed
as a sudorific and alterative in venereal,  rheumatic, scrofulous, and chronic cutane-
ous   diseases.  Decoction  of the  root-bark  of mezereon  was  recommended to the
notice of the profession, by Dr. Alexander Russell,5 as  a very efficacious remedy  in
cases of venereal nodes and nocturnal  pains.   Dr. Home8 also  speaks  of it as " a
powerful deobstruent in all venereal tumours of the scirrhous kind, where  mercury
has failed."   But Mr. Pearson,7 after  many years' observation of it, says, " I feel
 myself authorized to assert unequivocally, that the mezereum has not the  power of
curing the venereal disease  in  any one  stage, or in any one form."  Dr. Cullen*
employed it  with success  in some cutaneous diseases.
   As a topical remedy, it is sometimes applied to relieve toothache.  It is occa-
 sionally used as a masticatory.   Dr. Withering9 cured  a case of difficulty of swal-
 lowing  (arising from a paralytic affection) by mezereon, which he directed to  be
chewed frequently.   In  France, the bark of both Daphne Mezereum  and D. Gm-
 dium is used as a vesicatory.10   The mode  of  applying it is this: First soften the  j

   1 Med. Observ. and Inq. vol. iii. p. 194.              a Ausfuhr. Arzneimittell. Bd. ii. S. 193.
  3 Vogt, Pharmakodynamilc, Bd. ii. S. 305, 2te Aufl.    " Orfila, Toxicol. Gin.                   1
   5 Op supra cit. vol. iii. p 189.                     « Clin. Exper. and Hist.              ,
   1 Observ.  on the Effects of various Articles of the Mat. Med. 1800.                  ' Mat. Met-
  9 Arrangement of Brit. Plants, vol ii. p. 490, 7th edit.                                 ,  ,  i
  10 J. A. Leroy, Essai sur V Usage de  VEcorce du Garou, ou Traitt des Effets des Exutoires emptoyei  |
 contre les Maladies rebelles. Paris,  1771.                                                    ' 
         Common Mezereon.—Administration.—Spurge-Laurel.       419

bark by soaking it in  hot vinegar and water, and then apply it  to  the part by a
compress and bandage.   The application is to be renewed night and morning, until
vesication is produced.
  Administration.—Mezereon is usually administered internally, in  the form of
decoction.  It is a constituent of the decoctum sarzoz compositum (see ante, p. 278).
  As a mtistiratory, a few grains of the bark may be chewed.
  For external use, an ointment prepared with the extract is sometimes employed.
  Antidote.—In a case of poisoning  by mezereon,  evacuate the contents of  the
stomach as speedily as possible, and give emollient drinks, opiates, and  the  vegeta-
ble acids.   To  counteract  inflammatory symptoms, the usual  antiphlogistic treat-
ment should be adopted.
  1. DECOCTUM MEZEREI, E.;  Decoction of Mezereon.—(Mezereon Bark, in chips,
3ij;  Liquorice  Root,  bruised,  ^ss; Water Oij.   Mix them, and boil  down with
a gentle heat to a  pint and a  half, and strain.)—Stimulant and sudorific.   Used
in chronic rheumatism, and secondary syphilis.  Dose, f^iv to fjviij, three or four
times a day.
   From Mr. Squire's  observations, already referred to, it  appears  that ebullition is
injurious to the action of mezereon, by dissipating a volatile active principle.
   2.  EXTRACTUM MEZEREI  ALCOHOLICUM;  Alcoholic or Spirituous Extract cf Meze-
reon.—A tincture of mezereon is first made with rectified spirit, and the spirit then
drawn off by distillation.
   In the Prussian Pharmacopoeia, the alcoholic extract is directed to be digested in
ether, and from the ethereal tincture is obtained by distillation the extractum meze-
rei nthcratm.
   Extract of mezereon is greenish or brownish-green coloured, and  is insoluble in
water.   Mr. Squire obtained a drachm of dry resin (alcoholic extract) by digesting
half  an ounce of the bruised bark in ten ounces of alcohol,  and  then distilling off
the alcohol.  During the distillation, none of  the pungency of the root came over.
   Extract of mezereon is used for the preparation of a blistering ointment or tissue.

   I  UNGUENTUM MEZEREI  [U. S.];  Mezereon Ointment—The Prussian Pharma-
copoeia directs  this to  be prepared by mixing 3J of  tbe  ethereal extract of meze-
reon  with 3j of wax ointment.  In  the Hamburgh Codex,  it is prepared  by dis-
solving 3'j "f  tbe spirituous extract in a small quantity of spirit, and then  mixing
^viij of purified  lard and 3j of white wax.—[The U. S.  Pharm. directs to take of
Mezereon, sliced transversely, four ounces; Lard fourteen ounces  ; White Wax two
ounces.   Moisten the  mezereon with a little alcohol, and beat it in an iron  mortar
until reduced to  a fibrous mass; then digest it, by means of a salt-water bath, with
tbe lard and wax previously melted together, for twelve hours; strain with strong
expression, and allow the strained liquid to cool slowly, so  that any undissolved mat-
ters may subside.  From these separate the medicated ointment.]—The ointment is
used  as an irritant.  Applied to ulcers or wounds, it  serves to excite suppuration.
Mr. Squire states that an ointment made by boiling the root in lard soon spoils by
keeping.

            148.  Daphne Laureola, Linn.—Spurge-laurel.
                                    (Cortex.)
  Laureola, Gerard; Parkinson, 205.—This is another indigenous species of Daphne. It has
drooping axillary racemes of green flowers, evergreen lanceolate leaves, and black berries.   Mr.
Squire says that 7 lbs. of  the root yielded 4 lbs. 5 oz. of fresh bark, or 1  lb. l£ oz. of dry bark •
and II pounds of the stems yielded lj Ihs.  of fresh bark, which, when dried, weighed i \h
The liber is remarkably tough.  In odour, and  irritating  effect  on the  throat, the bark of the
spurge laurel appeared to him  to be weaker than that of mezereon.  Half an ounce of the
bruised bark yielded him  45 grs. of alcoholic extract. In its effects, spurge-laurel resembles
mezereon.  Parkinson mentions its emmenagogue properties.  Some years ago, a  farrier gave
a girl, at. 17, three  pills to procure  abortion.  They caused violent vomiting, convulsions (dur- 
420               VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Polygonace^e.

ing which she aborted), coma, and paralysis, from which she slowly recovered.  A microscopic
examination of the fragments of leaves in the  pills led  the late Mr. Edwin  Quekett to believe
that the poison was this plant.


       149.  Daphne Gnidium, Linn.—The  Flax-leaved Daphne.
                                      (Cortex.)

  &vfjti\a.ia, Dioscorides, lib.  iv. cap.  173.  The berries were the xoxieoi yrtiiot, grana gnidiaot
gnidian berries used by Hippocrates.1  The properties of this species of Daphne resemble those
of Mezereon.   In France, the  bark (called garou) is  used in the way before described (see
Daphne Mezereum) as a vesicatory.
     Order  XXXVIII.  POLYGONACE^E,  Llndl—BUCK-
                                   WHEATS.
                                 PoLYGONEiE, Jussieu.
  Characters.—Calyx free, often coloured, imbricated in aestivation.   Stamens very rarely
perigynous, usually definite and inserted in the bottom of the calyx,- anthers dehiscing length.
wise.  Ovary free, usually formed by the adhesion of 3 carpels, 1-celled, with a single erect
ovule, whose foramen points upwards; styles and stigmas as many as the carpels.  Ovules otho
tropal.   Nut usually triangular, naked, or  protected  by the calyx.  Seed with farinaceous albu-
men, rarely with scarcely any; embryo inverted, generally on one side, sometimes in the axis-
radicle superior, long.—Herbaceous plants, rarely shrubs. Leaves alternate, their stipules cohering
round the stem in the form of an ochrea (or boot); when young  rolled backwards, occasionally
wanting.  Flowers occasionally unisexual,  often in racemes (Lindley).
  Properttes.—The herbaceous plants are distinguished by their acidulous character. They
owe this to the presence of vegetable acids, chiefly oxalic acid.   This is found  in the form of a
superoxalate of potash (or soda), which communicates to the  leaves and petioles refreshing
and refrigerant qualities.   The roots contain colouring and astringent matter, and often oxalate
of lime.  Some of them are purgative.  The seeds of some species serve as a  kind of corn for
cattle, and, in times of scarcity, for man.


                        150.  RHEUM—RHUBARB.
                            Sex. Syst. Enneandria, Monogynia.
   (Rheum Sinense; Rhei, species incerta ; Radix, L.   The root of undetermined species.—2?. D.)

   History.—Dioscorides2 speaks of a root which he calls  rha or rhcon ('pi 'pjjw),
and which has been  regarded  by some as identical with our  rhubarb.  " Rha, by
some called rheon, grows," says Dioscorides,  "in those countries which are  beyond
the Bosphorus, and from  which it is brought.  It is a root which is black externally,
like to  great centaury, but smaller and redder, odourless,  loose or spongy, and some-
what smooth internally."   Pliny3  gives a similar account of it, under the name of
rhacoma; it comes, he  says, from the countries beyond Pontus, resembles the black
costus,  is odourless, and has a hot,  astringent  taste.   Prosper Alpinus4 was of opin-
ion that the rha of Dioscorides was the root of Rheum rhaponticum, which Alpinus
obtained from Thracia, in 1608, A. D., and cultivated at Pavia.   The later Greek-
writers 'are supposed to  have  been  acquainted with our rhubarb.   Alexander of
Tralles5 is the first who  speaks of it.   He  used it in  weakness of the liver ami
dysentery.   Paulus iEgineta says that, in  the crudities  and vomiting of pregnant
women, we may give "the knot-grass, boiled in water,.for drink; and likewise dill,
and the pontic root, called rha in  the dialect of its native country ;"6 and, in noticing
the practice of  the ancients, he says, " alvine discharges they promoted  by giving
turpentine to the extent of an olive, when  going  to rest; or, when they wished to

  1 See also Paulus jEgineta, Syd. Soc. edit, by Dr. Adams, vol. iii. p. 179.
  a Lilj- iii- cap. 11.                                 3 Histm jyar lib. xxvi.  cap. 105, ed. Valp.
  * De Rhapontico, 1612.                             t j,jfo, vjjj_ Cap', 3,
  8 Paulus iEgineta. Syd. Soc. edit, by Dr. Adams, vol. i. book i. St-r. 1, p. 1. 
Rhubarb :—Botany.
4!>1
purge  more effectually, by adding a little rhubarb," [rheon.]1   This  is  the  first
notice  of the purgative properties of rhubarb.
   Tn one of the Arabian authors (Mesue,  the younger) we find three kinds of rhu-
barb mentioned: The Indian, said to be the best; the Barbarian; and the  Turkish,
which  is the worst of all.
   Botany.   Gen. Char.— Calyx  petaloid,  6-parted, withering.   Stamina  about
9, inserted into the base of the calyx.   Styles 3, reflexed.   Stigmas peltate, entire.
Arhcninm  3-cornered, winged, with the withered calyx at the base.  Embryo in the
centre of the  albumen  (Lindley).
   It is  not yet ascertained what species of Rheum yields the officinal rhubarb.  Several species,
now cultivated in this country, have been, at different times, declared to be partially or wholly
the source of it.  Formerly, Rheum Rhaponlicum was supposed  to yield  it.2
   In ITiU, R. undulatum was sent from Russia  to the  Messrs. Jussieu at Paris, and to Rand of
Chelsea, as the true rhubarb.  This is the species which Linnaeus described as R. Rhabarbarum.3
About 1750, at the desire of Kauw  Boerhaave, first physician  to  the  Emperor of Russia, the
senate commissioned a Tartarian merchant, a dealer in rhubarb, to procure tliern some seeds of
the genuine plant.  This he did, or pretended to do; and,on sowing them, two species of Rheum
were obtained ; namely, the undulatum and  the palmatum.*   In  1762, seeds of the latter species
were received by Dr. Hope, of Edinburgh, from Dr. Mounsey,  at Petersburg;  they were sown,
and the  plants cultivated  with success.5  The root of this species being found to agree, in many
of its characters, with that of genuine rhubarb, led  to the belief that the palmatum was the true
species.  The  inquiries of Pallas, however, raised  some doubts about the correctness of this
opinion; for the Buchanans declared themselves unacquainted with the leaves of the palma-
tum, and described  the true plant as having round leaves, with  a few incisions only at the mar-
gin.  This description  agreed best with Rheum compactum, the roots of which were declare'd, by
Millar, who cultivated  the plant,  to be as good as foreign rhubarb.6  Georgi says, that a Cossack
pointed  out to him  the  leaves of the R. undulatum as the true  species.7   These accounts were
not satisfactory to the Russians; and, in consequence, in 1790,  Sievers, an  apothecary,  went to
Siberia, under the auspices of Catherine II., with a view of settling  the question ; but, after four
years of persevering attempts to reach the country where the true rhubarb grew, or even to
obtain  the seeds, he was obliged  to be satisfied with negative results only.  " My travels," says
he, "as well as acquaintance with the Bucharians, have satisfied me that as yet nobody—that
is, no scientific person—has  seen the true  rhubarb plant.   All that is said of it by the Jesuits
is miserable, confused stuff; all the seeds procured  under the name of  true rhubarb are false;
all the plantations, from those of  the Knight Murray down to the flowerpot of a private indi-
vidual, will never yield  true rhubarb.  Until  further determination, I  hereby declare all  the
descriptions in all the  Materia Medicas to be incorrect.'*   Calau,9 Apothecary in  the Rhubarb
Factory  at Kiachta, and who, from  his  appointment, might be expected to know the origin of
the rhubarb he receives from the Bucharians, says,  "All that we know of the rhubarb plant or
its origin is defective and wrong; every sacrifice to obtain a true plant or the seed has been in
vain;  nor  has the  author been  enabled to obtain  it.   A severe prohibition from  the Chinese
government prevents all possibility of eliciting  the truth."
   Himalayan rhubarb is obtained from several species of Rheum : viz.  R. Emodi, Wallich ;10  R.
 Wcbbianum, Royle;" R. spiciforme, Royle; and R. Moorcroftianum, Royle;  but there are no reasons
for supposing that they yield  any  of the rhubarb of European commerce.  It is not improbable
that the  species yielding the officinal rhubarb is yet undescribed.   Dr.  Royle,12 after referring
to the  accounts of different authors, as to the precise  locality of the country yielding Russian
rhubarb, concludes that it  is within 95° of E. long, in 35° of N.  latitude—that is, in the heart of
Thibet.  And he adds, 'as no naturalist has visited this part, and neither seeds nor plants have
been obtained thence, it is as yet  unknown  what species yields this rhubarb."
   The late Mr. Anderson, of the Apothecaries'Botanic Garden,  Chelsea, furnished me with the
fresh roots of thirteen species or Rheum : viz. R. palmatum,  undulatum, compactum, Rhaponticum,
Emodi, crassinervium, caspicum, tartaricum,-hybridum, confluens, Fischeri, bardanifolium, and  bulla-
turn.  Having carefully dried these by artificial heat, I found that one species only, viz. R. palma-
tum, closely  resembled Asiatic rhubarb in the combined qualities of odour, colour, and  marbling:
R. undulatum agreed tolerably well in colour and marbling, but not in odour.  It deserves, how-
ever, to be noticed that the specimens examined were of unequal ages—some forming the root-
stock, others root-branches of ,the  respective plants—a circumstance which considerably dimi-
nishe, the value of  a comparative examination  of them.   Furthermore, all the samples were
 1 Ibul book i  Sect. 43, p. 54.  See also vol. iii. pp. 317 und 478.
 • Alhton, Mat. Med. vol. i. p. 502.                     » ibid.
 ' Murr.'iv, Art'- Med. vol. iv. p. 463
 * llop'',  Phil.  Trans, vol. Iv. for the year 1765. p. 290.
 • Murray, pp. 3(>5-(i                                  1 jbid, p»360.
,« n   ".'J' S"PPJ■ '" lhe Edinb' v* « DisP P- M-          ' Pharm. Journ. vol. ii. p. 658, 1843
„ o^c'<  '  '                                      " IlluSt- °fthe Bot- of the U"nal- Mount. 
422
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Polyqonaceje.
probably injured by the wet season.  The  root-branches of R. crassinervium (from  a stronx
plant of six or seven  years old, but which had not flowered) did not  resemble Asiatic rhubotb
in either colour or odour.1
  Species—I.  With compound racemes.
  1.  Rheum palmatum, Linn. L. D.   Palmated Rhubarb.   Commonly known
to gardeners as the  True Turkey Rhubarb.—" Leaves roundish-cordate, half pal.
mate; the lobes pinnatifid, acuminate, deep dull green, not wavy, but  uneven, and
very  much wrinkled on the upper side,  hardly scabrous at  the  edge, minutely
downy on the under  side; sinus completely closed;  the lobes of the leaf standing
forward  beyond  it.   Petiole  pale green,  marked  with short purple  lines, terete,
obscurely channelled quite at the upper end.   Flowering stems taller than those of
any other species," (Lindley.)—Perennial.  Grows spontaneously in the Mongolian
empire, on the confines of China.2   Its leaf-stalks make  excellent tarts and pud-
dings.
  Prof. Guibourt3 observes that out of the roots of R. palmatum, undulatum, compactum, and Rk>
ponticum,  those of the first species possess  only the exact odour and taste (grittiness excepted)
of the China rhubarb.
   2.  Rheum  undulatum, Linn. D.   Wave-leaved Rhubarb.—u Leaves oval, ob-
tuse, extremely wavy, deep green, with veins purple at the base, often shorter than
the petiole, distinctly and copiously downy on each side, looking as if frosted when
young, scabrous at the edge; sinus open, wedge-shaped, with the lower lobes of the
leaves turned upwards.   Petiole  downy, bloody,  semicylindrical, with elevated
edges to the upper side, which is narrower at the upper than  the lower end," (Lind-
ley.)—Perennial.   Grows in Siberia (Georgi  and Pallas, cited by Murray),3 and
China (Ammann, quoted by Lindley).  Cultivated in France, and yields part of
the French Rhubarb*  It was formerly cultivated  at  Siberia as the  real  officinal
plant;  but,  as genuine rhubarb could not be  procured from it, its cultivation has
been given up.5
   3.  Rheum compactum, Linn.;  Thick-leaved Rhubarb.—uLeaves heart-shaped,
obtuse, very wavy, deep green, of a thick texture, scabrous at the margin, quite
smooth on both sides, glossy and  even on the  upper side; sinus  nearly closed  by

                                                              Fig. 302.
                 Rheum palmatum.                        Rheum compactum.

the parenchyma.  Petiole green, hardly tinged with red, except at the base, semi-
cylindrical, a little compressed at the sides, with the upper side broad, flat, bordered
by  elevated  edges,  and  of  equal  breadth at each end," (Lindley.)—Perennial.

  1 In 1834, Geiger (Pharm. Central Blatt fiir 1834, S. 209) made a comparative examination of (he roots
of R. Emodi. compactum, undulatum, and Khaponticum.
  a Murray, App. Med. vol. iv.  p 363.                          * Hist. Des. Drogs.
  * App. Med.            s Guibourt, Hist, des Drogues.          6 Ibid.
Fig. 301.
 
Rhubarb:—Species; Preparation.
423
Rheum Emodi.
 Grows in Tartary and China.   Cultivated in France, and yields part of the French
 rhubarb.1   This rhubarb is  a very fair imitation of that from China; but is dis-
 tinguished by its reddish tint, its different odour (common to it, to R. undulatum,
 and R. rha pout icum), its close and radiated  marbling, its  not  tinging the saliva,
 and its not grating under the teeth.
   4.  Rheum Emodi, Wallich;  R. australe, Don.—" Leaves cordate, acute, dull
 green, but little wavy,flattish, very much wrinkled,
 distinctly  rough, with coarse short  hairs on each
 side ; sinus of the base distinctly open, not wedge-
 shaped, but diverging at an obtuse angle, with the
 lobes nearly turned upwards.  Petioles very rough,
 rounded angular,  furrowed;  with the  upper  side
 depressed, bordered by an elevated edge, and very
 much narrower at the upper than the lower end,"
 fLindley.)—Perennial.   Grows on the Himalayas.
 It yields  part of the Himalayan rhubarb.   Its
 stalks make  excellent tarts and puddings.
   5.  Rheum Webbianum, Royle.  Choor Mount-
 ain,  Niti  Pass.   Yields part of the Himalayan
 rhubarb.
   G. Rheum Eiiaponticum, Linn.; Common or
 Rhapontic Rhubarb.—Grows in Thrace;  borders
 of the Euxine Sea; north of the Caspian; Siberia,
 &c.   Cultivated in this country for the leaf-stalks,
 which are  used for tarts  and  puddings; whence it
 is frequently termed  culinary or tart  rhubarb.   Grown  largely at Banbury,  in
 Oxfordshire,  on account  of its roots, which, when dried, constitute English or Ban-
 bury rhubarb.3  Cultivated also in France, and yields part of the French rhubarb.
   7.  R. crassinervium, Fischer.—Habitation unknown.  Sent from St. Peters-
 burg to the Apothecaries' Garden, Chelsea.  Its roots possess, according, to the late
 Mr.  Anderson, the colour and odour of Turkey rhubarb.3
   8.  R. leucorrhizum, Pallas; R. nanum,  Sievers.   Ledebour, Fl. PI. Ross. t.
 492.   Deserts of  the Kirghis, and south of Siberia and Altai Mountains.  Said to
 yield white or imperial rhubarb.
   9.  R. hybridum, Murray, Comm. Gott. t.  i.—Cultivated as a  culinary rhubarb.
   II. With spiciform racemes.
   10. Rheum spiciforme, Royle.—Kherang Pass, and other places in  Kunawar.
 Also Thibet.
   11. Rheum 3Ioorcroftianum, Royle; Small-stalked Rhubarb.—Niti Pass,  in
 the Himalayas.   This and the preceding species have denser and more yellow roots
 than  the two other Himalayan species of Rheum above noticed (viz. R. Emodi and
 R. Webbianum).
   Preparation.—The  method  of curing or preparing Asiatic  rhubarb for the
 market varies somewhat in different localities.  In China  it is as follows:  The
 roots  are dug up, cleansed, cut in pieces, and dried on stone tables, heated beneath
 by a fire.   During the  process, the roots are frequently turned.   They  are after
 wards pierced, strung upon cords, and further dried in the sun.*   In tartary, the
 Moguls cut the roots in  small pieces, in order  that they may dry the more readily,
 and make  a hole in the  middle of every piece, through which a cord is drawn, in
 order  to suspend  them  in any convenient place.   They hang  them, for  the most
 part, about their tents, and sometimes on the horns of their sheep.5  Sievers, how-

 ' Guibourt. supra eit.
 nil!*"' UT  Y 'he a,uthor> in.,tlle Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. vi. p. 76, 1846; also a  paper by Mr W
Ui(fg. m the same volume, p. 74.                                    « r inriliv  m  tvt'.j  '
 ' 1)., Halde, Descript. Gtograph. et Histde. la Chine, t. iii. p. 492.                 y' **' Utd-
   Hell, Travels from St. Petersburg to divers parts of Asia, vol. i. p. 311. 
424
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Polygonaceje.
ever, states that the roots are cut in pieces,  strung upon threads, and dried under
sheds, so as to exclude the solar rays; and the same author tells us that sometimes
a year elapses from the time of their collection until they are ready for exportation.1
   Varieties  and Description.—The various  sorts  of rhubarb (radix rhei) of
commerce may be conveniently arranged in four divisions, respectively distinguished
as Muscovitic or Russian, Canton, Himalayan, and European.
   1.  Muscovitic  or Russian Rhubarb  (Radix  Rhei Mnscovitici,  Ruthenici vel
Rossici).—Under  this head  are included those sorts of Asiatic rhubarb which are
brought into Europe by way of Russia.   The principal and chief sort is the Crown
Rhubarb.   Two other inferior sorts, called  respectively Bucharian and Silierian
Rha pontic Rhubarb, are  occasionally  imported, but are  not found  in  the shops,
Taschkent and While Rhubarb are other  Russian  sorts which I have not met with.
   1.  Russia  Crown Rhubarb.—This is  Chinese  rhubarb, which  is taken in ex-
change,  on  behalf of the Russian crown, at  Kiachta.   In Russia, it is known as
Chinese  rhubarb ;  in Europe, it is frequently called Bucharian rhubarb, not because
it is the growth of  Bucharia, but from the circumstance of a few Bucharian fami-
lies having been the purveyors to the Russian crown for  a century.   It might with
propriety be termed Chinese-Russian rhubarb.  In English commerce, it is  com-
monly called Turkey rhubarb (radix rhei turcici), because formerly this description
of rhubarb came into Europe by way of  Natolia.2
  The barter of rhubarb is carried on by  the Russian government, under a contract made with
Bucharians at Kiachta for ten years, and confirmed  by the Chinese government.  According to
this contract, the  Bucharians undertake to furnish a  certain quantity of rhubarb annually to the
Russian  crown, for a certain quantity of goods  of a  certain quality, and to deliver up all rhu-
barb not approved of, without remuneration, and permit it to be  burnt by the Russian govern-
ment.
  The rhubarb grows wild  in Chinese Tartary, especially in the province Kansu. It is col-
lected on that long chain of  mountains of Tartary, destitute for  the most part of woods, and
which arises not far from the  town of Selin,and extends to the south as far as the lake Kokonor,
near Thibet.3  It is generally gathered in  summer, from plants of six years of age.  When the
root is dug up it  is washed, to free it from earthy particles, peeled, bored  through the centre,
strung on a thread, and dried in the sun.  In  autumn, all the dried rhubarb collected in the
province  is brought in horse-hair sacks, containing about 200 lbs.  to Sinin (the residence of the
dealers),  loaded on camels, and sent over Mongolio to Kiachta, Canton, Macao, and partly to
Pekin.  All the rhubarb brought to Kiachta undergoes an examination, prescribed by the Impe-
rial Russian  Medical Council, according to directions of the Russian government.  The selec-
tion of the rhubarb  bartered for by Russian  merchants takes  place in  the custom-house at
Kiachta;  and of that for the crown, in a house  for that purpose on the Chinese borders.
  In this  selection, the following rules are chiefly to be observed :—4
  a. To  reject pieces obtained from dead plants, which  are porous, of a gray colour, and, be-
sides fibre and oxalate of lime, contain little of the other constituents of rhubarb.
  b.  To reject pieces that are small, derived from young plants, and which are of a pale colour,
and without much virtue.
  c. To reject roots of other plants, which are casually or purposely mixed with the rhubarb.
  d.  To pare  the rhubarb.  This is done, first, to remove remaining portions of the bark and the
upper part of the foot;  and, secondly, to cleanse those parts that may be stained with the sweat
of the camels.
  e. To perforate all pieces, and examine their interior.
  /. To re-dry those roots which may be moist.
  As  the rhubarb taken  in  exchange  by the  crown is  not permitted to be imported into the
European part of Russia, except in quantities of 1,000  poods, or 40,000 pounds, the roots ap-
proved of, after the examination, are packed in bags, and placed where there is a free current
of air, until the necessary quantity has accumulated, which is then packed in cases capable of
containing 4—5 poods.  These  chests are covered with  linen and pitched, then  sewed into
skins and marked with the year of the importation  of the root, and sent to Moscow,
   Crown rhubarb is imported in chests holding from 156 to 160 lbs. each.  Each
chest is  pitched on the outside and covered with a hempen cloth  and a hide.   On
the outside of the chest is a  printed  paper, stating the year in which the rhubarb

  1 Duncan, Suppl. to the Edinb. New Disp. p. 88.              a Murray, App. Med. vol. iv. p. 379.
  * Pallas, Voyages en  difftr. Prov. de I'Empire de Russie, t. iv. p. 216, et seq.
  4 Calau, Pharm. Journ. vol. ii. p. 658, 1843. 
                 Rhubarb:—Varieties and Description.               425

was imported into Russia, and the weight of the chest.   The following is a literal
copy (reduced in size) of one of these papers:—4
      RAD:  RHEI  PALMAT:
KHTAftdKlft KOIIEEraATMH  PEBEHB        \
                                                       I
             HAPTLW 184QT0A]d.
          Jfi&                                   j

                           ft    ®r^              \
   The  best prices  are obtained for those  chests whose rhubarb is in small pieces
 (for retailing), has a bright colour, and is  sound and hard.  The  shapes of the*
 pieces are various, being  angular, rounded, irregular, &c.   The flat surfaces and
 angles which the pieces present show that the cortical portion of the  root has been
 removed by slicing (and not by scraping, as in the Canton rhubarb).   Holes are
 ob-crvcd  in some of  the  pieces extending completely through; they have been
 made for the purpose of hanging the pieces to dry; but all traces of  the cord have
 been carefully removed, and the holes scraped or filed to get rid of all decayed por-
 tions.   The holes which extend only partially through the  pieces are borings which
 have been made  to examine the condition of the interior of the pieces.
   Externally,  the pieces are covered with a bright yellow-coloured powder, usually
 said to be produced by the mutual friction of the pieces in the chests during their
 passage to this country; though many druggists believe it is derived  from the pro-
 cess of rouncing (that is, shaking in a bag with powdered rhubarb),  before its ex-
 portation.  The  odour is strong and peculiar, but somewhat aromatic.  It-is con-
 sidered by druggists to be so delicate, that in all wholesale drug-houses  a pair of
 gloves is kept  in the Russian  rhubarb drawer, with which only are the assistants
 permitted to handle the pieces.  Wben chewed, it feels gritty under the teeth, from
 tbe presence of numerous crystals of1 oxalate of lime ; it communicates a bright yel-
 low colour to the saliva, and has a bitter, slightly astringent taste.
   Beneath the dust with which the pieces are covered,  the surface has a reddish-
 white tint, owing to the intermixture of white and red parts.  The yellowish-white
 parts have the form of lines or  veins, which, by their union with each other, assume
 a reticular form. ^ Irregularly scattered over the surface we observe small star-like
npots and depressions, of a darker colour.  The transverse fracture is uneven, and
presents numerous brownish-red or  dark carmine-coloured  undulating veins.   The

                  ' The following is a translation of the above label :—

                 I      RAD:  RHEI PALMAT:
                 !        CHINESE HOOF RHUBARB
                             OF THE YEAR 1810.
                 i          N" 6

                                       poods.   lbs.
                         NET WEIGHTS.--26         \ 
426               VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord. Polygonaceje.

longitudinal fracture is still more uneven, and shows the  longitudinal direction of
the veins, which are often interrupted with white.  The surface obtained by cutting
is more or less yellow, and often exposes  the  veins, disposed in groups.
                        By  boiling  very thin slices of the  root in water, and then
      Fig. 304.         submitting them to the microscope, we  observe cellular tissue
                      annular ducts, and numerous conglomerate raphides (clumps of
                      crystals of oxalate of lime).   From 100  grs. of Russian rhu-
                      barb, the late Mr. Edwin Quekett procured  between  35 and
                      40 grs. of these raphides.1   Turpin considered the presence of
                      these  crystals  sufficient  to  distinguish   Russian and Chinese
                      rhubarb from that grown  in Europe; but in some specimens of
                      English rhubarb I have met with them in as great abundance
                      as in foreign rhubarb.  According to Raspail," they are situated
                      in the interstices  of the elongated tissue; but this  statement is
                      erroneous, the situation of  the crystals  being in the interior of
 Crystals of Oxalate    the cells.
of Lime in Russian      The  small  pieces of  crown rhubarb  are usually picked out
      Rhubarb.         and sold as radix rhei turcici electa ;  the larger pieces and dust
                      being employed for powdering.
   The powder of Russian rhubarb is of a bright yellow colour,  with a reddish tint;
but, as met with in  the shops, it is almost  invariably mixed  with  the powder  of
English rhubarb.
  2. White or Imperial Rhubarb.—When Pallas was  at Kiachta, the Bucharian merchants, who
supplied the crown with rhubarb, brought some pieces of rhubarb as  white as milk, with a
sweet taste, and the same properties  as rhubarb of  the  best quality.3   It is not met with in
English commerce as a distinct kind ;  and it is almost unknown in Russia4   But in the chests
of Russian rhubarb there are occasionally found  pieces having an unusually white appearance;
these I presume to be  the  kind alluded to.5  White rhubarb is said to be the produce of R.
leucorrhizum, Pallas (R. nanum, Sievers.)
  3. Taschkent  Rhubarb.—This is the refuse of the true Russian rhubarb, which comes by way
of Taschkent.   It differs but little from the crown rhubarb.  On account of its cheapness, it,like
the Bucharian sort, is employed for purposes for which the crown rhubarb of Russia is too ex-
pensive.  I have  not met with it in English commerce.
  4. Bucharian Rhubarb (Rheum  bucharicum.)—Grassman, an  apothecary, at St. Petersburg,
who has described this sort,6 considers it to be the rhubarb which, according to Pallas, is ob-
tained from Rheum undulatum, and which, in the Pharmacopeia Rossica,  for 1798, was denomi-
nated radix rharbarbi sibiriri.  As it is not under the control of the crown, in Russia, it under-
goes no examination, and inferior and rotten pieces, therefore, are  often  met with.  On account
of its cheapness it is used, in Russia, in veterinary medicine.
  In 1840, some of it  was received here by Mr. Faber, from Russia, to whom I am  indebted
for samples of  it.  It is described as being carried into  the  latter country by way of  Nischny,
where it is trimmed  for the Moscow market.
  This kind of rhubarb is  intermediate between the Chinese and Russian  or Muscovite rhu-
barb, but is of inferior quality.  The pieces are,  more or  less, rounded or  flattened, and wei;,'h
from one to two ounces each.  Some of them appear to have  been deprived of their cortical
portion by scraping, as in the Chinese  rhubarb;  but in others, the cortex has been removed by
slicing.   Most of  them are perforated by a  hole, apparently for  the purpose of drying them;
but in none of the holes are there any remains of  the cord used in suspending the roots.  The
holes, moreover, appear to have been cleaned out,  as in the Russian rhubarb, for no portion of
decayed rhubarb is seen  in them.  Some of the pieces are dense, but most of them are lighter
than good Russian rhubarb.  Internally, they are often decayed and dark coloured.  Their tex-
ture is similar to that of genuine rhubarb.  The  odour is  also like that of rhubarb, but much
feebler; the taste  is bitter and astringent.  When  chewed, this rhubarb feels gritty under  the
teeth.   Its colour  is darker than that of good Russian rhubarb.
  5. Siberian Rhubarb; Rheum sibiricumJ—This is the sort  which Grassman has described as
Siberian rhapontic rhubarb.  In 1815, three chests of it came to England from St. Petersburg,
under the name of Bucharian rhubarb, and were sold by public sale at 6d. per. lb.
  1 Lindlcy's Introduction to Botany, 3d ed. p. 553.                                  .    „,,
  ' Chim. Organ.                                                    2 Voyages, t. iv. p. *"■
  * Grassman ; Buchner's Repert. Bd. xxxviii. S. 179, 1831.
  6 Consult Gcebel and Kunze, Pharm. Waarcnl.unde.
  6 Buchner's Repertorium, Bd. xxxviii. S. 179, Is.'H.                                   . , .
  ' Fop a notice of this and two preceding varieties, see a paper by the author in the Pharmaceutical jo* •
nal, vol. iv. pp. 445 and 500, 1845. 
Rhubarb :—its Varieties.
427
  In its general appearance, it agreed with rhubarb grown in this country, and known as Eng-
lish stick rhubarb.   It had been decorticated, though imperfectly so, as portions of the dark brown
cortex  were here and there  left adherent.  The pieces were all more or less cylindrical, seldom
exceeding four inches in length and an inch in diameter, and on the average weighed about 100
grains  each ; the longest piece was six inches in length; and an inch and a half in diameter.
The broadest piece was somewhat flattened, and  about three inches in its broadest diameter.
Its colour was, in general, darker than that of the ordinary rhubarb, but was of the same kind
of tint.  Its odour was remarkably sweet, similar to what I have perceived when drying the
roots of different species of Rhenm cultivated  in England.   When chewed  it was not gritty.
Its taste  was mucilaginous,  bitterish, but not astringent.  The fracture of the smaller and sound
pieces was similar to that  of English stick  rhubarb; the larger pieces  were decayed, dark
brown, and tasteless in the centre.
   2.  Canton Rhubarb.—This, like  the Russian  crown rhubarb, is the produce of
China,  but is exported from Canton.  It is usually known in English commerce as
 Chinese or East  Indian  rhubarb (radix rhei chinensis seu indici.)   It is imported
either directly from Canton, or indirectly by Singapore and other parts of the East
Indies,  and is probably the  produce  of the  province of  Se-tchuen  (Du  Halde), of
Iloo-nan and Hoo-pih, as  well as of other provinces (Gutzlaffe and Reed).
   Three kinds of Canton rhubarb are known in commerce;  these are, the unlrim-
med or half-trimmed, the  trimmed, sometimes called the Dutch trimmed, and what
 I have  called stick rhubarb.
   6.  Half trimmed or  untrimmed Canton  Rhubarb.—This is usually Chinese or
 East Indian rhubarb of the shops.   It is called " untrimmed," or " half-trimmed,"
 because the cortical portion of the root has  been incompletely scraped (not sliced)
 off;  and consequently the pieces have a  rounded character, and  are devoid of tL
 flat surfaces and angles  produced by slicing (as in the Russian and Dutch trimmed
 rhubarbs). The inferior  pieces present the remains of the greenish-brown or blackish
 cortex.  The pieces are frequently cylindrical or roundish, but sometimes flattened ;
 in trade, they are distinguished as rounds and flats.   They are generally perforated
 with  holes,  in many of which, we  find portions  of the  cords by which they were
 suspended.   These holes are smaller than those observed in Russian rhubarb, and
 that portion  of the root forming their sides is usually dark-coloured, decayed, and of
 inferior quality.   The best pieces are heavier and more compact than that of the Rus-
 sian kind; and are covered  with an easily separable dust. When this is removed, we
 observe that tbe surface is not so regularly reticulated, is of a more yellowish-brown
 than reddish-white colour, and has  coarser fibres than Russian rhubarb.   On the
 finer pieces, we notice  numerous  star-like spots or  depressions.   The fracture  is
 uneven;  the veins, especially towards the middle, have a less determinate direction,
 and are of a duller or reddish-brown colour, and, in very bad pieces, of an umber-
 brown  colour, with a gray substance between the veins.
   The odour of this species is much less powerful than that of Russian rhubarb,
 and is .somewhat less aromatic.  The taste, grittiness when chewed, and  microscopic
 appearances, are similar to those of  Russian rhubarb.   The  colour of the powder
 is of a more dull yellow or brownish cast.
   This sort of rhubarb  is imported in chests and half chests; the former contains
 one picul (133£ lbs.), the  latter  half a  picul.   The chests are  oblong, have  been
 coarsely put together, and, except in shape, resemble tea-chests;  and, like  the lat-
 ter, are lined with sheet-lead.  The  cover is a double one.
   When this sort arrives in London, it is hand-picked, tared, and sorted into three
 qualities—bright and sound, dark and horny, and  worm-eaten.  This  is not  done
 with  Russian rhubarb.
   7.  I hitch-trimmed or  Batavian Rhubarb, offic. (Rhubarbe de Perse, Gruibourt.)—
 This  kind of rhubarb is closely allied to, if it be not identical with, the preceding
 in its  texture.   In commerce, however, it is always regarded as  distinct.  It  is
imported from Canton and Singapore in  chests,  each containing one picul, (133£
lbs.)   It has  been dressed  or trimmed   to  resemble the Russian  crown rhubarb,
which it does in  shape, size, and general  appearance; for the  cortical portion of the 
 428              VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Polygon ace*:.

 root seems to have been separated by slicing, and hence the pieces have the same
 angular appearance on the surface that the Russian rhubarb  has.   The  pieces arc
 frequently perforated, and in the  holes are found the remains of the cord by which
 the root has been suspended; in this it differs from  the  Russian  crown rhubarb
 In tbe drug-trade, this  kind of rhubarb is  said  to be trimmed, and, according to
 the shape of the pieces, they are  called flats or rounds  The colour and weight of
 the pieces are variable.                                                    °
   8. Canton Stick Rhubarb.]—In 1844, five cases of this rhubarb were imported from Canton
 and were sold by public sale, at 8d. per pound.                                      '
   All the pieces  but one of my sample  are cylindrical, about two inches long, from half t0
 three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and weigh each on the average about 100 grains The
 piece to which I have referred as forming the exception is shaped like a flattened cylinder cut
 obliquely at one end; its greatest length is about two and a half inches, its greatest breadth two
 inches and a quarter; while its depth is about one inch, and its weight is about two ounces
 Mr. Faber, from whom  I received it, tells me, that on the examination of a  quantity of Canton
 stick rhubarb he found several such pieces.
   Most of the pieces are decorticated.  These resemble English stick rhubarb in their texture
 and colour, except that they  are, perhaps, somewhat paler.  The taste is bitter, and somewhat
 astringent, but considerably less so than that of good, half-trimmed, Canton Rhubarb. By chew-
 ing it, little or no grittiness is perceptible.
   This kind of rhubarb is probably obtained  from the root-branches of the  plant which yields
 the usual Canton rhubarb.
    3.  Himalayan Rhubarb (Radix Rhei Himalayanensis ; Radix Rhei Indict).—
 Rhubarb, the  produce of the Himalayas, which  makes its way through  the plains
 of India,  through Kahlsee,  Almora, and Butan, is probably, from its usual dark
 colour and spongy texture, the produce  of either or both R. Emodi and R. WMia-
 num; the roots of R. spiciforme and  R. Moorcroftianum being  lighter coloured
 and more  compact in structure.
    I have met  with two sorts of Himalayan rhubarb :—
    9.  Large Himalayan Rhubarb; Rhubarb from Rheum Emodi?—I .am indebted
 to  Dr. Wallich for some specimens of this sort of rhubarb.   He  obtained them from
 the inhabitants of the Himalayas, who had strung the pieces around the necks of
 their mules.   It has scarcely any  resemblance to the officinal rhubarb.  The pieces
 are cylindrical, and are cut obliquely at the extremities; the cortex of the root  is
 not removed; the colour is dark-brown,  with a slight tint of yellow; they are with-
 out odour, and have a coarse fibrous texture.
   In November, 1840, when China rhubarb  was  very scarce  and  dear, nineteen
 chests of Himalayan rhubarb were imported from Calcutta into this country.  The
 chests were of the  usual  Calcutta kind, made  of the hard, heavy, brittle  Bengal
 wood.   The weight per chest was gross  1 cwt, 2  qrs. 26 lbs.
   The pieces varied considerably in size and shape; some were twisted, cylindrical,
 furrowed pieces, cut obliquely at  the extremities, about four inches long, and an
 inch and a half in  diameter.  Others  were circular disks, about  three  inches in
 diameter, two inches  thick, and weighed about four ounces each.   Besides  these,
 semicylindrical, angular, and other-shaped pieces were met  with, and were obviously
 obtained  by slicing the root.  Some of  the pieces were decorticated, others were
 coated.  The general colour was dark brown; the prominent decorticated and paler
 parts  having an ochre-brown tint.   It had a feeble rhubarb odour, and a bitter
 astringent taste.   When broken, it did  not  present the marbled texture character-
 istic of ordinary rhubarb.   By chewing it, little or  no grittiness was perceived. It
 was exceedingly  light, and worm-eaten.
   This was the  first  shipment of Himalayan  rhubarb ever made to this country.
 Two chests sold  at 4d. per lb.; the remainder at Id. per lb.3
   10.  Small Himalayan Rhubarb; Rhubarb from Rheum  Webbianum.—l am
indebted to Dr. Royle for this sort.   It  is the  same as that referred to in the ex-

  * See a paper by the author in the Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. iv. p. 446, 1845.
   k i^°yle iIUwst- °f the Botany of the Himalayan Mountains, p. 316. snys that the Himalayan rhu-
barb sells for only one-tenth of the price of the best rhubarb, resembling in quality the Russian, and which
is found in India.                        _                 01/ 
                           Rhubarb:—its Varieties.                        420

periments of Mr. Twining.1   The pieces are short transverse segments of the root-
branches, of a  dark brownish  colour, odourless,  or nearly so, with a very bitter
astringent taste, and in quality do not  essentially differ from the roots given me by
Dr. Wallich.
  4. European Rhubarb (Radix Rhei Europsei).—This is rhubarb cultivated  in
Europe.   The only two sorts with which I am acquainted are the English and French.
  11.  English Rhubarb (Radix Rhei Anglici).—This is the produce of  Rheum
Rhaponticum, cultivated in the neighbourhood of Banbury in  Oxfordshire.
  The history of this rhubarb is  not a little curious.  It appears that Mr. Wm. Hayward, an
apothecary at Banbury, was the original cultivator of rhubarb in  that locality.  From his own
statement2 it appears that he  began to culivate it about the  year 1777.3   In 1789 he obtained
a silver medal, and in 1794 a gold medal, from the Society of Arts, for the cultivation of what
he terms  "the true Turkey rhubarb;''4 the plant for which the  Society offered  the  premium
being the " R. palmatum, or true rhubarb."5   Mr. Hayward died in 1811, and  his plants were
purchased by the father of one of the present cultivators.
  At present there are three cultivators of Banbury rhubarb; viz. Mr. R. Usher of Overthorpe
and Bodicott, Mr. T. Tustian of Milcombe, and Mr. E. Hughes of Neithorp.  These parties grow
altogether about 12 acres  of rhubarb.  Only one species is in cultivation, and  that  I find to be
 K. rhaponticum.  I  have examined specimens of it sent to me by Mr.  Rye, surgeon of Ban-
bury, and to  the Pharmaceutical Society by Mr. W. Bigg.  Mr. Usher states that no other species
was ever cultivated at Banbury; and that he cannot produce English rhubarb from the "Giant
rhubarb," or any other sort.6
   At Banbury,  the rhubarb is obtained from roots of three or four years old. They
are dug up in October or November,  freed from  dirt, deprived of their outer coat
 by a sharp knife, exposed to  the sun and air for a few days, and  dried on basket-
 work in drying-houses  heated by stove-pipes or brick flues.   Mr. Hayward accele-
rated the curing process by scooping a  hole in the largest pieces; and  dried both
these; and the  smaller pieces strung on  packthread, and hung in a warm room.
   The root-stock yields the trimmed English rhubarb; the root-branches yield the
cuttings  or stick  English rhubarb.  The produce of the process of trimming  is called
raspings, and serves for powdering.
   Trimmed or dressed English rhubarb is the kind frequently observed in the show-
bottles of druggists' windows, and was  formerly sold in Cheapside and the  Poultry
for " Turkey rhubarb," by persons dressed up as Turks.   It occurs in various-sized
und shaped pieces, which are  trimmed  and frequently perforated, so as to represent
foreign rhubarb ;7 some of the pieces are cylindrical in their form, and are evidently
segments of cylinders; others are flat.   This kind of rhubarb is  very light, spongy
(especially in the middle of the  large flat pieces), attractive of moisture, pasty under
the pestle, and has a reddish or pinkish hue not observed in the Asiatic kind.  In-
ternally it has usually a marbled appearance; the streaks are pinkish, parallel, and
have a  radiated disposition;_ and  in the centre of some of the  larger pieces the
texture  is  soft and woolly, and may be easily indented  by the  nail.  Its  taste  is
astringent  and  very mucilaginous;  it  is not  at  all, or  only very slightly, gritty
tinder  the teeth; its odour is  feeble,  and  more unpleasant than either  the  Russian
or East  Indian kinds.   The microscope discovers in  it, for the most  part, very few
crystals  of  oxalate of  lime.
  The common  stick English  rhubarb  (called at  Banbury the cuttings)  occurs in
angular  or roundish pieces, of about five  or six  inches  long, and  an inch thick.
When  fractured it presents the radiated appearance, and the red-coloured  streaks
of the  kind  last  mentioned.   Its taste is astringent, but very mucilaginous- it is
not gritty under the teeth; it breaks very short.
' Trans. Med. and Phys. Sur. of Calcutta, vol. iii. p. 4H.
• Trnns. Society of Arts, vol. viii. pp. 75 and 76, 1790
entitled
  • The cultivation of rhubarb in Britain was long 8inre recommended by Sir William Fordvce in a work
  titled The Great Imrormnr, and Proper Method of Cultivating and Curing Rhubarb in Bntain  for
  nlical Purposes, Lond. ITsl.                                                 *»r.n*»», jar
  « Trans. Society Arts, vol. xii pp. 225-229, 1791.            • Ibid. vols. vii. p. 281, and xi n 2P5
   lor furthrr details see Mr Uigg's Answers to Queries (drawn up by the author), and the author'^ Xote
on Banbury Rhubarb, in the Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. vi. pp 73 74 and 76                 Ao"
  'Sp.eiMi.-ns in the Ilussinn or Dutch style of trimming  in the Chinese'or East India style of iriniinin*
Rn.l ,.| .mall trimmed pieces like truncate.! cones' anil fine trimmed Banbury rhubarb, are contained nth.'
nuiieum of the Pharmaceutical S.ic ctv.                                   '   " iuhiiicu in the 
430              VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Polygonaceje.


   English rhubarb is extensively employed by druggists to adulterate the powder
of Asiatic rhubarb.
   12.  French rhubarb (Radix Rhei Gallici).—This kind of rhubarb is  procured
from Rheum Rhaponticum,  undulatum,  and  especially compactum.1  These are
cultivated at Rheumpole, a place not far from Lorient, in  the department of Mor-
bihan.   Rheum palmatum is no longer cultivated there.   Through the kindness of
Professor Guibourt,  I possess two  kinds of French  rhubarb.   One of  these he
calls flat, and is  probably the produce  of R.  rhaponticum; the other  be terms
round, and is the produce of R.  compactum.
   Composition.—Few, if any, articles of the  materia medica  have been so fre-
quently the subject  of chemical investigation as  rhubarb.   Many chemists have
submitted it to  examination  for the  purpose of discovering all its proximate prin-
ciples.   Among these, may be mentioned Schrader3 in 1807, N. E. Henry3 in 1S14J
Brande4 in 1821, Hornemann5in 1822, Peretti6 in 1826, Buchner and  Herberger'
in 1831, Lucae8 in 1833, 0.  Henry9 in 1836, Brandes10 in  1836, and  Schlossberger
and Doepping in 1844.n
   But several of  the more important chemical examinations of rhubarb have been
made with the view  chiefly  of discovering the one or more active  principles of
rhubarb.   Among  these I  include the  investigations of Trommsdorff,18 l'faff,"
Nani,14 Caventou,15 Carpenter,16 Dulk,17 and especially  of Schlossberger and Doepp-
ing, before quoted.
   One hundred grains of the finest Russian rhubarb, according to Mr. Brande, lost 44.2 grs. by
being repeatedly  digested in  alcohol (sp. gr. 0.815).  By evaporation, the alcoholic solution
yielded a residue of 36  grains (the loss  8.2 grs. may be ascribed to water), of which 10 grains
(resin 1) were insoluble in water.
   The  rhubarb left after the action of alcohol weighed, when dried  at 212° F., 55.8 grs.  It
yielded to water  31 grs. (gum?) The insoluble residue, weighing 24.8 grs., must  have con-
sisted of woody fibre, oxalate of lime, &c.
Hornemann's Analyses.			Lucae's Analysis.
Russian.	English	Sicilian	Rheum
	[Chinese?]	[English?]	Emodi.
16.042	14.375	10.156	4.220
9.583	9.166	2.187	7.500
14.687	16.458	10.417	6 158
1.458	1.249	0.e33	0.461)
10.000	8.333	3.542	6.250
28.333	30.416	41042	55.8,13
1.042	0.833		1 302
14.583	15.416	8.512	16.354
3.333	3.125	6.042 1.042 14.583	
0.939	0 629	1.614	1.604
100.000	100.000	100.000	100.000
		The quanti-	
		ties of potash,	
trace	trace	lime, alumi-	
0.208	0 208	na, and mag	0.208
2416	0.416	uesia, were	0.155
0 208	0.208	too small to	0 208
0.208	0.208	be accurately	0.572
5.883	7.083	determined.	3.854
8.873	8.123		4.997
 1 Guibourt, op. supra cit.
 3 Berlinisches Jahrbuch f. d. Pharmacie auf das J. 1807, p. 123.                      .
 3 Bull.de Pharm. vi. 87, 1814.                     * Quart. Journ. of Science, voj. x. p. 288,1821.
 6 Berl. Jahrb. Bd. xxiii. p 252.1822.                 « Journ. de Pharm. xiv. 536, 1828.
 ' Buchner's Repertor. Bd. xxxviii. p 337, 1831.        » Ibid fur 1834, p. 78.
 • Journ. de Pharm. xxii. 393, 1836.                  '• Pharm  Central-Blatt fur 1<<36. p. lc2.
11 Ann. der Chem. u.  Vharm. Bd. 1. p. 196, 1814;  and Pharm. Journal, vol. iv. p. 136, 1811.
12 Journ. de Pharm. iii. 1, p.  106.
13 Syst. d. Mat. Med.  Bd. iii.  p. 23. 1814 ;  and Bd. vi. p. 308, 1821.
:< Biblioth. Univ. xxxiii. 232.                      •» Journ. de Pharm. t. xii. p. 22. 1826.
'6 Philadelphia Journal of Pharmacy, vol. i. p. 139.
11 Arch. d. Pharm. Bd. xvii.  p. 26; also, Pharm. Central-Blatt far 1S39, p. 102.
Bitter principle of Pfsiff.............
Yellow colouring matter of Henry.......
Astringent extractive...............
Oxidized tannin  .................
Mucilage  .....................
Substance extracted by potash lye.......
Oxalic acid....................
Woody fibre...................
Moisture......................
Rhapontiein....................
Starch  .......................
Loss [water and odorous matter?].......

           Rhubarb..............

  The woody fibre being incinerated, yielded—

        Potash.................
        Charcoal.................
        Silica..................
        Carbonate of magnesia........
        Alumina with oxide of iron.....
        Carbonate of lime...........

           Ashes............... 
Rhubarb:—Composition.                           431
             Brandes's Analysis.                    Schlossberger and Doepping's Analysis.
             (Chinese Rhubarb.)                        (Moscow and Chinese Rhubarb.)
Pure rhnbfirberie acid.............   2.0 1 1. Chrysophanic acid.
Impure rhabarberic acid  ............   7.5 12. Three resins (aporetine, phmoretine, and erythro-
Gallic acid, with some rhabarberic acid  ...   2.5 |     retine.)         t
Tannin......................   9.0  3. Extractive matter.
Colouring extractive...............   3.5 i 4. Tannic acid.
Incrystullizuble sugar, with tannin......  11.0 I 5. Gallic acid.
Starch and pectic acid..............   4.0 | 6. Sugar.
Gummy extractive taken up by caustic potash  14.4 j 7. Pectine
Pectic acid....................   4:0
Malate and gallate of lime...........   11
Oxalate of lime.................11.0
Sulphate of potash,  and chloride of potassium   1.5
Phosphate of lime with oxide of iron.....   0.5
Silica.......................   1.0
Woody fibre...................250
Water.......................   2.0
Rhubarb..........100.0
H. Oxalate of lime.
9. Ashes (containing potash, soda, silica and sand,
    traces  of  sesquioxide  of  iron, phosphate  of
    lime and magnesia, sulphuric, muriatic (chlor-
    ine;, phosphoric and carbonic acids.
Rhubarb.
   Schlossberger and Doepping conclude that the flavour, relation to chemical reagents, and thera-
peutical properties of rhubarb, depend on the conjoint operation of the resin, the colouring mat-
ter, and the extractive; modified perhaps in some degree by the other ingredients.
   1. Ononocs Matter of Rhubarb (Volatile Oil?).—In none of the analyses of rhubarb  is
any mention made of a distinct odorous principle;  yet it appears to me that such must exist
As the colour and odour bear no  proportion to each other  in  different  kinds of rhubarb, it is
tolerably clear, that they cannot depend on one and the same principle. The odorous principle
is probably a volatile oil, but it has not hitherto been isolated.   A few  years since, Dr. Bressy
announced to the Acadimk de Medecine that he had separated it, but the committee appointed to
repeat his experiments was unable to procure  it by his process.1  Zenneck2 says that the rhu-
barb odour is imitated  by a mixture of nitric acid, aloes, and chloride of iron.
   2. Yellow Cristalline Granular Matter  of Rhubarb. Chrysophanic Acid (so called
from yjfwdc, gold, and  <f>aiV«, I shine) ; Rheic Acid.   C'°HS03.   Found in  Russian and Canton
rhubarb; in the roots of Rheum Rhaponticum  arid Rumex  obtusifolius;  and in Parmelia parie-
tina (see ante, p. G9).   In the pure  or  more  or less  impure  state, it  has been  long known
under the names of rhabarbaric acid, rheumin, rhabarberin, and rhein.  It may be procured from
rhubarb by means of ether in Robiquet's displacement apparatus.
   Pure chrysophanic acid is a beautiful, clear, yellow, odourless, and  tasteless substance, which
separates in granular masses, and shows little disposition to crystallize.   It is tolerably soluble
in hot rectified spirit of wine; not very soluble in ether, even when boiling; and almost insolu-
ble in cold water, but more soluble in boiling water.  Heated, it  evaporates, emits yellow fumes
which condense and form yellow flocculi, and at the same  time a part becomes carbonized.  It
dissolves in alkalies, producing a beautiful red colour; if the  potash  solution be evaporated  to
dryness, the red colour changes  to violet, and  then to a beautiful  blue.  It dissolves in oil  of
vitriol, forming a beautiful red solution, from which water precipitates yellow flocculi.
   3.  IUsins.  According to Schlossberger and  Doepping, rhubarb contains  three resins, soluble
in alcohol, but insoluble in water.
   a. Aporetine (from iwo, from,  and firm,  resin)  is a  product or deposit of the resin of rhu-
        barb.  It  is  black and shining when  dry;  slightly soluble  in hot  spirit, ether, cold
        and hot water;  very soluble in ammonia and potash.
   6. Phaoretine (from <patic,red brown, and pnrin); Brown  resin of  rhubarb.   CI6H8()7.  It  is
        yellowish brown, very slightly soluble in water and  ether; very soluble in spirit and its
        alkalies, and  may be thrown down from the  latter solution by the mineral acids.
   y. Erythoretine (from i^Me, red, and pu-n'vn); Red resin of rhubarb.  Cl9H907.   It  is  yellow,
       soluble in  «ther, very soluble  in  alcohol;  forms rich  purple combinations with potash
       und ammonia, which are very soluble in water.   To this resin, as well as to chrysopha-
       nic acid, rhubarb chiefly owes its colour.
   1. Bitter Principle;  Extractive?  Rhubarb contains a bitter principle;  but most of the
substances which  have been  announced as the bitter  principle of  rhubarb, under  the name
of caphopicrUe (? from  na<piv, I exhale, and  wikjo'c, bitter), or rhabarberin, are themselves com-
pounded of two or more principles.   Schlossberger and Doepping describe  the extractive mat-
ter of rhubarb as having a bitter taste, but not the flavour of rhubarb.
  5. AbTRiMiKNT Matter (Tannic and Gallic adds) —The  red veins are  the seat of the
astringent matter.  This is proved by brushing  the cut surface of rhubarb with a weak solution
of a ferruginous salt; the red veins only undergo a change of colour.
  6. Indifferent Substances.—Rhubarb contains a considerable quantity of starch and pec-
tine or  vegetable jelly.   The starch consists of small grains, with a very distinct nucleus or
hilum, and arranged in  groups, each of 2, 3,  or more grains.   Sugar also  may be detected by
Trommer's tc*t and fermentation (see ante, p. 150).   Cellulose and mucilage  aho are present.

  1 Diet. desDrog t. iv. p. 425.                    » Pharm. Central-Blatt far 1832, S. 237.     • 
432
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Polygonaceje.
   7. Oxalate of Limf..—The conglomerate  raphides before  noticed (see ante, p. 426) an
crystals of oxalate of lime.  They may be separated in great abundance by boiling Russian ot
China rhubarb in water until  the  cohesion of the tissue is completely destroyed.  When the
decomposed tissue is well shaken with water, the  crystals fall to the  bottom  of the vessel.
Heated  to redness, they are changed into carbonate of lime.   A solution of them  in diluted
nitric acid, or a solution obtained  by boiling the crystals with a solution of carbonate of sods
forms,  with nitrate  of silver, a white precipitate  (oxalate of silver), which  explodes when
heated.   It has been already stated that the late Mr. Edwin Quekett obtained from 35 to 40
per cent, of oxalate of lime from  Russian  rhubarb.
'   8. Rhaponticin.—A yellow, crystallizable, odourless, tasteless substance, obtained from the
root of European (English'?)  rhubarb.   It  is insoluble in cold water,ether, and the volatileoili
but soluble in 24 times its weight of boiling water, and twice its weight of absolute alcohol.1
   Chemical Characteristics.—If the powder of rhubarb be heated in aglasj
capsule over a lamp, an odorous yellow vapour (oil? or resin with chrysophanic acid]
is obtained, which communicates a red colour  to a solution  of caustic potash.  The
aqueous infusion of rhubarb is rendered green by the sesquichloride of  iron (tanno-
gallate of iron); with a solution of  gelatin it yields a copious  yellow precipitate
(tannate of gelatin), which is dissolved on  the application of heat, or by the addi-
tion of  an excess of gelatin; with a solution of disulphate of quinia, a yellowish
precipitate (tannate of quinia); with the alkalies (potash, soda, and ammonia), a
red-coloured solution (soluble alkaline chrysophanates);  with lime-water, a reddish
precipitate (chrysophanate of lime);  with the acids (the acetic excepted), precipi-
tates ;  and with various metallic solutions (as of acetate of lead, protochloride of
tin,  protonitrate of mercury, and  the nitrate of silver),  precipitates  (principally
metallic chrysophanates and tannates).
   Distinguishing  characteristics of rhubarb  and  turmeric.—Paper stained by a
strong  decoction of tincture of rhubarb  is  not affected by boracic acid, or by the
borates rendered acid, whereas turmeric paper is reddened by these agents.3  Hence
the presence of turmeric in  powdered rhubarb may be detected by this  means.
   Differential characteristics of the commercial sorts of rhubarb.—All  the different
commercial sorts of rhubarb contain  the  same constituents, but  in different propor-
tions ;  hence the differential characteristics  are founded on  relative or  comparative
differences,  not on absolute  ones.  English  rhubarb  usually contains a smaller
quantity of  crystals of oxalate of  lime, and a larger quantity of starch.   It, there-
fore, is less gritty between the teeth.  In general, a decoction of Russian, Dutch-
trimmed,  or of China  rhubarb, becomes, with a solution  of iodine, greenish-blue
(iodide of starch) : after a few minutes the colour disappears, and no iodine can be
detected in the liquor by starch, unless nitric acid be  previously added.  A decoc-
tion of English rhubarb, however, is rendered, by a solution  of iodine, intensely blue
(iodide of starch), the colour not completely disappearing by standing.   These pe-
culiarities, however, are not constant.  Some specimens of Russian rhubarb, however,
contain so much starch that they react on iodine, like those of English rhubarb.
   Physiological Effects,  o.  On Animals.—On the solipedes rhubarb acts as
a  tonic, confining  its action  principally to the stomach, whose digestive  power it
augments.   On the carnivora it operates, in doses of half a drachm, in the same
way; but, in doses of several drachms, as a purgative.   On the larger herbivom it
may be given to the  extent  of several ounces without causing purgation.3  Tiede-
mann and Gmelin4 detected  it by its yellow colour in the serum of the blood of the
mesenteric, splenic, and portal veins, and in  the  urine of dogs  to which rhubarb
had been administered by  the mouth.   They failed to recognize  it in  the chyle.
   j3.  On Man.—In small doses  (as from  four  to  eight grains) it acts as an astrin-
gent tonic, its operation being principally  or wholly confined to the digestive organs.
In relaxed conditions of these parts it promotes  the appetite, assists the digestive
process, improves the quality of the alvine secretions, and often  restrains diarrhoea.
In large doses (as from a scruple to a drachm) it operates,  slowly and  mildly, as a

  1 Berzelius, Traiti de Chim. vi. 205.            a Faraday, Quart. J.urn. of Science, vol. vi. P- IB-
  3 Moiroud, Pharm. Vtt&r. p. 260.
  "Versuche u d. Wege auf welch. Subst. aus d. Magen u. Darmk. gelang. S. 10-12. 
Rhubarb :—its Physiological Effects.
433
 purgative, sometimes causing  slight griping.   It never inflames the mucous mem-
 brane  of the  alimentary  canal,  as  jalap, scammony, colocynth, and some other
 drastic purgatives are capable  of  doing.   The constipation which follows its cathar-
 tic effect has  been ascribed to the  operation of its astringent matter.  In febrile
 complaints and inflammatory diseases it sometimes accelerates the pulse, and raises
 the temperature of the body; whence the impropriety of  its use in these cases.
   Under  the  use of rhubarb  the  secretions, especially the  urine, become coloured
 by it.   According to Heller, the  colour which the urine acquires under the employ-
 ment of this medicine depends on the acid or alkaline condition of this secretion ;
 if acid, it is  yellow;  if alkaline, it becomes reddish-yellow or  blood-red.   From
 Schlossberger's  experiments,1 it  appears that the colour  is  communicated to the
 urine by the phaeoretine and erythroretine, and not by the chrysophanic acid, which,
 when  pure, neither operates on the bowels nor colours the urine.  Urine coloured
 by rhubarb stains the  linen, and  is reddened by caustic potash.
   The cutaneous secretion (especially of the arm-pits) also becomes coloured under
 the use of  rhubarb.   The  milk  of  nurses who have  taken it  is said to acquire a
 purgative property.
   Rhubarb has for a long period been considered to possess a specific influence over
 the liver, to  promote the secretion of bile, and  to  be used in jaundice.   These
 opinions, which, as  Dr. Cullen3  correctly observed, have  no foundation either in
 theory or practice, arose from the absurd doctrine of  signatures.
   Considered in relation to other medicinal agents, rhubarb holds an intermediate
 rank between the bitter tonics on  the  one  hand,  and the  drastics  on the other.
 From  the first it is distinguished by its  purgative qualities;  from the latter, by its
 tonic operation and the mildness of its evacuant effects.   As a purgative, it is  per-
 haps more closely allied to aloes than to any other cathartic in ordinary use;  but
 is distinguished by its much milder operation, and its  want of any specific action on
 the large intestines.
   The comparative  power of the several kinds of rhubarb has scarcely been ascer-
 tained with precision.   The remarks above made  apply to the Russian and  Chinese
 varieties, whose  power is about equal.   From experiments made by  Dr. Parry, at
 the Bath Hospital, it  appears that  the  purgative qualities of the English  rhubarb
 are scarcely so strong as those of the Russian and Chinese varieties;  but the differ-
 ence is not great.3  For several  years past, English  rhubarb has been exclusively
 employed at the London Hospital; and  no complaints have been made respecting
 its operation.  Himalayan  rhubarb is, according  to Dr. Twining,4 almost equal to
 Russian rhubarb in its purgative effects;  but is less  aromatic,  though more astrin-
 gent.
   I'sks—The  remedial value of rhubarb depends  on the mildness and safety of
 its operation, and on its tonic and astringent influence over the alimentary canal.
   1.  As a purgative.—There are many cases in  which the above-mentioned quali-
 ties render  rhubarb peculiarly valuable as a purgative.  In mild cases of diarrhoea
 it sometimes  proves peculiarly efficacious, by first evacuating any irritating matter
 contained in  the  bowels, and  afterwards acting  as  an astringent.  Given  at  the
 commencement of the disease, it  is  a very popular remedy; and  though doubtless
 it is often  employed  unnecessarily (since, as Dr. Cullen has  justly observed, in
 many cases  no further evacuation is  necessary or proper, than what is occasioned by
 the disease), yet  it rarely, if ever, does harm.  Sulphate of potash is a very useful
 adjunct to it, and promotes its purgative operation.   Antacids (as chalk or  mag-
 nesia)  are frequently conjoined with it.   It is not fitted for inflammatory or febrile
 cases.   As an infant's purgative it is deservedly celebrated.   It is well adapted
 for a variety of children's complaints; but is  peculiarly adapted to scrofulous sub-
jects, and  those  afflicted with enlargement of the  mesenteric glands,  accompanied

  1 Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. viii. p. 190, 1818.
  ' Steph.n»i«n and Cliurclull, Med. Bot.
  ' Tram. Mrd. and Phys. Soc. of Calcutta, vol. iii. p. 441
       vol. ii.—2S
3 Mat. Med. 
434
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Polyoonace.e.
with tumid belly and atrophy.   Magnesia, sulphate of potash, or calomel may be
associated with it, according  to circumstances.   For an  ordinary purgative in
habitual costiveness it is scarcely adapted, on account of the constipation which fol-
lows its purgative effect.
   2.  As  a stomachic  and  tonic.—In  dyspej^ia, accompanied with a debilitated
condition of the digestive organs, small doses of rhubarb  sometimes prove bene-
ficial, by promoting the appetite and assisting the digestive  process.   In scrofulous
enlargement of the lymphatic glands, in children, rhubarb, in small doses, is often
combined with mercurial alteratives (as  the hydrargyrum cum cretd), or with anta-
cids (as magnesia or chalk),  and frequently with apparent advantage.
•  3.  As an external application.—Sir Everard Home1 used it as a  topical applica-
tion to  promote the healing  of indolent non-painful ulcers.   The powder is to be
lightly strewed over the  ulcer, and a  compress  applied.  In  irritable ulcers an
eighth part of opium  is to  be added.   When applied to large ulcers  it has  pro-
duced pretty active purging.3   The powder of rhubarb, incorporated  with saliva
and rubbed on the abdomen, proves purgative.3
   Administration.—The powder of Russian or  China rhubarb may be exhibited,
as a stomachic and tonic, in doses  of from five to ten  grains; as a purgative, from
a scruple to a drachm.   The dose of indigenous  rhubarb should be  about  twice as   j
much as the above.
   " By roasting it with a gentle heat,  till it becomes friable  [rheum torrefactum],
its cathartic power is  diminished, and  its astringency supposed to be increased,"
(Lewis.)
   1. INFUSUM RHEI, L. E. D. [U. S.]; Infusion of Rhubarb.—(Rhubarb, sliced
[in  coarse powder,  E.], 3iij   [gj,  E.;  jij, D.];  Boiling [distilled, L.] Water Oj
[:|ix, D.; f^xviij, E.]; [Spirit of Cinnamon f^ij, E.].   Macerate for two [one hour,
D.] hours in a lightly-covered vessel, and strain  [through linen or  calico, E].)—
[The product should measure about eight ounces, D.]   [The U. S. Pharm. directs
Rhubarb, bruised, 3i; Boiling Water Oss.  Digest for two hours in a covered vessel,
and strain.]   Boiling water  extracts from rhubarb chrysophanic acid, resin, tannin,
gallic acid, sugar, extractive, and starch.   As the liquor cools, it becomes turbid.
Infusion of rhubarb is  stomachic and gently purgative.  It is usually employed as
an adjunct to, or vehicle for, other mild  purgatives  or tonics.  The  alkalies or
magnesia are sometimes conjoined.  The stronger  acids, and most  metallic solu-
tions, are incompatible with it.  Dose,  f3j to f^ij.
   2.  TINCTURA  RHEI, E.  [U.S.];  Tincture of Rhubarb.—(Rhubarb, in moderately
fine powder, |iijss [^iij,  U.  S.]; Cardamom  Seeds, bruised, gss; Proof Spirit [Di-
luted Alcohol,  U. S.]  Oij.   Mix  the  rhubarb  and cardamom  seeds, and proceed
by the process of percolation, as directed for tincture of cinchona.   This tincture
may also be prepared  by digestion.)—The  alcoholic tincture of rhubarb  contains
chrysophanic acid, tannin, resin, and  uncrystallizable sugar.   Cordial, stomachic,
and mildly purgative.  Dose, as a stomachic, f'3J  to f"3iij ;  as a purgative, f|ss to

   l  TINCTURA  RHEI COMPOSITA, L. D.; Compound Tincture of Rhubarb.—(Rhu-
barb, sliced, ^ijss [piij> D.]; Liquorice, bruised, 3vi [gss, D.];  Saffron 3iij  [3'J>
Z>.];  [Ginger, bruised,  3iij, L.;  Cardamom Seeds $'\, D.];  Proof Spirit  Oij-
Macerate for seven [fourteen, D.]  days, then express and strain.)—Cordial, stimu- 1
lant, stomachic, and mildly purgative.   A popular remedy in various disordered
conditions of the alimentary canal, especially at  the  commencement of diarrhoea,
also in flatulent colic.  It is  a very useful adjunct to purgative mixtures, in cases  j
in which the use of a  cordial and stomachic cathartic is required.   Dose, as a sto-  j
rnachic, f3j to f3iij; as a purgative, fjss to f^jss.
1 Pract. Observ. on the Treatment of Ulcers, p. 96, 1801.
a Arnemann, Chirurg. Arzneim. 6ste Aufl. S. 224.
' Alibert, Nouv. Elem. de Thtrap. t. ii. p. 275, et seq. 5me. fed. 
               Rhubarb:—its Tinctures; Wine; Extract.             435

  4.  TINCTURA RHEI ET ALOES, E. [U.S.]; Tincture of Rhubarb and Aloes.—(Rhu-
barb, in moderately fine powder, giss; Socotrine or East Indian Aloes,  in moder-
ately fine powder, 3vj; Cardamom Seeds, bruised, 3v; Proof Spirit Oij.   Mix the
powders, and proceed  as for the tincture of cinchona.)—[The  U.  S. Pharm. directs
Rhubarb, bruised, 3x; Aloes,  in  powder, 3vi;  Cardamom, bruised, sss; Diluted
Alcohol Oij.   Macerate for fourteen days, express, and filter through  paper.]   A
cordial and stomachic purgative, in doses of  from fgss to f3J.
  f). TINCTURA RHEI ET GEMIANjE, E. [U.S.]; Tincture of Rhubarb and Gentian.—
(Rhubarb, in moderately fine powder, gij; Gentian, finely cut or in coarse powder,
|ss; Proof Spirit [Diluted  Alcohol, U. S.] Oij.  Mix the powders, and proceed
as directed for  tincture of  cinchona.)—Stomachic,   tonic, and feebly purgative.
Dose, as a tonic, f3J to f3'iij; as a very mild purgative, f|ss to f|j.
   6. YINl'M RHEI, E-  D. [U.  S.];  Wine of Rhubarb.—(Rhubarb, in coarse powder,
3v [3uj, I).]; Canella, in coarse powder, 3ij [Proof Spirit f|v, E.]; Sherry Oj
and f^xv [Oij, D.~].   Digest for seven days, strain, express strongly the  residuum,
and filter the liquors.)—[Rhubarb, bruised, 3*ij ;  Canella, bruised, 3j; Diluted Alco-
hol  f^ij;  Wine Oj.   Macerate for fourteen days, with occasional agitation, then
express and  filter through paper, U. S.]—Cordial, stomachic, and mildly  purgative.
Used in the  same cases as the compound tincture of  rhubarb.   Dose,  as a  stoma-
chic, f3J to f3"j; as  a purgative, f^ss to f^j.
   7. EXTRACTUM RHEI, L. E- D. [U. S.];  Extract of Rhubarb.—(Rhubarb,  pow-
dered, oxv;  Proof Spirit Oj;  Distilled Water Ovij.    Macerate for four days with
 a gentle heat, afterwards strain, and set by, that the dregs may subside.   Pour off
the liquor, and evaporate it,  when  strained  to a proper consistence, L.—The pro-
cess of the Edinburgh  and  Dublin  Colleges is as follows: Take of Rhubarb itj;
Water Ov.   Cut the rhubarb  into  small fragments; macerate it for twenty-four
hours in three pints of the  water, filter the liquor through a cloth, and  express it
with the hands or otherwise moderately; macerate the residuum with the rest of the
water for twelve hours at least; filter the liquor with, the same cloth as before, and
express the residuum strongly.  The liquors, filtered  again, if necessary, are  then
 to be evaporated together to a proper consistence in a vapour-bath.  The extract,
however, is obtained  of finer quality by evaporation  in  a vacuum with a  gentle
heat.)—[The U. S. Pharm. directs Rhubarb, in coarse powder, tbj ; Diluted Alcohol
a sufiicient quantity.   Mix the Rhubarb with an equal bulk of coarse sand, moisten
it thoroughly with Diluted Alcohol, and having allowed it to stand for twenty-four
hours, put it into a percolator,  and add Diluted  Alcohol  gradually until four pints
of  filtered liquor are obtained; then, by  means of a  water-bath, evaporate to the
proper consistence.]
   The Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges, it will be observed, employ no  spirit in the
above process.   Great care is required in the preparation of this extract, as  both
the  purgative and tonic properties of rhubarb are  very apt to become  deteriorated
by  the process.   I  have some  extract  prepared in vacuo more than twenty years
ago, which still  preserves the  proper odour and flavour of rhubarb.   The dose of
extract of rhubarb, as a purgative, is from grs. x to 5^8.

   [S. EXTRACTUM RHEI FLUIDUM, U. S.; Fluid Extract of Rhubarb.—(Take of Rhu-
barb, in coarse powder, sviij; Sugar 3v; Tincture of Ginger sss; Oil of Fennel, Oil
of Anise, each mjv;  Diluted Alcohol a sufficient quantity.   To the Rhubarb, pre-
viously mixed with an equal  bulk of coarse sand, add  twelve fluidounces of Diluted
Alcohol, aud allow  the  mixture to stand for twenty-four hours.   Transfer the mass
to a percolator, and gradually pour  upon  it Diluted Alcohol until the liquid which
passes has  little  of the odour or taste of the  rhubarb.   Evaporate the tiiitture thus
obtained, by  means of a water-bath, to five fluidounces;  then add the sugar, and
after it is dissolved, mix thoroughly with the resulting fluid extract, the tincture of
giuger holding the  oils in  solution.—This is an excellent and efficient preparation 
436
VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord. Polyqonace^.
in doses of f^i—ij.  It may be given to children  in small doses.   By addition to
magnesia it constitutes an effective combination.]
   9. PILULE  RHEI,  E.  [U.S.]; Rhubarb  i>«7fc.—(Rhubarb,  in  fine powder, nine
parts; Acetate of Potash one part; Conserve of Red Roses five parts.  Beat them
into a proper mass, and divide it  into five-grain  pills.)—[Rhubarb, powdered, Zvj •
Soap 3\l-   Make a mass with water, and  divide into 120 pills.  The soap renders
them antacid,  U. S.]—Stomachic  and purgative.   The acetate of potash  is em-
ployed, I presume,  to prevent the pills becoming hard by keeping.   Each pill con-
tains nearly three and  a half grains of rhubarb.
   10, PILULA RHEI  COMPOSITE, L.  E. [U. &.]; PHute Rhei  Compositse, D.; Com-
pound  Pills  of Rhubarb.—(Rhubarb, powdered, 3*v  [twelve parts, E.]; Aloes
powdered, 3iij [nine parts, E.];  Myrrh, powdered, 3'j [six  parts, E.];  Soap ys
[six parts, E.];  [Oil  of Caraway tt\,xv,  L., Oil of Peppermint one part, K,];
Treacle, q. s.  [Conserve of Red Roses five parts,  E.].   Mix them, and beat them
into a proper  mass  [and divide this  into five-grain pills.  [The U. S. Pharm. directs
Rhubarb, in powder, s*i; Aloes, in powder, 3vj ; Myrrh, in powder, s*ss;  Oil of
Peppermint f3ss.   Beat them with water so as to form a" mass, to be divided into
two hundred and forty pills.]  This  pill  may be  also made  without oil of pepper-
mint, when so preferred,  E.   The  Dublin College orders of Rhubarb, in  fine pow-
der, giss; Hepatic  Aloes, in  fine  powder, 3ix; Myrrh, in fine powder, Castile Soap,
of each, 3vi; Oil of Peppermint f^i; Treacle, by weight, s*ij.]—Tonic and mildly
purgative.  Dose, 9j,  or  two to four  pills.
   11. PILULE  RHEI ET FERRI, E.; Pills of Rhubarb and Iron.—(Dried Sulphate of
Iron four parts;  Extract of Rhubarb ten parts; Conserve of Red Roses about
five parts.   Beat them into a proper  pill mass, and divide  into five-grain pills.)—
Tonic.  Dose, two  to four pills.
   11 PULVIS  RHEI  COMPOSITUS, E. D.;  Compound Powder  of Rhubarb.—(Mag-
nesia, Ibj  [ovi, D.]; Ginger, in  fine  powder, gij [s*i, D.]; Rhubarb, in  fine pow-
der, s"iv [Jij; ■&•]•   Mix them thoroughly, and preserve the powder in well-closed
bottles.)—A very useful  antacid and mild stomachic purgative, especially adapted
for children.    Dose, for adults, 9j  to 3ss; for children, gr. v to gr. x.
   [11. SYRUPUS RHEI, U. S.; Syrup of Rhubarb.—(Take of Rhubarb, bruised, two
ounces; Boiling Water a pint; Sugar two pounds.  Macerate the rhubarb in the
water for  twenty-four hours and  strain; then add the sugar, and proceed in the
manner directed for syrup.)—This is a mild astringent and laxative, and may be
used in bowel affections.  The dose is from f3j  to f^j.
   14.  SYRUPUS RHEI AROMATICUS,  U. S.; Aromatic Syrup  of Rhubarb;  Spiced
Syrup of Rhubarb.—(Take of Rhubarb, bruised, two ounces and a half;  Cloves,
bruised, Cinnamon, bruised, each half an ounce;  Nutmeg, bruised, two  drachms;
Diluted Alcohol two pints;  Syrup  six  pints.  Macerate the rhubarb  and aroma-
tics in the diluted alcohol for  fourteen days, and strain; then, by means of a
water-bath, evaporate the liquor to a  pint, and, while it is still hot, mix it with tbe
syrup previously heated; or it may be made by displacement.)—This syrup is cordial,
carminative,  and slightly laxative.   It is well adapted to weak and relaxed con-
ditions of the bowels,  as in chronic diarrhoea, dysentery, and  infantile bowel com-
plaints, with feeble action.   The dose is f5J  to f^ss.]

       151. RUMEX  ACETOSA, Linn.-COMMON SORREL.
                            Sex. Syst.  Hexandria, Trigynia.
                                    (Folia.)

   History.—Dioscorides1 mentions this as the fourth sort (rk-e aptov dt)oi)oHdr<a^v,
which some call 6%aUc.
1 Lib. ii. cap. 140. 
          Common Sorrel.—Great Water Dock.—Snake-Weed.       437

  Botany.   Gen. Char.—Sepals 6, the 3 inner (petals) larger, subsequently be-
coming  enlarged (enlarged or permanent petals), converging, and  finally conceal-
ing the  nut.   Stamens 6.  Stigmas in many fine tufted segments.   Embryo late-
ral.
  Sp. Char.—Leaves oblong, sagittate or hastate, veiny.  Flowers dioecious.   Inner
sepuln (petals) roundish, cordate, with a very minute tubercle at the base.
  Hab.—Indigenous.   Woods and pastures  common.   Perennial.   Flowers  in
June.
  Description.—Sorrel leaves have an  agreeable, acid, slightly astringent taste.
  Composition.—I am unacquainted with any analysis of this plapt.   The leaves
are composed of superoxalate of potash, tartaric acid, mucilage, fecula, chlorophylle,
tannic acid, and icoody fibre.
  Physiological Effects.—Slightly nutritive.   Refrigerant and diuretic.  Es-
teemed  antiscorbutic.
  Uses.—Employed  as a pot-herb and salad—from the latter use of it, it has been
termed  green-sauce.*   Rarely applied medicinally.  A decoction of the leaves may
be administered in whey, as a cooling and pleasant drink, in febrile and  inflamma-
tory diseases.  In some parts of Scandinavia bread is made of it in times of scarcity.8
But the use of aliments containing oxalic acid may, as suggested by Laugier, under
some circumstances, dispose to the formation of mulberry calculi.

       152. RUMEX  HYDROLAPATHUM, aim-GREAT
                             WATER DOCK.

                               Rumex aquaticus, D.
                           Sex. Syst. Hexandria, Trigynia.
                                   (Radix.)

  History.—This is not the R. aquaticus of Linnaeus.
  Botany.   Gen. Char.—See Rumex Acetosa.
  Sp. Char.—Inner sepals (petals) ovate-triangular, entire or slightly toothed, all
tuberclcd.  Racemes  panicled, leafless.   Leaves lanceolate, narrowed  at  the  base;
petiole flat on the upper side.—Stem 3—5 feet high.  Leaves often more than a foot
long.
   Hab.—Indigenous.   Ditches and river sides.  Perennial.  Flowers in July and
August.
   Description.—The herb and root were formerly used under the  name of herba
et radix britannicae.  The root  is  inodorous, but has an acrid bitter  taste.   The
flowers  are called,  by  Pliny,8 vibones.
  Composition.—I am unacquainted with  any  analysis of the plant.  The root
contains tannic acid.
  Physiological Effects.—The root  is astringent, and is reputed antiscorbutic.
  Uses.—Scarcely employed.   Has been exhibited internally in scurvy, skin dis-
eases, and rheumatism.  The  powdered  root has  been used as a  dentifrice; the
decoction of the root as an astringent gargle for ulcerated or spongy gums.   The
druids entertained a superstitious veneration for this plant.


    153. POLYGONUM BISTORT A,  Li.m.-GKEAT BISTORT
                          OR  SNAKE-WEED.
                           Ser. Syst. Octandrin, Trigynia.
                                    (Radix.)

  History.—Tt is doubtful  by whom this  plant is first mentioned.   It was cer-
tainly noticed by the herbalists of the 16th century.
1 Withering, Bot. vol. ii.            ' Clarke, Travels in Scandinavia, Part III. S. ii. p. 80 1823.
• Hist. Kat. lib. xxv. cap. vi. ed. Valp. 
438
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Salsolace.e.
  Botany.   Gen. Char.—Calyx 4—5-cleft, more or less coloured.  Stamens n—8,
in 2 rows, generally with  glands at the  base.   Styles 2—3, more or less united at
the base.   Nut 1-seeded, lenticular or S-cornered, inclosed by the calyx.  Embryo
lateral, incurved; cotyledons not contorted.
   Sp. Char.—Stem  simple.  Leaves oblong-ovate, somewhat  cordate  and wavy;
petioles winged.  Spike dense, terminal.—Flowers flesh-coloured.  Stem 1—1$ foot
high.
  Hab.—Indigenous.   Meadows.   Perennial.  Flowers in June.
  Description.—Bistort root (radix bistortse) is twice  bent on itself—hence its
name, from bis, twice; and  torta, twisted or bent.  It is rugous and brown exter-
nally; reddish internally; almost inodorous; it has an austere, strongly astringent
taste.
  Composition.—This root has not been analyzed.  The principal constituents are
tannic acid, starch, oxalate  of lime, colouring matter, and woody fibre.
  Physiological Effects.—The local effect is that of a powerful astringent, de-
pending on the tannic  acid which it contains; its  remote effects  are  those of a tonic
(see vol. i. p. 243).   The presence of starch renders the root nutritive—hence in
Siberia it is roasted and eaten.
  Uses.—It is but little employed.  A decoction of  the root is  sometimes em-
ployed as an astringent injection in leucorrhcea and gleet;  as  a gargle  in  spongy
gums and relaxed sore-throat; and as a lotion to ulcers attended with a profuse dis-
charge.
  Internally it has been employed, in combination with gentian, in intermittents. It
has also been used as an  astringent in passive hemorrhages  and chronic alvine
fluxes.
   Administration.—The  dose of the  powder is from  9j  to 3SS-   The decoction
(prepared by boiling s*ij of  the root in Ojss  of boiling water) may be administered
in doses of from fgj  to f3 ij.
  Order XXXIX.  SALSOLACE^,  Moquin.—SALTWORTS.

          Atriplices, Jussieu.—Chenopode;e, R. Brown.—Chenofodiacete, Lindl.

  Characters.—Calyx  deeply divided, persistent, with  an imbricated Eestivation.  Corolla 0.
Stamens usually inserted  into  the receptacle or base of the calyx, opposite the segments of the
latter, and equal to them in  number or fewer.  Slaminodia (squamulae hypogynae) in a few
genera, very  minute, alternate between the filaments and  with  the  segments of the calyx.
Ovary single, superior, or occasionally adhering to the tube of the calyx, with a single amphi-
tropal ovule attached to the base of the cavity;  style in 2  or 4 divisions, rarely simple; stigmas
undivided.  Fruit membranous, utriculate, sometimes a caryopsis, rarely a berry.  Seed with or
without farinaceous albumen; embryo curved or annular  (cyclolobece), or in a flat spiral (spirolo-
bece).—Herbs or under-shrubs  sometimes jointed.   Leaves usually alternate, without  stipules.
Flowers very small, regular, hermaphrodite or sometimes  by abortion unisexual.  (From Lind-
ley chiefly.)
  Properties.—The plants  of this  family are characterized by  the  large quantity of alkali
which they contain, and  which is combined with an  organic acid.  Those which inhabit  salt
marshes are called halophytes  (from a\c,salt, and <j>uto'v, a plant), and by combustion yield barilla
(see vol. i. p. 514).  Those in most common use for  this purpose belong to the genera Salsola,
Salicornia, and  Chenopodium.
  Many of the plants are esculent, and some of them are used as pot-herbs or salads; as spinach
(Spinacia oleracea) and beet (Beta vulgaris).  The latter is extensively cultivated and employed
as a source of sugar; and a variety of it, called Mangold-Wurzel, is  used for  feeding cattle.
The seeds of Chenopodium Quinoa are employed in  Peru as food, under the name of petty rice ;
their starch grains are the smallest known.
  Volatile oil is found in several, which owe their aromatic,carminative, stimulant, and anthel-
mintic properties to it. 
Chenopodium Anthelminticum :—Description.           439
            [154. Chenopodium  Anthelminticum, Linneeus.

                           Sex. Syst.  Pentandria, Digynia.
                 (Chenopodium, U. S.  Wormseed. The fruit of the plant.)

  Gen. Char.— Calyx  five-parted, with five angles.   Corolla none.   Style bifid,
rarely trifid.   Seed one,  lenticular,  horizontal,  covered  by  the closing calyx.
(Nut tall.)
  Sp. Char-—Leaves oblong, lanceolate, sinuate,  and dentate,  rugose.   Racemes
naked.   Style one, three-cleft (Elliot).
  The common names by which this plant.is known in the United States are Jeru-
salem Oak, Wormseed, Goosefoot, and  Stink weed.
  Description.—The root of the plant is perennial and branched.   Stem upright,
herbaceous, much branched, deeply grooved, from  two  to four feet high.  Branches
fastigiate, giving to the plant a shrubby appearance.  Leaves sessile, scattered, and
alternate, attenuate at  each end, with strongly marked nervures, oval or oblong,
deeply sinuate, studded beneath with small globular, oleaginous dots.    Flowers
small, numerous, of a yellowish-green colour, and collected in long, axillary, dense,
leafless spikes.
   Hab.—This species of Chenopodium is found in most parts of the United States.
 It grows in  old fields, along roadsides, in moist  and sandy situations.   It flowers in
 June and July; and from  August until cold weather the seeds may be collected.
   The seeds are small, not larger than the head of a common-sized pin, irregularly
 spherical, very  light, of a  dull greenish-yellow colour, approaching to brown, and
 having a bitterish, somewhat aromatic, pungent taste.  The odour and taste are clue
 to the volatile oil that they contain ;  this is found in other parts; in fact, the whole
 plant contains it,  and hence the uniform flavour possessed by them.
   The properties of the seeds are vermifuge, which appears to  have  been known
 Boon after the establishment of the British Colonies in America, especially in Vir-
 ginia, where they were first used for this  purpose.   The  herb is  spoken  of by
 Schoepf and Kalm, with others, in terms of commendation.  The vermifuge power,
 by long  trial, has been decidedly proved.   As an antispasmodic  it has also  been
 used.  Plenck employed it with success in five  or  six cases of chorea (Griffith, On
 Chen. Anthel. in  Am. Journ. of Pharmacy, vol. v. p. 180), and  this success has
 been  confirmed by other writers.
   The Chenopodium anthelminticum  has sometimes been confounded with the C.
 ambrosioides, which  is a  smaller plant, and distinguished  by the leafy spikes of
 flowers.   The sensible properties are similar.
   The seeds are  given in the form of an electuary, pulverized  and mixed with
 molasses or syrup; but the quantity required to be taken is liable to produce nau-
 sea and sickness.   Dose 3j to 9ij given twice or thrice daily.
   The expressed  juice is sometimes administered; the dose is  sss;  or a decoction
 of the leaves may be employed;  this is best prepared with milk, in the proportion
 of 3j leaves to Oj of milk or water.   It may be flavoured with aromatics.

   OLEHI CIIENOPODII, U.  S.;  Oil  of Wormseed.—This oil  is  of a  light yellow
 colour when distilled, but its colour deepens by age and exposure.  It has in a high
 degree the flavour of the  plant.  Its sp.  gr. is 0.908.  It is obtained by distilling
 the seeds;  but the whole  plant may be used for this purpose,  as  the  oil is abund-
 ant in the  glands.  Sometimes it is adulterated with  spirit of turpentine, or other
 inferior volatile oils; this  must be determined by the odour.   From the readiness
 with  which it may be given, it is the  best for  exhibition, as it possesses the vermi-
 fuge  properties in the smallest possible compass.   The-dose is from 10 to 20 drops
 on a lump of sugar,  or in emulsion.   After several doses have been given, a purga-
 tive,  as castor-oil, may be interposed.—J. C.] 
440                 VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Labiate.
         155. Chenopodium Vulvaria, Linn.—Stinking Orache.

                              Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Digynia.
                                        (Herba.)

  Chenopodium olidum, Smith, Eng. Flora.   Atriplex fatida, Cullen, Mat. Med. vol.  ii. p. 3,15.
Stinking Goosefoot.   Indigenous.  Cultivated at Mitcham.   Sold in the herb-shops as a popular
emmenagogue and " strengthener of the womb."  In the fresh state it has a nauseous taste.and
a strong offensive odour like that of putrid fish.   By drying, it loses its smell, and probably its
medicinal qualities also.  Dr. Houlton and  Mr. Churchill1 declare that  the popular notion of its
emmenagogue powers is  well founded.   Dr. Cullen regarded it as a powerful antispasmodic in
hysteria.  The recent  plant has been used in the form of infusion or tea, and conserve. Mr
Churchill gave the inspissated juice or extract in doses of from five to fifteen grains.
  Chenopodium ambrosioides, Linn., is said to be used  indiscriminately with the  preceding
Its odour is weaker and less offensive.
  Chenopodium Botrts, Linn., is also esteemed anthelmintic.


               SUBDIVISION II. COROLLIFLOILE,  De  Cand,

           MoNOPETALiE COROLLA HYPOGYNA, JuSS., ET COROLLA PERIGYNA (partim).
                              Gamopetal.e, Endl. (partim).

Calyx  gamosepalous, i. e. sepals more or less united at the base.  Petals mostly united, distinct at thi
         base from the calyx.  Stamens usually adnale to the corolla.   Ovary mostly free,
                                 rarely adnate to the calyx.                    '
           Order  XL.  LABIATE, Jussieu.—LABIATES.

                                   Lamiacex, Lindley.

   Characters.—Calyx  tubular, inferior, persistent, the odd  tooth being next the axis; regular
 5- or 10-toothed, or irregular  bilabiate or 3-to  10-toothed.   Corolla monopetalous, hypogynous;
                   bilabiate; the upper lip undivided or bifid, overlapping the lower, which
     Fig. 305.      is larger and  3-lobed.  Stamens 4, didynamous, inserted upon the corolla,
                   alternately with the lobes of the lower lip, the 2 upper sometimes wanting;
                   anthers 2-celled ; sometimes apparently unilocular in consequence of the
                   confluence of the cells at the apex:  sometimes one cell  altogether obsolete,
                   or the 2  cells separated by a bifurcation of the connective.  Ovary deeply
                   4-lobed, seated in a fleshy hypogynous disk;  the lobes  each containing 1
                   erect ovule; style 1, proceeding from the base of the lobes of the ovary;
                   stigma bifid, usually acute.  Fruit, 1  to 4 small nuts, inclosed within the
                   persistent calyx.  Seeds erect, with little or  no albumen ; embryo erect;
                   cotyledons flat.  Herbaceous plants or  undershrubs.   Stem 4-cornered, with
                   opposite  ramifications.  Leaves opposite, divided  or undivided, without
                   stipules,  replete with  receptacles of  aromatic  oil.  Flowers in opposite,
  Bilabiate flower.    nearly sessile, axillary cymes, resembling whorls;  sometimes solitary, or
                   as if capitate (Lindley).
  Properties.—The  medicinal activity of the plants of this family depends on volatile oil,
bitter extractive, and astringent matter.
  The volatile oil resides  in small receptacles (by some called globular glands) contained in the
leaves.  " These  glands are  placed quite superficially, or  rather  in depressed points, and are
commonly of a shining yellow colour.  We may regard them as oleo-resinous matter  separated
from glands lying on the under surface.  When macerated in strong spirit of wine they remain
unchanged, and appear under the  microscope as transparent, probably cellular,  vesicles, filled
with a yellow granular matter.''2
  The bitter extractive  is found, in a greater or less quantity, in all  the Labiatae.   It is this prin-
ciple which communicates the bitterness to the watery infusion of these plants.
  The presence of astringent matter is shown by the green colour produced when a ferruginous
salt is added to the  infusion of some of the Labiatae.
  The volatile oil gives to these plants aromatic, carminative, and  slightly stimulant properties.
The bitter extractive renders  them tonic and stomachic.   The astringent matter is usually in

            1 Stephenson and Churchill's Medical Botany, vol. iv. pi. clixvi. 1831.
           ' Nees and Ebermaier, Handb. Med.-Pharm. Bot.Th. i. S. 524.
 
            Common or Garden Lavender:—History;  Botany.         441

too small a quantity to communicate much medicinal activity, though it must contribute to the
tonic operation.
  The perfumer uses srfme labiate plants on account of their fragrant odour;  the cook employs
others for their flavour and condimentary properties;  the medical practitioner administers them
to relieve nausea and colicky pains, to expel wind, to cover the taste of nauseous medicines,
and to prevent or relieve griping pains.
  The following species, enumerated by London,1 are cultivated in this country as sweet herbs:
Common or Garden Thyme (Thymus vulgaris, Linn.), Lemon Thyme (T. cilriodorus, Schreb.),
Sage (Salvia officinalis, Linn.), Clary (S. Sclarea,  Linn.), Peppermint (Mentha piperita, Linn.),
Spearmint  (M. viridis, Linn.), Pennyroyal  (M. Pulegium), Common Marjoram  (Origanum vul-
gare, Linn.), Winter Sweet Marjoram (O. heracleoticum,  Linn.), Sweet Marjoram (Majorana
horlensis, Moench.), Pot Marjoram (M. Onites, Benth.), Winter Savory (Satureja montana, Linn.),
Summer Savory (S. horlensis, Linn.), Sweet or Larger Basil (Ocimum Basilicum, Linn.), Bush or
Least Basil (O. minimum, Linn.), Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis, Linn.), and Garden  Laven-
der (Lavandula vera, De Cand.).  Some of these species have  been, or are,  used in  medicine,
and several of them are officinal.
  Besides the labiate plants contained in the British pharmacopoeias and  to  be noticed, a con-
siderable number of other species have been at different  times introduced into medicinal use.
Some of these are deficient in volatile oil, but abound in a bitter principle, on which account
they have  been employed  as  stomachics and tonics; such are Water Germander (Teucrium
Scordium, Linn.), Wall Germander (T.  Chamadrys, Linn.), and Ground Pine (Ajuga Chamapitys,
Smith);  the two last of which  have been  used, as I  have  before mentioned, as anti-arthritic
remedies (see ante, p. 387).  Others abound in essential oil. and are consequently more aro-
matic, stimulant, and carminative; such  are Cat-Thyme (Teucrium Marum, Linn), Common
Hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis, Linn.), Dittany of Crete  (Amaracus Dictamnus, Benth.), &c.  Teu-
crium Polium has been used in diarrhcea, dysentery, and cholera.
                        Tribe I.  Ocimoide^e,  Benth.

                              Stamens bent downwards.

 156. LAVANDULA VERA, De Cand-COMMON OR GARDEN
                                LAVENDER.

                Lavandula angustifolia, Ehrenberg.  L. spica, var. a, Linn.
                         Sex. Syst.  Dulynamia, Gymnospermia.
  (Oleum e flore destillatum, L. D.—The flowering heads; and volatile oil of ditto, E.  The
                                    flowers, D.)

   History.—No plant is mentioned, under the name of Lavender, by Hippocrates,
Theophrastus, Dioscorides, or Pliny.  It is not  improbable, however, that lavender
may be alluded to, under some other name, by one or more  of these authors; but
it is impossible now to identify it with any certainty.   Sprengel2 declares, on the
authority of Hesychius, that the i<pVov of Theophrastus3 is Lavandula Spica,   The
atix<*S or otot.xo\c  of Diosrorides,4  the sturhas of Pliny,4 is the L. stoechas, Linn.
  Botany.   Gen. Char.—Calyx  ovate-tubular, nearly equal,  13 or rarely 15-
ribbed, shortly 5-toothed, with the  4 lower teeth nearly equal, or the 2 lower
narrower;  the upper either but little broader than the lateral ones, or expanded
into a dilated  appendage.   Corolla with the tube exserted, the  throat somewhat
dilated, the limb  oblique and bilabiate;  upper  lip 2-lobed;  lower 3-lobed; all the
divisions nearly equal.   Stamens 4, inclosed in the tube of the corolla,  bent down-
wards.   Filaments smooth, distinct, not  toothed.   Style shortly bifid  at the apex;
the lobes complanate, subconnate.  Disk concave, with 4 fleshy  scales at the mar-
gin.  Nuts smooth, adnatc to the scales  of the disk (Bentham).
  Sp.  Char.—Leaves oblong-linear or lanceolate, quite entire, when young hoary
and  revolute  at  the  edges.   Spikes interrupted.   Whorls of  6  to  10  flowers.
Floral letters  rhomboid-ovate,  acuminate,  membranous, all fertile,  the uppermost

 1 Encyl. of" Gardening.
 ' Hist. Plant, lib. vi. cap. 8.
 1 Hist. Nat. lib. xxvii. cap. 107
3 Hist. Rei Herb. t. i. p. 06.
4 Lib. iii. cap. 31. 
442
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Labiate.
shorter than the calyx.   Bracts scarcely any (Bentham).—An undershrub 1 to 2
feet high.   Floicers purplish-gray.
   Hab.—South of Europe.   Extensively  cultivated at  Mitcham, in  Surrey, from
which place the London market is chiefly supplied.
  Lavendula Spica, De Cand. (L. latifolia, Villars) or French Lavender, formerly considered
as a variety only of the  preceding species, is not used in  medicine.  It is distinguished by in
lower habit, white colour, the leaves  more congested at the base of the branches, the spike
denser and shorter, the floral leaves lanceolate or linear, and the presence of bracts (Bentham).
It yields by distillation oil of spike (oleum spica)  sometimes called foreign oil of lavender, or, in
order  to distinguish  it from the oil of Lavandula Staschas, the true oil of spike (oleum spica w
rum).   This oil is  distinguished from  the  genuine oil of Lavandula vera by its darker green
colour, and its less grateful odour.  It is used by  painters on porcelain, and by artists in the pre-
paration of varnishes.
   Properties.—Lavender flowers (flares lavandulse)  have a bluish-gray colour, a
pleasant odour, and a pungent bitter  taste.   The flowering stems are collected in
June or July, dried in the shade, and  made up into  bundles for sale.  A cold in-
fusion  of  the flowers  is deepened in colour (tannate of iron) by sesquichloride of
iron.
   Composition.—The  principal  constituents  of the  flowers are  volatile oil,
resin (?), tannic acid, a bitter principle, and woody fibre.
   Physiological Effects.—The flowers  are  carminative, mildly stimulant, and
somewhat tonic.   Kraus1 says that when taken internally  they cause  griping.
   Uses.—Lavender  flowers are sometimes employed as errhines.  They enter into
the composition of the pulvis asari compositus (see ante, p.  387).
   1.  OLEHI LAVANDULA, E. D. [U. S-] ;  Oleum Lavandulse (Angiicum), L.;  Oleum
Lavandulse verse;   English  Oil of  Lavender, offic.—(Prepared by submitting
lavender flowers to distillation with water.)—It has  a pale yellow colour, a bot taste,
and a very fragrant odour.   Its sp. gr. varies from 0.877  to 0.905; the lightest oil
being the  purest.   It boils  at 397° F.;  and is composed, according to Dr. Kane,
of CI5H1402.   1 lb. of oil is obtained from 50 to 70 lbs. of  the flowers.  1973 lbs.
of the  flowers carefully separated from the  stalks,  yielded Mr.  Jacob Bell8 at 13
distillations, 28 J lbs. of oil; or  1 lb. of oil from  t>9-|- lbs.  of flowers.   When the
stalks and  leaves are  distilled with the flowers, the  odour of the oil is considerably
deteriorated.3   It is a stimulant and stomachic, and is sometimes given in hysteria
and headache; but is more commonly employed as a  perfume for scenting evapor-
ating lotions, ointments, liniments, &c.—Dose, gtt. ij to gtt. v.
   I  SPIRITUS  LAVANDULA,  E.  [U. S.];  Spirit of Lavender.—(Fresh  Lavender
rbijss; Bectified Spirit Cong. j.   Mix them, and,  with the heat of a vapour-bath,
distil over  seven  pints.   The dried flowers  may be substituted for  the fresb ones.
Druggists  frequently prepare  this compound by  dissolving a few drops of oil of
lavender in a fluidounce of rectified spirit.   Employed only in the  preparation of
the Spiritus Lavandulae composita, E.
   Lavender Water.—The fragrant perfume  sold in the shops, under the name of lavender
water  (aqua  lavandula.) is a solution of the  oil of  lavender and of other odoriferous substances
in spirit.  It is in fact, therefore, a compound spirit of lavender; but this name  is already appro-
priated  to another preparation.  There are various formulae for its preparation, scarcely two
manufacturers adopting precisely the same one.   The following  yields a most excellent pro-
duct:  Oil of Lavender, Oil of Bergamot, aa. fjiij; Otto of Roses, Oil of Cloves, aa. gtt. vj; Mu-k
gr. ij;  Oil of Rosemary f^j; Honey gj; Benzoic Acid g ij; Rectified Spirit Oj; Distilled Water
^iij.  Mix, and after standing a sutficient time (the longer the better), filter.   This agreeable
perfume may be employed for scenting spirit-washes, &c, but is principally consumed for tbe
toilet.
   8.  TINCTURA LAYAND1M  C031P0SITA, L. D.;  Spiritus Lavandulse compositus, %■
[U. S.];  Lavender Drops or Red Lavender Drops,  offic.—(Oil of  Lavender Pjiss
[f3iij, D.]; Oil of Rosemary rt^x [f3J, D.];  Cinnamon, bruised, 3'rjss  [3j, &•]> ^ut"

  1 Heilmittell. p. 473.                          N   2 Pharm. Journal, vol. v. iii. P- 276t18t"
   Brande, Diet, of Mat. Med. pp. 367-8 j J. Bell, op. cit. 
Lavender Drops.—Pucra-Pat, or Patchouli.             443
merr, bruised,  3ijss  [^ss, D.];  [Red Sanders Wood, cut, 3v, L.; Cochineal, in
powder, of each 3ij, D.]; Rectified Spirit  Oij.   Macerate the cinnamon, nutmeg,
and red  panders wood  in the  spirit  for  seven [fourteen, D.]  days ;  then express,
filter, and  to the filtered liquor add  the oils, L.—Spirit of Lavender Oij ;  Spirit
of Rosemary f|xij;  Cinnamon, in coarse powder, 3j;  Cloves,  bruised, 3u ;  Nutmeg,
bruised, gss;  Red  Sandal Wood, in shavings, jiij-   Macerate for seven days, and
Btrain the liquor through calico, E.)—[The  6~. S. Pharm. directs Spirit of Lavender
Oiij;  Spirit of Rosemary Oj;  Cinnamon, bruised, |i;  Cloves, bruised, 3'jj  Nut-
meg, bruised,  3ss;  Red Sanders, rasped, 3iij-   Macerate for fourteen days and filter
through paper.]—Stimulant, cordial, and stomachic.   Employed  to relieve gastric
uneasiness, flatulence, low spirits, languor, faintness, &c.   A  favourite  remedy with
hysterical and hypochondriacal  persons.—Dose, from fjss to f3ij, administered in
water or on  sugar.   The red Sanders wood is merely a colouring ingredient


                           Tribe II.  Satureie^,'.SeH/Zi.

  Stamens di-tant, straight, straggling, or converging under the upper lip, 4  or 2 (in that case
the anthers 2-celled and the.connective not filiform).  Lobes of the corolla flat.
   157. Pogostemon Patchouli, Pellet.—Pucha-Pat, or Patchouli.

                           Sex. Syst. Didynamia, Gymnospermia.
                                       (Herba.)

  Patchouly, Virey, Journ. de Pharm. t. xii. p. 61, 1826.—Puchd Pat, Wallich, Trans. Med. and
Phys. Soc. of Calcutta, 1835.—Pogostemon intermedins, Bentham, in Wall. Cat. n 2327.—Patchouli
or Pitrlui Pat, Pereira, Pharm. Journ. vol. iv. p. 80, 1844.—Pogostemon Patchouly, Pelletier-Sante
let, in Mem. de la Soc. Roy. des Sc. d'Orl. torn. v. p. 274,  1 845 cum Ic.; also Pharm. Journ. vol.
viii. p. 574; Benth. in De Cand. Prodr. t. xii. p. 153.—Pogostemon sauvis, Tenore.—Pogostemon
Patchouli, Hooker, Journ. of Bot. and Kew Gard. Miscell.  vol.  i. p. 329 c. Ic.
  A  pubescent undershrub.  Branches vague, decumbent or  ascending.   Leaves  with  stalks,
opposite, rhomboid-ovate, somewhat obtuse;  the lobes crenato-dentate.   Spikes terminal and
axillary, den-c, pedunculated, interrupted at the base.  Bracts ovate.  Calyx hirsute, twice as
long  as the bracts, with  lanceolate teeth.   Corolla bilabiate, smooth and  whitish.  Stamens 4,
didynnmoux, nearly equal in length;  the filaments bearded  with violet or  bluish purple hairs;
the anthers pale yellow, after  flowering whitish.  Style pale purplish, whitish at the lower
part, at  the apex deeply clell.   Ovaries 4, distinct.—A native of Silhet, Penang, and the Ma-
layan peninsula.
  The wild plant is collected at Penang and the  Malayan peninsula, and dried in the sun. If
too much dried, it becomes crisp and brittle, and is liable to crumble to dust in packing.
  The dried  tops (summitates patchouli) are imported into England  in boxes of 110 lbs. each,
and in half boxes.  They are a  foot or more in length.  The large stems are round and woody,
and,  when cut transversely, show the pith surrounded with  a thick layer of wood, which is
remarkable for its distinct medullary rays;  the smaller  branches are obscurely 4-angled.   The
leaves are covered, especially on their  inferior surface,'with  a  soft pallid pubescence, which
gives the plant a grayish appearance.  The odour is strong, persistent, peculiar, and somewhat
analogous to that of Chenopodium anthelminticum.  It is said to smell more strongly in dry than
in damp  places.   One writer describes  the smell of it as  being dry, mouldy, or earthy; and
Mates that the Chinese or Indian ink owes its characteristic odour to it. The taste of the dried
plant is very slight.
  The plant, which has not been analyzed, contains volatile oil, green resin, extractive mailer, and
tannin.  By distillation it yields about 2 per cent,  of volatile oil (essential oil of patchouli), which
possesses the odour of the herb.
  Patchouli is almost exclusively used as a perfume.  To its  excessive employment, ill effects
have been ascribed.  " Very recently," says a French writer,1 "a young lady was seized with a
passion for patchouli.  Her linen, her dresses, and her furniture, were saturated with it.   In a
ihort time she lo>t her appetite and sleep; her complexion got pale, and she became subject to
nervous attacks.'l  In India, patchouli is used as  an ingredient in tobacco for smoking.  The
sachets de patchouli of the perfumers  consist  of a few  grains of the coarsely-powdered  herb
mixed with  cotton wool and folded in paper.  Placed in  drawers, they are said to drive away
1 Annuairt de Thfrapeutique pour ls>17, p. 75.
'l ^i0' "ikf"" remnrks on the 8en»it,veness «f some female constitutions to odorous emanations, see ante, 
444
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Labiat.e.
insects from linen, shawls, &c.  Oil of patchouli is in  common  use in India for imparting th«
peculiar fragrance of the leaf to clothes among the superior classes of natives.  Essence de m|.
chouli is used by perfumers principally for mixing with other scents in the preparation of com.
pounded perfumes, for which purpose it is considered very useful.


             158. MENTHA VIRIDIS, Zinn.-SPEARMINT.
                          Sex. Syst. Didynamia, Gymnospermia.
     (Herba florens recens et exsiccata. Oleum ex herba floreute destillatum, L.—Herb, E. D.)

   History.—See Mentha piperita.
   Botany.   Gen. Char.— Calyx campanulate or tubular, 5-toothed, equal or some-
what  2-lipped, with  the  throat  naked  inside, or  villous.   Corolla with the tube
inclosed, the limb campanulate,.-nearly equal, 4-cleft;  the upper segment broader
nearly entire or emarginate.   Stamens 4, equal,  erect, distinct; filaments smooth
naked; anthers with two parallel cells.    Style shortly bifid, with the lobes bearing
stigmas at the points.  Nucules  dry, smooth (Bentham).
   Sp.  Char.—Stem  erect, smooth.   Leaves subsessile,  ovate-lanceolate, unequally
serrated,  smooth;  those  under  the flowers all bract-like, rather longer than the
whorls;  those last and the calyxes hairy  or smooth.    Sj)ikes cylindrical, loose.
 Whorls approximated, or the lowest or  all of  them distant.  Teeth of the calyx
linear  subulate (Bentham).—Creeping-rooted.
   Var.  0. angustifolia, Bentham.  Leaves of the  branches with short petioles.   Distinguished
from M. piperita by the slender elongated spikes.
   Var.  y. crispa, Bentham.  Curled Mint.  Cultivated in gardens.
   Hab.—Marshy places.   Indigenous.   A native of the milder parts of Europe;
also of Africa and America.   Perennial.    Flowers in August.   Selected for medi-
cinal use  when about to flower.
   Properties.—The whole herb, called green-mint or spearmint (herba menthx
viridis), is employed in  medicine.  It  has a strong but peculiar odour, and an
aromatic,  bitter taste, followed by a sense of coldness when  air is drawn into the
mouth.   Sesquichloride of iron  communicates a  green  colour (tannate of iron) to
the cold watery infusion.
   Composition.—Its odour and aromatic qualities depend on volatile oil.  It also
contains tannic acid, resin (?), a bitter principle,  and woody fibre.
   Physiological Effects.—Aromatic, carminative, mildly stimulant and tonic.
Feebler than Peppermint.  Said, though without  sufiicient foundation, to check the
secretion  of milk, and to act as  an emmenagogue.1
   Uses.—Employed as a salad  and sweet herb.   In medicine, it is principally used
as a flavouring ingredient, and  to alleviate or  prevent colicky pains.   The follow-
ing are its officinal preparations, with their uses:—
   1. INFUSUM MENTHA VIRIDIS, ~D.;Jnfusion of Spearmint;  Spearmint ^.—(Spear-
mint, dried and cut small, 3iij;  Boiling Water  Oss.)—Stomachic  and  carminative.
Used in  irritable conditions of  the stomach; but is ordinarily a vehicle for other
remedies.   Dose, f^j  to f^jij, or  ad libitum.
   I. OLEDI  MENTHJE VIRIDIS, L. E. D. [U.S.];  Oil of Spearmint—(Obtained by
submitting the fresh  herb to distillation with water.)—It is of  a pale yellowish
colour, but becomes  reddish  by  age.   It has the  odour  and taste of the plant, and
is  lighter  than water; sp.  gr. 0.914.  It boils at  320°  F.; and is composed, accord-
ing to  Dr. Kane, of C35HwO.  The average produce of the essential oil is not more
than l-500th of the  fresh herb.3' It is carminative and stimulant.  Dose, gr. ij to
gtt. v, rubbed with sugar and a  little water.
   3. SPIRITUS TEXTILE  VIRIDIS, L.; Spirit of Spearmint—(Oil of Spearmint 3iij;
Proof  Spirit Cong. j.  Dissolve.)  Dose, fjss  to f^ij—This  preparation  has no

 * Linnaeus, in Murray's  App. Med. vol. ii. pp. ISO—1.          » Brande, Diet. Mat. Med. p. 32s- 
                 Peppermint:—History; Preparation, &c.              445

advantages over, while it is much weaker than, the more simple and elegant prepara-
tion, the essence of spearmint of the shops.
  1. ESSENTIA  MENTILE VIRIDIS, D.; Essence, of Spearmint—(Oil  of Spearmint
fgj; Stronger Spirit f^ix.  Mix with agitation.)—It may be coloured  green by
gpearmint or  spinach leaves.   Dose, gtt.  x to gtt. xx, taken on sugar  or in water.
[This is the same as the Tinctura Olei Menthne Viridis ( U. S. Pharm.), for which tbe
formula is, Oil of Spearmint f^ij; Alcohol Oj.   Dissolve the oil in the alcohol.]
  ). AQUA MENTIIE VIRIDIS,  L. E.  D. [U. S.]; Spearmint Water.—(Spearmint,
dried, ibij; Water Oij.   Let a gallon distil.  If tbe fresh herb be used, double the
weight is to be  employed.  (The Edinburgh  process  is the same, except that f^iij
of Rectified Spirit is also used.)  Or, Oil of Spearmint f"3>j 5 Powdered Flint Jij;
Distilled  Water Cong.  j.  First diligently rub the  oil with the flint, afterwards
with the  water, and  strain the liquor, L.—Essence of  Spearmint f^j; Distilled
Water Cong. ss.   Mix with agitation,  and filter  through paper, D.)—Spearmint
water is usually made  extemporaneously by suspending or dissolving a drachm of
the  oil in  four pints of distilled water, by means of a drachm of rectified  spirit and
a lump of sugar [or by means of carbonate of magnesia, U. S.] (see vol. i. p. 304).
Spearmint water is carminative and stomachic.  It  is commonly  used  as a vehicle
for  other medicines.   Its dose is f^j to f^iij.

        159. MENTHA  PIPERITA, Xmn.-PEPPERMINT.
                         Sex. Syst. Didynamia, Gymnospermia.
  (Herba florens et exsiccata.  Oleum ex herba florente destillatum, L.—Herb; Volatile oil, E.—The
                                   herb, D.)

  History.—The ancient Greeks1  employed in medicine  a plant which they called
MlvOoc, or MivOi], and  which, on account of its very agreeable odour, was  also termed
'll&voopov, or the sweet-smelling herb.   It  was probably a species of Mentha; and,
according to  Fraas,2 was  the  M. piperita, Linn.; the 'uSioopov  TtertspuSic of  the
modern Greek Pharmacopoeia.
  Peppermint came into use in England in the last century; at least Hill,3 in 1751,
says that  it "has lately got into great esteem;" and Geiger4 says it was introduced
into Germany as a medicine, through the recommendations of the English, in  the
latter half of the last century.
  Botany.  Gen. Char.—See Mentha viridis.
  Sp. Char.—Stem smooth.  Leaves petiolated, ovate-oblong, acute, serrate, rounded-
crenate at the  base, smooth.   Spikes lax, obtuse, short, interrupted at  the  base.
Pedicels  and calyxes  at  the  base  smooth;  teeth hispid (Bentham).—Creeping-
rooted.
  Var. B.mbhirsuta, Bentham; M. hirsuta i, Smith.  The nerves of the under surface of the
leaves, as well as the petioles, hairy.
  Hab.—Watery places.   Indigenous.   Extensively cultivated  at  Mitcham,  in
Surrey, from  whence the London  market is principally supplied.   Found in  various
parts of Europe; also in Asia,  Africa, and America.
  Properties.—The  whole herb (herba  menthse piperitse) is  officinal.  It has a
peculiar aromatic odour, and a warm, burning, bitter taste, followed by a sensation
of coolness when air is drawn  into the mouth.   Sesquichloride of iron communi-
cates a green  colour (tannate of iron) to the cold infusion  of peppermint.
  Composition.—The principal constituents are volatile  oil, resin? a bitter prin-
ciple, tannic acid, and  woody fibre.
  Physiological Effects.—Peppermint is an aromatic or carminative, stimulant,
and stomachic.   It is  the most agreeable and powerful of  all the mints.
1 Hippocrates, De victits rat. lib. ii. p. 359, ed. Foes.; Dioscorides, lib. iii. cap. 36.
1 Simon. Plant Fl  Clnxtirrr \+.\H                         3 u;.'. J* .l ' 
446
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Labiate.
   Uses.—It is employed in medicine for several purposes,  but principally to expel
flatus, to cover the unpleasant taste of  other medicines, to relieve  nausea, ^ripine
pain, and the flatulent colic of children.  The following are the officinal preparations
with their uses:—

   1. OLEUM  MENTILE PLPERITM, L. E. D.; Oil of Peppermint—(Obtained by sub-
mitting the fresh  herb to distillation with water.)—It  is  colourless, or nearly so
sometimes having  a pale yellow or greenish tint, and becoming reddish by age.   It
has a penetrating  odour like that of the  plant, and a burning aromatic taste, followed
by a  sensation of cold.   The vapour of it applied to the eye causes a ieeliD" of
coldness.
   Oil of  peppermint consists of two isomeric oils—one liquid, the other solid; the
latter is called peppermint-camphor, or the  stearoptene of oil of peppermint.  Its
composition is C^H^O2.  It is in colourless  prisms, which have the odour and taste
of peppermint, are almost insoluble  in water, but  readily soluble in alcohol and
ether, and  are fusible at 92° F.  Under the influence of phosphoric acid, pepper-
mint-camphor loses  2HO,  and beeomes  a  colourless liquid oil, called nwdhene
C^H18.
   I have met with three varieties of oil of peppermint:—
   a. English  Oil of Peppermint.—This  is the finest sort.   Its sp. gr. is 0.902.  It is obtained at
Mitcham.   In a warm, dry, and favourable season, the produce of oil, from a given quantity of
the fresh herb, is double that which it yields in a wet and cold season.  The largest produce is
three drachms and a half of oil  from two pounds of fresh  peppermint, and the smaller about
a drachm and a half from the same quantity.1  I  was informed by a distiller at Mitehain, that
twenty mats of the herb (each mat containing about 1 cwt.) yields about seven lbs of oil,
   0. American Oil of Peppermint.—In odour and flavour it is inferior to the preceding sort. It is
said to be  prepared from the dried plant gathered  when in flower (Brande).  It yields a con
siderable quantity of camphor.
   y. China Oil of Peppermint.—Pohoyo.—For a sample of this I am indebted to Dr. Christison.
It comes from Canton.  It consists chiefly of peppermint-camphor, and  forms a white crystalline
solid even in summer.
   Oil of peppermint is  said to be adulterated with oil of rosemary;2 the odour would
probably serve to  distinguish the fraud.
   Oil of  peppermint is carminative  and  stimulant, and is used occasionally as  an
antispasmodic.  It is taken  on sugar, in doses of from gtt. ii to gtt. v.
   2. SPIRITUS  MENTILE  PIPERITA, L.; Spiritus Menthse, E.;  Spirit of Peppermint.- \
(Prepared with the  Oil of Peppermint, in the  same way  as  the  Spiritm Mentha. j
viridis, L., before described.   The  Edinburgh College prepares it thus:  Pepper-
mint, fresh, Ibiss; Proof Spirit Ovij.   Macerate for two days in a covered vessel;
add a pint and a  half of water, and  distil off seven pints.)—A solution of the oil
of peppermint may with great propriety  be substituted for the preparation of the
Pharmacopoeias.   The  spirit of peppermint  is given in doses of from f3»s to f3ij-
   I  ESSENTIA MENTILE PIPERITA,  D.;  Essence of Peppermint—(Oil of Pepper-
mint f§i; Stronger  Spirit Igix.  Mix with agitation.)—[This is the Tr. Obi M"t-
thse Piperitse, U.  S.  The  Formula as for  Tincture of Oil of Spearmint] Some
persons add peppermint or spinach leaves  to communicate a green colour.  The dose
of this essence is from gtt. xx to gtt. xxx, on sugar.
   4.  AQUA  MENTHE  PIPERITA, L. E. D.—(Prepared with the herb or the oil ol
peppermint, in the same way as the Aqua Menthse viridis.)—Carminative and stimu-
lant.  Used to relieve flatulency, and as a vehicle for other  medicines.  Dose, 13;  j
to fgiij.
   Besides the above, there are several popular preparations of peppermint extensively used.   ]
   a. Infusum Menthce piperita (Peppermint Tea) is prepared in the  same way as spearmint tea ■
   0. Elaosaccharum  Mentha piperita, Ph. Bor., is prepared by mixing £} of the whitest sugar, ii  I
powder, with gtt. xxiv of  the oil of peppermint.                                     .  I
   y. Rotula Menthce  piperita (in planoconvex  masses, called peppermint drops—in flattened cir  J
 .-----------------------_---------------------------------•$
  1 Brande, Diet, of Mat. Med. p. 356.               2 Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. i. p. 263, l&H-  > 
Pennyroyal:—History; Botany;  Uses.               447
cular disks, termed peppermint lozenges) should consist of sugar and oil of peppermint only, though
flour is sometimes introduced.
  The liqueur sold at the spirit-shops as mint or peppermint is used as a cordial.
       160.  MENTHA PULEGIUM, £,™.-PENNYROYAL.

                         Sex. Syst. Didynamia, Gymnospermia.
     (Herba florens recens et exsiccata.  Oleum ex herba florente destillatum. L.—Herb, E. D.)

  History—This plant was  employed  in  medicine  by the anciemt Greeks and
Romans.   It is the rx^uv of  Hippocrates1 and  Dioscorides,2  and the Pulegium of
Pliny.3
  Botany.  Gen. Char.—See Mentha viridis.
  Sp.  Char.—Stem  very much  branched,  prostrate.    Leaves petiolated,  ovate.
Whorls all remote, globose, many-flowered.    Calyxes  hispid, bilabiate, villous  in
the inside of the throat (Bentham).—Creeping-rooted.
  Hab.—Wet commons  and margins of brooks.  Indigenous.  A native of most
parts of Europe, of the Caucasus, Chili, and Teneriffe.
  Properties.—The herb with the flowers  (herba seu summitries pulegii)  is em-
ployed in  medicine.   It  has a strong, but  peculiar odour; a hot, aromatic, bitter
taste, followed  by a feeling of coolness in  the mouth.    Sesquichloride of iron  causes
a green colour  (tannate of iron) with the cold  infusion  of pennyroyal.
  Composition.—Its principal constituents are volatile oil, a bitter  matter,  resin?
tannic  acid, and woody fibre.
  Physiological Effects.—Its effects are  analogous to the other mints.   Em-
menagogue and antispasmodic properties are  ascribed  to it by the public, and for-
merly by  medical practitioners.
  I si:s.—A popular  remedy  for  obstructed  menstruation, hysterical complaints,
and hooping-cough.  Barely  employed by the  professional man.   The  following
are its officinal preparations, with  their uses:—

  1. OLEUM )1ENTTLE PULEGII, L.E.D.; Oleum Pulegii, offic.; Oil of Pennyroyal—
(Obtained by submitting the herb to distillation  with water.)—It has a pale colour,
a warm taste, and the peculiar odour of the herb.  It  boils at 395° F.   Its sp. gr.
is 0.!)-Jf>; and  is composed, according to Dr. Kane, of C10HsO.  The fresh herb
yields  from 1-liiOth to 1-lOOtlt of its weight of  oil.*   It is stimulant and carmina-
tive, and  is used, as an antispasmodic and emmenagogue, in doses of from gtt. ij to
gtt. v, taken on sugar.

   2. SPIRITUS )l ENTILE PLLEGII, L.j Spiritus Pulegii; Spirit of Pennyroyal—{Pre-
pared with Oil of Pennyroyal, as the Spiritus Menthse  viridis.)—Usually prepared
by  dissolving the oil in spirit.   Stimulant and carminative.   Employed as an anti-
spasmodic and  carminative.    Do.-e, f'5*s to f^ij.

   i. ESSENTIA  11 i:\THE PULEGII,  D.; Essence  of Pennyroyal—(Oil  of Pennyroyal
f3j; Krctified  Spirit t^ix.   .Mix  with agitation, D.)—May be  given in doses  of
from gtt.  x to gtt. xx.

  4. AQUA MEXTII.fi PILEGII,  L. E. D.; Atpta  Pulegii,  offic; Pennyroyal  Water.—
(Prepared with  the herb or oil, like Aqua Menthse viridis.)—Carminative and sto-
machic.   Dose, fgj to f'oiij.
 _Thc liquid sold in the shops as  Pennyroyal and Hysteric Water is prepared by  adding
(3.-* of the  compound spirit of bryony to 05s of pennyroyal water.

  1 P. 359, tec. ed. Fiti.                               a L,b jjj cap 35
  * Hist. Nat. lib. xx. cup. 51, ed. Valp.                   4 Brande,' Diet. Mat. Med. p. 357. 
448                VEGETABLES.—Xat.  Ord.  Labiate.
        161.  ORIGANUM  VULGARE, Linn -COMMON  OR
                           WILD MARJORAM.
                          Sex. Syst. Didynamia, Gymnospermia.
                              (Herb, E.—Oleum ex herba.)

   History.—Fraas1 is of opinion that this plant is the dplyavov phav of Theophras.
 tus,2 the dypoplyavoe of Dioscorides.3
   Botany.   Gen. Char.— Calyx ovate-campanulate, nearly  13-nerved, 5-toothcd
 or 2-lipped, the upper  lip entire or 3-topthed, the inferior lip 2-toothed, truncated
 or altogether  deficient,  the calyx being then obcompressed-flaf.  Tube of the corolla
 inclosed or exserted, the upper lip emarginate or slightly  2-cleft, the lower lip
 longer, spreading, 3-cleft.  Stamens  4, ascending or straggling at the apex, or dis-
 tant at the base;  anthers  with 6 distinct  diverging or straggling cells.   Lobes of
 the style acute, the posterior one usually shorter.  Floral leaves bract-like.  Flowers
 in spikes (Bentham).
   Sp. Char.—Erect, villous.    Leaves petiolate, broad-ovate, obtuse,  subserrate
 broad-rounded at the  base, green  on both sides.   Spikes oblong  or  cylindrical
 clustered in  corymbose panicles.   Bracts (floral  leaves) ovate,  obtuse, coloured,
 (commonly glandless), half as long again as the calyx (Bentham).—Creeping-rooted.
 Foicers light  purple.
   Hab.—In  bushy places, on  a limestone and gravelly soil.  Indigenous. A native
 of several parts of Europe; also of Asia.   Flowers in July and August.
   Properties.—The  whole herb  (herba origani) is  officinal.   It has a peculiar
 aromatic odour, and a warm pungent taste.  Sesquichloride of iron produces a green
 colour (tannate of iron) with  the cold infusion  of origanum.
   Composition.— Volatile oil,  resin? tannic  acid, a  bitter principle,  and woody
fibre, are the  principal  constituents of  this plant.
   Physiological Effects.—Stimulant  and  carminative,  like  the other labiate
 plants.
   Uses.—Principally  employed to yield  the volatile oil.  The dried  leaves  have
 been used as  a substitute for China tea.4   The  infusion of origanum has been used
 in chronic cough, asthma,  and amenorrhcea.
   OLEDI  ORIGAM,  E.  [U. S.];  Oil of Common Marjoram.—(Obtained by sub-
 mitting  the  herb to distillation with  common  water.)—The average  produce of
 essential oil from  the herb is  one pound from  two  hundred weight; but it varies
 exceedingly with the season and culture of the  plant.5  According to Dr. Kane, its
 sp. gr. is  0.867, its  boiling point 354° F.; and  its composition C^H^O.
   It is a  powerful acrid and stimulant; and is  applied to carious teeth by means of
 lint or cotton, to relieve toothache.  Mixed with olive oil, it is frequently employed
 as a stimulating liniment against alopecia  or baldness, rheumatic or paralytic  affec-
 tions, sprains, bruises, &c.
   The red volatile oil, usually sold in the  shops as oleum origani  or oil of thjme,\i
 obtained from Thymus vulgaris, and  is  imported  from  the  south of  Fiance (see
 Thymus vulgaris).

        162. ORIGANUM  MAJORANA, Linn.-SWEET OR
                        KNOTTED MARJORAM.
                             Majorana hortensis, Mctnch.
                          Sex. Syst. Didynamia, Gymnospermia.
                                     (Herba.)

   History.—Fraas6 is of opinion that the apdxovp  of Theophrastus,7 the edu\v%<>i
1 Synops. Plant. Fl. Classica, 1845.                   a Hist. Plant, lib. vi. cap. 2.
3 Lib. iii. cap. 34.                                 * Murray, App. Med. vol. ii. p. 173.
6 Brande, Diet. Mat. Med. p. 401.        ,             • Hist. Plant. Fl. Class, p. 163, W5.
' Hist. Plant, lib. vii. cap. 7. 
Common or Garden Thyme:—History; Botany.          449
of Dioscorides,1 and the Amaracamot Sampsuchum of Pliny,3 are identical with
our sweet marjoram.
  Botany.   Gen. Char.—See ante, p. 44S.
  Sp. Char.—Branches smoothish, racemose-paniculate.   Leaves petiolate, oblong-
ovate, obtuse, quite entire, on  both sides hoary-tomentose.   Spikelets oblong, on
sessile crowded branchlets.  Calyx nearly toothless, cleft anteriorly (Bentham).—
Flowers purple or white.
  Hab.—Africa and Asia.  Cultivated in kitchen gardens.
  Properties.—The whole plant (herba majoranse) has a warm aromatic flavour,
and a peculiar savoury smell.   Its watery infusion is deepened in colour (tannate of
iron) by sesquichloride of iron.
  Composition.—By distillation the plant yields volatile oil.   The other constitu-
ents are tannic acid, resin? bitter matter, and woody fibre.
  Oil of  Sweet Mahjoiiam (Oleum Majorana) is pale yellow or brownish, with the strong
odour and taste of marjoram.
  Physiological Effects.—Tonic and mild stimulant.
  Uses.—Principally employed as a sweet herb by the cook.   Its powder  is some-
times used, either alone or mixed with some other powder, as an errhine.   Marjo-
ram tea is occasionally employed as a popular remedy for nervous complaints.


         163. THYMUS  VULGARIS, Zm».-COMMON OR
                          GARDEN THYME.
                         Sex. Syst. Didynamia, Gymnospermia.
                                 (Herba et Oleum.)

   History.—The true Thyme, ®vpoe of the  ancients, is the  Thymus capitatus,
Hoffm. et Link.  (Satureia capitata, Linn.)
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—Calyx  ovate,  10—13-nerved,  2-lipped;  upper lip 3-
toothed, spreading; lower lip 2-cleft, with ciliate, subulate  segments; throat villous
inside.   Corolla  having the tube inclosed by the calyx or imbricated bracts, naked
inside; limb sub-bilabiate  ; upper lip straight, emarginate, flattish; lower lip spread-
ing, 3-eleft, with  equal lobes,  or  tbe middle one  largest.   Stamens exserted, or
rarely inclosed, straight, distant, nearly equal  or didynamous, the  lower  2 being
the longest.   Anthers with 2  parallel or  at length diverging cells.  Style about
equally biiid at the apex,  with subulate lobes (Bentham).
   Sp. Char.— Krect or procumbent at the base.  Leaves sessile, linear, or ovate-
lanceolate, acute, with revolute edges, fascicled in the axils.  Bracts (floral leaves)
laneeolate, obtuse.   Whorls loose, rather  distant.  Teeth  of the upper lip of the
calyx lanceolate;  the segments of the lower lip subulate ciliated (Bentham).—Shrub
much  branched,  £ to 1 foot high, rather hoary with a short  down.   Flowers pur-
plMi.
  Var. a. latifolius;  Broad-leaved Garden Thyme—Cultivated in gardens for culinary purposes.
  Var. 8 angustifoliut; Narrow-leaved  Garden Thyme.
  A variegated variety is cultivated for ornament.  Lemon Thyme, which  is cultivated for
culinary purposes, is T. Serpyllum, var. vulgaris, Bentham.
  Hab.—South-West of  Europe, in dry, arid,  uncultivated places.   Cultivated as
a sweet herb in England.
  Description.—The flowering-tops of garden thyme (herba et summitates thymi)
are dried, and sold in  the shops as one of the herbs used for culinary purposes.
The odour is fragrant, and to most persons agreeable.
  Composition.—Similar to  that of Origanum vulgare.  The odour  and condi-
mentary properties depend on volatile oil (oleum thymi).
  Effects and  Uses.—Similar to the other sweet herbs.   Chiefly used by the

  1 Lib. iii. cnp. 47.                                a Hist. .\at. lib. xxi. cnp. 35, ed.  Valp
       VOL.  11.—'J 9 
450
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Labiate.
cook for soups, stuffings, and sauces.  In the South of France the herb is used for
distillation, to yield the oil of thyme.
  OLEDI  THYMI;  Oil of  Thyme.—At  Milhaud,  Aujargues, Souvignargues, and
near the village of Fontanes, as well as at several other places in the neighbourhood
of Xisraes, in the department of Gard in  the  South  of France, this oil is largely
distilled, and is imported into  England and  sold as oleum origani.   Mr. Daniel
Hanbury, who visited this district in the summer  of  1849, tells me that the plant
grows spontaneously in abundance on the arid,  rocky, waste hills of that neighbour-
hood.   The entire plants,  whether in flower or not, are collected, and,  either in the
fresh or dried state, submitted  to distillation with water.   The  oil, which is of a
reddish-brown colour, is called red oil of thyme  (huile rouge de thym), becomes much
paler by redistillation, and is then called white  oil of thyme (huile blanche de thym).
The specimen of red oil of thyme obtained  by Mr. D.  Hanbury is identical with the
oil  sold as oleum origani in  the  London shops, all of which is imported.1  Speci-
mens of the plant which  yields the oil have been examined by Mr. Bentham, Dr.
Lindley, and others; and  by all have been pronounced undoubtedly  Thymus vul-
garis.
  The medicinal properties  and uses of oil of thyme are the same as those of the
oleum origani, for which it is usually employed (see ante, p. 448).


     164. MELISSA  OFFICINALIS,  Zmn.-COMMON BALM.

                          Sex. Syst. Didynamia, Gymnospermia.
                                    (Herba, E.)

   History.—Both Smith2 and  Sprengel3 consider this plant to be the  uiua<s6trm.0)i
or psuttcuva of Dioscorides;4 but Fraas5 is of  opinion that the Melissa altissima is
the species referred to by  Dioscorides.
   Botany.    Gen. Char.— Calyx  tubular-campanulate,  13-ribbed,  2-lipped, the
upper lip nearly flat,  3-toothed, the  inferior  lip  bifid, the throat naked within.
Tube of the corolla recurved-ascending, enlarged  from above, naked within, limb
2-lipped,  upper lip emarginate  erect, lower ones  spreading, 3-cleft, the lobes flat,
the middle  one entire or emarginate.   Stamens 4, arched-converging; cells of the
anthers at length straggling.  Lobes of  the style  nearly equal, subulate.  Nucuh
dry, smooth (Bentham).
   Sp. Char.—Erect, branching.  Leaves  broad-ovate, crenate, truncate or cordate
at  the base; tbe floral ones nearly similar to the cauline ones.   Whorls axillary,
loose, 1-sided.   Bracts (floral leaves) few, ovate.   Corolla longer by  half than the
calyx (Bentham).
   Hab.—South of France.
   Properties.—The fresh herb (herba  melissse) has  a strong, peculiar odour, which
is somewhat similar to that of lemons.  By drying, this  is, for the most part, lost.
The taste is aromatic, bitter, and somewhat austere.   Sesquichloride of iron give-
 a greenish colour (tannate of iron) to the  cold infusion.
    Composition.—The principal constituents of  balm are volatile oil, resin, litter
 matter, gum, tannic acid, and woody fibre.6
   Oil of Balm (Oleum Melissa) is pale yellow,  and  has the  peculiar odour of balm. Its sp. ff-
 is'0.975.  Oil of lemon is said  to be frequently  substituted for it.
    Physiological Effects.—The  effects of balm are similar  to, though milder
 than, those  of  the  labiate plants already described.   The mildness of its operation
 arises from  the small quantity of volatile  oil which the plant contains.

  1 The price at which  the oil is sold by M. Sagnier, and  other exporters at Nismes, is *0 low as to pre-
 clude its distillation in England.
  2 Flora-. Greecm Prodromus, vol. i. p.  4-J3. 1806.     ' Hist.  Rei Herb. t. i. p. 100.
  * Lib. iii. cap. US.                          ' Synopsis Plantarum Fl. Classicee, p. 182,1»».
  6 Pfaff, Mat. Med. Bd. iv. S. 270. 
           Common Rosemary:—History; Botany; Properties.       451

   Uses.—Balm tea is sometimes employed as a diaphoretic in fevers, as an exhila-
rating drink in hypochondriasis, and as an emmenagogue in amenorrhooa and chlo-
rosis.

                        Tribe III. Monarde-E, Benth.

Stamens 2, straight or ascending; cells of the anthers oblong-linear, or solitary, or separated by
             the filiform connective (very rarely approximate in Perowskia).

       165.  ROSMARINUS  OFFICINALIS, Zmn-COMMON
                              ROSEMARY.
                           Sex. Syst. Diandria, Monogynia.
                 (Oleum e cacumine florente destillatum, L.—Tops, E. D.)

   History.—The  Aiflavuilc onfyavupattxr;, or Libanotis coronaria of Dioscorides,1
is supposed to be our officinal  rosemary, which  received its name, Aifiavatie (from
Aij5avoe, Thus), on account of its odour, and a-tt$a.vu>uait,xri (att^avupatixoc, corona-
rius), from its use in making garlands.9  Pliny3 calls it Rosmarinum.  The flowers
are  termed anthos (from avOoc, a  flower), signifying they are the flowers par excel-
lence; just as we call cinchona the bark, and  the  inspissated juice of the poppy,
opium (i. e. the juice).
   Botany.   Gen.  Char.— Calyx ovate-campanulate, 2-lipped; the upper lip entire,
the lower bifid, the  throat naked within.   Corolla with  a protruding tube, smooth
and  not ringed in  the inside, somewhat inflated in  the throat; limb 2-lipped ; lips
nearly equal, the  upper one erect  and emarginate, the lower spreading, trifid, with
the lateral  lobes oblong, erect, somewhat twisted; the middle lobe very large, con-
cave, and hanging down.   No rudiments of the superior stamina ; fertile (inferior)
ones, 2, ascending, protruding; filaments inserted in  the  throat  of the  corolla,
shortly-toothed near the base; anthers linear, subbilocular; the cells straggling,
confluent, connate at the margin.  Upper lobe of the  style very short.   Nucules
dry, smooth (Bentham).
   Sp. Char.—The  only species.—Leaves sessile, linear,  revolute  at the edge, hoary
beneath.   Calyx purplish.   Corolla white or pale purplish-blue.
   Hab.—South of Europe; also  Asia Minor.
   Properties.—The flowering-tops  (cacumina rosmarini)  are  the officinal parts.
They have a strong and remarkable odour, and a warm bitter taste.
   Composition.—The peculiar odour and flavour  of this plant  depend on volatile
oil.   Besides this,  the  tops contain tannic acid, a  bitter matter, resin? and woody
fibre.
   Physiological  Effects.—Carminative and mildly stimulant, analogous to the
other labiate plants.
   Uses.—Rarely employed medicinally,  fufusion of Rosemary (rosemary tea) is
sometimes  used as  a substitute for ordinary tea  by  hypochondriacal persons.  The
admired flavour of  Narbonne honey depends  on the bees collecting this substance
from  rosemary plants,  which abound in  the  neighbourhood of Narbonne: hence
sprigs of rosemary are sometimes  added to the  honey of other  places, in  order to
imitate the flavour of Narbonne honey.
   1.  OLE! .11 ROSMARIM, L.  E. D. [U. S.];  Oleum Anthos, offic.; Oil of Rosemary.—
(Prepared  by submitting  the  rosemary tops  to  distillation with water.)—This oil
was first procured by Raymond Lully.4   It is transparent and colourless, with the
odour of rosemary, and a hot, aromatic taste.   Its sp. gr. is 0.897;  and it boils at
365°  V.   It  consists, according  to  Dr. Kane, of C^H^O3.   One pound of the
fresh herb yields about one drachm of the oil.5  It is rarely taken internally, but
• Lib. iii. cnp. 89.
• Hist. Nat. lib. xix. cap. 62, ed. Vnlp.
■ Urunde, Diet, of Mat. Med. p. 466.
9 The Arabian name signifies " royal crown."
• Thomson's Hist, of Chtm. vol. i. p. 41. 
452
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Labiate.
is not  unfrequently used externally, in conjunction  with other substances  as
stimulating liniment;  for example, in alopecia, or baldness, and also as a perfume
Dose, gtt. ij to gtt. v.

   I SPIRITUS ROSMARIM, L. E. D.  [U. S.]; /Spirit of Rosemary.—(Oil of Rosemary
5ij; Rectified Spirit Cong. j.  Dissolve, L.—The Edinburgh College submits the
tops, Ibijss,  to distillation with a  gallon of Rectified  Spirit, so as to obtain seven
pints of the distilled spirit.)—It is usually prepared merely by dissolving the oil in
spirit, distillation being superfluous.  Seldom employed internally.  Its principal use
is as an odoriferous adjunct to lotions and liniments. It is a constituent of the Lini-
mentum Saponis (see vol. i. p. 552), and Tinctura Lavandulse composita (see ante
p. 442).

   !. ESSENTIA ROSMARINI,  B.; Essence of Rosemary.—(Oil of Rosemary f|j; Recti-
fied Spirit f|ix.   Mix with agitation.)—Its uses are the same  as those of the spirit
just  noticed.
  4.  Aq.ua Htjngarica;  Aqua Rosmarini  seu  Anthos composita; Hungary  Water.—Various
formulae for the preparation of this perfume have been given.  The following is from the
Pharm. Wurtem. and Bavar.: Take of fresh Rosemary, in blossom, Hsiv; fresh Snjje, in blossom
§vj; Zingiber  gij.  Cut into pieces, and add Rectified Spirit Ibxij;  Common Water Oij.  Let
eleven pints distil by a gentle heat.   A hermit is said to have given the formula for the prepa-
ration of this perfume to a queen of Hungary;  whence this water has been called the Queen of
Hungary's  Water (Aqua Regina Hungaria).1   Hungary water  is  frequently imitated by mixing
Spirit of Lavender  f^vij with  Spirit of Rosemary fj iv.—This liquid is  employed principally as
a perfume for the toilet; also as an excitant  and restorative in fainting.  Externally, it is used
as a stimulating liniment.
                         Tribe IV. Stachyde^e, Benth.

            Stamens 4, ascending under the helmet (which is usually concave).


 166.  MARRUBIUM VULGARE, Linn—WHITE  HOREHOUND.
                          Sex. Syst. Didynamia, Gymnospermia.
                                     (Herba.)

   History.—This is the plant which is called npdatov by Hippocrates, Theophras-
tus, and Dioscorides;3 and Marrubium by Pliny.3
   Botany.  Gen. Char.—Calyx tubular, 5—10-nerved, equal; teeth 5—10, acute,
somewhat  spinous, nearly equal, erect,  or often spreading  at maturity.   Corolla
with an inclosed tube, which is naked inside, or somewhat annulated, and a 2-lipped
limb;  the  upper lip erect, flattish or concave, entire or shortly bifid; the lower lip
trifid, spreading, the  middle lobe the broadest, often emarginate.   Stamens inclosed
within the tube of the corolla; anthers with 2  straggling, somewhat confluent cells,
all nearly alike.   Style  bifid at the apex, with short obtuse lobes.  Nucules obtuse,
not truncate at the apex (Bentham).
   Sp. Char.—Branches white-woolly.    Lea res ovate or rounded, softly  villous,
greenish or white-woolly beneath, crenate.    Whorls many-flowered.   Calyx villose,
woolly, with 10 subulate, recurved-spreading  or  woolly teeth.   Corolla with an
oblong helmet, bifid  at the point (Bentham).   Flowers white.
   Hab.—Dry,waste grounds.   Indigenous.  Grows in most parts of Europe;  also
in Asia and America.   Flowers in July.
   Properties.—The whole herb (herba marrubii) is  used in  medicine.  It has an
aromatic odour, and  a  bitter taste.  Sesquichloride of iron communicates an olive-
green tint  (tannate of iron) to the cold watery infusion.

  1 For the history of Hungary water, see Beckmann's History of Inventions, translated by Wm. Johnston,
vol. 11. p. 107, 1791                                            '
  2 Lib- '»• caP- 119-                                   ' Hist. Nat. lib. xx. cap. 69, ed. Valp. 
            Great Mullein or High Taper :—History;  Botany.         453

  Composition.—Its bitterness depends on extractive;  its aromatic properties on
volatile oil.   Besides these principles it contains resin,  tannic acid, bitter matter,
and woody fibre.
  Physiological Effects.—Horehound is tonic, mildly stimulant, and, in large
doses,  laxative.   Taken in the form of infusion, it promotes  the secretions of the
skin and kidneys.  It was formerly supposed to possess emmenagogue properties.
  Uses.—It is rarely employed by medical practitioners.   As a domestic remedy
it is used in  chronic pulmonary  complaints, especially catarrh.  It was  formerly
given in uterine and  hepatic affections.
  Administration.—Horehound tea (prepared by infusing  an ounce of the herb
in a pint of boiling water) is taken in the dose of a wineglassful.   Syrup of hore-
hound (prepared  with  the infusion and sugar) is a popular remedy, and is kept  in
the shops.   Candied horehound ought to be made of  the same ingredients.
  Ballota Nigiia, Linn., or Slinking Black Horehound, possesses similar properties to the Marru-
Hum vulgare.
Order XLI.  SCROPHULARIACEiE,  Lindley.—FIG WORTS.

           PeDICULARES ET ScROPHULARI^, JuSS.—SCROPHULARINE.E, R. Brown.

  Characters—Flowers hermaphrodite, usually irregular.  Calyx free, persistent, 5—4-merous.
Corolla gamopetalous  (monopetalous), hypogynous, pentamerous or (the upper petals being
united) tetramerous, very  rarely 6—7-merous, or 2-lobed, the  lobes being united; bilabiatedly
or irregularly  imbricated,  very rarely (in a few  didynamous or diandrous genera) plaited in
aestivation.  Stamens inserted on the corolla, alternate with  its lobes; the upper stamen usually,
and the 2 anterior or posterior ones sometimes, sterile or deficient; anthers 2 celled, or by grow-
ing together or by half disappearing, 1-celled; the cells dehiscing by a longitudinal slit.   Ovary
free, 2-celled; ovules  in each cell many (very rarely 2  together), inserted on the dissepiment
near the axis, anatropal  or amphitropal.   Style simple, or very shortly  bifid, at the apex; the
stigmatic part either very thin, or incrassate, entire, or 2-lobed.   Fruit capsular, dehiscing, vari-
ously or rarely baccate.  Placenta 4, separate by dehiscence, or united variously with each other,
with the edges of the  valves, or with the central column. Seeds albuminous, indefinite with the
radicle towards the basilar hilum, or few and definite with a  more or  less lateral hilum, and
the radicle towards the apex of the fruit; embryo straight, or rarely curved.—Herbs, undershrubs,
or rarely shrubs.   Leaves opposite, whorled, or alternate.  Stipules commonly absent.  Inflores-
cence centrifugal or centripetal.  Bracts 2, opposite, or  solitary; bractlets none, or  1 or 2, alter-
nate, or nearly opposite  (Bentham).
   Properties.—Juice watery, frequently bitter, astringent or narcotic.


    167. VERBASCUM  THAPSUS, Linn.-GREAT MULLEIN
                             OR HIGH  TAPER.

                    t       Sex. Syst.  Pentandria, Monogynia.
                                        (Folia.)

  Histoiii.—This plant is, according to both Smith1 and Fraas,2 the ^Xjjusj xswtiS n a^m of Dios-
corides.3
  Bot a nt.  Gen. Char.—Calyx deeply 5-cleft or 5-partite, rarely 5-toothed.   Corolla flat, ex-
panded, or rotate, rarely concave; the segments scarcely unequal.  Stamens 5; the  filaments
cither  tho 3 posterior ones, or all woolly or bearded, rarely (abnormally?) naked. Style com-
pressed-dilated at the apex, rather thick. Capsule globose, ovoid or oblong, dehiscing (Bentham).
  Sp. Char.—Nearly simple, densely yellowish or whitish, tomentose.  Radical  leaves oblong,
crenulate; those of the stem decurrent, winged,  acuminate.  Raceme dense, or interrupted at
the bti-e.  Throat of the corolla concave.  Anthers inferior, shortly decurrent  (Bentham).__Co-
rolla golden yellow ; stamens  red ; stigma green.
  Hab.—Indigenous; on banks and waste ground.  Biennial.  Flowers in July and  August.
  I>ks( uiptiov—The leaves (folia verbasci) have a  mucilaginous, bitterish taste, and a very
(light odour.  They communicate their virtues to water.
  Composition.—Morin4 analyzed the flowers of Verbascum Thapsus, and obtained a yellow
' Fl. (trrrca Prodr. vol. i. p. 119
' l.il). iv. cap. 104.
3 Synopsis Plant. Fl. Class, p. 191, 1845.
4 Journ. de Chim. Mid. t. ii. p. 2-23. 
454             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. ScropiiulariacevE.
volatile oil, a fatty acid, free malic and phosphoric acids, malate and phosphate of lime, acetate ofuat.
ash. uncrystallizable sugar, gum, chlorophylle, and yellow resinous colouring matter.
   Physiological Effects.—Emollient, demulcent, and supposed to be feebly narcotic.  Fishes
are stupefied by  the seeds of Verbascum.1
   Uses.—In the form of decoction  (prepared of 3 ij of the  leaves and Oij of water) mullein
has  been used  in catarrhs and diarrhoeas; the dose is fjjiv.  Dr. Home2 found it serviceable in
the latter complaint only.   Fomentations and cataplasms made of great mullein have been used
as applications to hemorrhoidal  tumours and indurated glands.


   168.  SCROPHULARIA  NODOSA, Linn -KNOTTY-ROOTED
                                     FIGWORT.

                             Sex. Syst. Didynamia, Angiospermia.
                                          (Folia.)

   History.—The  earliest notice of  this plant occurs in the work of Brunfels.3
   Botany.  Gen.  Char.—Calyx deeply 5-cleft or 5-partite.  Tube of the  corolla ventricose
globular, or oblong; segments of the  limb short, the  4  upper ones erect, the lower one spreading
2 upper ones usually longest.  Stamens didynamous, declinate, cells of the anthers united trans-
versely into one; the rudiment  of a fifth sterile stamen at the apex of the  squamiform tube
often present.  Capsule usually acute, the valves entire or bifid at the apex.  Seeds ovoid, rugose
(Bentham).
   Sp. Char.—Smooth.  Stem angular.   Leaves ovate,  ovate oblong, or the  upper ones lanceo-
late, acute, serrate or somewhat incised, broadly cordate  or rounded at the base. Thyrsus oblong,
beardless, or scarcely clothed  with leaves  at the base.   Cymes  pedunculate, loosely many-
flowered.   Segments of the  calyx broadly ovate, obtuse, with  the margin  very narrow.  Tbe
sterile anther broadly orbiculate  (Bentham).—Corolla dull green, with a livid purple lip,
   Hab.—Indigenous;  hedges, woods, and thickets.  Perennial.  Flowers in  July.
   Description.—The  fresh leaves  (folia  scrophularia nodosa) have, when bruised, a fetid
odour; their taste is bitter, and  somewhat acrid.   Water extracts the  virtues  of the plant; the
infusion is darkened by the sesquichloride of iron,  but  is unchanged by tincture of nutgalls,
   Composition.—The  whole plant (root and herb)  was analyzed in  1830  by Grandoni.4  He
obtained brown bitter resin 0.31, extractive with gum 4.84, extractive having the odour of benzoic acid
0.88, chlorophylle  1.58, starch  0.23,  greenish fecula 0.18, mucilage 0.27, inulin 0.16, malic acid 0.15,
pectic acid 0.15, acetic  acid 0.13, woody fibre 19.80, water 70.31, sulphate and carbonate of potash
0.59, alumina  0.20, oxalate and  carbonate of  lime 0.46,  magnesia, 0.26, silica 0.07, odorous matter
and loss 0.31.
   Physiological Effects.—But  little known.  Judging from their taste, the  leaves possess
acrid properties.  When swallowed, they occasion  vomiting and purging.  They are said to be
diuretic and narcotic.
   Uses.—Rarely employed.  In the form of a fomentation, the leaves are sometimes applied
to piles and other painful tumours.  The ointment is used in skin diseases.   The tuberous root
was formerly esteemed in scrofula.3

   UNGUENTUM  SCROPHULARIiE;  Ointment of  Scrophularia.—(Fresh leaves of Scrophularia
nodosa, Prepared Hog's Lard, of  each Biij;  Prepared  Mutton  Suet Bjj.  Boil the leaves in the
fat until  they become crisp, then strain by expression.)—Recommended by Dr. W. Stokes6 for
the cure of a disease of children,  commonly termed  burnt-holes, and whicji  he calls Pemphigus
gangrenosum [Rupia  escharoticari\.  It has also been used in tinea capitis, impetigo, and other
cutaneous  affections.7


       169. Gratiola Officinalis, Linn.—Officinal Hedge  Hyssop.

                               Sex. Syst. Diandria, Monogynia.
                                         (Herba.)

   A perennial  plant, native of the South of Europe.  Cultivated in England, and formerly con-
tained in the British Pharmacoposias.  The herb (herba gratiola)  is cathartic, diuretic, and
emetic, acting in  large doses  as an acrid poison.   It has been  used  in visceral obstructions, liver
affections, dropsies,  scrofula, and venereal  diseases.  Dose of the powder gr. xv to gss; of the
infusion (prepared with gij of the  dried herb and Oss of boiling water), f§ss to f^j, three times
a day.8
1  Bergius, Mat. Med.                                  a Clin. Exp. and Hist.
3  Sprengel, Hist. Rei Herb. Praef. xi.                    * Pharm. Central-Blatt fur 1831,.S. 446.
•  Murray, App. Med. vol. ii. p. 224.                      e Dubl. Med. Essays, p. 146.
1  Dr. Montgomery, Observ. on  the Dubl. Pharm.           8 Thomson, Lond. Dispensat. 
Purple Foxglove :—History; Botany; Description.        455
  170. DIGITALIS PURPUREA, Zi»m.-PURPLE FOXGLOVE.
                         Sear. Syst. Didynamia, Angiospermia.
           (Herba; agrestis Folium caulinum recens et exsiccatum, L.—Leaves, E. D.)

  History.—It appears very improbable that the ancients should have overlooked
so common and elegant a plant as foxglove; yet  in  none of  their writings can we
find any  plant whose description precisely answers to the one now under examina-
tion.  Fabrieius Columna1 thought that it was the 'Et^tpov of  Dioscorides,3 but
the  description of  the latter does not at all  agree with foxglove.   The Baxxoptj3 of
the  same writer has also been referred to, but with little more probability of correct-
ness.  The term  Foxej-  glope, occurs in  a  MS.,  Glossarium JElfrici, probably
written before the Norman Conquest (A. D. 1066), and in a MS. Saxon translation
of L.  Apulius; both of which are among the Cottonian manuscripts in the British
Museum.4   Fuchsius5 is  usually regarded as  the earliest botanist who mentions
this plant, which he named  Digitalis  (from Fingerhuf,  a finger-stall, on  account of
the  blossoms resembling the finger of a glove).   Fuchsius states that, until he gave
it this appellation, the plant had no Greek or Latin name.
  Botany.   Gen. Char.— Calyx 5-partite, imbricate.   Corolla  declinate; tube
ventricose or campanulate, frequently  constricted above  the base; upper segment of
the  limb  short, broad, emarginate or  bifid, spreading, the external lateral ones
narrower, the  lowermost one longer than the others, extended.    Stamens 4, didy-
nanious,  ascending,  shorter  than the corolla, and frequently inclosed within the
tube; anthers approximated in  pairs, their cells  diverging and confluent.  Style
briefly bilobed at the apex;*the  lobes stigmatic  within.   Capsule ovate, 2-valved,
with scpticidal dehiscence; the valves entire, curved inwards at the margins,  half
exposing the  placentiferous column.   Seeds numerous, minute, oblong, somewhat
angular (Bentham).
  Sp. Char.—Leaves  ovate-lanceolate or oblong, crenate, rugose; the under  sur-
face or both surfaces, as well as the stem, tomentose or  woolly.  Raceme long, lax.
Segments of the calyx ovate or oblong.    Corolla enlarged above, campanulate; its
segments obtuse, shorter than broad, the lower one longer than the lateral ones.
  Herbaceous.  Root of  numerous long and slender fibres; biennial.  Stem erect,
3 or  4  feet high, commonly simple, roundish, with several slight angles, downy.
Leaves alternate, downy, veiny, of a dull  green;  tapering  at  the base into winged
foot-stalks; lower ones largest.   Raceme terminal,  erect, one-sided, simple, of nu-
merous,  large, pendulous, odourless flowers.   Corolla  crimson, elegantly marked
with eye-like spots, as well as hairy, within.
  Var.  albiflora.—A variety with white flowers, spotted with  shades  of cream-
colour or pearl, is met with in gardens;  it remains tolerably constant from seed.
  Hab.—Indigenous; in  pastures and about hedges or banks, on a  gravelly or sandy
soil.
  Description.—The officinal parts  of the leaves and seeds;  the latter, however,
arc  rarely employed.   As some doubts have been expressed as to the equal activity
of cultivated specimens, wild or  native plants are to  be preferred.
  1. Foxglove leaves (folia digitalis).—The leaves  should be gathered when the
plant  is  in the greatest perfection—that  is, just  before or during  the period of in-
florescence ;  and those are to be  preferred which are  full-grown and fresh.   As the
petioles possess less  activity than the  laminae or  expanded portions of the leaves,
they ought to  be rejected.   Dr.  'Withering6 directs  the leaves to be dried either
in the sunshine, or  in a  tin pan or  pewter dish before  the fire;  but  the more
 Quoted by Mentzelius, Index Nom. Plant, p. 104.
* Lib. iii. eap. SI.
' Hist. Stirp. 1*12.
3 Lib. iv. cap 65.
* Lye, Diet. Saxon.
' Account of the Foxglove, p. 181,1785. 
456
VEGETABLES.—Nat.  Ord.  Scrophulariaceje.
First year's leaf.              Second year's leaf.
                Foxglove Leaves.
      Fi-306-                     Fi*-307-          usual, and, I   believe,  better
                                                     mode of  proceeding,  is to dry
                                                     them in baskets in a dark place,
                                                     in a  drying-stove.  Both  dried
                                                     leaves and  powder  should be
                                                     preserved in well-stoppered bot-
                                                     tles, covered externally by dark-
                                                     coloured  paper, and kept in a
                                                     dark cupboard'.  As both undergo
                                                     changes  by keeping,  wherebv
                                                     their medicinal activity is con-
                                                     siderably diminished, they ought
                                                     to be renewed annually.  Dried
                                                     foxglove leaves have a dull green
                                                     colour, a faint odour, and a bit-
                                                     ter, nauseous taste.
                                                        Although the leaves should be
                                                     collected just before or at the pe-
                                                     riod of inflorescence; that is, in the
                                                     second year of the plant's growth,
                                                     yet  not infrequently the first
                                                     year's leaves, which are consider-
                                                     ed to be of inferior activity, are
                                                     sometimes substituted for them.
   The first year's  leaves  are frequently more tapering than  those of the second
year's growth;  but  this character is  not much to be ffelied on; and, therefore, to
avoid  the substitution, the best and safest plan is to purchase the fresh leaves at the
proper season—namely, just before or  at  the period of inflorescence (which is from
the middle of June to the  end of July).
   The leaves of Inula Conyza, De Cand., or  Ploughman's  Spikenard, closely re-
semble those of Foxglove.;  but, when rubbed, -are readily distinguished by their
odour, which, by some, is  called  aromatic, by  others fetid.   Moreover, they are
rougher to  the touch, and are less divided on the edge.
  Subsessile or shortly petiolate, ovate-lanceolate or oblong, narrow at the base, crenate, rugous
and veined, tomentose beneath or on both sides.
  It is to be gathered  before the terminal flowers have unfolded.   The petiole and midrib being
removed, dry the lamina. (Pharm. Lond)
   2.  Foxglove seeds  (semina  digitalis).—The seeds  of the  foxglove  are small,
roundish, and of a grayish-brown colour.
   Composition.—Purple foxglove  has been the  subject of repeated chemical ex-
amination, but, until  very  recently, with  no satisfactory results.  Memoirs on its
composition, or on its Active principle, have  been published by  Destouches,1 Bidault
de Villiers,2 Rein and Haase,3  Le Royer,4 Dulong  d'Astafort,5 Meylink,6 Welding,'
Radig,8 Brault and  Poggiale,9 Lancelot,10 Trommsdorff,11  Homolle,13 Nativelle," and
by Morin.14  Homolle's memoir gained the prize offered by the Society de Pharmacie
of Paris for the  isolation of the active  principle.
 1 Bull, de Pharm. t. i. p. 123.
 2 Essai sur les Propr. mid. de la Digit, pourp. 3e edit. 1812.
 3 Diss, de Digit, purp. 1812, quoted in Schwartze's Pharm. Tabell.
 * Bibl. Univers. des Sciences, t. xxvii. p. 102, 1824, Geneve.
 s Journ. de Pharm. t. xiii. p. 379, 1827.
 6 Buchner^s Repert. fur d. Pharm. Bd. xxviii. p. 237, 1828.
 1 Journ. of the Philadelphia Coll. of Pharm. July, 1833.
 8 Pharm. Central-Blatt. fur 1835, S. 209.
10 Pharm. Central-Blatt fur 1633, p. 020.
12 Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim.te sfer. t. vii. p. 57.
13 Journ. de Chim. Mid. 2e ser. t. xi. p. 62, 1845.
" Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim. 3e ser. t. vii. p. 295,  1845.
8 Journ. de Pharm. t. xxi. p. 130,1835.
" Ibid. 1837, p. 663. 
Purple Foxglove:—Composition; Chemical Characteristics.    457
       Radig's Analysis.
Picrin (Digitaline of Le Royer) 0.4
Digitaline (of Lancelot)  .... 8.2
Seaptin (acrid extractive) ... 14.7
Chlorophylle  ..........6.0
Oxide of iron..........3.7
Pjtash..............3.3
Ac-tic ncid............11.0
Vegetable albumen.......9.3
Woody fibre...........43.6
Foxglove leaves
100.1
 Brault and Poggiale's
       Analysis.
Resin.
Fatty matter.
Chlorophylle.
Starch.
Gum.
Lignin.
Tannin.
Salts of lime and potash.
Volatile oil.
Fixed oil.
Oxalate of potash.
Foxglove leaves.
       NativelWs Analysis.
Digitaline combined with tannic acid.
Crystallizable substance.
Aromatic principle.
Crystallizable resinous matter.
Fixed oil.
Sugar.
Red colouring matter soluble in wa-
  ter.
Chlorophylle. •
Extractive.
Albumen.
Salts containing vegetable acids.
Salts containing inorganic acids.
Foxglove leaves.
  Morin found a  peculiar volatile acid (antiirhinic acid), and a peculiar non-volatile acid (digi-
tahc acid).
  1. Dioitaliwe;  Bitter Principle of Foxglove; Picrin.—Homolle's process for obtaining digita-
line, as  simplified by M. Ossian Henry,1 is as follows: Digest 2J lbs. of carefully dried  and
powdered foxglove leaves with  rectified  spirit;  and  express  the  tincture strongly in a press.
Draw off the spirit in a still, and treat the residual extract with half a pint of water acidulated
with about two drachms of acetic acid.  Digest with a gentle heat, add  some animal charcoal,
and filter.   Dilute  the  filtered liquor with water, partly neutralize with ammonia, and add a
fresh-made strong infusion of nutgalls; by this means tannate of digitaline is precipitated.  Wash
the precipitate with water, mix it with a little alcohol, and carefully rub it with finely powdered
litharge.   Expose  the mixture to a  gentle heat, digest with alcohol, decolorize the tincture, by
animal charcoal, and draw off the alcohol by a gentle heat.  The residual extract is then to be
treated with sulphuric ether, which takes up some foreign matters and leaves the digitaline.
From 1 kilogramme (about 2£ lbs. 8 oz. troy) of tbe leaves, O. Henry obtained from 140 to  150
grs. of digitaline.
  Digitaline is white, inodorous, difficultly crystallizable,and usually occurs in porous mammillated
masses, or in small scales.   It is intensely bitter when in solution, and excites violent sneezing
when it is pulverized.  It is soluble  in about 2000 parts of water, is very soluble in alcohol, but
almost insoluble in  ether.  It does not contain  nitrogen; nor does it neutralize acids.  Concen-
trated sulphuric acid blackens it, and then dissolves it, forming a blackish-brown solution, which,
in a few days, becomes successively reddish-brown, smoky amethyst, pure amethyst, and ulti-
mately a beautiful crimson.  If during this time a small quantity of water be added, a limpid,
beautiful green solution is obtained.  In concentrated and colourless hydrochloric acid digitaline
dissolves, forming  a solution, which passes from yellow to a fine green.  This reaction Homolle
considers to be sufficiently delicate for medico-legal researches.
   The  effects of digitaline  on  both  animals and the human  subject have been examined  by
Homolle, and by Rouuhardat and Sandras.2  From their experiments,  it  appears that its effects
are s-imilar to those of the plant; but that it is  at least 100 times as powerful as the powder of
the dried plant.  In  the human subject,  doses of from 2 to 6 milligrammes (from about l-32d
to  1-11 tli of an English grain) diminished the frequency of the pulse, and caused nausea, vomit-
in:,'. fciipiiig, purging, and increased secretion of urine.
   Di.uiMliiie has been employed in medicine, as  a substitute for the plant, in dosesof from l-60th
to l-30tli of a grain.  It may be administered in substance in the form of pills, or dissolved in
alcohol and given in  the form of mixture or syrup.  But the difficulty of adjusting these small
doses, as well as the uncertainty of the purity and activity of the remedy, are great drawbacks
to its use.
  2. Scaptin.—Kadig has  applied  the term  scaptin  to a brown, almost tasteless extractive,
which leaves an acrid sensation in the throat.
  3. Emptiikusiatic  Oil of Foxglove (Pyrodigitaline)—By the destructive distillation of the
dried leaves of foxglove, Dr. Morries8 obtained a coloured, disagreeable, empyreumatic oil, which
was semi-solid at 60° F., and soluble in boiling alcohol and ether;  the solution,  on  cooling,  let
fall a flocculent precipitate composed of two  substances;  one crystalline, the  other  globular.
Given to n rabbit, it caused paralysis  of the hind legs, convulsions, laborious and rapid breathing,
and accelerated action of the heart.   It does not contain the sedative principle of foxglove.
  Chkmical  Characteristics.—Sesquichloride of iron causes a dark precipitate
(tanno-gallatc of iron) with decoction of  foxglove  leaves, as well as with the  tinc-
ture diluted with water.   A solution  of gelatine, added to  the  decoction, causes,
after some time, a scanty precipitate (tannate of gelatine).   Tincture of nutgalls
1  Ibid. 3e ser. t. vii. p. 4G0, 1NI5.
'  Ed. Med. and Surg. Journ. vol. xxxix. p. 377.
Annuaire'de Thirapeutique pour 1845, p. 60. 
458            VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Scrophtjlariaceje.

has scarcely any effect (perhaps a slight turbidness) when added to the decoction or
to the tincture diluted with water.
   (By the action of sulphuric or hydrochloric acid on the tincture or decoction of
foxglove, I have not been able to detect the presence of digitaline.)
   Physiological Effects,  a.  On Vegetables.—Marcet1 found that a solution of
the watery extract of foxglove killed a haricot plant (Fhaseolus vulgaris) in twenty.
four hours.
   |3.  On Animals generally.—The effects of foxglove have been  tried on dogs'
horses, rabbits,3 turkeys,* the domestic fowl, and frogs;  and on all it has been found
to act as a poison.   One drachm of the  powder may be given to horses as a seda-
tive in inflammation.5   Two ounces have produced death in twelve hours.6  Accord-
ing to the experience of  Orfila, the first symptoms of  poisoning  observed  in [car-
nivorous] animals  is vomiting.   The influence of the poison over the heart does
not appear to be uniform; for in some cases he found  the pulsations  of this viscus
unaltered, in others accelerated, while occasionally  they  were  retarded.  In the
horse killed by two ounces of foxglove, the pulse was 130 per minute, a short time
before death (Moiroud)—the standard pulse of the horse being 40 or 42 per minute.
The cerebro-spinal symptoms observed in  animals, are diminished muscular power,
convulsive movements, tremors, and insensibility.  The powder acts as a local irri-
tant, giving rise to inflammation of parts to which it is applied (Orfila).
   y. On Man.—We may, for convenience, establish three degrees of the operation
of foxglove.
   In the first degree, or that produced by small and repeated doses, foxglove some-
times affects what are termed the organic functions, without disordering the animal
or cerebro-spinal functions.   Thus we sometimes have the stomach disordered, the
pulse altered  in frequency, and  sometimes also in fulness and regularity,  and the
secretion of urine  increased, without any other marked symptoms.   The order in
which the symptoms just mentioned occur is not uniform; sometimes the  diuresis,
at others nausea, and  occasionally the affection of the circulation, being  the first
obvious  effect.
   The influence of foxglove over the circulation is not at all constant.   In some
cases the frequency of  the pulse is augmented, in others  decreased,  while in some
it is unaffected.  Lastly, in  a considerable number of instances,  the  pulse  becomes
irregular or intermittent under the use of foxglove.7   A  few drops of the  tincture
will, in some cases, reduce the frequency of the pulse, and render it  irregular and
intermittent,  while in other  instances much larger doses may be taken without any
obvious  effect on it.  Dr. Withering8 mentions one case in  which the pulse fell to
40; and I have several times seen it reduced to 50.   In  some cases the  slowness
of the pulse  is preceded by an  increased activity of the vascular  system.  From
Sandras's reports9 this  would appear to occur more frequently after small than large
doses of foxglove.  Dr.  Sanders,10 indeed, asserts that foxglove invariably excites the
pulse, and refers to an experience of 2000 cases in proof.  He says, that he has
seen the pulse rise from 70 to 120 under the use of foxglove, and at the end of
twenty-four  hours,  or  sooner, fall with  greater or less rapidity to  forty, or even
below this.   But an experience of the use of foxglove, in only twenty cases, will, I
believe,  convince  most  persons  that  Dr. Sanders  has fallen into an error in the
sweeping assertion which he has made.   A great deal,  however, depends on the
position of the patient.  If it be desired  to reduce the frequency of  the pulse, the
patient should be kept in a  recumbent posture.  The important influence of posture
was first pointed out, I believe, by Dr. Baildon.11   His own pulse, which had been
reduced by this plant from  110 to 40 beats per minute while he was in tbe recum-
1 Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. vol. xxix. p. 200.      2 Orfila, Toxicol. Gen.
» Le Roger, Bibl. Univ. June, 1824.              « Salerne, Hist, de VAcad, des Scien. p. 84, 1
* Youatt, The Horse, in Libr of TJsef. Knowledge.  6 Moiroud, Pharm. Viter. p. 354.
1 See the statistical resume of Sandras,  Bull, de ThSrap. t. vi.
8 Account of the Foxglove, p. 73, 1785.            9 Op. cit.                     ■
10 Treat, on Pulm. Consumption, ed. 1808.         " Ed. Med. and Surg. Journ. vol. iii. p. 270. 
Purple Foxglove :—Physiological Effects.
459
hent position, rose to 70 when he sat up, and to 100 when he stood.   We have a
ready explanation of this fact.  In a state of health, the pulsations of the heart are
more frequent (usually to the extent of five or six in the minute) in the erect than
in the horizontal  position; and it is very obvious that greater force is required to
carry on the circulation in the former than in the latter, since, in the erect position,
the heart and arteries have to send blood to the head  against gravity.   Now, the
power of the heart  being enfeebled by foxglove, when  a demand  is made on  this
viscus for an increase in the force of contractions by the change "from  the recum-
bent to  the standing attitude, it endeavours to make up for its diminished force by
an increase in the frequency of its contractions.   I need scarcely add, that the sud-
den change of position *in those who are much under the influence of this medicine,
is attended with great danger, and in several instances has  proved fatal;  for, in con-
sequence of the heart not having sufficient  power to propel the blood to the head
against  gravity, fatal syncope has been the result.1   The influence  of digitalis over
the pulse is more marked in some individuals or cases than in  others; thus the re-
duction  of the frequency of the pulse is in general  more  readily induced  in weak
and debilitated constitutions, than in robust  and plethoric ones.   Occasionally, no
obvious  effect on the number, force, or regularity of the pulse  is produced, though
the foxglove may be given  to  an extent sufficient to excite vomiting and  cerebral
disorder.  Shroek*  experienced,  from two grains  of foxglove,  nausea,  headache,
small, soft, aud quick pulse, dryness of the  gums and throat, giddiness, weakness
of limbs, and increased secretion  of saliva.   Some  hours after, he observed sparks
before the eyes, his vision became dim, and he experienced a sensation of pressure
on the eyeballs.
   A most important fact connected with the repeated uses of  small doses  of it, is
the cumulative effect sometimes observed.   It  has not unfrequently happened that,
in consequence of the continued  use of small doses of  this medicine, very danger-
ous symptoms,  in some  casus terminating  in  death, have occurred.   The most pro-
minent  of these were  great depression of the vascular  system, giddiness, want of
sleep, convulsions, and sometimes nausea and vomiting.3   A knowledge  of its occa-
sional occurrence impresses us with the necessity of exercising great caution in the
use of this remedy, particularly with respect to the continuance of its  administra-
tion and increase of dose;  and it shows that, after the constitutional effect has be-
come obvious, it is  prudent to suspend from time  to  time  the exhibition of  the
remedy, in order to guard against the effects of this alarming accumulation.   I may
add, however, that  I have used it, and seen others employ it, most extensively, and
in full  doses, and  have rarely seen any  dangerous consequences;  and I  believe,
therefore, tin; effects of accumulation to  be much less frequent than the statements
of authors of repute would lead  us  to expect.  The experience of Dr. Holland4.is
to the same effect.   " Though employing the medicine  somewhat  largely in prac-
tice," he observes,  " I do not recollect a case in which I  have seen any injurious
consequences from this cause."
   The  diuretic operation for which  we employ foxglove  is very inconstant.   Dr.
Withering stated that (his medicine more frequently succeeds as a diuretic than  any
other, and that if it fail, there is but little chance of any other remedy succeeding.
My experience, however, is not in accordance with  Dr. Withering's.  I have  fre-
quently  seen foxglove fail in exciting diuresis, and have often found the  infusion of
common broom (Cylisus srojxirius) subsequently succeed.  It has been asserted by
some, that the diuretic effect of foxglove was only observed in dropsical cases, and
that it, therefore, depended on the stimulus given to the absorbent vessels, and not
to any direct influence  exerted over  the kidneys;  but the statement is not true,

  1 For•«oma interesting remarki on the Effects produced by Posture on the Pulse, by Dr. Graves, consult
Dubl. Hoi;i, Rep. vol. x. p. 561.                                                 '
  * Quoted by Wibmer, Wirk. d. Arzneim  u. Gifte, HI. ii. S. 311.
Dro*7 the.Eils™ p'l},'ished b>' Dr Withering, op. cit.; also a fatal case recorded by Dr. Blackall, On
  ' Med. Notes and Reflections, p. 544. 
460           VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Scrophulariace;e.

since foxglove is  sometimes found acting as a diuretic even  in  health.  In some
cases the bladder  has appeared more irritable than usual, the patient having a fre-
quent desire to pass his urine.
   An increased flow of saliva  is an occasional consequence of the continued use of
moderate doses of foxglove.  Dr. Withering1 first noticed this effect.  Dr. Barton"
has also seen it produced  from ordinary doses.
   2. The second degree of operation of digitalis, or that ordinarily resulting from
the use of  too  large or too long-continued  doses, is  manifested by the disordered
condition  of the  alimentary canal, of the circulating organs, and of the cerebro-
spinal  system.   The more ordinary symptoms are nausea or  actual vomiting, slow
and often irregular pulse, coldness of  the extremities, syncope,  or tendency to it,
giddiness, and  confusion  of vision.   Sometimes the sickness is attended with purg-
ing, or even with diuresis ; at other times the patient is neither vomited nor purged;
and the principal disorder of  system  is observed  in  the altered condition of the
nervous and vascular organs.   External objects appear of a green or yellow colour;
the patient fancies there is a mist, or sparks, before his eyes; a sensation of weight,
pain, or throbbing  of the  head, especially in the  frontal region, is experienced;
giddiness,  weakness of the limbs, loss of sleep, occasionally stupor or delirium, and
even convulsions, may also be present.   The pulse becomes  feeble, sometimes fre-
quent, sometimes slow;  there may be actual syncope, or only a tendency to it, and
profuse cold sweats.  Salivation is sometimes produced by poisonous doses of fox-
glove.   It was observed  in a case narrated by Dr.  Henry,3 and has  been known to
last three weeks.4
   The quantity of digitalis that may be given to a patient without destroying life,
is much greater  than is ordinarily imagined.   In one instance I saw twenty drops
of the  tincture given to an  infant labouring under hydrocephalus, three times daily
for a fortnight, at the end of which time the little patient was completely recovered,
without one untoward symptom;   I have frequently given a drachm of the tincture
(of  the best quality) three times daily to an adult, for a fortnight, without observ-
ing any marked effect.    I  know that some  practitioners employ it in much larger
doses (as an  ounce or half an ounce of  the tincture),  with  much less effect  than
might be imagined.  The following communication on this subject, from my friend
Dr.  Clutterbuck, illustrates this point:   " My first information on this subject was
derived from an  intelligent pupil, who had been an assistant'to Mr. King, a highly
respectable practitioner at Saxmundham,  in Suffolk, who on a subsequent occasion,
personally confirmed the statement.   This gentleman assured me, that he had been
for many years in the habit of administering the tincture of digitalis, to the extent
of from half an  ounce to an ounce at  the time, not only with safety, but with the
most decided advantage, as a  remedy for acute inflammation—not, however, to the
exclusion of bloodletting, which, on the contrary, he previously  uses with consider-
able freedom.  To adults he often gives an ounce of the tincture (seldom less than
half an ounce), and awaits the result of twenty-four hours, when, if he does not
find the pulse subdued, or rendered irregular by it, he repeats the dose ; and this,
he says, seldom fails to lower  the pulse in the degree  wished  for; and when this is
the case, the disease rarely fails to give way, provided it has not gone the length of
producing disorganization of the part.   He has given as much as  two drachms to
a child of  nine months.    Sometimes vomiting quickly follows these large doses of
the digitalis, but never any dangerous symptom, as far as his observation has gone,
which has  been  very extensive.  In  less acute cases he sometimes  gives smaller
doses, as thirty drops, several times in a day.
   " Such is the account I received from Mr. King  himself, and which was confirmed
by his assistant,  who prepared his medicines.  I do  not  see any ground for ques-
tioning the faithfulness of the report.  I have myself exhibited the tincture to the
1 Op. cit. p. 184.                                         a Beck's Med. Jurisprudence.
3 Ed. Med. and Surg. Journ. vol. vii. p. 148.                   4 Rust's Magazin. xxv. p- 5's' 
Purple Foxglove:—Physiological Effects.
461
extent of half an  ounce (never more), in not more than  two or three instances
(cases of fever and pneumonia).   To my surprise, there was no striking effect pro-
duced by it; but I did not venture to repeat the dose.  In numerous instances I
have given two drachms ;  still more frequently one drachm;  but not oftener than
once in twenty-four hours, and not beyond  a second or third time.  Two or three
exhibitions of this kind  I have generally observed to be followed by slowness and
irregularity of pulse, when I have immediately desisted."   Dr. T. Williams1 states,
that a man, in a state of intoxication, took two ounces of  tincture of foxglove, in
two doses, in quick succession, without the slightest inconvenience.
  3. The third degree of the operation of foxglove, or that resulting from the  use
of fatal doses, is characterized usually by vomiting, purging, and griping  pain in
the bowels; slow,  feeble, and irregular pulse, great faintness, and cold  sweats;  dis-
ordered vision; at first giddiness, extreme  debility; afterwards insensibility and
convulsions, with dilated insensible pupils.
  If we compare  the effects of foxglove with those  of other  medicinal agents, we
find they approximate more closely to those of  tobacco than  of  any other cerebro-
spinant.   These two agents especially agree in their power of enfeebling the action
of the heart and arteries (see vol. i. p. 258).   Green tea agrees with  foxglove in its
property of preventing sleep (see vol. i. p. 247).   Considered as a diuretic, foxglove
is, in some respects, comparable with  squills.  I have already pointed out the pecu-
liarities attending  the operation of each of these.
   Uses.—We employ foxglove for various  purposes, as—lstly,  to reduce  the  fre-
quency and force of the heart's action; 2dly, to promote the action  of  the absorb-
ents ; 3dly, as a diuretic ; and 4thly,  sometimes on account of its specific influence
over the cerebro-spinal system.
   In the following remarks on the uses of foxglove  in particular diseases, I refer
to the administration of this remedy in the doses in which it is ordinarily employed.
I have no experience of its therapeutical effects, when given in the enormous  quan-
tities mentioned by Dr. Clutterbuck.
   1. In fever.—Digitalis is occasionally useful in fever to reduce the frequency of
the  pulse,  when the excitement of the vascular system is out of proportion to  the
other symptoms of fever,  such as the  increased temperature,  and the  cerebral or
gastric  disorder.   It cannot, however, be regarded, in the most remote way, as a
curative means; on the other hand, it is sometimes hurtful.  Thus, not unfrequently
it fails to reduce the circulation;  nay, occasionally, it has the reverse effect, accele-
rates the pulse, while it  increases the cerebral disorder,  and perhaps irritates  the
stomach.   In estimating its value as  a remedial agent for fever, we must not regard
it as a sedative means (I refer now to the vascular system) merely;  it  is an agent
which exercises a  specific influence over the brain; and, therefore, to be able  to lay
down correct  indications or contraindications for its use in disordered conditions of
this viscus, we ought to be acquainted, on the one hand, with the precise nature of
the  influence of the  remedy, and, on  the other, with the actual condition  of the
brain in the disease which we wish to  relieve.  Now, as we possess neither  of these
data in reference to fever, our use of foxglove  is, with the exception of the seda-
tive influence over the circulation, empirical;  and experience  has fully shown us it
is not generally beneficial.   But,  I repeat, where the frequency of pulse  bears no
relation to the local or constitutional symptoms of fever, foxglove may be service-
able.
  2. Inflammation.—Foxglove has been employed in inflammatory diseases, princi-
pally on account of its power of reducing the frequency of the pulse, though some
have referred part of its beneficial operation to its influence over the  absorbent sys-
tem.  Inflammation, of  a chronic kind, may be going  on in one part of the  body,
to an extent sufficient to  produce  complete disorganization, and ultimately to cause
the death of the patient, without  the action of the  larger  arterial trunks  (i. e. of
1 Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. i. p. 741. 
462           VEGETABLES.—Nat.  Ord. ScROPHULARiACEiE.

the system  generally) being  remarkably  increased.  In  such cases, digitalis is for
the most part, of little use.   Again, in violent and acute inflammation, accompanied
with  great  excitement of the  general  circulation, especially in plethoric subjects
foxglove is, in some cases, hurtful; in others, it is a trivial and unimportant remedy
and we therefore rely, in our treatment, on bloodletting, and other  powerful  anti-
phlogistic measures; and foxglove, if serviceable at all, can only be used after the
other means.
   As a remedy for  inflammation, foxglove is principally useful in less violent cases,
particularly when accompanied with increased frequency of pulse, and occurring in
subjects not able to support  copious evacuations  of blood.   Moreover, it has more
influence over inflammation of some parts of the body (as the arachnoid membrane,
the pleura, the pericardium, and the lungs) than of others.   In gastric and enteritic
inflammation, it would appear to be objectionable on account of its irritant proper-
ties ;  while its specific influence over the  brain would make it a doubtful remedy in
phrenitis.   In arachnitis of children it is certainly a most valuable agent.
   In  conclusion, then,  it appears  that digitalis, as a  remedy for  inflammation, is
principally valuable where the disease has a tendency to terminate in serous effusion.
But in no case can  it be regarded as a substitute for bloodletting.   Its  powers  ;is
an antiphlogistic remedy have, I suspect, been greatly  overrated.
   3.  Dropsy.—Of all  remedies for dropsy,  none have  gained more, and few so
much, celebrity as foxglove.   It has been supposed  to owe its beneficial operation
to its repressing arterial excitement, to its promoting the functions of the absorbent
vessels, and particularly to its diuretic effects.   Whatever may be its modus ope-
randi, its  powerful and  salutary influence in many  dropsies cannot be a matter of
doubt.   Dr. Withering has  observed,  that " it seldom  succeeds  in men of  great
natural strength, of tense fibre, of warm skin, of florid  complexion, or in those with
a tight and cordy pulse."  "On the contrary, if the  pulse be feeble or intermitting,
the countenance pale, the lips  livid, the skin  cold, the  swollen belly soft and fluctu-
ating, or the  anasarcous limbs readily pitting under the pressure of the finger, we
may expect the diuretic effects to follow in  a kindly manner."   In  those with a
florid complexion, bloodletting and purgatives  will often be found  useful prepara-
tives for foxglove.  In some forms of dropsy, foxglove is  more serviceable than in
others.  Thus, anasarca, ascites, hydrothorax, and phlegmasia dolens, are sometimes
benefited by it; whereas  ovarian dropsy and hydrocephalus  are not relieved  by it.
Its diuretic effect  is greatly promoted by combining  other  diuretics with it, espe-
cially squills  (as in the  Pilulse Digitalis  et Scillse, Ph. Ed.), calomel, or the saline
diuretics (as  the acetate of potash).  A  combination of vegetable bitters (as infu-
sion of gentian or  calumba)  with foxglove, forms, I think, a valuable form of ex-
hibition in many old dropsical eases.  Infusion of common broom (Cytisusscoparius)
might probably be  advantageously conjoined  with foxglove, where a powerful diu-
retic  is  required.   In  old cases of general dropsy, in oedematous swellings from
debility, and  in anasarca following  scarlet fever, where,  together with weakness,
there is still  left an excited  and irritable  state of the arterial system, chalybeates
(as the tinctura ferri sesquichloridi) may be conjoined with foxglove, with the hap-
piest effects.1
   4.  In Hemorrhages.—In active hemorrhages from internal  organs, accompanied
with  a quick, hard, and throbbing pulse,  foxglove as a sedative is oftentimes service-
able.   Epistaxis, haemoptysis, and menorrhagia,  are the forms of hemorrhage more
frequently benefited by  the use of foxglove.
   5.  Diseases of the Heart  and  Great  Vessels.—An  important indication  in tbe
treatment of  many  diseases of the heart and great vessels is to reduce the force and
velocity of the circulation.   The  most effectual means of fulfilling this indication
are—the adoption  of a low  diet, repeated bloodletting,  and the employment  of
foxglove.   There are, perhaps, no diseases in  which the beneficial effects of foxglove
1 Holland, Med. Xotes and Reflect, p. 54(3. 
Purple Foxglove :—its Uses.
463
 are more marked than in those of the heart and great vessels.  In aneurism of the
 aorta, our only hope of cure is by the coagulation  of the blood  in the aneurismal
 sac, and the consequent removal of the distensive  pressure of the circulation.   To
 promote  this, we endeavour to retard the movement of the blood within  the  sac,
 by diminishing the quantity of blood in the system generally, and by reducing the
 force and velocity with which it circulates.   Bloodletting and digitalis are, in these
 cases, very important agents;  and under their  use cases now and  then recover.
 Again, in simple dilatation of tbe cavities of  the heart, our objects are to remove,
 if possible, the  cause  (usually obstruction  in the  pulmonic or  aortic system), to
 strengthen  the muscular fibres of the  heart, and to  repress any preternatural excite-
 ment of the vascular system.   Digitalis is useful to us in attaining the latter object.
 In simple hypertrophy or hypertrophy with dilatation, we have to reduce the pre-
 ternatural  thickness of the heart's parietes, and this we do by removing, when it
 can be done, any obstruction  to  the  circulation, by using a low diet, by repeated
 bloodletting, and by the employment  of  foxglove.   No means,  says  the late  Dr.
 Davies,1 excepting the abstraction of  blood, diminishes the impulsion of the heart
 so completely and so certainly as digitalis.  " I have been," adds he " in the habit
 of  using it for several years for these affections, and have rarely  seen it fail in pro-
 ducing at least temporary  relief."   "The enlarged  and flaccid heart," observes Dr.
 Holland,8 "though, on first view, it might seem  the least favourable for the use of
 the medicine, is, perhaps, not so.   At least we have reason to believe, that, in drop-
 Bical affections, so often connected with  this organic change, the action of  digitalis,
 as a diuretic, is peculiarly  of avail."   In some disordered conditions of innervation
 of the heart and great vessels—as in angina pectoris,  nervous palpitation of the heart,
 and augmented  arterial impulsion, foxglove is  also at times beneficial.   In patients
 affected with an  intermittent or otherwise irregular  pulse, I have several times ob-
 served this  medicine  produce regularity of pulsation;—a circumstance also noticed
 by Dr.  Holland.  Besides the preceding, there  are various  other  affections of the
 heart in which foxglove may be found serviceable,  either by its  sedative influence
 over the circulation, or by its power of relieving dropsical effusion through its diu-
 retic property.
   6.  In Phthisis.—Digitalis has been declared  capable of curing pulmonary con-
 sumption, and numerous cases of supposed cures have been published.  Bayle3 has
 collected from the writings of Sanders,4 Kinglake,  Fowler, Beddoes,5 Drake, Moss-
 man,'1 Maclean, Ferriar,? Mageunis, Moreton, and others, reports of 151 cases'treated
 by foxglove.  Of these, 83 are said to have been cured, and 35 relieved.   But a more
 accurate and extended experience has fully proved that this medicine possesses no
 curative, and very slightly palliative powers in genuine phthisis: it is totally in-
 capable  of preventing or  of causing  the removal  of tubercular deposits, and has
 little, if any influence, in retarding the progress of  consumption.   Its power of di-
 minishing the rapidity of  the circulation  cannot  be doubted; but  this effect is as
 Dr. Holland8 justly remarks, "of  less  real moment  than is generally supposed "
   7.  In Inanity and Epilepsy.—-In  these maladies foxglove  may prove  occasion-
 ally serviceable  by  repressing excessive vascular   excitement, which sometimes
 accompanies them.   Furthermore, the specific influence of this  remedy  over the
 cerebro-spinal system may now and then  contribute to the beneficial operation of
 foxglove.  But the precise nature of this influence not having as yet been accurately
ascertained, while the pathology of the above-mentioned diseases is involved in con-
siderable obscurity, it follows that the therapeutic value of this influence can only
be ascertained empirically.   In insanity,  Dr. Hallaran" recommends foxglove to
reduce vascular action after the  employment of  depletion and purgation.  It has

 1 Lond. Med. Gaz. vol XV. p. 7!>0.                          a »r,j  », .     . „ „
 • Bibl. Thtrap. t. „.. p 3ftJ.                               ! nv ant   t     flttt' P" 571-
 » Observation* on the Management of the  Consumptive, IS)]               *
 ' oTiVg°itallili.da't '** Xnt' °"g' and ('U'""X- °f Scr°ph and  Glandt- Consumption.
 • Inquiry, ic. with Observ. on the Cure of Insanity, 1810.        * °P' C"' P' 551' 
464            VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Scropiiulariace.e.
 been used in this  disease, with success, by Dr. Currie,1 and by Fanzagoa  In eni.
 lepsy it is, I conceive, less likely to be serviceable, because  this disease is less fre-
 quently accompanied with the vascular excitement, against which foxglove is most
 successful.   Accordingly, while in some cases it has appeared to act beneficiallys in
 others it has either been  unsuccessful,4 or has only given  temporary relief.5
   8. In various  other diseases.—Besides  the  preceding, there are  several other
 maladies against which foxglove has been employed with  occasional benefit, as scro-
fida5 and asthma.7  For  other diseases relieved by foxglove I must refer the  reader
 to the works of Murray8  and Bayle.9
   Administration.—The ordinary dose of foxglove, in powder,  is from gr. ss to
 gr. iss, repeated every six hours.
   Antidotes.—In a case of poisoning  by foxglove, or its preparations, expel  the
 poison from the stomach by the stomach-pump or by emetics, if vomiting should
 not  have already commenced; assist the vomiting, when it is established, by the use
 of diluents; and counteract the depressing influence of the poison on the circulation
 by the use of ammonia and brandy; and keep the patient in a recumbent posture
 to guard against syncope.  I am unacquainted with any chemical  antidote for fox-
 glove; perhaps infusion of nutgalls might prove serviceable by the tannic acid  which
 it contains.
   1. INFUSUM DIGITALIS, L. E. D. [U. S.]; Infusion of Foxglove.—(Foxglove leaves,
 dried, 3J [5'j, -#•];  [Spirit of Cinnamon fgj, L.,  f|ij, E.\; Boiling [distilled, L]
 Water Oj [f3xviij, E.;  gix, D.].   Macerate  the  foxglove leaves  in the water for
 four [one, Z>.] hours, in a vessel lightly covered, and strain [through linen or calico,
 E.~\; then add the spirit.—[The U. S. Pharm. directs Foxglove $'\; Boiling Water
 Oss; Tincture of  Cinnamon fgi.  Macerate  the foxglove with the water for two
 hours in a covered vessel  and strain, then add the tincture of cinnamon].—I believe
 this, when properly made, to be  the  most effectual of the preparations of foxglove.
 The dose of it is from f^ss to f^j, repeated every six hours.   I have known it  given
 to the extent of fjij.
   2. TINCTURA DIGITALIS,  L. E. D. [U. S.]; Tincture of Foxglove.—(Foxglove leaves,
 dried [in moderately fine  powder, E.;  in coarse  powder, DJ], ^iv [£v, D.];  Proof
 Spirit [Diluted Alcohol,  If. S.~\ Oij.    Macerate for seven  [fourteen, Z>.] days, then
 express  and strain.  " This tincture is best prepared by the process of percolation,
 as directed for the tincture of capsicum.   If forty fluidounces of the spirit be passed
 through, the density is 944 [0.944], and the solid contents of a fluidounce amount
 to twenty-four grains.   It may also be made by digestion," E.)—The usual dose of
 this preparation, for  an adult, is "Ix, cautiously increased to m„xl, repeated  every
 six  hours.   I usually begin with n\xx.   The largest dose I have employed is f5jj
 but, as I have already stated, it has been given to the extent of one  ounce!   The
 colour of this preparation is somewhat affected by  exposure to strong solar light.
  Succus Digitalis.—The preserved juice of foxglove may be employed as a substitute for the
 tincture.   From 1 cwt. 2 qrs. 26 lbs. of digitalis gathered in May, 49 pints of juice have been
obtained.
  3. EXTRACTUM DIGITALIS, E.;  Extract of Foxglove.—(" This extract is best pre-
pared from the fresh leaves of digitalis, by any of the processes indicated for extract
of conium," E.)—Recently introduced into the pharmacopoeia of Edinburgh.  Its
preparation  requires very great care and attention, or the  virtues of the plant may
be destroyed during the process.   Dose, gr. j, cautiously increased.

  1 Mem. of the Med. Soc. of London, vol. iv.        » Quoted by Bayle, Bibl. Thtrap. t. '}"■?■ f0'
  » Scott, Ed. Med. and Surg. Journ. Jan. 1827; Dr. E. Sharkey, On the Efficacy of Digitalis in the ireai-
ment  of Idiopathic Epilepsy, 1841.                                                  .
  « Percival, Ibid. vol. ix. p. 274.                                     « Currie, op. supra c\t.
  6 Haller, Merz, Schiemann, and Hufeland, quoted by Bayle, Bibl. Thtr. t. iii. p. 369.
  1 Ferriar, On Digitalis, 1799; Fogo [asthma cured by an overdose of foxglove], Ed. Med. ana sur^.
Journ. vol. xviii. p. 345.
  8 App. Med. vol. i.                                              9 Op. supra cit. 
Common Henbane:—History;  Botany.
465
   4. PILl'LiE DIGITALIS ET SCILL.E, E.; Pills of Foxglove and Squill— (Digitalis;
 H<|uill, of each one part;  Aromatic Electuary two parts.  Beat them into a proper
 mass with  conserve of red roses;  and divide the  mass  into four-grain pills.)—A
 valuable diuretic compound.   Used in dropsies.  Dose, one or two pills.



   Order XLII.   SOLANACE^, Lindley.—NIGHTSHADES.

                                  Solane.b, Jussieu.

   Characters.— Calyx  5-parted, seldom 4-parted, persistent, inferior.  Corolla monopetalous,
 hypogynous; the limb 5-cleft, seldom 4-cleft,  regular, or somewhat unequal, deciduous;  the
 activation plaited or imbricated.  Stamens  inserted upon the corolla, as many as the segments
 of the limb, with which they are alternate; anthers bursting longitudinally, rarely by pores at
 the apex.  Ovary 2-celled, composed of a pair of carpels  right anil left of the axis, rarely 4—5
 or mnny-celled, with polyspermous placentae; style continuous; stigma simple;  ovules numerous,
 amphitropal.  Pericarp with 2 or 4 or many cells, either a capsule with a double dissepiment
 parallel with the valves,or a berry with the placenta? adhering  to the dissepiment. Seeds nume-
 rous, sessile; embryo straight or curved often out of the centre, lying in a fleshy albumen; radicle
 next the hilum.  Herbaceous plants or shrubs.  Leaves alternate, undivided, or  lobed,  sometimes
 collateral ; the floral ones sometimes double, and placed near each other.  Inflorescence variable,
 often out of the axil; the  pedicels without bracts (Lindley).
   Pkopehtiks.—The narcotic properties which many members of this order possess depend on
 the  presence of vegetable alkaloids;  but the  narcotism which  they induce is very different to
 that caused by opium;' hyoscyamus, belladonna, and stramonium, give rise to phantasms and
 dilatation of the  pupil (see the  Solanacea mydriatica, vol. i. p. 237);  nicotiana is a nauseating
 cardiaco-vascular sedative (see ante, pp. 237 and 258).  An acrid resin is found  in many species;
 on this the hot, pungent,  burning qualities of capsicum depend.  A bitter  principle confers on
 some species (as S. Pseudoquina and crispum) tonic properties.  Starch abounds in potatoes,
 which owe their nutritive qualities chiefly to it.


    171. HYOSCYAMUS  NIGER, Zm».-COMMON HENBANE.

                            Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Monogynia.
            (Ilerbse biennis. Folium caulinum recens et exsiccatum, L.—Leaves, E. D.)

   History.—This  plant  is the 'rooxvauo; ^aa?  of Dioscorides,9 the hyoscyamus
 nigcr of Pliny.3
   Botany.  Gen. Char.— Calyx urceolate, 5-toothed.   Corolla funnel-shaped; the
 limb plaited, 5-lobcd;  the  lobes obtuse, unequal.   Stamens 5, inserted in the  lower
 part of  the tube of the corolla, inclosed  or  exserted, declinate;  anthers dehiscing
 longitudinally.    Ovary 2-celled; placentas fixed to the dorsal dissepiment;  ovules
 numerous; style simple; stigma capitate.   Capside inclosed  by the persistent often
 enlarged calyx, narrowed  from the ventricose base, membranous, 2-celled, circum-
 scissile  at  tbe  apex, with a  2-celled lid.   Seeds many, kidney-shaped; embryo in
 fleshy albumen, almost peripherical, curved (Endlicher).
   Sp. Char.—Lea res  oblong, pinnatifid,  or  sinuate sessile,  and  subamplexicaule;
 luwir leaves stalked.   Flowers nearly sessile, axillary, unilateral (Babinwton).
   Root  spindle-shaped.    Stem  bushy.   Leaves soft and  pliant, sharply lobed.
 Whole herbage glandular,  downy, and viscid, exhaling a powerful fetid and oppres-
 sive  odour.  Flowers numerous from the bosoms of the crowded upper leaves, droop-
 iug,  almost entirely sessile, of an elegant  straw colour, usually pencilled with dark
 purple veins.
   Hab.—Indigenous;  waste ground, banks, and commons.   Flowers in July.
   There are two varieties of this species; oue biennial, the other annual.  Both are
cultivated at Mitcham.
 1 The jreneralizationsof some lnteFrench writerslTroussciu and Pidoux, Traitide Therap t i  n 206'
with reKj.rct to the identity of the operation of the narcotic Solanea:, do not appear to me to be founded i;

 •l.ih. ir.op.69.                                   » Mist. Nat. \ib. xxv. cap. IT, ed. Vain
       VOL. II.—30                                                           V' 
466                 VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Solanace;e.

  Var. a  biennis; Biennial Black Henbane.—This  is  larger, stronger, more branched, more
clammy, than the annual variety.  Its root  is biennial.  Cultivated at .Mitcham.   During the
first year  of its growth the plant has no aerial  stem, all the leaves being radical and stalked.
It is less odorous  and clammy than the mature plant; and Dr. Houlton1 states that it yields less
extract.  In the autumn the leaves die, but the root survives during  the winter;  and in the fol-
lowing  spring sends up  an aerial stem, which  grows to the  height of from two to four feet
The leaves of the second year are large, deeply  sinuate, or  pinnatifid.  It flowers towards the
end of May, or in June.
  As this variety is more highly developed  than the annual  sort, it probably possesses more
medicinal activity; and, therefore, should be preferred.   I am, however, unacquainted with any
experiments demonstrative of its superiority.
   This variety flowers earlier than the annual sort.   The surest plan of obtaining it, therefore
is to purchase it fresh while in  flower.
  Var. &  annua, Sims, Bot. Mag. 2394 ; H. agreslis, Kitaibel ex Schult. Fl. Austr., ed. 2, p. 383'
H.  niger, var. B minor, Brandt u. Ratzeburg, Deutschl. phan. Giftgewilchse; H. niger, var. 0 agrtt-
tis, Nees in Linn. Trans, xvii. 77; Annual or Field Henbane.—Root annual; stem simple,downy
leaves smoothish, sinuately toothed ; flowers sessile ; corolla reticulated.—Indigenous; South of
Europe;  North  of India—Cultivated  at Mitcham  for  medicinal use.—Flowers in July and
August.
   The plant is smaller, the leaves less deeply sinuated (not pinnatifid), less hairy, clammy, and
fetid than var. a  biennis.
   * Corolla non  violaceo reticulata; H. pallidus, Koch; Babing. Man., of Br. Botany.—This is a
       subvanety of B annua, with yellow corolla, without any purple veins.  It is said to yrow
       wild at Esher, in Surrey.
   Hyoscyamus albtjs, Linn,  'toa-ximy.oc tevxoc,  Diosc. lib. iv. cap. 69.—Leaves petiolate; lower
ones orbicular, entire; the rest from  cordate to ovate at the base, sinuated;  flowers sessile.—
South of  Europe.   Annual.   Its medicinal properties resemble those of  H. niger, for which it
has sometimes been employed in medicine.2
    Description.—The  herb (herba hyoscyami), when fresh,  has a  strong, un-
pleasant, narcotic  odour, a  mucilaginous,  slightly acrid  taste, and a  clammy feel.
It  should be gathered  when in full flower.   By drying, it almost wholly loses these
properties.   One hundred pounds of the  fresh herb yield  about  fourteen  pounds
when dried.3   The leaves (folia hyoscyami), when fresh, are pale dull green.   The
seeds (semina  hyoscyami)  are small,  compressed, uniform, roundish, finely dotted,
of a yellowish-gray  colour,  and  have  the odour of the plant, and an  oleaginous,
bitter taste.
   Sessile, oblong, acutely sinuated, somewhat pubescent, with viscid fetid hairs.
   It is to be gathered and dried as ordered for foxglove.   The herb which grows wild in waste
places is  to be preferred to that which is cultivated  in gardens, L.
    Composition.—The  seeds of  Hyoscyamus niger  were analyzed in 1816 by Kir-
chof,4 and  in  1820  by Brandes.5  The extract of the herb was analyzed by Lind-
bergson.6
               Brandes's Analysis.
Fatty oil.......................   21.2
Waxy fat......................   1.4
Resin insoluble in ether..............   3.0
Malate of hyoscyamia with malates of lime and
  magnesia, and a salt of potash and ammonia  .   6.3
Uncrystallizable sujrar...............a trace
Gum 1.2, bassorin 2.4, and starch 1.5.......   5.1
Albumen.......................   4.5
Vesreto-animal matter...............   3.4
Malate, phosphate, sulphate, and muriate of pot-
  ash .........................   0.4
Malates of lime and magnesia...........   0.6
Phosphates of lime and magnesia........   2.4
Woody fibre.....................   26.0
Water........................   24.1

              Seeds of hyoscyamus......10] .4 1

  The  ashes contained carbonate, phosphate, sulphate,
and muriate of potash, carbonate and  much phosphate
of lime, much silica, manganese, iron, and minute traces
of copper.
          Lindbergson's Analysis.
Narcotic extractive soluble in water and alcohol.
Bitter extractive.
Gummy extractive.
Malates, phosphates, sulphates, and muriates of
  magnesia.

         Extract of the herb.
1  Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. iii. p. 578, 1?44.
2  Fouquier, Arckiv. Gin. de Mid. Mars; 1^3; Chevallier, Journ. de Chim. Mid. t. ii. p. 30.
3  Martius, Pharmalcogn.                                   * Berl. Jahrb. Bd. xvii. S- M4.
*  Ibid. Bd. xxi. S. 280.                                     « Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. ii. 1303. 
Common Henbane :—Physiological Effects.
467
   1. Htobciamia or  Hyosciamina.—This term has been applied to a vegetable  alkali pro-
cured from the seeds and herbs of Hycscryamus niger by Brandes,' who>e statements  have been
confirmed by Geiger and Hesse,as well as by Mein.2  However, Chevallier, as well a^  Brault and
Poggiale,* have failed to procure it. The properties assigned to it are almost identical  with those
of Atropina, from which it differs in being more soluble in water.  It is crystallizable, has an
acrid taste, and, when volatilized, yields  ammonia.  Reisinger4  says, that a drop of  a  solution
of one grain of this substance in ten grains of  water caused dilatation of the pupil, but did not
give rise to irritation of the eye.  A solution of double this strength acted as an irritant.
   2. Empyrkihatic Oil of  Henbane (Pyro-Hyosryamia?).—This was obtained by Dr. Morries5
by the destructive distillation of henbane.  Its chemical properties are  identical with those of
the empyreumatic oil of foxglove. It proved a powerful narcotic poison.
   Physiological  Effects,  a. On  Vegetables.—Water  holding in solution ex-
tract of  henbane  proved poisonous to Hyoscyamus niger.6
   0. On Animals.—Its effects on herbivorous animals are slight.   Given  to horses
in large  quantities,  it causes dilatation of the pupils, spasmodic movements of the
lips, and frequency of pulse.7   On dogs  its effects appear to  be analogous to those
on man.8   It does not cause any local irritation.   Its constitutional effects are dila-
tation of pupil, weakness of the posterior extremities, staggering, and insensibility.
   y. On Man.—In small and repeated doses, henbane has a calming, soothing, and
tranquillizing  effect.   This  is especially observed  in persons  suffering with great
nervous  irritability, and with a too active condition of the  sensorial functions.  In
such it frequently causes  quietude, with a  tendency to sleep.   It frequently allays
irritation and preternatural sensibility existing in any organ.   It  does not quicken
the pulse, check secretion, or cause constipation.   Large  doses sometimes  induce
Bleep.  Fouquier,8 however, denies this.   He says  henbane causes headache,  giddi-
ness, dimness of sight, dilatation of pupil, a greater or  less tendency to sleep, and
painful delirium.   In some cases these symptoms are  followed  by  thirst, nausea,
griping,  and either purging or coustipation; and in a few instances febrile  heat and
irritation of skin  are induced.   But I  have frequently seen sleep follow its use,
though its  hypnotic  properties are  neither constant nor powerful.   It more  fre-
quently  fails to  occasion  sleep in those accustomed to  the use  of opium.   Very
large doses are apt to  be  followed by delirium  rather than  by sleep.   Its  power of
alleviating  pain and allaying spasm  is greatly inferior to  that of opium.   In poison-
ous doses it causes loss of speech, dilatation  of pupil, disturbance of vision (pres-
byopia), distortion of face,  coma, and delirium,  generally of the  unmanageable,
sometimes  of the furious kind, and  phantasms ; and paralysis, occasionally with
convulsive  movements.   Irritation of the  stomach and bowels (manifested by nau-
sea, vomiting, pain, and purging) is occasionally induced.10  One author11 says hyos-
cyamus  renders the hair gray, while another13 states that it darkens it.
    In its operation on the body, henbane presents several peculiarities (see vol. i. p.
237>   From opium  it is distinguished by the sedative rather than stimulant effects
of small doses;  by its not confining the bowels;  by the obscurity of vision  (pres-
byopia) ; and when  swallowed  in  large  doses, by its producing  dilatation  of the
pupil, aud by its  being more apt to  occasion delirium with phantasms.   Further-
more, in some individuals opium  causes  headache and other distressing symptoms
which henbane is not so apt to produce.  From belladonna and  stramonium,  to which
it is in several respects closely allied, it is distinguished by the  very rare  occur-
rence of any symptoms of gastro-iutcstiual irritation  after the ingestion  of large
do.-es of  it.   Sundelin'' savs " that  it wauts the resolvent operation and the stimu-

  • Pharm. Cintral-Blatt far 1822. S. 4/9.
  j Journ. de Pharm. t. xx. p. S7; und Pharm. Central-Blatt fUr 1835 S S3
  . ilTZr- d,e Ph?T- '' V'- P' 13V         „..„              ' -*"*• G'<»- rf«  Mid. t. xviii. p. 301
  • Ed. Med. and Surg. Journ. vol. xxxix. p. 379.                                      F   '
  • Macuire quoted by■ l)e O.ndolie,  Phys Vig. p.  1354; also Miguel,  quoted in Meyen's Report on the
Pro-res* of Vegetable Physiology durtng the year 1837, translated by W. Francis, p 139
  • .r,"Ulb Pharm- Vit- P- 31!'i ""=e a'*' Viborg, in Wibmer's Wirk. d. A,zn. u. Gift. Bd iii S  156
 io J  "■!./"',"•    •„        , L                   * Arch. Gin.de M(d. I. i.r>.'-><)7
d  ArZeim u  Gift ^^ '"l",trat,Ve of tnese e(rect<>> consult Orfila, Toxicol. Gin.; and Wibmer, Wirk.
 " llnlinrrwuir, quoted by Wibmer, op. cit S 148.
 »KS!!;.rfJE'Su.'.:THiHiSr*1'1art-Cosmetica'Bd-:  s  m-Ui^>l™ 
458             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Scropiiulariace*:.

has scarcely any effect (perhaps a slight turbidness) when added to the decoction or
to the tincture diluted with water.
   (By the action of sulphuric or hydrochloric acid on  the tincture or decoction of
foxglove, I have not been able to detect tbe presence of digitaline.)
   Physiological Effects,   a.  On  Vegetables.—Marcet1 found that a solution of
the watery extract of foxglove killed a haricot plant (Phaseolus vulgaris) in twenty-
four hours.
   j3.  On  Animals generally.—The effects of foxglove  have been  tried on dogs,8
horses, rabbits,3 turkeys,4 the domestic fowl, and frogs; and on all  it has been found
to act as a poison.   One drachm of the  powder may be given to horses as a seda-
tive in inflammation.5   Two ounces have produced death in twelve hours.8 Accord-
ing to the experience of Orfila, the first symptoms of poisoning  observed in [car-
nivorous] animals  is vomiting.   The  influence of the  poison  over the heart does
not appear to be uniform;  for in some cases he found the pulsations of this viscus
unaltered,  in others  accelerated, while occasionally  they were  retarded.  In  the
horse killed by two ounces of foxglove, the pulse was 130 per  minute, a short time
before death (Moiroud)—the standard pulse of the horse being  40 or 42 per minute.
The cerebro-spinal symptoms observed in  animals, are  diminished muscular power,
convulsive movements,  tremors, and insensibility.   The powder acts as a local irri-
tant, giving rise to inflammation of parts to which it is applied (Orfila).
   y.  On  Man.—We may, for convenience, establish three degrees of  the operation
of foxglove.
   In the first degree, or that produced by small and repeated doses, foxglove some-
times affects what are termed the organic functions, without disordering  the animal
or cerebro-spinal functions.   Thus we sometimes have the stomach disordered, the
pulse altered in  frequency, and  sometimes also in fulness and regularity, and  the
secretion of urine increased, without any other marked symptoms.   The order in
which the symptoms just mentioned occur is not  uniform; sometimes the diuresis,
at others nausea, and occasionally the affection of the  circulation, being the first
obvious effect.
   The influence of foxglove over the circulation is  not at all  constant.  In some
cases the  frequency of the  pulse is augmented, in others decreased, while in some
it is unaffected.   Lastly, in a considerable number of instances, the pulse becomes
irregular or intermittent under the use of foxglove.7  A few drops of the  tincture
will, in some cases, reduce the  frequency of the pulse, and render it  irregular  and
intermittent, while in other instances much larger doses may be taken without any
obvious effect on it.  Dr. Withering8 mentions one  case in which the pulse fell to
40; and I have several times  seen it reduced to 50.   In some cases the slowness
of the pulse is preceded by an increased  activity of the  vascular  system.   From
Sandras's reports9 this would appear to occur more frequently after small than large
doses of foxglove.   Dr. Sanders,10 indeed, asserts that foxglove invariably excites the
pulse, and refers  to an experience of 2000 cases  in proof.   He says, that he has
seen  the  pulse  rise from  70 to 120 under the use  of  foxglove, and at the end of
twenty-four hours,  or  sooner,  fall with  greater or less rapidity to forty, or even
below this.  But an experience of the use of foxglove, in only twenty cases, will, I
believe, convince  most  persons that  Dr. Sanders has  fallen  into an error in  the
sweeping assertion which  he has made.   A great  deal, however, depends on  the
position of the patient.  If it  be desired  to reduce the frequency of  the pulse,  the
patient should be kept  in a recumbent posture.  The important influence of posture
was first pointed out, I believe, by Dr. Baildon.11   His own pulse, which had been
reduced by this plant from 110 to 40 beats per minute while  he was in the recum-
 1 Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. vol. xxix. p. 200.      a Orfila, Toxicol. Gin.
 * Le Roger, Bibl. Univ. June, 1S24.             * Salerne, Hist, de VAcad, des Scien. p. 84, 1748.
 ' Youatt, The Horse, in Libr of Usef. Knowledge.  8 Moiroud, Pharm. Viter. p. 354.
 1 See the statistical resume of Sandras, Bull, de Thirap. t. vi.
 8 Account of the Foxglove, p. 73, 1785.           9 Op. cit.
10 Treat, on Pulm. Consumption, ed. 1808.        " Ed. Med. and Surg. Journ. vol. iii. p. 270. 
                Purple Foxglove :—Physiological Effects.             459

bent position, rose to 70 when he sat up, and to 100 when he stood.   We have a
ready explanation of this fact.   In a state of health, the pulsations of the heart are
more frequent (usually to tbe extent of five  or six in the minute) in tbe erect than
in the horizontal position; and  it is very obvious  that greater force is required to
carry on the circulation in the former  than in the latter, since, in the erect position,
the heart and arteries have to send  blood to the  head against gravity.   Now, the
power of the  heart being  enfeebled by foxglove, when  a demand is made on  this
viscus for an increase in the force of  contractions by the change'from  the  recum-
bent to  the standing attitude, it endeavours  to make up for its diminished force by
an increase in the frequency of its contractions.  I need scarcely add, that the  sud-
den change of position "in  those who are much under the influence of this medicine,
is attended with great danger, and in several instances has proved fatal; for, in con-
sequence of the heart not having  sufiicient power to propel the blood to the head
against  gravity, fatal syncope has been the result.1  The influence of digitalis  over
the pulse is more marked in some individuals or cases than in others;  thus the re-
duction of the frequency of the pulse is in  general more readily induced in weak
and debilitated constitutions, than in  robust and  plethoric ones.  Occasionally, no
obvious effect on the number, force, or regularity of the pulse is  produced,  though
the foxglove may be given to an extent sufficient to  excite vomiting and cerebral
disorder.  Shroek3  experienced, from two  grains  of foxglove, nausea,  headache,
small, soft, and quick pulse, dryness of the  gums and throat, giddiness, weakness
of limbs, and increased secretion of saliva.  Some  hours after, he observed sparks
before the eyes, his vision became dim, and  he experienced a  sensation of pressure
on the eyeballs.
   A most important fact connected with the repeated uses of small doses' of it, is
 the cumulative effect sometimes observed.   It has not unfrequently happened that,
 in consequence of the continued use of  small doses of this  medicine, very danger-
 ous symptoms, in some cases  terminating in death, have occurred.   The  most pro-
 minent  of these were  great depression of the vascular  system, giddiness, want of
 sleep, convulsions, and sometimes nausea and vomiting.3   A knowledge of its occa-
 sional occurrence impresses us with the necessity of exercising great caution in the
 use of this remedy, particularly with  respect to  the continuance of its administra-
 tion and increase of dose; and it shows  that, after the constitutional effect  has be-
 come obvious, it is  prudent  to  suspend from  time to time the  exhibition  of the
 remedy, in order to guard  against the  effects of this alarming accumulation.   I  may
 add, however, that I have  used it, and seen  others employ it, most extensively, and
 in full doses, and  have rarely seen any dangerous consequences; and I believe,
 therefore, the effects of accumulation  to be  much less frequent than the statements
 of authors of repute would lead us to expect.   The experience of Dr. Holland*.is
 to the same effect.   " Though employing  the medicine somewhat largely in prac-
 tice," he observes, " I do  not recollect a case in which I have seen any injurious
 consequences  from this cause."
   The  diuretic operation for which we  employ foxglove is very inconstant.  Dr.
 Withering stated that this medicine more frequently succeeds as a diuretic than any
 other, and that if it fail, there is but  little chance of any other remedy succeeding.
 My experience, however,  is not in  accordance with Dr.  Withering's.   I h'ave fre-
 quently seen foxglove fail in exciting  diuresis, and have often found the infusion of
 common broom (Cytisus scoparius) subsequently succeed.  It has been asserted by
 some, that the diuretic effect  of foxglove was only observed in dropsical  cases, and
 that it, therefore, depended on the stimulus  given to the absorbent vessels, and not
 to any direct influence exerted over  the kidneys; but the statement is not  true,
 1  For some interesting remarks on the Effects produced by Posture on the Pulse, by Dr. Graves, consult
Dubl. Hasp. Rep. vol. x. p. 561.
 "  Quoted by Wibmor, Wirk. d. Arzneim u. Gifte, Bd. ii. S. 311.
 *  See the cases published by Dr. Withering, op. cit.; also a fatal case recorded by Dr. Blackall, On
Dropsy, p. ITS, 4th ed.
 '  Med. Kotes and Reflections, p. 544. 
470
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Solanace^.
time to time to keep the powder covered.  Cease to filter when the liquid which passes
begins to produce a precipitate as it falls.  Distil off the alcohol from the filtered
liquor, and  evaporate  the residue to the proper consistence.)—This preparation is
intended as a substitute for the preceding, as the fresh herb cannot be obtained in
sufficient quantity in the United  States.   It is a fine, clear, dark, shining extract
is possessed of the active  properties of the drug, and may be employed  in lieu of
the common extract.   The dose is gr.  j to gr. v, or larger quantities if required.]


   172. ATROPA BELLADONNA, Linn -COMMON DWALEj
                       DEADLY  NIGHTSHADE.
                           Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Monogynia.
 (Atropia ; alkali e radice comparatum crystalli; Folium recens et exsiccatum, L.—Leaves, E.—Th«
             \                    leaves and root, D.)

  History.—Belladonna, being a native  of both Greece and Italy, was doubtless
known to, and described by, the ancient Greek and Roman writers.  Modern botan-
ists, however, have been  unable to identify it with certainty.  Fraas1 is of opinion
that it is the Mcu/Spayopaj of Theophrastus,2 the Xtpi>xroe pavixbc ("dv9oc uhav")oi
Dioscorides,3 the third sort of Strychnos (Solanum) of Pliny.4  But this notion is
not without its difficulties.   The plant which  Theophrastus mentions under the
above name had a stem  like the v6.p0r% (ferula), and a black racemose fruit with a
vinous taste.  Now the stem  of belladonna certainly does not resemble that of an
umbelliferous plant, nor  is the fruit racemose.   Sibthorp and Smith5 have, in my
opinion, only exercised a proper precaution in not assigning any ancient synonyme
to  belladonna.
  The earliest undoubted notice of belladonna occurs in the work of Tragus (a. d.
1532),  who  calls it Solanum hortense  nigrum.0  It has been supposed that it was
this plant which produced such remarkable and fatal effects on  the  Roman soldiers
during their retreat from the  Parthians.7  Buchanan8 relates that the Scots mixed
the juice of this plant with the bread  and drink, which, by their truce, they were
to supply the Danes, which so  intoxicated them, that the Scots killed the greatest
part of  Sweno's army while asleep.  Shakspeare9 is supposed  to allude to it under
the name of the insane root.
  Botany.   Gen. Char.— Calyx 5-parted.  Corolla hypogynous, funnel-shaped,
campanulate ; the limb plaited, 5—10-cleft. Stamens 5, inserted into the lower part
of  the corolla, exserted, or nearly so; filaments filiform; anthers dehiscing longi-
tudinally.   Ovary 2-celled;  placentae inserted in a line on the dorsal dissepiment;
ovules numerous; style simple ; stigma peltato-depressed.   Berry supported by the
spreading calyx, 2-celled.  Seeds many, subreniform; embryo in fleshy albumen,
subperipherical, arched or annular (Endlicher).
  Sp. Char.—Stem herbaceous.   Leaves  broadly-ovate, entire.  Flowers solitary,
axillary on short stalks (C. C Babington).
  Root fleshy, creeping.   Whole  plant  fetid when  bruised, of a dark and  lurid
aspect, indicative of its  deadly narcotic quality.  Stems herbaceous, 3 feet  high,
round, branched, leafy, slightly downy.   Leaves lateral, mostly 2  together of un-
equal size,  ovate, acute,  entire,  smooth.   Flowers  imperfectly axillary, solitary,
stalked, drooping, dark full purple in  the  border, paler downwards, about an inch
long.  Berry of  a shining violet  black, the size of a small cherry, sweetish, and
not nauseous (Smith).
  Hab.—Indigenous; hedges and waste ground, on  a calcareous soil.  Flowers m
June*
1 Synops. Plant. Fl. Class, p. 166, 1845.     a Hist. Plant, lib. vi. cap 2.
3 Lib. iv. cap. 74.                      4 Lib. xxi. cap. 105; and lib. xxviii. cap. 108, ed. Valp.
5 Prod. Fl. Gractr,.                    8 Bauhin, Pinax.
1 See Plutarch's Life of Antony.          8 Rerum Scot. Hist. lib. vii.
9 Macbeth. Act i. Scene 3d. 
Deadly Nightshade :—Description ; Physiological Effects.    471
  Description.—The root (radix belladonnse), when fresh, is one or more inches
thick, and sometimes a foot or more long; it is branching, fleshy, internally white,
externally grayish or brownish-white.  Its taste is slight, sweetish; its odour feeble.
It may  be collected  in the autumn or  early in  the spring.   The flowering stems
(herba belladonnse)  are collected in June or July; they are then  deprived of leaves
(folia belladonnse),  which are to be carefully dried.   The leaves, when  fresh, have
a feeble, bitterish, sub-acid taste.
  Oval, acute, quite entire, smooth, when bruised evolves an unpleasant odour.
  The herb which prows spontaneously in hedges and uncultivated places is to be preferred to
that cultivated in gardens.—Ph. Lond.
  Composition.—The leaves of belladonna were analyzed, in 1808, by  Melandri;1
the expressed juice, in  1809,  by Vauquelin;3  and the  dried herb,  in 1819, by
Brandes.3  Besides  these, there have been several less  complete examinations of
this plant by other chemists, which have yielded more or less interesting results.
                                 Brandes'* Analysis.
              Supermalate of atropia.......................  1 "51
              Pseudo-toxin with malate of atropia and potash salts.....16.05
              Wax.................................  0.70
              Chlorophylle.............................  5.84
              Pliytocolla (a nitrogenous substance insoluble in alcohol) . . .  6 90
              (Jum.................................  8.33
              Starch................................  1 25
              Albumen............................... 10 70
              Lipnin................................ 1:1.70
              Salts.................................  7.47
              Water................................25.50
              Loss.................................  2.05
                         Dried herb of Belladonna.............100.00
  1. Atuopia.—(See p. 478.)
  2. Pskuhotoxin.—A substance obtained by Brandes from the watery extract of belladonna.
It is a brownish-yellow, soluble in water, insoluble in absolute alcohol  and ether, is coloured
preen by the salts of iron, and is totally precipitated from  its watery solution by the salts of
lead, and by tincture of galls.4
  3. Belladonnin—Under this name, Luebekind5 has described  a volatile vegetable alkali,
which, he says, is distinct from atropia.   It is crystallizable, and has an ammoniacal odour.  It
consists of carbon 2S.5, hydrogen  22.4, nitrogen 32.1, oxygen 17.0. The crystals contain  three
equivalents of water.  Two grains caused extreme heat in the  throat, and constriction of the
larynx.
  4. Atropic aciii.—This name has been given by Richter" to a volatile, crystallizable acid,
distinguished  from benzoic acid by  its not precipitating the salts of iron.
   Physiological  Kffects.   o.  On Vegetables.—An  aqueous solution of extract
of  belladonna is poisonous to plants.7
   0.  On Animals generally.—Belladonna  proves poisonous to animals and birds;
but much less so  to  herbivorous than to carnivorous animals.   Eight pounds (Troy)
of  the  leaves have  been eaten by a horse without any ill  effects.8   The  lute  Mr.
Anderson told  me that the  blackbirds eat  the seeds at  the  Chelsea Garden with
impunity.   A pound of ripe berries has been given to an  ass with very little effect.9
(liven to dogs,  belladonna causes dilatation of pupil, plaintive cries, efforts  to vomit,
weakness of the  posterior extremities,  staggering, frequent  pulse, a state like in-
toxication, and  death.10   Forty or fifty grains of  the watery extract, injected  into
the jugular vein of dogs, have proved fatal."  Flourens13 thinks that the  tubercula
quadrigemina are the parts of  the nervous centres on which this  poison  specifically
acts.   His inferences were drawn  from experiments made  on  birds.  The  topical
action of belladonna is that of an acrid, though not a very violent one.13

  ' Ann. de Chim. Ixv. 222.                                          3 Ibid, lxxii. 53.
  ' Gnu lin'i Hand. d. Chem. ii. 1305.                                  * Ibid. ii. 1032.
  » Pharm. Central-Blatt far 1839, S 449.                              8 Ibid, far  1837, S. 614.
  ' Mnrcet, Ann. Chim. et Phys. vol. xxix. p. 200; and SchQbler and Zeller, Schweigser's Journ. f.d.
Chem. 1827, Bd. 50, S.  51— <K>.
  " Miiroud, Pharm. Vet. p. 344.           » Viborg, in AVibmer, ITirfc. d. Arz. u. Gifte,  Bd. i. S. 366.
 10 Orfila, Toxicol. Gin.       .        "Ibid.
 n Rech. Expir. 1824.                  » Orfila, supra cit. 
472
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Solanace,e.
   y.  On Man.—In the first degree of its  operation, belladonna  diminishes sensi-
bility and irritability.   This  effect (called by some sedative) is scarcely obvious in
the healthy organism,  but is well seen in morbid states, when these properties are
preternaturally increased.   A very frequent, and  sometimes the  earliest, obvious
effect of belladonna  is dryness of  the  mouth and  throat, frequently attended with
thirst.   The other secretions  and the circulation are oftentimes not affected, though
occasionally  they  are  augmented.   Mr.  Bailey1 "asserts that belladonna  affects
neither the stomach nor bowels, nor any of the secretions nor excretions, those of
the  salivary glands  excepted."   Tbe asserted  influence  of belladonna over the
organic functions is said to be shown by its power of inducing, in some cases, reso-
lution of swellings and tumours  of various kinds, as will be presently noticed.
   In the second degree of its  operation, belladonna  manifests, both in healthy and
morbid conditions, its remarkable influence over the cerebro-spinal system. It causes
dilatation of the pupils (mydriasis), presbyopia, or long-sightedness, with obscurity
of vision, or absolute  blindness  (amaurosis), visual illusions (phantasms), suffused
eyes, occasionally disturbance of hearing (as singing in the ears, &c), numbness of
the face, confusion of head, giddiness, and delirium, which at times resembles intoxica-
tion, and may be combined-with  or followed by sopor.  These symptoms are usually
preceded by a  febrile condition, attended with a remarkable affection of the mouth,
throat, and adjacent parts.   Besides dryness of these parts, it causes difficulty of
deglutition  and of articulation, a feeling of  constriction about the throat, nausea,
and sometimes actual vomiting, and, now and then,  swelling and redness of the face.
The pulse is usually hurried  and small.   The cutaneous, renal, and  mucous secre-
tions are frequently  augmented.    An  exanthematous eruption, like that of scarlet
fever, has been noticed; and  irritation of the urinary organs, has in some instances
occurred.3
   In some cases very severe effects have been induced by the application of the ex-
tract to abraded  surfaces.3  The continued  application of it  to the sound skin has
also been attended with  similar effects.4
   In the third degree of its  operation, belladonna  produces effects similar  to the
preceding, but in  a more violent  form.  The following are the symptoms experienced
by above 150 soldiers, who were poisoned by the berries of belladonna, which were
gathered at Pima, near Dresden: " Dilatation and immobility of the pupil; almost
complete insensibility of the eye  to the presence of external objects, or at least con-
fused vision;  injection of the conjunctiva with  a  bluish blood;  protrusion  of the
eye, which  in  some  appeared as if it were dull, and in others  ardent and furious;
dryness  of  the lips, tongue,  palate, and throat; deglutition difficult or even im-
possible ; nausea not followed by vomiting; feeling of weakness, lipothymia, syn-
cope; difficulty or impossibility of standing, frequent bending forward of the trunk;
continual motion of the hands  and fingers; gay delirium, with  a vacant  smile;
aphonia  or confused sounds, uttered with pain; probably ineffectual desires of going
to stool; gradual  restoration  to health  and  reason,  without any recollection  of the
preceding state."5
  Seven cases (two of which proved fatal) of poisoning by belladonna berries have occurred
under my notice in the London Hospital; of these,a report  has been published by Dr. Letheby.6
The phenomena were  tolerably  uniform.   The following symptoms especially attracted  my
attention:—
  1. Dryness of the fauces.—The  excessive dryness of  all the parts about the throat contributed
greatly to the difficulty of swallowing and alteration of voice.
  2. Scarlet eruption.—In several cases a scarlet eruption appeared on the arms and legs.
  3. Mydriasis and presbyopia—Mydriasis,or dilatation of the pupil, was present in every case;
and was accompanied, in  all the cases in which the patient was in a fit state for observation,
  1 Observations Relative to the Use of Belladonna, p. 9, 1818.
  3 Jolly, Kouv. Mid. iii. 1828; and Lancet, vol. i. p. 45, 1828-9.
  3 Wade, Med. and Phys. Journ. vol. lvii. p. 2SG. 1S27; Davies, Lectures on Diseases of the LungtaM
Heart, p. 49G.
  * Bacot,  Lond. Med. and Phys. Journ. vol. xxiv. p. 383, 1810.
  5 Gaultier de Claubry, in Orfila's Toxicol. Gin.
  6 Pharmaceutical Times, vol. i. p. 25,1846. 
               Deadly Nightshade:—Physiological Effects.            473

with presbyopia, or long-sightedness.  These two symptoms depend, as I have before stated (see
vol. i. p. 21-r>). on the paralyzing influence of belladonna on the muscular fibres of the iris, by
which mydriasis is produced, and on the ciliary muscle, by which  the adjusting power of the
eye is impaired. I strongly suspect that the impaired vision which has been ascribed to the use
of belladonna is chiefly  or  entirely presbyopia.  In one of the patients (a woman) above
alluded to, the virion was so much impaired  that she could not see to read; and when I placed
the prayer card in her hand, she held it upside dow.n, and declared her inability to distinguish
the letters or words on' it.  But after trying several  pairs of spectacles, borrowed of patients
and others in the ward, she found one (magnifiers) which enabled her to read with ease.   This
agrees with the results of experiments of Miiller1 on himself.   This physiologist found that, by
the local action of belladonna on one eye, he caused presbyopia of that eye, and thus gave rise
to an unequal refractive  power of the  two eyes.  Moreover, it accords  with the effects ex-
perienced on his own person by  Dr. Lobb,  who informs me that he could see  objects at a
distance (as on the opposite side of the street), but could not distinguish a letter or a word in a
book; but, by the aid of a magnifying-glass or powerful spectacles, he could read distinctly the
smallest print.
   4. Delirium; Phantasms.—The delirium was of the cheerful or wild sort, amounting in some
cases to actual frenzy.  In some of the patients it subsided into a kind of sleep attended  with
pleasant dreams, which provoked laughter.  The delirium was attended with phantasms;  and
in this  respect resembled  that caused by alcohol (delirium e potu);  but the mind did not run on
cats, rats, and mice, as in the case of drunkards.  Sometimes  the phantasms appeared to be in
tin' air, and various attempts were made to catch or chase them with the hands; at other times
they were supposed to be on the bed. One patient (a woman) fancied the sheets were covered
with cucumbers.  The production of phantasms by belladonna was known to Linnasus,2 who
calls this agent "a phantastic," (see ante, p. 237.)
   5. Convulsions;  Paralysis; Sopor or Coma.—In most of the  cases, the power of the will over
the muscles was so  far disordered, that the  muscular  movements were somewhat  irregular,
causing a kind of staggering or jerking; but actual convulsions were not general.  There was
sopor, which terminated in coma, with a weakened or paralytic condition of the muscles.
   The active principle  of belladonna  becomes  absorbed and is thrown out of the
urine, in which  secretion  both ltunge and Dr. Letheby have detected it (see vol. i.
p. 152, foot-note).
    In comparing the operation of belladonna  with that of other cerebro-spinals (see
vol. i. p. 235), the most remarkable symptoms which attract our  attention are the
dilatation of the pupils, with insensibility of the irides to light, disturbance  of vision
 (presbyopia), giddiness, staggering, the delirium (extravagant, pleasing, or  furious),
 with phantasms, followed by sopor, and  the remarkable affection of  the  mouth and
 throat (dryness of the  throat, difficulty of deglutition and of articulation).   Con-
 vulsions are rare, and, when they occur, are  slight.    Lethargy or sopor occurs sub-
 sequently to the delirium.  Local  irritation is not well marked.
    These characters distinguish the effects of belladonna  from  those of any other
 substance, except henbane, stramonium, and perhaps from some other solanaceous
 species (see ante, p. 237).
    When applied  to the eyebrow, belladonna  causes dilatation of the pupil, without
 necessarily affecting the other eye or disturbing vision.   Segalas3 thought  that ab-
 sorption or imbibition was essential to this effect; but the action on the iris depends,
 according to Miiller,4 not on the operation of the belladonna  on the central organs
of the nervous system,  but on its topical, paralyzing influence on the ciliary nerves
 (seo vol. i. p.  234).  When, however, belladonna is swallowed, it is obvious that the
irides can  become affected through  the general  system only, and in this case the
dilatation of the pupil  is accompanied "with disturbance of vision.5   The  pneumo-
gastric  nerve is obviously concerned in  producing the affection of the  mouth, and
the difficulty of deglutition and articulation.
    The disorder of the  intellect and of the  external  senses caused by  belladonna
proves that the influence of this agent is not limited to  the excito-motory system,
 1 Elements of Physiology, translated by Dr. Buly, vol. ii. pp. 1144 and 1153 1842
 ! "?'eT.ia Mediea.                                      a Lancet, 182(5-27, vol. xii. p  170.
 ' Physiology, vol. i. p. 630.
 • Fc
06i
d«
rieai
 
474               VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Solanace^e.

but is extended to those portions of  the  nervous centres which are the seat of the
intellect and of sensibility.   I have, therefore, classed it among  the phrenics (see
vol. i. p. 235) and anaesthetics (see ante, p. 238).
   Uses.—Belladonna has been employed to allay pain and nervous irritation (ere.
thismus nervosus, of some authors);  to diminish the sensibility of the retina to the
impression  of light;  to  produce dilatation of the  pupil;  to counteract that con-
dition of brain which is  accompanied with contraction of the pupil; and to lessen
rigidity and spasmodic contraction of muscular fibres.  These  uses obviously arise
out of the ascertained physiological effects of the remedy.   There are others, how-
ever,  which may be regarded as altogether empirical; such  as its employment  to
resolve or discuss scirrhous tumours.
   The indications and contraindications for  its use are not sufficiently established
to induce us to place  much confidence in  them.   My own experience leads me  to
believe  that it  is not a remedy fitted for  plethoric constitutions, or for febrile  or
acute inflammatory cases; and I am  not disposed  to admit the observations of Dr.
Graves, hereafter to  be mentioned, as offering any valid objections  to  these state-
ments.
   1.  To allay pain and nervous irritation.—As an anodyne in most internal pains,
no remedy hitherto proposed is equal to opium;  but  this agent totally fails us in
many of those external pains known as neuralgia, prosopalgia, or tic douloureux.
In such cases, belladonna occasionally succeeds in abating,  sometimes in completely
removing pain;  while it totally fails  to  give relief in the  internal pains for which
experience has found  opium  so efficacious.  It  is remarkable, therefore, that while
both  these cerebro-spinals (narcotics,  auctor.) agree in lessening pain, they totally
disagree as  to  the cases in which they succeed, and for which they are individually
applicable.   In the treatment of neuralgia, belladonna is employed both internally
and externally.  I believe that, to be successful, it requires, in many cases, to  be
persevered in until dryness of the throat, dilatation of pupil, and some disorder of
vision are produced.   Just as in many diseases for which  mercury has  been found
a most efficient remedy, it is  necessary to continue the use  of this mineral until the
mouth be affected,  and often even to  use it for some  time  afterwards.   Of the suc-
cess of  belladonna  in  the treatment of neuralgia, we have abundant evidence in the
published cases of  Mr. Bailey,1 and  of several other  practitioners.2  My own ex-
perience of the use of this remedy leads  me  to regard it  as very much inferior to
aconite  as a local remedy for this disease.
   Besides neuralgia,  there  are many other painful affections against which bella-
donna is used as a local anodyne.   Such are arthritic pains, painful ulcers, glandular
enlargements which are  tender to the touch, &c.  Dr.  Osborne3 says  that, given
internally, it causes an immediate cessation of the migratory or flying pains of rheu-
matism, without producing any effect on the fixed pains.
   2.  As an antispasmodic.—To relieve rigidity and spasmodic contraction of mus-
cular  fibres, belladonna sometimes  proves  serviceable as a topical remedy.  In
rigidity of  the os uteri,  during lingering labours or puerperal convulsions, the ex-
tract  or an ointment of belladonna (see unguentum belladonnse) has been applied to
tbe part by way of friction.   Though the practice has been lauded by Chaussier,
and adopted by Velpeau,5 Conquest,6 and others,  yet  it has not found much favour
with British practitioners.  It cannot be regarded  as a  substitute for, but only an
adjuvant to depletion; and  its use is not devoid  of  danger; for, not to insist on
the possibility of absorption, and  the consequent injurious effects therefrom, it is
obvious that the long-continued friction of the tender  womb, and the removal of the
lubricating  mucus,  may dispose to inflammation.  In spasmodic stricture of  the
urethra, and of the sphincters  of the bladder and rectum, and in spasmodic con-

  1 Observ. relat. to the  Use of Belladon. in painful Disord, of the  Head and Face, 1818.       1ft.n
  3 Bayle, Bibl. Thirap. t.  ii.                               l Lond. Med. Gaz. Feb. 21, W»»-
  * Consid. sur les Convuls. qui altaq. les Femmes enceint. 2d ed. 1824.
  « Traiti compl. des Accouchem.                             ' Outlines of Midwifery. 
Deadly Nightshade:—Uses.
475
trwtion of the uterus, the topical use of the extract (smeared on a bougie, applied
to the perineum or other parts, or employed by way of a clyster) has in some cases
appeared to give relief.1  In strangulated hernia, it has been employed to produce
relaxation of the abdominal muscles.3
   In a case of angina pectoris, unconnected with organic disease, the application of
a belladonna  plaster to the chest (before  the ulcerations  caused by tartar emetic
ointment had healed) produced  alarming signs of  poisoning; but when these had
subsided, all symptoms of the angina had totally disappeared.3
   Considerable relief has been gained in several cases of hooping-cough by the use
of belladonna.4  Its occasional efficacy depends in part, probably, on its  lessening
the necessity of respiration,5 as well also on its  power of obviating  spasm of the
bronchial tubes, and of decreasing the susceptibility of the bronchial membrane to
the influence of the exciting causes of the paroxysms.  But,  like all other vaunted
specifics for this peculiar disease, it frequently fails to give the least relief.
   3. In maladies of the eyes.—Belladonna is applied to the  eye for two purposes:
the first, and  the most common, is to dilate the pupil;  the other  is to diminish the
preternatural sensibility of the retina to the impression of light.   Dilatation of the
pupil is  sometimes produced, in certain diseases of  the eye, in order to enable  us
to examine  the condition of the  refractive  humours, and thereby to ascertain the
nature and extent  of  the malady;  as in cases of incipient cataract, which might
otherwise be occasionally confounded with  glaucoma  or amaurosis.   In  the opera-
tion of cataract by solution or absorption (keratonyxis), the full dilatation of the
pupil by belladonna is essential.6   In iritis,  dilatation of the pupil  is important,
in order  to prevent, or in  recent cases to rupture, adhesions of the uvea to the
capsule of  the crystalline  lens.    Some  surgeons  consider it an  objectionable
remedy during the  early stage of the disease.   In prolapsus iridis, benefit is, under
some circumstances, gained by the use of belladonna; as, where there is opacity of
the cornea covering the pupil, the dilatation of the aperture, so  as  to get its cir-
cumference beyond the opake spot,  is attended with  an improvement  of vision.
These are some of  the cases in which dilatation of the pupil by belladonna is ad-
visable.   It is usually effected by applying the extract (see extractum belladonnse)
to the parts around the eye, or to  the conjunctiva.   The  dilatation usually takes
place within a few minutes, and sometimes continues for twenty-four  hours.
   Belladonna is  sometimes employed in inflammatory and other affections of the
eye, to diminish the morbid sensibility of this organ to the influence of light.7
   4. As  a resolvent  or  d incut lent.—In enlargement  and  induration of  the lym-
phatic glands, in scirrhus and cancer (or diseases which have been supposed to  be
such), belladonna  has gained no slight repute from its  supposed resolvent or dis-
cutient properties.   That it may give relief  by its anodyne  powers we  can easily
understand, but that it has any real resolvent or discutient properties in the diseases
just enumerated, may be reasonably doubted, notwithstanding  the  favourable reports
of Gatakcr,8 Cullen,0 Blackett,10 and others.11   Bromfield151 and others  have reported
unfavourably of  it, and no one,  I think, now  places any reliance on it.
   5.  As a prophylactie  against  scarlatina.—The introduction of belladonna into
practice as a preventive of scarlet fever, is owing to the absurd homoeopathic axiom
of "similia simitibus curtmtur;" for, as this  plant gives rise to an affection of the
throat, and sometimes to a scarlet rash on the skin, its power of  guarding the sys-

  1 Brit, and For. Med. Rev. vol. ii. p. 261.
v<'l%iiinnp.<ur,il^0lller' 8"d PageS' qU°tCd by Bayle' BibL Th£r"p- *• iL and Brit- and For- Mtd- Re»-
  ' Ditvin, Lrct. on Diseases of the Lungs and Heart, p 496
t  ^S, e the observations of Schaefier and Wetzler, of Meglin, and of Raisin, quoted by Bayle, Bibl. Thir.
  » l/irnnrc, Treat, on Dis. of the Chest, bv Forbes, pp. 77 and 99
  • Lawrence, Led. in Lancet, for Sept. 9, 1826.
  ' l.iifrnnc. Rev. Med.  t. i. p. 17, lN><i; and t. ii. p. 3S4.
  t Observations on the Internal Use of Solanum, 1757.
 » ^.'n^i'li' »■„ ™,                        ,0 Eisay °» the Use of Atropa Belladonna 1826
   Mi Bayle, Bibl. Thtrap. t. ii.                 .. Account of the English ^ightshades"l7S7 
476
VEGETABLES.—Nat.  Ord. Solanace^e.
tern against the reception of scarlet fever has been assumed;  and  the assumption
has been endeavoured to be established by  an appeal to experience.  Bayle1  has
collected from various publications 2,027 cases of persons who took this medicine
and were exposed to the contagion; of these 1,948 escaped.  Oppenheim8 gave it
to 1,200 soldiers, and only twelve became affected.  To the authorities here referred
to may be added Hufeland3 and Koreff,4 who admit, from their own personal observ-
ations, the efficacy of the remedy, though  they have  not specified the number nf
cases  in which they have tried it.   But bearing in mind the well-known capricious-
ness evinced by scarlet fever (as indeed by other contagious disorders) in regard to
the subjects of its attacks, and the large number of those  who, though exposed to its
influence, escape, the best evidence hitherto adduced in  favour of the notion must
be admitted  to  be inconclusive.   While,  therefore, the facts brought forward in
favour of the existence of this prophylactic power are  only negative, those which
can be adduced against it are  positive.   For  I conceive  twenty cases of failure are
more conclusive  against  the opinion here  referred to, than one thousand of non-
occurrence are  in favour of it.   Now  Lehman,5 Barth,6 Wendt," Muhrbeck,8 Hoff-
mann,9 Bock,10 and many others that I could refer to, declare it has failed in their
hands to evince its prophylactic powers.  In this country we have no extended series
of observations to quote;  but the  cases which I am acquainted with are decidedly
against  the  efficacy  of the  remedy.    A remarkable  failure  is mentioned by  Dr.
Sigmond,11 of a  family of eleven  persons who took the supposed specific, yet every
individual contracted the disease.
   6.  In fever, with contraction of the  pupil.—Dr. Graves12 has recently proposed
the use of belladonna in those cases of fever with cerebral disease which are attended
with contraction of the pupil.   "It is  not unreasonable," he observes, "to suppose
that the state of the brain  which  accompanies dilatation of  the pupil is different
from  that which accompanies  contraction;  and if belladonna  has an effect  in pro-
ducing that cerebral  state which is attended  with  dilatation, it is not  going too far
to infer, that its administration may do much towards  counteracting the opposite
condition; neither is it unphysiological to conclude, that if a remedy be capable of
counteracting, or preventing, one very remarkable  effect of a certain morbid state of
the brain, it may also counteract other symptoms  connected with the same con-
dition."   This line of argument,  it must  be admitted, is ingenious and  plausible,
and is supported by reference to several apparently successful cases treated on the
principles here laid down.  But I would observe, if the above reasoning were valid,
opium should be serviceable in cerebral diseases attended with dilatation of pupil,
since  it causes contraction of this aperture.    Now this is in direct opposition to our
every-day experience of the uses of this important narcotic.
   7.  In other diseases.—Cruveilhier13  has found belladonna-smoking relieve some
cases  of phthisis.   The fresh leaves were infused in a  strong solution of opium, and
then  dried like tobacco;  the  patients  began by smoking two pipes a day, and the
quantity was gradually increased to six pipes.  Perhaps this practice would be bene-
ficial  in spasmodic asthma and old catarrhs.   In hydrophobia, notwithstanding the
asserted prophylactic powers of this medicine,14 there is no valid ground for believing
in its efficacy.  I tried it in  one case without success.  In epilepsy, mania, hysteria,
chorea, and some other maladies of the centro-spinal system,  occasional benefit has
resulted by  the use of belladonna.  In ileus,15 it has  been most successfully used
in the form of clyster, as a substitute for tobacco, which  is objectionable on account
of the horrible sickness and great depression which it  causes.
1 Bibl. Thirap. t. ii. p. 504.                      a Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xiii. p. 814.
* Lancet, May 2,1829.                           4 Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. iv. p. 297.
6 Bayle, Bibl. Thirap. t. ii. p. 417.                 • Ibid.
' Rust and Casper's Krit. Repert. Bd. xxii. S. 27.     a Rust's Magaz. Bd. xxiv. S. 495.
8 Ibid. Bd. xxv. S. 115.                          10 Ibid. S. 80.
11 Lancet, vol. ii. p. 78, 1836—7.                    " Dubl. Journ. of Med. Science, July 1,1-
13 Lancet, vol. i. p. 520, 1828—9.
14 See the authorities quoted by Bayle, Bibl. Thir. t ii.; and Ritcher. Ausf. Arzneim. Bd. ii.
15 Brit, and For. Med. Rev. vol. iv. p. 223. 
Extract of Belladonna.
477
  Administration.—The  dose of the powder for an  adult is one grain, which
should be gradually increased  until dryness of the throat, dilatation  of pupil, or
some head symptoms, are produced.  For children, the dose at the commencement
should be one-eighth of a grain.  For  internal as well as external  use the extract
or tineture is, however, commonly employed.  For external use an infusion of the
leaves is sometimes used as a fomentation, or is made  into a poultice with bread or
linseed meal.
  Antidotes.—Similar to  those for opium.  After the  use of evacuants the vege-
table acids have appeared to give great relief.  Decoction of nutgalls or  green tea
might probably prove serviceable.
  1. EXTRACTUM  BELLADOM,  L.  E.  [U. S.]; Succus  spissatus  Belladonnse, D.;
Extract of Belladonna.—(Fresh Belladonna Leaves Ibj.   Bruise them in  a  stone
mortar;  then  press out the  juice, and evaporate it, unstrained, to a proper consist-
ence, L.—The Edinburgh College directs the expressed juice to be filtered, and then
to be  evaporated, in the vapour-bath, to the  consistence of firm  extract, stirring
constantly towards the close.—The Dublin College takes of fresh Belladonna Leaves,
collected when the plant begins to flower, any convenient quantity.   Crush them in
a mortar, express  the  juice, and allow  it to stand for  twenty-four hours.   Pour off
the clear liquor, and set it aside for subsequent use;  and, having placed the  sedi-
ment in a calico filter, wash it with  an equal bulk of  distilled water, and mix the
washings with the decanted liquor.  When, by the application of a water heat, co-
agulation has  occurred, skim off the coagulated matter, filter the hot liquid through
flannel, mix in now the washed sediment,  and evaporate  to the consistence  of  a
firm extract, by a steam or water bath, constantly stirring, particularly towards the
close of the evaporation.)—1 cwt.  of fresh belladonna yields from 4  to 6 lbs.  of
extract.1  Dose, gr. j to gr.  v, cautiously increased.  As  the strength of the extract
is extremely variable,  some writers  recommend only one-quarter  or one-half  of  a
grain to be given at the commencement of its use, and to be repeated three times  a
day; and the dose to be increased  until the well-known effects of the remedy are
produced.   Mr. Bailey observes that he at first began with  one grain, and repeated
it every four hours until  relief followed; but further experience induced him to com-
mence with three times that quantity, and,  if a repetition were necessary, to give it
in diminished  doses afterwards.  Spread upon leather, the extract is frequently
used as a plaster to relieve neuralgic and other pains (see Emplastrum Belladonnas).
Diluted with water to the consistence of cream, it is applied to the eyebrow to pro-
duce dilatation of the pupil;  or an aqueous solution of  the extract is  dropped be-
tween the lids.  Mixed with  lard  or  spermaceti ointment, it is  used as a topical
anodyne and antispasmodic in various  diseases (see Unguentum Belladonnse).   A
bougie  smeared over with the extract and oil is sometimes used with benefit in stric-
ture.3  A drachm or two of the extract, either alone  or in the form of  ointment,
may be applied to the os uteri  to diminish  rigidity.   In irritation  of the bladder,
urinary organs, or rectum, clysters holding  in  solution the extract are sometimes
used.   Rubbed into  the  perineum or over  the track of the urethra, the  extract or
ointment is useful in preventing chordee, and alleviating spasm of  the  neck of the
bladder.
  [As  the fresh leaves of Belladonna are  with  difficulty procured in the United
States, as a substitute for the above extract, the Pharmacopoeia directs an  extract to
be made from the dried leaves by means of diluted alcohol.   The formula is, Bella-
donna, in coarse powder, ibj ; Diluted Alcohol Oiv.   Moisten first  with half a pint
of the fluid, and allow to stand for 24  hours.  Then transfer to a percolator and
displace, driving over the last quantity of fluid  with water.  Evaporate the solution
to the proper consistence.  This  constitutes the Extractum Belladonnse Alcoholi-
cum,  VS.   See a similarly prepared extract from Hyoscyamus.]

  1 Brande, Man. of Pharm. 3d edit. p. 101
2 Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. v. p. 735. 
478
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Solanaceje.
  2. EMPLASTRDI DELLADONN.E,  L. E. D. [U.S.]; Plaster of Bella donna. -~(FA.
tract  of  Belladonna [§j, £>.], Soap Plaster, of each, 5HJ  [Resin Plaster 3ij  J)
§iij, E.~\.  Add the extract to the  plaster, melted  by the heat of a water-bath  and
mix.)—[The U. S. P. directs of Resin Plaster siij ; Extract of Belladonna sis.O—
Anodyne and  antispasmodic.   Applied for the relief of neuralgic, rheumatic  and
other pains.   It  is said to relieve  the pain of dysmenorrhcea when  applied to the
sacrum.   In spreading it, care  must be taken not  to employ a very  hot spatula or
the properties of the extract will be injured.

  I UNGUENTUM BELLADONNA, L.  [U. S.]; Ointment of Belladonna.—(Extract of
Belladonna 3J; Spermaceti Lard 3j ;  [Lard 5J U. S.]  Mix.)—A very useful  pre-
paration ; and may be used as an anodyne and antispasmodic in some of the before-
mentioned cases.

  4. TINCTURA BELLADONNA, L. [U. S.]; Tinctura Foliorum Belladonnse, D.; Tine-
ture of Belladonna.—(Belladonna Leaves, dried, giv; Proof Spirit [Diluted Alcohol
 U.  S.~\ Oij.   Macerate for seven [fourteen, D.~\ days, and  strain.)—Dose, fr^sto
 ttlxI.   Mr. Blackett1 prepared a saturated tincture of belladonna by macerating, for
fourteen days, 3* of extract of belladonna in Ibj of proof spirit; then  straining.  The
dose of this is n\,ij or nyij,  gradually increased; in the form of lotion, a drachm of
it was added to eight ounces of  liquid.
  Succus Beliadoxn^;.—The Preserved Juice of Belladonna may be substituted for the tincture.
From 2 cwt. of belladonna leaves, gathered towards the end of June, 3G imperial quarts of juice
have been procured.

   §.  ATROPIA,  L.;  Atropina ;  Atropium;  Atropine.    Symbol At.   Formula   I
C^H^NO0.   Eq. Wt, 289.—Found in all parts of the plant.  Discovered in 1819
by  M. Brandes.   The  most improved processes for the preparation of this alkaloid   j
are those of Meina and Richter.3   The following is a sketch of  Mein's process as   I
modified by Liebig:—                                                           I
   Fresh dried and powdered belladonna root is to  be exhausted  by alcohol, sp. gr.   I
0.822.  To the  tincture  add slaked lime (in the proportion of one part  of lime
to 24 parts of dried  root).   Digest for 24 hours, frequently shaking.  Add, drop
by  drop, sulphuric acid to the filtered liquor till there is a  slight excess; then filter
again, and distil off rather more  than half  of the  spirit.    To the residue add some
water, and evaporate the remainder of the  alcohol as rapidly as possible, but  hy a
very gentle heat;  filter again, and  continue the evaporation until the liquid is re-
duced to the l-12th part of the weight of the root employed.  To the cold liquid
add, drop by  drop, a concentrated solution of carbonate of potash, to throw down a
dark grayish-brown precipitate, taking care not to render  the liquid alkaline.   In
a few hours filter again;  add carbonate of potash as long  as a precipitate (atropia)
is produced;  and in from 12 to 24 hours collect the crystallized atropia on a filter,
press it between folds of blotting-paper, and dry it.
   To purify the  dry but  impure atropia, make it into a paste with water, and again
squeeze between folds of blotting-paper; dry it, and dissolve in five times its weight
of  alcohol.  The filtered liquor is to be decolorized by shaking it with purified ani-   j
mal charcoal, then deprived of the greater part of its  alcohol  by distillation, and   I
afterwards evaporated by a gentle  heat, so as to allow the  atropia to crystallize; or   I
draw off half of  the spirit, add, gradually, water (3 or 4 parts), which renders the   |
liquid milky, heat to boiling, and  allow it to cool  slowly;  or add to the spirituous
solution 6 or 8 times its volume  of cold water, which renders the liquid milky, and   ■
in from 12 to  24 hours the atropia crystallizes, and is to be dried on blotting-paper.   1
   In  this process, the alcohol extracts from the belladonna root a  salt of atropia;   |
this is decomposed by the lime, which removes the organic acid  and colouring ex-
tractive matter.  Sulphuric acid is then added, to unite with the disengaged atropia;   |
1 L&nd. Med. Rep. vol. xix. p. 458.
2 Journ. de Pharm. t. xx. p. 87, 1634 ;  also Thomson's Chemistry of Organic Bodies, p. 273, 1531:.
3 Pharm. Central-Blatt fur 1S37, p. 613. 
Atropine.
479
for this alkaloid, when free, and especially when in  contact with  alkalies, readily
undergoes decomposition by heat.  The solution of sulphate of atropia must be
evaporated by a very gentle heat, because the atropia salts, especially in the impure
state, easily undergo  decomposition.   A small quantity of carbonate of potash  is
necessary, to separate a resinous substance which  impedes the crystallization of the
atropia.  An excess of a concentrated solution of carbonate of potash  is required
to precipitate, as speedily as possible, the atropia, as  by long contact with watery
fluids this alkaloid disappears.
  Messrs. Bouchardat and Cooper1 recommend the  following mode  of preparing
atropia:  The atropia  is to be precipitated by a watery solution of iodine  in iodide of
potassium, and the ioduretted hydriodate of atropia decomposed by zinc and water.
The  metallic oxide is separated  by means of carbonate of potash, and the  alkaloid
dissolved in alcohol.
  Atropia crystallizes from its  concentrated hot, watery, or spirituous  solution in
white, transparent, silky prisms; from  its solution in dilute spirit, in needles like
those of sulphate of quinia.  It is odourless, and  has a very bitter, acrid, somewhat
metallic taste.   Impure atropia is not crystalline, is more or less coloured,  and has
an unpleasant odour.   One part of atropia requires 200 parts of cold water, or 54
parts of hot water, to dissolve it.   It is soluble in 1£ times its weight of cold alco-
hol,  but requires, at  ordinary temperatures, 25 parts of  ether  to  dissolve it, or  6
parts of boiling ether.
  It reacts on vegetable colours as an alkali, fuses by heat, and at a higher tempera-
ture is partly volatilized and partly decomposed.   Nitric  acid  dissolves it, forming
a yellow solution.  Cold oil of  vitriol  dissolves  it without colour; but if heat be
applied, the mixture acquires a red colour.   When heated with a solution of potash
or soda, atropia undergoes decomposition, and gives out ammonia.
  White, has the shape  of prisms, is soluble in water and in spirit. No characters are at present
known by which its purity can be certainly indicated, L.
   Atropia possesses the property of left-handed circular polarization; but its rotating
power is feeble, though it is unaffected by the presence of acids.
 _ A watery solution  of a salt of atropia is reddened  by tincture of  iodine;  yields a
citron-yellow precipitate with a chloride of gold; a  whitish, flocculent precipitate
with tincture of nutgalls;  and  a yellowish-white with chloride of platinum.   The
sulphate, hydrochlorate, and acetate of atropia are crystalline salts.
   Atropia is a most  energetic poison.   Its effects are  similar to, but more powerful
than those of  belladonna.  Dogs are readily poisoned by it;  but rabbits  are less
under its influence.   A very minute (imponderable) quantity applied to the eye  is
sufficient to dilate the pupil.   Given  to dogs it  excites vomiting, dilatation of the
pupil, and stupor.  On man, the effect is much stronger.  One centigramme (about
1-Gth of a  grain) produces the  following symptoms: At first, acceleration of the
pulse  by eight to twenty strokes; after from fifteen  to thirty minutes,  an  affection
of the brain is produced.  The  first and most constant symptom  is dry throat  with
difficulty of swallowing.   The second is dilatation of pupils, with dimness of si^ht
also giddiness, noise in the  ears, hallucination, delirium, and occasionally stran^u°ry-
numbness of the limbs, a sensation of formication  in the arms, rigidity of the thighs
depression of the pulse.  The voice is sometimes weakened; or there may be complete
aphonia.   The unfavourable symptoms disappear after from twelve to twenty hours
  Atropia has recently been employed  medicinally (chiefly as an external agent) as
a substitute for belladonna, to which it is considered superior, on account chiefly of
the uncertainty of the latter.  It is of course much more energetic, and, for  external
use especially, is much cleaner  than the extract.   As a topical  agent,  it has been
employ las a  mydriatic (see vol. i. p. 245) or dilator of the  pupil, by Reisinger,
Mr  W  \\. Cooper,' and Dr. Brookes,' in cataract,  &c.  The last-mentioned writer
states that, m a case of glaucoma, he succeeded in causing dilatation of the pupil

  ' Annuaire de Th/raprutique pour 1619.                              < T
  ' Ibid. Januury 30, lsl7.                                            Lancet, June 8, Isll. 
 480               VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Solanaceje.

 with an ointment of atropia when belladonna failed.   As an amosthetic or anodyne
 (see vol. i. p. 238), he used the same preparation with success in a painful affection
 of the face (neuralgia?).—The local pain which atropia produces when used ender-
 mically (see vol. i. p. 174) is of very short duration, and is unattended with any ill
 consequences.   Internally, atropia has been employed in hooping-cough, chorea  and
 some other nervous diseases.
   The dose of atropia for internal use is from about l-30th  to l-6th of a grain
 Its employment requires  great caution.  The  safest  mode of administration is in
 solution, on  account of the facility with which the dose may be adjusted; but it has
 also been given, mixed with sugar, in the  form  of powder;  and, mixed with  the
 powder of marsbmallow root and honey, in the form of pills.   It may be employed
 endermically (see vol. i. p. 174) in doses  of about the -g^th of a  grain gradually in-
 creased to j^th of a grain.   For a collyrium, to dilate the pupil, one grain may be
 dissolved in 400 grs. of water; and a few drops of the solution applied to the eye.
   1.  Tinctura Atropise ; Tincture of Atropine.—Dissolve one  grain of atropia in
 one fluidrachm of rectified spirit, and then add seven fluidrachms of distilled water.
 Dose, from fifteen minims  gradually and cautiously increased to eighty minims.  One
 drop of this solution, applied to the eye night  and morning, was used by Mr.  W.
 W. Cooper to  keep up dilatation of the pupil.
   2.  Solutio Atropise Hydrochloratis; Solution of Muriate of Atropine.—Dissolve
 one grain of atropia in a fluidrachm of water acidulated with one minim of hydro-
 chloric acid; then  add seven  fluidrachms of water.   Dose, from fifteen to eighty
 minims.
   3.  Unguentum Atropise; Ointment of Atropine.—Atropia,  five grains; lard,
 three drachms; attar of roses  one drop.  Mix.—The size of  a  pea, to be applied
 three times a day.   Used by Dr. Brookes, with great  success, in a  painful  affection
 of the face, and to  dilate the pupil.
   6. ATROPLE  SULPHAS, L.;  Sulphate of Atropia.—(Dilute Sulphuric Acid fjijj
 Atropia 9vijss, or as much as may be sufficient; Distilled Water f^ss.  Add gradu-
 ally to saturation the atropia to the acid mixed with  the water.  Let the liquor be
 strained, and evaporate it  by a gentle heat that crystals may be  formed, L.)—The
 College observes that this salt  is intended for  external use only.   It is employed
 in the form of solution, prepared by dissolving one or two grains in a fluidounce of
 water, to produce dilatation of  the pupil.

 173.  DATURA  STRAMONIUM—COMMON THORN-APPLE.
                           Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Monogynia.
                   (Folium et Semen, L. [U.S.]—Herb, E__The seed, D.)

   History.—This plant,  being a native of  Greece, must have been known to the
 ancient Greek botanists;  though it is impossible now  to identify it, with certainty,
 with any of the plants described by them.   It  appears, however, to agree tolerably
 well with the stpvzv°s p.avlx6s of Theophrastus.1  Datura Stramonium is mentioned
 by Fuchsius in 1542.
   Botany.  Gen. Char.— Calyx tubular, frequently  angular, 5-cleft at the apex,
 or longitudinally slit, falling off by a circular horizontal incision above the peltate
 base.   Corolla hypogynous, funnel-shaped, with a large, spreading, plaited 5—10-
 toothed limb.  Stamens 5, inserted into the  tube of tbe corolla, inclosed or some-
 what exserted; anthers debiscing longitudinally.   Ovary incompletely 4-celled, the
 alternate dissepiment being  lost  above the  middle, the other one complete;  the
 middle  on  both sides placentiferous.   Style  simple;  stigma bilamellate.   Capsule
ovate or sub-globose, muricate or aculeate, rarely smooth, half 4-celled, incompletely
4-valved at the septa.   Seeds numerous, reniform.  Embryo within fleshy albumen,
subperipherical, arched (Endlicher).
1 Hist. Plant, lib. ix. cap. 12. 
Common Thornapple:—Description;  Composition.          481
   Sp. Char.—Annual.   Leaves ovate, angulate-dentate, wedge-shaped at the  base,
rather smooth.   Fruit ovate, erect, densely spinous.   Calyx  equal to the  diameter
of the limb of the corolla (Nees).
   A  bushy, smooth,  fetid herb.   Stem much  branched,  forked, spreading, leafy.
Leaves from the forks of the stem, large, unequal at the base, variously and acutely
sinuated and toothed, simple  ribbed,  veiny, of  a dull green.  Flowers  axillary,
erect, white, sweet-scented, especially at night, about 3  inches long.   Fruit as  big
as a walnut, in its outer coat very prickly.   Seeds black (Smith).
   Hab.—Indigenous; in waste ground and on  dunghills.   Annual.   Flowers  in
July.
  Several other species of Datura are used in the East.
  Datuiia peiiox, Linn.—Annual.  Leaves ovate, angulate-dentate, cuneiform  at the base, glau-
cous.  Fruit ovate, erect, pyramidate spinous.   Calyx  longer than the diameter of the limb of
the corolla (Nees).—Nepal.  In 1802, General Gent introduced this species into this country as
a remedy for asthma.   It was employed by smoking it.1  Waitz2 says that half an upright cap-
Bule acted violently on a girl.
  Datuiia  Fastuosa, Mill.—Annual.  Leaves ovate, acuminate, repandly-toothed, unequal at
the base, and are, as well as the stem, somewhat downy. Fruit nodding, tuberculated (Nees).—
East Indies.  In 1811, Dr. Christie3 directed attention to this species.  Mr. Skipton4 administered
the defection of the root of this plant; and Dr. Adams6  used a tincture  (prepared as tincture of
digitalis, Ph. L).
  Datuiia Tatcla, Linn.—Annual.  Leaves  cordate-ovate,  angulate dentate, unequal at  the
base, smooth.   Fruit ovate, erect, spinous (Nees).—Schubarth6 gave half a pound of the bruised
leaves of this species to a horse without ellect;  twenty-one ounces of the half-ripe fruit caused
dejection, increased secretion, and loss of appetite. Cigars for the use of asthmatics are made of
this species.
   Datura alba, Rumph.; D. Metel, Roxb.—Annual.  Leaves ovate, acuminate, repandly-den-
tate, unequal at the base, rather smooth.   Fruit  nodding, spinous.—East Indies.  Both this and
the preceding species  have been employed, especially in the East, to cause intoxication for
criminal  and licentious  purposes.7
   Description.—The herb (herba stramonii) should  be collected when the plant
is in flower.   The leaves (folia stramonii) are then to be carefully  dried.   In the
fresh state their odour, when bruised, is unpleasant and narcotic; their taste nause-
ous and bitter.  By drying, the odour  is  lost,  but the  bitter  taste  remains.   The
seeds (semina stramonii) are  small,  compressed, kidney-shaped, roughish, dark-
brown or blackish,  dull, and odourless;  they have a bitter,  nauseous, somewhat
acrid taste.
    Composition.—The herb was analyzed, in  1815,  by Promnitz;8  the  seeds  in
1820, by Brandes."
            Promnitz's Analysis.
Resin  ......................   0.12
Kxtnietive [containing the duturia].....   O.G0
Gummy extractive...............   0.5S
Green fecula  ..................   0 64
Alltuinen  ....................   0.15
Pliospimtic and  vegetable salts of lime and
  magnesia...................   0 23
Water  .....................91.25
Woody fibre...................   5.15
Loss.......................   1.2S
Fresh herb of stramonium......100.00
             Brandes's Analysis.
Malate of daturia with some uncrystallizable
  sugar......................  1.80
Fixed oil with some chlorophylle.......16.05
Wax.......................  1.40
Resin insoluble in ether............  9.90
Extractive  ...................  0 60
Gummy extractive...............  6.00
Gum and bassorin with some suits......11.30
Albumen and phytocolla............  6.45
Glutenoin....................  5.50
Malates of daturia, potash, and lime, and ace-
  tate of potash.................  0 60
Woody fibre...................23 35
Water...................... 15.10
Loss.......................  1.95

      Seeds of stramonium.........100.00
  1. Datiim a (Datttrina, or Daturium)—Formula, C31H23N06.  A vegetable alkali said to exist
in stramonium.  The properties assigned to it by Geiger and Hesse10 are the following: It crys-
■  Ed. M.d. and Surg. Journ. vol. viii. p. "USS.    » Wibmer, Wirk. d. Arzn. u. Gifte, Bd. ii. S. 286.
1  Erf Mud. and Surg. Journ. vol. vii p. I5s.     « Trans. Med. and Phys. toe. Calcutta, vol. i. p. 121.
*  Ibid. p. 370.                               • Wibmer, op. cit. p. 300.
'  Lond. Med. and Phys. Journ. vol. xxv. pp. 383—4 ; and vol. xxvi. p. 22.
'  (.melin's Handb d Chem. Kd. ii S 1305.      » Ibid.
  — ---...*«. -..« M ..y~. ..«—.... .w.. « —.. . ,.t.. «w  ■ , «..«
• (Hiirlin'i Handb. d. Chem. Bd. ii  S  1305.      • Ibid.
w Pharm. Central-Blatt fUr 1835. p. 85

      VOL. II.—31 
482
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Solanace.e.
tallizes in colourless, odourless, brilliant prisms, which have at  first a bitterish, then a tobacco-
like flavour.   It requires 280 parts of cold, or 72 parts of boiling water to dissolve it; it is very
soluble in alcohol, less so  in ether.  In most of its properties  it agrees with hyoscyamia.  Ii
strongly dilates the pupil, and has a poisonous action on animals. Dr. Avon Planta1 has recently
submitted atropia and daturia to  comparative examination, and declares that they are identical
in composition and chemical properties.
  2. EmptbeumaticOil of Stramonium (Pyrodaturia?).—Resembles tar and the aqueous fluid
which distils along with its acid.  This arises from the woody part of the  plant having been
employed.  The oil  itself does not differ, in its physical and chemical properties, from the em-
pyreumatic oil of foxglove before (see ante, p. 457) described.2
   Physiological  Effects,  a.  On Vegetables.—A  branch  of  stramonium was
killed  by immersing it  in a watery solution of the extract of its own species.1
   (3.  On Animals generally.—Its influence  on herbivorous animals is much less
than that  on man.   Five ounces of the  expressed juice given  to the horse, cause
merely slight drowsiness and  gaping.4   Two pounds and a half of the seeds killed
a horse in fifty-two  hours.5   From  Orfila's  experiments  with it  on dogs,0 it does
not appear to  act  powerfully as  a local  irritant.   Its  eflects were very similar to
those caused by belladonna.
   y.  On Man.—The symptoms produced on man closely resemble those of bella-
donna. In small but gradually increased doses, it diminishes sensibility, and thereby
frequently  alleviates pain.   It does not  usually affect  the pulse;  it  slightly and   I
temporarily affects the pupil, and has no  tendency to cause constipation, but rather   I
relaxation.  Though it allays pain, it does  not usually produce sleep.   In lanjer   I
doses,  it causes thirst,  dryness of the  throat, nausea, giddiness, nervous  agitation,
dilatation of the  pupil, obscurity  of vision, headache,  disturbance of  the cerebral
functions, perspiration, occasional  relaxation of bowels, and in some cases diuresis.
It has no direct tendency to induce  sleep, and hence it cannot be called soporific.
But indirectly, by alleviating pain, and thereby producing  serenity and ease, it often
disposes to  sleep.   In fatal doses, the  leading symptoms are flushed  countenance,
delirium  (usually maniacal), dilatation  of the  pupil, dryness of the throat, loss of
voice, difficulty of deglutition, convulsions, and, in  some  cases, palsy.  A very in-
teresting  fatal  case of poisoning  by  100 seeds  is related by Mr. Duffin.7  The
patient (his own  child) was  two years and a quarter old.   In  addition to the pre-
ceding symptoms, there were a hot, perspiring  skin, flushed, slightly  swollen face,
pulse  almost imperceptible, but, as far as could be felt, it was  natural  in regard to   ,
frequency, and coldness of the  inferior  extremities.   Tbe anterior fontanelle wa;
neither tense, hot, nor in the slightest degree raised by the cerebral pulsations;  &<
that  there  did not  seem to be  any active determination of blood to the brain.
During the continuance of  the coma  the  pulse became  extremely rapid.   Death
occurred twenty-four hours after swallowing the seeds.
   Yogt8 says stramonium is probably distinguished from  belladonna by the follow-
ing peculiarities:—
   1. Its effects are  more  similar  to those of acrid vegetables, especially of Helleborus.
   2. It operates more strongly, but more in the manner of the acrid substances, on  the nervous
       system, especially on the central organs, viz., the ganglia, spinal cord, and brain.
   3. Its secondary effects on the irritable system  are not so marked; for most observers hav«
       failed to  detect any alteration of pulse, and a slow pulse is more frequently mentioned
       than a quick one.
   4. It operates on  the organic  life more strongly.  It more strongly and directly promoter ».'   _
       the secretions, especially the secretion of the skin.
   5. Marcet9 and Begbie10 have inferred, from numerous observations, that it possesses an ano-  ■
       dyne property, which it frequently evinces where opium and belladonna fail.
   Uses.—A  more  extended experience of this  plant is requisite to enable us to  |
 speak with much confidence of its employment.   The  similarity  of its effects witn

  1 Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. x. p. 5fil.   3 Morries, Ed. Med. and  Surg. Journ. vol. xxxix. p- 370-   I
   » Macaire, quoted by De Candolle, Phys. Yig. p.  1354.            4 Moiroud. Pharm.  Vit. p. 350.    ?
  5 Viborg, in Wibmer's Wirk. d. Arzneim. u. Gifte, Bd. ii. S.292.   • Toxicol. Gin.
  * LondiMed. Gaz.  vol. xv. p. 194.         * Pharmakodyn. Bd. i. S. 164.
  9 Med.-Chir. Trans, vols. vii. and viii.     ,0 Trans, of the Med. Soc. Edinb. vol. i. 
Common Thornapple :—Administration.               483
those of belladonna would lead us to expect a similarity of uses.  Like the last-
mentioned  plant, it  has  been successfully employed to diminish sensibility, and
thereby to relieve external pain.   Some of the other uses made of it require a more
impartial examination ere we can form any just estimate of their value.   The indi-
cations and  contraindications for its  employment are probably similar to those of
belladonna.   In persons disposed to apoplexy it is a very dangerous remedy.
  In ncur/agia (tic douloureux, sciatica, &c), it has been employed with consider-
able success by Lentin,1 Marcet,8 and Begbie.3   It was given internally in the form
of extract.  Its external  application has  scarcely been tried.   In rheumatism, it
has frequently proved serviceable from its anodyne qualities.4   In enterodynia (that
is, spasmodic pain of the bowels unconnected with inflammatory action or the pres-
ence of irritating substances), Dr. Elliotson5 found it most  successful.
  In some cases of spasmodic asthma, smoking the herb has given at least tempo-
rary relief;0 but the practice requires very great  caution, as  it  has proved highly
injurious, and in some instances fatal.  Dr. Bree7 tried it in 82 asthmatic cases; in
58  of these  it had no permanent effect, and in the remaining 24 it acted injuriously.
General Gent, who was instrumental in introducing the  practice, fell a victim to it.8
Aggravation of the dyspnoea, paralytic tremblings, epilepsy,  headache, and apoplexy,
are some of the evils said to have been induced in the cases above referred to.   In
persons disposed to head affections, and in aged  persons, it  is,  therefore, a highly
dangerous practice.
  The diseases  in which  stramonium has been  principally used are  mania and
epihpsy.  Bayle9 has collected from  the works of Storck, Schemalz, Razous,  Beef,
Meyer, Odhelius, Duronde,  Maret,  Bergius, Greding, Schneider, Bernard, and
Amelung, fifty-five cases of the first,  and forty-five of the latter  malady, treated by
stramonium; in both diseases, a considerable majority of cases are said  to have been
either cured or relieved by it.  Without denying  the occasional benefit of stramo-
nium in these diseases, I believe the cases  in which it is  serviceable to be  very rare,
while those in which it  is calculated to be injurious are very common.   Dr. Cullen10
observes, that he has no doubt that narcotics may be a  remedy for certain cases of
mania and epilepsy ; but he very justly adds, " I have not,  and I doubt if any other
person  has learned  to distinguish the cases to which such remedies  are  properly
adapted."
   Stramonium has  been used to dilate the pupil and to diminish the  sensibility of
the retina  to the influence of  light;  but for both of these  purposes belladonna is
preferred by British oculists.  Wendt" used it to lessen venereal  excitement,  as in
nymphomania.   An ointment (made with 3J  of  the powdered  leaves, and £iv of
lard) h:is been used as an anodyne  application to irritable ideers and to painful
hemorrhoids.   The  application of the leaves to burns has  been  attended with dan-
gerous results.13
   AD.ministration.—The dose of the powdered leaves is  one grain; of the seeds
half a grain.  These doses are to be repeated twice or thrice a day, and to be gradu-
ally increased until  some obvious effect is produced.

  1. EXTRACT! II  STRAMONII, L. E.; Extract of Thornapple [Extractum  Stramonii
Seminis, IT. S.].—(ThornappleSeeds %xv; Boiling Distilled Water Cong. j. Mace-
rate for four hours in a vessel slightly covered, near the fire ; afterwards take out the
seeds, and bruise  them in a stone mortar; return them, when  bruised, to the liquor.
Then  boil down to four pints, and strain the liquor while hot.  Lastly, evaporate to
a proper consistence, L.   The directions of  the Edinburgh College are as follows:

  ;  Itayle, Bibl.Thir.l. "•_.....                » Med.-Chir. Trans, vols. vii. und viii.
  ' Trans. Med.-Ch.tr. Soc. of Edinb. vol. l.
  * S'!J.tJ}e rt'P°rt» '"' Kuckhoir, Kngelliart, Van-Nuffal, and Amelung, in Bayle, op. cit.; also Eberle,
  » Lanert, 1S26—7, vol. xii.;  and 1837—8, vol. ii.
  ■ English, in Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journ. vol. vii.; and Dr. Sims, Ibid. vol. viii.
  ' Loud. Med. and Phys. Journ. vol. xxvi. p. 51.           • Ibid vol  xxvi p 49
  • Bibl. Thirap. t. ii.                               » Mat Mtd
 " Rubt'u Magaz. Bd. xxiv. S. 302.                    » Journ. de  Chim. Mid. 
484
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Solanaceje.
Take of the seeds of stramonium, any convenient quantity; grind  them well in a
coffee-mill.  Rub the powder into a thick mass with proof spirit;  put the pulp into a
percolator, and transmit proof spirit till it passes colourless; distil off the spirit, and
evaporate what remains in the vapour-bath  to a proper consistence.)—Of the above
modes of preparation, that of the Edinburgh College is doubtless the host, as yielding
a more efficient preparation.  [The U. S. Pharm. directs Stramonium Seed, in powder
rfe.j; Diluted Alcohol q. s.    Displace  with the alcohol, and evaporate to the
proper consistence.]  The product, according to  the London and Dublin process, is
about 12  per cent.1  Recluz2 states, that 16  oz. of the seeds yield 2  oz. 2 dr. bv
maceration in dilute  alcohol;  this  is about 14  per cent.  The dose of extract  of
stramonium, at the commencement,  is about a quarter of  a grain, which should be
gradually increased until  some obvious effect is produced.

  [2. EXTRACTM STRAMONII  FOLIORUM, U. S.j Extract of Stramonium Learn.-
(Take of  Stramonium Leaves a pound.  Bruise  them in a stone mortar, sprinkling
on them a little water; then express the juice, and, having heated it to the boiling
point, strain and evaporate to the proper consistence.)—This affords a fine green ex-
tract, endowed with the odour and properties of the plant.  The dose  is from gr. i
to grs.  v.]
  3. TINCTURA STRAMONII,  D. [U.  S.]— Tincture of Thornapple.—(Stramonium
Seeds, bruised, Jjv [gii, U. S.]; Proof Spirit Oij.  Macerate for fourteen days, and
filter through  paper.)—Dose, n^x to  ttlxx twice or thrice a day, gradually increased
until it occasions some obvious effect on the system.  This preparation  is applicable
to all the cases for which  stramonium  is used.
  [4. UNGUENTUM STRAMONII,  U.  S.;  Ointment of Stramonium.—(Take of fresh
Stramonium Leaves, cut into  pieces, a pound;  Lard  three  pounds; Yellow Wax
half a pound.   Boil  the  stramonium  leaves in the lard until they  become friable;
then strain through  linen;  lastly, add the wax, previously melted, and stir them
until they are cold.)—This ointment is used for the same  purposes as the belladonna
ointment.]
  Antidotes.—The same as for belladonna.


   174.  NICOTIANA  TABACUM.—VIRGINIAN TOBACCO.
                          Sex. Syst.  Pentandria, Monogynia.
                             (Folium,  L.—Leaves, E. D.)

  History.—The inhalation of  the  fumes of  burning vegetable  substances, both
for causing inebriation and for medicinal purposes, seems to have  been very anciently
practised.  Herodotus3 tells us that  the  Babylonians and  Scythians intoxicated
themselves by this means; and both  Dioscorides4 and Pliny5 speak of the  efficacy
of smoking Tussilago in obstinate cough.
  Humboldt6 says that the tobacco  plant has been cultivated, from time immemo-
rial, by the natives of Oronoko.  It does not appear, however, to have been known
to Europeans prior to the discovery of America; though it is not  improbable that
the Asiatics were acquainted with it  long  before that time,  as  Pallas, Rumphius,
and Loureiro have supposed.   But it  is not probable, I think, that the Europeans
learned the use of it from the Asiatics, as Ulloa has endeavoured to show.
  When  Columbus and his followers arrived at Cuba, in 1492, they, for the first
time, beheld  the custom of smoking cigars.7  Hernandez de  Toledo introduced the
plant into Spain and  Portugal;  and, from the  latter  place, Joan  Nicot sent the

  1 Barker, Observ. on the Dublin Pharm.                   a United States Dispensatory.
  3 Lib. i. Clio, ccii.; lib. iv. Melpomene, lxxiv. and lxxv.     4 Lib. ii. cap. 126.
  5 Hist. Nat. lib. xxvi. cap. 16, ed. Valp.                 « Personal Narrative, vol. v. P-668-
  ' W. Irving, Hist, of the Life and Voyages of Columbus, vol. i. p 2?7; also the Narrative of Don rer-
nando Colon, son-in-law o( Columbus. Hist. del. Amir. cap. 27, in Bareia, Hist. prim, de las lndtat oeeta.
vol. i. p. 24. 
Virginian Tobacco:—Botany;  Species.
485
 seeds or the plant to France, about 1559—60.1  In 1586, on the return of Sir Fran-
 cis Drake, with the colonists, from Virginia, the practice of smoking was introduced
 into  England;  and, being adopted by Sir Walter  Raleigh and other courtiers, soon
 became common.3
   Various  attempts, by writings, imposts, or bodily  punishments, were made in
 Europe to restrict or put down its use.3  It is said that upwards of a hundred vo-
 lumes4 were written to condemn its employment;  and not the least curious of these
 is the  celebrated Counterblast  to Tobacco of James I.s  Despite, and partly, per-
 haps, as a consequence of these attempts, the use of tobacco rapidly spread,  and ia
 now  universal throughout the world.8
   The generic appellation  Nicotiana is obviously derived from Nicot, the  name of
 an individual  above referred to.   The  origin of the specific name Tabacum  is less
 satisfactorily ascertained.   It is probable, however,  that  the word  is derived from
 (abac,  an instrument used by the natives of America in smoking this herb; though
 some derive it from Tobago,  others from Tabasco, a  town in New Spain.
   Botany.  Gen. Char.— Calyx tubular-campanulate, half 5-cleft.   Corolla hypo-
 gynous, funnel-shaped or hypocrateriform ; limb  plaited, 5-lobed.   Stamens 5, in-
 serted  on the  tube of  the corolla, inclosed,  of  equal length;  anthers dehiscing
 longitudinally.    Ovary  bilocular; placentae adnate to the dorsal dissepiment; ovules
 numerous; style simple; stigma capitate.   Capsule covered  by the persistent  calyx,
 bilocular, septicidal-bivalved  at the apex;  the valves ultimately bifid, retaining the
 separated  placenta.   Seeds many,  small; the embryo slightly arched, in  the axis
 of fleshy albumen (Endlicher).
   Sp. Char.—Stem herbaceous.   Leaves sessile (the lower ones decurrent), oblong-
. lanceolate, acuminate.    Throat  of the  corolla inflated-ventricose; the segments of
 the limb acuminate (Xees).
   A viscid herb.   Root  branching, fibrous.  Stem 3 to 6 feet high, erect, round,
 hairy, branching  at the top.   Leaves very large,  pale  green, with glandular short
 hairs.  Bracts linear, acute.   Flowers panicled on  the end of the stem and  branches.
 Ca/i/x  hairy.   Corolla  rose-coloured.   Ovarium  ovate;  style long and slender;
 stigma capitate, cloven.   Capsule 2-celled, opening crosswise at the top, loculicidal.
 S-eds numerous, small,  somewhat reniform, brown.
   Hab.—America.   Extensively cultivated in most  parts of the  world, especially
 in the United States of America.  Virginia is  the most celebrated for its culture.
 North  of Maryland the  plant is rarely seen.''  In England, the cultivation is re-
 stricted ; not more than  half a pole being allowed " in a physic or university garden,
 or in any private garden for physic  or chirurgery."8
   This  is the only species employed in medicine;  but the tobacco used for smoking, chewing,
 and snuff, is derived from several species, the most important of which are the following:—
   I. N. 1 abacum, Linn.; Common or Virginian Tobacco.—Of this species several varieties are
cultivated.*  The Virginian and most other sorts of tobacco imported from the United States of
America, as also Colombian tobacco, are obtained from it.
   2. N. tATissi,ma, Miller; JV. macrophylla, Sprengel;  Large-leaved or Oronoko Tobacco—This
spec.es is very closely allied to, if indeed it be not a variety of, the preceding species."  Nees11
describes the leaves as being more erect or horizontal than those of N. Tabpcum, which droop
somewhat, and are thicker and  more strongly ribbed.  Moreover, the lateral nerves of the mid-
  • K5 o".£:^ Dictionary, vol iv/p^ST'*' ^ ^ T" P' *"' "d C'USiUS' **'"*' » ™-

«; AtMcc»,S'ss;-«r^ sy„r,z z:ee°Q:r^1797; md-and ph»-j™- -»• «*■ >■
  • Works, p. 211, fol. 1616.           « Asia't. Journ. vol. xxii.
   V,"<'<>S<al" Dispensatory        » Loudon's Encyclopedia of Agriculture.
JSi'Jl!.™*,(,B'"an- Z"lune> 1807> m»k« e'.?!>t varieties, which he respective^ calls attenuatum, macro-
phyllumpalhscens alipes serottnum, gracilipes, Verdon, and Lingua; but it is doubtful whethcrTr no
some „f these are identical with plants which by others have been described a" distinctsnedes
thJwUUTtH,.rari£',M l,i'rer "' the de*;ee °^,he thick»CS8 <"" the ribTof thi sizeSmoothness of
the leaf, ami in the absence or  presence of a petiole (TV.  Tabacum var vetiolata is fi "iTreri ir7v^vL>
Naturgesek. d. rorzugl. Handelspflanzen, Bd. ii. Taf. xxxix  1832)     Pet,olata ls ngured in Zenker's
  ^'-io»»»«*. HBK., is probably  n variety of N. Tabacum.
m^^^Sy^gl^ti. p. 6.6* diSUnCt BpCCieS' hnB •■■«q»««ly (in 1825) declared it to be
 " Geiger's Handb. d. Pharm. 2te Aufl. 1839. 
486
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Solanace^.
rib of N. latissima proceed, he says, at right angles; whereas those of N. Tabacum are given
off at an acute angle.1 Furthermore, the flowers of N. latissima form a dense contracted panicle-
whereas those of N. Tabacum form a loose spreading one.
   This species, like  the preceding, has varieties, with broader or smaller, shorter or  lon"er
sessile or stalked leaves.   To the latter variety probably belong N. fruticosa, Linn., and N."rhi.
nensis, Fischer.
   According to Mr. G. Don,2 this species probably yields the large Havana cigars.
   3. N. hustica, Linn.; Common Green Tobacco.—Stem herbaceous, terete.  Leaves petiolate,
ovate, quite entire.   Tube of the corolla cylindrical, longer than the calyx; segments of the
limb roundish obtuse.—Corolla greenish-yellow.—Indigenous in America; grows wild in  Kit-
rope, Asia, and Africa.  It grows quicker, ripens earlier, and is more hardy than N. Tabacum'
and hence  it is frequently  cultivated in gardens in England, and in  several other parts of the
world.  It  is used  by peasants  as a substitute for the Virginian sort, and  by gardeners for the
destruction of insects. Nees says that, in smoking, it may be readily distinguished by a peculiar
violet odour.  Parkinson3  says  that, though it is a milder tobacco,4 yet he has  known .Sir. W.
Raleigh, when  prisoner in the  tower,  prefer it to make good tobacco.—It yields the tobacco of
Salonica (the ancient Thessalonica), and probably also that of Latakkia (Laodicea), which is so
much esteemed.  The tobacco called Turkish, grown on the  coasts of the Mediterranean, and
highly valued in India, is  the produce of this species.
   4. N. persica, Lindl., Bot. Reg. 1592.—Native  of  Persia.  Yields  the  celebrated Sliiraz or
Persian tobacco.5
   5. N.  repanda, Willd.—Native of Cuba,  near  Havana.   The  small Havana cigars, or
Queen's, are said to be made of this species.
   6. N. 4Uat)RIVai.vis, Parsh.—Cultivated and spontaneous on the Missouri; principally among
the Mandan and Ricara nations.—The tobacco prepared from it is excellent.  The most deli-
cate is prepared by the Indians from the dried flowers.
   7. N. nana,  Lindl., Bot. Reg. t. 833.—Rocky mountains of North America.  The Indians are
said to prepare the finest of their tobacco from the leaves of this species.
   8. N. multivalvis, Lindl., Bot. Reg. t. 1057.—Cultivated by the Indians who  inhabit the
banks of the Columbia for tobacco, for which purpose the calyx, which is very fetid, is selected
in preference to any  other part.
   Culture.—In  Virginia and Maryland, the  seeds  are thickly sown in beds of
finely-prepared earth.   When the  young plants have five or six leaves, exclusive of
the seminal leaves, they are transplanted into fields during the month of May, and
set three or four feet apart, in rows.   During the whole period of growth the crop
requires constant attention; and to promote the development of leaves, the tops are
pinched off, by which the  formation of flowers and seeds  is prevented.   The harvest
is in August.  The ripe  plants are cut off  above  their roots, dried  under  cover,
stripped of their leaves, tied in bundles, packed in  hogsheads, &c.6
   Description.—In commerce, two states of tobacco are distinguished—in the  one
it is called unmanufactured or leaf tobacco, in the other it is termed manufactured
tobacco.
   1.  Unmanufactured  or  Leap  Tobacco (Folia Nicotianse).—Tobacco in this
state consists of  dried  leaves, which have a brownish  colour, a strong narcotic but
peculiar odour, and a bitter nauseous  taste.     The darker-coloured  sorts  are  the
strongest.   For medicinal purposes, Virginian tobacco in leaf (folia tabaci) should
be employed.
   In trade, various sorts of unmanufactured or leaf tobacco are met with,  and are distinguished
by the name of the  country from which they are  imported into  the  United Kingdom.  Tbe
differences  between them  depend on the species or variety of plant cultivated, on the  soil and
climate, and on the mode of curing.
   1. United States Leaf Tobacco.—This constitutes by far the greater proportion of unmans
factured tobacco imported into the United Kingdom. In 1843,  no less than 41,038,597 lbs. were
imported.
  1 Nees says that by this character several of the commercial sorts of tobacco may be recognized.  By
himself and other German writers this species is called " Maryland tobacco;" but I find that, though tbe
lateral nerves of the Maryland tobacco of British commerce are given off at a less acute angle than those
of the Virginian tobacco, I cannot find any that proceed at a right angle.
  2 Gardeners'1 Dictionary, vol. iv.                           * Theatrum Batanicum. p. 712.1GW-
  * Endlicher {Medicinal-Pftanzen, p. 338, 1842) declares that it is more stupefying than other species ot
Nicotiana.                                                                         „  .
  s For a notice of the cultivation of Shiraz tobacco, see a paper by Dr. Riach, in the Trans, of the Horti-
cultural Society, 2d series, vol. i. p. 205, 1£35.
  6 Loudon's Encyl. of Agricult.; Carver, Treatise on the Cult, of the  Tobacco Plant, 1779. 
Virginian Tobacco:—Description.                    487
  Several kinds, named from the States where respectively grown, are distinguished in trade;
they are as follows:—
  The  Virginian is one of the strongest kinds, and is, therefore, not fit for cigars, but is adapted
for pipes and snuff, and for medicinal use. It is imported in leaves or heads contained in hogs-
heads.   Its colour  is deep mottled brown; the leaves feel unctuous.  The Maryland is paler,
yellower, weaker, and adapted for smoking; the pale cinnamon is  the best, the scrubs the com-
monest. The Kentucky is intermediate between the two preceding; it is paler and weaker than
the  Virginian.  The Carolina is less frequently met with, and is of inferior quality.  The Mis-
souri and the O/it'o are other sorts imported from the United States.
  2. Cuba Leaf Tobacco.—In 1843,494,954 lbs. of leaf tobacco were imported from the island
of Cuba.  The Havana  sort is most esteemed for smoking;  its colour  is yellowish-brown; its
odour is musky or spicy.  It is imported in heads.  The Cuba is an excellent kind; it is darker
than the Havana.   Both  these kinds, as well as the Colombian, are remarkable for the light
yellow spots on the leaves.
  3. St. Domingo Leaf Tobacco.—In  1843, 93,114  lbs. of leaf tobacco were imported from
St. Domingo (Hayti).  It comes over in leaves, and is deficient in flavour.
  4. Poiito  Kico Leaf Tobacco.—Small quantities of tobacco in rolls are sometimes imported
from this island.  In quality, this sort is allied to the Varinas.
  5. Colombian  Leaf Tobacco.—In 1843, 1,556,206 lbs. of unmanufactured tobacco were
imported from Colombia.   Three commercial  sorts are brought from that country.  Like the
Cuba sorts, the leaves are marked with light yellow spots. The Colombian is imported in heads
and leaves, and is much esteemed  for cigars, for which it is more used than any other kind.  It
is dark-brown, but not mottled like the Virginian.  The Varinas1 is brought over in rolls and  in
hands.   It is a mild tobacco, suitable for  smoking only.  The third sort  imported from Colombia
is that  called Cumana.  Orinoco comes over in leaves.
  6. Bhazilian Leaf Tobacco—In 1843, 128,329 lbs. of unmanufactured tobacco were im-
ported  from  the Brazils.
  7. Dutch or Amersfoort Leaf Tobacco.—In 1843, 55,686 lbs. of unmanufactured tobacco
were imported from Holland. Dutch tobacco is very mild,and deficient in flavour.  The darker
kind is the strongest, and is  much esteemed for snuff; while the  lighter and weaker kind is em-
ployed in the manufacture of the commonest cigars.
  8. Levant Leaf Tobacco.—Turkey tobacco is pale and yellowish.   It occurs in small, short,
broad leaves, and  is the produce of N. rustica.   It is a weak tobacco, and is cut for smoking.
Latakkia (Laodicea) is an esteemed Syrian tobacco, the produce of the  same species.  Salonica
is also yielded by  N. rustica.  Persian or Shiraz tobacco is delicate and fragrant.  It is  the pro-
duce of N. persica.
  9. East  Indian  Leaf  Tobacco.—East  Indian tobacco  has never obtained  a high repute,
doubtless from inattention to its culture and  curing.2  In 1843, 59,158  lbs. were imported.
   10.  Maxilla Leaf Tobacco.—In 1843,2,038 lbs. of unmanufactured tobacco were imported
from the Philippine Islands.  Manilla tobacco is dark coloured, and is much esteemed for  che-
roots.

    2.  Manufactured Tobacco.—Under this head  are included the different forms
of  tobacco prepared for chewing and smoking, and for taking as snuff.
    1 -  Chewing and Smoking Tobaccos.—Manufacturers distinguish chewing  to-
baccos and those  used  in  pipes into two kinds, called respectively cut and  roll to-
bacco.  For smoking in the pipe, cut  tobacco is principally used in  England; the
roll in Scotland and Ireland.  Cigars and cheroots form  a third kind.
  1. Cut Tobaccos.—These sorts are manufactured by moistening and compressing the leaves
of tobacco, and cutting the compressed mass, with knife-edged chopping stamps, into small
pieces  or shreds varying from  16  to 100 cuts in the inch.   By the addition of water (or the
liquor3), cut tobacco increases in weight from 8 to 16  per cent., according to circumstances.  Shag
tobacoo is chiefly prepared from the Virginian and Kentucky sorts deprived of their stalks  or
midribs. Returns* is a lighter coloured and milder smoking tobacco.   It derives its name from
its being formerly prepared by returning shag for recutting.   Birds-eye is prepared like shag,
with the exception that it contains the midribs of the leaves, the slices of which  have been
compared to the eyes of birds.   Maryland is another kind of cut tobacco.   Canaster or Kanaster
is a favourite kind.  It received its name from canastra (a Spanish word, signifying a basket),

  ' Sir II. Sl..ane (Jamaica, vol. i. p. lxiii.) says that the tobacco " from Nuevo Reyno de Grenada (cor-
ruptly called Verinas or Tabac  de Vcrine) is reckoned the best."
  " Royle, Essay on the Productive Resources of India, 1S40. 
488
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Solanace*:.
because it was  imported in  baskets.  It is prepared from  Varinas  tobacco.   Orinoco, Turkev
Persian, and Varinas, are also cut tobaccos.
  2. Spun, Roll, or Twist Tobaccos.—These are prepared by twisting tobacco into a kind
of rope, which  is  moistened with liquor,1 and  is usually made  up  into cylindrical or barrel-
shaped  rolls or  sticks, which  are  subjected to pressure before they  are considered fit for sale
Pigtail, Negro-head, Bogie, Alloa, Cavendish, and  Irish twist, are roll  tobaccos for chewin" and
smoking.  During its manufacture, roll tobacco increases in weight from 15 to 25 per cent.
  3. Cigars  ami  Cheroots.—These are small rolls of tobacco permeable to air and adapted
for smoking.  Cigars were originally derived from  the New World.  They are distinguished
from cheroots by their pointed extremity, called the curl or twist.  The Havana cigars are in
great request  by smokers. Cigars, however, are extensively made in  London.  Cheroott were
originally derived from the East.  They are characterized by their truncated extremities.  Ma-
nilla cheroots are much valued by smokers.   Cheroots, however, like cigars,  are extensively
manufactured in London.
   2.  Snuffs.—In the manufacture of snuff, tobacco,  cut in small pieces, is first fer-
mented by placing  it  in  heaps  and sprinkling it with  water or a solution of salt:
the latter prevents  the tobacco becoming mouldy.   The heaps  soon become hot
and evolve ammonia.  The extent to which this process is allowed to  proceed varies
with different kinds of snuff.   The usual  time is  two or three months, seldom less
than one month.   The fermented tobacco is then ground in mills,  or powdered with
a kind  of pestle and mortar.  The Scotch and Irish are prepared  for the most part
from the midribs ;  the Strasburg, French,  and Russian snuffs from the soft part of
the leaves.  The siftings,  sometimes termed thirds, are usually reground.  Sal ammo-
niac is  occasionally added to snuffs.
  The theory of the tobacco  fermentation is imperfectly known.   Decomposition probably first
commences in the albuminous constituent, which yields carbonate of ammonia.  The organic
salts (malates)  next suffer change, and are converted into carbonates.  The lignin is the last to
decompose; it becomes friable, yields  ulmic acid, which colours  the tobacco, and a little acetic
acid. A portion  (perhaps two-thirds) of the nicotina disappears during the process, being either
decomposed or  volatilized by the  aid of the carbonate of ammonia.   Moreover, while in the
fresh plant the nicotina is found in the  state of a salt (malate?) insoluble in  ether, in  the fer-
mented  plant it is found chiefly in the state of acetate or subacetate soluble in ether.
  The immense varieties of snuffs found in the shops are reducible to two kinds—dry and moist
snuffs.
  a. Dry Snuffs.—These derive their characteristic property from being dried at a high tempera-
ture previous to being ground. Scotch, Irish, and  Welsh, ate well-known high-dried snuffs.  The
latter frequently contains lime, the particles of which may be usually distinguished by the naked
eye; hence its desiccating effect on the pituitary  membrane.2   Spanish snuff is also a dry snuff.
Brown Scotch  is  Scotch snuff moistened after being ground.
  8. Moist Snvffs;  Rappees.—These are snuffs which have been prepared by grinding the to-
bacco to powder in a moist state.  It is sometimes said that pearlash is added to these snuffs to
keep them moist, but several  respectable manufacturers assure me  this is not usual. The rappees
of the shops may be divided into three classes:  Simple Rappees—as Brown, Black, Cuba, Carotle,
and Bolangero; Mixed Rappees—as Hardham's  Genuine No. 37; and Scented Rappees—as Frince't
Mixture  and Princesa, &c.
   Composition.—The juice  of the fresh  leaves of  tobacco was analyzed in 1809
by Vauquelin.3   Subsequently,  this  chemist  analyzed  manufactured  tobacco.4  In
1821, Hermbstadt3 discovered nicotianin.   In 1827, the leaves were  analyzed by
Posselt and Reiumann,6 and in 1831 by Dr. Conwell.7  In  1845, Messrs. Brande and
Cooper8 made a series of  experiments to ascertain the proportion of  soluble and in-
soluble matters in eight samples of tobacco.
  1 Water and oil are alone allowed by law to be used in the manufacture of roll tobacco; but sugar, mo-
lasses, and liquorice are frequently employed.
  3 The Act of Parliament allows lime-water to be used in the manufacture of Irish and Welsh muffa;
but  Mr. Foot (Tobacco Report) states that the Lundyfoot or " high-toast snuff" is made of the stalks and
leaves of tobacco and water (which latter is afterwards got rid of by drying) without lime.
  3 Ann. de Chim. lxxi. 139.                       * Annul, du Mvs. d'Hist. Nat. t. xiv.
  s Schweigger's Journ. fur Chem. xxxi. 441.       • Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. ii. 1303.
  " Silliman's Journ. xvii. 369.                    • Brande's Manual of Chemistry, p. 1623,1848. 
Virginian Tobacco :—Composition.
489
             Vauquelin''s Analysis.
An acrid volatile principle {nicotina).
Albumen.
Red matter, soluble in alcohol and water.
Acetic acid.
Supermalntc of lime.
Chlorophylle.
Nitrate of potash and chloride of potassium.
S:iI ammoniac.
Water.
        Posselt and Reinmann's Analysis.
Nicotina.....................0.06
Concrete volntile oil (nicotianin).......0.01
Bitter extractive................2.87
Gum with malate of lime...........1.74
Chlorophylle  ..................0.267
Albumen and gluten  ..............1.308
Malic acid....................  0 51
Lignin and a trace of starch..........4.969
Salts (sulphate, nitrate, and malate of potash,
  chloride of  potassium, phosphate  and  ma-
  late of lime, aftd malate of ammonia)  . . .  0.734
Silica  ......................0 088
Water......................88.280
Fresh leaves of tobacco.....100.636
| Pale yellow resin (large quantity).
I Nicotina.
 A substance analogous to morphia.
 An orange-red colouring matter.
 Nicotianin.
       Expressed juice of the leaves.

  The leaves  contained, in  addition  to the above,
woody fibre, oxalate and phosphate of lime, oxide of
iron, and silica.  The two  latter substances were
obtained from the ashes.
  Manufactured tobacco contained the same princi-
ples, and, in  addition,  carbonate of ammonia  and
chloride of calcium, perhaps produced by the reac-
tion of sal ammoniac and lime, which are added to
tobacco to give it pungency.
                                      Conwell's Analysis.
Rum.
Mucilage soluble in both water and alcohol.
Tannin.
Gallic acid.
Chlorophylle.
Green pulverulent matter, soluble in boiling water.
Yellow oil, having the  odour, taste, and poisonous
  properties of tobacco.
   1. Nicotixa (Nicotine).  Symbol Ni.  Formula C2tlHl4N2.   Eq. Wt.  1G2.—Exists not only
in the  leaves (both fresh and fermented), but  also in the root1 and  in the seeds,2 as  well as in
the smoke of tobacco.   It is obtained by digesting an aqueous extract of  the leaves in rectified
spirit,  which takes up the nicotina salts.   The decanted tincture is to be concentrated, mixed
with a solution of pota.-h,  and briskly shook with ether, which dissolves the nicotina set free by
the potash.   To purify the alkaloid, add gradually to its solution oxalic acid in  powder ; oxalate
of nicotina, insoluble in  ether, forms, at the  bottom of the vessel, a syrupy layer, which is to be
repeatedly shaken with  pure ether.   The  nicotina may be  separated by potash and  ether, as
before.  The ethereal solution is to be distilled in a salt-water bath, then transferred to a retort,
through which a current of dry hydrogen  circulates ; exposed  to a temperature of 284° F. in
an oil  bath, in order to entirely get rid of the  water, ether, and  ammonia; lastly, the temper-
ature is to be raised to 35G°, when the nicotina distils over drop by drop.   From 28 lbs. of Vir-
ginia tobacco, at least  4  per cent, of nicotina can  be obtained by this process.
   -Nicotina is a colourless  liquid alkaloid, with an acrid odour and an acrid burning taste.  Its
density is  1.02-1.   It restores the blue colour of reddened litmus, and renders turmeric brown.
It does not solidify at  14° F.; it boils at 482° F., and at the same  time undergoes decomposition.
By exposure to the air it becomes brown and  thick.  It is readily combustible with  the aid of
a wick.   It  is soluble  in  water, ether, alcohol, and  the oils (fixed and volatile).  It  combines
with acids, and forms very deliquescent salts; the  sulphate,phosphate, oxalate, and tartrate, axe
crystallizable ;  the acetate is not.  A dilute aqueous solution of nicotina yields a white  flocculent
precipitate (double  chloride) with a  solution of  bichloride of mercury, and  a yellow granular
precipitate with chloride of platinum.
  Nicotina is an energetic poison, almost equalling  in activity hydrocyanic acid.3
  The amount  of nicotina in leaf or manufactured tobacco  may be estimated by Schloesing's
process:4 Exhaust two drachms of tobacco by ammoniacal  ether  in a  continuous distillatory
apparatus, expel the  ammoniacal gas from the  nicotina solution by boiling, then decant, and
alter the evaporation of the ether, estimate  the amount of nicotina in the residue by  the quan-
tity of  diluted  sulphuric acid of known strength  required to saturate it,
  Ihe following are the amounts found in  various French and American tobaccos:—
     100 Parts of Tobacco dried at 2120.                                   Nicotina.
                Virginia................................6 87
                Kentucky...............................6 no
               Maryland............................       g 29
               Havana (cigars primera), less than............!.]. .  2 00
Lot
7.96
I.ot-et-Guronne......................'. .'.    \  7 34
..   . \r',' ,*'•••'•••••...............••*..  0.5S
lle-et-Vilame.........................         q 2g
I'.iS-de-Calais...................'!!!*""]       4 94
\l*-ica...................■........'.'..    321
ThIimcco in powder  ...................'       '  .)'qa
  ' K. Davy, Lond. and Ed. Phil. Mag. vol. vii. p. 393.                1 Buihner Revert R,l  ,„;;

PharlaX?™ll*U.    P<,i"0ning ** "iCOtina h" """^ °CCUrred '" ^^^ '»" Orfila, J?.™',', de
  * Chemical Gazitte, vol. v. p. 41, 1?I7. 
490
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Solanace.e.
  2. Acids of Tobacco.—Tobacco is very rich in malic acid; it also contains citric and phos.
phoric acids, and according to M. Barral, a peculiar acid which he terms nicotianic acid.
  3. Concrete  Volatile Oil of Tobacco (Nicotianin,Hermbstiidt; Tobacco-camphor,Gmelin)
Obtained by submitting  tobacco  leaves, with  water, to distillation.  Six pounds of the leaves
yielded eleven grains of oil, which  swims on the surface of the liquor.  This oil  is solid, has
the odour of tobacco, and a  bitter taste.  It is volatile, insoluble in water and the  dilute acid-
but soluble in ether and caustic potash.  According to Landerer,1 fresh  tobacco leaves yield no
nicotianin,  which, therefore, would  appear to be developed by the drying of the leaves under
the influence of air and water.   Nicotianin excites, in the tongue and throat, a sensation similar
to that caused by tobacco smoke.  Hermbstiidt swallowed a grain of it, and experienced soon
after, giddiness, nausea, and inclination to vomit.   Applied to the nose it causes sneezin".
  4. Ashes of Tobacco.—Tobacco yields a very  large amount of ashes, but both  the quantity
and quality of which vary  considerably.   The  ashes obtained from the leaves (including the
ribs) vary from  17 to 27 per cent.2
  5. Tobacco Smoke.—The constituents of tobacco smoke, according to Raab,3 are much rar-
bonate  of ammonia, acetate  of ammonia, nicotianin, empyreumatic oil,  carbonaceous matter (<oot)
moisture and several gases.  Unverdorben  obtained,4 by the dry distillation of tobacco, water, oil'
and resin.   These  products consisted  of a vol itile oil, an oleaginous acid, an empyreumatic wid
(BrandsiLure), resin, traces of a powder insoluble in potash and acids, a small quantity of odorin  a
base soluble in water (nicotin?), fuscin, red matter soluble  in acids, and two extractive mattert, one
forming a soluble, the other an insoluble compound with lime.
  But, more recently, Zeise5 has  submitted tobacco smoke  to a careful  analysis, and  gives the
following as its  constituents:   A peculiar empyreumatic oil, butyric acid, carbonic acid, ammonia,
paraffine, empyreumatic  resin, water, probably  some acetic acid, more or  less carbonic oxide, and
carburetled hydrogen.  To the absence of creasote is, perhaps, to be ascribed the less acrid quality
of tobacco smoke than of wood smoke.  Melsens6 has subsequently  directed nicotina in tobacco
smoke.
  The purified empyreumatic oil of tobacco passes over colourless, but soon becomes yellowish,
and ultimately brownish.  Its sp. gr. is 0.870.   It is  soluble in alcohol  and  in ether, but not in
water.  Its composition is CnH"02.—In the impure state, Dr. Morries7 describes the oil as being
rather  less solid  than the empyreumatic oil of foxglove (see p. 457); but it is undistinguishable
from the latter  by either taste or smell.  In this state it probably contained some nicotina.   It
has been suggested  that this oil is " the juice of  cursed hebenon," alluded to by Shakspeare,8 who
also calls it a •' distilment."
   Characteristics.—The  characteristics of tobacco leaves  are  partly botanical,
partly cbemical.
   The botanical characters which apply  to large and perfect leaves  have been before
stated (see ante, p. 486); those used to detect small  fragments  will be noticed under
the head of adulterations (see infra).
   The following are the chemical characters,  as given  by Dr. Ure,9 of a filtered
cold infusion of tobacco,  prepared  by macerating  100  grs. of dried Virginia tobacco
in 1000 grs. of distilled water: "Infusion pale brown;  acid  reaction with  litmus
paper; nitrate  of barytes, 0; nitrate of silver, a faint opalescence, but no curdy
precipitate; oxalate  of ammonia, a faint cloud  of calcareous matter; water of am-
monia, 0;  chloride of tin, a faint white precipitate—hence no sulphuretted hydro-
gen present; chloride of platinum, a copious white precipitate,  from the ammoniacal
salt present; acetate of lead,  an abundant whitish precipitate, soluble in nitric acid;
chloride of  iron caused a green tint, and sulphate of copper an olive brown, both
resulting from  the yellow of the iron, and  blue  of  the copper  solutions, with the
brown of  the  tobacco."
   The mode  of  determining  the percentage  quantity  of nicotina  in tobacco has
been already mentioned (see ante, p. 489).
   The peculiar odour of tobacco  smoke, as well as  the remarkable sensation  of
acridity which both it and tobacco leaf excite in the  throat, may  sometimes aid in
the detection of tobacco.   (See, on this  subject, Lobelia inflata.)

  1 Pharm. Central-Blatt fur 1835. S. 890.
  a Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, p. 391, 1847.
  3 Zenker and Schenk, Naturgesch. d. vorzug. Handelspjl. Bd. ii. S. 75.
  4 PoggendorfT's Annalen. viii. 399            » Annal. d. Chemie u. Pharm. vol. xlvii. P-212, '^13,
  6 Ann. de Chim  et de Physiq. 3me ser. t. ix. p. 465.
  ' Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journ. vol. xxxix. p. 379.                    8 Hamlet, Act i. Scene5-
   Supplement to his Dictionary, p. 251. 
Virginian Tobacco :—Adulteration.
491
   Adulteration.—From the  evidence laid before a committee  of the  House of
Commons in 1844, it appears that adulteration of tobacco has  been (and probably
still is) very general, and has varied from  5 to 40 per cent.; in some  cases being
carried as far as 100 per cent, of  the tobacco.
   The substances used for adulterating are  numerous and various.    Water being
neces-sary, in the manufacture of tobacco,  and being allowed by law, can  scarcely
be called an adulterating ingredient, though it serves to increase the weight of  the
tobacco.  In the preparation of Shag tobacco, about 12  per cent,  of water is used
in  this  country.1  Saccharine  matter (sugar, molasses, honey, &c), which  is  the
principal adulterating  ingredient, is said to  be used both for sophistication and for
rendering the tobacco more agreeable.   Vegetable leaves  (as of rhubarb and beech),
mosses, bran, malt-combs  (sprout  of the malt),  beetroot dregs,  liquorice,  terra  ja-
ponica,  rosin, salts (nitre, common  salt, and  sal ammoniac), yellow  ochre, fuller's
earth, and  sand, are stated  (see  the Tobacco Report)  to have been employed as
adulterating agents.
   The detection  of  adulteration is in some cases easy, in others difficult, if not  im-
possible.2  Two  methods of  analysis have been  resorted to; one mechanical,  the
other chemical.3
   The presence of foreign bodies may sometimes be detected by the naked eye, at
other times the use of a magnifying-glass or  microscope is necessary to detect them.
Tobacco leaves present several  remarkable (though not peculiar) characters which
lend important aid in  detecting adulterations: these  are—1st,  the horseshoe or
crescentic mark seen on a transverse section  of  the leaf-stalk;4  2dly, the glandular
character of the  hairs;*  3dly, the size and shape of  the meshes or reticulations of
the epidermis;9 4thly,  the size shape, and  number, in a  given space, of stomata.
   The chemical characters or tests on which  reliance has been placed in  detecting
adulterations  are chiefly the following:  1st, the  relative proportions of matters
soluble  and insoluble in water.   The substances insoluble in water are called by  the
excise officers " ligneous matters," and for Virginia, Missouri, and Kentucky tobacco
 amount  to from  45  to 55 per cent.  Porto  llico tobacco, however, yields  70  per
cent, of ligneous matters.  The  matters soluble in water are termed " extractive,"
 and, of course, make up the difference.   It is obvious, however, that  no reliance
 can be  placed on this test (on account of the great variations in the proportions of
 the two constituents) unless  a  portion of  the pure leaf, from which the suspected
 manufactured  tobacco  was made, can be obtained for comparison.7   2dly, genuine
 tobacco mixed with  yeast and  water, and  submitted to  a proper temperature, does
 not undergo the vinous fermentation; but  tobacco which has been adulterated with
 saccharine matter undergoes this  kind of fermentation and yields alcohol (see ante,
 p. 150).8  Trommer's  test is employed to  distinguish  grape  sugar and molasses

   1 On the continent, tobacco is more coarsely cut, and, therefore, less  water is required in its manufac-
ture
   * Dr. Ure, in hit evidence (Quest. 8849), states that he is quite sure that he " could so adulterate tobacco
as t<> elude every chemicul and microscopical examination."
   J .Mi. Richard Phillips, Professor Graham, and Mr. George Phillips, employed  mechanical means chiefly
in the analysis of various samples (some adulterated,  others unadulterated) of tobacco submitted to their
examination by the Parliamentary Committee (Quest. 7511—12).
  4 The horseshoe or crescentic mark seen in the centre of the leaf-stalk of tobacco ia the mass of woody
fibrrs Mini vessels which eventually make the veins of the leaf.  This character, though much relied on by
the excise officers, is not peculiar to tobacco—being found in stramonium, belladonna, and some other
lenves.  It is, however, absent in rhubarb leaves.
   * The hairs of tobacco leaves are tipped by a small spherical or ellipsoidal gland.  In rhubarb and potato
lenves, the hairs lire lymphatic, not glandulur.
  1 In tobacco, the meshes seen on the epidermis are bounded by sinuous lines.
  ' Dr. Ure (Quest. 8770) declares that the amount of  residuum or ligneous matter is as variable from the
genuine tobacco as from adulterated  specimens furnished him  by the Parliamentary Committee; and he,
then lore, declares this test us good for nothing.
  • Dr. I're objects to the fermentation test that it might be rendered nugatory  by adding  to the tobacco
■nhKimicea which are known to prevent fermentation in sugar (see ante, p. 81,  footnote 8).  Thus it has
been long known in Ilurgundy that a little red precipitate of mercury, when added to must (juice of the
grnpe\  prevents fermentation.  He also observes (Supplement  to his Dictionary, p. 253), that it would
•rem from experiments made by Professor Grahum and  Messrs. Phillips, that infusions of tobacco with-
out sugar, when mixed with  brisk yeast, and placed for forty hours in a temperature of about 80O F.,
undergoc* a certain degree of decoinposition, attended with a diminution of their specific gravity: or, in
the language of the Excise, they suffer attenuation. 
492               VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord. Solanace^.
from cane sugar (see ante, p. 150).  3dly, treating the  samples with alcohol  and
examining the alcoholic solution and the parts insoluble  in alcohol.   4thly, incine-
rating the suspected sample, and determining the amount and nature of the ashes
According to Mr. Johnston,1 the percentage of ash  left by the  dry tobacco  leaf
varies from  19  to 27 per cent, of its whole weight; Pelouze  and Fremy,9 on  the
other hand, state that for leaves and ribs dried at 212° it varies from 17 to 24 per
cent., and for stalks from 6  to 16 per cent.  The nature  and solubility of the ashes
and the proportion of silica in them, are subject  to great variation.8   5thly  the
determination of  the amount of nitrogen; but Dr. Ure,4 who  suggested this line of
research, has satisfied himself that this method  can serve no good  purpose.   6thly
special tests  are required for the detection of  particular  substances suspected to be
present.  Thus for terra japonica the tests employed are the salts  of iron and gela-
tine, by which the presence of astringent matter is  indicated.
   Physiological Effects,  a. On Animals generally.—In the camivom, tobacco
causes  nausea, vomiting, sometimes purging, universal trembling, staggering, con-
vulsive  movements, and  stupor.  Five  drachms and  a  half of rappee  introduced
into the stomach of a dog, and secured by a ligature on the  oesophagus, caused
death in  nitae  hours.  In another  experiment, two drachms applied to a wound
killed the animal in an  hour.5  Sir B.  Brodie6 found that the infusion  of tobacco,
thrown into  the rectum, paralyzed  the  heart, and  caused death in a few minutes.
But if  the head of the animal be previously removed, and artificial respiration kept
up,  the heart remains unaffected; proving that tobacco disorders this organ through
the  medium  of  the nervous  system  only.  In the  herbivora, the effects  of tobacco,
as of other  vegetable  poisons, are  much less  marked;  vomiting does  not occur.
Schubarth7 gave four  ounces of the leaves to a horse, at  three  times  within two
hours.   The pulse  became  irregular, then  slower,  afterwards quicker;  respiration
and the pupils were scarcely affected.  For two days the  stools and urine were more
frequent.  Moiroud8 observed no remarkable  effect from  the exhibition  of a decoc-
tion of four  ounces of tobacco to a horse.
   It is remarkable that the empyreumatic oil of tobacco does not  possess the same
power of paralyzing the heart.   Applied to  the tongue of a cat, one drop caused
convulsions,  and in two minutes death;  on opening the body, the heart was  beating
regularly and with force.9   Its operation, therefore, is  analogous  to  that of hydro-
cyanic acid.   Dr. Monies10  says it has less tendency to induce convulsions than the
empyreumatic oils of foxglove, henbane, or the  thornapple.
   j3. On Man.—In small doses, tobacco causes a  sensation of heat  in  the throat,
and  sometimes a feeling of warmth at the stomach; these effects, however,  are less
obvious when the remedy is taken in a  liquid form, and  largely diluted.  By repe-
tition  it usually operates as a diuretic,  and less frequently as a  laxative.   Accom-
panying these effects are oftentimes nausea and a peculiar feeling usually described
as giddiness, but which scarcely accords  with the ordinary acceptation of this term.
As dropsical swellings sometimes disappear under the use of these doses, it has been
inferred that the remedy promotes the operation of  the absorbents.   In larger doses,
it  provokes nausea, vomiting, and purging.   Though it  seldom gives rise to abdo-
minal  pain,  it produces a most distressing  sensation  of  sinking  at  the  pit of the
stomach.   It occasionally acts as an anodyne, or more rarely promotes sleep.  But
its most remarkable effects are languor, feebleness,  relaxation of muscles, trembling
of the limbs, great anxiety,  and tendency to faint.   Vision is  frequently enfeebled,
the ideas confused, the pulse small  and weak, the respiration somewhat laborious,
the surface cold and  clammy, or  bathed in  a cold sweat, and, in  extreme cases,

 1 Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, p. 391, 1847.
 a Cours de Chimie Ginirale, t. iii. p. 233, 1850.                                         ,
 a Will and Fresenius, Mem. of the Chemical Society,  vol. ii. p. 191; and Beauchef, in Pelouze ana
Fremy, op. supra cit. pp. 233 and 234.
 4 Tobacco Report, p. 460; and Supplement to his Dictionary, p. 250, 1814.
 s Orfila, Tox.  Gin.                           8 Phil. Trans, for 1811, p. 178.
 ' Wibmer, Wirk. d. Arzneim. u. Gift. Bd. iii. S.  336. " Pharm. Vit. p. 304.
 9 Brodie, op. cit.                            10 Ed. Med. and Surg. Journ. vol. xxxix. p. *»• 
               Virginian Tobacco:—Physiological Effects.            493

convulsive movements are observed.   In excessive doses,  the effects are of  the same
kind, but more violent in degree.  The more prominent symptoms  are nausea,
vomiting, and in some cases purging, extreme weakness  and relaxation of  the mus-
cles, depression of the vascular  system (manifested by feeble  pulse, pale face, cold
sweats, and tendency to faint), convulsive  movements, followed by paralysis and a
kind of torpor, terminating in death.
   Taken in the form of snuff, its  principal effect is  topical.   It causes increased
secretion of nasal mucus, and, in those unaccustomed to  its use, sneezing.   Getting
into the throat it produces a feeling of acridity, and sometimes nausea.   From some
kinds of rappee I  have experienced giddiness and  great prostration  of strength.
Lanzoni1 states that an individual  fell into a state of somnolency, and died  lethargic
on the twelfth day,  in consequence of taking  too much  snuff.   Reasonable doubt,
however, may be entertained, I think,  whether these accidents really arose from
snuff.   The habitual use of this substance blunts the sense of  smell and alters the
tone of voice ; but I am unacquainted with any other well-ascertained effects, though
Cullen* ascribes loss of appetite and dyspepsia to it;  and Dr.  Prout3 observes, that
" the severe and peculiar dyspeptic symptoms sometimes produced by inveterate snuff-
taking are well known; and I have more than once seen  such cases terminate fatally
with malignant diseases of the stomach and liver."   I have known several invete-
rate snuff-takers who, after many years' use of this substance,  have discontinued it
with impunity; but Dr. Cullen  thinks, that when the discharge of  mucus is con-
siderable, the  ceasing or  suppression of it, by  abstaining from snuff, is  ready to
occasion  the very disorders of headache, toothache, and ophthalmia, which it had
formerly relieved.   There do not appear to be any good grounds for the supposed
baneful effects of the manufacture of snuff on the workmen.4   Sir  W.  Temple5 re-
commends the introduction of a  tobacco leaf into the nostrils for the relief of affec-
tions of the eyes and head.
   The smoking of tobacco by those unaccustomed to  it, gives rise to all the before-
described effects of  large and excessive doses.   A very interesting case, which had
almost terminated fatally, is related by Dr. Marshall Hall.8  It was that of a young
man, who, for his first essay, smoked two pipes.   Gmelin7 mentions two cases of death
from smoking, in the one of seventeen, in the other  of  eighteen pipes  at a sitting.
   In habitual smokers, the  practice, when employed moderately, provokes thirst,
increases the secretion of saliva and buccal mucus, and produces a remarkable sooth-
ing and tranquillizing effect on  the mind, which has  made it so much  admired and
adopted by all classes of society, and by all nations civilized and barbarous.  I am
not acquainted with any well-ascertained ill effects resulting from the habitual prac-
tice  of smoking.  A similar observation is made by Dr. Christison.8  Yet Dr. Prout
says it " disorders the assimilating functions in  general, but particularly,  as I believe,
the  assimilation of the saccharine principle.   I  have never, indeed, been  able  to
trace the development of oxalic acid to the use of tobacco;  but that some analogous
and equally poisonous principle (probably of an acid nature) is generated in certain
individuals by its  abuse, is evident from their cachectic  looks, and from the dark,
and often greenish-yellow  tint of their blood."9  There do not appear to be any good
grounds for  supposing that smoking  is a prophylactic against contagious  and epi-
demic diseases—an opinion at one time entertained.
  The practice of chewing tobacco is principally confined to sailors, and is less fre-
quently submitted to our observation; so that  we are  not so competent to speak  of
its effects, which, probably, are similar to those caused by smoking
  The application of tobacco to abraded surfaces is a very dangerous practice and
Las in some instances been attended with violent or even fatal  results.   Mr. Wes-
1 Christison, On Poisons.                                    a Mat Med -   .,.,
• On the Nature and Treatment of Stomach and Urinary Diseases, p. 25 Lond  1s40
• Christison, op. cit.                                      '  t /„'»/,.,* '„ o»c r i-  ,-■,,.
: £■■!; ?!'«-*»»■ '•■«■ -'• ««• p- »■                    < Sffift &;£?&'*■
 Up c" p" " ''                                            s Op. supra cit. p. 25. 
494
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Solanaceje.
ton1 has related a case in which the expressed juice of tobacco was applied to the
head of a  boy, aged eight years, for  the cure of tinea capitis.  Death took  place
three hours and a half after the application.
   In the form of clyster, tobacco has frequently proved fatal, sometimes from the
use of inordinate doses  by ignorant persons,3 and occasionally in the  hands of the
well-informed practitioner.  Desault3 has witnessed the smoke prove fatal.  Sir A.
Cooper4 has seen two drachms, and even  one drachm, destroy life. In a case related
by Sir Charles Bell5 death probably occurred from  the same cause.   Dr. Copland"
saw  half a drachm in infusion prove fatal.
   The  operation of tobacco resembles that of Lobelia infiata (see LobeliacEjE),
With  foxglove, tobacco  agrees in several circumstances, especially in that of en-
feebling the action of the vascular system, though its power in this respect is in-
ferior to that of foxglove.  In its capability of causing relaxation and depression of
the muscular system,  and trembling, tobacco surpasses foxglove; as it does, also, in
its power of promoting  the secretions.   From belladonna, stramonium, and hyos-
cyamus, it is distinguished by causing contraction of the pupil, both  when applied
to the eye and when taken internally in  poisonous  doses; and also by the absence
of delirium and  of  any affection of the parts about the  throat.  Vogt7 and Sunde-
lin8  have considered the effects of tobacco as  closely allied to those of aconite; but
to me the  resemblance is less obvious (see Rantjnctjlaceje).  The power possessed
by the  last-mentioned substance of paralyzing  the  sentient  nerves  sufficiently dis-
tinguishes it from tobacco.
   Uses.—The principal remedial value of tobacco  consists in its power of relaxing   j
muscular fibres, whereby it becomes a valuable antispasmodic.   As a purgative, but   I
especially  as an antispasmodic and purgative conjoined, it is  exceedingly serviceable   J
in alvine obstructions.   As a  sedative to  the vascular system it has not been much   J
used.   I tried  it somewhat extensively a few years since, as a substitute for blood-   I
letting, in  inflammatory affections; but,  while it produced such distressing nausea
and  depression that it was with difficulty I could induce patients to persevere in its
use, I did not find its  antiphlogistic powers at all proportionate, and eventually  I
discontinued its employment.   As an  anodyne, diuretic, or emetic, it is much in-
ferior to many other articles of the Materia Medica.
   1.  In  colic,  ileus  (volvulus),  strangulated  hernia, and  constipation.—The
efficacy of tobacco in these diseases depends principally on its power of  relaxing
muscular fibres and on its purgative properties.   These effects are usually accom-   I
panied by nausea and  giddiness.  The  remedy is applied  in  the form of clyster,   I
consisting  either of the infusion or of the smoke.   The  latter was at one time sup-
posed to be more efficacious.   Heberden9 says it causes less giddiness than the in-
fusion.  It probably extends farther up the intestines than  the liquid enema, and,
therefore,  acts on a larger surface.  But the difficulties and inconvenience of applying
it, and the uncertainty of its effects, have led, for the most  part, to the discontinu-
ance of its use.  In  ileus, the tobacco clyster has been recommended by Sydenham,10
by Heberden,11 by Abercrombie,12 and by several  other distinguished authorities.
The earlier it is resorted to, the more successful is it likely to prove.   Indeed, when
employed  in the  last stage of the disease, it sometimes hastens the fatal termination
by exhausting  the already depressed vital powers.   As  it is occasionally necessary   j
to repeat the injection, it is of importance to begin cautiously.  Dr. Abercrombie
uses only fifteen  grains of tobacco infused in  six  ounces of boiling water for ten
minutes, and he  repeats this  in an hour if no effect have been produced.  I have
generaljy employed a scruple, and have not experienced  any dangerous effects from   j

  1 Med. and Phys. Journ. vol. xiv. p. 305.          % Christison, op. cit.
  * OXuvres Chir. t. ii. p. 344.                    * Anatomy and Treatment of Hernia, p.24.
  s Surgical  Observations, part ii. p. 189.           s Diet, of Pract. Med. art. Colic, vol. i. P- 371.
  ' Pharmakodyn.                             8 Handb. d. spec. Heilmittell.
  9 Comment, on the Hist, and Cure of Diseases, 3d edit. p. 270, 1800.
 10 Whole Works, 4th edit, by Peechey, p. 4-28.
 11 Op. cit.                                  IJ On Diseases of the Abdominal Viscera. 
Virginian Tobacco :—Uses.
*.495
its application; and it is  possible that, in  persons  long accustomed to the use of
tobacco, a somewhat larger dose might be required; but I have never met with any
cases in which a scruple did not  produce the full effect on the system that was
desired.   In strangulated hernia,  the tobacco  clyster has frequently  effected  the
return  of  the  protruded parts when the operation  appeared almost inevitable; and
every surgical writer speaks in the highest terms of its use.  A tense hernial tumour
sometimes becomes soft and relaxed by the diminished force of circulation produced
by tobacco.   Notwithstanding these facts, this remedy is much less resorted to than
formerly.   Three circumstances have, I suspect, led to the infrequency of its use—
first, the dangerous, if not fatal, consequences which have sometimes resulted from
its employment;  secondly, the frequency of its failure, and the consequent loss of
time, by which  the chance of recovery is  diminished;  thirdly, the  operation  for
hernia being much less dreaded now than formerly, for experience has fully proved
that death rarely (Mr. Pott says only once in fifty times) results from it.  In colic
from lead, and  in  obstinate constipation from  spasmodic constriction,  the  tobacco
clyster has sometimes proved most beneficial.  Of the application, in lead colic, of
compresses soaked in a strong decoction of tobacco, to the abdomen, as recommended
by Dr. Graves,1 I have no experience.  The practice is, of course, calculated to be
beneficial, but is  less certain and speedy in  its effect than tobacco clysters.
  2. fn ischuria and dysuria.—When  retention of urine  arises from spasm of
the neck of the bladder, or from spasmodic  stricture,  tobacco, by its powerfully re-
laxing  properties, is an agent well  calculated to give relief.   Mr. Earle3 has pub-
lished  several cases illustrative  of its efficacy.  In  dysury, also, tobacco proves
serviceable; it abates pain, relaxes the urinary passages, promotes the secretion of
urine, and, by diminishing the sensibility of the  parts, facilitates  the expulsion of
calcareous matter.3
  3.  Tetanus.—The relaxing  influence over  the muscular system  possessed  by
tobacco, suggested  the employment of this remedy  in  tetanus.  Its  effects have
been, like those of  most other  medicines in  this disease, unequal.   Sir J. Macgri-
gor* says, that in the advanced stage of the malady the tobacco clyster had no effect.
Mr. Earle5, however, thought it afforded temporary alleviation in  a case in which
he tried  it.  Since  then, several cases have been successfully treated  by tobacco.
Dr. O'ISeirne8 obtained most marked relief by its use.   He employed it in the form
of clyster (containing a scruple of tobacco), which was repeated once  or thrice or
ofteuer daily during eighteen days; and  it  was observed that if by design or acci-
dent the remedy was discontinued, the spasms recurred with force.   Mr. Anderson7
employed a decoction of the fresh  leaves in  the form of enema, and both with good
effect.   Mr. Curling8 has collected accounts of nineteen cases (including those of
Earle,  O'Beirne, and Anderson, above referred to) treated by  tobacco; of these
nine recovered;  and in seven of  the fatal  cases the  remedy had  not a fair trial •
while in the eighth, organic disease of the brain was found.   Mr. Curling observes'
that " more has now been advanced in proof of the efficacy of tobacco  than can be
adduced in favour  of  any other remedy yet resorted  to.  I  have not," he adds
" succeeded in finding a single case in which, being fully and fairly tried before the
constitution had given way, it has been known  to fail.9
  4. Other spasmodic,  diseases.—The success attending  the use of  tobacco  in
tetanus has led  to its employment  in hydrophobia, but hitherto without avail   In
a case of periodical epilepsy, Dr. Currie10 prevented the return of the disease by the
application of a tobacco  cataplasm  to the scrobiculus cordis half an hour before the
expected paroxysm.   In a very bad case  of spasm of the rima glottidis, which  re-
fisted powerful depletion by the lancet, Dr.  Wood" applied  with success  a tobacco
 1 Dublin Hospital Reports, vol. iv.
 • Fowler. Med. Rep. of the Effects of Tobacco, 1785.
 4 Mr.d.-Chir. Trans, vol. vi. p. 456.
 • Dublin Hospital Reports, vol. iii.
 • Treatise on Tetanus, p. 168, 1636.
lu Mid. Rep. vol. i. p. 163.
 ■ Med.-Chir. Trans, vol. vi. p. t-2.

 • Ibid. p. 92.
 ' Edinb. Med.-Chir. Trans, vols. i. and ii
 * Op. cit. p. 177.
11 United States Dispensatory. 
496
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Solanace*:.
cataplasm to the throat.   In spasmodic asthma, tobacco, either smoked or taken
internally, in nauseating doses, has been found occasionally to give relief.  My own
observation is unfavourable to  the use of tobacco smoke, which I have repeatedly
found to bring on convulsive cough and spasmodic difficulty df breathing in persons
afflicted with chronic catarrh.  Dr. Sigmond1 says the tincture of tobacco  has been
sold and used to a great extent under the name of tincture of  lobelia, and  that it
proved successful in  spasmodic asthma.   In rigidity of the os uteri, a tobacco  clyster
failed to produce relaxation,  while it caused alarming constitutional  symptoms.3
   5. In dropsy.—Tobacco was recommended  as a diuretic in dropsy by Dr. Fow-
ler,3 who published  a  number of cases of anasarca  and ascites which had been
relieved  by it.4  Whatever benefit may have been obtained, in these cases,  by the
use of tobacco, should be ascribed, I suspect, rather to  the sedative powers  of this
agent than to its  influence over  the kidneys.   In small doses it  is an uncertaiu
diuretic, and in  larger doses it causes such distressing nausea  and  depression that
practitioners  have long  since ceased to use it in dropsical cases.  The ashes of the
tobacco plant have also been used in dropsy.5
   6.  As a topical remedy.—Dr.  Vetch6 recommends  the infusion,  as  an  anodyne
and sedative  topical  application, in gouty and rheumatic inflammation of the joints,
testicle,  and sclerotic coat of the  eye, and in erysipelatous inflammation.   Bergius7
recommends  a fomentation of tobacco leaves in phymosis and  paraphymosis.  An
infusion or ointment of tobacco  has been  used in  porrigo and  other skin diseases,
as well- as in some obstinate ulcers.  The  smoke, applied to the  hair, is a popular
means of destroying pediculi, and has been used, in the form of clyster, to destroy
ascarides.  Dr. Sigmond8 says tobacco  promotes the  growth of the hair.   Tooth-
ache has been relieved by tobacco smoke.
   In addition to  the   preceding, there are various other diseases  against which
tobacco  has  been employed.  Thus in soporose affections and asphyxia, tobacco
clysters  have been  employed, but  they are more  likely to do harm than good.
Tobacco has also been used as an anthelmintic.
   Administration.—Tobacco is  rarely administered in substance.   Five  or six
grains of snuff have been taken as an emetic, and are said to have operated as
effectually as two grains of emetic tartar.   For internal administration the wine of
tobacco is generally  employed.  Dr. Fowler  used  an infusion (prepared wi(h an
ounce of Virginian tobacco to  a pound of boiling water), which he gave in doses of
from sixty to a hundred drops.  The best time for administering it he found to be
two hours before dinner, and at bedtime.  The usual tobacco enema is the infusion
prepared according to tbe Pharmacopoeia.  The tobacco smohe clyster (clyster e fumo
tabaci) is applied  by means of a  proper apparatus, formerly kept by the instrument-
makers.  Various extemporaneous methods of employing it  have  been  devised.9
For external use tobacco is used  in the form of cataplasm (made of the leaves and
water and vinegar), infusion (the tobacco water of the shops), smoke, and ointment:
all these, however, require great caution in  their  use, especially when applied to
abraded  surfaces.
   Antidotes.—If the  poison  have been swallowed, let the contents of the stomach
be withdrawn as speedily as possible.   No chemical antidote  has as yet been demon-
strated;  but  the vegetable astringents (infusion of nutgalls, green tea, &c.) deserve
examination.  As anti-narcotics,  the vegetable acids and coffee may be administered.
The other parts of the  treatment must  be  adapted to circumstances.   When the
depression of the vascular system is extreme, ammonia and brandy may be adminis-
tered with good effect,  and frictions employed; even  acupuncture of the  heart (!)
has been suggested.10 Artificial respiration should not be omitted when other means

 1 Lancet for 1836—7, vol. ii. p. 253-^4.
 3 Dr.Dewees, Comp. Syst. of Midwif. p. 378,1825.         * Op. supra cit.
 4 See also Garnett, in Duncan's Med. Comment, for 1797, Dec. 11, vol. vi.
 * Garden, in Duncan's Med. Comment. Dec. 1. vol. iii.      6 Med.-Chir. Trans, vol. xvi. p. 356.
 ' Mat. Med. i. 222.                                 8 Lancet, vol. ii. p. 249.1836—7.
 9 Murray, App. Med. t.  i.                            I0 Stephenson and Churchill, Med. Bot. 
Common Potato:—History;  Botany.
497
have failed.  If apoplectic symptoms present themselves, bloodletting may, perhaps,
be requisite, as in the case related by Dr. M. Hall.
  1.  E\EM TABACI, L. E. D.;  Infusum Tabaci [U. S.];  Tobacco  Clyster.—(To-
bacco 9j  [grs. xv to 3ss, E.]; Boiling Water Oss  [f^viij,  E. D.~].   Macerate
for an hour [half an hour, E.}, and strain.)—The want of uniformity in the for-
mulae of the British Colleges is greatly to be regretted;  and  I cannot but think
that the latitude  permitted by the Edinburgh College, in  the  quantity of tobacco
employed, is highly objectionable, and calculated to lead  to serious  errors in dis-
pensing.  The tobacco clyster is used, as I have already stated, in ileus (volvulus),
strangulated hernia, obstinate constipation, retention of urine, &c.  It is not to be
forgotten  that two drachms, one drachm, and even half a drachm  of tobacco infused
in water, have proved fatal, as I have before mentioned.   The cautious practitioner,
therefore, will not use more than 15 or 20 grains.
   [The U. S. Pharm. directs Tobacco  3i; Boiling Water Oj.   Macerate for an
hour in a covered vessel, and  strain.  This is intended to  be used cautiously, only
portions being administered at a time, in accordance with the above statements.]
   2. VMM TABACI, E. [U. S.];   Wine of Tobacco.—(Tobacco  giijss;  Sherry  Oij.
Digest for seven days, strain, express strongly the residuum, and filter the liquors.)
 [The U. S. Pharm. directs Tobacco 3j)  Wine Oj.  Digest for fourteen days and
 filter.]—Sedative and diuretic.   Employed  in dropsy,  dysury, &c.   Rarely used.
 Dose from r^x to n\J.
   3.  UNGUENTUM  TABACI, Ph. United States;  Ointment of Tobacco.—(Fresh To-
 bacco, cut in  pieces, §j;  Lard  ibj.   Boil the  tobacco in  the  lard, over a gentle
 fire, until it becomes friable;  then strain through linen.)—Employed as an  appli-
 cation to  irritable ulcers and skin diseases, especially tinea capitis;  but its use re-
 quires great caution.
   An  ointment,  prepared with  twenty drops of the empyreumatic  oil  of tobacco
 and an ounce of simple ointment, has been applied with advantage, by American
 practitioners,  to  indolent tumours and  ulcers;  but like all other preparations of
 tobacco, when employed externally,  must be used with  great caution.1

   175. SOLANUM  TUBEROSUM, Zmn-COMMON POTATO.
                           Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Monogynia.
                                 (Herba;  Tuber.)
   History.—Pedro de Cieca, in  his  Chronica del Peru, published at Seville, in
 1553,  is  the  first writer  who mentions potatoes.   They  probably first came  into
 Europe from the neighbourhood of Quito to Spain.   In 1586, they were brought to
 England  from Virginia by the colonists sent out by Sir Walter Raleigh, in 1584.
   Botany.  Gen. Char.— Calyx 5—10-cleft. Corolla hypogynous, rotate or rarely
 campanulate; tube short;  limb plaited, 5—10-, rarely 4—G-cleft.   Stamens 5, rarely
 4 or 6, inserted in the throat of the corolla, exserted; filaments very short; anthers
 equal or sometimes unequal, converging, dehiscing by two pores at the apex.  Ovary
 2-, rarely 3—1-celled; the placentae attached to the dissepiments, adnate, with numer-
 ous ovules.   Style  simple ; stigma obtuse.   Berry 2-, rarely 3—4-celled.   Seeds
 numerous, subreniform.   Embryo  peripherical,  spiral, inclosing fleshy albumen
 (Endlicher).
   Sp.  Char.—Tuberous.   Stems  herbaceous.   Leaves   interruptedly  pinnate,
 downy; leaflets entire.   Pedicels articulated.   Flowers white.
   Hab.—WeBt coast of South  America.  Cultivated everywhere.
   The cultivated varieties of the potato are very numerous. They are distinguished according
 to their precocity, lateness, form, size, colour, and quality.
   Dlscuiption.—1. The  part of  the  plant which is used as food, is  the  tuber
vol. n.—32
1 United States Dispensatory. 
498
VEGETABLES.—Nat.  Ord.  Solanace^:.
3U8.
(tuber solani tuberosi) attached to the subterranean stem, of  which, in fnct  it mav
be regarded as a  part in a state of excessive development.   It is  provided with a
                     number of buds, commonly called eyes, which,  with contiguous
                     portions of the potatoes, are used, under the name of sets for
                     multiplying the  species.   The tubers  vary in  shape;  being
                     round, oblong, or  kidney-shaped.   When  boiled, tbey vary in
                     quality ;  being watery, waxy, or mealy .^   When  examined by
                     the microscope, the tissue of the potato is found to consist of a
                     mass of cells, between and within which is an albuminous juice.
                     Each cell also contains about ten or twelve starch grains1 (Fig.
                     308, a).   By boiling, the cells are separated, the starch grains
                     absorb the  albuminous liquid, swell up, and completely fill the
                     cells ;  while the albumen coagulates and forms irregular fibres
                     which are  placed  between   the starch  grains (Fig. 308 b).
                     Potatoes  in which these changes are complete are called mealy
                     while those in which the liquid is only partially absorbed, and
the coagulation imperfectly effected, are denominated doughy or watery.3  By boil-
ing in water, potatoes do not  form a jelly or mucilage like mere starch, because the
starch grains in the tubers are  protected partly  by the coats of the cells in which
they  are contained, and partly by a layer of coagulated albumen.
   2.   For medicinal purposes the herb (herba solani tuberosi), including both sterna
and leaves,  has been employed.
   Composition.—Potatoes have been repeatedly subjected to chemical examination.
The following are the results  of analyses made by Michaelis3 and by Johnston.4
Cells of the Potatoes.

a.  Cell  before boil-
   ing, containing the
   starch particles.
b. Cell of a mealy po-
   tato after boiling.
            (Michaelis.)             Natural.
Water......................66.875
Starch and amylaceous fibre..........30.469
Albumen.....................0.503
Gluten......................0.055
Fat  .......................0.056
Gum.......................  0.020
Asparagin....................0.063
Extractive  ...................  0.921
Chloride of Potassium . ............0.176
Silicate, phosphate,  and  citrate of  iron, }
  manganese, alumina,  soda, potash, and f  „ „-„
  lime (of these potash and citric acid are t
  the prevailing ingredients)........*
Free citric acid.................0.047
  Mean of numerous Analyses made in 1846.
                (Johnston.)
                        Natural.      Dry
Water..............75.52 ....  -
Starch..............15 72 ....  61.20
Dextrin (gum)  .........0.55 ....  2.25
Sugar..............3.30 ....  13.47
Albumen, casein, gluten  .... 141 ....  5.77
Fat................0.24 ....  1.00
Fibre...............3.26 ....  13.31
100.00
        Red variety of potato.......100.000

   As a portion of both albumen and gluten adheres to the fibre, and of both, with
some of the casein,  to  the starch, the true  percentage of protein  matters  is some-
what understated in the above table; and Johnston, therefore, gives the following
as the  representation, in round numbers,  of the  composition  of the  dry potato:
starch 64, sugar and gum lb, protein compounds 9, fat 1, and fibre 11.
   The  proportion of water, starch, and  protein matters in the potato, according to
the investigations of Horsford and  Krocker,5 have been already given (see vol. i. p.
119.)
   The ultimate composition of the potato, according to Boussingault,6 is as follows :—
                                                                                Dry
                                           Carbon......................M.O
                                           Hydrogen.....................  •>•"
                                           Oxygen......................**■?
                                           Nitrogen.....................  '•'
                                           Ashes.......................  *'°
                                   Natural.

Water......................   75.9
Solid matter, viz.:—
      Carbon...........10.6040
      Hydrogen..........  1.397S
      Oxygen...........10.7727 )■   24.1
      Nitrogen..........0.3615
      Ashes............0.9640
100.0
100.0
  1 See Turpin's Mtmoire sur VOrganisation intfrieure et extirieure des tubercles du Solanum tubero-
sum, in the Mimoires du Museum d'Hist. Naturelle, t. xix. Paris, 1630.                       ..
  a Fritzsche, in Poggendorflfs Ann. d. Phys. u. Chem. Bd. xxxii. S. 159 ;  and Pharm. Central-Blatt fur
1834, pp. 927 and 943.
  3 Archiv d. Pharm. xiii. 233; and Pharm. Central-Blatt fur 1838.
  * Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edit. p. 906, 1S47.
  ! Ann. der Chemie u. Pharm. Bd. xlviii. 1846.                    •  Ann. de Chimie et Phystqvt. 
Common Potato :—its Diseases.
499
    Baup,1 Spatzier,3 and Otto,8 have found solanina in potatoes.
    1. Solanina; Solanine; Potato-Solanin.—Found  chiefly in the buds and shoots (sprouts) of
 the potato; also in the leaves, stalks,and fruits.  Even sound ripe potatoes (the tubers) contain
 trace* of it;  but diseased potatoes, according to Liebig,4 do not yield it.   (For the properties of
 Solanina, see Solanum Dulcamara.)
   2. Staiicic (see p. 501).
   3. I'roteiv Compounds; Albumen, Gluten, and Casein.—The juice of the potato coagulates
 when heated, owing to the albumen which it contains.   If the washings of a grated potato be
 heated to coagulate the albumen, and  a little acetic  acid be added  to the strained liquor when
 cold, a white powder, called  casein, is precipitated.   If dry potato in powder be boiled in alco-
 hol, the .-olution evaporated, and water added  to it,  a substance resembling the gluten of wheat
 is obtained.   In potatoes which have been  kept for  some time, the proportion of  protein mat-
 ters is diminished.—In diseased potatoes, the  protein compounds*appear to be the constituents
 chiefly affected: the albumen is  diminished in quantity, and altered in quality, becoming dark,
 especially on coagulating;  while, according to  Liebig, the casein is augmented in quantity.
   4. Fat.—Ether extracts from  dried sliced potatoes a minute portion of fatty matter.
   5. Gum (Dextrine) and Sugar.—Healthy potatoes contain small portions of that variety of
 gum called dextrine, and also of sugar.  When the quantity of these ingredients is unusually
 large, as in diseased  potatoes, the quantity of starch is  proportionately small.
   6. Cklluluhk ;  Fibre;  Lignin.—The  proportion  of  this constituent of the potato is subject
 to great variation.   As usually obtained, it contains  some adherent starch and protein  matters:
 hence the nutritive qualities of the pulp of potato mills, which  is used for feeding cattle.
   7. Acids  and  Salts.—The vegetable acid which  exists in  potatoes,  and  which  several
 chemist.-,5 have declared to be citric acid, is, according  to Ilisch,8 malic acid.  He  also detected
 phosphoric and hydrochloric adds.   By the  microscope, crystals of oxalate of lime can be detected.7
   The quantity of ash obtained  by drying and burning the potato, varies from 0.76 to 1.58 of
 the weight of the  potato in  the  natural  state.   It consists, in  large proportion, of potash salts,
 with some soda and lime salts. These bases are combined with carbonic acid (produced by  the
 decomposition of the malic and  oxalic acids), phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid  (formed by  the
 oxidation of  the sulphur of the protein matters), and hydrochloric acid.
    Diseases of  TnE  Potato.—The potato is subject to various diseases, the chief
 of which are  the curl,  the scab, and two  sorts of rot—one called the dry rot, the
 other  the int rot.   Martius8  mentions two other  maladies also; namely, the rust,
 and the blue pork, but they are imperfectly known.   The disease, called the potato
 murrain, or potato blight, which recently raged  epidemically among the potatoes of
 Europe and America,9 was a  kind of rot, usually of  the humid or wet kind.   The
 cause  of this, as of the other maladies of the potato, is  very obscure.10
   The scab (porrigo tuberum solani) is characterized by the surfaces of the tubers becoming
 "covered with pustules, which at length become cup-shaped,and are powdered within with  an
 olive-yellow meal, consisting  of the spores of a fungus,'' which  Martius calls Protomyces Tube-
 rum Solani, but which  Mr. Berkeley terms  Tubercinia  Scabies  (Sub-order Hyphomycetes__see
 ante, p. bO).
   In  the dry rot (gangra-na sicca  tuberum solani) "the  tubers, when stored for winter  use, or
 when planted, become impregnated with a kind of mould, and are  at length so hard that they
 can scarcely be  broken, and,  instead of producing shoots, merely throw out a  few small  mis-
 shapen tubers."  In 1830, this disease was first  noticed  in Germany.  Martius ascribes it to the
 growth of a peculiar fungus, the Fusisporium Solani (Sub-order Hyphomycetes—see ante, p. 80).
   The wet rot (gangra-na humida tuberum  solani) differs  from the  preceding in the circumstance
 that the tubers become soft instead of bard; and parasitic fungi, referred  by Fries to his genus

  '  Ann. d, Chimie, 1826.                             « Buchner's Repert. Bd. xxxix. p. 480, 1831.
   Journ. fur prakt. Chemie, Bd. i.p.58; and Buchner's  Repert. Bd. xlviii. p. 336, 1834
  * Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. v. p. 263, 1845.
  « Baup (Buchner's Repert. 2te  Reihe, Bd. iii. p. 390, 1835) says that the potato yields sufficient citric
 acid to udmit <;f lU being  employed  for the preparation of this acid for  commercial purposes.  He also
 stated thut he lound succinic acid and a new acid, which he calls solano-tuberic acid, in potatoes
  • Annal. der Chem. u. Pharm. Bd.  Ii. p. 246, 1S44.
  1 Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edit. p. 905, 1847.
  • DicKartoffel-Epidrmiedcr U tzt,-n Jahre oder die Stockfaule und Rdude der Kartoffeln, geschildert
  .-.V **/"• u"?cltl"ht,n Verhalt,i>■.>,» trOrttrt, von Dr. C. Fr. Ph. v. Martius, Miinchen, lsif.
10 MJ ,lr8tl")tlceo' thed'sense in England was by Dr  Bell Salter, in the Gardiner's Chronicle, Aug.
 ' Tin- fungal  hypothesis of the potato blight has been ably advocated by Mr. Berkeley, in a paper entitled
Observations,Botanical and Physiological, on the Potato Murrain, published in the Journal of the Horti-
cultural Sociny, yd  i p 9, 1*4(1  Most authors ascribe the disease to peculiar atmospherical or meteor".
laical conditions   Mr. >,,,.•,■ (The Potato Plant, its Us.s  and Properties, together with the  Cause of the
Present Malady, l-K.) attributes  it to an animal paras.te, the Aphis vastator-a.  species of hemipterous
 eaf o  W(   l,uncture» th" leaf, sucks the sap, and thus, by exhausting the plant, causes the death of the 
500
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Solanace.e.
Periola (Sub-order Gasteromycetes—see ante, p. 88), appear, for the most part, under the form
of hemispherical masses bursting through the cuticle.
  The potato murrain, or potato blight, commonly called the potato disease, is closely allied to, if it be
not identical with, the rot—usually, the wet rot.  But, according to Mr. Berkeley, it is character-
ized  by the presence of Botrytis  infestans (Sub order Hyphomycetes—see ante, p, 80). Tlie
malady commences in the leaves, and  extends from thence by the stems to the tubers.  Both
on the inferior surface of the leaves and in  the tubers a peculiar fungus has been discovered
called by Dr. Montagne  the Botrytis infestans, which has been very fully described and figured
by Mr. Berkeley.—The  malady seems to affect chiefly the protein  constituents  of the potato.
Liebig1 states that a  part of  the vegetable albumen which  usually  prevails  in the potato has
become converted into casein. The starch appears to be unaltered in quality.
   Physiological Effects.  1.  Of the herb.—An extract obtained from the stalks
and  leaves of potatoes was«declared by Dr. J. Latham2 to possess narcotic properties
in doses of two or three grains, but the cases adduced are not satisfactory. Further-
more, his  experiments were repeated  by Dr. Worsham3 with very different results
for 100  grains produced  no sensible effects.  The  observations of Nauche,4 however
tend to confirm Latham's statements.
   2. Of the tubers.—Potatoes, when in good condition, and cooked by boiling, form
a nutritious and easily digestible article of food.  The starch, sugar, gum (dextrine),
and fat, serve for the production of fatty matters, sugar, lactic acid, and, by com-
bustion, of heat and carbonic acid.   The protein  matters (albumen, gluten, and
casein) are plastic elements of nutrition,  and serve  for the production of fibrinous,
albuminous, and gelatigenous  tissues.  According to Gunsford, the  non-digestible
constituents of  the potato, and which he found in the excrements, are  the cellular,
fibrous,  and vascular  tissues, with which  some undigested starch grains are inter-
mixed.
   Potatoes are valuable  antiscorbutics.  Sir G-.  Blane, Julia Fontanelle, Nauche,
Dr.  Baly,  and others, have testified to  their valuable  preservative qualities  against
scurvy.5   These have been ascribed  to the  vegetable acids contained in the tubers,
but  Dr.  Garrod (see  vol.  i. p. 461) attributes them to the presence of a large quan-
tity of potash.
   From an experiment made at the Glasgow Bridewell, it would appear that baked
potatoes are less nourishing than boiled ones.
   The process of  cooking potatoes is  useful in two ways;  by effecting changes in
the  nutritive  principles  (e. g.  rendering the starch digestible), and  by extracting
some noxious matter (solanina).   The water in which potatoes are boiled possesses
some noxious  properties; Nauche found  that it  augmented  the  renal and biliary
secretions, and slightly affected the nervous system.
   Uses.   1.  Of the herb.—The extract  has been used as a narcotic and antispas-
modic to allay cough, spasm, rheumatic pains, &c.   The dose  is from one-eighth to
half a grain.
   2.  Of  the tubers.—Scraped  potato is a  popular  application to burns and scalds.
Boiled potatoes have been used for the formation of emollient poultices. Tbey may
be employed  as an  antidote in  poisoning by iodine (see vol.  i. pp. 202 and 405).
For dietetical purposes potatoes are valuable antiscorbutics.   In diabetes, however,
they are objectionable on account of the  large quantity of starch which they con-
tain.  But bread  made of potato and cellulose (rasped potatoes deprived, by wash-
ing, of starch) has been employed as a bread for diabetic patients.6
   Potatoes are  used  by bakers in the preparation of the ordinary loaf bread of Lon-
don (see'ante, p.  126).

  1 Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. v. p. 263, 1845.
  2 Med. Trans, vol. i. p. 92.                          3  United States Dispensatory.
  4 Xauche, Journ. de Chim. Med. t. vii. p. 373.         s  See my Treatise on Food and Diet, 1'1>-
  6 Percy, Chemical Gazette, vol. vii.  p. 119,1849.—The following is Mr. Palmer's receipt for making tmi
bread : " Take the ligneous matter of 16 lbs. of potatoes washed free from starch, i lb. of mutton suet, ilb-
of butter, 12 eggs, £ oz. of carbonate of soda, and 2 oz. of dilute  hydrochloric acid. This quantity toM
divided into eight cakes, and in a quick oven baked until nicely browned."  Care must be taken to pr»-
cure pure hydrochloric acid, as some commercial sorts contain arsenic (see vol. i. p. 300:.—Tuis w*™
may be regarded as a substitute for the bran bread already described (see ante, p 127). 
Potato Starch.
501
  1,  AMYLI'M SOLANI TUBEROSI; Potato Starch.—Obtained  by  washing  potatoes,
then rasping or  grinding them to a pulp, and repeatedly washing the  latter with
water.   The washings are  strained through a sieve to separate the fibre or cellular
tissue, and then allowed to stand  at rest, by which the starch is deposited, and  is
afterwards washed and dried.
  The quantity of starch yielded by potatoes varies with the variety or sort, the soil,
the climate, and the  season.  Payen found  the same variety of potato to yield, in Oc-
tober, 17.2 per cent, of starch; in November, 16.8 ; in December,  15.6; in January,
15.5; in  Feburary, 15.2,  in March, 15.0; and in  April, 14.5.   In general, the
centre of  the potato yields the  smallest portion,  the heel end which is  attached to
the rootlet the most, and the rose or upper end an  intermediate portion of starch.
  Potato  starch is white and pulverulent, and, on  account of the  large size of its
particles,1 has a satiny or glistening character.   The smaller grains-are circular or
globular; the larger ones elliptical, oblong, ovate, or obtusely triangular.  Frequently,
their shape  is irregular, and approximates to that of  an  oyster-shell, or a mussel-
shell.   Their nucleus, central cavity, or hilum, is very distinct; and their laminated
structure is indicated by a system of concentric or excentric rings  or zones surround-
ing the nucleus.  It is  most allied in appearance to the starches of Marantacete.
The characters by which they are distinguished from  West  Indian arrowroot, and
from tous-les-mois, have  been before pointed out (see ante, pp. 226 and 228).  The
mode of distinguishing  potato  starch  from wheat starch has likewise been  stated
(see ante, p. 125).
   In its general chemical  properties it agrees with other starchy bodies.   In cold
water it is insoluble.  If 1 part of potato starch be mixed with  15 parts of water,
and  heated, the  liquid begins to be  thick  and  mucilaginous at about  140° F.;  and
as the heat  augments, especially  from  162° F.  to  212° F., it acquires a pasty or
gelatinous consistence.    Starch-paste or  starch-mucilage  is  not, however, a true
solution of  starch in water; the starch grains are burst and  exfoliated,  the coats or
laminae being hydrated  and  enormously  swollen.   In cold water, to  which a small
quantity of caustic  potash or soda has been added, they become enormously swollen
(see ante, p. 125).   Starch-mucilage in  the  cold becomes  intensely blue on the
addition of iodine;  the  colour is destroyed by heat or caustic alkalies.
   The greater facility with which potato starch gelatinizes when rubbed in a mortar
with a  mixture  of  equal parts of  commercial  hydrochloric acid and water ;3 the
strong smell of formic acid emitted when it is rubbed with hydrochloric acid; the
dove-gray colour which  it assumes when exposed to the vapour of iodine;3 and the
transparency of the  mucilage which  it forms with boiling water (whence it has been
termed soluble starch), are characters by which it has been attempted to distinguish
potato starch from other sorts of starch, but with no great success, as they are not
to be relied on.
   J'otato starch, in  the  pure or anhydrous state,  consists of CiaH909; but, as  found
in commerce, it contains water.

                            Composition of Potato Starch.
         Anhydrous starch  (as combined with oxide of lead).....= CuH'0'
         Starch dried in a vacuum at from 2123 to 2S-P F.......= C'H'O* HO
         Starch dried in a vacuum at 683 F............._" __ C"H3093H0
         Starch air-dried at 683 F. (hygr. 0.6)..........." _ c^lPO'SHO
         Si.irch dried in air saturated with humidity........'. = CiaH'0*'llHO
         Surch drained as much as possible............._ CwH'09'l6H0
 ' The following measurements, in parts of an English inch, often particles of potato starch, were made
for ine by Mr. deorge Jackson :—                                              '
                 Length.   Breadth.
     1........0.0023 X 0.0016
     2........0.0021 X 0.0014
     3........0.0018 X 0.0013
     1........0.0011 X 0.0009
     5........0.0009 X 0.0007
' Scharling, Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. ii p. 417, 1^1'?.
1 Gobley, Journ. d. Pharm. ser. 3me, t. v. p. 2lJ9, 1~4-1.
              Length.   Breadth.
 6........0.0007  X  0.0006
 7........0.0005  X  0.0005
 ^........0.0004  X  0.0004
 9........0.0003  X  0.0003
10........0.0002  X  0.0002 
502
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Solanaceje.
   Potato starch is sometimes adulterated.  M. Dietrich1 mentions  having received
some which was adulterated to the  extent of  50 per cent, with comminuted fibre
and which prevented  the employment of the starch in  the fabrication of yeast for
a distillery.
   Potato starch possesses the alimentary properties of other starchy substances and
which have been before noticed (see vol. i.  p.  119, and ante, 107).  It does not
however, yield so firm a jelly as some other starches, and has been said to be apt to
occasion acidity, especially  in infants.   It is sold under the various names of potato
flour, English arrowroot, Bright's nutritious farina, &c.;  and is  used as a fari-
naceous food for infants and  invalids, as well as for the preparation of puddings and
souffles, and,  as a thickening ingredient, in gravies, sauces, &c.
   Potato starch is used in  the  production of a factitious  sago  (see ante, p. 166)
in the preparation of dextrine, and in the manufacture of potato sugar (see ante, p
151).
   2, DEXTRIM; Dextrine;  Dextrinum;  Starch-Gum.   Formula C12H9O,H0.
This substance is called " dextrine," from its property of rotating to the right a ray
of plane polarized light.   There are three modes of procuring it from starch; viz,,
by torrefaction, by the action of dilute acids (usually nitric acid), and by tbe action
of diastase.   The impure  dextrine  obtained by  torrefying or roasting starch is
termed  roasted starch or leicomme (from  %eloe, smooth; and gomme, the  French
name for gum !).   This sort of dextrine resembles  British gum (see ante, p. 125),
is pulverulent, and has the aspect of  starch, but it usually possesses a yellowish
tint in  consequence  of being  over-roasted.   A second method consists in moistening
1000 parts of potato starch with 300 parts of water, to which 2 parts of nitric acid
have been added.  The mixture is to be allowed to dry spontaneously, and is  after-
wards  heated, for one or two hours, in a stove at 212° F. or 280° F.; the trans-
formation is then complete.
   Dextrine is soluble in water and in dilute spirit, but is insoluble  in alcohol.  Its
solution is perfectly limpid;  and, by concentration and  solidification, it is obtained
in  an amorphous form like gum arabic.  It  is  sometimes made up in tear-like
masses in imitation of gum  arabic, and in this state is called artificial gum.   This,
when fresh, has an  odour like that of a cucumber;  but, by keeping, I find that it
loses this smell.  The solution of dextrine yields, with acetate of lead, a precipitate
(dextrinate of lead).   As  usually found in the shops,  the solution  strikes a  violet
or reddish tint with iodine;  but in  this case the starch has been incompletely con-
verted into dextrine, which, when pure, is not coloured  by iodine.
   Dextrine in  many of  its characters  resembles  ordinary gum; from which, how-
ever, it is distinguished  by  its  right-handed rotation of a ray of plane polarized
light, and by its yielding oxalic acid,  but not mucic acid, when heated with nitric
acid.   Saccharine matter, when mixed with dextrine, may be  separated by strong
spirit, which  more readily dissolves  sugar than  dextrine.   The freedom  of dextrine
from starch is readily shown by the iodine test.
   Dextrine is used  in the arts  as a substitute for  gum, size, and paste. The sac-
charine solution of dextrine obtained by the action of diastase (contained in the
infusion of malt) on potato starch is used in Paris  in the manufacture of pains de
luxe, and for  the fabrication  of beer and other alcoholic liquors.   In medicine, dex-
trine is employed as a nutrient, as  an emollient, and as an agglutinant.  In the
French hospitals  it is  used in tisanes as a substitute for gum.   Devergie  has em-
ployed it with benefit in  the treatment of eczema.   Velpeau has employed dextrine
as a substitute for gum arabic or starch, in the preparation of  bandages for  main-
taining the reduction of fractures by what is called " the immovable  apparatus.
For this purpose, 100 parts  of dextrine are moistened first with a small quantity of
1 Chemical Gazette, vol. ii. p. 20, 1844. 
Bittersweet:—History;  Botany; Description.           503
spirit of camphor, and  then  mixed  with 40 parts of water.   The bandages are
soaked in the thick mucilage thus obtained.1


    176. SOLANUM  DULCAMARA, Linn.-WOODY NIGHT-
                        SHADE; BITTERSWEET.
                           Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Monogynia.
                        (Ramus novellus, L.—Twigs, E. D. U. S.)

   History.—Fraas9 declares this plant to be the oi^xvot vnvutixoc of Dioscorides
(lib. iv.  cap. 73).   Sprengel3 considers it to be the Citocatia of the Abbess Hilde-
gard, of Bingen,  who died A. D.  1180.   But the derivation of the word Citocatia
(cito and caeare)  negatives, in my opinion, this  supposition.   The first undoubted
notice of Dulcamara occurs in the work of Tragus.4
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—See ante, p. 497.
   Sp. Char.—Stem  shrubby, zigzag.   Leaves cordate-ovate; upper ones auriculate-
hastate.   Flowers drooping (I3abington).
   Root woody.   Stem  twining,  branched, rising  (when supported)  to  the height
of many feet.  Lea res acute, generally smooth; tbe lower ones ovate or heart-shaped;
upper, more or less  perfectly halbert-shaped; all entire at the margin.   Clusters
either opposite to the leaves or terminal, drooping, spreading, smooth, alternately
subdivided.   Bracts minute.   Flowers elegant, purple, with two round green  spots
at the base of each segment.   Berries oval, scarlet, juicy.
   Hab.—Indigenous.  In  hedges and  thickets, especially  in watery  situations.
Flowers in June and July.
   Var. 8 tomentosum, Kocli.—Stem round, almost  glabrous  throughout.—Woods and hedges;
common.
   Var. y marinum, Babington; S. lignosum seu Dulcamara marina, Ray.—Branches of the present
year, and leaves fleshy and usually clothed with hairs incurved  upwards.   Stem angular, pros-
trate, diffuse, much  branched.   Leaves all (?) cordate, not hastate.—Pebbly sea-beach.  Ren-
ville, Cunnamara, Galway; Lizard Point, Cornwall; Shoreham, Sussex (glabrous).
   Description.—The annual stems (caules seu stipites dulcamarse) are collected
in the autumn, after the leaves have fallen.
   It is to be gathered in autumn when destitute of leaves.—Ph. Lond.
   When fresh, they have an unpleasant odour, which they lose by drying.  Their
 taste is at first bitter, afterwards slightly acrid and sweet.   The epidermis is green-
ish-gray, the wood light, and the  pith very light and spongy.
   Composition.—The stems have been analyzed by Pfaff.5   100 parts of the air-
dried stems lost  17.4 parts of water  when  completely dried.   From 100  parts of
perfectly dried stems Pfaff obtained bittersweet  extractive (picroylycion)  21.817,
vegtto-animal matter 3.125, gummy extractive 12.029, gluten with green wax 1.4,
rtsin contain ing benzoic acid 2.74, gummy extractive, starch, sulphate and vegetable
salts of lime 2.0,  oxalate and phosphate of lime with extractive 4.0, and woody fibre
62.0 (excess 9.111).  Desfosses8  discovered solanina in the stems.
   1. Di•lcamaiun; Picroglycion, Pfaff; Dulcarin, Desfosses.—Crystalline; has both a bitter and
a sweet taste, is fusible, soluble in water, alcohol, and acetic ether, and is not precipitated from
its solution by either infusion of nutgalls or  metallic salts.7  PelietierS thinks that it is  sugar
combined with solanina.                _j_
   2. S.ilamva; .Sola niti; Solanine. Symbol S0.  Formula C84H68N02*.  Eq. Weight 810?—This
alkaloid hns been discovered in several species of Solanum; viz. S. Dulcamara, S. tuberosum, S.
nigrum, and S. verbascifolium.   It resembles sulphate of quinia, but its needle-like crystals are
finer and shorter.  It restores the blue colour of litmus paper reddened by an acid.  It dissolves
  • Mr. Smr, (London M.dical Gazette, N. S. vol. i. Feb. 23, 1839), in his paper, « On the Formation of
Moulding Tablets for Fractures," says, that « a mixture of carbonate of lime with the solution of dextrine
made a composition which answered very well," but it was not equal  to a composition of gum and whit-
  » Synopsis Plant. Ft. Classic*, p. 168, 1845.                 . Hist. Rei Herb. vol. i. p. 227
  ■ 5E2!rJ; °Aa^.p,.3v,9ii. P. 4u.                        * s*st-de Mnt- *Ud-BJ- - s.-soe.
  ' Soubeirnn, Traitt de Pharm. t. ii. p. 52.                  . Journ. de pAarOT. vii. 416. 
504
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Solanaceje.
in acids, and is precipitated from its solution by the caustic alkalies.   Some of the salts (as the
acetate and hydrochlorate) have a gummy appearance when evaporated to dryness; others fai
the phosphate and sulphate) are crystallizable.  Iodine strikes a characteristic turbid brown
colour with a solution of solanina or of its salts, owing to the formation of the insoluble brown
iodide of solanina.'  If Blanchet's analysis be correct, solanina differs from the other vegetable
alkalies in the small quantity of nitrogen which it contains, and in its very high atomic weHit
A grain of solanina, dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid,  killed a rabbit in six hours;  four "rains
of the sulphate caused, in an hour, paralysis of the hind legs; and, in eight hours, death.2  Sou-
beiran says it does not dilate the pupils like the other alkalies of Solanaceae.
   Chemical Properties.—A strong decoction of dulcamara is slightly darkened
by tincture of iodine.   Iodic acid  had no effect on it.   Iodide of potassium render^
it feebly yellow.   Tincture of galls had  no effect.
   Physiological Effects.—Not very  obvious.   Its decoction operates as a  dia-
phoretic and diuretic.  It is  said also to promote  secretion from the mucous surfaces
and to  diminish  sensibility.   In excessive doses, dulcamara is  stated to have acted
as an acro-narcotic.3  Chevallier*  says a young man  experienced  narcotism from
carrying a bundle of the plant on his head.    But the accuracy of all these observa-
tions has been called in question  by Jos. Frank,5 by Dunal, and by Fages.8   The
first gave  the decoction, the latter  the  extract and fruit, in very large doses, without
any obvious  effects.
   Uses.—Dulcamara  has been thought serviceable in  chronic pulmonary catarrhs
in rheumatic and gouty complaints, in chronic skin diseases,  and in various cachectic
conditions of the system, in which sarsaparilla  has been found beneficial.  As a
remedy for  lepra, it was introduced to  the  notice of British practitioners by Dr.
Crichton.   For this disease, it has been  declared a  most effectual remedy by Bate-
man f while  Rayer8 speaks of its good effects in  eczema and psoriasis.  In the few
cases in which I have tried it, it proved useless.

   DECOCTUM DILCAMARJ!, L. E. D. [U. S.]; Decoction  of Bittersweet—(Dulcamara,
sliced [chopped down, E.), 5x [gj, E. \_U. S.];  gss, D.~\; Water [Distilled, L.] Oij
[fgxxiv, E.; Oss, D.; Ojss, U. S.~\.  Boil [down to a pint, L. E.; for ten minutes,
D.~] and strain.)—Diaphoretic and diuretic.    The usual dose stated in books i.<  fg.ss
to f^j.   But I  have given fgiv for a dose.   Bayer  has given four ounces of the
root in  decoction in twenty-four  hours.


           177.  Solanum  nigrum,  Linn.—Black Nightshade.

                             Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Monogynia.
                                        (Herba.)

  ^Tfu^vo; xwrxTo;,  Dioscorides (lib. iv.  cap. 71); Common or Garden Nightshade—Stem herba-
ceous, with tubercled angles; a  foot  or more  high.  Leaves  ovate, obtusely  dentate or wavy,
attenuated below.   Flowers lateral, drooping, sometimes with a musky scent;  corolla white.
Berries globular, black, or rarely green  when ripe.   Indigenous: waste grounds.  No complete
analysis of it  has  been made.  Desfosses9 has found  malate of solanina in the fruit.  Black
nightshade possesses narcotic properties, but its powers appear to be neither great nor uniform.
Its emanations are  said to be soporific; and in Bohemia, a handful of the fresh plant is some-
times placed in the cradles of infants to promote sleep.10  In England, this plant has been em-
ployed as a resolvent.11  Smith12 says, a grain or two of the dried leaf has sometimes been givui
to promote various secretions, possibly,  he adds, by  exciting a great and rather dangerous agita-
tion in the viscera.
 1 Baumann, Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. iii. p. 354, 1844.
 2 Otto, Pharm. Central-Blatt. fUr 1834, p. 455.
 3 Murray, App. Med. t. i. p. 60; and Schlegel, Hufeland's Journal, Bd. liv. St. 2, S. 27.
 * Diet, des Drog. t. ii. p. 228.                                * Handb. d. Toxicol. S. 61, 18'«.
 6 Orfila, Toxicol. Gin.                                     ' Synopsis of Cutaneous Diseases.
 * Treatise on Diseases of the Skin, bv Dr. Willis, p. 91.
 9 Journ. de Pharm. t. vii. p 414, 1821.
10 Weitenweber, quoted by Dierbach, Die neueste Entdeck. in d. Mat. Med. Bd. ii. p. 907,1^43^_
11 Gataker, 06s. on the Use of Solanum, 1757; Bromfield, Account of the Engl. Nightshades, 17Xi.
12 English Flora, vol. i. p. 31S, 1824. 
Capsicum:—History;  Botany;  Description.             505
  178. CAPSICUM ANNUUM, Linn.-et C. FASTIGIATUM, Blume.
                           Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Monogynia.
 (Capsicum Fastigiatum, Bl.—Fructus, L.—Fruit of Capsicum annuum and other species; Capsicum or
                      Chillies, E.—Capsicum annuum; the fruit, D.)

   History.—The piperitis or siliquastrum of Pliny,1 is declared by Sprengel3  to
 be  undoubtedly Capsicum annuum.   But confidence in this opinion is greatly di-
 minished by the doubt entertained as to this plant  being a native of Asia.8  Of
 course, if it  be exclusively a native of America, there  is no reason for supposing
 that Pliny could have been acquainted with it.   Fraas* considers it  to have been
 Capsicum longum, DC,  which Theophrastus5 terms txertsot, drto/irxis-   The  term
 capsicum (xd^txov) occurs first in Johannes Actuarius.
   Botany.   Gen. Char.— Calyx  5—G-cleft.   Corolla hypogynous, rotate;  tube
 very short;  limb plaited, 5—G-cleft.   Stamens 5—6, inserted in the throat of the
 corolla, exserted; filaments very short; anthers connivent, dehiscing longitudinally.
 Ovary 2-, 3-, 4-celled; the placentae adnate to the base of the dissepiment or central
 angle.   Style simple, subclavate; stigma obtuse, obsoletely 2—3-lobed.  Berry juice-
 less, polymorphous, incompletely 2—3-celled, placentae and septa deliquescent supe-
 riorly.   Seeds many, reniform; embryo within fleshy albumen, peripherical,  hemi-
 cyclical (Endlicher).
   1.  C.  Annuum, Linn.   Common Capsicum  or  Chilly Pepper.—Fruit oblong,
 pendulous,  and erect.   Petioles glabrous.  Stem  herbaceous.   Calyx obsoletely
 5-toothed.
   Herbaceous annual,  1  to 2 feet  high.   Leaves ovate or oblong, acuminate, long-
 stalked, almost entire, sometimes hairy on  the veins underneath.   Flowers white.
 Berry scarlet, yellow, variegated with red  and yellow, or dark green; variable in
 shape, being oblong, round, or cordate.
   America.    A doubtful  native of the East Indies.   Cultivated  in England.
   2.  Capsicum fastigiatum, Blume, Bijdr. 705, L.; C. frutescens, Linn. Sp. PI.
 but not  Hist. Cliff.   Frutescent;  branches tetragonal, fastigiate, diverging, pubes-
 cently scabrous; fructiferous calyx, subcylindrically truncate; fructiferous peduncles,
 generally twin, erect; berry, oblong-cylindrical, straight;  leaves  oval or lanceolate,
 acuminated  at both ends, minutely and serrulately ciliated.—India.   Shrub 1 or
 2 feet high.
   Descri I'-noN.—1.  The dried fruit, sold by druggists as chillies (fructus vel baccse
 rapsici annul), is  flat, more or less shrivelled, oblong, blunt or pointed at one end,
 while the calyx or  stalk is usually  attached at the other end.   The length of the
 berry (independent of the stalk) is  two or three inches, the  breadth one-half to
 three-quarters of  an inch, the colour  yellowish or reddish-brown, the taste hot and
 pungent, the odour none.  The epidermis is  tough and  leathery;  the seeds  are
 flattened aud whitish.   The  recent fruit, called capsicum or chillies, grown in this
 country,  and sold  for  pickling, is, when ripe, yellow or red, but it is frequently
gathered green; its size and  shape are variable, and it is distinguished  as  long-
podded, short-podded, and heart-shaped.
  o
bin
   I.  '\ he capsules sold by druggists as Guinea, pepper ( Capsicum Guineense, L.) or
   I pipper (baceic capsici) do not exceed  an inch in length, and are about two or
three  lines  broad; their  colour is orange-red, their odour aromatic and pungent
Their properties  are similar to those of chillies, than which they are  much hotter
and more ticry.   Their powder is  ('ay, nne pepper, so extensively employed as a con-
diment.   On comparing these fruits with those of C. frutescens, Linn., in the East
Indian Solanaceiu  belonging to the Linnajan  Society, they appeared to me to be
identical.   But in the London Pharmacopeia, 1851, they are referred to C. fasti-

 • &^'^                                 " 'His, Rci Herb. vol.T^oT
 • Syn.ps. Plant. Fl. CI. p. 109, 1M5.                         , UUu pian[ Ub Jj£  cap ^ 
506
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Solanacea
giatum, Blume, which is identical with one of the plants described by Linnajus at
 C. frutescens.   It deserves  notice, however, that  the commercial fruit  is brought
from Western Africa, where C. fastigiatum has not hitherto been  found.  In the
Niger Flora, Sir W. Hooker gives C. frutescens, Var. and Linn. Sp. PI. p. 271  M
having been found by Vogel on the Island of St. Antonio.
   Besides the  above, several other species of Capsicum  are employed dicteticallv
and medicinally.
  Oblong-cylindrical, straight, less than an inch in length.—Pharm. Lond.
  Capsicum cerasiforme, Wild.—The fruit of this species is called cherry chilly or cherry pepper,
It is small, round, and cherry-shaped.
  Capsicum grossum, Linn.; Bell Pepper.—Fruit large, oblong or ovate, red or yellow,
   Composition.—The fruit was analyzed, in  1816, by Maurach,1 in the same year
by  Bucholz,3 and  in the following year by Braconnot.3
            Bucholz's Analysis.
Acrid soft resin (capsicin)...........   4.0
Wax.......................   7.6
Bitter aromatic extractive...........   8.6
Extractive with some gum...........21.0
Gum........................   9.2
Albuminous matter...............   3.2
Woody fibre...................28.0
Water.......................  12.0
Loss........................   6.4
Fruit of Capsicum annuum without seeds  . . 100.0  Fruit of Capsicum annuum
            BraconnoVs Analysis.
Acrid oil.....................
Wax with red colouring matter........
Brownish starchy matter............
Peculiar gum...................
Animalized matter  ...............
Woody fibre...................
Salts (citrate of potash 6.0, phosphate of pot-
  ash and chloride of potassium 3.4)......
 1.9
 0.0
 9.0
 6.0
 5.0
67.8

 9.4
  Capsicin, Bucholz ;  Acrid Soft Resin; Acrid Oil, Braconnot.—Obtained by digesting the alco-
holic extract in ether, and evaporating the ethereal solution.  It is a thick liquid, of a yellowish
red or reddish-brown colour, which becomes very fluid when heated, and, at a higher temperature,
is dissipated in fumes.  Half a grain of it, volatilized in a large room, causes all who respire
the air of the room to cough and sneeze.   By exposure to air and light it solidifies.  It is de-
colorized by chlorine.  It is slightly soluble in water and in vinegar; but very much so in alco-
hol, ether, oil of turpentine, and the caustic alkalies.  With baryta  it forms a solid acrid com-
bination.
   Physiological Effects.—Capsicum belongs to  the spices (see vol. i. p. 253),
and is more closely allied, by its effects, to  the peppers (see ante, p. 351) than to
any other  article of the  Materia Medica.   Sundelin,* however, considers it to be
more related to pyrethrum.   Its active  principle is more fixed, and  its  operation is
more permanent and violent, than mustard or horseradish.
   Its hot  and fiery taste  is familiar to  every one.   Applied to the  skin, capsicum
proves  rubefacient and vesicant.  Swallowed in small doses, it  creates  a sensation
of warmth in the stomach;  and  in torpid and languid habits  proves a valuable
stimulant, and  a promoter of the digestive  functions.   Taken in somewhat larger
quantities, it produces a glow over the body, excites thirst,  and quickens the pulse;
the latter effect,however, is not  in proportion to its local effect.   Like the peppers,
it is said to exercise a stimulant influence over the urino-genital organs.   In excemu
doses we can easily believe  that vomiting, purging, abdominal pain,  and  gastric
inflammation, ascribed  to it by  Vogt,s may be induced by it, though I am not ac-
quainted with any cases in which these effects have occurred.   Richter8 mentions,
in addition to the symptoms  just mentioned,  a paralyzed and altered  condition of
the nervous influence, an affection of the head, drunkenness, and giddiness, as being
produced by large doses.
  Uses.—Capsicum is  more employed  as a condiment than as a medicine.   It is
added to various articles of food, either to  improve  their flavour, or, if difficult of
digestion, to promote their assimilation,  and  to prevent flatulence.   The inhabitants
of tropical climates employ it to stimulate the digestive  organs, and thereby to
counteract the relaxing and enervating influence of external heat.
  As a medicine, it  is principally valuable as a local stimulant to the mouth, throat,
1 Berl Jahrb. Bd. xvii. S. 63.
3 Ann. de Chim. Phys. vi. 122.
s Pharmakodyn. Bd. ii. S. 581, 2te Aufl.
Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. ii. 1310.
Handb. d sp.Hcilm. Bd. ii. S.41,3teAuH.
Ausf. Arzneim. Bd. ii. S. 179. 
Common Mandrake.
507
and  stomach.   Its constitutional not being in proportion to its topical effects, it is
of little value as a general  or diffusible stimulant.   Administered  internally, cap-
sicum has long been esteemed in cases of cynanche maligna.   It was used, in 1786,
with great success by Mr. Stephens1 and by Mr. Collins.2  It promoted the sepa-
ration  of the  sloughs,  and  soon  improved the constitutional symptoms.  Mr.
Hcadby8 also employed it both internally and by way of gargle.  Its use has been
extended to scarlatina anginosa*  As a gargle, in relaxed conditions of the throat,
its efficacy is undoubted.   The  powder or  tincture may be applied, by means of a
camel-hair pencil, to a relaxed uvula.   It is a very useful gastric stimulant in en-
feebled, languid, and torpid conditions of  the stomach.   Thus in the dyspepsia of
drunkards, as well as of gouty subjects, it  has been found useful.5   In various dis-
eases attended with  diminished susceptibility of stomach, capsicum  is an exceed-
ingly useful adjunct to other powerful  remedies, the operation of which it promotes
by raising the dormant sensibility of this  viscus; as in cholera, intermittents, low
forms of fever, dropsies, &c.  Dr. Wright8 speaks in high terms of it as a remedy
for obviating the black vomit—a symptom of the fever of tropical climates, at one
time considered fatal.   A capsicum  cataplasm may be used with advantage to occa-
sion  rub< fiction in any cases  in which a rubefacient counter-irritant is indicated;
as in the coma and delirium of fever, in chronic  rheumatism, &c; unless kept on
for a long period it does not vesicate.
   Administration.—The poicder  of capsicum is usually given in doses of from
gr. v to gr.  x, made  into pills with crumbs of bread.  The dose  of  the tincture
will  be mentioned presently.  The infusion (prepared by digesting Jij of capsicum
in f£x of boiling water for two hours)  may be administered in doses of f^ss.  But,
in malignant sore-throat and scarlatina, capsicum has been employed in much larger
doses.   Stephen's pepper  medicine,  consisted of two table-spoonfuls of  small red
pepper, or three of the common Cayenne pepper, and two teaspoonfuls of fine salt,
digested in half a pint of boiling water.  To the liquor,  strained when cold, half  a
pint of  very sharp vinegar is added.   A table-spoonful of this mixture to be given
to an adult every half hour.  The capsicum gargle  is prepared by infusing 3ss of
capsicum  in a pint  of boiling water;  or by adding  fjvj of the tincture  to f^viij
of the infusion of roses;  or, in some cases, Stephen's pepper medicine may be used
as a gargle.

   TINTTl'lU CAPSICI,  L.  E. D. [U. S.];  Tincture of Capsicum.—(Capsicum, bruised
[or,  if  percolation l»e followed,  in  moderately fine   powder,  E\ 3x  [giss, D.~\;
Proof Spirit Oij [Oj, /).].  Digest for seven [fourteen, Z?.] days, then  express and
strain  [strain, squeeze  the  residuum,  and  filter the  liquors.   [The U. S. Pharm
directs ('apsicum, in  powder, 31; Diluted Alcohol Oij.]   This tincture is best pre-
pared by percolation, which may be  commenced  so soon as the capsicum is made
into  a  pulp with a little of the spirit,  JK].)—Dose  r^x to ffjj.  Employed in the
low stage of typhus  and scarlet fevers, and in gangrenous sore-throat,  and to pre-
vent the nausea which oil of turpentine is apt to occasion.   Properly diluted, it
may  be used as a gargle, as above mentioned.  Externally, it is sometimes used  as
a local stimulant.


    179.  Mandragora  Officinarum, Linn-Common  Mandrake.
                           Sex. Syst.  Pentandria Monogynia.
                                    (Radix.)
  M**eySpt /««Xa;, brlfxilo, xip«'«, &c, Dioscorides, lib. iv. cap. 76; Mandragora, Plinv Hist
N..I. lib. xxv. cap. 94, ed. \ alp.; Atropa Mandragora, Linn—South of Europe  Mandrake  is
»n aero narcotic po.son ; when swallowed, it purges violently.?  The roots, from  their  fancied

 ! ^^^l^^^^^^m  ' ""■ '•"«"*«•■■«<. vol- ii- P- 372, 1790.
 , *''>'»'*' '' '{, Scharlarhftebtr, 1C03, in Voie lei's Arzneim.
 ' tiZZ! ^tiZ'b'eZscY^an. Giftgcu-achle^t'" «"*  °^ ^ V"' 
508             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Convolvulace*:.

resemblance to the human form, were called anthropomorphon, and were supposed to  preve
barrenness.1  The root of Bryonia dioica is sold at the herb-shops as a substitute for Mandrnk
Dr. Sylvester2 has recently drawn attention to the ancient uses of this plant as an anaesthetic
Oeder XLIII.  BORAGINACE^E, Lindley.-—BORAGEWORTS.

                            BoRRAGEiE, DC.--BoRAGINEiE, Endl.

   Characters.—Calyx persistent, with 4 or 5 divisions.   Corolla hypogynous, monopetalous
generally regular, 5 cleft, sometimes 4-cleft, with  an imbricated aestivation.   Stamens inserted
upon the corolla, equal  to the number of its lobes, and  alternate with  them.   Ovary 4-parted
4-seeded, or 2-parted, 4-celled; ovules attached to the lowest point of  the cavity, amphitropal.
Style simple, arising from the  base  of the lobes of the ovary; stigma simple or bifid.  Nutt2
or 4, distinct.   Seed separable from  the pericarp, destitute of albumen ;  embryo with a superior
radicle;  cotyledons parallel with the axis, plano-convex, sometimes 4 (!) in Amsinckia.—Herb-
aceous plants or sh-ubs.  Stems round.  Leaves alternate, often  covered with asperities consisting
of hairs  proceeding  from an  indurated  enlarged base.   Flowers  in 1-sided  gyrate spikes or
racemes, or panicles, some  solitary and axillary (Lindley).
   Properties.—The plants of this order are characterized by their mucilaginous quality; they
are,  therefore, mostly harmless and  inert.
   Formerly, several borageworts were used in medicine; for example, Symphytum  officinalis,
Linn., Borrago officinalis, Linn , Cynoglossum  officinale, Linn , Pulmonaria officinalis, Linn., Lilho-
spermum officinale, Linn., and Echium vulgare, Linn.  They possess little  medicinal value (though
formerly many virtues were ascribed  to them),  and are  now obsolete.  The only boragewort
still  found in pharmaceutists' shops  is Alkanna tinctoria, Linn.


            180.  Alkanna tinctoria, Tausch.—Dyer's Alkanet.

                              Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Monogynia.
                                         (Radix.)

  "Ay^ovira, Dioscorides, lib. iv. cap. 23; Lithospermum tinctorium, Linn., Herb.  Sp.ed. i. non. ed.
ii.; Anchusa tinctoria? Desf., Atl. i. p. 156; Hayne, Arzneigew., 10,  t. ii.: Alcanna tinctoria,
Nees, Off.  Pflanz., Suppl. ii. t. 6; Handb. ii. 591; Alkanna  tinctoria,  Tausch, in Flora, 1824.
A deciduous herbaceous plant with a  perennial,  dark  blood-red root.  This, when  dried, con-
stitutes the  alkanet root  (radix alkanna tinctoria)  of  the shops, and which is sometimes called
spurious alkanet root (radix alkanna  spuria) to distinguish it from the henna or al-henna of the
Arabs (Lawsonia alba, Lam.), whose root is called the  true alkanet (radix alkanna vera).  The
plant grows on the shores of the Mediterranean, in Asia Minor, Greece, &c.
  Alkanet  root was analyzed  by John,4 who found  the constituents  to be a  peculiar colouring
matter (pseudo-alkannin) 5.50, extractive 1.00, gum 6.25, matters extracted by caustic potash 65 00,
woody fibre 18.00=95.75 [loss 4.25].  The colouring  matter resides in  the cortical part of the
root, and was regarded by Pelletier5 as a kind of  fatty acid (anchusic  acid) ; but it is  now usu-
ally considered to be. a resinoid (anchusine) whose composition is C33H2o08.  It is of a dark red
colour, fusible  at 140° F., insoluble in water, but very soluble in alcohol and in acetic acid. Hie
alkalies colour it blue.  Acetate  and subacetate  of lead, protochloride  of tin, the salts of iron
and  alumina, precipitate it; chlorine and  strong  acids destroy it.  Alkanet root communicates
its colouring matter to  oily and fatty substances; and hence is used by the  pharmaceutist to
colour lip salve (unguentum labiale), hair oil, &c.
    Order XLIV.  CONVOLVULACEyE,  R. Broint.—BIND-
                                      WEEDS.

                                   Convolvuli, Jussieu.
  Characters—Calyx persistent, in  5 divisions, remarkably imbricated, as if in more whorls
than 1, often very unequal.  Corolla  monopetalous, hypogynous, regular, deciduous; the limb
5 lobed, plaited ; the tube without scales.   Stamens 5, inserted  into the base of the corolla, and
  1 Matthiolus, Comm. Dioscor.                   a Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. vii. p. 519, hl-
  3 Smith (Prodr.Fl. Grmcce, i. 116) and Gussone (Syn. p. 218) declare the Anchusa tinctoria. Linn., He
Sp. ed. ii. p. 192 (Alkanna controversa, DC., Prodr. x. 103) to be entirely different from the 'AIIjuuki w
torin. Tausch.
  4 Chemische Schriften. iv.85; Kunze, Wnarenkunde, ii. 37.
  6 Bull, de Pharm. vi. 445, 1814; Journ. de Pharm. xix. 105, 1S33. 
TiieScammony:—History;  Botany; Preparation.          509
alternate with its segments.  Ovary simple, with 2 or 4 cells, seldom with 1 ; sometimes in 2
or 4 distinct divisions; few-seeded ; the ovules definite and erect, when more than  1 collateral;
style 1; usually divided  at the top, or as  many as the divisions of the  ovary, and arising from
their base ; stigmas obtuse or acute.   Disk annular, hypogynous.  Capsule with from  I to 4 cells,
succulent or  capsular;  the valves fitting, at  their edges, to the angles of a loose dissepiment,
bearing the seeds at its  base.  Seeds with a  small quantity of mucilaginous albumen ; embryo
curved ;  cotyledons  leafy, shrivelled ; radicle  inferior next to  the hilum.  Herbaceous plants or
shrubs, usually twining and milky, smooth, or  with a simple pubescence; sometimes erect
bushes.  Leaves alternate, undivided or lobed, seldom pinnatifid, with no stipules.  Inflorescence
nxillary or terminal; peduncles 1 or many-flowered, tlie  partial ones generally with 2 bracts,
which sometimes enlarge greatly after flowering (Lindley).
  PnoPKRTiEs.—The roots and seeds only have been used in  medicine.
  The tuberous roots of some  species  (as of jalap and scammony) contain an acrid, milky,
purgative juice, which owes its medicinal qualities to the contained resin.   Mechoacan and Tur-
peth (Ipomaa Turpethum) roots, formerly used as purgatives, are  now obsolete.   In other tube-
rous   roots (as of Batatas edulis) the  resin is deficient or absent, and starchy matter predomi-
nates; in consequence  of  which they become edible, and  are cultivated for the table.
  The seeds of some species (as of Pharbilis ccerulea)  are cathartic.


181.  CONVOLVULUS SCAMMONIA, Zm-.-THE SCAMMONY.
                             Sea;. Syst. Pentandria, Monogynia.             »
(Guinmi-resina e resecta radice emissa, L. D.—Gummy resinous exudation from incisions  into the root,
                                        E.D.)

   History.—A purgative substance called  scammony (oxauuJ>vtov) was known to
the Greeks  long before the time of  Hippocrates.1  The Father of Medicine, who
frequently  employed it, pays that  it evacuates, both upwards  and downwards, bile
and mucus, and  expels flatus.3   Dioscorides3  notices  the  plant which yields scam-
mony, and terms it axappavia,.   Pliny,4 also, speaks of scammony, which he calls
tcammonium.
   Dr. Sibthorp5  refers  the scammony of Dioscorides to  C farinosus,  a  Maderia
 species!  on what ground does  not appear, as this  supposed  species  is  not in  his
 herbarium.8   If the ordinary  reading of the text of Dioscorides be correct, this
 author represents the scammony as having hairy branches and leaves;  which applies
 better to C. sagittifolius (C. Sibthorpii, llocmer and  Schultes), found by Sibthorp
 in Sanios and other islands of the Grecian Archipelago.   This species is with great
 probability adopted by Dierbach7 as the source  of the ancient  scammony.8
   Botany.   Gen.  Char.—Sepals  5.   Corolla campanulate.    Style 1.    Stigmas 2,
 linear-cylindrical, often revolute.   Ovary 2-celled, with 4 ovules.   Capsule 2-celled
 (Choisy).
   Sp. Char.—Stem smooth.   Leaves  sagittate, posteriorly truncate with entire or
 elongated  .slashed auricles.   Peduncles very long, many-flowered.  Sepals coloured,
 ovate, obtusely truncated, mucronulate, the external ones a  little smaller,  2—3 lines
 lniij.  Corolla campanulate, an inch long (Choisy).
   lioot perennial, tapering, 3 or 4 feet long, with an  acrid,  milky juice.   Stems
 numerous, twining,  herbaceous, smooth.  Lea res on long petioles, acuminate, with
 pointed lobes at  the  base.   Peduncles solitary, scarcely twice  so  long as  the leaves.
 Bracts awl-shaped.   Spals obovate, truncated, with a reflex  point, coloured at the
edge.   ('oralla  pale yellow, with purple stripes.  Stamina shorter than the corolla;
anthers erect, sagittate.  Style as long as the stamens ; stigmas white.
   Hab.—Hedges and bushy places in Greece and the Levant.
   Preparation.—The method of procuring scammony is, according to Dr.  Russel9

  1 VoigtHi, Arzneimittell. Bd. i. S. 17; Bischoff, Handb. d. Arzneimittell Bd. i. S. 40.
  ' l>> Morb. Mul. p. 597, ed. Fens.                      a Lib. [y. cap  171
  « Hist. Mat. lib. xxvi. cap. 33, ed. Valp.                 • pro'd. Fl. Graces'.
  | l.iu.lley, Fl .Medica.                                1 Arzneimittell. d. Hippokrates, S. 138.
    I ..uriwfort tVofttrcinto the Lnant, vol. 11. p. 96, 1711) says that the sr.unmony of Samoa is collected
 from * bindweed (eom<olvulus\ whose leaves art larger, l.airv, and slashed at iheir basis not so prettily us
 tho«o  of t|,e Syrian scaiiun my (C. scammonia).  This doubtless is 1*. sagittifolius, which Sibthorp found
  '' M'd. Ob*  and Inq. vol. i. p. 13, 1770. 
510
VEGETABLES.—Nat.  Ord. Convolvulace;e.
as follows :  Having  cleared away the  earth from  the upper  part  of the root the
peasants cut off the  top in an oblique  direction, about two inches below where the
stalks spring from it.   Under  the  most depending  part of the  slope  they affix a
shell, or some other convenient  receptacle, into which the milky juice flows.  It u
then left about twelve  hours, which time  is sufficient  for the drawing-off the whole
juice; this, however, is in  small quantity, each root  affording but a few drachms.
This milky juice from  the several roots is put together often into the leg of an old
boot,  for want of some more proper vessel, when in a little time it grows hard, and
is the genuine scammony.
   Of this entirely pure scammony, says  Dr. Russel, but very little is brought to
market, the  greater  parfr of what is to be met with  being adulterated, if not by
those who gather it, by those who  buy it of them abroad; for  the chief part of
what is brought  hither passes through the hands of a  few people, chiefly Jews, who
make it their business to go to the villages of any note  near  which the  scamraonv
is collected  (as  Antioch, Shogre, Elib,  Maraash, &c), and then buying it while it
is yet  soft,  they have  an opportunity  of  mixing  it with such other things as suit
their purpose best—as wheat-flour, ashes, or fine sand, all of which he found it
mixed with; but  there  seems, be  adds,  some other  ingredient (possibly  the ex-
pressed juice), which  makes it  so very hard and indissoluble  that  he was not able
to discover it to his  satisfaction.
   Dioscorides thus  describes the mode of procuring it:  The head being separated, the root is
to be excavated in  the form of a dome (or vault) by a  knife, so that  the juice may flow into
the cavity, from which it  is to be taken out in  shells.   Others excavate the earth, and, having
incised the root, let tbe juice run into the cavity, which has been previously lined with walnut
leaves;  when the  scammony is dry, it is removed.
   I have been informed by a  Turkey merchant,  who formerly resided  at Smyrna,
that scammony is brought  into Smyrna, in  the soft state, on camels.   Here it is
mixed with various impurities  by persons (Jews) who are denominated  scammony
makers, and who adulterate it, and  thereby lower its value to  suit the market.
   Description —Scammony (scammonium ; gummi-resina scammonii) is usually
imported  from  Smyrna.  Occasionally, it comes by  way  of  Trieste.   Still more
rarely it is brought from Alexandretta (also called Scanderoon or Iskenderiin), the
port of, and road  to, Aleppo.   It comes over in boxes  and drums, which are fre-
quently lined with tin.
   I shall arrange1 the  different sorts of scammony of commerce under three heads:
1st, pure scammony;  2dly, adulterated scammony;  3dly, factitious scammony.
   1.  Pure  Scammony (Scammonium purum).—In English commerce one sort
only is known  under  this  name—namely, the virgin  scammony.   Scammony in
shells is probably a pure scammony, but is unknown  in trade.   Trebizon or Samoa
scammony,  though perhaps a pure scammony, differs so much in its external appear-
ance from the ordinary commercial sorts,  that it is unsalable here.
   a.   Virgin  Scammony  (Lacryma2 Scammony;  Superior  Aleppo Blackish
  1 Marquart (Pharm. Central-Blatt fiir 1837, p. 671), who has published an elaborate paper on scammony.
He arranges the various sorts as follows :—
              1. Scammony from the Convolvulacea.—Under this head he includes
                  4t. Aleppo scammony.  Of this he makes five sorts.
                  g# Antioch scammony.  Of this he makes three sorts.
                  yw Samos scammony.
              2. Scammony from the Asclepiadem.
                  J; French or Montpellier scammony.
              3. Scammony from the Apocyneee.
                  g, Smyrna scammony of commerce.  Of this he makes four sorts.

But the foundation of this arrangement is erroneous.  Smyrna scammony is not the ]>rnduceof Apocyne*,
but of a smooth-leaved Convolvuluses Sherard (Geoffroy, Tract, de Mat. Med. ii OC) has shown. l>™
the head of Smyrna scammony, Marquart includes adulterated and factitious commercial sorts.  In **%'
lish commerce no distinction of Aleppo, Antioch, and Smyrna scammony is made.             , ,
  2 The term '• lacryma scammony" I have heard applied to this sort of scammony by a Turkey mercDM
It is remarkable that a somewhat similar term was used by the ancients.  Caelius Aurelianusf-i'*'- J»f ■
lib. ii. cap. xxix.) speaks of '• succum scamonia? quam diagridium appellamus."  Now diagriittttn i
corruption from £*)tp6<Sioy, lacrymula, a little tear.  The word diagridium was also applied to a prepara-
tion of scammony. 
The Scammony:—Description.                    511
 Scammony, Guib.).—It usually occurs in amorphous  pieces;  but a careful exami-
 nation of some large lumps has led me to  believe that they formed portions of a
 mass, which, when in the soft state, had a rounded form.  The whitish-gray powder,
 which covers some  of the pieces, effervesces with hydrochloric acid ;  and I have no
 doult, therefore, that the masses  have been rolled  in  chalk.   Virgin scammony is
 friable, easily reduced to small fragments  between the fingers, or by the pressure
 of the nail, and has, according to  my experiments, a  sp. gr. of  1.210.  Its frac-
 tured  surface is resinous, shining, greenish-black;  presents  small air-cavities, and
 numerous gray semitransparent splinters, or fragments, when examined by a mag-
 nifying glass; and  does not effervesce on the addition of hydrochloric acid.   When
 rubbed with  the finger  moistened with  ether, water, or saliva, it readily forms a
 milky liquid.   If we examine thin fragments,  or splinters,  by transmitted light,  we
 observe them to be semitransparent at the edges, and of a gray-brown colour.   In the
 game piece we sometimes find some portions shining and blackish, as above described;
 while others are dull grayish.  This difference depends probably, as Dr.  Russel has
 suggested,  on different methods of drying.   Virgin  scammony readily takes fire,
 and  burns  with  a yellowish flame.   Its odour is peculiar, somewhat analogous to old
 cheese; its taste is slight at first, afterwards acrid.   The  decoction of its  powder,
 when filtered  and cold, is not rendered blue by tincture of iodine.  When incine-
 rated in a crucible, it leaves a minute portion  only  of  ash.
   This sort of scammony is usually imported  from Smyrna.
  Porous, brittle, glistening on the fractured surface; emits no bubbles when hydrochloric acid
 is dropped on it; no blue colour is produced by the simultaneous addition of iodide  of potassium
 and  dilute nitric  acid to water, in which  powdered scammony has been  digested  at  170°.
 Ether should dissolve  78 grains out of 100 grains of scammony, L.
  $.  Scammony in shells or calebashes (Scammonium in testis ; Sc.incalebassis).—Unknown in Eng-
 lish commerce.  It is described by continental writers as a very pure sort.
  y.  Trebizon Scammony.—In 1832, a substance was imported  into  London, from Trebizon,
 under the name of scammony,  which was unsalable here.  The  sample which I received is
 a portion of cake apparently round, flat below, and convex above.  Its colour is light-grayish or
 reddisdi-brown; when moistened, the surface becomes glutinous and odorous; its taste is sweet,
 nauseous, and somewhat bitter.   In its external appearance it has more resemblance to benzoin
 than  scammony.
  This, probably, is the Scammony of Samos  mentioned by Tournefort;1 the  Scammony from
 Mysia of Dioscorides. It would appear to be obtained from a species of Convolvulus (C. Sagitti-
 folius) different from  that which yields  the Aleppo  and Smyrna scammony;  for  both Diosco-
 rides and Tournefort  state that  the leavesnve hairy.
   2. Adulterated Scammony (Scammonium adulteratum).—Under this  head
 are  included  the various sorts  of scammony  commonly found in the  shops, and
 which English  dealers distinguish as seconds, thirds, &c.   To this division  belongs
 the  so-called Antioch scammony (scammonium antiochum) of continental writers.
 \\ hat is sometimes called on the continent Smyrna scammony (scammonium smyr-
 nense), is either adulterated or factitious scammony.  The term Aleppo scammony
 (scammonium halepense seu aleppicum)  is applied by the same writers to virgin
 scammony, and to the better sorts of  adulterated scammony.8  The  different sorts
 of adulterated scammony more frequently occur in round flattened or plano-convex
cakes of variable size, usually an inch or two in thickness,  and about five inches  in
diameter.   Some are met with in amorphous, irregular lumps; others in large cylin-
drical or drum-shaped masses.
  The different sorts of  adulterated  scammony  vary  considerably in appearance,
but pass so insensibly the one into the other that it is  impossible to classify them
according to their physical characters.   I shall, therefore, arrange  them according
to their chemical characters.
  A.  Adulterated  Scammony,  which effervesces  on the addition  of hydrochloric
 1 A Voyage into the Levant, vol. ii. p. 90, 1741.
n.V haV%tt *l'ec[mrn «f "cammony, sent to a friend of mine for sale from AleDDO which is so adultprnn.H 
512            VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Convolvulace/E.

acid.—This  is  sophisticated with carbonate of lime, and sometimes with starch ot
dextrine also.
   a.  Calcareous,  Chalky, or Cretaceous Scammony.—Occurs  in  round flat cakes,
or in irregular lumps.   It  is  more  ponderous than  the virgin sort, and usually
breaks with a dull and earthy fracture.  Its  colour is ash-gray, like common second-
ary  limestone.  A  specimen in irregular  lumps  I found  to have  the sp cr of
1.463.                                                                    b *
   Its chemical characters are  as follows: hydrochloric acid applied  to a fractured
surface  causes effervescence; iodine produces no change of colour when added to the
filtered decoction after it has become cold.
   Lumps of  crystallized carbonate  of lime are sometimes found in this sort of
scammony.
   j3. Calcareo-Amylaceous Scammony.—This, like the preceding, occurs in round
flat cakes or in  irregular lumps, which contain carbonate  of lime  and either wheat
or barley starch or meal.1  I have also met with  it in cylindrical or drum-shaped
masses.
   aa. In irregular lumps.—It  sometimes resembles pure scammony in its glossi-
        ness  and dark resinous appearance; but  usually it has a waxy lustre and
        grayish colour.
   j3j3. In cylindrical or drum-shaped masses.—This kind is imported either in boxes
        or drums, into which it seems to have been introduced when soft, and to
        have hardened subsequently—hence its form is that of the package in which
        it was imported.  A sample of a circular cake (about 12 inches in diameter,
        and several inches thick) presents a dull-grayish  fracture.  Its  sp. gr., ac-
        cording to my experiments, is 1.359.
   yy. In circulur flat cakes.—I have received this sort of scammony in the form
        of circular flat cakes, about  five inches in diameter, and one  inch thick.
        They  are heavy, dense, and  much  more difficult  to fracture  than the pre-
        ceding kinds.  The  fractured surface, in  some  samples, is  resinous and
        shining, in others dull; it has air-cavities, and numerous small white specks
        (chalk); its  colour  is  grayish  to  grayish-black.  The sp. gr.  varies,  in
        different samples, from 1.276 to 1.543.   I have received portions of  five
        cakes  of this variety of scammony,  on  which were marked the actual quan-
        tity of chalk which had been intermixed in each  sample.   In 100 parts of
        the cakes the proportions of chalk were*respectively as follows: 13.07, 23.1,
        25.0,  31.05, and 37.54.  These numbers were  furnished by  the Levant
        importer to one of our most  respectable wholesale druggists, from whom I
        received them.
   The chemical characters of calcareo-amylaceous scammony are as follows: hydro-
chloric  acid  applied  to a fractured surface  causes effervescence; iodine  produces a
blue colour when added to the filtered decoction after it has become cold.
   y. Calcareo-dcxtrinous Scammony.—This sort differs from the  preceding in the
circumstance  that iodine produces a  reddish-purple tint when added to  the filtered
decoction after  it  has become cold.   It appears to contain  carbonate of lime  and
dextrine.
   B. Adulterated Scammony,  which does not  effervesce on the addition of hydro-
chloric  acid.—This sort of scammony is usually sophisticated with wheat-meal.
   8. Amylaceous Scammony.—This sort  of  scammony is  adulterated with  the
starch or flower of either wheat or barley—probably the former; it  is  of less  fre-
quent occurrence than the calcareo-amylaceous kind.   It  occurs in irregular lumps
and round flat cakes, which  sometimes have a resinous fracture and a  dark colour

  1 Dioscorides states that the Syrian scammony is adulterated with TtQ6fAtt\oe (euphorbia  or spurge) «a
apiStrov ahiujiiv (meal of the ervil or bastard lentil, the Ervum Ervilia of Linn.) A careful microscopic
examination of amylaceous and calcareo-amylaceous  scammony has satisfied me that the starch "f  H''"'
used for adulterating these sorts of scammony, at the present day, is that of either wheat or barley—J
think of wheat.
 
                The Scammony:—Description; Composition.             513

like pure scammony, but which more commonly have a waxy lustre and  a grayish
colour.   It contains starch and ligneous matter, but not chalk.   It does not, there-
fore, effervesce  with hydrochloric  acid.   Its  decoction, when  filtered,  and cooled,
strikes a blue colour on the addition of iodine.
  i. Selenitic or Gypseous Scammony.—This kind has been described by Marquart.  Its sp. gr. was
 1.731, and it contained no less than 52 per cent, of  gypsum (sulphate of lime).
  f. Bassorin Scammony.— Marquart met with a scammony which had a horny consistence and
a sp. gr. of  1.167.  After it  had been deprived of  its  resin  and extractive, it swelled  up in
boiling water. The constituent which thus swelled up was soluble in caustic potash; Marquart
regarded  it as bassorin.
  In the Museum of the Pharmaceutical Society is a specimen of scammony which is supposed
to be adulterated  with tragacanth and some resin.
  n. Indian Scammony.—From  my friend Dr. Royle I have received a sample of scammony
met with in the Indian bazaars.   It is light, porous, of a greenish-gray colour; gritty under the
teeth,  as if containing a considerable quantity of sand, and having a balsamic olibanum-like
odour.
   3.  Factitious Scammony (Scammonium factitium).—To  this division belongs
part of  the so-called  Smyrna  scammony of  continental commerce,  as  well  as
French or Montpellier scammony.  I have  met with  three samples  of factitious
scammony.
  a. Under the name of Smyrna  scammony, I purchased of a London dealer a sort of scammony
in the form of circular flat cakes, about half an inch thick.   It is blackish, and has, externally,
a slaty appearance; it breaks with difficulty ; its fracture is dull and black.  Its sp. gr. is 1.412.
 Moistened and rubbed, it  evolves the smell of guaiacum.  Boiled with  water, it yields a turbid
 liquor (which is not rendered blue by iodine), and deposits a blackish powder; the latter, boiled
 with alcohol, yields a solution which becomes greenish-blue on the addition of nitric acid, show-
 ing the presence of guaiacum.
  It is probably the common Smyrna scammony (Scammonium smyrnense factitium) of Gray,1
 who directs it to  be made with Aleppo scammony, 1 lb.; extract of jalap, 5  lbs.; guaiacum
 resin,  10 lbs.; sago, 10 lbs.; and ivory black, 4 lbs.
  8- Under the name of Scammonium smyrnense medicinale venale, M. Batka has presented to the
 Pharmaceutical  Society a spurious scammony  said  to be made up of gum, bread, scammony,
 guaiacum, benzoin, wax, sand, and wood.
  y. French or Montpellier Scammony (Scammonium gallicum seu monspeliacum).—This substance
 is made, in the southern  part of France,  with the expressed  juice of Cynanchum monspeliacum,
 mixed with different resins and other purgative substances.   It occurs in semicircular, blackish
 hard,  compact cakes, which frequently have the smell of balsam of Peru.
   Composition,   a.  Of the  Root.—The  dried  root of Convolvulus  Scammonia
 was  analyzed,  in 1837,  by  Marquart,9 who  obtained from it the following  sub-
 stances:  resin  4.1 '2, sugar, convolvulin, and extractive 13.68, resin and wax 0.55
gum,  5.8, extractive 2.4, starch 7.0, extractive soluble in hot, but not in cold water
 1.4 [sails and woody fibre G5.05].   The resin, the wax, and a  portion of the gum,
are contained in the milky juice of the latex vessels (vasa laticis); while the sugar,
gum, extractive, and salts dissolved in water,  constitute the juice of the cells; and
iu this juice the starch-globules float.
  I. Rksin.—This is analogous  to that of the scammony of commerce.
  2. Conyoi.vuli.v.—A substance supposed by Marquart  to  be a vegetable alkali.   It reacts
feebly as a vegetable alkali, and is precipitated from its watery solution by tincture of nutgalls.
Marquart thinks it probably exists in jalap.

  >3.  Of Scammony.—Bouillon-Lagrange and  Vogel3  analyzed  two  kinds;  one
called Aleppo, the other  Smyrna  scammony.   Marquart4  analyzed twelve kinds;
of these, eight sorts (five called Aleppo, and three Antioch scammony) he  considers
to be  the  produce of  Convolvulus Scammonia; while  the remaining four, which
he says, are called in commerce   Smyrna  scammony, he  erroneously  ascribes  to
PcripUna  Secamoue,  Linn.   Three of these, however, appear  to  be  adulterated
sorts,  and one (the 12th) is obviously factitious.
1 Supiiltmtnt to the Pharmacopeia, 3d edit, l^-'l
* Bulletin de Pharmacie, t. i. p. 421, 1SU9.
      VOL. II.—33
' Pharm. Central-Blatt far 1837, S. 687.
' Pharm. Central-Blatt fur 1S37, p. 687. 
l—'
	Aleppo Scammony, Marq.					Antioch Scammont, Marq.			Alpha resin, with traces of wax	Smyrna Scammony, Marq.			
	No. 1.	No. 2.	No. 3.	No. 4.	No. 5.	No. 6.	No. 7.	No. 8.		No. 9.	No. 10.	No. 11.	No. 12.
r	jz be	o .£« O.CO 1- -JS -" bo bO	Ii CO JO a ■** c ■ KM	^_; 'E. ^ ^ bo r" °< fecfi	'B.n a "-1 be bo 4> . £ °< p-,02	is B • 5 *> ° D. Km	Is « . 3 to btT	7a'0 V '"I a . ^ bo a ■ — o. U-'D		™°o ■o C a to c c. K«	g bO ° i	j bo o . "- D. KOI	
Wax	81.25 0.75 4.50 3.00 1.75 1.50 3.75 350	78.5 1.5 3.5 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.25 3.5 2.75 3.5	77.0 0.5 3.0 1.0 1.0 3.5 12.5 2.0	50.0 5.0 3.0 1.0 5.0 5.0. 4.5 22.5 4.0	32.5 3.0 4.0 1.5 2.0 0.75 52.00	18.5 7.0 6.0 f 2.5 15.5 [ 7.0 0.5 12.5 22.5 2.0	16.0 0.5 10.0 5.0 3.0 36.0 12.5 12.5 1.5 3.0	8.5 8.0 12.0 8.0 17.0 24.0 16.5 1.0 4.0		4.50 1.50 3.00 10.00 21.00 19.50 33.00 750	5 1 11 18 20 V-( 23 2 11 4	5.00 2.00 15.00 8.00 7.00 9.00 15.00 35.00 4.00	25.00 12.00 4.00 13.00 5.00 13.00 5.00 18.00 5 00
									Extractive taken up by alcohol Extractive taken up by water . Gum, with sulphate of lime . .				
Extractive with salts..... Starch ........... Starchy envelops, bassorin, and gluten........... Albumen and woody fibre . . Ferruginous alumina,chalk, and carbonate of magnesia . . .													
													
									Woody fibre, oxides, extractive,				
									Inorganic salts, silica, &c. . . .				
													
	1U0 00	10(».00	100.5	100.0	101.75	10O.0	1 00.0	990		100.00	10U	100.00 ilOO.OO	
 
The Scammony:—Adulteration; Effects.              515
  Dr. Christison1 has analyzed both pure and adulterated scammony.   His results
are as follows :—
	Pun Old.	e Scammont.		Adulterated Scammony.					
		Old. Moist.		; Calcareous.			Amylaceous.		Calcareo-
Resin ....									Amylaceous.
	81.8	83.0	77.0	64.6	56.6	43.3	37.0	62.0	42.4
	6.0	8.0	CO	6.8 '	5.0	8.2	9.0	7.2	7.8
Starch (fecula)	1.0	—	—	—	1.4	4.0	20.0	10.4	13.2
Lignin and sand	35	3.2	5.0	52	7.1	7.8	22.2	13.4	9.4
Chalk ....	—	—	—	17.6	25.0	31.6	—	—	18.6
Water ....	7.7	7.2	12.6	6.4	5.2	6.4	12.0	7.5	10.4
	100.0	101.4	100.6	1100.6	100.3	101.3	100.2	100.5	101.8
  Adulteration.—The characters of good scammony are as follows:  It readily
fractures between the fingers, or by the  pressure of the nail; its sp. gr. is about
1.2 ; its fracture is dark, glistening, and resinous; its fractured  surface should not
effervesce on the addition of hydrochloric acid; the decoction of the powder, filtered
and cooled, is not rendered blue or purplish by tincture  of iodine;  paper moistened
with an alcoholic or ethereal  tincture of scammony should undergo  no change  of
colour when  exposed to brown nitrous  fumes (produced  by pouring  a drachm  of
strong nitric acid over some filings of zinc, iron, or copper, contained  in a tumbler
or wineglass;  100 grains, incinerated with nitrate  of ammonia, yield about thref*
grains  of ashes  (according to my experiments);  sulphuric ether separates at lease
78  per cent, of  resin (principally), dried  at 280° F.
  " Fracture glistening, almost resinous, if the specimen be old and dry;  muriatic acid does not
cause effervescence on its surface;  the decoction of its  powder, filtered and  cooled, is not ren-
dered blue by tincture of iodine.  Sulphuric ether separates at least 80 per cent of re«in dried
at 280°."—Ph. Ed.
   Hydrochloric  acid detects  the  presence  of  carbonates;  iodine added  to the
cooled decoction of scammony detects starcb and dextrine; by nitrous fumes the
presence of guaiacum resin may be detected, for they give a blue colour  to paper
which  has  been moistened with  tincture  of  guaiacum;  incineration detects an ab-
normal amount of inorganic matter, as chalk, gypsum,  or  sand ; ether determines
the amount of resinous matter present.3    The microscope serves to detect the pres-
ence aud sort of starch or meal used for adulterating.   Hitherto, the only starch I
have detected in adulterated scammony is that of a cereal, either wheat or barley__
probably the former (see ante,  p. 512).
   Physiological  Kffkcts.   a.   On  Animals generally.—The  experiments  of
Orfila3 lead  us  to  iufer that scammony is not  poisonous.   " We   have," says he
" frequently  administered four  drachms of it to dogs who had the oesophagus after-
wards  tied, and have only observed alvine evacuations."   On horses and other
herbivorous animals its operation is very uncertain.   Gilbert* states  that six drachms
killed a sheep in twenty days,  without having caused purging.  Viborg5 says half
an ounce given to a dog caused several loose stools; the  same dose  had no effect on
a badger.    It is probable,  however, that  in all the experiments now referred to
adulterated .■srammony was employed.                                           '
  ,3. On Man.—The effects of pure scammony are those of a powerful and drastic
purgative.   As  the  greater part of the commercial drug is largely adulterated
practitioners are, I  suspect, scarcely acquainted with the operation  of  the  genuine
article, which appears to me to  possess nearly double the activity  of  that  usually
 1 Dispensatory.

cat ^Tur^VuX^.W^' °n '" AdUlteTati0n °f S^'""ny, by the author. in the Pharmaceuti-

 • StC^m*. d. Arzn. u.Gifte, Bd. ii. S. 1S1.                4 M°lr°Ud' Pha™ ™- P- 271. 
516             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Cosvolvulace^.

found in commerce.   As the evacuant  powers of scammony depend  on its local
irritation, it operates more  energetically when  there  is  a deficiency of intestinal
mucus, and is then very apt to gripe;  and vice versa, when  the intestines are well
lined with  secretion, it passes  through with  much less  effect.  In its operation
scammony  is closely allied to jalap, than which it is more active, while its odour
and taste are less nauseous.   It is less irritant than gamboge.
  Uses.—Scammony is, of  course, inadmissible in inflammatory conditions of the
alimentary canal, on account of  its irritant qualities.   It  is well adapted for torpid
and  inactive conditions of the  abdominal organs, accompanied with much slimy
mucus in the  intestines.  It is principally valuable as a smart purgative for chil-
dren, on account of  the smallness of the dose necessary to produce the effect, the
slight taste, and the energy, yet safety, of its operation.   When used for them, it
is generally associated  with calomel.  Where a milder purgative is required, it may
be conjoined with rhubarb, sulphate of potash, and  an aromatic.   It may be em-
ployed to open the bowels in constipation ;  to expel worms, especially of children;
to act as an hydragogue purgative,  on the principle of counter-irritation, as in affec-
tions of the  head and dropsies; and for any other purpose  for which an active
cathartic may be required.
   Administration.—For  an  adult, the  usual dose  of  commercial scammony i8
ten grains  to a scruple; but, of virgin scammony, from ten to fifteen grains.  In
order to diminish its irritant and griping qualities, it should be finely divided.  For
this purpose it may  be intimately mixed with some bland powder (as gum, starch,
sugar, &c), or made into an emulsion with milk.
  1.  PULVIS SCAMMONII COMPOSITUS, L. D.;  Compound Powder of Scammony.-
(The London  College directs it  to  be  prepared with Scammony, Hard Extract of
Jalap, of each .5ij ;  Ginger  §ss.  Rub them separately to very fine  powder; then
mix them.   The Edinburgh College directs it to be made of equal parts of Scam-
mony and  Bitartrate of Potash, triturated  together to a very fine  powder.  The
Dublin  College  orders  of Scammony, in fine powder, 3j 5 Compound  Powder of
Jalap ^iij.  Mix thoroughly by trituration, and  pass the powder  through a fine
sieve.)—The effects of  scammony and of extract  of jalap being very similar, little
or no advantage can be obtained  by the intermixture of these substances.  The
ginger is intended to correct the griping of the other  ingredients.   The bitartrate
of potash,  used by the  Edinburgh  College,  can do little more  than serve to divide
the scammony.  Compound powder of  scammony is  cathartic; and is used as a
smart purge for children,  especially where much mucous  slime is contained in the
bowels,  and in worm cases.   The dose of the London and Dublin  preparation, for
an adult, is from grs. x. to 9j; for  children under a twelvemonth old, from grs. iij.
to grs. v.  The dose of the Edinburgh preparation, for an adult, is from grs. xv to
5ss.
  2. PUIYIS SCAMMONII CO  CA10ME1ANE J Powder of Scammony with  Calomel-
(Scammony 3j ; Calomel, Sugar, of each  3ss.   Mix.)—Though this  preparation
is not contained in any of the British pharmacopoeias, yet the  frequency of its em-
ployment in the diseases of  children is a sufficient  apology for  its  introduction
here.   Dose, for an adult, grs.  x to grs. xx; for children, from  grs. iv to  grs. x,
according to the age of the  patient.
  This preparation may be employed as a substitute for the old Pulvis Basihcm, or
Royal Powder, which consisted  of equal parts of  scammony, calomel, cream of tar-
tar, and antimonic acid.
  8.  CONFECTIO SCAMMONII, L.; Electuarium Scammonii, D.;  Confection of Sam,
mony.—(Scammony, powdered, 3jss;   Cloves, bruised; Ginger, powdered, each
3vj;  Oil of Caraway f 3ss; Syrup of Roses as much  as may be sufficient.  Rub
the dry ingredients together to very fine powder, and preserve them ; then, when-
ever the confection is  to be used, the syrup being gradually poured in, rub again;
lastly, the  oil of caraway being added, mix them all, L.—The Dublin College or-
ders  of Scammony, in fine powder, J iij;  Ginger, in fine powder, 31SS; Oil 01 
True Jalap :—History.                        517
Caraway f3j; Oil  of  Cloves  f$ss;  Simple Syrup f^iij;  Clarified  Honey, by
weight £iss.)—A warm or aromatic cathartic.  Dose, for an adult, 9j to 3J; for
children, grs. iij to  grs. x.  It is seldom employed.

  4.  EXTRACTUM  tire RESINA  SCAMMONII, E.; Extract or Resin of Scammony.—
(Take any convenient quantity of scammony in fine powder; boil it in successive
portions of proof spirit till the spirit ceases to dissolve  anything;  filter;  distil the
liquid till little but water passes over.   Then pour away the watery solution from
the resin at the  bottom;  agitate the resin with the successive portions of boiling
water till it is well  washed; and, lastly, dry it at a temperature not exceeding 240°.)
—To obtain  pure resin of scammony, alcohol or  ether  should be used instead of
proof spirit.  It is brownish, and  in thin  layers transparent;   when  heated, it
evolves  a peculiar, not disagreeable  odour; it is fusible and combustible.  It  is sol-
uble in  alcohol, ether, and oil of turpentine.
  Resin  of jalap is insoluble in oil of turpentine, and nearly so in ether;  whereas scammony
resin is readily soluble in these liquids.   By these peculiarities  the two resins may be  distin-
guished from each other.
  The alcoholic  solution of scammony resin  is feebly acid;  the  addition of  water
causes a white  precipitate (hydrate of resin).  Precipitates (metallic scammoni-
ates ?) are also produced by alcoholic solutions of the acetate of lead and the acetate
of copper.  Caustic potash deepens the colour of the  solution.1  Scammony resin may
be decolorized by animal charcoal without  having its purgative qualities affected.3
Its composition, according to Mr. Johnston,3 is  C^II^O20.  It is  " remarkable for
containing the largest quantity of oxygen  of any resin hitherto analyzed." (Johnston.)
When pure or virgin scammony can be  obtained, the resin is an  unnecessary  pre-
paration.  Scammony resin is a drastic cathartic.   Dose, grs. viij to grs. xij.  When
administered, it should be intimately divided, either by some  bland powder, or  still
better by an emulsion.

   5. TINCTURA SCAMMONII; Tincture of Scammony;  Tincture de Scammonie.—
Codex,  Pharm.  Fraueaise, 1837.—(Aleppo Scammony 1  part;  Rectified Spirit 4
parts by weight; macerate for fifteen days and  filter.)—Dose, f3ss  to f3j diffused
through a mucilaginous mixture of milk.

   6. MISTURA  SCAMMONII,  V  ;  Mixture  of Scammony.—(Resin  of Scammony gr.
vij; Unskimmed Milk f £iij.   Triturate the resin with a little of the milk,and grad-
ually with the rest of it till a uniform  emulsion is formed.)—This is an imitation
of  Planches  purgative, potion, except that two drachms of sugar  and three or  four
drops of cherry-laurel water are omitted.  It is one of the most agreeable draughts
that can be taken.

       182. EXOGONIUM PURGA, Wm-TUEE  JALAP.
                           Sex. Syst. Pentandria Monogynia.
                             (Tuber, L. D.—Root, E. D.)

   History.—De Paiva4 thinks that Jalap was  known to  Dodoens  in 1552, to
Monardes in 1508, and to Clusius   in 1574.5   But Bauhin6 (who calls it Bryonia
Mechoacana nigricans) says it was  brought from India, under  the name of Chelapa,
or Cdapa, about eleven years before the time he wrote (the  date of the preface to
his work is  1020); that is, about  1609 or 1010.  Its  name seems to be derived
from Xalapa, a town of  NIexico.
  The jalap plant has been successively  declared to  be a Mirabilis,  a  Convolvulus,
an Ijtomara, and an Exogonium.
^The Convolvulus Jalapa described and figured by Woodville7 and Desfontaines,8

  •P^T£a»?i£\>*0 n Oil                       I Journ.de Pharm. t.xiii.  p. 589. ~
   Ph,l. Trans, (or l*A0, p. Ml                       « Voigtcl's Arz,uimittell. Bd. i. S  117
  • S«-e some remurki on tins subject in Pharm. Central-Blatt fitr Is :4  S  955—6        ui-o.ii/.
   Prodromusp m.                              , md  B(jt   ^ '
   Ann Mus. d'Hist. Aat. t. u.                                 v 
518            VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Convolvulace*:.

is now well known to yield none of this drug.  The real jalap plant was first de-
scribed by Mr.  Nuttall ;x  but the name  (Ipomsea Jalapa) he gave to it had been
already applied  by Pursh to another plant.  In the same year Dr. Schiede8 and Dr.
Wenderoth3 noticed it; the latter called  it first Convolvulus Purga, and afterwards
Ipomsea Purga.  In 1832 it was  described and figured by Zuccarini,4 under the
name of Ipomsea Schiedeana.
  Choisy, in De Candolle's Prodromus (vol. ix. p. 374), has adopted Wenderoth's
name of Ipomsea purga ;  but as the jalap plant has a salver-shaped (hypocrateri-
form) corolla and exserted  stamens, it  certainly cannot be  an Iponiaea, a part of
whose character is a campanulate corolla and inclosed stamens.
  Botany.  Gen. Char.—Sepals 5.  Corolla tubular.  Stamens exserted.  Style
1.   Stigma capitate, 2-lobed.   Ovary 2-celled; the cells 2-seeded.   (Choisy.)
  Sp. Char.—Root tuberose;  incrassated,  perennial.   Stems  annual,  twining,
branched, smooth.  Leaves ovate, acuminate, cordate at the  base, quite entire, and
smooth on both sides.  Peduncles 1- to 3-flowered.  Sepals unequal, obtuse, smooth,
Corolla  salver-shaped, with  a subclavate, cylindrical  tube,  and  a subpentagonal,
horizontally-expanded limb.
  Root  perennial, irregularly ovate-conical, terminating inferiorly in some subcy-
lindrical fibrous  branches;  covered by a very thin, dirty, blackish  epidermis;
internally white and fleshy.   Stem herbaceous.  Leaves alternate, petioled.  Tube
of  the corolla purplish violet (red lake).
  Hab.—In the woods of the Mexican empire, near Chicanquiaco, at an elevation of
nearly 6,000 feet  above the level of the sea.  Jalapa  is the only market for the root,
from whence it  is exported to Europe and the  United States by way of Vera  Cruz,
  Ipomaa orizaben^is, Ledanois; Convolvulus, Orizabensis, Pelletan, Journ. de Chim. Med. L
x. p. 10,  1834.   Ipomaa batatoides,  Bentham, Bot. Regist. Jan. 1841.  Ipomaa? Mestitlanica,
Choisy, De Cand. Prodr. ix. 389.—This  plant  grows  in the environs of Orizaba and near Mes-
titlan in Mexico.  It yields an inferior sort of  jalap, called light, fusiform, or male jalap.
  Description.—1.  The dried tubers of true jalap (reidix jalapse ; rad. jalapse
tuberosce vel ponderosse) found  in commerce rarely exceed a pound each in weight,
They vary in size, from that of the fist  to  that of a nut.   When entire, they are
usually more or less oval,  and pointed at the two opposite extremities.  The larger
tubers are frequently incised, apparently to facilitate desiccation.  They are covered
with a thin, brown,  wrinkled cuticle.  They should be heavy, hard, and difficult to
powder.   When  broken, good tubers should  present a deep yellowish-gray colour,
interspersed with deep brown concentric circles.   The  slices vary in  their shape,
colour, and other  properties.   Those of  inferior quality, are  light, whitish, friable;
they usually appear to be quarter segments of transverse slices, and are sometimes
called  spurious jalap, or,  from their shape, cocked-hat jalap.   Jalap  is very apt to
become worm-eaten; but the insects which attack  it devour the amylaceous matter
and ligneous matter, and leave the  resin.  Hence worm-eaten jalap is well  adapted
for  the preparation of extract.
  2.  A  spurious jalap, called in Mexico male jalap, is sometimes found intermixed
with the genuine  sort.   It was first described  by Mr. D. B.  Smith ;s  and has been
termed by Guibourt light or fusiform jalap.   It is  the kind  sometimes called in
English  commerce woody jalap or jalap wood, and which in Germany has  been
termed jalap stalks (stipites jalapse).  It  is  the produce of Ipomsea Orizabensis,
Ledanois.  As  met  with in commerce, it  is in slices or segments,  which are  more
fibrous or woody than genuine jalap.  The cut surface is often darker from expos-
ure to the air,  and uneven  from  the unequal  shrinking  in the drying  process.
Internally, the colour is whitish.   The  odour and taste are  similar to, but feebler
than, the true jalap.
1 American Journal of Medical Sciences for February, 1830.
3 Linnaa, v. 3, July, 1830, p 473; and Pharm. Central-Blatt fur 1S30, p. 408.
3 Pharm. Central-Blatt fur 1830, p. 456; and Linnrza, viii. 515.
4 Acta Acad. Reg. Monacensis, vol.x.
1 American Journal of  Pharmacy, vol. ii. p. 22. 
True Jalap:—Selection;  Composition.
519
  3. Guibourt1 has described a false rose-scented jalap.  It  is  in  tubercles which
are not so  dark-coloured  as the genuine  drug.  They are  deeply furrowed;  the
prominent parts of the furrows being white from the friction of the pieces against
each other;  the  depressions  being dark  coloured.   The pieces are  but slightly
resinous, are amylaceous  and  saccharine,  and have  rather an  agreeable sweetish
odour, which Guibourt compares to that of oil of rhodium or of the rose.   It pos-
sesses scarcely any purgative action.  It is probably the kind known in the Ameri-
can market as  overgrown jalap.
  Selection.—Jalap is more active as a cathartic in proportion to the quantity of
resin which it  contains;  plump, firm, heavy, resinous  pieces, therefore, are prefer-
able.   Light, whitish, amylaceous,  shrivelled, or woody pieces are  objectionable.
  Composition.—Jalap  was analyzed, in  1817, by Cadet de Gassicourt,3 and
more recently  by Gerber.3    Other less  complete analyses have  been  made by
Henry,4 by Ledanois,5 and  by Nees v. Esenbeck and  Marquart.6   In 1835, Can-
nobio analyzed a variety of jalap  called gialappone,1  similar in  appearance  to
Gerber's Analysis. Slightly acrid extractive 17.9 Gummy extractive . . . 14.4 Colouring matter .... 8.2 Uncrystallizable sugar . 1.9 Gum, with some salts . 15.6	Henry1 s Analysis.			
	Starch ..........	Light.	Sound.	Worm-eaten.
		12 15 19 54	96 28.0 20.4 42.0	14.4 25.0 20.6 40.0
				
		100	100.0	100.0
Vegetable albumen . . 3.9				
Water..........4 8	Nees v. Esenbeck and MarquarVs Analyses.			
Malic acid and malates of potash and lime . 2.4 Chloridesof calcium and Phosphates of magnesia Carbonate (?) of lime . 3.0				
		Root of Exogonium Purga.	Commercial Jalap.	False Jalap.
		20.416 12.083 67.500	27.50 13.33 59.16	6.66 18.33 75.00
	Matters insoluble in alcohol			
				
Jalap .... 100.0		100.000	100.00*	100.00
The following are analyses by Ledanois and Guibourt:—
  Lednnois's Analysis.
         Male, light, or
         fusiform Jalap.
Resin........  8.0
Gummy extract  . . 25.6
Starch........  3 2
Albumen......  2.4
Woody fibre  .... 158.0
Water and loss ...  28


      Jalnp .... 100.0
                     Guibourt's Analyses.
                                   Officinal
                                   Jalap.
Resin.......................  17.65
Liquid sugar by alcohol............  19.00
Brown saccharine extract obtained by water   9.05
Gum.........-..............io. 13
Starch......................18 7S
Woody fibre...................21.60
Loss.......................   3 .go
  False rose-
 scented Jalap.
. . .   3.23
. . .  16.47
. . .   5.92
. . .   3.88
. . .  22.69
. . .  46.00
. . .   1.81
Jalap  .
. 100.00
100.00
  1. Jalap Resins.—The resinous portion of jalap is  the  most important, because it  is the
nrtiye ingredient of this root.  The substance generally known as jalap resin is obtained  by
mixing the alcoholic tincture of jalap (prepared by percolation or  digestion) with water. The
precipitated resin is to be washed with warm water, and then dissolved in alcohol. By evapora-


 i r^T""^""!1 ■5°"?8l«.voI,;1iir.P-JBI' IS42-         ' JouTn- de Pharm. t. iii. p. 495.
   Gmelin, Handb. d Chemie,  Dd. u. S. 1299.           « Bull, de Pharm. t. ii. p. 87.
 ' W> U$Ts »i '' V' P" 5<W"                  '  Pharm- ^ntral.Blattfur 1834, S. 695. 
520             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Convolvulace^.
tion tbe tincture yields the resin.  Planche1 has proposed another process.  By digestion with
animal charcoal the alcoholic solution of the resin  is rendered nearly colourless, and by evapo-
ration yields an almost colourless resin (resina jalapa alba of Martins.)2  Jalap resin is soluble
in alcohol, but  insoluble in water.   Triturated with milk, it does not form an emulsion, but its
particles unite into a solid mass.  By this it may be distinguished from scammony resin.3  Itjj
insoluble in the fixed and volatile oils.  Its insolubility in oil of turpentine  is a means of de-
tecting the intermixture of some other resins, as of scammony and turpentine.4 Jalap resin is
sometimes  adulterated with  guaiacum.6  This,  unlike  jalap resin (rhodeoretiti) is soluble in
ether; and  paper moistened with its alcoholic solution is rendered blue  by nitrous (jas.  De.
colorized jalap is  composed,  according to  Goebel,6 of  carbon 36 62,  hydrogen 9.47, and
oxygen 53.91;  but Johnston7  declares this analysis to be incorrect, and gives the  following as
the formula for the resin, C40H34O's.
   According to Buchner and Herberger,8 as also Kayser,9 the so-called ja\ap  resin consists of
two distinct resins, one soluble  in ether, the other  insoluble  in this liquid.
   a. Jalapin; Rhodeoretin (from  pifeoc,  rose-red, and pvrlyn, resin.)  C^H^O20.  Is this the jalapin of
Mr.  Hume'?10   This resin is  insoluble in ether.  Kayser obtained it by boiling purified jalap
resin in ether,  which took up the jalapic acid and left the jalapin.   According to  Buclinerand
Herberger it constitutes not quite  nine-tenths of jalap  resin.  It is a transparent, colourless
odourless, and  tasteless resin; very soluble in  alcohol, but insoluble in water and in ether.
   It does not possess basic properties, as Buchner and  Herberger supposed;  but, on the con-
trary, possesses acid  properties, reddens  litmus, and is soluble in ammonia and acetic acid. If
the salt which  it forms with oxide of lead be decomposed by sulphuretted hydrogen, the resin
is then found  to have combined with the  elements of water and to have  become converted
into hydrorhodeoretin,  C42H36021.
   0. Jalapic acid; Odorous Principle of Jalap?—Constitutes  thirteen  per  cent, of jalap resin.
It is a brown, soft, and greasy substance, which  reacts as an acid, has the odour of jalap, and
an acrid taste.   By long contact with water it crystallizes.   It  is soluble in ether, in  alcohol,
and  in alkaline solutions; but is insoluble in hydrochloric acid.   It is either a crystallizable soft
resin or a fatty acid.
   Pararhodeoretin; C42H3lO'8.—This  is  a simple resin, and  is obtained from the  male or fusi-
form jalap (Ipomsea orizabensis.)  It is soluble in  both alcohol and ether,
   If jalap  resin  (rhodeoretin  or pararhodeoretin) be  digested  in  a  watch-glass with oil of
vitriol, a crimson coloured solution is obtained, from which in a {ew hours  a brown viscid  resin
will separate.   By this test jalap resin is distinguished from other resins.
   2. Starch.—The  starch  grains  vary in size.  Their shapes are spheres, semispheres, or
that  of mullars.  The hilum is very distinct.
   Physiological Effects,  a. On Animals generally.—Jalap  root  in powder,
as well as the resin obtained from it, is a local irritant.  Its operation  on  the  bowels
is well seen in  the  carnivora.   Cadet de Gassicourt11 found  that  the resin applied
to the pleura,  peritoneum,  or intestinal canal  of dogs,  caused fatal  inflammation.
Two drachms  introduced  into the  stomach, the oesophagus being  afterwards  tied,
killed a dog   in a  few hours.   It is  remarkable, however, that  the same  experi-
menter observed no particular effect from the application of a drachm of the finely-
powdered resin to  the cellular tissue of the  back.   Moreover, 24 grains, with the
yelk of an egg, injected into the jugular vein,  had, he says, a very slight  effect;
indeed,  at  first none was observed, but the two  following days the animal had  s-oft,
pale evacuations, and  lost  his appetite,  though he soon recovered from this state.
In the herbivora, it proves  a very uncertain  purgative.    Gilbert13 gave  two  ounces
to a sheep, without observing any effect.  Donn613 administered two or three  ounces
to horses,  without  observing any remarkable  effect, except  increased secretion of
urine.
   /3.  On Man.—In the human  subject jalap acts as a  powerful  and drastic purga-
tive, producing copious liquid stools,  and, when judiciously exhibited, is both sate
and efficacious.  Its objectionable effects are, that while  in the  stomach it  causes

  1 Soubeiran, Traitt de Pharm. t. ii. p. 23.            » Pharm. Central-Blatt fur 1835, S. 557.
  3 Planche, Journ. de. Pharm. t.  xviii. pp. 1S1—5.
  4 Pharm. Central-Blatt fur 1832, 837;  and fur 1838, S. 904.
  6 Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. iii. p. 132,  1843.       6 Pharm. Waarenlc. Bd. ii. S. 59.
  ' Phil. Trans,  for 1840, p. 343.                      8 Pharm. Central-Blatt fur 1831, S.4H-
  9 Ann. der Chem.u. Pharm. Bd. Ii. p 81, 1844; and Pharm. Journal, vol. iv. p. 327, 1845.
 10 Med. and Phys. Journ. for April, 1824, p. 346.
 11 Wibmer, Wirk. d. Arzn. u. Gifte, Bd. iii. S. 181.
 19 Moiroud, Pharm. Vtt. p. 269.                     '3 Ibid. 
                   True Jalap :—Uses; Administration.                521

 frequently nausea, and sometimes vomiting;  while, after it  has passed into the
 intestines, it oftentimes gripes.
   It is tolerably certain in its operation;  more so, indeed, than many other purga-
 tives.  In the proper dose, it may be given without the least hesitation to children,
 in any case requiring  an  active purge.   It  has an  advantage  over  some other
 evacuants, that  it does not stimulate or heat the system, its effect being confined,
 principally,  to the alimentary canal—the peristaltic motion, secretions, and  exhala-
 tions of which it promotes; and it is said that constipation less frequently succeeds
 its use than of some other purgatives.
   My own  experience of jalap  would lead me  to  regard it  as a  perfectly safe,
 though active cathartic.  But Dr. Christison1 says, that " severe and even dangerous
 effects have followed its incautious  use in the  hands of the practical joker."   I am
 not acquainted with any cases, in the human  subject, in which its employment has
 been attended  by serious consequences.   It is a more drastic purgative than senna.
 To scammony it is closely  allied, not  only  by its effects, but  also  by botanical
 affinities and chemical properties.   It is much less irritant to the intestinal  mucous
 membrane than gamboge;  and, therefore, is a much safer purgative.  Vogtfl  regards
 it as exceeding  the last-mentioned substance, but as being inferior to aloes, in its
 stimulant influence over the abdominal and  pelvic bloodvessels;  and Sundelin3
 observes that, while it is more irritant, it is less heating, than aloes  or senna.
   Usks.—Daily experience  proves the value of jalap, as an active purgative, in
 various diseases both of children and adults.  Of course, its irritant properties unfit
 it for exhibition in inflammatory affections of the alimentary canal, as well  as after
 surgical operations about the abdomen and pelvis.   Moreover, it is not an appro-
 priate  purgative  in irritation of, or hemorrhage from, the uterus; or  in piles and
 stricture,  and prolapsus of the rectum.  On the other hand, its use is indicated in
 torpid aud overloaded conditions of the  intestinal canal, as well as in constipation,
 attended with retention of the catamenia.   When the object is to relieve cerebral
 congestion and dropsical affections, by a counter-irritant  influence on  the  mucous
 membrane, jalap is well adapted to fulfil  it, both  by the energy and safety of its
 operation.  The following are some of the cases in which it is employed:—
   1.  In,  constipation.—When  this condition is not  dependent  on, or connected
 with, irritation or inflammation of  the  alimentary canal  or pelvic organs,  jalap is
 admissible.   Its efficiency is much increased by association with calomel.  It  may be
 employed in febrile and inflammatory diseases (those above mentioned excepted), as
 well as in chronic maladies.
   2.  As  a  vermifuge.—The compound  of jalap and  calomel is  a most efficacious
 anthelmintic, and may be used  with the most happy effects in children, especially
 where there is  an excessive  secretion of mucus.   "Jalap,"  says  Bremser,1 " is,
 without contradiction, in verminous diseases, one of the best purgatives, and which,
 perhaps, possesses, at the same time, greater anthelmintic virtues than any other."
   3. In cerebral affections.—Jalap, in  combination with calomel, is used with the
 best effect, on the principle of counter-irritation,  to relieve cerebral congestion.   In
 inflammatory affections of the brain or its  membranes, or in hydrocephalus, it is a
 valuable purgative.
   4. In  dropsies.—In  dropsical affections it is frequently desirable  to promote
 watury 6tools.  Jalap, especially in combination  with cream  of tartar, may be  used
 for this purpose with the best effects.   Marggrave5 calls it a panacea hydropicorum.
   5. In retention of die catamenia, or of tlie hemorrlwidal flux, jalap is  one of
 the purgatives adapted, from  their  stimulant influence over the  pelvic vessels, to
promote these discharges.
   Administration.—The dose of jalap,  in 2)owder, is,  for an adult, from  ten to
thirty grains; a scruple usually  acts smartly and safely;  for children under twelve
1 On Poisons, p. 851.
* Handb. <l. spec. Heilmittrll. Bd. ii. S. 26, 3te Aufl.
' Mat. Med. contr. p. 40, ed. 2nda.
1 Pharmakodyn. Bd. ii. S. 230, 2te Aufll.
' Traitt sur les Vers Intest. p. 440. 
522             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Convolvulace^e.

months old the dose is from two to five grains.   Fifteen grains of jalap and two ot
three grains of calomel, form  an efficient, yet safe, purgative for an adult; but this
combination very readily produces salivation by repetition.  From two to five "rains
of ipecacuanha  are  sometimes  substituted for  the calomel.   To  children, jalap is
sometimes exhibited in  gingerbread cakes.  Purgative cakes of this  kind are kept
in the shops.   The Biscuits purga tifs (Panes saccharati purgantes) are  composed
of Jalap, 3xx;  Flour gij ; 24  Eggs; and Sugar  Ibj.  This quantity is sufficient
for 60 biscuits.1

   1.  PULVIS JALAPJ5 COMPOSITUS, L. E. D. [U. S.];  Compound Powder of'Jalap.-
(Jalap giij [gij, Z>.]; Bitartrate of Potash £vj [giijss, Z>.]; Ginger 3ij rjss, D.].
Rub them separately to powder; then mix them, L.   The Edinburgh College uses
the same  proportions of jalap and bitartrate of potash as  the London  Colletje but
omits the ginger.)—[This is also the case with the U. S. Pharm.']—Hydragogue pur-
gative.  Used in habitual costiveness, verminal diseases, and dropsies.   Dose  for
an adult, 9j  to  3j.

   2. TINCTURA JALAPM, L. E. D. [U.  S.]; Tincture of Jalap.—(Jalap, bruised,  Jy
[in moderately  fine powder, ^vij, E.~] ;  Proof Spirit Oij [Oiss, D.~\.  Macerate  for
seven [fourteen, D.~] days, and  strain, L. D.   [The U. S. Pharm. directs Jalap, in
powder, six  ounces; Diluted Alcohol two pints.   Macerate for fourteen days,  ex-
press and filter  through paper.]  " This tincture may be prepared either by diges-
tion or percolation, as directed for tincture of cinchona," E.)—An active cathartic.
Rarely used  alone; generally employed   as an adjunct to purgative  draughts,  the
activity of which it promotes.—Dose, f3j to f3iv.   As an adjuvant  to a cathartic
draught, the dose rarely exceeds f3ij.
   3. EXTRACTUM JALAPtE,L. [U.S.]; Extractum sive Resina Jalapse, E.; Extract
of Jalap.—(Jalap  Root,  powdered,  tbiiss. [ibj,  U. S.~\; Rectified Spirit Cong, j
[Oiv. U. S.~\; Distilled Water Cong, ij [a sufficient quantity, If. S.p  Maceratetho
jalap root in the spirit for four days, and pour off the tincture.  Boil down  the
residue in the water to half a gallon;  afterwards strain  the tincture and  the  de-
coction separately, and let the latter be evaporated, and the former distil, until each
thickens.   Lastly, mix the extract with  the  resin, and  evaporate to a proper con-
sistence, L.   This extract should be  kept soft, which  may be fit to form  pills, and
hard, which  may be rubbed to  powder,  L.   The directions of the Edinburgh Cob  j
lege  are the  following :   " Take any convenient quantity of jalap, in moderately
fine  powder; mix  it thoroughly with enough of the  rectified  spirit  to  moisten it
well;  put it in  twelve hours into a percolator,  and exhaust the  powder with recti-  |
fied  spirit;   distil off the  greater part of the spirit, and concentrate the residuum
over  the vapour-bath to a due consistence.")—In  this  process, the alcohol extracts
the  resin, and  the water  subsequently used  by the London College  takes  up  the
gummy extractive;  the alcoholic tincture is distilled  to save the spirit, while  the
aqueous decoction is evaporated.  The preparation  of  the Edinburgh College is  the
impure resin of jalap;  whereas, that of the London  College  is a mixture of resin
with the gummy extractive.   It was formerly,  and indeed is now by many persons,
supposed, that  the  combination  of these ingredients was necessary for the  full
cathartic effect of jalap.   It is, however,  well known that the watery extract is inert
as a purgative, though it is said to  be diuretic; the only advantage, therefore, that
can attend the mixture of the two extracts (the watery and the alcoholic), is, that
the resin is  intimately divided, and  thereby prevented from causing violent irrita-
tion  and griping in any one part of the intestinal tube.  But it is obvious that the
same advantage can be obtained by mixing  the  resin with some mild agent (as
almonds, sugar  or saline matter, as  sulphate of potash).   Mr. Brande3  says, that
jalap yields about 66 per cent, of extract; that is,  16 of alcoholic, and 50 of watery «
extract.   According to this statement, therefore, the extract of the Edinburgh  Col-
1 Jourdan, Pharmacopte Univtrselle.
a Diet. Mat. Med. p. 331. 
Nat. Ord. Gentianace^:.—Yellow Gentian.
523
 lege possesses four times the activity of that of the London College.   The dose of
 the resin (Ph. Ed.)  is  from  grs. iij  to  grs. vj, in a  minute  state of division, as
 above directed;  of the extract, Ph. L., from grs.  x to  9j.


                           183.  Pharbitis Nil, Choisy.

                            Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Monogynia.
                                       (Semina.)

   Convolvulus Nil, Linn.—A tropical plant, with purgative seeds.—The Pharbitis Carulea, Wal-
 lich (Ipomaa carulea, Koenig, in Roxb. Fl. Ind., vol. i. p.  501), is probably only a  variety of it.
 Its seeds are sold  in India under the name of kala dana, hub ul  nil, and mirchai.   They  are
 black, angular, and weigh on an average half a grain each.  Their taste is sweetish, and sub-
 sequently acrid.  They consist of resin, gum, starch, bland  fixed oil, vegetable fibre, and colour-
 ing matter.  They yield from 15 to 20 per cent, of alcoholic brown extract containing resin and
 oil.   In doses of from 30 to 40 grains the seeds act as a  quick and safe cathartic; in some few
 cases they occasion vomiting  and  griping.  The alcoholic extract may be given in doses often
 grains.   The effects of the seeds and extract  resemble  those of jalap, for which they may be
 substituted.'  Roxburgh directs the seeds to be gently roasted like coffee, then powdered,  and
 given in any convenient vehicle.


 Order XLV. GENTIANACE^E, Lindley.—GENTIAN WORTS.

                                 Gentiaite«,  Jussieu.

   CHAiiACTEns.— Calyx divided, inferior, persistent.  Corolla monopetalous, hypogynous, usually
 regular and  persistent;  the limb regular, sometimes furnished with delicate fringes, its lobes of
 the same number as those of the calyx, generally 5, sometimes 4, 6, 8, or 10 ; occasionally, ex-
 tended  at the base into a bag or spur, with a plaited, or folded, or imbricated twisted activation.
 Stamens inserted upon the corolla; all in the same line,  equal in number to  the segments, and
 alternate with them; some of them occasionally abortive.  Ovary  composed of 2 carpels, 1-or
 partly 2-celled, many-seeded.  Style  1, continuous with  the ovary ; stigmas 2, right and left of
 the axis ; ovules indefinite, anatropal, parietal; capsule or berry, many-seeded ; when two-valved,
 the margins of the valves turned inwards, and bearing the seeds;  in the two-celled  genera in-
 serted  into  a central placenta.  Seeds small;  testa single; embryo minute  in  the axis of  soft
 fleshy albumen; radicle next  the hilum.—Herbaceous plants, seldom  shrubs, generally smooth,
 sometimes twining.   Leuves opposite, entire, without  stipules, sessile, or having  their petioles
 confluent in a  little sheath, in most cases 3—5 ribbed; very rarely brown and scale-like; some-
 times alternate.  Flowers terminal or axillary, regular or very seldom irregular.  (Lindley.)
   Proj'krties—This  order contains a  bitter principle, which is  especially abundant in  the
 roots.  On this substance depends the stomachic, tonic, and febrifuge properties of the different
 species.


 184.   GENTIANA   LUTEA,  Linn.—COMMON   OR   YELLOW
                                  GENTIAN,

                             Stx. Syst. Pentandria, Digynia.
                                (Radix, L.—Root, E. D.)

   History.—Gentian is said to  owe its name and introduction into medical use to
Gentius, king of  Illyria,  who was vanquished  by the Romans  about 160  or  169
years before  Christ.   It is, therefore, not  noticed by either Hippocrates  or Theo-
phrastus, but is mentioned by Dioscorides,9 who calls it ytvttav^; and by Pliny.3
   Botany.  Gen. Char.— Calyx 5—4-parted  or split, sometimes dimidiate-spatha-
ceous, valvate.   Corolla withering, rarely  glandular, without epipetalous  hollows;
the  hmb 5—4-parted,  or spuriously  10-parted.  Stamens 5—4,  inserted in the
tube of tlm corolla;  filaments equal at the  base.   Ovary 1-celled; the ovules  in
rows  next  the suture.   Stigmas 2, terminal,  revolute, or, if contiguous, funnel-
shaped;  style  0, or persistent  with  the stigmas.   Capsule  2-valved,  septicidal,  1-
oelled:  the  placentae membranous.   Seeds immersed in the  placentae.  (Condensed
from  Grisebach.)
1 O'ShuughncBiy, Bengal Dispensatory.
•Hist. Nat. lib. xxv. cap. 34, ed. Valp.
3 Lib. iii. cap. 3. 
524              VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. GENTiANACEiE.
   Sp. Char.—Stem tall, straight.   Leaves oval  and ovate, smooth at the niarein.
Cymes  umbelliform, dense-flowered,  axillary or  terminal, pedunculate.  Corollas
yellow; the segments oblong-linear, acuminate (Grisebach).
   Root  perennial,  cylindrical  or  spindle-shaped,  simple or somewhat  branched
ringed,  wrinkled, externally brown, internally yellow and  fleshy.   Stem simple'
erect, 2—3 feet high, roundish, hollow, smooth.   Leaves, pale green, opposite, ovate
or oval, pointed, entire, smooth, 5—7-ribbed, plaited ; lower ones on  short, sheath-
ing  petioles;  upper ones amplexicaul; those next the  flowers becoming concave
yellowish-green bracts.   Flowers on smooth peduncles of 4—6 lines  long.   Calyx
yellow;  t 'orolla yellow;  segments 5—7, lanceolate.   Stamens as long as the co-
rolla.  Ovary conical, with 5 greenish glands at the base.   Capsule conical, 2-valved.
Seeds numerous, roundish, albuminous, with  membranous margins.
   Hab.—Subalpine and mountainous meadow, 6500—3000  feet above the level of
the sea, of Central and Southern Europe.
   Collection.—The  roots are collected and dried by the peasants of Switzerland,
the Tyrol, Burgogne, and Auvergne.   They are imported into  this country in bales
from Havre, Marseilles, &c.
   Description.—Gentian root (radix gentian a?) is imported in cylindrical, usually
more or less branched pieces, varying in length from a few inches to a foot or more,
and in thickness from half an inch to one or two  inches.   These pieces are marked
by transverse annular  wrinkles and  longitudinal furrows.   Externally the root is
yellowish-brown, internally it is brownish-yellow; its texture is spongy ; its odour,
in the fresh state, peculiar and disagreeable;  its taste is intensely bitter.  The root
of other species of Gentiana are said to be frequently mixed with those of the offici-
nal species; their effects,  however,  are analogous.
   Martius1 says, that the roots of G. Purpurea  have  strong longitudinal furrows,
and are of a darker brown colour internally, but want the transverse wrinkles.  The
roots of G. pannouica  are similar to those of purpurea.   Both kinds are met  with
in  Bavaria, and serve  in Switzerland  for  the preparation of  a spirit.  Gentiana
punctata has roots which are just as  bitter, but of  a more yellow colour; they are
dug up in great abundance in  Moravia.  The roots of both the last-mentioned species
are dug up at, and  exported from, Salzburg;  in the fresh state they are white when
sliced.
   Chemistry.—Gentian root was analyzed, in  1815, by Schrader;3 in 1817  by
Braconnot;3 in 1818 by Henry;4 in  the same year by Guillemin and Facquemin;5
and in 1821 by Henry and Caventou.8 In 1837 it was examined by Leconte.7 The
constituents of gentian root, according to Henry and Caventou, are—avolatile odor-
ous  matter, bitter  crystalline  matter  (jjentianin), fugaceous  odorous principle
(volatile oil ?), yellow colouring matter, green fixed oil, gum, uncrystallizable sugar,
matter identical wih bird-lime, a free organic acid, and woody fibre.   But in 1H-j7,
H. Trommsdorff8 and Leconte9 showed that, under the name of gentianin, two sub-
stances had been confounded—the one crystalline and tasteless; the other bitter.
The  first has been called gentisin; the second gentianite.   Furthermore, Leconte
has shown that the substance considered by Henry and  Caventou as identical with
bird-lime, is a compound of wax oil and caoutchouc.
   1. On. of Gentian.—By distillation with water, gentian root yields a very small quantity of
a butyraceous oil, which floats on water, has a powerful odour of gentian root,  and is soluble in
alcohol.  A few drops of the melted oil were given to a rabbit, without causing any remark-
able effects.  I have  received from Mr. Whipple  two samples of this oil, the one  green, the
other white like mutton fat.  Three cwt. of the root yielded only about ^ss. of oil.
   Planche10 states, the distilled water of gentian caused nausea and  a kind of intoxication.
   2. Gentisin, or Gentisic  Acid.—Procured by washing the alcoholic extract of the  root

  1 Pharmakognosie.                             a TrommsdorfPs N. Journ.  Bd. iii. S. 261. ^
  3 Journ. de Physiq. lxxxiv. 345.                    4 Journ. de Pharm. t. v. p. 97.
  6 Ibid. p. 110.                                  « Ibid. t. vii. p. 173.
  1 Ibid. t. xxii. p. 465.                            8 Berlin. Jahrbueh, Bd. xxxvii. S. 162.
  * Op. supra cit.                                "> Bull, de Pharmacie, t. vi. p. 551. 
                Yellow Gentian :—Characteristics ;  Effects.            525

 with water, and then treating with alcohol.  The tincture obtained was evaporated, the extract
 treated by ether; the residue, by successive solutions and evaporations, yielded gentisin.  It is
 pale yellow, crystallizable in needles, has a peculiar but weak smell.   When cautiously heated,
 it gives out some yellow vapours, which are condensed on  the upper part  of the tube.  It is
 rnrrcly soluble  in water, but  dissolves in alcohol.  With alkalies, it  unites  to form salts.   Its
 wturating power is al»ut 438.  Trommsdorff says, that a solution of  gentisic acid is unaffected
 by acetate of lead, nitrate of silver, and most other tests.  Chloride of iron and  the salts of cop-
 per produced,  in the alcoholic solution, the most characteristic changes.
   3. Bittkr Principle of Gentian (Gentianite)—This has  not hitherto  been isolated.   By
 digesting the alcoholic extract of gentian in water, an acidulous intensely bitter solution is obtained.
 The acid may be thrown down by lead.  When the excess of lead has  been removed from the so-
 lution by sulphuretted hydrogen, a liquid is obtained, which, by evaporation, yields a sweet and
 very bitter  extract, from which  ether removes  an aromatic fat, an odorous  resin, and wax.
 The bitter matter has not been separated from the sugar.
   4. Pe<ns.—The existence of pectic acid (pectin) in gentian, was ascertained, in 1835, by
 Denis.1   To this substance is to be in part, perhaps, ascribed the gelatinization of infusion of
 gentian, which, under certain circumstances, is not unfrequently observed.
   5. Scoar.—To the presence of this matter in gentian is to be ascribed the capability of the infu-
 sion of gentian to undergo the vinous fermentation, and to form an alcoholic liquor (gentian spirit),
 much admired by the Swiss.2
   Chemical Characteristics.—The infusion  of gentian is deepened in colour by
 the caustic alkalies.   Sesquichloride of iron communicates a deep olive-brown tint.
 The acetate  and diacetate of lead, the  sulphate of copper, and  the nitrate of mer-
 cury, cause flocculent or gelatinous precipitates (metallic pectates?).
    Physiological  Effects.—Gentian is very properly regarded as  a pure or sim-
 ple bitter ;  that is,  as being bitter, but without possessing  either astringency  or
 much aroma.  It has, therefore, the  usual tonic properties of  medicines of this class,
 which I have before  noticed (see vol. i. p. 244).
   Given in full doses, it appears more disposed  to relax the  bowels than the other
 simple bitters, and, in susceptible individuals, it  is more apt  to disorder the diges-
 tive process.  In such cases, both Loseke and Voigtel3 have seen it cause vomiting.
 Barbier* says it quickens the  pulse.   It  is somewhat less bitter,  and therefore, I
 presume, somewhat  less powerful, than quassia.
   By continued use, the sweat and  urine acquire a bitter taste;5 a sufficient proof
 that gentian, or its bitter principle, becomes absorbed.
   As some of  the vegetable bitter tonics (for example,  quassia and calumba) have
 been found to exert a specific influence over the cerebro-spinal system, and to yield
 preparations  of a poisonous quality, we  are naturally led to inquire whether any
 analogous facts have been made out  with respect to  gentian.   The reply is in the
 affirmative.   Magendie,0 indeed, discovered no poisonous  operation in Gcntianin;
 he threw several grains of  this principle into the veins  of an animal, without any
 obvious effect, and  swallowed  two grains,  dissolved  in  alcohol, but only observed
 extreme bitterness, and a slight feeling of heat in the stomach.   Moreover, Hartl7
 inserted two  grains  of the extract of gentian  into the inner side of the thigh of a
 rabbit, without any  ill effects resulting; the  wound was slightly inflamed, though it
 soon healed.   These tacts prove, that the  bitter extractive of gentian possesses  no
 narcotic properties.   But if the narcotic principle of gentian be of a volatile nature,
 theso experiments of Magendie and Hartl" go for  nothing, since, in  the preparation
 of both the extract and tlie gcntianin, this principle would  be  dissipated by the heat
 employed.  Now,  Planche0 has  shown, as I have already mentioned, that the dis-
 tilled water of  gentian causes violent nausea, and, within  three minutes, a kind  of
 intoxication.   Moreover, Buchner10 tells ua  that,  some years ago, a narcotic  effect
 was produced in Prussia,  by the medicinal  use of gentian root,  although the pres-
ence of any foreign matter could not be detected.  In  the Philosophical Transac-
hjourn. de Pharm. t  xxii. p. .'103.
■ Uiwald,  in PlulTi Mat. Med. Ud. ii. S. 29; and Planche, Bull, de Pharm  vi. 551
1 Arxnamtttrll. Bd. ii. S. 35!)                              • Mat. Mid.
' Arnrinnnn, Prakt. Arzneimittell. S. 186, Gte Aufl.
' 1 ormul.  p 313, bnir i (lit.
1 quoted by Wibmer, Wirk  d. Artntim. u. Giftt, Bd ii. S. 306.   » Ibid.
' Op. cit.                                             » Toxikol. S  192. 
526              VEGETABLES.—Xat. Ord. Gentiaxaceje.

tions for the  year 174S, are mentioned  some deleterious effects,  resulting from tlie
use of gentian; but they were referred to a foreign root, said to  have been inter-
mixed with, and which greatly resembled, the true gentian root.
  All these  facts,  then, support the  opinion of  Haller (quoted by Buchner) that
gentian is not so innocuous as is generally supposed.
  Uses.—Gentian is adapted to most of the cases requiring the use of the pure or
simple bitters (see vol. i.  p. 244).   It agrees best with  phlegmatic, torpid individu-
als, and is apt to disagree with irritable or  susceptible  persons.   It is contraindi-
cated in febrile disorders  and inflammatory conditions of the gastro-intestinal mem-
brane.  It is employed principally in  the following cases :—
  1.  In dyspepsia, and other gastric  disorders, attended with debility or torpidity
and unaccompanied by any marks of  inflammation or irritation,  or great suscepti-
bility, of the digestive organs.  Sesquicarbonate of ammonia is a very valuable adjunct.
  2.  In intermittent diseases it  may  be used where cinchona is admissible; but  it
is much inferior to the last-mentioned substance.   " Joined with galls or tormentil,
in equal parts, and given in sufficient  quantity, it has not failed," says Dr. Cullen,1
" in any intermittents in  which I have tried it."
  3.  In many other diseases marked  by weakness and debility, but unattended by
fever or gastro-intestinal  irritation, gentian  is  admissible and useful; as  in some
forms of gout, hysteria, uterine disorders, &c.   It  is a constituent of the Duke
of Portland's powder for the gout  (see ante, p.  387).
  4.  Against worms, it has been used as if it possessed some specific influence.
  5.  In surgery, it has  been used for discutient fomentations, also  in the form of
fine powder, as an application to issues, to promote their running, and as a tent, to
enlarge and cleanse fistulous  apertures.3
  Administration.—In the form of powder,  the dose is from grs. x  to 3ss.  But
the infusion, tincture, or  extract, are the usual  forms of exhibition.
  1.  INFUSUM  GEATIOE COMPOSITUM,  L. D. [U. S.]; Infusum Gentianse, E.; Infu-
sion  of Gentian; \_Compoutal Infusion of Gentian, U.  S.]—(Gentian Root, sliced,
Jij;   Orange  Peel, dried, 3'j [Lemon Peel, fresh,  3iv> -£•]> Boiling  [Distilled,
L.~\  Water Oj [Oss, D.~\; Macerate for an hour in  a vessel lightly  covered, and
strain.   The  directions of  the Edinburgh College  are  as follows: Gentian, sliced,
3ss;  Bitter  Orange Peel,  dried and bruised, 3J;  Coriander, bruised,  5j 5  ^iooi
Spirit fjiv;  Cold  Water f^xvj  [f^xij, D.  S.].   Pour the spirit upon  the solids;
in three hours add tbe water, and  in  twelve hours more  strain through  linen  or
calico.)—The infusion of the London and Dublin Pharmacopoeias is very apt to
spoil by keeping;  but as it can always be speedily procured, this is not a circum-
stance  of much importance.   However,  to obviate it as much as possible,  the
Edinburgh College orders cold water  to be used (by which  less of the mucilaginous
matter [pectin, &c] is dissolved), and employs  spirit to promote the  solution of
the bitter principle, while the quantity  of gentian is much increased;  so that, in fact,
we have a weak  tincture, rather than  an  infusion.   Besides the objections which
may arise out of these deviations,  a very important one is the  length  of time re-
quired  for the maceration.
  Compound infusion of  gentian sometimes gelatinizes  by  keeping.   This occurred
in one  case3 when  the infusion instead of being  strained off in  an hour had been
allowed to stand forty-eight hours,  and liquor potassae had been added to it. Though
this  perhaps  may be in part  due to the action of the alkali on the pectin contained
in the gentian, it  is  chiefly, if not entirely, owing  to the action of the alkali on
some principle extracted  by prolonged  maceration from the lemon-peel4 (see cortex
limonum).
  Infusion of gentian  is stomachic  and  tonic.   When  prepared according to the
London and Dublin Pharmacopoeias, the dose is fjj tof^ij;  when according to tH
of the Edinburgh, f^ss; to f^j.
1 Mat. Med. vol. ii. p. 72.                                       « Quincy, Dispens.
» Fordred, Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. i. p. 229, 1SU.                * Ibid. vol. i. p. 587, 1841. 
                          Yellow Gentian.—Chiratta.                     527

     2.  MISTURA  GENTIANS COMPOSITA, L.;  Compound Mixture of Gentian.—(Com-
   pound Infusion of  Gentian L§xij;  Compound  Infusion of  Senna fjvj; Compound
   Tincture of Cardamoms fjfij.   Mix).—Tonic  and  cathartic.  Used in dyspepsia
   with  constipation.—Dose,  fjj to f^ij.
     S.  TINCTURA  GENTIAN.'K COMPOSITA, L.  E. D. [U. S.];  Tinctura amara;  Tinc-
   ture  of  Gentian.—(Gentian, sliced and  bruised, .^iiss [3iij, D.~\; Orange  Peel,
   dried, 5x  [^iss, Z).]; Cardamom [seeds], bruised, 3v [|ss, Z>.]; Proof Spirit  Oij.
   Macerate for seven [fourteen, Z).] days, express and strain,  L. D.  The Edinburgh
   College employs of Gentian, sliced  and bruised, ^ijss; Dried  Bitter Orange  Peel,
   bruised, 3x;  Canella, in  moderately fine powder, 3VJJ Cochineal, bruised,  3ss;
   and Proof Spirit, Oij.  [The U. S.  Pharm. directs  Gentian, bruised, gij; Orange
   Peel  Ji; Cardamom, bruised, |ss; Diluted Alcohol Oij.  Macerate for fourteen  days,
   express, and filter  through paper;  or it  may be prepared by displacement.]   This
   tincture may be more conveniently prepared by percolation, as directed for the  com-
   pound tincture of  cardamom, E.)—A grateful cordial  tonic and stomachic.   Era-
   ployed as an adjunct to the infusion, effervescing draughts, bottle soda-water, &c.—
   Dose, f3s8 to f3ij.

     K,  \ I.N 1)1 GENTIANS, E.;  Wine of Gentian.—(Gentian, in coarse powder,  3ss;
   Yellow Bark, in coarse powder, gj;  Bitter Orange  Peel, dried  and sliced,   3ij;
   Canella, in coarse  powder, 3j;   Proof Spirit f^ivss;  Sherry Oj and fjxvj.   Digest
   the root and barks for twenty-four  hours in the spirit;  add the wine, and digest for
   seven days more; strain and express the residuum strongly,  and filter the liquors.)—
   Wine of gentian is an aromatic tonic, useful in dyspepsia and  anorexia.  It is apt
   to  become acetous  by keeping.—The dose of it is fjss to fjj.
    /).  EXTRACTUM GENTIANS, L. Iv  D. [I.:. S.];  Extract  of Gentian.—(Gentian,
   sliced, ibiij;  Boiling Distilled Water Ovj. .Macerate for twelve hours in four  pints
   of  the water;  pour off the liquor and strain it.   Add two piuts of the  water to the
   n-iilue,  macerate for six  hours, lightly  express  the  liquor and  strain.  Listlv,
   evaporate the mixed liquors  to  a  proper consistence,  L.  "Take of (jentiau, any
   convenient quantity;  bruise it to a  moderately fine powder; mix it thoroughly with
   half  its  weight of  distilled water;  in twelve hours put  it  into a proper percolator,
   and exhaust it by percolation with temperate distilled water; concentrate  the liquid,
   filter before it becomes too thick, and evaporate in  the  water-bath to a due consist-
   ence," E.  (Jentian Root,  in  thin  slices,  Ibj;  Distilled Water Oiij.   Macerate the
   gentian  in one pint and a  half of the water for six hours, then strain and express.
   Add to the residue the remaining pint and a half of water, macerate again for six
   hours, strain, and  express.   Finally, mix the  liquors, and  evaporate by a steam or
   water-bath to  a proper consistcuce, D.—[Gentian,  in  coarse powder, tbj;  Water,
   a sufficient quantity.   .Mix with a  pint of water; allow to stand for twenty-four
   hours; and then displace until  the bitterness of  the gentian  is exhausted.   Evapo-
   rate  to the proper  consistence, C. S.~\—Good gentian root yields, by the process of
   the London J'harmacopaia, about  half its weight of extract.1  Extract of (ieiitian
   is tonic.   11 is usually employed as  a vehicle for the exhibition of the metallic sub-
   stances (especially  chalybeates)  in the form of pill.—Dose, grs. x to 5ss.

      185.  OPHELIA CHIR AT A, (insebarh — THE CHIRETTA OR
                                  CHIRAYTA.
                  Agnthotet Chirayta, Don,'' E. D.—Gentiana Chirayita, Fleming.
                             S, r  Syst. Tetrandna, Monogynia.
                          (Herb, D. and Root, E. The Herb, D.)

6k History.—This plant  seems to have been long in use among the  natives of
"ndiu.  Profess.>r (Juibourt1 thinks that it is the xoxauoj aouparix6e of  Dioscorides4

    ' Ilrnn.le. Diet, of Mat. M-d. p 2(11.       ' Transaction* of the Linnean Society, vol. xvii n 522
    ■ Journ. de Chim. Med t. i. p. 229.        ♦ Lib. 1. cap. 17. 
528              VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Gentian-ace*:.

(see ante, p. 154).   Various circumstances, however, appear to me to be opposed
to this opinion;  one of the most conclusive is the absence of odour in the chiravta
plant.1
   Botany.    Gen. Char.— Calyx 5—4-parted;  the segments valvate.    Corolla
withering, rotate, 5—4-parted, with glandular pits above the base.   Stamens 5__}
inserted in the throat of the corolla; the filaments either dilated at  the base and
monodelphous, or equal at  the  base and free.   Ovary 1-celled;  ovules numerous
inserted on the  suture.   Stigmas 2, terminal, short, usually revolute; style 0, or
short.    Capsule 2-valved, septicidal,  1-celled;  placenta: either spongy and sutural
or expanded near the  suture.   Seeds immersed in the  placenta?, very numerous
small, and generally wingless (Grisebach).
   Sp. Char.—Stem  terete, tall, smooth, branched.   Branches elongated, erect-
spreading.   Leaves  cordate-ovate, and   ovate, acuminate,  sessile, smooth, 5—7-
nerved.   Cymes umbelliform, lax, few-flowered.   Segments of the calyx sublanceo-
late, acuminate, shorter than the  corolla, corollae  4-parted, yellow,  the segments
expanded, ovate-lanceolate, acuminate;  pits  in  pairs,   oblong,  distinct,  fringed
anteriorly  by  long scales; the fringes  epipetalous, short, connecting  the pits.
(Grisebach.)
   Herbaceous.   Root branching.   Stem round, jointed.   Leaves opposite amplexi-
caul, very acute, entire.  Floioers numerous, peduncled.
   Hab.—Mountains of Nepal and the Morungs.
   Description.—The plant is pulled  up by  the root,  about  the  time that the
flowers begin to decay and the capsules are well formed.3   The dried plant, with the
root (herba et radix chirettse sive chiraytse) is met with in the shops.  The root is
fibrous ; the stem is round, smooth, not jointed, marked with the cicatrices of leaves,
has a yellowish pith; the leaves are as  above described.   The whole plant is with-
out odour, but has an intensely bitter taste.
   Compositiox.—The stems of this plant were analyzed by MM.  Lassnigne and
Boissel,3 who  obtained the following results:  resin, yellow bitter  matter, brown
colouring  matter, gum, malic acid  [woody fibre'], malate of potash, chloride of
potassium, sulphate of potash, phosphate  of lime, silica, and traces of oxide of iron.
  The bitter  matter is the most important constituent.  No vegetable alkali has been de-
tected in it.  The substance which was sold as sulphate of Chirayitine was sulphate of quinia.4
   Physiological Effects.—Chirayta  is an  intensely bitter substance, and pro-
duces  the before-described (see vol. i. p. 244) effects of  the simple or pure bitters.
In its operation, as well as by its  botanical affinities, it is closely allied to gentian.
It appears to possess rather a relaxing than a constipating effect.5
   Uses.—It  has  long been employed by the natives of  India in the same class of
cases in which gentian has  been used in  Europe.   As a stomachic it is especially
serviceable in  the dyspepsia of  gouty subjects.   It strengthens the stomach, obvi-
ates flatulency, and diminishes the tendency to  acidity.8   Combined with the seeds
of  Guilandina Bonduc it is employed with success in intermittents.7
   %Administration.—It may be  given  in powder, in  the dose of 9j, or it may be
   ployed  in  the form of infusion, tincture (prepared with  cardamom and orange
peel, like compound tincture of gentian), or extract.
   1. INFUSUM CHIRETTE, E. D.;  Infusion of  Chiretta.—(Chiretta 3iv  [3ij,  D\,
Boiling Water Oj [^ixss, D.~\.   Infuse  for two hours, and strain through linen or
calico).—The dose of this  is 3j to f^ij.
   2. TINCTURA CHIRETLE, D.; Tincture of Chiretta.—(Chiretta, bruised,  gv; Proof
Spirit Oij.  Macerate for  fourteen days,  strain, express, and filter,  D.)—Dose, 3J
to 3iv.                                                                       *
1 Fee, Cours d'Hist. Nat. t. n. p. 395.
' Journ. Pharm. vol. vii. p. 283.
* Baker, Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. ii. p. 685.
' Johnson, Inf.. ofTrop. Climates, 3d edit. p. 58.
a Roxburgh, Fl. Ind. vol. ii. p. 72.
4 Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xxi. 173.
• Fleming, Asiat. Researches, vol. xi. p. w7. 
Common Centaury.—Marsh Trefoil:—History;  Botany.      529
          186. Erythraea Centaurium, Persoon.—Common Centaury.

                                 Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Monogynia.
                         (Centaurium, L.—The flowering heads, E.—Folia, D.)

      Hibtobt—This plant was known to the ancients, and received one of its names (Chironia
    Centaurium) from Chiron the Centaur, who is said to have lived  1270 years before Christ.  But
    the plant which, I'liny' says, cured Chiron of A wound received by an arrow, which he dropped
    on his foot when examining the arms of Hercules, is supposed to be the Centaurea Centaurium.
      Botint.   Gen. Char.—Calyx, 5—4-partite,  the segments nearly  flat,  wingless.  Corolla
    funnel-shaped, naked, contortedwithering above  the  capsule; the  tube cylindrical; the limb
    5—4-partite.   Stamens 5—4, inserted above in the tube of the  corolla; anthers erect, twisted
    spirally, exserted.   Ovary 1 celled or semi 2-celled  in consequence of the valves being slightly
    indexed. '1 In; ovules inserted at  the  suture.   Style distinct, deciduous; stigma bilamellate or
    undivided and capitulate.   Capsule bivalved, septicidal,  l-celled or semi-2 celled ;  the placentas
    spongy and xuttiral.  Seeds immersed in the  placenta?, sub-globose, smooth, minute (Grisebach).
      Sp. Char.—Stem  erect, elongated, branched superiorly.  Leaves elliptic-oblong, unequally
    acute.  Flowers collected  in loose heads, lateral, bibracteate.  Tube of the corolla  during in-
    florescence  more than twice the length of the calyx, the tubes oval and obtuse.   Capsule with
    the valves much indexed,  more than semi-2-celled (Grisebach).
      Root small, tapering.  Stem about  a foot high, leafy.  Radicle  leaves obovate; the rest acute,
    ovate, or elliptic-lanceolate; all 3-ribbed, bright green.   Flowers nearly sessile.  Bracts opposite,
    awl-shaped.  Calyx  slender.  Tube of corolla pale-greenish; limb brilliant  pink, expanded
    only in sunshine, closing as soon as gathered.
      Hab. — Indigenous; dry gravelly pastures.   Annual.   Flowers in July and August.
      Dkschiptiov —The herb or tops (herba seu summilates vel cacumina reiUaurii minoris) of the
    common or  lesser centaury arc  without odour, but have a very bitter taste.   They  are collected
    when in flower.
      Composition.—According to Moretti,2 common centaury contains bitter  extractive, free acid,
    mucous matter, extractive tails [and woody fibre].
      The  principal  constituent of common  centaury is the  bitter extractive, called by Dulong
    d'Astafort* centuurin.   This, when combined with hydrochloric acid, is  said to be an excellent
    febrifuge.  Oninurin  must not be  confounded with centaurite, the  bitter  principle of Cntcus
    benedirtus, De Cand.
      Physiological Effects.—Similar to those of gentian  (see ante, p. 525), and of  other simple
    or pure bitters (see ante, p. 244).
      Uhkr—Common or lesser centaury is rarely used by medical  practitioners;  yet it might be
    employed as an indigenous substitute for gentian.  Dose of the powder, J)j  to 3j.  It may also
    be used in infusion.


          187. Menyanthes trifoliata, Linn.—Common Buckbean j
                                     Marsh  Trefoil.

                                 SfX. Syst. Pentandria, Monogyn a.
                             (Menyanthes, L —Leaves, E.—Folia, D.)

     Histoiit.—Sprengel* considers this to be the plant  referred to by Theophrastus5 under  the
    name of f*nta>6»(.
      Hot am   Gen.  Char.—Calyx  5-partite, the segments connected at the  base, so as to form
   a tube.   Corolla deciduous, funnel-shaped, fleshy;  the limb,  5-partite, its segments naked at the
   margin and  base, but fringed or very rarely denuded at the  disk, no epipetalous glands.   5/a-
   me;i» 5, inserted in the tube of the corolla; filaments equal  at  the base ;  anthers erect.  Ovary
   surrounded by 5 hypogynous glands, 1-celled;  the ovules inserted on the axis of the valves.
   SiyU lili form, persiMent with the 2 Inbed stigma.  Capsule Icelled, almost valveless, rupturing
   near the suture of the two carpella ; the placenta inserted in  the axis of the carpella.   Seeds in-
   definite, with a  shining very smooth testa.  (Grisebach.)
     Sp. Char.—The only species.
     Jlhizimm black, creeping, jointed.  Leaves on  long stalks, with broad sheathing stipules at
   base, teruate;  leaflets  nearly oval, smooth.  Scape round,  ascending, smooth.  Brads ovate.
   Calyx obtuse.   Coivlla white, or flesh coloured,  elegant, densely sliaggy.   Anthers yellow.
     Hab.—Indigenous;  watery  meadows,  ditches, \c;  frequently cultivated  in  ornamental
Jfcquaria, on ueeount  of the beauty of the flowers.  Perennial.  Flowers in June and July.

    1 Hist. .Sat.  lib xxv. cnp. 30, ed.  Valp.                           a Journ. de Pharm. t. v. n  98
    • Ibid. x. xvi  p. 6W.                                          « Hist. Kei Herb. I. i. p. e-j
    1 Hist Plant lib. iv. cap. 11.
          VOL. II —o4 
530
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Loganiace^.
   Description.—The whole herb (herba menyanthis seu  trifolii fibrini) is odourless, hut has
very bitter taste.  Its infusion strikes a green colour (tannate of iron) with the sesquichloride of
iron.   The leaves (folia menyanthis) are the parts usually  employed.
   Composition.—.Menyanthes was analyzed by Trommsdorff,1 who found that the fresh plant
consists of 75 parts of  moisture, and 25 of solid matter, composed of bitter extractive vegetable
albumen, green  resin (chlorophylle), peculiar matter precipitable by tannic  acid, but soluble in
water and in weak spirit,  brown gum, fecula (inulin or menyanthin),  malic acid, and wetutt of
potash.
   The  bitter  extractive  is the active principle.   Brandes states that he procured a white bitter
powder from menyanthes; but B. Trommsdorff2 repeated  Brandes's experiments, and procured
only a yellowish-brown bitter extract.
   Physiological Effects.—Tonic and  astringent.  In large doses  cathartic, and  sometimes
emetic.
   Usf.8.—This plant is used by the brewers of some parts  of Germany, particularly Silesia and
the adjacent provinces, as a substitute for hops.3  It is rarely employed in  medicine, but is ap-
plicable for the same purposes as the other bitter tonics (see ante, p. 244).  It has been esteemed
efficacious as an antiscorbutic.4
   Administration.—It may be given in powder, infusion, or extract.—The dose of the powder
is from  J)j to^ss; if given to the extent of 3J, it generally purges.  The  dose of the infusion
(prepared with gss of  the dried herb, and f^xvj of boiling water) is f^j to f'^ij; of the watery
extract, grs. x to grs. xv.


                       188. Frasera  carolinensis,  Walter.
                             Sex. Syst.  Tetrandria, Monogynia.
                                        (Radix.)
   Frasera carolinensis, Walter, Fl. Carol. 17S8; F. Walteri, Michaux, Fl. Boreali-Americ.  1803*
American  Calumba.—A native of the southern  and western portions of the United States and
very abundant  in Arkansas and Missouri.   The root  is officinal in the Pharmacopoeia of the
United States.  As met with in commerce, it is in transverse circular segments, about an inch
in diameter, and an eighth of an inch, or more, in thickness.  It contains no starch, ami hence
undergoes no change of colour when touched with  iodine.   Its  infusion or decoction becomes
blackish green (tannate of iron) when treated with  sulphate of iron, and lets fall a precipitate
(tannate of gelatin)  on  the addition of a solution of isinglass.   The effects, uses, and doses of
Frasera are the same as those of gentian.  The fresh root is said to operate as an emetic and
cathartic.5  Some, years ago, it was introduced into France, and sold for calumba; hence, it got
the name of false calumba.  The chemical characters above given, as well as the physical pro-
perties of the root, readily distinguish it.6


   Order XLVI.  LOGANIACE^,  De   Cand.—LOG Am ADS.

   Characters.— Calyx free, 5-  rarely 4-lobed.  Corolla  regular or rarely irregular, hypogynous,
5- rarely 4- or many-lobed, aestivation valvate, contorted, or imbricated.  Stamens inserted in the
tube of the corolla ;  anthers 2-celled, dehiscing longitudinally;  pollen vittate-trilobed.   Ovary
free (superior), 2- rarely 3-celled or Icelled; ovules amphitropal,  or  rarely  anatropal.   Style
simple; stigma simple  or 2-lobed.   Fruit capsular or  drupaceobaccate.  Seeds usually peltate,
sometimes winged; albumen fleshy or cartilaginous; embryo straight;  radicle towards or paral-
lel with the hilum ; cotyledons 2, foliaceous.—Shrubs, trees,  or rarely herbs.  Leaves opposite, en-
tire, stalked, usually with stipules.   Flowers racemose or corymbose, rarely solitary.
   Properties.—Poisonous (with some exceptions); acting on the nervous system.   This order
contains some of the most energetic vegetable poisons.   Strychnia and  bruda  are produced by
some Of the species, which in consequence excite most frightful convulsions.—The medicinal
species of this order are used asspastics (see ante,p. 245),  anthelmintics, and  tonics.

  189.  SPIGELIA MARILANDIC A,  Linn.—CAROLINA PINK;

                       PERENNIAL  WORMGrRASS.
                              Sea:  Syst. Pentandria, Monogynia.
                                        (Root, E.)

   History.—The  anthelmintic virtues  of this  plant  were  first learned from the
Cberokee Indians, who became  acquainted  with them, according to Dr. Garde^
about 1723 ; they were made known to the profession about 1740.7             %

  1 Ann. de Chim. t. lxxii. p. 191.                         * Pharm. Central-Blatt fur 1632, p. 458
  1 Yosy, Origin and Progress of the Med. Bot. Soc. p. 12.    * Murray, App. Med. t. ii. p. 34.
  s United States Dispensatory.                      e Guibourt, Journ. de Chim. Mid. t. ii. p. 334
  1 Essays and Obs. Phys. and Lit. vol. iii. 
Perennial Wormorass :—Botany;  Description; Composition.    531
  Botany.  Gen. Char.— Calyx 5-partite, persistent; the segments linear-subu-
late, glandulaf.   Corolla gamopetalous,  funnel-shaped; the lobes 5, shorter than
the tube, with a valvate .-estivation.  Stamens 5, inserted on the tube of the corolla,
inclosed or rarely exserted; filaments slender;  anthers linear, erect, 2-lobed at the
base.   Ovary 2-celled ;  ovules numerous, amphitropal; placentae basilar, stipitate.
Style  filiform, hairy above, jointed beneath the capitate or concave stigma.   Cap-
sulr obovoid-compressed, didymous, dicoccous, circumscissile at the base;  the cocci
at length  bi-partite.  Seeds  few, cuneate-turbinate;  the testa scabrous-areolate;
the embryo at the base of horny albumen, small, straight.  (De Cand.)
   Sp. Char.—Stem erect, simple, quadrangular,  smooth.  Leaves sessile, ovate-
lanceolate,  acute or acuminate; the  margin  and nerves  scabrous-hairy.   Spike
3—8-flowered.   Flowers sessile.   Segments of the calyx 4 times shorter than the
tube of the corolla.   Anthers projecting from  the  tube.  Lobes of  the corolla lan-
ceolate.   Capsule smooth, somewhat shorter than the calyx.
  Root perennial, consisting of numerous fibres, from a short,  cylindrical rhizome.
Stems several,  winged  (from  the  decurrent  leaves).  Leaves decussate,  entire.
Planers  in simple one-sided spikes (or racemes).   Corolla much longer  than the
calyx, of  a rich carmine  colour externally, paler  at  the base, and orange-yellow
withiu.   Capsule obcordate, smooth.
  Hab.—Southern  States of North America ;  seldom found north of the Potomac.
  Collection.—"It is collected by the  Creek  and Cherokee Indians, who dispose of
it to the white traders.   By these it is packed in* casks, or more commonly in large
bales, weighing from three  hundred to three hundred  and fifty  pounds.  That con-
tained in casks is to  be preferred, as less  liable  to be damp and  mouldy.   Owing to
the imperfect manner in which  the plant is  dried, it seldom  happens that packages
of it  reach the  market free  from dirt and  mouldiness, and  having the stalks of  a
bright colour.    Some parcels  have recently been brought free from the stalks, and
have commanded more than double the  price  of  the  drug  prepared in  the usual
way."1
  Description.—The dried plant (herba sjrigcliie) as usually met with in the shops,
is of a grayish-green colour, a faint odour, and a bitter taste. The root (radix spige-
lise) consists of numerous  slender, branching, dark  brown  fibres,  issuing  from  a
short, dark brown rhizome.
   Composition.—The herb and root  have been  analyzed  by Wackenrode  -  Fe-
nculle'' probably analyzed this plant under the  name of Spigelia anthelmintica.

                               Wackenroder's  Analyses.
Myricin.....................  0.3(1
K<nin, with chlorophylle............  2.40
Peculiar resin..................  0.50
l>' niliiir timiiiu.................  17.20
Woody fibre...................  75.20
Mnlnte of potash, and chloride of potassium  2.10
Mulate of lime..................  4.20

        Herb of Spigelia...........101.90
Fixed oil....................a trace.
Acrid resin, with some fixed oil.......   3.13
Peculiar tnnnin  ................   10.56
Hitter uend extractive............   4.89
Woody fibre (which yields 10.74 of nshes) .   82.69
Root of Spigelia.......... 101.27
    The decoction of spigelia strikes a dark colour with the salts of iron.
   1.  Bittkh kxtractivk —Fi'iieulle ascribes the activity of spigelia to a brown, hitter extract-
 ive, like that of the purgntivc Leguminosie.  Taken internally, it causes vertigo and  a kind of
 intoxication.  It is, I presume, identical with the bitter acrid extractive of Wackenroder
   ','  Ki.sin —This is described by Wackenroder as having an acrid, nauseous taste.  It is solu-
 ble in ammonia and in oil of vitriol.  It evolves ammonia when heated.
   Physiological Effects.—The physiological effects of this root  have not been
 accurately determined ; but  the  observations hitherto made show them  to be those
kof a local irritant (or acrid) and narcotic substance.
)  In the tadinary dost (one or two drachms for adults) it has very little  sensible
'  t'nited States Dispensatory.
* Journ. de Pharm. t. ix. p. 807.
■ Gmelin's Handb. d. Chem. ii. 12tb 
532              VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Loganiaceje.

effect on the system, though it may act  efficaciously as an anthelmintic.   In larqer
doses it appears to operate as  an irritant to the  gastro-intestinal  canal, and  gives
rise to purging and sometimes to  vomiting, though its effects in this way are very
uncertain.  In poisonous doses it operates as a cerebro-spinal or narcotic, giving rise
to  " vertigo, dimness of vision, dilated pupils, spasms of  the facial muscles, and
sometimes even to general convulsions.   Spasmodic movements of the eyelids have
been observed among  the most common attendants of  its narcotic action.   The
death of two children, who expired in convulsions, was attributed by Dr. Chambers
to the influence of spigelia.  The narcotic effects are said to be  less apt to occur
when the  medicine  purges, and to  be  altogether obviated by combining it with
cathartics.  The danger from its employment cannot be great, as it is in very gene-
ral use in the United  States, both  in regular and domestic practice, and we never
hear at present of serious consequences.   Its effects upon the system have been erro-
neously conjectured to depend on other  roots sometimes mixed with the genuine."1
   Uses.—Employed only as an anthelmintic.   Its vermifuge  properties were first
made known  to the profession  by Drs. Lining2  and Garden.3   Though scarcely
used in this country, it stands at the head of anthelmintics in  the  United  States of
America.
   Administration.—The dose of the powder, for a child of three or four years old,
is from grs. x to grs. xx ; for an adult 3J to 5iij-  This quantity is repeated, every
morning and evening, for several days, and then followed  by a brisk cathartic.  It is
frequently combined with calomel.
   INFUSUM SPIGEILE, Ph. United States;  Infusion of Pink-root.—(Sp\gel\a Root
^ss; Boiling Water f ,?xvj.  Macerate for two hours in a covered vessel, and strain.)—
The dose, for  a child of two or three years old, is  f ^ss to f 3J ; for an adult, from
f ^iv to jviij, repeated morning and evening.   A quantity of senna, equal to that
of the spigelia, is usually added, to insure  a cathartic effect.
   A preparation  kept in the shops of the United States, and much prescribed by
physicians, under the name of  worm tea, consists of spigelia root, senna, manna,
and savine, mixed together in various proportions to suit the views  of different indi-
viduals.*
   [The U. S.  Pharm. has a convenient preparation under the name of Extractum
SpiGELiiE et Senn^e Fluidum.  It is  prepared as follows: Take of Pink-root, in
coarse powder rbj; Senna, in coarse powder  ^vj; Sugar ibiss; Carbonate of Potassa
5vj; Oil of Caraway, Oil of Anise, each f3ss; Diluted Alcohol, a sufiicient quantity.
Mix the pink-root and the senna with two pints of diluted alcohol, and having al-
lowed the mixture to stand for two days, transfer it to a percolator, and gradually
pour upon it diluted  alcohol until  half  a  gallon of liquid has passed.  Evaporate
the liquid  by means of  a water-bath, to a pint; then add the carbonate of potassa,
and after the  sediment has dissolved, the sugar previously triturated with the oils.
Lastly, dissolve the  sugar with a gentle heat.
   This preparation combines the  properties of the anthelmintic  and a purgative,
and may, from the smallness of  the dose, be conveniently administered to children.
Dose, f 3i to f3y, twice or thrice datily.]

                      190. Spigelia  Anthelmia, Linn.
                                  (Herba;  Radix.)
   Spigelia asthelmia, or Demerara Pink Root, is a native of South America and the West In-
dia Islands. Its action is similar to that of the last-mentioned species.  So poisonous has it been
regarded, that in France it is called Brinvilliere, after the Marchioness de Brinvilliers, a woman
famous for poisoning in the reign of Louis XIV., and who was executed on the 16th of July,
1676.5 Its anthelmintic properties were noticed in 1751, by Dr. Browne.6  This plant wasanaJ
1 United States Dispensatory.
* Ibid. vol. iii. p. 145.
' Guibourt, Hist, des Drog. t. ii. p. 227.
* Essay and Obs. Phys. and Lit. vol i. p. 3fefi
4 United States Dispensatory.
6 Gentleman's Magazine for 1751. 
   II
   0
^81
              Ndx-vomica:—History; Botany; Description.           533

 lyzed by Ricord Madianna.1  In the root  he found a solid fat, wax, a soft resin called  spigelin
 (one grain and a half of which are sufiicient to destroy a cat or dog in twenty minutes), resin,
 brown non poisonous extractive, gum, ligneous fibre, albumen, and gallic acid.  The stalks and
 leaves contained volatile oil, fat, wax, chlorophylle, blackish gummy matter, ligneous fibre, and
 gallic acid.  Dr. Browne2 says it procures sleep almost as certainly as opium.  Dr. Bonyan8 has
 recently testified to the anthelmintic efficacy of this plant, which is in great repute  among the
 laborers of British Guiana.  It is administered  in the form of a decoction.  Two or three fresh
 leaves are said to be a dose.


 191. STRYCHNOS  NUX-VOMICA,  Linn.—THE  POISON-NUT.
             ,             Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Monogynia.
        (Semen; Strychnia; Alkali e nuce vomica comparatum; Crystalli, L.—Seeds, E. D.)

   HISTORY.—We  became  acquainted  with  nux-vomica through  the  Arabian
 authors.   In the Latin translation of one of  the works of Serapion4 we  find the
 word nux-vomica, but it  appears to  have been  applied  to some other substance
 (probably to St.  Ignatius's bean).   "Est nux," says he,  "cujus color est inter
 glaucedinem et albedinem, major avellana  parura et sunt  in ea nodi."  To which
 be afterwards adds, "movet vomitum;" from which, I presume, the name of  vomic,
 or vomiting-nut, was originally derived.   Mesue  also mentions nux-vomica.    Avi-
 cenna*  says, nux-methel "est  similis  nuci vomicae."  It is probable that the nux-
 mechil of  Serapion  is the substance which we denominate nux-vomica.
   Botany.   Gen.  Char.— Calyx 5-lobed.   Corolla tubular, salver-shaped or fun-
 nel-shaped ;  the throat naked  or bearded; limb 5-partite, the  lobes valvate in aesti-
 vation, spreading during inflorescence.   Stamens 5, inserted into the throat  of the
 corolla; filaments very short;  anthers subexserted.  Ovary 2-celled.  Style filiform;
 stigma capitate, undivided, or obscurely subbilobed.   Ovules indefinite, attached  to
 fleshy placentae, amphitropal, with an  inferior micropyle.  Berry corticated, 1-celled,
 many-seeded, or  by  abortion  1-seeded.    Seeds nidulant  in  pulp, discoidal-com-
 pressed, with a ventral  umbilicus;  embryo at the base of cartilaginous, subbilamel-
 latc albumen,  excentric,  straight,  short;  the cotyledons sessile,  foliaceous; the
 radicle terete, uncertain (De Cand.).
   Sp. Char.—Stem arboreous.   No spines or  cirrhi.   Leaves  ovate,  stalked,
 3—5-nerved, quite  smooth.  Corymbs terminal.   Calyx with 5 short teeth.  Corolla
 smooth within.  Berry  globose, many-seeded.  (De Cand).
   Middling-sized tree.    Trunk  short,  often  crooked,
 pretty  thick;  the  branches  irregular;  the wood white,
 hard, and bitter.   Lea res opposite, oval, shining, entire.
 Corymbs  small.  Corolla funnel-shaped, greeni.>h-white.
 Style the  length of the  corolla.   Stigma  capitate.  Berry
 rouud, smooth, size of a pretty large apple, covered with
 a smooth, somewhat  hard shelf,  of a rich  orange-colour
 when ripo, filled with a  white, soft, gelatinous pulp, which
 is greedily eaten by many sorts of  birds.   Seeds several,
 immersed in the  pulp of the berry, and  attached  to  a
 central placenta.
   Hab. — Coromandel,  and  other parts of  India;
"Ceylon.
   Description.—a.  Of  the Seeds.—The  seeds  (nuces     Strychnos Nux vomica.
 vomica) of commerce are  round,  peltate,  scarcely an inch
 in diameter, nearly  flat,  or very slightly convex on the dorsal  surface, and concave
 on the other or ventral  surface, and  are  usually surrounded by a filiform  annular
 stria.   In  the  centre  of the ventral  surface of the seed is  the orbicular hilum or
  mbilicus.  At one part of their circumference or margin there is a slight promi-
1 (imrlin's Hamlh  de Chem. ii I2!>7              » \al. Hist, of Jamaica, p 157.
' Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. v. p. 354, 1846.      * Dt Simplic. Med. clxiii. p. 115, Argent. 1531.
1 Lib. 2ndui, tract. 2ndui, cap. 509. 
534
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. LouaniacejE.
nence, which answers to the chalaza and to the radicle of the embryo.   From this
prominence to the umbilicus  is  a more or less obvious  line, forming tlie raphe.
From their fancied resemblance to gray eyes, as well as from their being poisonous
to crows, the Germans term them Krahenavgen, or crows' eyes.
Fig. 310.
Fig. 311.
              Nux-vomica.
a. The dorsal surface.
6. The ventral or concave surface.
c. Prominence indicating the chalaza and radicle.
d. Hilum or umbilicus.
t. Raphe.
           Sections of Nux-vomica.
f. Transverse section of seed, showing the bipar-
    tite albumen, the cavity, and the embryo.
g. Vertical section, exposing the internal cavity,
    and  showing the  situation and figure of the
    embryo.
312.
   These seeds have two coats: the outer one, or testa, is simple, fibrous, and gives
origin to short  silky  hairs, of an  ash-gray or yellowish  colour, and  which  are
directed from the centre towards  the circumference; within this is the inner coat,
                          or endopleura, which is simple and very  thin, and  en-
                          velops the nucleus of the seed.
                             This nucleus is composed of two parts—namely, albu-
                          men and  embryo.  The albumen is bipartite, cartilagi-
                          nous, or horny;  of a dirty-white colour, of an intensely
                          bitter taste, and has, in its interior,  a cavity (loculamen-
                          tum verum).   Unlike  that of most  seeds, the albumen
                          of nux-vomica is of a poisonous nature.   The embryo,
                          which is  milk-white, is seated  in  the circumference of
                          the  seed,  its locality  being frequently indicated by  a
                          point somewhat  more  projecting than the surrounding
                          parts.   It consists of two  large  cordiform, acuminated,
                          triple-ribbed,  very thin  cotyledons, a distinct cauliculus,
                          and a centripetal  radicle (*'. e. a radicle directed towards
                          the centre of the fruit).
   |3.  Of the Bark.—The  bark  of the Strychnos nux-vomica (nux-vomica  bark;
cortex strychnos nucis vomicse; cortex angusturse spurise seufalsse; cortex pseudan-
gusturse seu  virosse) occurs in quills (pseudangustura convoluta),  in  flat  pieces
(pseudangustura plana), or  in pieces arched backwards and  twisted (pseudangus-
tura revoluta) like dried horn.
   The outer or epidermic surface varies in its appearance  according  to the  age of
the bark.   In the young bark it  is  ash-gray;  and at this period has great resem-
blance to true angustura bark.   When somewhat  older, it offers numerous whitish
or yellowish prominences, which were supposed by Pelletier and Caventou to be a
species  of lichen (chiodecton),  but which are  now known to be an epidermoid
alteration  or leprous exuberance.1   At  a  more  advanced stage of its growth, the
bark is  coated with a rust-coloured corky or  spongy layer.  In  this state it is called
rusty false  angustura (pseudangustura ferruginea), though it really  has  no resem
blance to genuine angustura bark.
   The inner  surface of the  bark is frequently dark  or blackish; but sometime
Magnified view of a  portion
  of the  seed-coats of Nux-
  vomica.
a. Te,sta, with hairs attached.
b. Endopleura.
c. Albumen.
1
1 Fee, Essai sur les Cryptog. des Ecorces exot. p. 16, 1821. 
Nux-vomica:—Commerce;  Composition.
535
grayish yellow.   The  pieces seldom exceed four inches  in length; they are com-
pact and hard ;  and break with a smooth fracture.   The powder is intensely bitter,
without  aroma, acridity, or  astringency;  its colour  is dirty yellow, not  very  dis-
similar to that of jalap.
  Nix-vomica hark was formerly confounded  with  angustura or  cusparia bark; hence its
name of false angustura bark.  The  history of the mistake is as follows:  In 1S04, Dr. Ram-
bach, a physician at Hamburg, observed  that some specimens  of angustura bark, said to be
from the Ka-t  Indies, acted as a powerful poison; and as repeated ca.<es of poisoning occurred
with the same substance, an order was issued, forbidding the use of angustura bark.  On the
15th of October, 1W15. the Commission of Health  of the Grand Duchy of Baden ordered all
the angus-mra bark in the possession of the apothecaries to be seized, and placed under a seal;
the phy*i( Kins at the same time receiving an intimation that they were not, in future, to prescribe
this l«rk.  Similar ordinances  were issued in Austria, Bavaria,and Wirtemberg.1
  The origin of the bark is said, by Batka, to be as follows:   A quantity of it was imported
from  the  K.i>t into Kngland, and not  being salable, was sent  to  Holland; and as no better
means of gi-tting rid of it offered, it was mixed with, and sold as, genuine angustura or cuspa-
ria  bark.8  Great obscurity long  existed as to the tree which yielded it.   At first, it was attri-
buted to  the Brucea ferruginea or antidysenterica, a native of Abyssinia, belonging  to the family
Xanthoxylace;e; but  in  1831, Geiger had occasion to examine  the  bark of the  B. ferruginea,
and found that it had no resemblance to false angustura.3  Now the composition  and  effects of
this bark rendered it in the highest degree probable that it was the product of some tree of the
genus Strychnos; Batka said of the S. Nux-vomica, or some kindred species; an opinion which
was confirmed by my examination of  the specimens of the nux-vomica plant in Dr. Wallich's
collection, in the possession of the Linnean Society.4   In 1837, Dr. O'Shaughnessy5 established
the identity of false angustura bark and the bark of the nux-vomica tree.  Since then I have ex-
amined about  1 cwt. of the latter bark  brought to this country, and find  it to be identical  with
false angustura bark contained in my  museum,  and which I had purchased in  Paris several
years before.
   Nux-vomica bark (kuchila)  is commonly sold  in Calcutta  for  rohun, the  harmless bark of
Soymida febrifuga ,•  and sulphate of brucia obtained from it was mistaken by Mr. Piddington8
for a sulphate of a  supposed new alkaloid, to which the name of "rohuna" was given 1  By
the timely discovery of the real  nature of this salt, by Dr. O'Shaughnessy, the dreadful conse-
quences  which might, and probably would have resulted from  its employment as a  febrifuge
in the Indian  army (to which it hud  been sent as a substitute for  sulphate of  quinia) were
averted.'
    Commerce.—In 1888, duty was paid on 1017  lbs.  of nux-vomica;  in 1839, on
only 478 lbs.; in 1*40, on 550 lbs.
    Composition.—The seeds of Strychnos nux-vomica have been analyzed by Rese,8
 Dc.-porte.s," Braconnot,1" Chevreul,11 and Pelletier  and  Caventou.19   The most im-
 portant of these  analyses is that  made  by the  last-mentioned chemists;  who also
cxaniiued  the bark of Strychnos Nux-vomica, under the name of false angustura.13
The leprous coating of this bark they afterwards14 submitted to a  separate exami-
 nation, uuder the idea of its being a lichen.

                 Pelletier and Caventou's Analyses of the Strychnos Nux-vomica.
               1. Of the Seeds.
Strychnic, or igmuric acid.
Strychnia > ■     ,         ...  .   .  .    . .
Union   \ ln com'"nat">n with strychnic acid.
 Wax (a iniill quuntity).
Concrete ml
Yellow colouring mutter.
(iuin.
Suirch (a little).
Bniaorui.
Woody fibre.
Cnrbonute of lime and chloride of potassium in the
  UBllt'M.

          Nux-vomica needs.
 1 S.-hwartze, Pharm. Tabell  S. 05, He Au§g. 1833; Hufeland's Journal, Bd. xix. St. i. S. ie-t
 &' tiiiiliourt, Hist, des l>r»z t  ii. p. 1, 3me edit. 1&30.       * Pharm. Central-Blatt fur ISil, S. 477.
 ,<LoHdon Medical Gazette, vol. xix. p. 49J.               * Madras Journal for April, lsU7. '
 J Trans. Med. Phys. Socitly of Calcutta, vol  iv.
 ' I'riviitr information lurnialicd me by Dr. O'Shaughnessy, and by Dr. Jackson (the late Apothecary-
 rnrrnl ot the Indian Arniv).
 • Pl'iiff, Syst. d. Mat. Med. Bd. ii. S. 90.                  » Bull, de Pharm. t. i. p. 271
10 Ibid. t. iii. p. 315.                                  " Orfilu, Torieol. Gin.
" Ann Chim. et Phys. t. x. p. 142.                     " Ann. Chim. et Phys. t. xii. p. 113.
" Journ  ii,  Pharm. t. v. p. 540.
             2.  Of the Bark.
Gallate of brucia.
fatty matter (not deleterious).
Gum (n considerable quantity).
Yellow colouring matter and alcohol.
Sugar (traces).
Woody fibre.
     Nux-vomica (false Angustura) bark.

  The leprous coating was composed of a greenish
yellow oil, yellow colouring matter, reddish yellow
colouring matter [and woody fibre]. 
536
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Loganiace.e.
   1.  Strtchnia—See p. 545.                  +
   2.  Biiucia; Brucina : Cuniramin ;  Vomirina\;  Br=C44H2iN30", Liebig; or C^H^N^O8 IW.
 nault; Eq. Wt.=373 Liebig; or 394, Regnault.'  Discovered in 1819, by Pelletier and Caventou"
 exists in the bark and  seeds of nux-vomica, and  in St. Ignatius"s bean ;  in the two  latter sul>
 stances it is associated with strychnia, and is in combination with igasuric acid • while in the
 bark  of nux-vomica it is combined with gallic acid.  The separation of brucia from strychnia is
 founded on its greater  solubility  in alcohol  than the  latter alkaloid.  Brucia in the anhydrous
 form, as obtained by fusing it, has a waxy appearance; but when combined with water Br+
 SHO, it is capable of crystallizing, the form of the crystals being oblique four-sided prisms- or
 sometimes the crystals  have a pearly laminated appearance, something like boracic acid. It«
 taste  is  very bitter, though  less so than  that of strychnia.  It is soluble  in 85U parts of cold
 or 500 parts of boiling, water; but the  presence of colouring matter, of which it is difficult to
 deprive it, promotes its solubility.  It is very soluble in  alcohol, but is insoluble in ether and
 the fixed oils, and is very slightly soluble only in the volatile oils.  Nitric acid  communicates a
 fine red colour to brucia;  and the colour changes to  violet on the addition of protochloride of
 tin';  sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphurous acid destroy the colour.  Chlorine  communicates a
 red colour to brucia.1   Bromine communicates a violet tint to the alcoholic solution  of brucia.
 Sulphuric acid first reddens brucia, and  then  turns it yellow and green.
   According to  Dr. Fuss,2  brucia is not a peculiar alkaloid, but a compound of strychnia and
 resin [yellow colouring matter].  He says that he has proved  this both analytically and syn-
 thetically; and he ascribes the property of brucia to  become reddened by  nitric acid and by
 chlorine, to the resin present.  Prof.  Erdmann, who  examined  the  products of Fuss's experi-
 ments, has confirmed his statements.
   The salts of bruda are readily formed by saturating dilute acids with brucia. They possess
 the following properties:   For the most  part they are soluble and  crystallizable, and have a
 bitter taste.  They are decomposed  by potash, soda, ammonia, the  alkaline earths, morphia,
 and strychnia, which precipitate the brucia.  They produce precipitates (tannate of bruda) on
 the addition of tannic acid.  Nitric acid colours them as it does free brucia.
   The effects of brucia on  man and  animals appear to be precisely similar  to those of strych-
 nia, though  larger doses are required to  produce them.  Magendie3 considers it to possess only
 one twelfth the activity of  strychnia;  while Andral regards it as having one-sixth the power of
 impure  strychnia, and one  twenty-lburth that of pure strychnia.   Dose, half a grain, which is
 to be gradually increased to five grains.   It may be given in the  same way as strychnia.
   3.  Strychnic or  Igasuric Acid.—Exists in  the seeds of nux-vomica, St. Iynatius's bean,
 and snake-wood.  Igasuric acid is crystallizable, and  has an acid, rough taste.  It is soluble iu
 water and  alcohol.   The salts of  iron, mercury, and  of silver in solution, are unaffected  by it;
 but those of copper are rendered  green;  and after some time a  light green precipitate  is de-
 posited.
   4. Ykllow colouring mattkr.—Found in the seeds and bark of nux-vomica, in St. Tgnatius's
 bean, and the UpasTieute\ Also in Strychnos pseudo-quinia, Casca d'Anta, and  Pereira Bark. It
 is soluble in water and alcohol, and is  reddened by nitric acid [and by chlorine].
   5. Reddish yellow colouhing matter.—Resides in the rust-coloured epidermoid alteration
 of nux-vomica bark.  Also  in Strychnos pseudo-quinia.  It is insoluble in cold water and in ether,
 but dissolves with facility in alcohol.   Nitric acid renders it deep green by combining with it.
   6.  Other constituents—The wax  mentioned in  the above analysis is probably derived
 from  the hairs with which  the seeds are invested ; it enables them to resist moisture.   Resin k
 probably a constituent of the seeds; for  tincture  of  nux-vomica is rendered  milky by water.
 Anodorous,non-add,innocuous principle is obtained by submitting nux-vomica and water to distilla-
 tion.  Meissner detected copper in the ashes of nux-vomica;  but I have several times repeated
 his experiment without recognizing this metal.
   Chemical and other Characteristics,   i.  Of the  Seeds.—Powdered nux-
 vomica has  a  fallow gray colour, a  bitter  taste, and a  peculiar odour,  analogous
 to that of liquorice.   Submitted  to microscopic examination fragments of hair are
 perceived in it (see Fig. 312, p. 534).   Thrown on burning coal it  inflames  when
 the   temperature  is  very high ;  but when  lower, is  decomposed,  evolves a  thick
 white smoke of a  peculiar odour,  and  leaves  a carbonaceous residuum.   Concen-
 trated  sulphuric acid blackens it.   Nitric  acid  communicates to it  a deep orange-
yellow colour.*  If the powder be  digested with boiling water acidulated with sulph-
 uric  acid, the filtered liquor is turbid and slightly yellow.   Nitric  acid, after some
 minutes, reddens it; ammonia makes it brown, and precipitates blackish flocks
  1 Pelletier, Journ. de Pharm. xxiv. p. 159.
  a Berlinisches Jahrbuchfur die Pharmacie, Bd. xliii. S. 407,1840.                  * Formulary.
  ' Powder of nux-vomica adulterated with guaiacum wood-dust becomes at first bluish green, after
wards orange yellow.
* 
Nux-vomica:—Chemical Characteristics; Physiological Effects.   537
  the sulphuric solution be digested with finely powdered marble (to saturate tbe ex-
  cess of acid), then  evaporated  to dryness, and tbe residue treated  with  boiling
  alcohol, we obtain a spirituous solution of sulphates of strychnia and  brucia, with
  colouring matter.   This has a bitter taste, is reddened by nitric acid, produces con-""
  vulsions when given to  birds or  other small animals, and forms a flocculent coloured
  precipitate on the addition of ammonia.   Sometimes crystals are deposited from the
  alcoholic liquor, on standing for two or three days.1
     Ammoniacal sulphate of copper added to the infusion or decoction of nux-vomica,
  produces an emerald-green  colour, and gradually a greenish-white precipitate (iga-
  surafp of copper); ammoniacal  sulphate of strychnia remains in solution.  Ses-
  quichloride  of  iron" also  produces an  emerald  colour, which disappears  on  the
  addition of hydrochloric acid;  this coloration does not depend, according to Pelle-
  tier  and Caventou,  on the igasuric  acid;  nor can it depend on tannic acid, for
  gelatin gives no indication of this substance; if the decoction be boiled with animal
  charcoal, it loses the power of becoming green on the addition of a ferruginous salt.
  Nitric acid communicates an orange-red colour to the decoction, owing to its action
  on the brucia  and yellow  colouring matter.   A  solution of iodine communicates  a
  yellowish-brown tint to the decoction; but after a few minutes  the  coloui disap-*
  pears (owing, perhaps, to  the formation of the hydriodates of strychnia  and brucia),
  and the iodine is no longer detectable by  starch,  without the addition of  nitric acid
  or chlorine.   Tannic acid, or infusion of  nutgalls, produces in the decoction a copi-
  ous precipitate ((annates  of strychnia, brucia, and some otlver vegetable matter).
  Alcohol also causes a precipitate (gum).   Diacetate of lead causes an abundant pre-
  cipitate composed of gnmmate and igasurate of lead, icith colouring and fatty matter.
     2. Of the Bark.—An infusion of this bark reddens litmus, in consequence of the
  excess of acid  present.   Strong  nitric acid added to this solution produces a red co-
  lour; and by dropping the acid on the inner surface of the bark, a blood-red spot is
  produced; in both cases, the effect arises  from  the action of  the acid on the  brucia
  and  yellow colouring matter.  If nitric acid  be applied to the external  surface of
  the bark, it produces a  deep green colour, in consequence of the actiou of the acid
  on the yellow colouring matter (sec Strychnos pscudo-quinia, p. 559).  Infusion of
  galls added  to the infusion  of this bark  occasions a white  precipitate (tannate of
  brucia).  Sulphate of iron colours the infusion green, from its action on  the yellow
  colouring matter.   (For other characteristics, see Angostura Bark.)
     Adulteration.—Powder of  nux-vomica is sometimes adulterated  by guaiacum
  wood-dust.9  The presence  of guaiacum is shown by the following tests :  1st.  On
  the addition of nitric acid the powder becomes  at first bluish-green; '2d.  By di-
  gestion in rectified spirit a tincture is  obtained, which, being spread on paper, and
  exposed to nitrous fumes, becomes bluish-green.
     Physiological Kitects.  1. Of the Bark.  o. On Animals generally.—The ex-
  periments of Pfaff, the  Vienna faculty, Emmert,  Meyer, Orfila, Magendie, and  Ja-
  gcr,s have shown that  it  is a powerful poison to dogs, rabbits, wolves, and other
  animals.  Thus eight,  twelve, or eighteen grains of  it kill dogs, the symptoms be-
  ing precisely the same  as those of nux-vomica already detailed.   Emmert (quoted
  by Christison) inferred, from experiments made on animals,  that this  bark acts on
  the spine directly, and not on that organ  through the medium of the brain.
    /J.  On Man it also acts as a  powerful poison.  Emmert4  mentions  that a boy
  who had taken  by mistake the decoction  of this  bark died  therefrom.   His intel-
  lectual powers were unaffected ; he entreated his physician not  to touch  him, as vio-
  lent convulsions were immediately brought on ; he was powerfully sweated, but did
  nut vomit.   Prof.  Marc was nearly poisoned by  swallowing  through mistake three
^^arters of a liqueur-glassful of a strong  vinous infusion.5
 Orfils nnd Rnrrurl, Arrh. Gin. de Mid. viii. 22; R. D. Thomson, Brit. Ann. of Med. i. 106.
' Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. x. p. 410.
' Wibincr, Wirk d. Arzniem u. Gift. Bd. i  S  !■*>.
• Quoted by Wibmer, Wirk. <V. Arz'neim. u. Uift. Bd. i. S l?v     » Journ. de Pharm. t. ii. p. 507. 
538
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Loganiacile.
  2. Of the Seeds,  o.  On  Vegetables.—Marcet1 states, that a quarter of an hour
after immersing the root of an  haricot plant (Phaseolus vulgaris) in a solution of
five grains of the  extract of nux-vomica in an ounce of water, the  petals  became
curved downwards, and in twelve hours the plant died.  Fifteen grains of the samo
extract were inserted in the stem of a lilac-tree, on July 5, and  the  wound closed.
In thirteen days the neighbouring leaves began to wither.
  0.  On Animals generally.—Nux-vomica appears to be poisonous, in a greater or
less degree, to most animals.   On the  vertebrata  its effects  are  very uniform
though larger quantities are required to  kill herbivorous than carnivorous animals.
Thus, a few grains  will  kill a  dog, but some ounces are required to destroy a horse.'
It occasions in all tetanic  convulsions,  increased sensibility to external impressions
a.-phyxia, and death.3   The bird called Buceros Rhinoceros is, however, said to eat
the nuts of strychnos and not to be  subject to their noxious iufluence.4
  y.  On  Man.—Three degrees of the  operation of nux-vomica on man  maybe
admitted.
  aa. Pirst degree  : tonic and diuretic effects.—In very small and repeated doses,
nux-vomica usually promotes  the appetite, assists the  digestive  process, increases
the secretion of urine, and  renders  the excretion of  the fluid more  frequent.  In
some  cases it acts slightly on the bowels, and occasionally produces a sudorific effect.
The pulse is usually unaffected.   In somewhat larger doses the stomach not unfre-
quently becomes disordered, and the appetite impaired.
  /3,3.  Second degree:  rigidity and convulsive contraction of the muscles.—In
larger doses the effects of nux-vomica manifest themselves by a disordered  state of
the muscular system.   A feeling  of  weight and weakness  in the  limbs,  and in-
creased sensibility to external impressions (of  light,  sound, touch, and variations of
temperature), with depression of spirits  and anxiety,  are usually  the precursory
symptoms.  The limbs  tremble, and  a  slight rigidity or  stiffness  is experienced
when an attempt is made to put the muscles into action.   The patient experiences
a difficulty in  keeping the erect  posture, and, in walking, frequently staggers. If,
when this effect is beginning to be observed, he be tapped suddenly on  the ham
while standing, a slight convulsive paroxysm  is frequently brought on, so  that he
will have some difficulty to prevent himself from falling.  I have often in this way
been able to recognize the effect of nux-vomica on the muscular system, before the
patient had experienced any particular symptoms.
  If  the use of the medicine be still  persevered in, these effects increase in inten-
sity, and  the voluntary muscles  are thrown into a convulsed state  by very slight
causes.   Thus, when the patient inspires more  deeply than usual, or attempts to
walk, or even to turn in bed, a convulsive paroxysm is brought on.  The sudden
contact of external  bodies also  acts  like an electric shock  on him.  The further
employment of nux-vomica increases the severity of  the symptoms;  the paroxysms
now occur without  the agency of any evident exciting cause, and affect him even
when lying perfectly quiet and  still in bed.   The muscular fibres of the pharynx,
larynx, oesophagus, and bladder, also, become affected;  and Trousseau and  Pidoux4
say those of the penis are likewise influenced, and  the nocturnal and diurnal erec-
tions  become inconvenient even in those who, for some time before,  had lost some-
what  of  their virility.  I  am acquainted with two cases of  paralysis, in which the
use of nux-vomica  caused almost constant nocturnal erection.   Females  also, say
Trousseau and Pidoux, experience more energetic venereal desires; and "wehave,
they  add, "received confidential  information  on  this  point,  which cannot be
doubted."
  The pulse does not appear to be uniformly affected; for the most part it is slightly
increased in frequency between  the convulsive attacks, but Trousseau says he hj|
found it  calm even when the dose of the medicine was sufficient  to cause g^ncM
1 Ann. Chim. et Phys. t. xxix.                  a Moiroud, Pharm. Vit. p. 266.
3 Orfila, Toxicol. Gin.                        * Mailer's Physiology, by Italy, vol. i.p.
* Traiti de Thirap. t. i. p. 515. 
Nux-vomica:—Modus Operandi.
539
  muscular rigidity.   Previous to  the  production of the  affection  of the muscles,
  various painful  sensations are  oftentimes experienced in the skin, which  patients
  have compared  to  tbe creeping of insects (formication), or  to the  passage of an
  electric shock;  and occasionally an eruption makes its appearance.
    It is remarkable that  in paralysis the effects of nux-vomica are  principally ob-
  served in the paralyzed parts.  Magendie1 states he has observed sweating confined
  to the  paralyzed parts.   "I  have  seen," says this physiologist,  "the affected side
  covered with an anomalous eruption, while the opposite side was free from it.   One
  side of the tongue is sometimes sensible of a very bitter taste, which  is not per-
  ceptible to the other side."
    yy.  Third degree :  tetanus, asphyxia, and death.—To illustrate this  third and
  most violent degree of operation, I think I  cannot  do better than relate a case of
  poisoning by nux-vomica reported  by Mr. Oilier.2
    A young  woman swallowed between three and four drachms of this substance in powder,
  and in  half an hour was seen by Mr. Oilier.  She was sitting by the fire, quite collected  and
  tranquil; her pulse about. 80, and  regular.  He left her for about ten minutes to procure an
  emetic, and on his return found that she had thrown herself back in her chair, and that her legs
  were extended, and considerably separated.   She was perfectly sensible, and without pain ;
  but  seemed  in alarm, laid hold of her  husband's coat, and entreated  him not to leave her.  A
  perspiration had broken out on her skin, her pulse had become faint and much  quicker, and
  she called frequently for drink.   She then had a slight and transient convulsion.  Recovering
  from it. she was in great trepidation, kept fast hold of her husband, and refused to let him go,
  even for the alleged  purpose of getting ber  drink.  In a few minutes after she had another
  and a more  violent  attack, and shortly afterwards a third; the duration of these was from a
  minute  and a half  to two minutes.  In them she  retained her grasp; her whole body was
  sttnightened and stiffened, tli^ legs pushed out and  forced apart.  I could not (says Mr. Oilier)
  perceive either pulse or respiration ; the face and hands were livid ; the muscles of the former,
  especially of the lips, violently agitated; and  she made constantly a moaning, chattering noise.
  She was not unlike one in an epileptic fit, but  did not struggle, though, as she was forced out, it
  was difficult to keep her from falling on the floor.
    In the short interval of these attacks she was quite  sensible; was tormented with  incessant
  thirM;  perspired; had a very quick and faint pulse; complained of being sick and made many
  attempts to  vomit.  (I should state she had swallowed some ipecacuanha powder to  evacuate
  the poison.)  She continued  to refuse to let her  husband  move, and  to the question whether
  she was in  pain,  replied, •' No—no—no !"'
    A fourth  and most vehement attack  soon followed, in which the whole body was extended
  to the utmost; and she was rigidly stifF from head  to foot, insomuch that,  with all  the force of
  the surgeon, he could not bend her thighs on  the pelvis to replace her in her seat.  From this
  she never recovered; she fell into a state of asphyxia, and never breathed again. She now
  relaxed her grasp; her discoloured hands dropped  upon  her knees; her  face, too, was livid;
  the brows contracted;  the lips wide apart, showing the whole of the closed teeth; and a sali-
  vary foam i»Mied  plentifully from  the corners of her mouth.  The expression  of the whole coun-
  tenance was at this time very frightful.  On removal of the body, it was discovered that  the urine
  hail been discharged.  Mie died in about an hour after taking the poison.  Five hours afterwards,
  she was still as straight and stiff as a statue; if you  lilted one of  her hands, the whole body
  moved with it; but the face had become pale in comparison, and its expression more placid.
     Post-mortem Appearances.—In the case just related  the body was observed
  to be rigid after death, but in  the lower animals the reverse  is  generally  noticed.
  As in  other cases where death takes place from  obstructed respiration, venous con-
  gestion is  observed.   Occasionally, there is redness  or inflammation of the aliment-
  ary canal,  and now and then  softening of the brain or spinal cord.
     Modus  Operandi.—There  are several points connected with  the  modus ope-
  randi of nux-vomica which require investigation :—
     1st.  Is this seed a local irritant ?—In medicinal doses it does not usually disor-
  der the stomach,  nor is it invariably irritant in its operation, even  when  swallowed
  aa a poison.   In some instances, however, the pain and heat in  the  stomach, the
^buruing iu the gullet, and the nausea and vomiting, are evidences  of its local action;
  H in several cases marks of inflammation have been observed in  the stomach on
  ^Pniuation of  the  body  after death.   Strychnia also is a local irritant.

    ' Formulairt, bine edit. p. 7.                            * Lond. Med. Repos. vol. xix. p. 413. 
540
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Loganiace*:.
   2dly.  Does the active principle  of nux-vomica become  absorbed ?__To this in-
quiry our answer is decidedly Yes.   (See vol. i. pp. 152 and 153).
   3dly.  On what part of the  body  does  nux-vomica  exercise a specific  effect?—
The muscular contractions caused by nux-vomica arise  chiefly from changes effected
in the nervous stimulus, and not from alterations  in the contractility of the muscu-
lar fibre; for Matteucci1  found that, in frogs poisoned  by nux-vomica, when the
excitability of  the nerves was destroyed, and when the  electric current which was
applied to them no longer occasioned muscular contractions, the muscles themselves
when submitted  directly to the action of the current, underwent contraction.
   Every part of  the nervous system is probably specifically affected by nux-vomica
though the principal manifestations of its actions are  in the functions of  the cere-
bro-spinal system.
   The tetanic symptoms, and the absence of narcotism, have led to the conclusion
that the spinal cord was the part  principally  affected—a conclusion supported by
the  fact that  the division  of  this  cord, nay, even  complete decollation, will not
prevent  the poisonous  effects of  nux-vomica;  whereas, the destruction of the cord
by the introduction  of  a piece of whalebone into the spinal canal, causes the imme-
diate cessation  of the convulsions;  and  if only part of the cord be destroyed, the
convulsions cease in that part of the body only which is  supplied with nerves from
the  portion of medulla destroyed.   These facts,  then, originally observed by Ma-
gendie, and which I have myself verified, lead to  the conclusion, that the abnormal
influence, whatever  it may be, which causes  the convulsions  to take place, is not
derived from the contents of the cranium, but from the medulla spinalis itself. More-
over, as the motor nerves seem principally affected, it has been presumed that the dis-
order is  chiefly seated in the anterior columns of the cord.  It is probable, however,
that both the posterior columns and the  gray matter of the cord are affected by it.'
   But nux-vomica affects the sensibility  of the body;  and  heightens the sensations
of touch, vision,  and hearing (see vol. i.  p. 238).   These effects are referable  to its
action on the cerebrum;  though Dr. Stannius3 considers that  this increased suscept-
ibility to external impressions  arises  from the action  of the poison on the spinal
cord.  Although the intellectual functions are not usually  much disordered by this
drug, yet the mental anxiety commonly experienced by persons under its use, the
occasional appearance of stupor, and the observations of Andral and Lallemand on
the  injurious  effects  of it  in  apoplexies, with cerebral  softening, leave  no doubt
that the  cerebrum is affected by this agent.   Bally4 has observed an appearance of
stupor, vertigo, tinnitus aurium,  sleeplessness,  and turgescence of the capillaries of
the face  result from the use of strychnia.
   M. Flourens5 asserted, that the part of the nervous system on which nux-vomica
more particularly acted was the medulla oblongata.  But MM. Orfila, Ollivier, and
Drogartz,6 in their  report on  a case of poisoning by this substance, particularly
mention  that they observed no traces of alteration in the condition of the medulla
oblongata, the tuber annulare, or  the  crura  cerebri—which  is in opposition to
Flourens's opinion; for he asserted, that  the  specific  or exclusive  action of each
substance on each organ, always left, after death, traces of its action  sufficient to
distinguish the affected from other  organs.
   The cerebellum is said, by some, to be acted on by nux-vomica, but for the most
part on  hypothetical  grounds; though  it must  be mentioned  that  MM. Orfila,
Ollivier, and Drogartz observed the cerebellum presented more evidences of lesions
than  the othep parts of the nervous system.   Another argument, which  probably
would be advanced by phrenologists in  favour of the  cerebellum being affected by
this drug, is the observation of Trousseau,  that the sexual  feelings  are usually
excited by it.
4
rbanaT
 1 Traiti des Phinom. Electro-Physiol, des Animaux, pp. 241—212, Paris, 1844.
 1 The white nervous fibres are merely conductors of nervous power; the gray matter, on theotlier
is a generator or source of nervous power (see Grainger, Struct, and Funct. of the Spinal cord, p.  I-
 3 Brit, and For. Med. Rev. vol. v. p. 221.                        4 Ibid. vol. vi. p.225-
 6 Rech. Exyir. sur les Fonct. du Syst. Nerv. 1824.                 • Arch. Gin. de Mid. vul- « 
Nux-vomica:—Modus Operandi.                     541
   The ganglia also appear  to be affected  by nux-vomica ;  and hence the influence
which this agent exercises over the movements of the intestinal canal and heart.
   S (-galas1 found, in  his experiments on animals, that in some cases life could  not
be prohmged  by artificial respiration, and  that  after death  the heart could  not be
Btiniulatcd to contract,   These  and other  reasons seem  to show that nux-vomica
exhausts the irritability of the heart.   But in all probability this viscus is affected
only  secondarily, the essential and primary  action being on the nervous  system.
   The nerves themselves arc  likewise  affected;  for, in the last stage of poisoning
by nux-vomica,  the  nerves of frogs lose, partially  or  wholly, their susceptibility
when submitted to the electrical  current.8
   4thly.  What kind of action does nux-vomica set up in those parts of  the nervous
system on which it acts?—As  the muscles  receive from the nervous system a pre-
ternatural  stimulus to action, it is presumed that  this system (or at least  certain
parts of  it) is  in   a state of excitement  or irritation.  In one case mentioned  by
Mr. Watt,8 there was observed softening of the lumbar portion of the spinal cord;
and  in the ease reported  by MM. Orfila,  Ollivier, and Drogartz, the whole cortical
substance  of  the   brain, especially of the cerebellum, was  softened.  Andral  and
Lallemand  have  both observed  that this remedy, in some forms of apoplexy, pro-
duced symptoms indicating ramollissement.
   5thly.  What is  the reason that in general strychnia first displays its remarkable
influence on  jxtralytic limbs?—No  satisfactory explanation of this fact has been
hitherto offered.   The following  are some hypotheses:—
   a   According to Slgalas, the muscles of the unaffected limbs being simultaneously subject to
the (jovernment of the brain and the  action of the poison, are better enabled to resist the latter
tliiin  paralyzed muscles, which, not  being under cerebral influence, are more affected by the
poison.  To this hypothesis, however, insuperable objections present themselves.  Under the
influence of strychnia, paralyzed  parts sometimes suffer violent pain, while  the healthy parts
are free from it.  How, asks Ollivier,4 is this specific influence on paralyzed parts only to be
explained'  Does  it  not show, moreover, that these parts are not so entirely  isolated from the
influence of the nervous centres as the hypothesis of Sdgalas would lead us to infer?
   8.  Dr. Marshall Hall6 thus explains it: When the paralysis is cerebral, the  irritability of the
muscular fibre becomes augmented, from want of the  application of the stimulus of volition ;
and in sueh cases, therefore, strychnia first affects the paralyzed muscles, because these are more
irritable than the sound ones.   But in spinal paralysis  the irritability is diminished, and in such
strychnia  does-not firstly and mostly affect the paralyzed limbs.
   This explanation  appeared to me so plausible and  satisfactory, that in the first edition of
this  work I adopted  it, believing it to present a clear and physiological elucidation of the
fneN  before related.  But, in the summer of 1841,1 made a number of observations on paralytic
patients in the London  Hospital, which convinced me that it does no* correctly interpret the
phenomena in question.  The  following is a brief abstract of one case, out of many similar
ones :—
   A middle-a<>ed man was admitted into the hospital  suffering with hemiplegia of two years'
standing, and the consequence of apoplexy.   He was  put under the influence of the alcoholic
extract of nux-vomica.  In a few days the muscles of the  paralyzed  limbs  were powerfully
nffeeted by the remedy, but those of  the sound side were unaffected by  it.  I then resolved to
try the effects of voltaic electricity on the paralyzed and healthy muscles.   For this purpose, I
directed each hand to be placed in a separate basin containing a solution of salt. The two basins
were then respectively connected with the electrodes of a magneto electric machine, and a cur-
rent of electricity thus simultaneously traversed the paralyzed and healthy arms.  To my great
surprise the muscles of the paralyzed  arm were comparatively but slightly affected, while those
of the sound one were most powerfully convulsed.  This experiment was tried repeatedly, and
invariably with the same result.
  In this ense4 the paralysis was undoubtedly, I think, cerebral.  On Dr. Hall's hypothesis, the
effects of strychnia on the paralyzed limbs proved it to be so.  Yet the paralyzed muscles were
less irritable than the sound ones, as manifested by voltaic electricity.  I have observed the same
effects in many other eases.  Mmilar results as to the condition of the paralyzed muscles have
also been obtained by Dr. Copland6 and Dr. Todd.i
Blunted l>y Dr. Christison.                  * Matteucci. op. ante citato.
HchriRlim>n. p 1st                         4 Traiti de la Morlle Epiniere, p. 611. Pnrig, 1527.
* Mrdieo-Chtrurgteal Transactions. 2d series, vol. iv. Lond. IS'9.
■ Dirt  of Pract  Medicine, vol ui. p. 42; Lancet, Dec. 20, 1M.?. p. CTO.
; Mrdico-Chiruigical Transactions,'id series, vol. xii. p. 207, ls!7. 
542
VEGETABLES —Nat. Ord. Loganiaceje.
   y. Dr. Todd says  that "the tendency of strychnia to affect  the paralytic limbs before the
 healthy ones, is attributable to its being attracted in greater quantity to the seat of the lesion in
 the brain than to  the corresponding part on the other side.''  This hypothesis assumes thai in
 all these cases a larger quantity of blood is " attracted" to the affected part of the brain than to
 the sound  parts—an  assumption which cannot be admitted.
   6thly.  Is any change produced in the blood-disks  by strychnia?—Miiller1 says
 strychnia produces no change in them;  and Dr. Stannius9 was unable to detect by
 means of the microscope, any alteration  in  the appearance  of  the  blood of froi's
 poisoned  by strychnia.
   Tthly.  In what manner is death produced by nux-vomica?—Frequently by tbe
 stoppage  of respiration, in consequence of the spasmodic condition of the respira-
 tory muscles.   In other cases death seems to arise from  excessive exhaustion of the
 nervous power (see Cloquet's case, quoted by Christison).
   Uses.—The obvious indications for the  use of  nux-vomica, strychnia, or brucia
 are torpid or paralytic conditions of the  motor or sensitive nerves, or  of the muscu-
 lar fibre; while these agents are contra-indicated in spasmodic or convulsive diseases.
 Experience, however, has fully proved that, when paralysis depends on inflammatory
 conditions of the nervous centres, these  agents prove injurious, and accelerate or-
 ganic  changes.
   1. In paralysis.—Of all  the diseases for which nux-vomica has been employed,
 in none has it been so successful as in paralysis; and it  is deserving of notice, that
 this is one of the few remedies whose discovery is  not  the effect of mere chance,
 since Fouquier3 was led to its  use by legitimate  induction from  observation of its
 physiological effects.   That a remedy which stimulates so remarkably the muscular
 system to action should  be serviceable  when  that  system  no longer receives its
 accustomed  natural  stimulus is, a priori, not  astonishing.  Paralysis, however, is
 the common effect of various lesions of the nervous centres, in some  of which nux-
 vomica may be  injurious, in  others useless, and in some  beneficial. It is, therefore,
 necessary to point  out under what circumstances this remedy is likely to be advan-
 tageous or hurtful.
   A very frequent, and, indeed, the most common cause  of paralysis,  is hemorrhage
 of the  nervous centres.   Blood may be effused on the external surface of these
 centres, into  their cavities, or in  their substance, the latter being by far the most
 common case—in the proportion, according to Andral,4 of 386 out of 3!i2 instances
 of cerebral hemorrhage.   It  is almost  superfluous  to add  that the radical cure of
 these cases  can  be effected only by the removal (that is, absorption) of the  effused
 blood.  Now the process  by which this is effected is almost entirely a natural one;
 art can offer no assistance of a  positive  kind, though,  by the  removal of impeding
 causes, she  may be at times negatively useful.   Nux-vomica can, in  such cases, be
 of no avail; on the contrary, it may be injurious.
   The part immediately surrounding the sanguineous clot  is usually much softened—
 a  condition  formerly regarded as the effect of the effusion.  But Lallemand has satis-
 factorily shown that it often, though not  invariably, precedes tbe hemorrhage. This
 softening, or ramollissement, is, according to  the same  authority, a constant and
 necessary result of an acute or chronic irritation.   But  the facts  at present known
 do not warrant this generalization, since  cases  occur which apparently are uncon-
 nected with irritation.   For  this softening art can do but little;  we have, in fact,
 no particular or uniform treatment.   If  we can connect with it any  increased vas-
 cular action, of course  bloodletting and  the other  antiphlogistic means are to be
 resorted to; whereas, if the reverse condition of system exist,  marked by great
languor and debility, tonics  and stimulants may be administered.  Nux-vomica in
 these cases offers no  probability of benefit; on the contrary, we might suspect that,
as it irritates the spinal cord, it might probably have the same effect on the brail*
and  hasten  the production of softening.   Now experience seems to confirm <■■

  1 Physiology, by Baly, vol. i. p. 107.                 * Brit, and For. Med. Rev. vol. V. p. 222
  2 Bayle, Bibl. Thirap. t. ii. p. 141.                    ♦ Path.  Anat. by West, vol. ii. P ~& 
                               Nux-vomica:—Uses.                         543

   theoretical  anticipations.  Andral1 relates the case of a man who was hemiplegic, in
   consequence of an old apoplectic attack.   A pill, containing only one-twelfth of a
   grain of  strychnia (the active principle of  nux-vomica), was given to him, and it
    {iroduced a strong tetanic stiffness of the paralyzed members.  The following day
    le complained of pain in the head, on the side opposite to that paralyzed;  his intel-
   lectual functions were weaker and his hemiplegia was increased; in fact, he had all
   the symptoms characterizing softening of the  brain.   It is, therefore, probable that
   the strychnia set  up an inflammatory condition of the nervous substance around the
   apoplectic  deposit,  and that this  condition  was the precursor of ramollissement.
   When, therefore, nux-vomica is employed in those cases of paralysis which are con-
   nected with inflammation of tbe brain or spinal marrow, it is very likely to increase
   the evils it is intended to mitigate.  Lallemand3  reports two cases in which this
   drug, administered  against  cerebral maladies,  occasioned  convulsive  movements,
   which continued  until 'death.   On opening the bodies, the cerebral substance sur-
   rounding the sanguineous clot  was  found  disorganized and  exceedingly  softened.
   These facts suggest  some useful reflections as to the use of this powerful drug  in
   paralysis, and prevent its indiscriminate use in all cases of this disease.
      But there are cases in which paralysis, arising from cerebral hemorrhage, maybe
   advantageously treated by nux-vomica.   The blood which is poured out in the apo-
   plectic cell  has at first a gelatinous consistence, some of it  still  remaining fluid.
   "Somewhat later," says Andral,3 "twelve or fifteen days after the attack, for in-
   stance, the  coagulum is found to be  firmer and more circumscribed;  later still, it
   becomes  white or yellow, and is surrounded by a brownish-red fluid.  The walls of
   the containing cavity are smooth, and lined with a  delicate membrane.  The sur-
   rounding cerebral substance  in  some cases retains  its natural  appearance, and in
   others is altered both in colour  and consistence.   As the interval  between  the effu-
   sion and  the examination increases, the coagula  gradually disappear."   The cyst is
   now found  to contain a serous fluid,  occasionally having a few cellular  bridles run-
   ning from  one  side  to the other; and nature subsequently attempts to get rid of
   the cyst  by producing adhesion of its sides, leaving  only a linear cicatrix.   Now it
   is well known that by long disuse of some, of the voluntary muscles, tbe power over
   them becomes  gradually diminished; and  it appears that  occasionally in cerebral
   hemorrhage,  after the absorption of the effused blood, the  paralysis remains, as it
   were by habit.   In these cases the cautious  employment of  nux-vomica,  or of its
   active principle, may be attended with beneficial results, by  favouring the  return
   both of motion and sensation.
      But paralysis, like some other diseases of the nervous system,  may exist without
   our being able to discover after death any lesion of  the nervous centres;  and it is
   then denominated a functional disorder, as if there were actually no organic lesion.
   To me, however,  the  fact of the lesion of action is  a strong ground for suspecting
   that there  must have been an organic lesion of some kind, though we see  nothing.
   " It is highly probable," says Andral,4 "that some organic lesions do exist in such
   cases, though they escape our notice."  Be  this as it may, experience  has  fully es-
   tablished the fact, that nux-vomica is more  beneficial in those forms of parlysis usu-
   ally accompanied by visible lesions of structure;  such, for example, as panjlysis re-
   sulting from exposure to the influence of lead and its various compounds.   Thus, of
   ten cases of saturnine hemiplegia, treated  by nux-vomica or  its active principles,
   and which are mentioned by Bayle, three were cured, and three ameliorated.
     As hemiplegia  more frequently depends on  cerebral hemorrhage than some other
   forms of  paralysis, so it  is, for  the  most part,  less  amenable to  remedial means.
   Thus, while out of twenty-six cases of paraplegia, nineteen were cured hy nux-vomica
^or it> nctive constituents, yet in thirty instances of  hemiplegia  only thirteen were
^Jurcd.  In  six cases of general  paralysis (that is, paralysis  of both sides at once),

    • Hnyl<\ B hi. Thirap.  t. ii. p. •J-J7.  '
    1 Recherche* anatomico-pathologiques sur I'Encephale, p "J07, IS20
    * Path Anal, by West, Vol. ii. p. T23                                      t nid n Tog 
544              VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Loganiace.e.

four were cured by this remedy.   In  the paralysis which  sometimes affects the
muscles of certain  organs, nux-vomica  (or strychnia) has  been employed  with ad.
vantage.   Thus a  case  of  amaurosis, accompanied  with  paralysis of the eyelid is
said to  have been cured  by it; and several cases of incontinence of urine, depending
on  paralysis, or diminished  power of the muscular  fibres of the bladder, have also
been benefited by the same means.  In some cases  of local paralysis, strychnia has
been employed endermically with benefit.
   2. Paralysis of  the sentient nerves.—The good effects procured from the  use of
nux vomica in paralysis  of the motor nerves, have led to its employment in functional
lesions  of sentient  nerves, characterized by torpor, inactivity, and paralysis.   That
benefit  may be obtained in these  cases is physiologically probable, from the cir-
cumstance  that  one of the effects of this  agent is an exaltation of the  suscepti-
bility to external impressions, as I  have* before mentioned.   Hitherto, however, the
trials have  not been numerous, nor remarkably successful.*—In amaurosis, benefit
has been  obtained in some few instances; and where no organic lesion is appreciable
this remedy deserves a trial.  The  endermic method of using it has been preferred.
Small blisters, covered with powdered  strychnia, have been applied to the temples
and eyebrows.   The remedy causes sparks to be perceived in both eyes, especially the
affected one; and it is said, the  more of these, the better should  be the prognosis:
moreover, the  red-coloured sparks are thought more favorable than sparks of other
colours.  When the malady is  complicated with disease of the brain, the remedy
must be employed  with extreme caution.
   3. Other affections of the nervous system.—I have seen nux-vomica very servicea-
ble in shaking or tremor of the muscles produced by habitual intoxication.  A gentle-
man thus affected,  who  had for several  weeks lost the power of writing, reacquired
it under the use of this medicine.   Chorea has been benefited by it.1   In tetanus,
it has been tried at the  London  Hospital without any augmentation of the convul-
sions.   Several cases of epilepsy are said to have been relieved by it;8 but, judging
from its  physiological  effects, it would appear  to  be calculated to act injuriously,
rather than beneficially, in this disease  ; and in one case3 the  use of strychnia appa-
rently caused paralysis and death.   It  has also been employed in hypochondriasis
and hysteria*   It has also  been  used in neuralgia with good effect.5
   4. Affections of the alimentary  canal.—On  account of its intense bitterness,
nux-vomica  has been resorted to as a  tonic and stomachic in dyspepsia, especially
when  this  affection depends on, or is  connected with, an atonic condition  of the
muscular coat of the stomach.
   In pyrosis, resulting from simple functional disorders of the stomach, Mr. Mellor6
considers it to be almost a specific.  Even when pyrosis is symptomatic of organic
disease of the stomach,  he says  it is of essential service.   In febrile  states  of the
system  its use is contra-indicated.   Dr. Belcombe7 has confirmed these statements,
and also speaks of  its good effects in gastrodynia.   In dysentery, particularly when
of an epidemic nature, nux-vomica has  gained some reputation.   Hagstrom says he
has proved its  value in some hundreds of cases;8 and his report has been confirmed
by Hufeland,9 Geddings,10 and others.   In colica pictonum, a combination of strych-
nia and hydrochlorate of morphia has been found, by Bally, highly successful.11  In
prolapsus of the rectum, Dr. Schwartz12 has recommended the use of this remedy,
which he has employed  for ten years, both in adults and children, with great bene-
fit.  One or two grains  of  the alcoholic extract are to be dissolved in two drachms
of  water;  and of this solution he gives to infants at the breast two or three  drops;
to older children from six to ten or fifteen drops, according to their age.   In  partial
borborygmi of females I have found nux-vomica useful.

  1 Magendie, Formulaire.
  2 Ibid. p. 233.
  * Lond. Med. Gaz. Aug. 7, 1840
  ' Ibid. p. 964.
  s Ibid. p. 136.
 " Ibid. vol. vi. p. 225.
a Bavle, Bibl. Thirap. t. ii. pp. 135 and 230. jg
• Ibid. p. 131.                     ■
s Lond. Mud. Gaz. xix. p. S51.
8 Bayle, op. cit. p. 135.
,0 Brit, and For. Med. Rev. vol. i. p. 255.
a Lond. Med. Gaz. vol.  xvi. p. 769. 
                 Nux-Vomica:—Administration;  Antidote.             545

   5. In impotence.—The excitement  of the sexual feelings, which Trousseau has
 Been produced by nux-vomica, led him to employ this remedy against impotence,
 and he has found it successful both in males and females.  In some cases, however,
 its good effects were observed only while the patients were taking the medicine.   A
 young  man, twenty-five years of age, of  an  athletic  constitution, who had been
 married for eighteen months without  having any other  than almost fraternal com-
 munications with his wife, acquired his virility under the use of nux-vomica, though
 he again lost it  soon after leaving off its employment.  In  spermatorrhoea, it has
 been used with occasional benefit.
   The preceding are the diseases in which nux-vomica has proved most successful.
 It has, however, been used in several others (as intermittent fevers, intestinal worms,
 &c.) with occasional benefit.
   Administration.—Nux-vomica is used in the form of powder, tincture, or ex-
 tract.   Strychnia and brucia may be regarded as other preparations of it.   The
 prjuder of nux-vomica is administered in doses of two or three grains gradually in-
 creased.  Fouquier has sometimes increased the quantity to fifty grains.
   Antidote.—Evacuate the contents of the stomach  as speedily as possible.   No
 chemical antidotes  are known.  Probably astringents (as  infusion of galls, green
 tea, &c.) would be serviceable.   Donne1 regards chlorine, iodine, and bromine, as
 antidotes for strychnia and  brucia; but farther evidence  is required to establish  the
 correctness of his inferences.   Emmert3 says  that  vinegar and coffee increased  the
 poisonous effects of nux-vomica (false angustura) bark.   To relieve the spasms, nar-
 cotics may be employed.   Sachs and others have recommended  opium.   As conia
 is the counterpart of strychnia, it deserves a  trial.  I applied  it to a wound in a
 rabbit affected with  tetanus from the use of strychnia; the convulsions ceased, but
 the animal died.  In the absence of conia, the extract of hemlock should  be em-
 ployed.   Ether and  oil of  turpentine have been recommended.8  To  relieve the
 excessive endermic operation of strychnia,  acetate of morphia applied to the same
 spot has given relief.

   1. TIMTIRA  M'CIS-VOMO [U. S.];  Tincture of Xux-vmnir-a.—(Nux-vomica,
 Bcraped, 31J ; Rectified Spirit |viij.   Macerate for seven days, and filter.)—Dose,
 rn^v to itlx.   It is sometimes used as an embrocation to paralyzed parts, and  its
 good effects in this way seem to be increased by combining it with ammonia.

   2. i:\m\iTni  nitis-yohm, e. r_u. s.]; E,tract of xux-vomka.—("Take of
 Niix-vomica any convenient quantity ; expose it in a proper vessel to steam till it is
 properly softened; slice it,  dry it thoroughly, and immediately grind  it in a coffee-
 mill; exhaust the powder either by percolating it with rectified spirit, or by boiling
 it with repeated portions of rectified  spirit until the spirit comes off free of bitter-
 ness.   Distil  off the greater part of  the spirit; and evaporate what remains in the
 vapour-bath to a proper consistence," A'.)—[The U. S.  Pharm. directs Nux-vomica
 U>j; Alcohol  a sufficient quantity.  The directions are the same as of the E. P.}
 I >■ im«,  gr. ss, gradually increased  to two or  three grains.  The extract is given in
 the form of pill.

   I. NTIUni.M.l, L. F.D. [IT. S.]; Strychnine; Strychnina;  Vauquelina; Tetanine.
 —In the anhydrous state its composition, according to Regnault, is C42H--N204=Sr.
 Eq. Wt = ,">34.   This alkaloid was discovered in 1818 by Pelletier and Caventou.
 It  has  been found  in  Strychnos Xux-vomica,  S. Ignatia,  S.  colubrina, and  S.
 Ticutf.   In  these phints it is frequently associated with brucia, and is always com-
 bined with an acid.
   In the Jxjndon Pharmacopaia for  1850, no directions are  given for the  prepa-
ration of this alkaloid, which is placed in the materia medica.
1 Journ de Pharm. t. xvi. p. 377
* TlicrbiiB. Hiilfsleist bit acut. Vergift. S. 4.
     vol. ii.—35
1 Buchner, Toxikol. S. 235—6. 
546
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Loganiace,e.
   The  directions of  the Edinburgh College are as follows :—
  "Take of Nux-vomica Ibj; Quicklime 5iss; Rectified Spirit a sufficiency.  Subject the mir.
vomica  for two hours to the vapour of steam, chop or slice it, dry it  thoroughly in the vnpour-
bath or  hot-air press, and immediately grind it in a coffee-mill.  Macerate for twelve hours in
two pints of water, and boil it; strain through linen or calico, and squeeze the residuum* re-
peat the maceration and decoction twice with a pint  and a half of water.  Concentrate the
decoctions to the consistency of thin syrup ; add the lime in the form of milk of lime • dry the
precipitate  in  the vapour bath , pulverize it and boil  it with successive portions of rectified
spirit till the spirit cease to acquire a bitter taste.  Distil off the spirit till the residuum be suf.
ficiently concentrated to crystallize on cooling.  Purify the crystals by repeated crystallization."
   In this process, a decoction  of nux-vomica is prepared ;  this contains the igasurate
of  strychnia with gum.   This salt  is  decomposed  by the lime, and  the  strychnia
abstracted by rectified spirit.
   In the Dublin Pharmacopoeia for 1850, the process given is as follows:—
   "Take of Nux-vomica, in powder, 1 lb; Water one gallon  and a half; Oil of Vitriol of com-
merce  half a  fluidounce; Slacked lime one  ounce;  Rectified Spirit one quart; Dilute Sul-
phuric  Acid, Solution of Ammonia, of each a sufficient quantity ; Prepared Animal Charcoal
half an  ounce.  Macerate the nux-vomica for twenty-four hours with half a gallon of the water
acidulated with two  drachms of the acid, and, having boilecj for half an hour, decant.  Boil the
residuum with  a  second half-gallon  of  the water, acidulated with one  drachm  of the acid;
decant,  and repeat this process with the remaining water and  acid, the undissolved matter
being finally submitted to strong expression.   The decanted and expressed liquors having been
passed  through a filter, and then  evaporated  to the consistence of a  syrup, let this be boiled
with the rectified spirit for twenty minutes, the lime being added in  successive portions during
the ebullition, until the solution becomes decidedly alkaline.  Filter through paper, and having
drawn  off by distillation the whole of the spirit, let the  residuum  be dissolved  in the dilute
sulphuric acid, and to the resulting liquid, after  having been cleared by filtration,  add the solu-
tion of ammonia in slight excess, and let the precipitate which forms be collected  upon a paper
filter, dried, and then dissolved in a minimum of boiling  rectified spirit.  Into this solution in-
troduce the animal charcoal, digest for twenty minutes, then filter, and allow the residual liquor
to cool,  when the strychnia will separate in crystals."   The  weights  used  in  this process are
avoirdupois.
   [The process of the U. S. Pharm. differs from either of the above. It directs Nux-vomica, rasped,
Ibiv; Lime, in powder, ^vj;  Muriatic Acid ^uj; Alcohol; Diluted Sulphuric Acid; Solution of
Ammonia; Purified Animal Charcoal; Water, each a sufficient quantity.  The first sfep in the
operation is to convert the strychnia into a muriate by  boiling, with water acidulated by the    ,
acid, and repeat twice.   Next, decompose the muriate by the lime, which separates the strychnia.
Take this  up by alcohol, and convert it into a sulphate by boiling with dilute sulphuric acid;
decolor by the charcoal, and finally separate the strychnia by the solution of ammonia, and dry
on bibulous paper.]
    By  digesting nux-vomica in water acidulated  with sulphuric acid, the sulphatea
of strychnia  and brucin are obtained.   The lime decomposes these, and sets free a
mixture of strychnia and  brucia, which are dissolved by the spirit, and again con-
verted into sulphates by the addition of sulphuric acid.   The ammonia decomposes
these  sulphates; sulphate of  ammonia is formed in solution, and the alkaloids are
again  set free, and are then dissolved by boiling alcohol.  The hot alcoholic solution,
being  decolorized  by animal  charcoal, deposits on  cooling the strychnia, the brucia
being  left in  solution.                                                                I
    As  a considerable quantity of mucilage is precipitated by the  lime, Molyn1 has
proposed to avoid this  by subjecting the nux-vomica (reduced to a coarse powder
and made into a paste with water)  to the process of fermentation.   Carbonic acid is
evolved, the  gummy and saccharine constituents are  decomposed, and lactic acid is
produced, which decomposes  the  igasurate of strychnia and  brucia, and forms with
these  alkaloids very soluble lactates.   In eighteen or twenty days  the fermentation
is completed.
    Pure  strychnia is a white, odourless, intensely bitter, crystalline  substance, the
form of the crystals being the octohedron or four-sided prism.   When  rapidly CTp^jk
tallized, it assumes  the  granular form.   It is fusible, but not volatile; decompoBiujp|
 at a lower temperature than most vegetable  bodies.   Though so intensely bitter, nT"
1 Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. vi. p. 492,1847. 
Strychnia.                               547
 is almost insoluble in water, one part of strychnia requiring  6667 parts of water,
 at 50°, to dissolve it; that is, one  grain needs nearly fourteen ounces of water to
 hold it in solution.  It requires 2"j(»U parts of boiling water  to  dissolve it.   It is
 slightly soluble in boiling rectified spirit, but scarcely so in cold water.  It acts on
 vegetable colours as an  alkali, saturates acids forming salts, and separates most of
 the  metallic oxides (the alkaline substances excepted) from their combinations with
 acids.   In some cases, part  only of the metal is precipitated, a double salt  being
 formed in solution.  Thus, when strychnia is  boiled with a solution of sulphate of
 copper, a green solution of cupreous sulphate of strychnia is obtained, while a por-
 tion only of the oxide of copper is precipitated.
   Strychnia is recognized by its crystallizability, its alkaline properties, its combus-
 tibility, its intense bitterness, its difficult solubility in alcohol, ether, and water, and
 Bolubility in dilute aiids.  A solution of bichloride of mercury added to a solution
 of strychnia  in hydrochloric  acid, causes  a  white clotty precipitate (composed of
 bichloride of mercury and hydrochlorate of strychnia).   Tannic acid or tincture of
 nutgalls  occasions a whitish  precipitate in a  neutral solution of hydrochlorate of
 Btrychnia.   Marchand1 has pointed out a very characteristic test for strychnia; if a
 small portion of strychnia be rubbed with  some drops of oil of vitriol containing a
 hundredth part of its weight of nitric acid, no change of colour takes place (pro-
 vided the strychnia be pure);  but if a minute quantity of the puce-coloured oxide
 (pcr-oxide) of lead be added to the mixture, the  liquid assumes a fine blue colour,
 which  rapidly  becomes  blue, then  gradually red, and  after  a few hours  yellow.
 Mack2 has proposed to substitute  peroxide of manganese, and Otto3 bichromate of
 potash, for the peroxide of lead.
   Commercial strychnia usually forms, with strong nitric acid, a red-coloured liquid,
 which afterwards becomes yellow.   This change does not occur with pure strychnia,
 but  depends on the presence of one or both of the two substances—viz. brucia and
 yellow colouring  matter.   As the red colour  is destroyed  by decolorizing agents
 (sulphurous acid  and sulphuretted hydrogen), it appears to depend on the oxidize-
 ment of the substance referred to.   If potash be added to-a very concentrated solu-
 tion of a strychnian  salt which has been reddened by nitric acid, an orange precipi-
 tate is formed ; an excess of water  dissolves this precipitate.
   According to the  Edinburgh  College, strychnia for medicinal use, which  is  de-
 clared to bo " always more or less impure," possesses the following  properties:—
   Intensely bitter; nitric acid strongly reddens it; a solution of  10 grains in 4 fluidrachms of
 water by means of a fluidrachm of pyroligneous acid, when decomposed by one fluidounce of
 concentrated solution of carbonate of soda, yields on brisk agitation a coherent mass, weighing
 when dry 10 grains, and entirely soluble in solution of oxalic acid.
   The London College (1850) gives the following characters for crystallized strych-
 nia :—
  It  is dissolved in boiling  alcohol.  It  melts by heat, and if it  be  more  strongly urged, it is
 totally dissipated. It tastes very bitter. Being endowed with violent powers, it is to be cautiously
 administered.
  The salts of strychnia, when  pure, are for the  most part  crystalline, white, and
 very bitter.   They possess the following chemical characteristics:  1st,  the  alkalies
 and  their carbonates occasion  white  precipitates in solutions of  the strychnia salts;
 2dly, they are precipitated  by tannic, but  not by gallic  acid;  3dly, they are un-
 changed by the action of the persalts of iron.
  The only salt of strychnia in the  British  Pharmacopoeias is the muriate contained
 in the  Dublin Pharmacopaia for 1850.
  Stryciim.k IIvDROCin.oitAs; Strychnise+Murias, Ph, Dubl. 1850; Hydrochlo-
rate  or Muriate of  Strychnia.—Formula,  Sr,HCl + 2HO.  Equivalent weight=

  • Journ. dt Pharm. et de Chimie, 3me n*r.  t. iv. p. 200, 1843.
  * Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. vi. p. 1*7, lf46.
  * Ibid- vol. vi. p. 479, 1>17; ice, alio, a paper by Mr. L. Thompson, in Pharm. Journ. vol. ix. p. 34, 
548
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Loganiaceje.
389.  The Dublin College gives the following directions for the preparation of this
salt:—
  "Take of Strychnia one ounce; Dilute Muriatic Acid one fluidounce, or a sufficient quantity
Distilled water two ounces and a half.  Pour the acid upon the strychnia, and, adding the water
apply heat  until a perfect solution is obtained.  Let this cool, and  let the crystals which form
be dried upon bibulous paper.  By evaporating the residual  liquid to one-third of its bulk ani
then allowing it to cool, an additional quantity of the salt will be obtained."  The weights used
are avoirdupois.
   This salt crystallizes in four-sided needles, which  lose their  transparency in the
air.   It is much more soluble in water  than the sulphate.   When heated  it is de-
composed  with the evolution of hydrochloric acid.
   The effects of strychnia are of the same kind as those of nux-vomica, but more
violent in degree.  As ordinarily met  with in  the  shops, it  may be regarded as
about six times as active as the alcoholic extract of nux-vomica.  The following are a
few examples of its poisonous operation:—
   Dr. Christison1  says : " I have killed a dog in two minutes, with the sixth part of a
grain, injected in the form of alcoholic solution, into  the chest:  I have seen a wild
boar killed, in the same manner, with the third of a grain, in ten  minutes." Pelletier8
says: l\ half a grain, blown into the mouth of a dog, produced death in five minutes."
Half a grain, applied to a wound in the back  of a dog,  caused death in three min-
utes and  a half.   In  all  these and other  instances death was preceded and accom-
panied by tetanus.  The salts of strychnia act in  the same manner.
   Some individuals  are more susceptible of the  action of  strychnia than others.
Andral3 has seen a single pill, containing one-twelfth, of a grain, cause slight tris-
mus, and the commencement of tetanic stiffness  of the muscles; while in other cases
the dose may be gradually increased beyond a grain, with comparatively little effect.
The largest dose I  have given is a grain and a half,  and this  was repeated several
times before the usual  symptoms, indicative of the affection of the system, came on.
Smaller doses had been previously given without any obvious  effect.   Subsequent
experience has satisfied me that so large a dose was dangerous.
   The following  case occurred  on board the Dreadnought Hospital  Ship, and was
communicated to me by Mr.  Cooper, Surgeon :—
  A Swede, aged 50—60, was admitted  about the year  1833 with general paralysis, one side
being more affected than the other; he was also in some degree idiotic.  Strychnia was given,
at first in the dose of one eighth of a grain three times  a  day, which was continued for several
weeks, without apparent effect.  The dose was then increased  to  one-quarter of  a grain three
times a day, which was also continued for some time, and not producing any perceptible effect,
the quantity was increased to half a grain twice or three times  a day, and this dose was taken
for many clays before any influence of strychnia was manifested.  But one morning, about 9 k.
m., the apothecary was suddenly summoned  by a message that  the man was in a fit.  When
seen he was insensible; face and chest of a deep purple colour; respiration had ceased,and the
pulsation of the heart nearly so.   The whole body (trunk and  limbs) was in a state  of  tetanic
spasm.  Trunk extended, and shoulders thrown back:  muscles of chest and abdomen hard and
rigid.  In a short time the rigidity became less; the ribs could be compres-ed; and artificial
respiration  was kept up imperfectly by compression of the thorax.  Circulation was restored in
some degree, and the deep purple colour of the surface went off. Spontaneous respiration returned,
The man sighed, and became apparently sensible; all spasm had ceased for a minute or two; but
as soon as circulation and consciousness were in some degree restored, the spasm recurred with
extreme violence, again  locking  up the  respiratory muscles. Respiration ceased; the surface
again became purple : circulation went on, however, some time after  respiration had ceased.
Artificial respiration was kept up when the relaxation of the muscles would  allow of it, but
was this time ineffectual.   The heart soon ceased to beat; the deep purple colour was instanta-
neously replaced by  the pallor of death ; and life was extinct.
   The quick passing off of the purple colour of the surface  was very remarkable; the change
appeared to commence in the  face, and passed downwards like the passing of the shadow
of a cloud.
   This case gives some  colour to the  idea that strychnia, like digitalis and  some
other potent remedies, accumulates in the system.

  1 Treatise  on Poisons, 3d edit. p. 797.                           2 Ann. de Chim.tt Phys. x.
  ' Bayle, Bibl. Thirap. t. ii. p. 25>7. 
           Strychnos Tietjte, Strychnos Colubrina, Potatorum.        549

   A melancholy case of poisoning by strychnia occurred in 1848 : a lady swallowed a
dose of a mixture containing nine grains of strychnia, which had been introduced by
mistake for salicine.   It  is supposed  she  must  have swallowed  between  two and
three grains of strychnia.   She  became  suddenly ill, was violently convulsed and in
great agony, and died in less than two hours.1
   The  local  action of strychnia is that of an irritant.   Applied to the naked dermis,
it  causes burning  and pungent pain, lasting from  half  an  hour to an  hour; and
where  blisters  have  been applied, the raw  surface  inflames under the  use of the
remedy, and affords a copious suppuration.3
   The  uses of strychnia are similar to those of nux-vomica above stated.
   The  dose of strychnia or its salts (acetate, sulphate, nitrate or hydrochlorate) is, at
the commencement, one-sixteenth or one-twentieth of  a grain, which is  to  be very
gradually increased until its effects on the muscular system are observed.   Strych-
nia is usually given in the form of pill (made with common conserve of roses)  or it
may be dissolved in alcohol or acetic acid.   The endermic dose of strychnia should
not, at  the commencement,  exceed half a grain, and  of  its salts  one-fourth  of a
grain.


                      192.  StrychllOS  Tieute, Leschinauit.

   Tshettik or Tjettek.—A large climbing shrub, growing in Java.   The aqueous extract of the
bark of this tree is the poison called  Upas tieute Tjettek, or Upas Radja, and  which must not be
confounded with the poison of  the Antiaris toxiearia, before described (see ante, p. 347).  The
Upas  tieut6 was analyzed by Pelletier and Caventou,8 who found  it to consist of strychnia com-
bined  with an acid (igasuric ?), a reddish-brown colouring matter, which becomes  green when
mixed with nitric  acid,  and a  soluble yellow colouring matter, which is reddened by nitric acid.
They could detect no brucia.   The effects of  this poison are  precisely similar to those of nux-
vomica  and strychnia.   Thus, when applied  to wounds, injected into the serous sacs or blood-
vessels,  or applied to  the mucous membrane, it produces tetanus, asphyxia, and death.  Forty
dropsof Upas dissolved  in water, and injected into the  pleura of an old horse, gave rise almost
immediately to tetanus and asphyxia, and the animal died after the second attack.


                       193.  Strychnos colubrina, Linn.

                                      (Lignum.)

   A large tree, a native  of Silhet.  In countries  infested  with poisonous serpents, the natives
have  usually some substance which  i< fancied to possess the power of preserving them from the
bites  of these poisonous animals; and thus  we have various articles, seeds, roots, and wood,
which hnve the word snake affixed to them.
   In  Asia, there are several kinds of lignum colubrinum, or snake-wood, supposed to be pos-
sessed of the above-mentioned property.   The specimens, however, met with  in commerce,
show that there are various substances to which this term is applied; some being  the wood of
a  stem,  others of a root.  The  most esteemed  is the wood of the Slrynchnos colubrina.  The
S. ligustrina yields the ancient lignum colubrinum of Timor.  Pelletier and Caventou4 analyzed
one of these woods, and found  that it  had the same constituents as the bean of  St.  Ignatius,
though in different proportions.   Thus it contained more fatty  and colouring matter, less strych-
nia, and, in the place of ba.ssorine  and starch, a larger quantity of woody fibre.  Its action,
therelbre, is precisely similar to the before-mentioned poisons.
                      194. Strychnos  Potatorum, Linn.
                                      (Semina.)

  Clearing Nut.—A large tree; a native of Silhet.  The fruit is a shining berry about the size
of a cherry, and, when ripe, is black.  It contains one seed, which is about the size of a cherry-
stone.  TIm'sc  seeds, when ripe and dried, are sold  in the  markets of India to clear water.
They have recently been imported into London under the name of nirmullees or nirmillies. "The
1 Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. viii. p. '298, ISIS.
' Alirrincn, Brit, and For. Med. Rev.  vol. V. p. 350.
' Ann. d< Chim. Phys. xxvi. 44.
4 Ann. de Chim. Phys. x. 170. 
550
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Loganiaceje.
       Fig. 313.       natives never drink clear well water if they can got pond or rivet
                      water, which is always more or less impure, according  to circumstnnces
                      One of the seeds is well rubbed for a minute or two round the inside
                      of  tbe vessel containing the water, generally an unglazed earthen one
                      which is  then left to settle; in a very short time the impurities  fall to
                      the bottom, leaving  the water clear, and, so far as I have  been able to
                      learn, perfectly wholesome.  These  seeds are constantly carried about
                      by the more provident part of our officers and soldiers in time of war
                      to enable them  to purify their  water.  They are easier to  be obtained
                      than alum.'u  Their  efficacy depends, as I have elsewhere2 suggested on
                      their albumen and  casein, which  act as  fining agents, like  those em-
                      ployed for wine and beer.  If the seeds  be sliced and digested in water
                      they  yield a thick, mucilaginous, ropy liquid, which, when boiled, fur.
Fruit of the Strychnos  nisbes a coagulurn (albumen), and, by the subsequent addition of ace-
     Potatorum.       tic  acid,  a farther  coagulurn  (casein).   It  is  obvious, therefore, that
                      many other seeds might be substituted for those of the Strychnos Pota^
torum.   Almonds, beans, castor  seeds, Kola nuts (Sterculia acuminata Pal. de Beauv), &c. are
used for similar purposes in  some countries.


                  195. Strychnos Pseudo-quina,  St. HUaire.
                                           (Cortex.)
  A small tree, about 12 feet high, growing in the Brazils.  The bark, called Quina do Campo,
is  employed in the  Brazils as a  substitute  for cinchona  bark.   It does not possess poisonous
properties.  It was analyzed  by Vauquelin,3 who discovered neither strychnia nor brucia in it.
Mercadieu4 also analyzed it under the  erroneous name of copalchi (see ante, p. 372), and could
not discover any vegetable  alkali in  it.  The internal surface of the bark (liber), touched by
nitric acid, becomes red; while the external surface becomes blackish-green.5   In these charac-
ters, then, it agrees with nux-vomica bark.   It is employed  in intermittents, in diseases of the
liver, spleen, and mesenteric glands, and in dyspepsia.6


                        196.  Strychnos  toxiferas Bentham.

                                         (Succus.)

  Strychnos toxifera,  Benth., pi.; Schomburgk, in  Hooker's Journ. Bot. iii. 240; Hooker, Icones,
t. 364 and  365; Schomb., Ann. of Nat. Hist. vii. 411,  1841.—A poisonous tree, with a tortuous
trunk,growing in British  Guiana.  Its juice forms the basis of the Ourari or Wourali (also called
Urari and  Woorara) poison used by the savages of Guiana.  This poison  causes paralysis, with
convulsive movements, and death from suspended respiration ; hence artificial respiration is a
most important means of averting its fatal effects.7  Attention  has been more recently drawn
to its effects by Mr. Waterton.8  It has been proposed  to employ it in tetanus and hydrophobia,
Mr. Sewell conjectured  that if a horse in tetanus were destroyed by poison which acts by sup
pressing nervous power, and life were then to be restored by artificial respiration, the nervous
system, on reanimation taking place, might possibly be free of the original morbid irritation!1
Dr. Hancock10 has used  the bark of this plant as an application to foul ulcers.


                             197. Ignatia  amara, Linn.

                              Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Monogynia.
                                          (Semina.)

  Strychnos Ignatii,  Bergius, Mat. Med. 149.—A tree indigenous to the  Philippine Islands,
whose fruit is smooth and pyriform, and contains about 20 seeds.  The seeds, the St. lgnatwss
beans of the shops, are about  the  size of olives, rounded and convex on one  side, and somewhat
angular on the other.  Externally they are brownish, with  a bluish-gray tint.  Within the en-
velops of the seed is a very hard, horny, or cartilaginous albumen, in whose cavity is contained
the embryo.   These seeds have been analyzed  by MM. Pelletier and Caventou," who found

  1  Roxburgh's Flora Indica, vol. i. p. 576, Serampore, 1832.
  2  Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. ix. p. 478.              3 Mim. du Mustum, p. 452, 1823.
  4  Journ. de Chim. Mid.  t. i. p. 236 bis.                 « Guibourt, Journ. de Pharm.  t. xxv. p. iw.
  *  Martius, Syst. Mat. Med. Veg. Brasil. p. 41, 1843.     ' Brodie, Phil. Trans, for 1811, p. I'D.
  8  Lancet, April 12 and 19, 1839; also, Brit, and For. Med. Review, vol. viii. p. 597, 1839.
  9 Mayo's Outlines of -physiology ; Waterton, op.  citato.  " Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xx. p. 281.
 10  Ann. de Chim. Phys. x. 147. 
              Nat. Ord. Asclepiadace-s: :—Hemidesmus indicus.           551

tbeir constituents to be  the same as those of nux-vomica, though in somewhat different propor-
tions.  Their effects, therefore, are similar.
  These seeds came into the Dutch shops, according to Alston,1 about the latter end of the
seventeenth century.  But there  is some reason to  suspect that  they were known long before
this, and are  probably  the substances which, in the Latin translation of Serapion. were de-
nominated nures vomica.  Dale2 gives, as one of their  synonyms,  "Igasur, seu  Nux-vomica
legitima Serapionis."
Order XLVII. ASCLEPIADACE^E, Lindley.—ASCLEPIADS.

                   Asclepiadek, R. Brown.—Apocinearcm pars, Juss.

  Characters.—Flowers symmetrical.  Calyx 5-partite.   Corolla monopetalous, 5-lobed, hypo-
gynous, deciduous, regular;  the throat naked, or furnished  with glands at the sinus, or with
variously formed appendages, which are more or less deeply adnate to tbe  tube of the  stamens
(gynoslcgium).  Stamens 5, inserted into the base of the corolla and alternate with its segments;
filaments usually combined so as to form a  tube inclosing  the pistillum (stylostegium; gynos-
tegium), rarely free;  anthers 2-celled (spuriously 4 celled) ; pollen, when the anther dehisces,
cohering in  masses (pollinia), and sticking to 5 processes of  the stigmas by  twos or fours, or
singly.  Ovaries 2 ;  styles 2 ;  stigma common to both styles, dilated, 5-cornered, with cartilaginous
corpuscles at  the  angles, which retain the  pollen  masses.  Follicles 2, one  of which is often
abortive.  Seeds numerous, usually comose at the micropyle, albuminous. Shrubs, or occasionally
herbs, usually with a milky juice, often twining.   Leaves entire, opposite (occasionally whorled,
or alternate), with interpetiolary cilia in place of stipules.
   Propkrtieb.—The medicinal qualities  resi.le  in a bitter  acrid juice, which possesses emetic,
purgative, diaphoretic, and stimulating properties.


                     198. Hemidesmus indicus, R. Brown-

                              Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Digynia.
                                        (Radix.)

   Periploca  indica, Willd., Sp. Plant.; Asclepias pseudosarsa. Roxb., Fl. Ind.;  Ununtamul, Hind.
and Beng.; Nannariur Nunnarivayr, Tamiil.—A common twining shrub in India.  Its root (radix
hemidesmi indici; rad. nannari)  is used in  India  under the name of country sarsaparilla.   The
attention of practitioners in this country was drawn to it by Dr.'Ashburner, in 1831 ;3 and again
in 1833.4   It has been called Indian or scented sarsaparilla,  nannari, or the root of S/nilax aspera.
How this last and erroneous appellation became applied to it I cannot tell; for  I find from speci-
mens of the root of Smilax aspera brought from  the south of En rope, that no resemblance exists
between the latter and the root of Hemidesmus indicus. The latter is brownish externally,and
has a peculiar aromatic odour, somewhat like that of  sassafras, but which  has been compared
to that of new hay, and a feeble, bitter taste. It is long, tortuous, cylindrical, rugous, furrowed
longitudinally, and has  its  cortex divided, by transverse fissures, into moniliform  rings.   The
cortical portion  has  a corky consistence, and surrounds a  ligneous meditullium.  Mr. Garden5
obtained Irom it a volatile, crystallizable  acid, (?) on which  the taste, smell, and, probably, the
medicinal properties depend.   From an erroneous notion of the origin of the root, he called the
acid the smilasperic acid, but  it may with more propriety be  termed hemidesmic acid or hemidesmin.
Hemidesmus indicus has been employed as a cheap and efficacious substitute  for sarsaparilla in
cachectic diseases; but  both its effects and uses require a more extended examination than has
yet been devoted to them.   Dr. Ashburner says that it increases the appetite, acts as a  diuretic,
and improves the general health; " plumpness, clearness, and strength, succeeding to emaciation,
muddiness,  and  debility."  It has been used with benefit in  venereal diseases.  In some cases
it has appeared  to succeed  where the sarsaparilla  has failed;  and, vice versa, it has  frequently
failed where sarsaparilla succeeds.  The Tamool doctors  employ it in strangury and  gravel.6
It nmy be administered in the form of infusion (prepared  by steeping Jjij of the root  in Oj of
boiling [or lime] water for  twelve hours); a pint of which may be  given in twenty-four hours,
in doses of  a  wineglassful.   The decoction may be substituted  for the infusion.  Carbonate of
soda is frequently added to it.  The extract is objectionable, as the beat used in  preparing it
must volatilize part at least of the hemidesmic acid.  The powder of the bark of the root is used in
India ngainst the thrush.7
   Svmi'irs  Hem mi km i, D.; Syrup of Indian  Sarsaparilla.—("Take of Indian  Sarsaparilla,
bruised, lour ounces; Boiling Distilled Water one pint;  Refined Sti^ar, in powder, as much as
•  Leet. on the Mat Mid. vol. ii. p.*.
*  Lond. Med. and Phus. Journ. vol. lxv. p. 1069.
1  Ibid. v.'I.XX. p. HKI.
1  Roxburgh, Fl. Ind. vol. ii. p. 40.
J Pharmacol, p. 328.
* Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xii. p. 350.
• Ainslie, Mat. Ind. vol. i. p. 3*8. 
552             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Asclepiadace^.
is sufficient.  Infuse the sarsaparilla in the water for four hours in a covered vessel, and strain-
set it by until the sediment subsides, then decant the clear liquor, and. having added to it twice
its weight of sugar, dissolve with the aid of a steam or water heat.)—The weights here directed
to be used  are avoirdupois.
  Mr. Jacob Bell1 has given the following directions for preparing it: Take of the root of Hemi-
desmus  indicus 1  lb. avoirdupois ;  Refined Sugar 1  lb.; Distilled Water  about  three pints.
Bruise the  root, separate the bark by sifting, and reject the wood.   Add  to  the bark an enual
bulk of washed sand,  moisten them  with water, and pack in  a displacement apparatus.  M;i.
cerate for four hours, and displace the liquor by the requisite quantity of water; reserving the
first  six ounces.   Add  more  water until it  passes  through tasteless, and evaporate it to three
ounces, in which, with the addition  of the first six ounces, dissolve the sugar with  as moderate
a heat as possible.   The result is twenty ounces by measure of a syrup possessing all the aro-
matic qualities of the plant.


                       199.  Calotropis gigantea, R. Brown.

                                Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Digynia.
                                  (Radix, cortex, et succus.)

  Asclepias  gigantea, Willd., Sp. Pi. i.; Madorius, Rumph., Amboyn., vii.  t. 14, f. 1; Mudar
Hind.—A large branching  shrub, a native of the East Indies; growing in the West Indies. Stem
often as thick as  a  man's leg or thigh.  Yields when wounded a large quantity of  an acrid
milky juice.  Dr.  O'Shaughnessy2 found that this milk when  dried in the water bath loses 75
per cent.  According to the analysis of J. B. Ricord Madianna,3 100 parts of this [inspissated1!]
juice consist of pure resin 9, fatty oil  4, solid  balsam 9, cerine  12, ligneous matter  from the
bark of the tree 6, mucus  8, caoutchouc 45, lossby evaporation 7=100.  The root (radix mu-
daris gigantea) according to Ricord is reddish, with an odour somewhat like that of horseradish.
It is covered with a bark which is three or four lines  thick, and which under the epidermis is
white.   The dried  bark, such  I  have  received it  (through the kindness of my colleague  Mr.
Wordsworth) from St. Kitts, is in hard, curved, or  somewhat twisted pieces,  which break short
and  smooth, and  externally are whitish or grayish yellow, and internally white.  They are
very amylaceous, and  when examined by the microscope are  seen  to abound in round, hemi-
spherical, or muller-shaped starch grains, whose hilum is very distinct.  This bark has a muci-
laginous, bitter, somewhat acrid, and nauseous taste.  Dr. O'Shaughnessy describes it as having
a heavy and very  peculiar smell; but my sample scarcely agrees with this statement.  Dr. Dun-
can4 obtained from the dried root bark  much starch, a white  resin, and  11  per  cent, of an ex-
tractive  bitter principle called mudarine or madarin.   This last-mentioned substance, like eme-
tine, excites vomiting,  and, according  to Dr. Duncan, is the  active principle of the root.  Its
watery solution has the remarkable  property of coagulating or gelatinizing  by heat, and of be-
coming fluid again by  cold.  The inspissated juice, root, and bark, have been extensively used
in the East for their emetic, sudorific, alterative, and purgative qualities.  It  has  been employed
in a great variety of diseases, especially obstinate cutaneous maladies, as lepra and elephantiasis,
syphilis, and some spasmodic affections. Mr. Robinson5 found it decidedly  useful in  a species
of elephantiasis, which Mr. Playfair6  calls jugura or leprosy of the joints. It has also been
used as a substitute for ipecacuanha.  In doses of from three to seven grains the  dried bark pro-
duces nausea and diaphoresis, and in this quantity has  been found very efficient in some cuta-
neous affections.   In doses of from fifteen to twenty grains it excites, in from twenty minutes
to an hour,  full vomiting, with much nausea, and, in some cases, purging.  In very small doses
it has been reputed tonic,  stomachic, and expectorant.   An oil of mudar  is prepared hy digest-
ing 10 grains of the powdered  bark in one ounce  of olive oil, and pouring  off  the oleaginous
solution from the insoluble portion.   Tlie oil may be  applied by means of a camel-hair pencil
to cutaneous ulcers.7 Dr. Ainslie8 considers tbe dried milky juice the most efficacious preparation.
   Calotropis puocera, R. Brown.—Dr. Wallich  tells us that this is the real Mudar of India.


                  200. Solenostemma Argel, Hayne.—Argel.

                                Sex. Syst. Pentandria,  Digynia.
                                         (Folia.)

   Cynanchum oleafolium, Nectoux, Voyage  dans la Haute Egypte, t. iii. p. 20, 1808; Cynanchum
Argel, Delile, Flor. Egypt, p. 53, pi. 20, fig. 2, 1826 ; Argel, Arabice,—A shrub ; a native of Upper
1  Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. iii. p. 239, 1843.                          a Bengal Dispensatory.
3  Journ. de Pharm. t. xvi. p. 92, 1830.
4  Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journ. July 1, 1829; Lond. Med. Gaz. July 18, 1829, p. 213.
*  Med. Chir. Trans, vol. x. p. 27.
s  Trans, of the Med. and Phys. Society of Calcutta, vol. i. p. 84.
1  Buchner's Repertorium fUr d. Pharmacie, 2te Reihe, Bd. v. p. 102, 1836.
8  Materia Indica, vol. i. p. 486; vol.  ii. p. 488. 
Argel.—Asclepias Tuberosa.
553
Egypt, Nubia, Arabia Petrsea, and Ouadi Gurra,, Stem 2 feet high, erect, branched.  Leaves lan-
ceolate, with a short petiole, leathery, veinless, whitish, wrinkled, and glaucous on  the  under
•urface.   Umbels many flowered.  Flowers small and white.  Follicles ovoid, tapering superiorly.

                                        Fig. 314.
Argel leaf, flowers, and fruit.
The leaves form a portion of most samples of Alexandrian senna (see Senna).  The plant is
collected, for this purpose, by tbe  Arabs, in the valleys of the  desert to the east and south of
Assouan (Delile).  According to Dublanc, jun.1 the leaves consist of a volatile oil (to which the
smell of the leaves is ascrilrable); a bitter, nauseous, exlracliform matter (in which the purgative
qualities of the leaves appear to reside); chlorophylle; a gummy matter, analogous to bassorine ;
a glutinous substance; a fatty matter ; acetate of potash ; and mineral salts.   According to the
observations of Rouillure, Delile, Nectoux, and  Puguet (quoted  by Delile), the argel leaves are
more active than senna leaves.  Rouillure says  they purge and gripe, and are used by the Arabs
of Upper Egypt without the addition  of senna.  But more recent observations2 appear to show
that, though they occasion sickness and griping, they do not produce purging.  Herberger3 even
asserts that they are harmless, because an infusion of two and  a half drachms produced no
effect or inconvenience.   But this probably arose from the active  principle of the leaves being
insoluble in water.

 [Asclepias  tuberosa, Linn., u. s. Sec. List.—Pleurisy Root, Butterfly-
                                        Weed.

   The stem  of this plant is erect, hairy, with spreading branches;  leaves, oblong, lanceolate,
ses-ile, alternate, somewhat  crowded; umbels  numerous,  forming terminate corymbs (Beck);
flowers orange-yellow.  This plant is found in  all parts of the United States.  The  portion used
in rnedicino is the root.  It is  large, and formed of irregular tubers or fusiform branches;  exter-
nally of a  yellowish-brown  colour, internally white.   When  recent, it has  a somewhat  acrid,
nauseous taste: in the dried state the taste is bitter, but not unpleasant.  The  powder is dirty
white.  It yields its properties to boiling water.
   The effects of this root upon the system are  those of a diaphoretic and expectorant; it does
not produce, however, any stimulating action.   In larger doses, especially if recent, it acts upon
the bowels.  With a view to the effects  mentioned.it is employed  at the  commencement of
pulmonary affections; and sometimes by its use in combination with antiphlogistics  an attack
may be cut short.  In rheumatism it has also proved serviceable. Dr Chapman (Elan of Therap.
vol. i. p. 351) speaks of its certainty  and permanency of operation.  Dr. Eberle employed it in
dysentery.  The dose of the powder is J)j to gj.  The form of administration best adapted to
produce perspiration is decoction, made by boiling 3J in a quart of water, and administering l|ij
every two hours.
   The A. i.ncarvata and A. syfiiaca have a place in the Sec. List of the U. S. Pharm.  The roots
are employed, and produce the same effects on the system as the previous species, but to less
extent.  They are seldom or  never used.—J. C]
   [Two species of Apocynum are used for medicinal purposes in the United States.
   Sex. Syst.—Pkntandiua Dictnia.
   Gen. Char.—Calyx  very  small, five-cleft, persistent.   Corolla campanulate, half five-cleft,
lobes revolnte, furnished at base with live dentoid glands, alternating with the stamina. Anthers
connivent, sagittate, cohering  to the  stigma  by the middle.   Style obsolete, stigma thick  and
nrute.  Follicle long and linear.  Sicd comose (Xuttall).
   1. A. ANiinos kmikolu m.— Dog's bane, U. iS. Secondary List.
' Mi rat mid Do Lens, Dirt. Mm  Mid. t. vi |>. 310.                   * Christison, Dispensatory.
 Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. viii. p. 400, 1^49. 
554               VEGETABLES.—Nat.  Ord. Asclepiadace*:.
  Sp. Char.—Leaves ovate, smooth,on both*si4es, cymes lateral and terminal, smooth- tubeof
the corolla longer than the calyx (Beck).
  This is a common species, found in all parts of the country, from Canada to Georgia on hill.
sides, and in open woods in barren soil.   It is  perennial, herbaceous, generally four feet hi«h'
with a smooth stem, and covered with tough fibrous bark.  The flowers are white, tinged w"ith
rose colour.
  The part used is the root, which is large and lactescent, of a disagreeable bitter taste- of this
                                             the active portion is the bark, which forms about
                 Fig-315.                   two-thirds of it.  Its constituents are, bitter extract-
                                             ive, colouring principle, caoutchouc,nnd volatile oil.
                                                It  yields its properties to water and alcohol!
                                             Dr. Zollickoffer obtained 198 grs. of alcoholic ex-
                                             tract, and 28  grs. of watery extract, from 3240
                                             grains of the cortical part.
                                                The  properties of  this root  are emetic and
                                             diaphoretic.  In doses of 30 or 40 grs. it promptly
                                             induces vomiting, with  slight preceding nnusea,
                                             on which account it may be used in cases where
                                             it is merely requisite to  evacuate the stomach,as
                                             no relaxation is induced.  It may be  also used
                                              with a  view to its diaphoretic action, in doses of
                                              5 or  10 grs. in combination with opium, but is
                                              inferior to Ipecacuanha.  (Griffith, Med. Essays,
                                              vol. ii.  p. 200.)  Dr. Zollickoffer states that it i9
                                              tonic in doses of from 10 to 20  grs. and is "ad.
                                              mirably calculated to improve the tone of tlio
                                              digestive  apparatus."   (Journ. of  Pharm. vol. v,
                                              p. 254; from Am. Journ. of Med. Science.)
                                                Apocynum Cannabinum.—Indian Hemp,V.S,
                                             Secondary List.
                                                Sp.  Char.—Stem upright,herbaceous. Leaves
                                             oblong, tomentose beneath, cymes lateral, longer
                                             than the leaves.
                                                The  Indian hemp is a perennial plant, usually
                                              about two or  three feet  in height, having  a red
                                             or brown  stem and oblong ovate,  somewhat pu-
                                              bescent leaves.  The  flowers are  small and of a
                                              greenish  white  colour externally, and  pink in-
                                              ternally in paniculate  cymes.
                                                This species is also found in  most parts of the
                                              United  States, in waste and neglected places.
                                                The  root is the portion used in medicine; it is
                                              horizontal, extending to a great distance, of a deep
                                              brown  colour, becoming darker by  age, and when
                                              wounded  pours forth  a thick  lactescent  juice.
                                              When  fresh it is nauseous, somewhat acrid, and
                                             permanently bitter, and possesses  a disagreeable
                                             odour.
                                                When dried, it is brittle and  easily reduced to
powder,  which resembles  that of  ipecacuanha.  It is composed of two portions, an external
cortical portion, which is brown without, and white within, and a ligneous cord, which is of a
yellowish white colour.                                                                 c  .
  Griscom (Journ. of Philada. College of Pharmacy,  vol. v. p. 136, from Am. Journ. of Med. Sci-
ence), found it to coniain tannin,  gallic acid (?), gum, resin, wax, fecula, bitter principle or apocy-
nin, colouring matter, and  woody fibre.   Knapp also examined it with similar results.
  The root of this plant is very  potent in its effects on the animal economy.   Dr. Griscom (op-
citat.), states i;that its first effect when taken into the stomach is that of producing  nause^^
given in sufficient quantity,  which need not be  large,  and if this be increased, vomiting will be
the result.''  It also acts upon the bowels, giving rise  to copious discharges.   Tlie-e effects are
attended^with a reduced frequency of the pulse.  A general relaxation of the skin and perspira-
tion follow these effects.  In some of the cases observed by the gentleman mentioned, diuresis
took place, but not so marked in some cases as others.  " In three or four cases related, the un-
nary secretion, although somewhat increased in quantity, was not such as to be commensurate
with the effect produced upon the disease by the exhibition of the medicine.  In other instances,
its diuretic operation has been more manifest, causing very profuse discharges of urine, and 1
a short time relieving  the  overloaded tissues of their burden."  The disease in which it has Dee
found  most useful is dropsy.
Apocynum Cannabinum. 
Nat. Ord. Oleace^i.—The European Olive.
555
  When the powder is taken into the nostrils, i^ncts as a sternutatory.
  As an emetic, the dose of the powder is from 15 to 30 grains.   The best form of exhibition
is in decoction, made by boiling an ounce of the root in a pint of water; the dose is  §ij to ^iv,
two or three times daily.  The watery extract will  purge in doses of from 3 to 5 grs.   In the
treatment of cutaneous affections, the juice of the root or plant may be made use of as an appli-
cation.                           .
  The bark affords a fibre, which may be used in the place of hemp.—J. C]
    Order XLVIII.  0LEACE.E, Lindley.—OLIVEWORTS.

                                Oleine.ze, R. Brown.

  Chaiiactehb.—Flowers hermaphrodite, rarely dioecious. Calyx monophyllous, divided, 4-lobed
or 4-toothed, persistent, inferior.  Corolla hypogynous, monopetalous, 4-cleft, occasionally of 4
petals connected in pairs  by the intervention  of the filaments, sometimes absent;  aslivation
somewhat valvate.  [Fraxinus is generally apetalous]   Stame7is 2, alternate with the segments
of the corolla or with the petals; anthers 2 celled, opening longitudinally.  Ovary simple, with-
out any hypogynous disk, 2 celled; the cells 2-seeded; the ovules pendulous and collateral; style
1 or 0; stigma bifid or undivided.  Fruit drupaceous, berried, or capsula, often by abortion 1-
seeded.  Seeds with dense, fleshy, abundant albumen;  embryo about  half its length, straight;
cotyledons foliaceous, partly asunder;  radicle superior; plumule inconspicuous.—Trees or shrubs.
Branches usually  dichotomous, and ending  abruptly by  a conspicuous bud.   Leaves  opposite,
simple, sometimes pinnated.   Flowers in terminal or axillary racemes or panicles; the pedicel*
opposite with single bracts (R. Brown).
  Phopertiks.—Not very remarkable.  The barks of some species  are tonic and astringent.
Manna is obtained from several species.


    201.  OLEA EUROPJEA, lin«.-THE EUROPEAN  OLIVE.

                            Sex. Syst. Diandria, Monogynia.
(Oleum e fructu expressum, L.—Expressed oil of the pericarp,  E.—The oil obtained from the pericarp, D.)

   History.—Few vegetables have been  so repeatedly noticed and enthusiastically
described by the ancieut writers  as the olive-tree.  In  all  ages it  seems  to have
been  adopted as the emblem of  benignity and peace.    It is frequently mentioned
in the Bible;1 the ancient Greeks3 were well acquainted with it; and several  products
of  it were employed in  medicine by  Hippocrates.3   Pliny4  is most diffuse in his
account of it.
  Pliny5 tells us, on the authority of Fenestella, that  there were no olive-trees in Italy, Spain,
and Africa, in the reign of Tarquinius Priscus, in the 173d year  from the foundation of the city
of Rome; that is, 5S0 years before Christ.   The  Phoenicians are said to have introduced the
olive-tree into France 680  years before Christ.  Near Terni, in the vale of the cascade of Mar-
mora, is a plantation of very old trees, and supposed to be the same plants mentioned by Pliny,
as growing there in the first  century.6
  Botany.  Gen.  Char.— Calyx short,  campanulate, 4-toothed, rarely truncated.
Corolla with a short  tube, and a  4-partite plane spreading  limb;  rarely absent.
Statncns  '2, inserted in  the lower part of the tube of the corolla, opposite, exserted;
in the  apetalous  species  hypogynous.   Ovary 2-celled.   Ovules  2 in each cell,
pendulous from the  apex of the  septum.  Style  short, with  a  bifid stigma at  the
apex, or subcapitate.  Drupe berried,  with  oily flesh anxi an osseous  kernel;  by
abortion 2- and  often 1-seeded.   Seeds inverted; albumen fleshy; embryo inverted,
straight, with foliaceous cotyledons (De Cand.).
  Sp. Char.—Leaves oblong or  lanceolate,  quite  entire, mucronate, above  smooth,
beneath leprous-hoary.   Racemes axillary,  while  flowering somewhat  erect,  when
in fruit nodding.  Fruit ellipsoidal (De Oandolle).
  A long-lived tree  of slow growth.  Wood hard;  used for cabinet-work.  Leaves in
1 Ah in Gen. viii. 11.                                       » Homer, Od. v. 477.
1 Dierbnch, Arxneim. d. Hippokr. p. 77.
 Hist. Sat. lib. xv. cup. 1—b; hint lib. xxiii. cap. 31—37, ed. Valp.
1 Hist. Mat. lib. xv. cap. 1, ed. Valp                           « Loudon, Encycl. Gardening. 
556
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Oleace^:.
        Olea Europaa.
1. Corolla. 2.  Calyx.  3. Drupe.
                                          pairs, shortly petiolated, green above, hoary
                                          beneath.  Flowers small and white.  Drupe
                                          dark bluish-green; kernel hard, with usually
                                          only one ovule.   The  whitish character of
                                          the  foliage  gives a  dull and monotonous
                                          appearance to countries where the olive is
                                          extensively   cultivated, as  Provence  and
                                          Languedoc.1              ,
                                             Hab.—Grows spontaneously in the East
                                          (Asia),  from whence it has  migrated into
                                          the  South of Europe,  the Mediterranean
                                          Islands, and  the North of  Africa, where it
                                          is extensively  cultivated, and, by the dis-
                                          semination of the seeds, now grows appa-
                                          rently wild.
                                            Var. a.  Oleaster.  The Wild Olive.—Branches
                                          more or  less  induratedspinescent, and more or
                                          less quadrangular.  Leaves oblong or oval.  Fruit
                                          smaller.—Grows wild in  the whole of the olive
                                          region, especially in rocky places.
                                            Var. |S. sativa.   The Cultivated Olive.—Branches
                                          unarmed, roundish.  Leaves lanceolate. Racemes
                                          few-fruited.—Cultivated in the whole of the olive
                                          region.—There are numerous subvarieties, with
                                          the fruit ovate, ellipsoidal, or almost  spherical,
                                          obtuse at the apex, submucronate or subincurved
 at  the apex,  violet, blackish, reddish, or  even  white, with  an  austere  taste, or rarely insipid,
 &c. &c.  The subvariety longifolia  is cultivated in the South of France, and is said to yield
 the best oil.  The young fruit is also  most esteemed when pickled.  The subvariety latifolia is
 chiefly cultivated in Spain.  Its fruit is almost twice the size of the Provence olive, or subvariety
 longifolia, but of a strong rank flavour; and the oil is too strong for most palates.2
    Description.—The  products of  the  olive-tree deserving of notice are the re-
 siniform  exudation, the leaves, and the fruit.
    1. Resiniform  exudation of the  olive-tree  (resina  olece).—The  older writers
 speak of the exudation  from  olive-trees, and which Dioscorides3 describes as the
 tears of the JEthiopic olive  (lacrymse  olese  sethiopicse).   In modern times, it has
 been improperly termed olive gum (gummi olese) or  Lecca cgum. Pelletier4 has ana-
 lyzed it, and found that it consists of a pecidiar matter (olivile), brown resin soluble
 in  ether,  and benzoic acid.   It was formerly employed in medicine.
   Olivile is white, inodorous, bitter, crystallizable, very  soluble in boiling alcohol and in the al-
 kalies, but very slightly so in water and ether.  The crystals consist of C^H^O'^HO. By heat
 they  lose 2 HO.
    2. Olive leaves (folia olese).—The leaves^of the olive-tree have been analyzed by
 Pallas,5 who found in them a bitter acid principle, a black resin, a peculiar crystal-
 line  febrifuge substance, gum,  chlorophylle,  tannin,  gallic acid, and mineral salts.
 They have been employed  externally as astringents and  antiseptics;  internally, as
 tonics in intermittents.6
   3. Fruit of the olive-trees;  Olives (fructus  oleaz;  olivai).—The  preserved  or
pickled olives (olivse conditse), so  admired as a dessert, are the green  unripe fruit,
 deprived of part of their bitterness by soaking them in water,  and then preserved
 in  an aromatized solution of salt.   Several varieties are met with in commerce, but
 the most common are the small French  or Provence olive and the large Spanish ol-
 ive.   Olives d la picholine  have been soaked in a solution of  lime and wood-ashes.7 j
 Ripe olives are remarkable  from the circumstance of their sarcocarp abounding in a
 bland fixed oil.
1 Sharp, Letters from Italy, Lond. 1768.
* Lib. i. cap. 141.
1 Journ. de Pharm. xiii. 604.
' Puliamel, Traiti des Arbres, t. ii. p. 57.
3 Don's Gardener's Dictionary, vol. iv. 47
• Ann. de Chim. Phys. iii. 105, li. 196.
 Richard, Elim. d'Hist. Nat. t. ii. p. 21. 
The European Olive :—Expression of Olive Oil.         557
Fig. 317.
Spanish Olive Oil Mill.
   Expression op Ouve Oil.—The profess of procuring  olive oil  is  somewhat
 modiflcd in different countries, though the principle is the same in all.
   In Spain, the olives are pressed by coni-
 cal iron rollers elevated above the stage or
 floor, round which they move on two little
 margins to prevent  the  kernel being in-
 jured, the  oil from which is said to have
 an unpleasant flavour.   Spanish olive oil,
 however, is inferior  to other kinds, from
 the circumstance of the time which elapses
 between the gathering and the grinding of
 the olives.  This arises from the number
 of mills not being in  proportion  to the
 quantity of fruit to be ground; so that the
 olives are placed in  heaps  to  wait their
 turn,  and  in consequence often  undergo
 decomposition.1
   In France, the finest  oil is procured by bruising the  fruit in the mill, immediately
 they are gathered,  and then  submitting the  paste to pressure.  The  first product
 has  a greenish tint, and  is termed virgin  oil (oleum  olioarum virgineum ;  huile
 bierge).   The cake or marc is removed  from the press, broken up with  the hand,
 moistened with boiling water, and  re-pressed.   The products are water and oil of a
 second quality;  these  separate by standing.   The cake, which is  left, is termed
 grignon, and is employed  by some  as fuel; others, however, ferment it, and, by the
 aid of boiling water,  obtain  a very inferior oil, called gongon, which is   employed
 either for soap-making or burning  in lamps.2
   With the view of increasing the quantity of oil, some persons allow the olives  to
 undergo incipient fermentation, which breaks down the parenchyma of the fruit be-
 fore they are pressed ; but the quality-of the oil is thereby injured.   Guibourt3  tells
 us that it is a yellow, but a  mild and agreeable oil, and is much used for  the table.
   The machinery  employed by the Neapolitan peasants in  the preparation of the
 Gallipoli oil is of the rudest kind.  The olives are allowed to drop in their maturity
 from the tree on the  ground, where they are picked up chiefly by women and child-
 ren,  and  carried to the mill.  The oil, when expressed, is sent, in sheep or  goat
 skins, carried on mules, to Gallipoli, where it is allowed to clarify in cisterns cut  in
 the  rock on which  the  town is built.  From these it  is conveyed, in uteri or skins,
 to basins near the sea-shore; and from  these basins the oil casks are filled.4
   According to Sieuve,5  100 lbs. of olives yield about 32 lbs. of oil;  21 of which
 come from  the pericarp, 4 from the seed, and 7 from  the woody matter of the nut
 (pyreua).   That obtained from the pericarp is of the  finest quality.
   Ilecently-drawn  olive-oil deposits, by standing, a white fibrous matter, which the
 ancients employed  in medicine under the name of amurca*
   Propkrtiks of  Oliye Oil.—Olive oil (oleum olivse seu olivarum ; street oil) is
 an unctuous fluid of a pale yellow or greenish-yellow colour.   When of good quality
 it has scarcely  any  smell.   Its taste is bland and mild.   Its sp. gr. is probably not
'uniform ; and  hence the discrepancies in the  experimental  results of different  che-
 mists.  Saussure makes it 0.9l!)2  at 53°.G F, and  0.9109 at 77° F.; Heidenrich
 says it is 0.917(5 at  59° F.  In cold  weather  it deposits  white fatty globules (a
 combination of elaine and margarine).   At about the  freezing point of water it  con-
 geals.  It is soluble  in about li times its weight  of ether; but is very slightly
 Boluble only in alcohol.   By admixture with castor  oil, its solubility in rectified
 spirit is augmented (Bee ante, p. 376).   Pure olive oil has less tendency  to become
1  Iiillun, Travels through Spain, p. 343, l7i-2; Jacob, Travels in Spain, p. 149, Jsll.
'  Dull.....cl, Traitt des Arbres Fruit, t. ii. pp. 71—•>.            ' Hist, des Drog. t. ii p 339
4  M'Cull.-ch's Dirt  of Commerce                         » De Candolle, Phys. Vig. p. 299.
•  Pliny, Hist. .\at lib. xv. cup. xii. ed. Valp 
558
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Oleace^e.
 rancid by exposure to  the air than most other fixed oils;  but the second qualities
 readily acquire rancidity.  This seems to depend on the presence of some foreign
 matter.   Olive oil is not a drying oil, and, being less apt than many oils to increase
 in consistence by exposure to air, is preferred for greasing delicate machinery and
 especially watch and clock-work.   To prepare it for  the latter application the oil is
 cooled, and the more liquid portion  poured  off from the fatty deposit.  A piece of
 sheet lead, or some  shot are  then  immersed  in it,  and it is exposed in a corked
 phial to  the  action  of  sunshine.   A white matter gradually separates, after which
 the oil becomes clear and colourless, and  is fit for use (Brande).
    Varieties.—Provence oil (oleum provinciale), the produce of Aix, is the most
 esteemed.  Florence oil is a  very fine kind of olive  oil, imported from Leghorn, in
 flasks  surrounded  by a kind of network formed by  the leaves of a monocotyledo-
 nous  plant, and  packed  in half-chests;  it  is used at the table, under the name of
 salad oil.   Lucca oil is imported in jars  holding nineteen gallons each.  Genoa oil
 is another fine kind.   Gallipoli oil forms the largest portion' of the olive oil brought
 to England; it is imported  in casks.   Apulia and Calabria are the provinces of
 Naples most celebrated for its production ;  the  Apulian is the best.   Sicily oil ia
 of inferior quality; it is principally  produced  at Milazzo.   Spanish oil is the worst.
 The foot deposited by olive oil  is  used for  oiling machinery, under  the  name of
 droppings of sweet oil.
   Adulteration.—Olive oil is  liable  to adulteration with some of the cheaper
 fixed  oils, as with poppy oil, lard oil,1 &c.   Various tests  have  been  proposed for
 the detection of  the fraud, but none of them  are  very accurate or to be absolutely
 relied on, partly, perhaps, because olive oil itself is  not uniform in its qualities.
   The following are some of the  proposed tests: 1st. Expose a few drops of the oil, in a porce-
 lain vessel, to the  heat of a lamp for a few seconds, and examine  the odour of the vapour;
 the presence of foreign oils may be detected by their peculiar smell.2  2dly. The sp.  gr. of the
 oil may be determined by Gobley's elaiometer, whose zero is the point at which  the instrument
 floats in poppy oil, and its  50° the point at which it floats in olive oil.3  3dly. If we shake
 pure olive oil in a phial half filled with it, the surface of the oil soon becomes smooth by repose;
 whereas, when poppy oil is  present, a number of air-bubbles (or beads, as they are termed) re-
 main.   4thly. Olive  oil is completely solidified when  cooled by ice ;  poppy oil, however, re-
 mains in part liquid.   Even two parts of olive oil to  one of poppy oil will not completely
 congeal.4   5thly. Olive oil, according to  Rousseau,5 conducts electricity 675 times worse than
 other vegetable oils.  The addition of two drops  of poppy or beech-nut oil  to 154£  grains of
 olive oil is sufficient to quadruple the conducting  power of the latter.  To ascertain  the con-
 ducting power of oil, Rousseau used the electrical diagometer (from haytv, to conduct; and /uii-jsa,
 to measure). It consists of one of  Zamboni's  dry piles and a feebly-magnetized needle, mov-
 ing freely on a pivot.   The electricity developed by the pile produces a deviation in the direc-
 tion of the needle; but when any substance is interposed  between the needle and the pile, the
 deviation is less in proportion to the bad conducting power of the interposed substance.  6thly.
 If recently-made nitrate of mercury (prepared by dissolving 6 parts of mercury  in 7.5 parts of
 nitric acid, sp. gr. 1.36) be mixed with twelve times its weight of pure olive oil, and tbe mix-
 ture strongly agitated, the whole mass becomes solid in the course of a few hours; this, how-
 ever, does not occur with adulterated oil.  We judge of the presence and quantity of foreign
oils by the  degree and quickness of solidification of the suspected olive oil.
  " When carefully mixed with a  twelfth of its volume of  solution of nitrate of mercury pre-
pared as for the Unguentum Citrinum (see vol. i. p. 819), it  becomes in three or four hours like
a firm fat, without any separation of liquid oil."—Ph. Ed.
   Composition.—In  1808,  Gay-Lussac  and  Thenard6  examined  the ultimate
composition of this oil.   In 1815, Braconnet7 ascertained the proximate constitu-
ents of it; and subsequently Saussure8 examined the ultimate composition  of these
constituents.

  1 Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. x. p. 132, 1850.
  3 Heidenreich, Chemical Gazette, vol. i. p. 382, 1813.                                 .    ^
  s Journal de Pharm. et de Chim. 3me ser. t. iv. p. 2S5, 1813 ;  Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. iv. p. va,
1845.                                                                           ™
  1 Guibourt. Hist, des Drog. t. ii. p. 603.                        5 Journ. de Pharm. t. «• P. »•
  6 Rech. Phys. Chim. ii. 320.                                  ' Ann. de Chim. xcin. 240.
  ! Ann. de Chim. et Phys. t. xiii. p. 349.
I 
The European Olive:—Physiological Effects; Uses.       559
Proximate Analysis.     I                    Ultimate Analyses
        Braeonnot's.
Elaine (oleine)........72
Margarine...........2b
  Gay-Lussac and Thinard^s.   ,          Saussure's.
Cnrlx.n..........  77.213 ! . .  . .  76.0.31
Hyclrnjren.........  13.360  ....  11.545
Oxygen..........  9.427  ....  12.068
Nitrogen.........  0.000  ....   0.353
82.170
11.232
 6.302
 0.296
      01've oil.......100 !|       Olive oil.....100.000 ; Elaine 100.000 , Margarine 100.000
  1. Elaine or Oleine.—Braconnot obtained it by exposing olive oil to a temperature of about
21° f-i in order to cause the congelation of the margarine.  The elaine was a greenish yellow
liquid ;  at  14° F. it deposited a little margarine.
  2. .Margarine.—The solid matter of olive and other vegetable oils, obtained as above, is
usually denominated stearine, but Lecanu1 has  pointed out several characters by which it is
distinguished from that  principle; thus, it is more fusible, and is much more soluble in cold ether.
In most other respects it agrees  with stearine.
 _ Physiological Effects,   a.   On  Vegetables.—Olive oil, as well as other fixed
oils, acts  injuriously on the  roots of plants, by  obstructing their pores and meatus,
and preventing the passage  of water.3
   (3.  On Animals.—Injected into  the  veins, the fixed oils prove injurious by their
mechanical operation.   They obstruct  the circulation  in the capillary vessels, and
in this way cause death.   Both Courten and Hertwich8  have  destroyed dogs by in-
jecting half an  ounce of olive oil into the  veins.
   y.  On Man.—The fixed oils are  extremely nutritious, but they are difficult of
digestion, and  hence are apt to disagree with dyspeptics.   Some writers (as  Dr.
Duuglison*) are of opinion  that, taken as  a condiment, with salad, oil promotes the
digestibility of  the  latter; but this notion is probably unfounded;  for salad is not
usually obnoxious to the digestive organs,  whereas, oil  frequently is so.  Swallowed
in large  doses, olive  oil acts as a laxative,  in general, without occasioning  pain.
 ^ Uses.—In  England, the dietetical uses of olive oil are very  limited, being prin-
cipally confined to its mixture with salads.  In Spain, and some other countries, it
is frequently employed  as a  substitute for butter.  Dyspeptics should  carefully
avoid its  use.
   Medicinally it is  not  often  administered by the mouth.   As a mild laxative it
may be used in irritation, inflammation, or spasm of the alimentary canal, or of the
urino-genital  organs.   As an emollient  and demulcent it is used to involve  acrid and
corrosive substances, and  sheathe the stomach from  their action; and taken in tbe
form of  emulsion (made with gum, albumen, or alkali) it is used to allay trouble-
some and spasmodic cough in pulmonary and bronchial irritation, &c.; but in such
cases almond oil is generally preferred.
   As  an antidote, it  has  been used  in mineral, animal, and vegetable poisoning;
but its  operation appears to be entirely mechanical (see Mechanical Antidote*, p.
198.)   It envelops the poison, sheaths the living surface, and mechanically obstructs
absorption.   At one time it was supposed to possess antidotal properties for arseni-
cal poisons; and Dr. Paris5 tells us,  that the antidote on which  the men employed
in the copper-smelting works and  tin-burning  houses  in Cornwall, rely with confi-
dence, "whenever they are infested with more than an ordinary portion of arsenical
vapour, is sweet oil; and an annual sum is allowed  by the  proprietors, in order
that it may be  constantly supplied."   Oil was  formerly recommended as an anti-
dote for cantharides; but the discovery of the  solubility of cantharidin  in oil has
led to the suspicion,  that, instead of alleviating, it might increase the patient's dan-
ger.  There is no just ground for supposing that  oil, applied externally, or taken
internally, has any particular  influence in counteracting the operation or  relieving
the effects of the poison of venomous serpents, notwithstanding the high encomiums
that have been  passed on  it.   As an  anthelmintic,  olive oil is  occasionally used.
  Olive oil  is a frequent  constituent of laxative enemata, especially in dysentery,
or irritation of the bowels or of the neighbouring viscera.
» Ibid. lv.204.                                     » De Candolle, Phys. Vi» n 131:
• Wibmer. Wirk. d. Artneim. u. Gifte. Bd. iv. S. 9.         * El em. of Hyiint. d 269
» Pharmacol. 0th edit. vol. i. p. 97.                                '    ' y' 
560                 VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Oleace*:.
  Externally, it is used in the form of liniment (as the linimentum ammonite and
linimentum ammonias  sesquicarbonatis ;  see vol. i. pp. 433 and 442).  Smeared
over the body, it  has  been recommended by Berchtold  and others1 as a safeguard
against the plague.  It can be beneficial only by mechanically impeding absorption.
  It may be employed  also to relax the skin and sheathe irritable surfaces.  Inc.
tions of olive oil have been employed in ascites and anasarca.
  In pharmacy, olive oil has been employed in  the preparation of  liniments, oint-
ments,  cerates, and plasters.  It serves for making both a hard and a soft  soap used
in medicine (see ante, pp. 550—551); and is one source of glycerine.   In surgery
it is used for besmearing surgical instruments, as bougies, &c.
  Administration.—The dose of olive oil as a laxative is from f^j to fjij.


  202. FRAXINUS ROTUNDIFOLIA, Linn.;  et  F. ORNUS, Lam.
                           Sex. Syst. Diandria, Monogynia.
(Succus ex inciso cortice fusus, dere induratus, L.—Sweet concrete exudation, probably from several
   species of P*raxinus and Ornus, E.—An exndation from Fr. Ornus and other species, constitutes
                             the manna of commerce, D.)

  History.—Although these two species of manna ash must have been known to
the ancients, yet no notice is taken of the manna which they yield.   It  is difficult,
however, to  believe  that they were unacquainted with it.   The earliest writer who
distinctly mentions it is Johannes Actuarius.2
  It has been presumed that, under  the names of honey-dew (Spoooutu, mel rosri-
dum),  honey-air or  aerial honey  (aip6ui\t, mel  aerium), and  honey-oil (Ixatoutu,
elseomeli), the ancients  included our manna.
  The nature of  the substauce which, in our translation of the Old Testament,3 is
called  manna (man, literally what is it?) is quite unknown.  By some it has been
thought to be the manna  of the Tamarisk (Tamarix mannifera)', by others, the
manna of the Camel's  Thorn (Alhagi  maurorum).   But neither  these nor any
other known sorts of manna explain the manna of Scripture, " by which abundance
is stated to have  been  produced for millions, where  hundreds cannot now be sub-
sisted."4
  Botany.   Gen. Char.—Flowers polygamous or  dioecious.    Calyx  4-cleft or
none.   Petals either none or 4,  usually in pairs, cohering at the base, oblong or
linear.   Stamens 2.   Stigma bifid.   Fruit (samara) 2-celled,  compressed, winged
at the apex, with 2 ovules in each cell, or by abortion 1-seeded.   Seeds pendulous,
compressed;  albumen  fleshy, thin;  embryo longitudinal;  cotyledons  elliptical;
radicle linear, superior (De Cand.).
  Species.  1. Fr. Ornus, Linn.; Ornus Europsea, Persoon ; Malo,, Dioscorides,
lib. i. cap. 108;  European Flowering or  Manna, Ash.—Leaflets 3—4  pairs, sub-
petiolate,  lanceolate, attenuated  at both extremities, serrated at the apex, entire at
the base, bearded beneath near the  nerve.  Buds velvety.   Panicles  crowded,
shorter than the  leaf.   Fruits narrow, linear-lanceolate, obtuse, attenuated at both
extremities (De Cand.).
  A small tree (20—25 feet high).  Leaves opposite, large, pinnate.  Leaflets large.
Panicles large and many-flowered.   Flowers small and polygamous.  Corolla yel-
lowish or greenish white.  Fruit flat, wedge-shaped, smooth, Avinged.
  South  of  Europe, in mountainous situations; especially Calabria and  Sicily.
De  Candolle says  that it rarely produces manna  in Calabria.
  2. F. rotundifolia, Lamarck;  Ornus rotundifolia, Persoon; Mma vlrf^n xat
eip-nxv,  Theophrastus, Hist. PI. lib. iii. cap.  11;  Round-leaved, Flowering, ot
Manna Ash.—Leaflets, 2—4 pairs,  smooth, ovate or roundish, obtusely ferrate,
subsessile, minutely reticulate.   Petioles channelled.   Buds  brown externally,
=• Friend's Hist, of Physiclc, i.'Zil.
* Kitto's Cyclop, of Bibl. Literature, vol. ii. p. 293. 
Manna :—Description.
561
somewhat velvety (De Cand.).—A small tree (16 to 20 feet high).  By gome bota-
nists considered to be a variety of  the  preceding species.   Grows in  Calabria and
the East.   De  Candolle says that from  this tree manna is chiefly obtained.
   Extraction of Manna.—Manna  is obtained both in Calabria1 and  Sicily by
incision into the stem of the  trees.  The mode of obtaining Sicilian manna  has
been described  by  Houel,3 and more  recently by Stettner,8 who made  his observa-
tions during the summer of 1847.  In
Fig. 318.
 the manna districts of Capace, Cinesi,
 and  Fabaretto,  in Sicily, where the
 best manna is obtained, the Fraxinus
  Ornus is cultivated in separate square
 plantations.   The trees are not tapped
 till they cease to produce more leaves,
 which  happens about July or August.
 Cross or transverse incisions, about two
 inches  long, are  made in the stem by
 means  of a  hooked or  curved  knife,
 beginning  at the lower  part,  near the
 Boil, and are repeated daily  in  warm
 weather, extending them perpendicu-
 larly upwards, so as to leave the stems
 uninjured on one side,  which is cut
 next year.   In the lowermost  sections,
 small leaves of the ash are inserted to
 conduct the  juice into  a receptacle
 formed by a leaf of Opuntia.   In this
 way is  obtained manna in sorts (called
  C<t pace or Gerace manna).  The fake
 manna, preferred by the English, is
 obtained during the height of  the sea-
 son,  when  the juice flows vigorously
 (Houel).   It is  procured  from  the
 upper incisions ; the juice there being
 less fatty than that in the lower part,
 and, consequently, it more easily dries
 in tubes and flat pieces (Stettner). The
 masses left adhering to the stems after
 the removal of the inserted leaves are
 scraped off, and constitute the cannula fed manna in fragments.   Although all three
 kinds of manna are got from the same stem, yet the younger stems yield more of
 the cannulatcd  sort, and  the  older ones more of the fatty kind.  Dry and warm
 weather are necessary for a good harvest.
   Description.—Several kinds of (manna) are described by pharmacologists.
   1.  The finest of English commerce  is called flake manna (manna cannulata vel
 M. cancllata).  It is imported  in deal boxes, having partitions, and frequently
 lined with tin-plate.  It  consists of pieces of from one to six inches  long, one or
 two inches wide, and from half an inch to an inch thick.   Their form is irregular,
 but more or less stalac-titic ; most of the pieces being flattened or slightly hollowed
 out on one side (where  they adhered to the tree or  substance on which they con-
 crete 'd), and on this side they are frequently soiled.  Their colour is white, or yel-
lowish-white;  they are  light,  porous,  and friable;  the fractured  surface presents a
number  of very small capillary crystals.  The odour is somewhat like that of honey
and is to me rather unpleasant;  the taste is  sweet, but afterwards rather acrid.    '

 ', n"ill"'.PI,iL Trans, voL lx- P- P'           * V°y- PHtoresq. de Sieile, &c. t. i. pp 52^3_1782~~
   Hooker g Journ. of Botany, vol. i. p. 124, 1840; and Pharm. Journal, vol. ix. p. 2>3, lslO
       VOL. II.—36
           Extraction of Manna.
  a. Stem of the tree.    I  c. Incision.
  6. Leaf of the Ornus.   |  d. Leaf of the Indian fig.
              e. Hooked knife.
  In the right hand of each of the collectors is a box
to contain the manna, which is afterwards transferred
to a basket. 
562
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Oleaceje.
   2.  Under the name of Sicilian  Tolfa manna I  have received  an inferior kind
corresponding to the manna  in sorts (manna  in  sortis)  of some pharmacologists
From  its  name I presume it  is brought from Sicily, and that  it  corresponds in
quality to Tolfa manna, produced near Civita-Vecchia, and which  Fee1 states is but
little valued.   The Sicilian  Tolfa manna occurs  in small pieces, which  seldom
exceed  an inch in length; some of these present the same appearances, with respect
to consistence, colour, friability, and crystalline appearance, as the flake manna •
others,  however, are  soft, viscid, brownish, and uncrystallized, like those of the
next variety.
   3.  The commonest kind of English commerce is called Sicilian manna (manna
siciliana).   It appears to me to be the common or fatty manna  (manna pimjuis)
of some writers.   It consists  of small,  soft, viscid fragments, of a dirty yellowish-
brown  colour, intermixed with some  few  dark-coloured  small pieces of the flake
variety.  It contains many impurities  intermixed.
   A sort of manna, called manna foliata, or manna de fronde, is produced on  the leaves of the
manna ash, by the punctures of a small hemipterous  insect2 (Cicada  Orni,  Linn.; Tettigonia
Orni, Fabric).
   The term manna is also applied to several other saccharine substances obtained from plants,
but which are entirely different from the marina of the  shops.  The  following are  some of
them:  1st, Manna  of Briancon (manna brigantina)  or  manna  of the larch (viauna laricis)
[see ante, p. 286] : 2dly, Persian manna (manna persica) or manna of the Camel's thorn (manna
alhagi)  [see ante, p. 560];  3dly, Tamarisk manna (manna tamariscina), supposed  by some to
be the manna alluded to by Moses, and hence termed  manna mosaica vel  m. judceorum  [see
ante, p. 560]; and 4thly, Oak manna (manna quercea) [see ante, p. 317].
   Adulteration.—In  1842, more than a ton  of  a fictitious manna was offered for
sale in  Paris.   It appears  to have been potato  sugar.   It was distinguished from
genuine manna by its general appearance; its granular fracture; its taste, which
was that of caramelized sugar, followed by a slight  bitterness;  its non-inflamma-
bility in the candle, its  more marked fermentation when  its aqueous solution  was
mixed with  yeast, and  the residual  liquor not yielding mannite;  its containing sul-
phate of  lime;  and its property of circular polarization3 (see ante,  p.  150).
   Commerce.—Manna is imported into this country principally from Palermo  and
Messina.  It  is also occasionally brought from other ports of Sicily; viz. Licata,
Girgenti,'Catania, Terra Nova, and  Marsala.    Farthermore,  Naples,  Leghorn,
Trieste, Genoa, and Marseilles, are other places of  shipment of it.
   Composition.—Manna was analyzed in 1809 by Bucholz,4  and in 1845  by
Leuchtweiss.5
     Bucholz's Analtsis.
                      Manna
                    canelata.
Mannite...........60.0
Fermentable but uncrystal-
  lizable sugar with colour-
  ing matter (purgative bit-
  ter matter?)........   5.5
Sweetish gum........   1.5
Gummy extractive.....   0.8
Fibro-glutinous matter ...   0.2
Water and loss  .......30.0

                        98.0
Leuchtweiss's Analyses.
                      M. canelata
Mannite  ............42.6
Sugar..............  9.1
Mucilage, with some mannite,
  resinous  and acid matter,
  and a small quantity of a ni-
  trogenous substance  .... 40.0
Insoluble matter........  0.4
Water..............11.6
Ashes..............  1.3

                         105.0
M. canel. in	
ta. fragmentit. .....37.6 . . . .....10.3 . . .	M. calabr . . 32.0 . . 15.0
.....40.8 . . . .....13.0 . . . ..... 1.9 .. .	. . 42.1 3.2 111 . . 1.9
. .  104.5
. 105.3
  1. Maiotite (Mannitwm) ; Manna Sugar; Grenadin.  Formula C6H504,2HO.  Eq. Wt. 91.—
It is a constituent of manna.  It may also be obtained by exciting the viscous fermentation in a
solution of ordinary sugar.  It may be  procured  from  beet-root (see  ante. p. 43S), dandelion-
root,6 sea-weeds  (see  ante, p. 50), &c.—It is  most readily and economically obtained from
  1 Cours d'Hist. Nat. ii. 366.
  2 De Candolle, Physiol. Viget. t. i. p. 238: Brandt u. Ratzeburg, Med. Zoologie, Bd. ii. p. 211.
  3 Journ. de Pharm. et. Chim. 3me ser. t. l. pp. 58 und 154, 1842; and Pharmaceutical Journal, vol.
p. 222, 1843.
  4 Taschenbuch fur Scheidehunst, 1809; and Berlin. JahrbuchfUr d. Pharm. p. lxi. 1309.
  * Annal. der Chemie u. Pharm. Bd. liii. S. 124, 1845.
  ' Messrs. T. and H. Smith, Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. v. iii. p. 480,1849. 
                    Nat. Ord. Styracace^se.—Storaxworts.                563

 manna by Ruspini's process:1  Common manna is first prepared by melting it over the fire in
 distilled or rain water, in which the white of egg has been previously beaten; boil and strain
 the solution  through a linen cloth ;  the strained liquor solidifies on  cooling.  Submit the pre-
 pared manna to strong  pressure, then  mix it with its own  weight of cold water, and asjain
 press it.  Dissolve the pressed cake in  boiling water, add animal charcoal, and then filter and
 evaporate the solution, which is then to  be set aside to crystallize.—Mannite is a white,  crystal-
 line, odourless  substance, which  has a sweet agreeable taste.   It is soluble in 5 parts  of cold
 water, and  in a smaller proportion  of boiling water;  it is readily soluble in boiling alcohol, but
 less mi in cold alcohol.  It is essentially distinguished  from sugars strictly so-called (see  ante, p.
 149)  by two characters: 1st, its solution does not undergo the vinous fermentation when  in
 contact with yeast (see ante, pp. 86 and  149);  2dly, its  solution  does not possess the pro-
 perty of rotatory polarization (see  ante, pp.  150  and 293).—Mannite has recently been im-
 ported from Italy in the form  of beautiful  white crystalline conical  masses, which are totally
 devoid of any disagreeable flavour.'2  It is intended to be a substitute for common manna.
   2. Rksijt.—Manna contains a resin which has a disagreeable odour, and a nauseous, irritat-
 ing, unpleasant flavour.   The quantity of it, however, is very inconsiderable.  Is this the pur-
 gative principle of manna?  It  is usually accompanied by an  acid, whose solution, by evapora-
 tion, is gradually converted into resin.

   Physiological Effects, o. On animals generally.—In moderate doses manna
 is nutritive, and is greedily devoured by some animals.   Thus, Swinburn3 tells us
 that  vipers and martens are very fond of it.   In large doses it acts as a mild laxa-
 tive.  The dose for carnivorous animals  is about  two ounces dissolved  in  broth or
 milk.4   It is rarely given to horses, on account of the large dose required.
   0. On Man.—It has an analogous operation on man;  that  is, in small doses it
 is nutritive, and  in large ones mildly laxative.   It acts on  the bowels without ex-
 citing vascular irritation, and is, therefore, admissible  in inflammatory cases.   It is
 apt, however, to produce flatulence and griping.  The fresher  and less changed the
 manna, the feebler are said to be its laxative powers; and hence the Calabrians are
 enabled to use  it frequently as an article of food.   When  by keeping and partial
 decomposition  it  has acquired an increase of  laxative  powers, it is less  easily
 digested, and  is more apt to excite flatulence.   Hence, also, we are  told, the com-
 moner kinds of manna  are more laxative and more apt to disagree with the  stomach
 than the finer varieties.   The older  writers imagined that manna  promoted the
 secretion of bile.   Manna  approaches tamarinds as a  laxative, but it is more nutri-
 tive  and  less  refrigerant,  in  consequence of  possessing more mucilaginous  and
 saccharine matter, and less free vegetable acids.
   Usks.—It  is employed  as a laxative, partly on account of the  mildness of its
 operation, partly for  its sweet flavour, in delicate persons, as females and children.
 Dr Burns5 recommends it for new-born infants, if the  meconium do not come away
 freely.  On  account of its sweetness it is  frequently added  to flavour purgative
 draughts, and is used as a  common laxative for children, who  readily eat  it.
   Administration.—It may be  taken in  substance or dissolved  in warm milk
 or water.—The dose,  for  an  adult,  is  from  Si  to  3ij;  for children,  from ^i
 to 3iij.                                                                          0i



 Order XLIX. STYRACACEiE,^. Z)C—STORAXWORTS.

  Chaiiacteiis.— Calyx 5- and very rarely 4-lobed; the lobes quincuncial in sestivation.  Corolla
 5- very rarely 4 or 6—7-lobed,  consisting of 5  or 4—7 petals  usually but slightly  connate at
 the base, campanulate or j-ubrotate, sometimes an inner whorl of petals concrete to  the tube of
 the outer and alternating with the lobes.  Stamens adnnte to the base of the corolla, free or con-
 nate by the filaments, in 1  or many  rows; either 8—1U, alternate  and opposite to'the lobes of
 the corolla, or indefinite, free, pentadelphous or monodelphous, adelphous  or  longer stamina
 alternating with the lobes of the corolla;  anthers 2-celled, dehiscing laterally or inwardly, shorter
than the filament; pollen broadly elliptical, smooth. Nectary 0.  Ovary inferior or semi-inferior
rarely free, 5—2-celled;  the cells opposite  the lobes of the calyx when they are of the same
number; the partitions sometimes scarcely adhering in the centre of the ovary.   Ovules 2 or
1 Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. vi. p. 183, 1816.
* Travels in the Troo Siciltes, 1785.
' Principles of Midwifery.
a Ibid. vol. ix. pp. 349 and458, 1850.  '
4 Moiroud, Pharm. Vit. 
564
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Styracace*:.
indefinite in each cell, all pendulous, or  the upper ones erect and the lower pendulous, always
anatropal.  Style simple.  Stigma somewhat capitate.   Fruit usually baccate, rarely dry, more
rarely dehiscing, surmounted by the erect lobes of the calyx, oblong or subglobose, all the cells
but one with abortive ovules.   Seeds 5—1, usually solitary, erect, horizontal or often pendulous
albuminous.  Embryo lying  in  the axis of the albumen ; cotyledons flat, never longer than the
radicle.—Trees or shrubs.  Leaves alternate, simple, without stipules. Racemes or solitary flowers
axillary, with bracts (Alp. De Cand.).
   Properties.—Storax and Benjamin, obtained from the genus Styrax, are well-known stimu-
lant balsamic resins.  Symplocos Alstonia is used at Santa-Fe as  tea.   The properties of tbe
other species are but  little known.


      203.  STYRAX OFFICINALE, Linn.-THE OFFICINAL
                                    STORAX.
                             Sex. Syst. Decandria, Monogynia.
          (Planta incerta,  Balsamum liquidum, L.—Balsamic exudation, E.—Resina, D.).

   History.—Storax,  as well as the tree producing it, was known to the ancient
 Greeks and Romans;  by the  former it was called a-tvpa.%, by the latter styrax.  It
is mentioned by Hippocrates,1 Theophrastus2, Dioscorides,3 and Pliny.4
   Botany.   Gen. Char.— Calyx urceolate-campanulate, 5-toothed at the apex or
nearly   entire.  Corolla  monopetalous, 5-partite, rarely and  perhaps by monstro-
sity 4- or 6—7-partite, twice  or thrice the length of the  calyx, with  lanceolate or
oblong lobes, externally whitish  tomentose.   Stamens  10, rarely variable 7—12,
connate to the base of  the corolla, alternate and opposite to its lobes, almost equal;
filaments  connate at  the base in a short tube, distinct at the apex, hairy especially
internally;  anthers erect, linear, continuous with  the filament, 2-celled, dehiscing
inwards by  longitudinal slits.   Ovary adherent at the base, ovoid,  pubescent,
3-celled;  the partitions  incomplete.   Ovules  indefinite.   Style filiform.   Stigma
almost  3-lobed.   Fruit globose or ovoid, adnate to the base of the  persistent calyx,
pubescent, 1-celled, 1-seeded, rarely 2—3-seeded.  Seed in general solitary, marked
by lines caused by the impression of the walls of the pericarp; the hilum round,
inferior and sublateral;  albumen fleshy; cotyledons ovate-rounded, as long as the
radicle  (Alp.  De Cand.).
   Sp.  Char.—Leaves  oval-obovate, on the upper surface smoothish, beneath, hoary
tomentose.   Racemes few-flowered.  Pedicels longer than the abbreviated peduncle,
subternate terminal, and, as well  as the  calyx, hoary (Alp. De Cand.)
   A small tree.  Stem about  20 feet high; bark smooth.   Younger branches hoary.
Leaves alternate, petiolated, usually rounded at the apex, entire.  Racemes axillary
and terminal, shorter than  the leaf, of from 3  to 5 flowers.    Calyx almost hemi-
spherical, with 5 short marginal teeth.   Corolla white, externally hoary, with 6-7
segments.   Fruit (capsule,  Nees) coriaceous, downy, usually with 1 seed.
   Hab.—The Levant, Palestine,  Syria,  Greece.   Cultivated in the southern parts
of Europe.
   Description.—In England, two sorts of  storax are met with in the shops, and
are used in medicine;  these  are liquid  storax, and  what is  usually called styrax
calamita.
   1. Styrax liquida (Liquid Storax).—The following is the  mode of obtaining
this  substance according to  Landerer5 :—
   " The storax plant, Styrax officinalis, is found in  different parts of continental Greece, as well
as in some of the islands of the Archipelago.   It is there only a small shrub, and does not pos-
sess the agreeable odour which botanists ascribe to it.   The bark of the tree growing in Greece
has not  the slightest odour—in consequence, probably, of  the neglect of cultivation.   It is very
different, however, with  the plant growing in the Turkish Islands, Cos and  Rhodes, especi-
ally that  cultivated  by the inhabitants of  Cos.—At Cos and  Rhodes the plant is called
&ovx?v;t.  At the  flowering  season, it fills the air with its delightful vanilla-like perfume. At

   1 De Nat. Mul. pp. 575 and 587. ed. Fees.         a Hist. Plant, lib.  ix. cap. 7.
   3 Lib.  i. cap. lxxix.                           4 Hist. Nat. lib. xii. cap. 40 and 45, ed. Valp.
   * Buchner's Repertorium,  2te Reihe, Bd. xviii. p. 359, 1830; also, Pharm. Central-Blatt fur im, p. »*■ 
Officinal Storax :—Description.                    565
 the season of the collection of the bark and of the young branches which are employed in the
 preparation of Buthuri-Jag—that is, of storax oil (oil being called in Turkish Jag)—a license is
 obtained from the Pasha residing at Rhodes, and for which a small  sum is paid as a tax.  The
 persons  who have thus  been licensed make, with small  knives, longitudinal incisions,  and
 sepnrate the fresh  pieces of bark from the stem in the form of small narrow strips.  These
 easily stick together on account of their glutinous  juice.  In this  way are obtained masses of
 one  oka (about  2  lbs.) each, which are either preserved for  the  preparation of jag, or are
 immediately purchased by Rhodian merchants and  sent to Rhodes.
   " The preparation of Buchurijug is effected, not by boiling, but merely by pressing the above-
 mentioned masses  in presses somewhat warmed, and which are termed styraki.  The jag ob-
 tained  by slight pressure has an unctuous consistence, a light gray colour, and evolves an agreea-
 ble vanilla like odour.  This is the  only kind  which is exported; but they also use it at  Cos
 and  Rhodes for the preparation of an agreeable-smelling mass, and for that purpose add to it
 finely powdered  olibanum, and therewith form cakes of about the size of a small fist, which they
 also  call styrakia.  The preparation of this substance is exclusively effected by monastic clergy,
 who mark their produce with the monastic seal.   By repeated warming and greater pressure,
 an almost black  buchurijug is obtained, and which is used by the natives for the preparation of
 salves  and medicines.  The  pieces of  bark which are left behind  after the expression of the
 juice are tied together and sent in part  to  Constantinople  and in part to Syria, where they are
 used for fumigating.
   1  With respect to the decoction of the bark and  the adulteration of storax with turpentine,
 the Rhodian  merchants, from  whom  these accounts were  obtained, declared that they were
 ignorant of the mode of effecting it, and  that the adulteration with turpentine, if discovered, car-
 ries  with it the penalty of death."

   I have  met with two kinds  of liquid  storax in  the  shops;  one  which is opake
 (common  or opake  liquid styrax), and another which is pellucid or transparent
 (pellucid liquid storax).
   a-  Common or Opake Liquid  Storax ; Impure or Coarse*Liquid Storax, Hill.
 —This is imported from Trieste in casks or barrels holding about 4 cwt. each.   It
 is opake, of a gray colour, has the consistence of birdlime and the odour of storax,
 but frequently intermixed with a feeble odour of benzole or naphthaliue.
   The  substance met with  in  the shops, and sold to perfumers  under  the name
 of strained storax  (styrax colatus),  is prepared from liquid storax by  heating it
 until  the water with which it is usually mixed is evaporated, and then straining it.
 During the  process it evolves  a very fragrant odour.  The  impurities are stones,
 sand,  etc.

   In consequence  of  Petiver's statement1  before alluded to (see ante, p. 313), liquid storax  has
 been supposed to be the produce of a species of Liquidambar, probably  L. Altingia or L. orientale.
 But  several reasons are unfavourable to this opinion: 1st. Its vanilla-like odour allies it to the
 products of Styrax officinale, and  at the same time  separates it from all .authentic products of
 the  genus Lit/uidambar.  Dr. Wood,4 for example, found the genuine juice of L. styraciflua very
 different from that of liquid storax; and the fluid  resin called liquidambar which I have met
 with has no resemblance to it.  2dly.  MarquartS analyzed a  specimen of the genuine resin of
 L. Altingia, and  obtained a volatile oil somewhat like styrol, and a substance similar to styra-
 cin ; but their composition he found to be  entirely different—for while styracin consists of
 C^H^O* the liquidambar resin was composed of C^HaO2. 3dly. Landerer's account of buchuri-
jug applies entirely to the liquid  storax of the shops.
   My friend, Mr. Daniel Hanbury, has recently received a specimen of buchurijag from Landerer.
 When  mixed with  water it hits the opake gray colour of liquid  storax of commerce.  It is de-
 void of the odour of Benzule or Naphthaline, but in other respects agrees with our liquid storax.
   0. Pellucid  Liquid Storax; Storax liquide pur, Guibourt.—This substance was
 sold to me under the name of balsam or balsam storax ;  and I  was informed that
 it had  been  imported in jars, each holding 14 lbs.  It agrees with the pure  or fine
 liquid storax of Hill,* aud the styrax  liquida finissima of Alston.5   Professor Gui-
 bourt,  to whom I sent a sample, at first regarded it as balsam of liquidambar;  but
 its odour has subsequently induced  him to rank it among the products of Styrax
officinale.0   It  is  a  pellucid liquid,  having the  consistence and tenacity of Venice-
turpentine, a brownish-yellow colour, a sweetish storax-like or  vanilla-like odour,

  1 Phil. Trans, vol. xxvi. p. 44.                   J United States Dispensatory
  • Jahresbtricht d. Pharmacie, p. 343, 1842.          * History of the Materia Medica, p. 712, 1751
  ■ Ltcturts on  the Materia Medica, vol. ii. p. 418, 1770.                            IK    '
  ' Hist. Nat. des Drogues, 4ine edit. t. u. p. 553,1810. 
566
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. StyracacejE.
entirely different from that of liquidambar.   A few particles of bran or sawdust are
intermixed with it.   By keeping, it yields a white and acid sublimate on the sides
of the bottle which contains it.
   2.  Styrax calamita;1  Styrax  vulgaris;  Common  Storax.—This probably is
the inferior sort of storax described by both  Dioscorides3 and Pliny3 as being friable
and branny, and which the latter writer states  becomes covered with white mouldi-
ness,  " cano situ obductus."   This is imported in large round cakes, of a brown or
reddish-brown colour  and fragrant  odour.   It is  brittle and friable, being very
easily rubbed into a coarse kind of powder;  yet it is soft and unctuous.   When ex-
posed to the air it becomes covered with an  efflorescence (cinnamic acid ?) which  to
the superficial observer, looks like a whitish kind of mouldiness, and falls to powder.
It appears to consist of some liquid resin mixed with fine sawdust or bran.  Boiled
with  rectified spirit, it yields a reddish solution, which becomes milky on the addi-
tion of water.  The insoluble residue is a reddish sawdust  (of storax wood ?).   It
seems probable, says Lewis,4 " that the common storax is the  juice received imme-
diately in vessels, and mixed with sawdust enough  to  thicken  it; the shops re-
quiring, under  the name of storax, a solid or consistent mass, and evaporation being
found to dissipate its fragrance.  At least, I cannot conceive for what other purpose
the woody matter 'could be added, for it is  too easily distinguishable to have been
intended as an imposition."
   The three following sorts  are more or less allied to the styrax calamita of the shops, inas-
much as the  body of them consists of sawdust.  The term scobs styracina is applicable to all
four sorts.
   a. Solid or Cake Storax f Storax solide ou Storax en pain, Guibourt).—Under this name I have
received from Professor Guibourt a substance very analogous to the preceding; but the sawdust
obtained by digesting it in spirit is not so intensely red.
   8. Drop or Gum Storax.—Under this name I have once met, in English commerce, a storax
which was highly valued.  It was a circular cake, about a foot in diameter, and four or five
inches thick.  It was  blackish, with a greenish  tint; had a pilular consistence, considerable
tenacity, and a very  agreeable odour.  By keeping, it became covered  with a crystalline efflor-
escence (of cinnamic acid ?).  Boiled in rectified spirit, it gave an inky appearance to the liquid,
and left a blackish sawdust.
   y.  Hard blackish Storax.—Under the name of brown storax, I purchased in Paris a solid, heavy,
compact, hard, blackish substance, having the odour of liquid storax.  Boiled in rectified spirit,
it  yielded an almost colourless liquid and a brownish sawdust.  Is this the false storax which
Guibourt5 says is  made at Marseilles'?
   Besides the preceding sorts of storax (the only ones found in English commerce)
there are several other kinds which deserve  a  brief notice.
   8.   Storax in  the Tear (Styrax in granis).—Yellowish-white or reddish-yellow
tears, about  the size of peas.   White storax  (styrax albus) is formed of tears agglu-
tinated  so as  to form  masses somewhat resembling pale  galbanum.   Both sorts,
however, are exceedingly rare,  and are unknown to our drug-dealers.  I have never
met with a single  specimen in English commerce.   White  storax is also scarce in
Paris; for  Professor  Guibourt, to whom I wrote for a sample, says that there was
one fine specimen  at a druggist's in  Paris, but it was not for  sale.  "I discovered
it  (says he)  with great pleasure, having established the distinction of that variety
only  from a scrap  of one or two drachms."
   This probably is  the sort described by Dioscorides as being a transparent tear-
like gum resembling myrrh, and which  was very scarce.
   4.  Amygdaloid Storax (Styrax amygdaloides).—It occurs in compact masses,
having a very agreeable odour, analogous to that of vanilla, and a yellowish or red-
dish-brown colour.  They are  interspersed  with white  tears (giving the mass  an
  > Calamita, from x-aMpoc;  a cane or reed. Galen (De antidotis, lib. i. cap. xiv.) speaks of a mrto
storax brought from Pamphylia in reeds (iv t57c **ki,uut).  Hoffman (Lexicon «w«««W. der'ves -J
term calamita (or, as he writes it, catamites) from the circumstance that the wood of the ■ orax ire
devoured by an insect (Strabo, lib. xii.), and the stem thereby reduced to a hollow shell, liKe a recu

TVlibnrtp.1bSxa,iati0n'                             3 Hist. Nat. lib. xii. cap. Iv. ed. Valp.
  * Chem. Works of C. Neumann, by W. Lewis, p. 290,1759.
  * Hist. Nat. des Drog. 4eme edit. t. ii. p. 554, 1849.  i 
Officinal Storax:—Description.                   567
amygdaloid appearance).   This variety is very scarce.   I had a fine sample, weigh-
ing  nearly two ounces and a quarter;  it cost me, in Paris, 24 francs  per ounce.
There is (or was a few years since) a magnificent piece in the possession of a French
pharmacien, who offered to sell it for 500 francs.  Amygdaloid and white storax
were formerly imported enveloped in a monocotyledonous leaf, under the name of
cane or reed storax (storax calamita verus).  A fine specimen (about the size and
shape of half an orange) is in Dr. Burgess's collection, belonging to the Royal Col-
lege of Physicians of London.
   Amygdaloid storax is described by Dioscorides as being  the best sort.   He says
it is unctuous, yellow, resinous, mixed with whitish lumps, and forms a honey-like
liquid when melted; it comes, he adds, from Gabala [a Phoenician city], Pisidia,
and  Cilicia [countries of Asia Minor].
   5. Reddish brown Storax (Storax rouge-brun, Guibourt).—This  differs  from
the preceding in the absence of the white tears, and in the  presence of sawdust.
It is reddish-brown, and has a similar but  less powerful odour to that of the amyg-
daloid kind.   It is not found in the London drug-houses.
   The Pharmaceutical  Society has a large  cake of storax which is somewhat inter-
mediate between this and the amygdaloid sort.   Professor Guibourt, who examined
it, considered it to be falsified brown storax.   Micaceous films or crystalline plates
are formed on its surface.
   6.  Black Storax.—Under the name of Storax noir, I have received from Pro-
fessor (Juibourt a very dark reddish-brown  mass, which easily softens, and has the
odour of vanilla.   " It appears to  be formed of a balsam, which has been melted
and  inspissated by heat with sawdust.   Its very characteristic odour leads me  to
consider it," says M. Guibourt,1 " as different from storax calamita, storax liquida,
and  liquidambar."   It is not found in the London drug-houses.
  Storax Bark is  supposed to constitute the cortex thymiamatis vel  thuris of some pharmacolo-
gists.  It  is probably the vaa-Ka^flou of Dioscorides.2  It is in  thin, light, red, highly odorous
fragments or shavings, frequently covered with an efflorescence. I am indebted ibr a sample
of it to Professor Guibourt.
   Commerce.—I find, on  the examination of the books of a wholesale druggist,
that all the storax (solid and liquid) imported into this country during seven years
came from Trieste.
   Composition.-—Neumann3 submitted common storax (styrax calamita, offic.) to
a cheniical  examination.   More  recently,  Reinsch* analyzed three kinds of styrax
calamita.   In  1830, Bonastre5 analyzed a storax from JBogota.   The same chemist8
examined a fluid, which he termed liquid storax, but which was liquidambar (see
ante, p. yi3).                                                              ^
   Liquid storax has been analyzed by Simon ?  and some  of its constituents  have
been examined by Drs. Blyth and Hoffman,8 by Toel,9 by Strecker,10and by Sonar-
ling."
   1.  Composition of Styrax calamita.—The following are the results of Reinsch's
analyses of this substance.
 1 Letter to the Author.                       a x,,ib j  oap 33
 I (2tm. ^"rtl by J;ewl •' P 22°'               *  Phnrm- Central-Blattfilr 1838. S. 537 and 810.
  Journ d. Pharm. t. xv.  p. >*.                «  Journ. de Pharm. t. xvii. p. 338.
  Ann  der Pharmacie, Bd. xxxi. 1S39; Journ. de Pharmacie, t xxvi p 241 1840
» fiTlVi ^!Anr9*4m.r.a S°Cl'"y' V°L iL p- 33t' 1845"   ' Chemic ■<■■"<?««"«. vol. vii. p. 249,1849.
"» Ibid. vol. vh. p. 872, lt!9.                        11 Jtt(i. voj. vii p 419) lfc49  ** 
568
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Styracace^e.
Reinschs Analyses of Styrax calaxita.
Volatile oil........
Resin..........
Subresin.........
Benzoic acid.......
Gum and extractive   .  .  .
Matter extracted by potash
Woody fibre.......
Ammonia........
Water..........

        Storax calamita.  .
 Storax calamita
Opt. 1785.  Xustler.
Brown granular.
1	0.5	o.-l
41.6	53.7	32.7
q	06	0.5
2.4-	1.1	2.6
14.0	9.3	7.9
15.0	9.6	23.9
22.0	20.2	27 0
traces	stronger traces	strongest traces
5.0	5.0	5.0
100.0
100.0
Reddish compact
100.0
  The volatile oil was obtained by digesting the distilled water of storax with ether.   The solid
oil was white, crystalline, and fusible;  its odour was agreeable, its taste aromatic and  warm.
The fluid oil had not so penetrating an odour.
   2.   Composition of Liquid Storax.—Simon found liquid  storax to consist of a
volatile oil (called styrole), cinnamic acid, styracine, a soft resin,  and a hard  resin.
   1. Volatile Oil of Liq.uid  Storax;  Styrole.   Formula  C16H"—Obtained hy submitting
liquid storax to distillation with an aqueous solution of carbonate of soda.  It is a eolourles.i,
extremely volatile, transparent liquid, which has a burning taste and a peculiar aromatic odour,
resembling a mixture of benzole and naphthaline.   Exposed to the cold produced by a mixture of
ether and carbonic acid, it freezes into a beautiful  white crystalline mass.  Its sp. gr. is 0.024
at the ordinary temperature of summer.  It is soluble in alcohol and ether, burns with a sooty
flame,  boils at about 295° F, and at a somewhat  higher temperature is converted into  a firm
transparent solid called metastyrole (Simon's oxide of styrole), which is  isomeric with, and has
the same refractive power as styrole.
   2. Cinnamic Acid; Cinnamylic Add.  Formula Cl8H703-f-HO. Eq. 148.  Symbol Ci,orCiO.
—This acid is a constituent of the balsams of Tolu and Peru, and of the yellow resin of Xantlior-
rhcea (see ante, p. 215), as well  as of  liquid storax.   It is also formed by  the oxidation of the
hydruret of cinnamyle or oil of cinnamon (see  ante, p. 391).  It is a colourless  crystalline
acid, having a feebly aromatic acrid taste, and being sparingly soluble in cold water, but  readily
soluble in alcohol.  It is deposited from its  aqueous solution in water in the form  of pearly
plates, but  from alcohol in rhombic prisms.   It fuses at about 250°, and boils at 560° F. It has
some resemblance to benzoic acid, for  which it was formerly mistaken;  but it may be distin-
guished by boiling it with a solution of chromic acid, when it gives rise to  the production of oil
of bitter almonds, of which benzoic acid does not yield a trace.  Taken at bedtime in doses of
from SO to  90 grains, Erdmann and Marchand1 found that, like benzoic acid (see vol. i. p. 212),
it becomes  converted in the human body into hippuric acid, which passes in the urine.
   3. Styracine.—This is found in the still after the distillation of styrole from  liquid storax.
It is a  crystallizable substance soluble in boiling alcohol and in  ether, but insoluble in  water. Its
formula, according io Simon, is C^rP'O2. But Toel, who regards it as a combination of cinnamic
acid having a perfectly analogous constitution to the natural fats, says its composition is best ex-
pressed by the formula C^A^O6.  By distillation with caustic  potash it yields a crystallizable
substance called styrone, whose composition is, according to  Toel,  C^H^O5.  Strecker regards
styracine as a compound of cinnamic acid C18H804, and of styrone, C18H10O2, but minus 2H0.
   4. Resins of Liciuid Storax.—These are two in number; one soft, the other hard.
   Physiological Effects.—Storax produces the  before-described effects  of the
balsamic substances (see vol. i. p. 255).  Its stimulant properties are more particu-
larly directed to the mucous surfaces, especially to the bronchial membrane.  Hence
it is called a  stimulating expectorant.    In its operation it is closely allied  to balsam
of Peru and benzoin, but is less powerful than the latter.   As it  contains cinnamic
acid, its use increases the quantity of  hippuric acid in the urine.
   Uses.—Internally, storax has  been principally employed in affections  of the or-
gans of respiration.   In chronic bronchial affections, admitting of the use of stimu-
lants, it may be  used  as  an  expectorant.   It  has also been employed in chronic
1 Chemical Gazette, vol. i. p. 29, 1842. 
                 The Benjamin Tree:—History;  Botany.              569

catarrhal affections of the urino-genital membrane.   Applied  to foul ulcers in the
form of ointment, it sometimes operates as a detergent, and improves the  quality of
the secreted matter.
  Administration.—Purified storax may be exhibited in the form of pills, in
doses of from grs. x to 9j,
  1. STYRAX PRiEPARTA, L.; Extractum Styracis, E.—(Dissolve 1 lb. of Storax in 4
pints of rectified spirit,  and  strain ;  then let the  greater part distil with a gentle
heat, and evaporate the residue in a water-bath until it becomes of a proper consist-
ence, L.—The directions of the Edinburgh  College are essentially the same, except
that the evaporation is ordered to be carried on by the vapour-bath, until the product
have the consistence of a thin extract.)—This process is intended  for the purifica-
tion of styrax vulgaris  (styrax calamita, offic.);  but Mr. Brande says it is ineffi-
cient.   The strained storax of the shops (styrax colatus) is usually produced from
liquid  storax (see ante, p. 565).  It is used in perfumery, and in the preparation of
tinctura benzoini composita, and the pilulse styracis compositse.
   2. PILULE STYRACIS COMPOSITE, L.;  Pilulse Styracis, E.;  Pilk of  Storax.—
(Strained Storax [Extract of Storax, E.~\ 3vj ; Opium ("powdered,  Z/.] 30 > Saffron
3ij.  Beat them together until incorporated  [and divide  the mass into 60  pills,
E.].)—These pills are  useful in chronic coughs, and  some other pulmonary affec-
tions.   They are valuable also in another point of view; they sometimes enable us
to exhibit opium to persons  prejudiced against its use;  the saffron and storax con-
cealing the  smell and flavour of this  narcotic, while the name of the pill cannot dis-
cover the harmless deception.   The  dose is  from  grs. v to grs. x.

   204. STYRAX BENZOIN, Dryand— THE BENJAMIN TREE.
                              Benzoin officinale, Hayne.
                           Sex. Syst. Decandria, Monogynia.
  (Balsamum  ex inciso eortice luxum, dere induratum; Acidum e Benzoino sublimatione comparatum,
             crystalli, L.—Concrete balsamic exudation, E.—The concrete exudation, D.)

    History.—As  the  ancients were acquainted with so many oriental vegetable
 products, we should have expected,  d priori, that benzoin would have been known
 to them.   But this does not appear to have been the case; at least, we are unable
 to identify it with any of the substances described by the old writers.1
    Botany.   Gen. Char.—Vide Styrax officinale.
    Sp. Char.—Branchlets  whitish-rusty-tomentose.   Leaves oblong,  acuminate,
 whitish tomentose beneath.   Kacemes compound, axillary, nearly the length of the
 leaves, and as well  as  the flowers horny-tomentose.   Pedicels one-third  as long as
 the flower.   Calyx hemispherical sub-5-dentate (Alph. De Cand.).
    Tree.  Stem thickness of a man's body.   Leaves oval-oblong, entire.  Calyx
 campanulate, very obscurely five-toothed.   Corolla  gray, of 5 petals, perhaps con-
 nate at the base.   Stamens 10.   Ovary  superior, ovate;  style  filiform;  stigma
 simple.   (Condensed from Dryander).3
    Hab.—Sumatra, Borneo, Siam, Java.
    Extraction  op the Balsam.—Benzoin is obtained in Sumatra  as follows:
 When the tree  is six  years old, longitudinal or somewhat oblique incisions are
 made  in the bark of the stem, at the origin of the principal lower branches.   A
 liquid exudes, /which, by exposure to the sun and air, soon concretes, and the solid
 mass is then separated  by means of  a knife or chisel.  Each tree yields about three
 pounds of benzoin annually, for the space of ten or twelve years.   That which ex-
 i* les during the first three  years is white, and is denominated head benzoin.  The
 benzoin which subsequently  flows  is of a brownish colour,  and  is  termed  belly
 benzoin.  After the tree is cut down the stem is split, and  some  benzoin scraped
' Sec Uarcias, Arom. Hist, in Clusius, Exot. p. 155.
3 Phil. Trans, vol. lxxvii. p. 308. 
570
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Styracace^e.
from the wood; but its colour is dark, and its quality bad, owing to the intermix.
ture of parings of wood and other impurities: this sort is called foot benzoin.  The
relative values of head, belly, and foot benzoin, are  as  105, 45, IS.   Benzoin is
brought  down from the country in  large cakes (called  by the natives tampanas)
covered with mats.  In order to pack it in chests, these cakes are softened hy heat •
the finer by exposure  to the sun, the coarser by means of boiling water.1
   Description.—The several  sorts of benzoin (benzoinum; asa dulcis) met witu
in commerce may be conveniently arranged under two heads,  viz.  Siam benzoin and
Sumatra benzoin.
   1.  Siam Benzoin (Benzoinum Siamense).—Crawford9 says that  the benzoin ot
Siam is procured from Lao.   He  also states that  a substance resembling, and
hitherto confounded with, benzoin, produced  in Lao, Raheng, Chiang-mai, and La
Kon, is abundantly found in Siam.  The tree producing it cannot be, he thinks, the
Styrax Benzoin, as it  grows as far north as the twentieth degree of latitude.
   Siam Benzoin is brought to England, either direct from Siam, or indirectly by
way of Singapore.  It includes the  best commercial sorts, or those known in  com-
merce as benzoin of  the finest qualify.   It occurs in tears, in irregular lumps, and
in cubical blocks; but unlike the Sumatra sort  it never comes over enveloped  in
calico.  It  is in general distinguished from  the other  sorts by its warmer or richer
(yellow, reddish, or brown) tints.  The dealers distinguish five or six qualities, the
three best sorts being  included under  the name of yellow Siam benzoin, and the
two or three inferior kinds being called red or brown Siam benzoin; the designa-
tions yellow, red, or  brown, being  used on  account of the tint of this resin by
which the  tears are  agglutinated.   But the division is  altogether  arbitrary, the
colours passing universally  into one another.  I  shall,  therefore,  adopt another   /
arrangement.                                                                   ■
   a.  Siam benzoin  in  tears (Benzoinum Siamense in lacrymis);  Yellow benzoin   I
in the tear.—This kind  seems to be identical with  the true benzoin in tears, which   |
Savary3 says was  brought in considerable quantity to Paris, by the  attendants of
the Siamese ambassadors.  It consists of irregular flattened  pieces, some of which   \
are angular, and the largest of them barely exceeding an inch in length.  Exter-   I
nally, these pieces are shiny, or dusty from their mutual friction, and are of an amber   i
or reddish-yellow colour; they are brittle, and may be  easily rubbed to powder.   In-
ternally, they are translucent or milky, and frequently striped ; they have a pleasant
odour, but  little or no taste.   There is an inferior sort of Siam benzoin in tears,   j
which consists of  loose drops mixed  with pieces of  wood and other impurities.  It   j
is worth only one-fourth of the price of clean good-sized tears or clean lump.
   )3.  Siam  or  lump  benzoin (Benzoinum Siamense  in  massis).—The finest kin'l
consists of agglutinated tears (white  or yellow lump benzoin). More commonly, we   |
find the tears are connected together  by a  brown resiniform mass, which, when   I
broken, presents an amygdaloid appearance, from the white tears imbedded in the   I
mass  (amygdaloid benzoin ;  benzoinum amygdaloides).
   Inferior sorts of lump benzoin are reddish Q^d lump benzoin).
   y.  Translucent Benzoin.—From my friend, Dr. Royle, I have received a sample
of Siam benzoin, whose properties are somewhat different from the preceding.  The   |
small masses consist of agglomerated tears, which, instead of being white and opake,
are translucent, or, in  a few instances, almost transparent.
   2.  Sumatra Benzoin.  (Benzoinum ex Sumatra).  Though placed here second,
this sort is the more important, being in many countries  the  only kind known,  it
is rarely imported directly from Sumatra, but in general  indirectly by way of • m-
gapore or Bombay, and now and then from Calcutta.  Hence, it is sometimes called
Calcutta benzoin,  though this port is out of  the usual course.

  1 Marsden, History of Sumatra, 3d edit. p. 134; Crawford, Hist, of the Ind. Archipel. vol. i. p. 518; and
vol. iii. p. 418.
  2 Journal of an Embassy  to Siam and Cochin-China, p. 407, 1828.
  * Alston, Lett, on the Mat. Med. vol. ii. p. 403. 
The Benjamin Tree :—Commerce; Composition.           571
  It occurs in large rectangular blocks, marked with the impression of a mat, and
covered with white  cotton cloth.   When  broken, we observe  but few large white
tears in it.  The mass is principally made up of a brown resiniform  matter, with
numerous, white, small pieces or chips intermixed, which thereby give the broken
surface a speckled appearance, somewhat like that of a  fine-grained granite.
  The  qualities of Sumatra benzoin are distinguished as first, seconds, and thirds.
  a. The first  Sumatra sort occurs very  seldom,  and only by single chests, for
which  £50 or more the cwt. are paid for the Russian market.
  £. The second Sumatra sort is also marbly, but not so white;  and is also mostly
taken for the Russian market at £20 to £30 the cwt.   Thirty chests of this sort
perhaps are seen before one of the first quality is met with.
  y. The third Sumatra sort is browner, and less, or not at all marbly.   It fetches
from £9 to £15 per cu-t. and forms the usual commercial quality  (common or brown
benzoin ;  benzoinum commune vel in sortis).   Five times as much of this quality is
met with as of all the other sorts put together.
  There is  a very inferior sort of benzoin  (inferior Bombay benzoin), which inva-
riably comes by  way of Bombay.  If it be the produce of Sumatra, it is remarkable
that it  never comes by way of Singapore.
  Commerce.—Benzoin is sometimes imported into England direct from Siam and
Sumatra;  but  usually  indirectly  from Singapore,  Bombay,  Penang,  Calcutta,
Madras, Batavia, &c.   The greater part is  re-exported for use  in the ceremonies of
the  (ireek and Catholic churches.   In 1839, only 108  cwts. paid duty.
  Composition.—Benzoin has been the repeated subject of chemical  analysis.  It
was analyzed in 1811 by Bucholz,1  in 1816 by John,2 in 1823 by Stoltze,3 and in
1845 by  Kopp.1  It has also been the subject of chemical examination by Brande,5
Unverdorben,0 and others.
	Bucholz.	John.	Stoltze.		
			White.	Amygdaloid.	Brown.
	12.5 83.3 1.7 0.5 2.0	12.0 84.5 0.50 2.00 0.25 0.75	traces. 19.80 ( 79.83 ( 0.25 0.12	traces. 19.42 27.10 50.53 0.25 2.60 0.10	traces. 19.70 8.80 69.73 0.15 1.45 0.17
Rosin \ yellow, soluble in ether ) \ brown, insoluble in ether $					
VVtxKly matter and other impurities .					
Salts (benzoates and phosphates) . . Benzoin......					
	100.0	100.00	100.00	100.00	100.00
  Kopp followed Unverdorben's method of analysis, and obtained in two different
specimens the following results :—

               •    -a                                L             "•
          Benzoic ucid..............  ........14,0  ....     14 5
          Resin (at) soluble in ether................52.0........48.0
          Resin (&) soluble in alcohol only...........25.0.......28.0
          Resin (5.) soluble in a solution of carbonate of soda .   3.0.......   3.5
          Brown resin deposited by ether.............   0.8  .......   0.5
          Impurities.........................   5.2  .......   5.5

                                                   100.0           100.0

  Wackenroder7 obtained  9  per cent, of benzoic acid  from Siam benzoin.

 1 TronimsdorlTs Journ. de Pharm. Bd. xx. quoted by Stoltze
 J Saturgesch. d. Succins, Coin. 1610. quoted by Stoltze.
  Dtutsches (Berlin) Jahrbueh  far de Pharmacie, Bd. x. pp 5.) and 77  IP^
  lourn. de Pharm. 3me tor. t.  vii. p. 40, 1845.         » Nicholson's Journal, x. 82.
  i oggendorlPi Annalen, xvii. 170.                 i Pharm. Central-Blatt fur 1>43, p . 336. 
572              VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Styracace*:.

  1. Volatile Oil of Benzoin.—Distilled with water, benzoin does not yield any essential
oil; but when exposed to he.at without water, benzoic acid and an essential oil are volatilized
This oil  may be deprived of its  empyreuma by redistillation with water,  and then smells
agreeably of benzoin.  It may be  regarded as a product of the decomposition of  the resin
An oil of benzoin obtained by distillation, without any liquid, is used at Sumatra  as a per-
fume.1
  2. Resins of Benzoin.—By digesting benzoin in alcohol, a tincture is obtained, which on the
addition of water, forms a milky fluid (formerly absurdly called virgin's milk).  The  re*m thus
precipitated was formerly called the magisterium benzoes.  The acids (acetic, hydrochloric  and
sulphuric) also occasion a precipitate in the alcoholic solution.  Sulphuric acid yields a fine red
colour with the resin of benzoin ; chloride of iron a green.
  a resin.; Alpha-resin of  benzoin.— Composed of the resins 8 and  y.   C40H23O94-C30H*O';
=C70H43614 (Van  der Vliet2 and Mulder3).—Soluble  in  ether, but insoluble  in carbonate of
potash.
  B  resin; Beta-resin of benzoin.  C40H23O9.—Soluble in alchol, but insoluble  in ether and in
carbonate of potash.
  y resin; Gamma resin of benzoin.   C3°H20O5.—Soluble in carbonate of potash, and slightly so
in ether.
  3. Benzoic Acid.—See p.  573.
   We may assume, observe Pelouze and Fremy,4 that benzoin, at the instant of its
secretion, contains two different liquids :  one, which produces the resin; the other,
which, by  becoming oxidized,  is transformed  into  benzoic acid.
   Physiological Effects.—Benzoin produces the general effects of  the balsams
before mentioned (see vol.  i. p.  255).  Its power of producing local irritation renders
it apt  to disorder the  stomach, especially in very susceptible individuals.  Its con-
stitutional effects are those of a heating and stimulating substance, whose influence
is principally  directed to   the  mucous surfaces, especially of the air-tube.  It is
more acrid and stimulant, and  less  tonic, than myrrh, to which some  pharmacolo-
gists have compared it.  It has appeared  in some instances  to act as  a stimulant to
the sexual organs.  As it  contains benzoic acid it  must increase  the  proportion of
hippuric acid in the urine  (see  vol. i. p. 212; and also p. 574).
   Uses.—As an internal remedy  the employment of benzoin is almost wholly con-
fined to  chronic pulmonary affections, especially those of  the bronchial membrane.
Its stimulant properties render it improper in all acute inflammatory complaints, and
its acridity prevents its employment where there is much gastric irritation.  Its use,'
therefore, is better adapted for  torpid  constitutions.   Trousseau and  Pidoux5 speak
most favourably of the effects of the balsams  in chronic laryngitis, as I have before
noticed (see vol. i. p. 2b"5).   The mode of employing benzoin in  balsamic fumiga-
tions in this disease  has been already noticed (see vol. i. p.  255).
   Administration.—Benzoin is scarcely ever administered alone.—The dose of
it in powder  is from grs. x to 3ss.—On  account of the agreeable odour evolved
when benzoin  is heated, this balsam  is frequently employed for fumigations, as in
the ceremonies of the  G-reek and Roman  Catholic churches.
   1. TINCTURA  BENZOINI  COMPOSITA, L.  E.  [U. S.]; Balsamum Traumatism;
Compound Tincture of Benjamin;   Wound  Balsam; Balsam for Cuts;  Friars
Balsam ; Jesuit's drops; The Commander's Balsam.—(Benzoin, in coarse powder,
giijss  [|iv,  E.~\;  [Storax,  prepared,  ^ijss,  L.~\; Balsam  of Tolu 3x [Peru-bal-
sam ^ijss,  E.~];  Socotrine or  Hepatic Aloes  3V  [East Indian  Aloes 3ss,  E.])
Rectified Spirit Oij.-   Macerate for  seven days [pour off the  clear liquor, E.], and
strain.  [The U. SfPharm. directs, Benzoin giij; Purified Storax Jij; Balsam of Tolu
§j;  Aloes, in  powder, gss;  Alcohol Oij.   Macerate  for fourteen  days, and filter.]
—A stimulating expectorant; administered in chronic catarrhs.)—Dose, f3ss ^>K>X)-
It is decomposed by water.  A very pleasant mode of exhibiting it  is in the form
of emulsion, prepared with mucilage and  sugar, or yelk of egg.  Tincture  h'-n-
zoini composita is occasionally applied to foul and indolent ulcers, to excite the vas-

  1 Marsden, Sumatra, p. 184.
  1 Journ. f. pr. Chem. xviii.; Pharm.  Central-Blatt f-dr 1839, p. 875.
  * Tlie Chemistry of Vegetable and Animal Physiology, p. 819, 1649.                       ...
  * Cours de Chimie Gtnirale, t. iii. p. 556, 1850.                   * Traiti de Thirap. u. p- *><■ 
            Benjamin Tree:—Tincture; Fumigating Pastiles.         573

cular action and to improve  the quality of the secreted matter.  It  is a frequent
a iplication to recent incised wounds.   If applied to cut  surfaces it  causes tempo-
vary pain, and cannot promote adhesion (or union by the first intention), though by
exciting too much inflammation it may sometimes prevent it.  But when the edges
of the wound  have been brought together, the tincture may be carefully applied to
the lint or adhesive plaster  as  a varnish or cement.   Here  it  acts  mechanically,
excluding  air,  and  keeping the parts  in their proper  position.   In the  same
way, it may sometimes prove serviceable in contused wounds.   Court or Black
Sticking Plaster  (Emplastrum adhsesivum Anglicum, Ph. Bor.)  is prepared by
brushing  first a solution of isinglass, and afterwards  a spirituous  solution of  ben-
zoin, over black sarcenet.
   1. PASTILLI  FDIANTES, Fumigating or Aromatic Pastiles.—(Benzoin, in powder,
sixteen parts; Balsam  of Tolu; Sandal-wood, in powder,  of each four parts ;  True
Labdanum, one part; a light [linden] charcoal, forty-eight parts; Nitrate of Potash,
two parts; tragacanth,  one'part; Gum Arabic, two parts; Cinnamon  Water, twelve
parts.   V. S. A.  a soft and  ductile mass, which  is to be formed  into cones, with a
flat tripod  base.   Dry at first in  the  air, afterwards by a stove.)1—By burning,
these pastiles diffuse  a very agreeable odour.  They are  employed to disguise or
over power unpleasant smells (see vol. i. p. 205).
   The Species ad sujficndum, Ph.  Bor., consists of benzoin  and  amber, of each
ibss, and lavender flowers, Jij.
   S. ACIDUM BENZOICUM,  L.  E. D. [U. S.]; Benzoic Acid; Floxcers of Benjamin
(Flares Benzoini).  Symbol Bz or BzO.   Formula C"H503.   Equivalent  113.—
The crystallized acid contains 1 equivalent of water;  Bz,HO=122.
   This acid was described in 1608  by Blaise de Vigenere; but it seems  to have
been known to Alexander Pedemontanus in 1560.   It is formed by the oxidize-
ment of the volatile oil of  bitter  almonds (hydruret of benzule);  C14H60;3+02=
C"H503,II0.   Chloride of  benzule  by the action of potash is converted into the
benzoateof potash;  CnIW,Cl+2KO=KO,C14H5Os-f-KCl.  Hippuric acid under
the influence of acids is  converted into benzoic  acid and gelatin sugar :  C^H^O8
 +2H0=C14HO3,lI0+C4H5N04.
   But the usual  method of obtaining benzoic acid  for medicinal use is from ben-
zoin, by either sublimation  or the action of alkalies—commonly  by sublimation.
Mohr's process2 is that adopted in the Dublin Pharmacopoeia (1850).
   "Take of Benzoin any  convenient quantity; place it in a small cylindric pot of sheet-iron
furnished with a flange at its mouth; and, having fitted the pot into a circular hole in a sheet
of pastelxiard, interpose between the pasteboard and flange a collar of tow, so as to produce a
nearly  air tight  junction.   Let a cylinder of stiff paper, open at one end, eighteen inches  high,
anil bavins? a diameter at  least  twice that of the pot, be now placed in an inverted position on
the pasteboard, and  secured  to  it by slips of paper and flour paste; a couple of inches of the
lower part of the pot being  passed through a hole in  a plate of sheet tin, which is to be kept
from contact with the pasteboard by the interposition of a few corks, let a heat just sufficient
to melt the benzoin (that of a gas-lamp answers well) be applied, and  continued for at  least
six hours.   Let the product thus obtained, if not quite  white, be enveloped  in bibulous paper,
then subjected to powerful pressure, and again sublimed."
   Benzoic acid, on the large  scale, is  usually prepared  by heating  benzoin in a
shallow iron pot,  communicating with a box (or house, as  it is frequently termed),
mado of pasteboard and laths,  or of thin wood, and lined  with loose sheets of blot-
ting paper.  A piece  of fine  muslin or  paper  is interposed between the mouth
of the subliming  pot and  the box, to prevent the sublimate falling  back  into the
pot.  The vapours of the acid traverse  the muslin or pores of the paper, and con-
dense in the box."
   As met with in the shops, benzoic acid occurs in the form of soft,  light, feathery

  1 Henry and Guibourt. Pharm. Raiion. t. i. p. 402.
  ' Mnhr and Redwood's Practical Pharmacy, p. 194, 1849.
  • For lome practical remarks on the preparation of this acid, Bee Euler and Herberger, in Pharmaeeut-
i. tits Central-Blatt fUr 1810, p. 106. 
574              VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Styracaceje.

whitd crystals, or scales, which are flexible, transparent, and of a  mother-of-pearl
lustre, having a sour, warm  taste, but no odour when pure.  It readily fuses and
volatilizes, its vapour being exceedingly irritating to the air-passages.  It is com-
bustible, burning with  a bright  yellow flame.  It  is  very soluble in about two
hundred parts of cold water, dissolves in about twenty-five parts of boiling water
and is very soluble  in alcohol.
   Benzoic acid  is readily distinguished from  other acids  by its light and feathery
crystals, its fusibility, volatility, odour of its vapour, by its great solubility in alka-
lies, by its property of  being  precipitated by  acids from its alkaline solutions, and
by the character of its soluble salts.  Thus, the benzoate of ammonia produces, with
the sesquisalts  of iron, a pale-red precipitate (Fe203,3Bz), and  with the nitrate of
silver and acetate of lead, precipitates (MO,Bz).   From cinnamic acid (with which
it has  been  confounded) it  is distinguished by not yielding oil of bitter almonds
when distilled with  oxidizing agents,  as chromic acid or a mixture of bichromate of
potash and sulphuric acid (see ante, p.  568).
   Good benzoic acid has the following properties :  It is white or almost white.  When cau-
tiously heated it totally evaporates with a peculiar odour.  It is sparingly soluble in water, but
plentifully in rectified spirit.  It is entirely dissolved by solutions of ammonia, potash, or soda,
and in lime-water, and is precipitated from its solution by hydrochloric acid.—Ph. Lond. Colour-
less; sublimed entirely by heat.—Ph. Ed.
   The local action  of benzoic acid is that of an acrid.   When swallowed it occasions
a sensation of heat and acridity in the  back part of the mouth and throat, and heat
at the stomach.  The inhalation of its  vapour  causes violent coughing.
   On the general system it acts as a  stimulant, whose influence is, however, princi-
pally directed to the mucous surfaces, especially the aerian membrane.  In its pas-
sage through the system it abstracts the elements of glycocoll or gelatin sugar, and
becomes converted  into hippuric  acid, which  is thrown out of the system in the
urine in combination with a base.

               C14H*0»,HO   +   C4H5N04  =    C'sHoNO6  +   2HO

               Benzoic acid.       Glycocoll.      Hippuric acid.    Water.

   Mr. Alexander Ure1 first pointed out the fact, that the quantity of hippuric acid
in the urine is increased  by the use of benzoic  acid.3  If, an  hour after a meal, a
scruple  or  half a drachm of  benzoic  acid be taken into the stomach, the urine sub-
sequently voided, within three or four hours, will be found, on adding a small quan-
tity (about one-twelfth part)  of muriatic acid,  to yield a copious precipitate  of rose-
pink acicular crystals of hippuric acid, which weigh, after being allowed to settle for
a day, from fifteen  to twenty-nine grains.  Mr. Ure's  observations were confirmed
by the experiments of Dr. Garrod3 and Keller.4   It  was also found  by Keller, that
the urine which yielded hippuric acid contained the  normal proportion of both uric
acid and urea.
   TjSES—Benzoic acid is  a  constituent  of the  Tinctura  Camphorse Composita
[Tr. Opii  Camphorata,  U. S.]; but otherwise is  but  little employed in medicine.
It is sometimes administered in chronic bronchial affections.  I have repeatedly tried
it but have seldom  seen benefit result from  its  use.   I have more frequently seen
it augment than relieve the cough.   On account of the alteration which it effects in
the quality of the urine, benzoic acid has been administered with the view of pro-
moting the excretion of nitrogenous matter, the retention of which  is the supposed
cause of disease.  Thus,  Mr. Ure employed it in the gouty diathesis to prevent the
formation of the tophaceous  concretions commonly called chalk stones, and to cor-

  1 Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, vol. xxiv. p. 30,1841; and Pharmaceutical Transactions, vol. l.p.
  ' In 1831, Wcihler expressed his opinion that, by digestion, benzoic acid was probably converted in
hippuric acid (Keller, infra cit.).
  3 Memoirs of the Chemical Society, vol. l. p. 19, 1842.
  4 Keller, Ann. der Chim. u. Pharm. Bd. xliii. p. 108, 1842. 
Nat. Ord. Sapotace^e.—The Gutta Percha Tree.           575
rect and remove certain disordered states of the urine in individuals prone to attacks
of  gravel.   But  if  Keller's  observations (before stated)  be correct, benzoic acid
does not affect the quantity of uric acid  in the urine.  Farther experiments with it
on a larger scale are  desirable  in order to determine positively whether it has or has
not any influence  over the excretion  of  uric  acid or urea.—Dose, grs. v to 3j.   tt
may be given in the  form of a benzoate (which  has a similar action on the  urine to
that of the free acid).   For this purpose it may be dissolved in water by  the aid of
a few drops of a solution of either ammonia or potash.
                  Order  L.  SAPOTACE^E, Encipher.

  Characters.— Calyx regular, persistent, in 5-or occasionally in 4—8 divisions, which are either
valvate or imbricate in aestivation.   Corolla monopetalous, hypogynous, regular, deciduous, its
segments usually equal in number to those of the calyx, seldom twice or thrice as many, imbri-
cate in aestivation.   Stamens arising from the corolla,in number definite,distinct, the  fertileones
equal in number to the segments of the calyx, and opposite those segments of the corolla which
alternate with the latter, seldom more;  anthers usually turned  outwards.  The sterile stamens
as numerous as the fertile ones, with which they alternate. Disk 0.  Ovary superior,  with seve-
ral cells, in each of  which is 1 ascending or pendulous anatropal ovule; style 1 ; stigma undi-
vided, occasionally lobed.  Fruit fleshy, with several 1-seeded cells,  or by abortion only 1;
Seeds nut-like, sometimes cohering into  a several-celled putamen; testa bony, shining,  with a
very long scar on the inner face, where it is opake arid softer than the rest;  embryo erect, large
white, usually inclosed in  fleshy albumen; Cotyledons, when  albumen  is present,  foliaceous;
when absent, fleshy and sometimes connate; radicle short, straight, or a  little  curved, turned to-
wards the hilum.—Trees or shrubs, chiefly natives of the tropics, and often abounding in milky
juice.  leaves alternate, or occasionally almost whorled, without stipules, entire,  coriaceous.
Inflorescence axillary.   Flowers hermaphrodite (Lindley).
  Properties.—The  fruit of many is esteemed as an article of dessert.  The seeds of several
yield a fatty oil.  The bark of some species is bitter and astringent, and  is used as a febrifuge.


       205. Isonandra Gutta, Hooker.—The  Gutta Percha Tree.

                                        (Succus.)

  Isonandra  Gutta, Hooker, Lond. Journ. of Botany, 1848; and  Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. vii.
p. 179, 1848.—A  tall  tree, a native of  the Malayan Archipelago, especially of Singapore.   Its
milky juice becomes concrete by exposure to the air, and forms  the substance called guttapercha.
"A magnificent tree of 50, or more probably 100  years growth, is cut down,  the bark stripped
ofl", and the milky juire collected and poured  into a trough formed by  the hollow stem of  the
plantain leaf; it quickly coagulates on exposure to the air; but from one  tree I  was told that
not more  than 20 lbs. or 30  lbs. are procured," (Montgomerie.)1  It is extensively imported in
blocks, and is purified by "devilling" or kneading in hot  water.  As imported, it is a white or
dirty pinkish opake solid.  Its density is 0.79.   Water, alcohol, alkaline solutions, muriatic and
acetic acids, have  no action on it.   Oil of vitriol slowly chars it;  nitric acid  converts it into a
yellow resin.  Ether and coal naphtha soften it in the cold, and by the aid of heat effect an  im-
perfect solution of it.  Its best solvent is oil of turpentine.  Its most  important quality, and
which renders it so useful in the arts, is the facility with which it softens and becomes plastic in
hot water.  In this  state it may be readily moulded into  any  required  shape, and  joined, by
pressure, to other pieces which have also been rendered plastic by heat.  When it cools it re-
sumes itt original hard and tough nature.2—Gutta percha of commerce consists chiefly of a pecu-
liar substance (gutta percha, properly so called) mixed with a small quantity of a vegetable acid,
casein (hence, the cheesy odour which it sometimes possesses), a resin soluble in ether and in oil of
turpentine, and a resin soluble in alcohol.3—The pure gutta percha is a carbo-hydrogen, analo-
gous to caoutchouc4—The uses of gutta percha in the arts are most extensive.5  It  is already
the subject of numerous patents.6  It also serves some useful purposes in medicine, sur»ery,and
pharmacy.  A solution of it in chloroform  has been used by  Prof. Simpson7 as a dressing of
wounds.  When a thin layer of the solution is spread upon the skin or any other surface,  the
chloroform rapidly evaporates, and leaves a film or web of gutta percha  possessing all the t'ena-
1 Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. vi. p. 377, 1847.
' See Solly, Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. v. p. 510, 1846.
 S.iubeirun, Journ. de Pharm. et de Chimie, 3me ser. t. xi.
 Maclagnn, Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. v. p. 472, 1810
• %£:vol:lli^,'S.                                      'Ibid- ™L ™ p-««.«».
17, 1S47. 
576
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Sapotaceje.

                   Fig. 319.
                                Isonandra Gutta, Hooker.
  1. Flower scarcely expanded ; 2, flower with the corolla expanded ; 3. pistil; 4, transverse «cti«o
the ovary; 5, vertical section of the ovary; 6, anther; 7, scarcely mature fruit (natural size;, o, w«i»-
verse section of ditto.  (All but Fig. 7 magnified.) 
Nat. Ord.  Pyrolaceje.—Characters.                   577
 city and other properties of that substance.   A layer of it of the thickness of good writing-paper
 has perhaps as much strength and tenacity as to hold the  edges of a  wound together with all
 the required strength and firmness of sutures.  Mr. Acton1 finds that a compound solution of
 caoutchouc and gutta percha may be used to form a kind of  membrane to protect the skin
 against the action of contagious poisons.  The solution is prepared by adding a drachm of gutta
 perclin to an ounce of benzole (the volatile principle of coal naphtha) and ten grains of India
 rubber to the same quantity of benzole, each being dissolved at  a gentle  heat, and then  mixed
 in  equal proportions.  It may be  used to protect the hands in post-mortem examinations, to pre-
 vent excoriation of the cheek in gonorrhoeal ophthalmia, in covering parts contiguous to a sore
 where the water-dressing is used, &c.  In the treatment of clubfoot, fractures, &c. Mr. Lyon2 has
 found  it a useful mechanical  agent.


                  206. Chrysophyllum  Buranheim, Riedel.

                              Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Monogynia.
                                        (Cortex.)

   Bnrunhem, Guaranhem, Tupin. (Mohica?); Martius, Syst. Mat. Med.  Veg. Brasil. p. 48, 1843 :
 Chrysophyllum  glycyphlceum, Casaretti, Journ. de  Pharm. et Chim. t.  vi. p. 04, 1S44.—A tree
 growing in the Brazils near Rio de Janeiro.  Its  bark, which has long been in use among the
 Brazilians, was introduced  into medicinal use, a few years ago,3 in  France, under the name of
 monesia or monesia bark (cortex monesia).   The recent bark is lactescent; but the bark, such as it
 comes to Europe, is thick, compact, heavy, very flat, brown, and hard, without any suberous or
 herbaceous layer.   Its taste is at first sweet, afterwards astringent and  bitter.  It has been ana-
 lyzed  by B. Derosne, Henry, and Payen,* who found it to consist  of an aromatic principle (traces),
 fat, chlorophylle, and wax, 1.2; glycyrrhizine, 1.4; monesine, an acrid  principle analogous to sapo-
 nine, 4.7; tannic acid 7.5;  red colouring matter analogous  to that of cinchona and  catechu (ru-
 binic acid), 9.2; gum (small quantity), supermalate of lime, 1.3; salts of potash, lime, and magnesia,
 silica, oxide of  iron, &c. 3.0; pecline and lignine 71.7=100.   A blackish extract of the  bark has
 been brought to Europe under the name of extract of buranhem or guaranhem; it strikes a blue
 colour with the salts of iron.—Monesia or Buranhem is an astringent.  It is employed by the
 Brazilians in  leucorrhcea, atonic diarrhoea, uterine  hemorrhage, and chronic mucous discharges
 generally.  It  has  been used  in France and Germany in the same cases.  But it does not ap-
 pear to possess any superiority over  rhatany, catechu, and other well-known astringents; and
 consequently it has now fallen into disuse.  The aqueous extract is  given in doses of from a
 scruple to a drachm.  It is  soluble both in water and spirit.  An ointment containing a drachm
 of  the extract to an ounce  of fatty matter lias also been employed as a topical astringent.  M>-
 netine has also been used in medicine.5


                SUBDIVISION  III. CALYCIFLORiE, De  Cand.

 Calyx gamosepalous, i. e. sepals more or less united at  the base.   Torus more or less adnate to the inside
     of the calyx at the base.  Petals and stamens inserted into that part  of the torus adnate to the
     calyx, and, therefore, commonly said to arise from the calyx.  Petals free or united.  Ovary free
     or adnate  to the calyx.


     Order  LI.  PYROLACEiE, Liml—WINTER-GREENS.

  Chaiik tehs.— Calyx free, 4-, more frequently 5-partite, persistent.  Petals 5, free or cohering,
 periyynous ! with an imbricated aestivation.  Stamens twice the  number of the petals, to which
 they are not adherent; anthers biloculur, dehiscing by 2 pores.   Ovarium  3- to 5 celled, seated
 on a hypogynous disk.  Style  1.  Stigma roundish or lobed, sometimes slightly indusiate.   Cap-
 sule 3- to 5 celled, 3- to 5-valved, loculicidal dehiscent.   Placenta  adherent at the centre.   Seeds
 indefinite, minute, with a pellicle  indusiate  or winged.  Embryo minute, at the base of fleshy
 albumen, with  moderately distinct cotyledons.  Herbs, natives of the northern hemisphere, pe-
 rennial or scarcely under-shrubs, smooth.   Stems  round, naked, or lea/y.  Leaves  simple, entire
or dentate.  Flowers racemose, somewhat umbellated, rarely solitary, white or  rose-coloured
 (De Cand.)
  Phopkiities.—In structure, proximate principles, and medicinal properties, this order is allied
to I'.iiaiceae.  Its prevailing  principles are bitter, resinous, and astringent substances.

  ' Ibid. vol. viii. p. 297, 1849.      »  Half-yearly Abstract of the Medical Sciences, vol. viii. p 150
  ■ Journ. de Chim. Med. t. v.  2de ser. p. 333, 1839; Guibourt, Journ. de Pharm. t. xxv. n  710. 1839
  4 Journ. de Pharm. t. xxvii. p. 20, 1841.                                        v    '
 ■ r' ,'  u/Urtl"'r d'"1"''8 respecting  monesia, the reader is referred to Dierbnch's Neuest. Entd. in der Man
Mat  Mid"' pr?,7;IM:i; Dung»«"nj A'«w Remedies, p.  43s), 1810; and  Merat,  Suppl. un Diet. Univ. de

        VOL. II.—37 
578               VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Pyrolaceje.
   207.  CHIMAPHILA UMBELLATA, M^H.-PIPSISSEWA;
                 UMBELLATED WINTER-GREEN.
                   Chiraaphila corymbosa, Pi/rsh.—Pyrola umbellata, Linn.
                            Sex. Syst. Decandria, Monogynia.
                                (Herba, L.—Herb, E. D.)

   History.—The  Pipsissewa  was  employed  medicinally  by the  aborigines of
America.   It was first described and figured by Clusius,1 who termed it P/mla 3
vel frutescens;  and it was introduced to the notice of the profession, in 1803, by
Dr. Mitchell.2  Monographs ou  it  have  been  published  by Elias Wolf,3 and by
Radius.4   Its generic name  is derived from  xilua,  winter, and $>i'jio$, a friend.
   Botany.  Gen. Char.— Calyx 5-cleft.   Petals 5, spreading, deciduous.  Sta-
mens 10,  2 in front of each petal; filaments  dilated  in the middle.   Granum
rounded-obconical, obtusely  angular,  umbilicated at  the apex.   Style very short
concealed in the umbilicus of the ovary.  Stigma orbicular, tuberculated, 5-crenate.
Cells of the capsule dehiscent at the  apex;  the valves not connected by tomentum
(De Cand.)
   Sp. Char.—Filaments smooth.  Bracts  linear-awl-shaped.  Leaves cuneate-lan-
ceolate, of  the  same  colour. (De Cand.)
   A  perennial undershrub.   Rhizome woody,  creeping.   Stems ascending, some-
what angular, marked with the scars of former leaves.   Leaves in irregular whorls,
evergreen, coriaceous, on short petioles, serrate, smooth,  shining.   Fhavers nodding
in a small corymb.   Carol I a white,  tinged  with red, having an agreeable odour.
   Hab.—Woods of  Europe, Asia, and more frequently North America.
   Description.—The officinal parts are the leaves (folia chimaphilae seu pyrolse),
or rather the leaves and the stems (herba chimaphilae seu pyrolse).  The fresh leaves
exhale a  peculiar  odour when bruised; their taste is  bitter and  astringent.  The
infusion of the dried herb is rendered green (tannate of iron) by sesquichloride of
iron,  and very slightly turbid by a solution  of  isinglass.
   Chimaphila maculata, or spotted winter-green, probably possesses similar virtues to the C. umbel
lata.  "The character of the  leaves of the two  plants will serve to  distinguish them.  Those
of C. maculata are lanceolate, rounded at  the base, where they are broader than near the sum-
mit, and of a deep olive green colour, veined with greenish white; those of the officinal specie!
are broadest near the summit, gradually narrowing to the  base, and of a uniform shining fireen,
In drying, with exposure to light, the colour fades very much, though it still retains a greenish
hue," (Wood.)5                       •
   Composition.—This  plant  has  been analyzed  by Elias Wolf and by Fr. Mar-
tens ;6  their results are as follows:—

              Wolfs Analysis.               |             Martens1 s Analysis.
Bitter extractive................   18.00 ; Bitter gummy extractive, with a small quan-
Resin......................   2.40 I   tity of tannin  and gome vegetable calcare-
Tannin......................   1.38 !   ous salts....................lflW
Woody fibre, with  a small proportion of gum      I Oxidized extractive..............  1 jjj
  and vegetable calcareous salts.......78.C2  Soft resin and chlorophylle..........  3.M
                                           Balsamic hard resin..............  5JJ
                                           Tannin with gallic acid............  3-J
                                           Woody fibre...................mt*
                                           Moisture and loss................  ?~ j
                                     100.00                                   1OO.00

   The activity of the plant resides, in part at least, in the  bitter extractive, resin, and tannin; bot
it is  probable that there is also some  volatile constituent (essential oil?) in  the fresh  plant tt
which the medicmal properties of the plant are in part due.
   Physiological  Effects.—The  fresh   leaves  appear  to possess  considerable
acridity, depending, probably, on some volatile  constituent;  for Dr.  Barton says,

  1 Historia Pannonica.                                        9 Inaug. Diss. Philad. hM.
  8 Diss de Pyrola umbell. Goett. 1817.                                       _.    „..„
  4 Dissert, de Pyrola et Chimoph. Spec. i. 1821; Spec. ii. 1829.         » United States Dispensatory.
  • Martiny, Encyklop. de med. pharm. Natural u. Rohrwaarenkunde, Bd. i. p. 763, 1843. 
Nat. Ord. Ericaceae.
579
 that, when  bruised,  they produce  rubefaction, vesication, and  desquamation, if
 applied to the skin.
   The infusion of the dried leaves, when swallowed, acts  as a tonic, producing an
 agreeable sensation in the stomach, and assisting the appetite and digestive process.
 It  promotes  the action of the secreting  organs, more especially the  kidneys, over
 which, indeed, it has appeared to exercise a specific influence; increasing the  quan-
 tity of urine; diminishing, as some have imagined, the quantity of lithic acid or
 lifhates  secreted;  and  beneficially  influencing several  forms  of chronic  nephritic
 disease.   Indeed, this plant possesses, in  its medicinal as well as its natural-histori-
 cal and cheniical relations, qualities analogous to those belonging to Uva-ursi.
   User.—The  following are the  principal  diseases in  which  it  has been  em-
 ployed :—
   1. fn dropsies,  accompanied with great debility and loss of appetite, it is useful
 as a diuretic, as well as on account  of its  stomachic and tonic qualities.  It was in-
 troduced to  the  notice of practitioners in this  country as  a  remedy  for this class
 of  diseases,  by Dr. W. Somerville.1  Dr. Beatty3  has also found it  useful in  this
 disease.
   2. /// chronic affections of the urinary organs.—Pyrola has been found serviceable
 in  the various disorders  of the urinary  organs, in which  the Uva-ursi frequently
 proves beneficial; such as cystirrhoei and calculous complaints.  It has occasionally
 alleviated some cases of haematuria, ischuria, dysury, and  gonorrhoea.
   3. In.  scrofula.—We can  readily believe that,  as  a tonic, this remedy may be
 useful in various forms of scrofula.   But it has been supposed by some to possess
 almost specific powers; and in America its reputation  is so high, that in the pro-
 vinces it acquired the title of " King's  Cure."   Dr. Paris3 says that "an irregular
 practitioner, who  has persuaded a  number of pers ins in  this metropolis  that he
 possesses remedies obtained from the American  Indians, by which he is enabled to
 cure scrofula in  its worst  forms,"  relies  for success on chimaphila.   In some ill-
 conditioned scrofulous ulcers pyrola is used in  the form of  a  wash.
   Administration.—Chimaphila  is given in the form of decoction  or extract;
 the latter has been employed in  doses of ten or fifteen grains.
   DECOrTDI CQIMaPIIIUE, L. [U.  S ] ;  Decoctum Pyrolse,  D. ; Decoction of Umbel
 lated Winter-(Iret-a.—(Chimaphila  3J ;  Distilled  Water  Oiss.   Boil down  to a
 pint and strain, L.—The Dublin  Colli gr orders of Leaves of Winter-Green, dried,
 3*s ; Water  Oss.   Boil for ten minutes  in a covered vessel, and  strain.)—Dose
 1'oj  to fjij.


     Order LII.  ERICACEAE,  Lindley.—HEATH WORTS.

                          Erica;, Juss—Ekiceai, R. Brown.

  Character —Calyx 4- or 5-partite, almost equal, entirely ur.n.lherent to the ovary, persistent
 Corolla perigynous,  or  somewhat hypogynous, g-imopetalfuis 4- or 5-partite, or  with 4 or  5  dis-
 tinct petals, regular or more rarely ii regular petalo imbrieated by aestivation.  Stamens definite,
 equal or double in number  to the petal.-, entirely or abrupt tree dom the corolla. Anthers 2-
 celled; cells hard, dry, separate either at the apex or bi.-e, often furnished  with some append-
 age, dehiscing  by a terminal pore.   Ovary free, surrounded at the  base by a disk, which is
 sometimes nectariferous.  Style single, rimd  .SVi-wn undivided, t.iothed, or 3 lobed. Fruit, cap-
 sular, many seeded, many-celled; dehiscence varie-. Seeds  inserted in a central  placenta, small,
 indefinite; the testa firmly adhering to tbe iiucleu-  Fiw-ryo round ;  in the axis of fleshy albu-
 men; the radicle opposite to the hilum —Shrubs  or ui.iu- slmibs. rarely small trees.   Leaves alter-
 nate, rarely somewhat opposite or verticillate, without Mipnk-s, usually rigid, entire, evergreen,
 articulaied on the stem   (De Cand)
  Pmirfcii-riKs.—The medicinnl qualities of the olT'einal b< aihworts are due to tannic acid  (as
in Uva-ursi), and to  volatile oil (as in Gauliieria prorumbrns).   In the tribe Rhodorea are found

 '  M>d.-Chir. Trans, v. 340.
 • Trans, of th* King and Queen's Coll. of Phys. Ireland, vol. iv. p. 23.          J Pharmacologia. 
580
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Ericaceae.
several species remarkable for their narcotic and poisonous properties; as Kalmia lalifoha
Rhododendron chrysanthum, and Azalea pontica.  The poisonous properties of Trebizond bouevr
are due to the latter plant (see Honey).


       208. ARCTOSTAPHYLOS UVA-URSI, Sprengel— THE
                              BEAR-BERRY.
                               Arbutus Uva-ursi, Linn.
                           Sex. Syst. Decandria, Monogynia.
                              (Folium. L.—Leaves, E. D.)

   History.—Some doubt  exists whether this plant was  known to the ancient
Greeks and Romans.   Bauhin1 and some others think that it  is the iSata £(,'£» of
Dioscorides ;3 but the leaves are very unlike those of Ruscus aculealus (6tvfivp<si*r),
to which he, as well as  Pliny,3 compares them.   The dpxtcw ata^vxii of Galen
agrees better with the Uva-ursi, though the short description of it  applies also to
Ribes rubrum.4
   Botany.   Gen.  Char.—Calyx  5-partite.   Corolla ovate-urceolatc ; tlie mouth
5-toothed,  revolute, short.   Stamens 10, inclosed; filaments somewhat dilated at
the base, hairy-ciliate;  anthers  compressed, with two pores at the point, laterally
2-awned, awns  reflexed.   Ovarium globose-depressed, surrounded with 3 scales;
style short; stigma obtuse.  Berry (or berried drupe) globose, 5-, rarely 6-, 7-, 10-
celled; cells 1-seeded.  (De Cand.)
   Sp. Char—Procumbent.   L/eaves coriaceous, persistent, obovate, quite entire,
shining.   Floivers disposed in terminal small racemes.  Bracllets, beneath the pedi-
cles, obtuse,  small. (De Cand.)
   Stems woody, round, and trailing.   Leaves alternate, stalked, evergreen; convex
and wrinkled above; concave and paler beneath.   Bractlets coloured.   Spals pale-
reddish,  permanent.   Corolla rose-coloured, smooth.  Berry globose, scarlet, mealy
within, very  austere, and astringent.  Seeds seldom more than 4 or 5, though there
are the rudiments of 8 or 10.
   Hab.—Indigenous.   Northern  parts  of Europe, Asia, and America.  On dry,
stony, and alpine heaths.
   Description.—The dried leaves (folia uvse ursi) are of a dark, shining, green
colour, and have  a  bitter astringent taste, but no  odour.  Their under surface is
reticulated.
   The leaves of  Vaccinium Vitis Ldaea  (Red Whortleberry) are said to be occa-
sionally  substituted for those of Uva-ursi.  The fraud (which is unlikely to occur
in this country) may be detected by the edges of the leaves being minutely toothed,
and the  under surface dotted; whereas the edges are entire, and the under  surface
reticulated in  the genuine  leaves.   Furthermore, the false leaves are deficient in
astringency,  and their watery infusion is coloured green by sesquichloride of iron,
but does not form any precipitate with  gelatin; whereas, the true ones are highly
astringent, and their watery infusion forms  a blackish-blue precipitate with  the
sesquichloride of iron.5
   Composition.—Uva-ursi leaves were analyzed, in 1809, by MM. Melandri and
Moretti,6 and in 1827 by Meissner.?  The constituents in 103 parts are, according to
the last-named chemist, gallic acid 1.2, tannic with some gallic acid 36.4, resin 4.4,
oxidized extractive, with  some  citrate (f) of lime, 6.8, gum with supermalu/es oj
lime and soda, and  traces of tannin and common salt, 3.3, chlorophylle 6.3, gun
(pectic acid?) extracted by potash  15.7, extractive obtained by potash  17.6, lignt*
9.6, and water 6.0 (excess 1.3).
   Physiological Effects,  a. On Animals generally.—Most animals refuse to

  1 Pinax, p. 470.                                 s Lib. iv. cap. 44.                m
  3 Hist. Nat. lib. xxvii. cap. 69, ed. Valp.              * Murray, De Uva-ursi; Opuseula, ia-«
  ' See Braconnot, Bull, de Pharm. iii. 348; and Bouillon-Lagranee, Ann. d Chim. lv-f6-
  ■ Bull, de Pharm. i. 59.                          ' Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. n. l««- 
 Tiie Bear-Berry:—Physiological Effects; Uses; Administration.   581

eat this plant; there are, however, some few exceptions to this statement.   Birds,
it  is said, will eat the berries; and Murray1 tells us that two kinds of insects feed
on the plant, one of  which (a species of Coccus) yields a  crimson dye.   Girardi8
found that an  infusion of the leaves might  be  injected into the urinary bladder of
animals with impunity; but, when taken internally, it excited vomiting and contrac-
tion  and inflammation of the stomach.
   0. On Man.—The obvious effects of Uva-ursi are those of the vegetable astringents
before described (see  vol. i. p.  243).   Its activity as an astringent depends on tan-
nic and gallic acids.   The former of  these acids, in its passage through the system,
becomes oxidized and converted  into gallic and pyrogallic acids, and humus-like
substances, which communicate a dark colour to tbe urine (see ante, p. 326.)
   Uva-ursi slightly augments the quantity, and also somewhat modifies the quality
of the  urine.   Alexander8 found  that  3SS °f  the powder acted as a mild diuretic
(see  vol. i. p. 279); and I have frequently seen  lithic deposits in the urine lessen
under its use.  In large doses the powder  readily nauseates.
   Uses.—As an astringent, it is applicable to all the purposes for which the vegetable
astringents generally are used (see vol. i. p. 200).  It has been employed as an anti-
dote in  poisoning by ipecacuanha (see Ipecacuanha).  But the principal use of this
remedy is in chronic  affections of the bladder, attended with increased secretion of
mucus,  and unaccompanied with any  marks  of active inflammation.  Thus, in the
latter stages of catarrhus vesicae,  the continued use of Uva-ursi is frequently most
beneficial.   Combined with hyoscyamus, says Dr. Prout,4 and persevered in steadily
for a considerable time, it seldom fails to  diminish the irritation  and quantity of
mucus,  and thus  to mitigate the  sufferings of the patients.   " It undoubtedly pos-
sesses,"  he  adds, "considerable powers in chronic affections of the bladder, for
which  only it is  adapted, its operation  being  slow and requiring  perseverance."
Sir Benjamin Brodie,5 on the other hand, observes that " Uva-ursi  has the reputa-
tion of  being useful  in some cases of chronic  disease of the bladder, and  in  this
[inflammation] among  the rest.  I  must  say, however, that I have been  disap-
pointed in the use of Uva-ursi, and that I have not seen those advantages  produced
by it which the general reputation of the medicine had  led me to expect.   I have
seen much more  good done by a  very old medicine"—the root of the Cissampelos
Pareira.  Such are the opposite  statements of the effects of  this remedy, made by
two of the most eminent writers on diseases of the urinary organs.   My own expe-
rience  of it amounts  to  this: that in some cases the relief obtained by the use  of
it  was  marked; whereas, in other instances, it was of no avail.  It is to be remem-
bered that its astringent operation unfits it for acute cases, and that the  alteration
which it produces in the condition of  the urinary organs is effected very slowly; so
that, to be beneficial,  it requires to be exhibited for a considerable period.    In cal-
culous affections it has occasionally given relief.   De Haen6 and Van Swieten7 speak
of the good effects of it in these cases.  It alleviated  the pain, checked  the puru-
lent and mucous secretion, and restored the urine to its natural condition.  These
effects seem  to have arisen from its influence over the  kidneys and bladder, for it
did not appear to affect the calculus.   I have  already stated that  it has  appeared
to me to lessen lithic  deposits  in  the urine.  In chronic bronchial  affections, with
profuse mucous or purulent secretion, it  may occasionally prove  serviceable.  Dr.
Bourne" gave it in powder (iu doses of from 8 to 20 grs.) three times daily, in milk,
with success.
   Administration.—The dose of the powder is from 9j to 3j.   But the "pow-
dered leaves of this plant are  so bulky and disagreeable, that  few stomachs will bear
to  persevere  long enough in the use of the requisite quantity;  and the case is pretty

 1  Opusrula. p. OS.
 | Dt Uva Ursina [Snndifort, Thesaurus, ii. 453], Putivi, 1764.            » Exp. Essays, p. 151.
   On Affect of the Urinary Organs, pp. 1S5 and 26S, ad edit. 1SU5.
 J  Lund. Med. Uaz. vl. i. p. .100.                                  « Rat. Med. t. ii. p. 63.
   (. ommentarits, t. xvi. p.3(11).
 '  Casts of Pulmonary Consumption, Sec. treated with Cva-ursi, 1^05. 
582
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Ericaceae.
much the  same with  the infusion and decoction."1   On this account the extract \<
frequently preferred.

   1. DECGCTDI RE URSI, L. D.  [U. S.];  Decoction of Bear-berry.—(Uva-ursi *j;
Distilled Water Oiss.   Boil  down  to  a pint  and strain, L.—The  Dubl in Colbm
orders of  Uva-ursi  gss;  Water Oss.   Boil for  ten minutes  in a  covered vessel,
and strain.)—Dose, t'sj to f^iij, three times a day.

   2. EXTRACTDI  IXE I'RSI, L.; Extract of Bear-berry.—(Uva-ursi, bruised, ibiiss;
Boiling Distilled Water Cong.  ij.  Macerate for twenty-four hours;  then boil down
to a gallon, and strain the liquor while hot;  lastly, evaporate to a   proper consist-
ence.J—Dose, grs. v to grs. xv twice or thrice daily.


         209.  Gaultheria procumbens, Linn.—Partridge-Berry.

                               Sex. Syst. Decandria, Monogynia.

                                         (Leaves.)

   Gautiera repens, Rafinesfpie,8 Med.Fl. of the United States.  In different parts of the United
States  it is known by different names; as Grouse-berry, Deer-berry, Spice-berry, Tea berry, Mount-
ain-tea, Vffyiter-green, Box-berry, Sec.
   A small shrubby evergreen.   Stem  prostrate, smooth; with  ascending  branches.  Leaves
obovate, with setaceous serratures, acute at  either end.  Pedicels bearing 1—2  nodding flowers.
Calyx  5-lobed, white.   Corolla  white,  urceolate.  Capsule small, 5 celled, inclosed within the
fleshy  calyx, and presenting the appearance of a bright  scarlet berry.   Grows  in America from
Canada to Virginia.
   The  leaves and other parts of the  plant contain  a  peculiar volatile oil (ot7 of partridge-
berry or oil of winter-green), to which their aromatic qualities are due.   The leaves also contain
tannin.
   The leaves are aromatic, stimulant, and  astringent.  In infusion  they have been employed,
under  the name of Mountain or Salvador Tea, as a substitute for China tea.  Like some other
stimulants, they  have been thought  to promote  the catamenia and  milk.  As astringent?, tliey
j]ave been used  in chronic diarrhoea.  But they are chiefly employed on account of their agree-
   le flavour, and to yield the essential oil.
abThe volatile oil of partridge berry (oleum gaultheria, Ph. United States) has occasionally been
imported, and sold in England under the name of oz7 of winter green.  It  is obtained chiefly in
New Jersey, by submitting the leaves of  the plant to distillation with water.   As usually met
with in commerce, it has a brownish-yellow or  pinkish colour;  that which I have mpt with in
England was pinkish-yellow.   By redistillation it becomes colourless.   It is the heavie-t of all
the volatile  oils; its sp. gr. being 1.173  at 50° F.; and this character, therefore, becomes a teat
of the  purity of  the oil.   Its boiling point  is 4120.3 Its taste is sweetish, pungent, and  peculiar;
its odour characteristic and agreeable.  It solidifies when dropped  into a solution of potash or
soda.   The  aqueous solution of the oil assumes, on  the addition of a persalt  of iron, a  violet •
colour  (salicylate of the peroxide of iron).   The commercial oil consists, according to Cahours,4 of 1
two volatile  oils—one light, the other heavy.  The light oil of partridge-berry  or gualtherylm \
(C2°H16), constitutes about J^th part of the commercial oil, and forms the (irst portion which di* j
tils over.  It is a colourless, very limpid oil, with an agreeable odour, approximating to that of .
oil of pepper.   It boils at 417° F.   It is isomeric with oil of turpentine.  The  heavy oUo/part- j
ridge berry, gualtheric add, or salicylate of methylene (C2H30,C|4H505), constitutes -j9<jtlis of the com-
mercial oil.   It  is a colourless  liquid, having a  sp. gr. of 1.18 at 50° F., and a  warm  and aro-
matic  taste.  It  dissolves in all proportions in alcohol and ether, and slightly so in water, ll
combines with bases to form salts (gualtherates).
   The commercial oil of partridge-berry is  an aromatic stimulant, and  is chiefly used  to cover
the unpleasant flavour of other medicines (see Syrup of Sarsaparilla,  p. 279).  Like other essen-
tial oils,it is sometimes employed to allay toothache.  In the dose of a fluidounce it has causel
death; on examination of the body, strong marks of inflammation  of the stomach were dis-
covered.5  The  essence, prepared by dissolving the oil in rectified spirit, is sometimes employed
as a cordial  and stimulant.
-  ' Prout, op. cit. p. 185.
  2 Rafinesque observes that this plant was dedicated to Dr. Gautier, of Canada, by Kalm, wrongly m"'
spelt Gaultheria and Gualtheria ; and that it is creeping, not procumbent;  hence, lie proposed to cnaig
tiie name from Gaultheria procumbens to Gautiera repens.
  3 Mr. Procter, Jun., Am. Journ. of Pharm. iii. and xiv.
  * Ann. de  Chim. et Phys. 3me ser. t. x. p. 327.
  1 United States Dispensatory {Journ. of Phil. Col. of Pharm. vi. 290). 
Nat. Ord. Lobeliace^;.—Indian Tobacco :—History;  Description.  583
     Order  LIII.  LOBELIACE^E, /*m/e?i.—LOBELIADS.

  Characters.—Calyx 5-lobed, more or less adherent to the ovary.   Corolla persistent, more
or less gamopetalous;  lobes or [>etals 5, usually irregular, sometimes almost regular; tubes entire
or cleft longitudinally.   JEstivation somewhat valvular.  Stamens 5, alternate with the lobes of
the corolla, usually free, but sometimes adherent  to the tube of the corolla ; filaments free, or
more or less connate; anthers cohering, bilocular, dehiscing longitudinally; pollen ovoid.   Ovary
inferior or semi-superior, 2-or rarely 1-celled, then with parietal placenta?;  style 1; stigma sur-
rounded with  a  ring of hairs: Fruit usually dehiscing at the  apex  by 2  valves, rarely from
above by an operculum, or laterally by 3 valves, or  indehiscent.  Seeds indefinite; albumen fleshy ;
embryo straight — Lactescent herbs or under-shrubs, rarely small trees. Leaves alternate, without
btipult").  Flowers usually axillary, solitary, racemose.  (Condensed from De  Cand.)
  Properties.—Dangerous or suspicious plants; mostly acrids or aero narcotics.

     210. LOBELIA INFLATA,  Linn -BLADDER-PODDED
                  LOBELIA;  INDIAN  TOBACCO-
                          Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Monogynia.
                           (Herba florens, L.—Herb, E. D.)

   History.—This plant was employed  by the  aborigines in America; and after
having been  for some time used by quacks,  was  introduced  to the notice  of the pro-
fession by the  Rev. Dr. Cutler,  of Massachusetts.1  It was introduced into England,
in 1*^1), by  Dr.  Recce.9
   Botany.   Gen. Char.— Calyx 5-lobcd ; the  tube obconical, ovoid or hemispheri-
cal.   Corolla  cleft  longitudinally from  above,  bilabiate;  the tube cylindrical  or
funnel-shaped, straight; the upper lip usually smaller, and erect; the lower  gene-
rally spreading, broader, 3-cleft, or more  rarely 3-toothed.   The 2 inferior or occa-
sionally all of  the anthers,  barbed at  the  point.   Ovary inferior or semi-superior,
and (in species very much  alike) somewhat free. (De Cand.)
   Sp.  Char.—Stem erect, the lower part simple and  shaggy;  the  upper part ra-
mose and smooth.  Leaves irregularly serrate-dentate, hairy; the lower ones oblong,
obtuse,  shortly petiolcd;  the  middle ones ovate-acute, sessile.   Flowers  small,
racemose.   Pedicels short, with an acuminate bract.  Calyx smooth, the  tube ovoid;
the lobes  linear-acuminate, equal to the  corolla.   Capsule ovoid, inflated.  (De
 Cand.)
   Annual; height, a foot  or  more.   Root fibrous.   Stem angular.   Leaves scat-
tered;  segments of the calyx linear, pointed.   Corolla delicate blue.   Anthers col-
lected into an oblong curved body, purple ;  filaments white.   Style filiform; stigma
curved, and  inclosed by the anthers.   Capsule  2-celled,  10-angled,  crowned with
the calyx.  Seeds (Fig. 320)  numerous,  small  (about Jjd. of
an inch  long, and J^th of an  inch  broad), brown, oblong,       Fig. 320.
"val or  almond-shaped,  reticulated with brown  fibres, the  in-
terspaces irregular in shape, and yellow.
   Hab.—North  America, from  Canada to  Carolina and  the
Mississippi.   LYgins to flower in July. The plant should  be
collected in August or September.
   Description.—lioth the flowering  herb and  seeds are im-
ported  from  America, and are  found in the  shops.
   1.  1 lie fie urring herb  (herba  florens lobelise  inflata) is
chiefly  prepared by the Shaking Quakers  of New Lebanon,
N>rtu America.   It  has been compressed  into  oblong cakes,    Seed of ZoW((J  infia:a
wen/lung either half a pound or a pound each, and enveloped        magnified.
in blue paper.
1 Thnehcr's Anur. New Dispensatory, 2d ed. p. 258.
' Pratt. Treat, on the Anti-asthmatic Properties of Bladder-podded Lobelia, 1829. 
584
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Lobeliacejs.
<W8E&$®'4

   LOBELIA.

 Lobelia infiata.

D. M.  & Co.,
   WATERVLIET, S. T.
&i
'.-.
&
a^^sJsaB&SBSsaB;: ssa&rss&&
   The packages  imported by Mr. M'Culloch, of Covent  Garden  Market, have a
                                    label on them, of which the adjoined is a copy.
                                       The dried  herb is  pale  greenish-yellow; its
                                    smell is somewhat  nauseous and  irritating • its
                                    taste burning  and  acrid, very similar to that of
                                    tobacco.   Its powder (pulvis lobeliae) is greenish
                                    and somewhat resembles  powdered senna leaves.
                                       2. The  seeds  (semina lobelia?  infiatse) have
                                    been already  described.  Their powder (pubis
                                    seminum  lobelise infiatse)  is  brown,  somewhat
resembling rappee, but scarcely so uniform  in colour, and communicates a greasy
stain to paper.   When examined by the  microscope, this powder  is found to con-
sist chiefly of broken seeds, but intermixed  with some whole ones.
   Description.—This plant was first  examined chemically by Dr.  Colhoun,1 and
afterwards by Mr. Win. Procter, Jun.3  In the second edition of the present work
(1842), I  published  the results of a few experiments made with  the view of de-
termining the composition  of this plant.  A more complete  analysis of it was made
by Reinsch3 in 1843.   Very recently, Mr. Bastick4 has published some experiments
made with the object of isolating the active principle.
  Procter's Analysis.
A peculiar acrid alkaline
 principle.
Resin.
Chlorophylle.
Gum.
Gallic flobelic] acid.
Fixed oil.
Salts of lime.
Salts of potash.
Oxide of iron.
Lignin.
  Pereira's Analysis.
Volatile principle.
Lobelina.
Lobelic acid.
Resin.
Chlorophylle.
Gum.
Extractive.
Caoutchouc ?
Woody fibre.
                                                         Reinsch's Analysis.
                                            Water  ......................11.0
                                            Volatile oil..............not determined
                                            Alcoholic extract—
                                              Chlorophylle   ................1
                                              Wax.....................
                                              Resin.....................f w
                                              Stearine...................J
                                              Peculiar substance (Lobeliin)........  2.2
                                              Aromatic resin.................  1.3
                                              Vegetable gluten ...............  2,8
                                            Aqueous extract—
                                              Gum......................  6 0
                                              Potash, lime, magnesia, iron, and manga-
                                               nese salts, with organic and inorganic acid«  2.4
                                            Extracted by potash-
                                              Gum  ......................42.4
                                              Vegetable fibre................20.6

                                                                                 100.2

  1. Volatile Oil of Lobelia ; Odorous Principle of Lobelia ; Lobelianin.—Water distilled from
lobelia has the peculiar smell, and in my former experiments appeared to me to possess also the
nauseous, acrid taste of the plant; but Mr. Procter, Jun. declares it to be devoid of acrimony,
and Reinsch states that the oil which comes over  on  the water has a bland ta^te and a moder-
ately strong odour.  In one experiment,  1 obtained a  thin film of what appeared to be a solid
volatile oil.  The distilled water of lobelia  is  unaffected by acids, sesquichloride of iron, and
tincture of nutgalls.
  2. Lobelina; Lobeliin; Peculiar Acrid Alkaline Principle.—The existence of this principle
was first announced, though not isolated,  by Dr. Colhoun.  According  to Mr. Procter, it is found
in the seeds in  larger  proportion than  in the herb.  From twelve ounces of the former he ob-
tained eighteen and a  half grains of lobelina.  He procured it  by treating the seeds with alco-
hol  acidulated  with acetic acid until deprived of their acrimony.  The tincture was evaporated
to the consistence of an extract which  was triturated  with magnesia  and water, and alter re-
peated agitation with water, the liquor which held lobelina in solution was filtered and shaken
repeatedly with ether until deprived of acrimony; the ethereal solution was then decanted and
allowed to evaporate spontaneously.  Tbe impure lobelina thus obtained was dissolved in water
by the aid of sulphuric acid, tbe solution decolorized  by animal  charcoal, and then mixed with
magnesia.  The liquor was  then agitated with ether to dissolve the lobelina which had been
set free, and the ethereal solution allowed to  evaporate spontaneously.
  Mr. Bastick's process for obtaining it is similar  to that recommended by Liebig for procuring
hyoscyamia.                                                                      . .
  Lobelina is a liquid alkaloid, of a light yellow colour and somewhat  aromatic odour. Itu
  1 Journal of the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, Jan. 1834 ; and Journ. de Pharmacie, t. xx. p.&U
1834.                                                                            .  „
  2 American Journal of Pharmacy, vol. ix. p. 98, 1833; and vol. xiii. p. 1.  Also, Pharmaceut. J0*n.
vol. x. pp.454 and 456.                                                             .asn
  3 Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. iii. p. 128, 1843.                      * Ibid. vol. x. p. 2*0, WW. 
Indian Tobacco:—Physiological Effects.               585
lighter than water, on which fluid it floats.  It is soluble in water, but more so in alcoliol and
ether.   It is also soluble in oil of turpentine and oil of sweet almonds.  It has an alkaline re-
action  on reddened litmus paper, and unites with sulphuric, nitric, hydrochloric, oxalic, and
lobelic acid-, to form cryhtallizable salts, which are more soluble in water than the alkaloid itself.
Tannic acid  throws it down from its solution  in the form of a  white bitannate.   Mr. Bastick
says lobelina is volatile, but does not  evaporate entirely unchanged.  Lobelina  is tbe active
principle of the plant, but is not so active as nicotine.  A quarter of a  grain excited vomiting
and much prostration in a cat.   A grain caused immediate and total prostration, which for half
an hour rendered the animal almost motionless, and caused dilatation of the pupils.
  3. Lobelic Acid.—In 1842, I drew attention to  the peculiarity of this acid, to which I  gave
the name it now bears; and Mr. W. Procter, Jun.  has  subsequently confirmed my statements.
It had previously  been confounded with gallic acid.  With the  persalts of iron, a solution  of
lobelic acid causes an olive-brown precipitate,' with sulphate of  copper  a  pale green, with ni-
trate of silver a brownish precipitate soluble in nitric acid, with either acetate or diacetate of
lead yellow, and with  protonitrate of mercury a yellowish-white precipitate.  A  solution  of
gelatin  had no effect on it.   According to Mr. Procter, the acid is  crystallizable and soluble in
ether.
  4. Resin.—By gently evaporating the tincture of lobelia (prepared with proof spirit), a resi-
nous substance separates and floats on the surface of the liquid.  It  has an exceedingly acrid
taste.
   Characteristics.—As death  is not unfrequently the consequence of the empi-
rical use of lobelia, it  is desirable that we  should possess some means of detecting
the poison.   I  am,  however, unacquainted  with any chemical  characteristics by
which it can be  recognized.   The following are some of its  reactions: A decoction
of lobelia reddens  litmus, and, if strong,  lets  fall a precipitate (gum) when  dropped
into rectified  spirit.   Infusion of  nutgalls throws down  a pale yellowish-white or
grayish precipitate (impure tannate of lobelina).  In  its  reactions on  solutions of
metallic salts,  it agrees with a solution of lobelic acid before described.
   The tobacco-like flavour of the  powder and decoction, and the remarkable acrid
sensation, like that caused by tobacco, which these preparations excite in the fauces,
may sometimes aid in  recognizing them.
   Mr. Frederick Curtis9 has drawn attention to  the microscopic characters of the
seeds as a means of detecting the  herb of lobelia, or its powder;  as these seeds, on
account of their minuteness, escape complete destruction by the mill or mortar.  I
bave, however, been unable  to detect any seeds or fragments of seeds in the pulvis
hbelise sold at an herb-shop in London; the herb which is sent to the mill not being
sufficiently ripe  to contain seeds;  but  the pulvis seminum hbelise  may be readily
detected by the microscope.   When the ordinary lobelia  powder  contains seeds, or
fragments of seeds, no difficulty will  be found in recognizing them by the micro-
scope.   Mr.  Curtis recommends the  powder  to  be sifted in order  to separate  the
coarser from the finer particles; and  he says  that the uninjured  seeds  will be  left
on a sieve whose apertures are ^jth of an inch (see  ante,  p. 583, Fig. 320).    Mr.
Curtis describes  the seeds as having " oblong-square" reticulations.  Dr. Otto Berg3
uas also depicted these spaces as being rectangular.   I have, however, found  them
irregular in shape, as shown in Fig. 320.
   I'hysiological Effects.—An accurate account of the effects of  this plant on
man and animals is  yet wanting;  but, from  the observations hitherto  made, its
operation appears to be very similar to, but milder than, that of tobacco (see ante,
p.  494); aud  from this circumstance, indeed, it has  been called the Indian  To-
bacco.  I have  before remarked,  that  both in its taste and in  the sensation of
acridity which  it excites in the throat, it resembles common tobacco.   This  analogy
between nicotiana  and lobelia, originally noticed by the  American practitioners, is
confirmed by Dr. Elliotson.4
  o  On Animals generally.—Horses and cattle have been supposed to be killed by

   The ffTrct produced  l>v persnlts of iron on this ncid is  analogous to that caused  by the same agents on
•■'«■« (ire ant,, p v)«|, nn,| cei,ndilla (Bee ante. p. Ifc9).
 ,  ^°»d. M.diral Gazette. July •_».>, 1MI.
   * h*rak:tristtk drrfiir die Arzneihunde und Technik wichtigsten Pftanzen-Genera,2ter Abdrucfc,  1851.
   Lancet, April 15, 1KJ7, p. 114. 
586               VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Lobeliace^.

eating it accidentally.1   An extraordinary flow of saliva is said to be produced by it
in cattle.9   Hedgehogs and cats are killed  by it.s
   3.  On Man.—aa.  la small doses it operates as  a diaphoretic and  expectorant
Mr. Andrews,4 who  speaks from its effects  on himself,  says it has  "  the peculiar
soothing quality of exciting expectoration without the pain of coughing."
   j33-  In full medicinal doses (as 9j of  the powder) it acts as a  powerful  nausea-
ting emetic.  Hence,  it has been  called the emetic weed. It causes severe and speedy
vomiting, attended with continued and distressing nausea, sometimes purging, copi-
ous sweating, and  great general relaxation.   These symptoms are usually preceded
by giddiness, headache,  and general tremors.   The Bev. Dr. M.  Cutler/ in his ac-
count of the effects on himself, says that, taken during a severe paroxysm of asthma
it caused sickness  and vomiting, and a kind of prickly sensation  through the whole
system, even to the  extremities  of  the fingers and toes.   The urinary passage was
perceptibly affected,  by  producing a smarting sensation in passing urine, which was
probably provoked by stimulus  on the bladder.   It sometimes, as in the Rev. Dr.
Cutler's case, gives almost  instantaneous relief in an  attack of  spasmodic asthma.
Intermittent pulse was  caused  by it in a case mentioned by Dr. Elliotson.  Admi-
nistered by the rectum it produces the same distressing sickness of stomach, profuse
perspiration, and universal relaxation, which result from a similar use of tobacco.
   <yy.  In  excessive  doses, or in full  doses  too frequently repeated,  its effects  are
those of a  powerful acro-narcotic poison.  u The melancholy consequences resulting
from the use of Lobelia inflata," says Dr. Thacher,6 " as lately, administered by the
adventurous hands of a noted empiric,7 have justly excited considerable interest, and
furnished alarming examples of its  deleterious properties and fatal effects.  The dose
in which he is said  usually to  prescribe it, and frequently with impunity, is a com-
mon teaspoonful of the powdered seeds or leaves, and often repeated.  If the medicine
does not puke or evacuate powerfully, it frequently destroys the patient, and sometimes
in five or six hours."  Its effects, according  to Dr. Wood,8 are "extreme prostration,
great anxiety and distress, and ultimately death, preceded by convulsions."  He also
tells us  that fatal results (in America) have  been experienced from its empirical use.
These are the more  apt to  occur when the poison, as is sometimes  the case, is not
rejected by vomiting.
   Within the last three years, several cases9 of poisoning by lobelia have occurred
in  England, in consequence of the  administration of this agent by ignorant persons
acting under the guidance or instruction of a notorious empiric.10
   Uses —Lobelia is probably applicable to all the purposes for  which tobacco has
been used (see ante, p. 492).   From my own observation of its effects, its principal
value is as an antispasmodic.
   1. In asthma (especially the spasmodic kind) and other disorders of the organs
of respiration.—Given  in  full  doses, so as to excite nausea  and vomiting, at the
commencement of, or shortly before,  an  attack of spasmodic asthma, it sometimes
succeeds in cutting  short the paroxysm, or  in  greatly  mitigating its  violence; at
other times, however, it completely fails.  Occasionally,  it has proved serviceable in
a few attacks, and, by repetition, has lost its influence over  the disease.
    To obtain its beneficial  influence in asthma, it is not necessary, however, to give

  1 Thacher, American New Dispensatory, p. 2.                   a Lancet, May 13, 1837, p. 299.
  3 See tlie experiments of Mr. Curtis and Dr. Pearson in the Lond. Med. Gaz. Aug. lfi, 1*30.
  ♦ Lond. Medical Gazette, vol. iii. p. 260.                        * Thacher, op. cit.
  6 Qnt cit.
  1 The empiric alluded to by Dr. Thacher is Samuel Thomson, the author of a work entitled '-'The Thorn-
sonian Materia Medica, or Botanic Family Physician," 12th ed. 8vo. Albany, 1841.
  8 United States Dispensatory.                                                   , ,
  8 Sec Lond. Medical Gazette for Aug. 31,1849, and Aug. 30,1650; also, Lancet for Sept. 8,1849, ana Jun.
22, IKjO ; and Pharmaceutical Journal for Aug. 1851.                                    . ™ j,
  10 Ti:e founder of what has been called "Coffinism." (see Pharmaceutical Journ. Sept.  1, 1819, an ur  ■
1.1851)—an individual who styles himself "A.J. Coffin. M. D., Professor of Aledic»l Botany.  a"',;,J
in his ;i Botanic Guide to Health and the Natural Pathology of Disease,"  17th ed. 1>*j0, that''"*.  tbe
not a poison." and " that it never operates  upon those who are in perfect health ;" and tie sa,, s i   ^
powdered leaves or pods  maybe given in doses of a teaspoonful every half hour, in a cup "I vervaJ"   ve
pennyroyal, and repeated until it operates as an emetic j and he adds: "Never rnind Hooper, o  g
enough" I ! 
Blue Cardinal.                             587
it in doses sufficient to  excite  vomiting.  Dr.  Elliotson1 recommends  the use of
email doses at the commencement, and says that these should be gradually increased
if neither headache  nor  vomiting occur; but  immediately these symptoms come
on, the u.se of the remedy  is to be omitted.   Given in this way, I can testify to its
good effects in spasmodic asthma.  It has also been  used in croup, hooping-cough,
and catat rhal asthma, but with no  very  encouraging effects.
  2. In strangulated hernia, Dr. Eberle3 employed it effectually, instead of tobac-
co, in the form of enema.
  3. As an emetic, it has been employed  by Dr. Eberle3 in croup;  but its opera-
tion is too distressing and dangerous for  ordinary use.
  Administration.—It may be given in powder, infusion, or  tincture (alcoholic or
ethereal).  Dr. Beece employed an oxymel.  The dose of the powder, as an emetic,
is from  grs. x to 9j; as an expectorant, from gr. j to grs. v.  It deserves especial
notice that the  effects of lobelia are very unequal  on  different  persons, and that
some are exceedingly susceptible of its  influence.*
  Antidotes.—See antidotes for tobacco,  p.  496.  After the poison has been
evacuated from the stomach, opium and demulcents may be used to allay the gastro-
intestinal irritation.
  1. TINCTURA LOBELLE, L. E. D. [U. S.]; Tincture of Lobelia.—(Lobelia, dried and
powdered [in moderately fine powder, P.;  in coarse powder, D.~\ £v; Proof  Spirit
Oij.   [Lobelia |iv;  Diluted Alchol Oij.   Macerate  for fourteen  days, express  and
filter through paper,  U. £.]  This tincture is best prepared by  the process of per-
colation,  as directed  for the tincture of capsicum ; but it may also be made in  the
usual way by digestion, E.)—Dose, as an emetic and antispasmodic, from f3j to f^ij,
repeated  every two or three hours until vomiting occur; as an expectorant, n\,x to
f3j.   For children of one or two years old, the dose is  r^x to  t»lxx.
  2. TIMTIRA LOBELLE JETHEREA,  L. E.;  Ethereal Tincture of Lobelia.—(Lobelia,
in powder, Jv;  iEther fjxiv;  Bectified Spirit f^xxvj.    Macerate for seven days ;
then express  and  strain,  L.—Lobelia,  dried, and in moderately fine powder, gv;
Spirit of Sulphuric Ether Oij.   This tincture is best prepared  by percolation, as
directed for tincture of capsicum; but it may also be obtained by digestion in a well-
closed vessel for  seven days, E.)—This may  be  used in  the  same doses as the alco-
holic tincture.
  With some persons the ether  is apt to disagree, and for  such the alcoholic tinc-
ture is preferred.  Whitlaw's  ethereal tincture, used by Dr. Elliotson, consisted of
Lobelm Ibj; Bectified Spirit Oiv;  Spirit of  Nitric Ether Oiv; Spirit of Sulphuric
Ether Jiv.   Macerate for fourteen days  in a dark place.5

           211. Lobelia syphilitica,  Linn.—Blue Cardinal.
                                    (Radix.)
  Tliis plant is a  native of the United  States of America.   It possesses emetic, cathartic, and
diuretic properties; and derived its specific name from its supposed efficacy in syphilis, as ex-
perienced  by the North American Indians, who considered  it  a specific in that disease, and
from whom the secret of its use was purchased by Sir W. Johnson.6  Its antisyphilitic powers
appear to have no  foundation in fact.7 The root was the part used ; it was given in the form of
decoction,  prepared by  boiling half an  ounce of the  root in twelve pints of watar down to
one third.  The dose is a wineglassful.

 J Lancrt, April 15,  1637, p. 144.              a Treat, of the Mat. Med. vol. i. p. 48, 2d ed.
 . °l'  '"■                                « Elliotson, Lancet, June, 1&3-2; and April 15, 1837.
 J Land. June 3, 1837.
 f Wnodville. Med.  Bot.  vol. i. p. 178; see also Murray's App. Medicaminum, vol. i. p. 773, ed. alt. 1703.
  Pearson, Observ.  on various Art. of the Mat. Med. p. 70. 
 588                  VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Composite.




   Order LIV.  COMPOSITE,  De CWoZfe.—COMPOSITES.

                       Stnanthehej:, Richard; Asterack^, Lindley.

   Characters.—Calyx gamosepalous, the tube adherent to the ovary;  tbe limb ponerally de-
 generated  into  a  pappus, or sometimes into a  scaly corona, or entirely abortive.  Panpm
 simple, pilose,  ramose, or  plumose;  stipitate by the prolongation of the tube beyond the ovary
 or sessile.  Corolla inserted  into  the  upper part  of the tube of the calyx, ganiopetalons- the
 nerves in the  tube being directed towards the sinuses; in appearance 5, but really 10-  which
 then  proceed from the sinuses, along the margins of the lobes, to the apex, where they inos-
 culate [neuramphipetalousl.   Tube various in length ; in the regular corolla, often funnel-shaped.
 Lobes generally 5, valvate in  aestivation.  Corolla  regular or irregular; the  regular, of 5 equal
 lobes (tubular corolla) ; the irregular  2-lipped (bilabiate corolla) or strap shaped,  5-dentate (ligu-
 late corolla).   Stamens generally 5; in  the  female  florets wanting, or rudimentary.  Filaments
 adnate  to  the tube  of the corolla; distinct or  monadelphous; articulated  near the apex, the
 upper portion acting as a connective.  Anthers erect; connected in the tube, which is perforated
 by the style (syngenesious or synantherous). Pollen rough or smooth, globose or elliptical.  Ovary
 adherent to the calyx, 1-seeded.   Style generally  terete and bifid  at the apex: the branches
 (commonly called stigmas)  more  or less  free; flat above, convex beneath.  Stiamatic  glands
 (true stigmas) ranged in a double row along the  upper margin of the  branches  of the style,
 more or less  prominent;  the upper portion of the style, in hermaphrodite flowers provided
 with  hairs, which  collect  the pollen.   Fruit consisting of an  achene and calyx closely con-
 nected,  and inclosing  the  embryo;  the achene  1-celled,  articulated  on  the receptacle,  gene-
 rally sessile; rostrate or not  rostrate at the  apex.   Seed attached to the base  of  the fruit by
 a very short funiculus.  Inner portion  of  the spermoderm (endopleura of De Cand., albumen of
 Lessing) diaphanous, pierced by the bifid funiculus. Embryo erect, with a short,  straight, inferior
 radicle, and an  inconspicuous plumule.   Florets collected into dense heads (capitules) ;  either
 all hermaphrodite (homogamous), or the outer ones female or  neuter, the inner being herma-
 phrodite or male  (helerogamous);  or the  capitules are entirely  composed of florets of distinct
 sexes (monoecious, diacious,heterocephalous). Capitules with the floretssometimesall tubular (discoid
 or flosculous); sometimes all ligulate (ligulateor semiflosculous): sometimes the central florets are
tubular, while those of the  ray are ligulate (radiate).   Involucre of one or many rows of more
 or less united scales, surrounding the receptacle which is formed by the concretion of the ex-
tremities of the penduncles; either covered with chaffy scales (paleaceous)  or   naked (epalea-
 ceous) :  sometimes  the  receptacle is indented with pentagonal hollows (areolated),  or the mar-
gins  of these  are slighly raised  (alveolated),  or fringed (fimbriated).  Herbs or shrubs (rarely
trees), forming almost a tenth part of  the vegetable kingdom.   Leaves simple, alternate,  or op-
posite.  (Condensed from De Candolle.)
   Properties.—Variable.  A bitter  principle pervades most species; this communicates tonic
properties.  The laxative  and anthelmintic  qualities possessed  by some of the species may,
perhaps, depend  on  the same principle.   Volatile oil is frequently present; it  communicates
aromatic, carminative, diaphoretic, and, in some cases, acrid properties.  Bitter matter and vola-
tile oil are often associated in the same plant.   An acrid resin is present in some  species.  A
few of the Compositae are narcotic.
                    Sub-order I.  Ttjbuliflorjs,  De  Cand.

                Flowers hermaphrodite, regularly tubular, 5-, rarely 4-toothed.


                              Tribe  I.  Vernoniace^e.

  Style cylindrical,  its arms generally long and  subulate, occasionally short and blunt, always
covered all over with bristles.
  This tribe contains no medicine of importance.  The fruits (called seeds) of Vernonia atithtl-
mintica, Willd., are used  in the East Indies, as an anthelmintic, in doses of a drachm and a half.
The root of Elephantopus Marlii is tonic  and astringent, and is used in the Brazils in the form of
decoction in asthenic fevers.2

  1 Ainslie. Mat. Indica, vol. ii. p. 54 —The seeds called Calagirah or Calagari, and erroneously said by
Virey (Journ. de Pharm. t. xxii. p. Gl-J) to be  the produce of Vernonia anthelmintica, were the seeai
Nigella indica of Roxburgh {Fl. Ind. vol. ii. p. 616).
  ' C. F. P. de Martius, Syst. Mat. Med. Veg. Brazil, pp. 9 and 36, 1843. 
EupatoriacejE.—Coltsfoot.—Elecampane:—History; Botany.    589
                           Tribe II.  Eupatoriace^.

     Style cylindrical, its arms long, somewhat clavate, with a papillose surface on the
                                 outside, near the end.

   Eupatorium perfoliatum, Linn., a native of North America, is a bitter tonic.  Its warm infusion
 acts as a diaphoretic and emetic.1   A plant called Guaco or Huaco is held in  high estimation
 in Peru, as a specific against bites of venomous serpents and rabid animal-.2  It is supposed to
 be the Mikania Guaro, Humb. and Bonpl., which grows in Colombia on the banks of the Mag-
 dalcna.  Guaco has also been used  in cholera.3  Several plants have been brought to Europe
 under the name of guaco4   Fourg5 analyzed one of these, and announced the existence in it of
 a peculiar resin, to which he gave the name of guarine.  There can  be no doubt that if guaco
' really possesses any therapeutical value whatever, its virtues have been monstrously exaggerated.


                 212. Tussilago  Farfara,  Linn.—Coltsfoot.

                        Sex. Syst. Syngenesia, Polygamia superflua.
                                   (Folia et Flores.)

   Bfo'w of Hippocrates (deintern. affect, p. 532 ; et de arliculis, p. 829, ed. Foss.)  and Discori-
 des (lib iii. cap. 120).  By the Greeks and Romans it was smoked, to relieve obstinate cough
 (see ante, p. 48-1).
   Rhizome creeping  horizontally.   Leaves cordate, angular, toothed, downy beneath.   Scape
 clothed with  imbricated scaly bracts, usually 1-flowered.  Heads appearing before the leaves.
 Flowers yellow.  Indigenous.   Various parts of Europe and  Asia.   Flowers in March  and
 April. The  herb and flowers (herba et flores farfara seu tussilaginis) have a  bitterish mucila-
 ginous tiste.  The dried leaves are odourless, but the flowers retain  a slight odour. The watery
 infusion becomes green (tannate of iron) on the addition of sesquichloride of iron.   No analysis
 of tin' plant has yet been made.  Mucilage, bitter extractive, tannic acid, colouring matter, salts, and
 woody fibre, are the  principal constituents.  The effects are not very obvious; they may be re-
 girded as emollient, demulcent, and  very slightly tonic.   Employed  as a popular remedy in
 pulmonary complaints (chronic coughs, especially).  The decoction (prepared  by  lxiiling £j or
 $ij of the plant in Oij of water to Oj) may be taken in doses of fjij or f^iij.or ad libitum'.


                           Tribe  III.  Asteroideje.

     Style cylindrical; its arms linear, flattish on the  outside, equally  and finally downy
                                    on the inside.


         213. INULA HELENIUM,  Zf^.-ELECAMPANE.
                       Sex. Syst. Syngenesia, Polygamia superflua.
                                      (Radix,!,.)

   ITistory.—This is the hivtov of Hippocrates8 and of Dioscorides.7
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—Head  many-flowered, heterogamous; florets  of the ray
 females, in one  row, sometimes  by abortion  sterile, usually  ligulate, rarely some-
 what tubular and trifid;  those of the disk hermaphrodite, tubular, 5-toothed.   In-
 volucre imbricated in  several rows.   Receptacle  flat or somewhat convex, naked.
 Anthers with 2 setae at the base.   Achene without a beak, tapering, or,  in  I. Relc-
 mum, 4-cornered.    Pappus uniform,  in  1  row, composed of capillary, roughish
 setae. (De Cand.)                                                   r    j,    b

   Sp. Char.—Stem erect.   Leaves dentate, velvety-tomentose beneath, acute; the
 radical ones ovate, greatly attenuated into petioles; those of the stem semi-amplexi-
 caul.  Peduncles few, 1-headed, corymbose at the apex.  (De  Cand.)

 ^ Bigelow, Ameriean\Medical Botany, vol. i. p. 33, plate ii. 1817; also Wood, United States Dispensa-

  ' n"'{"- dt Pknrm- '■ vi. p. 248, 1814.            » Dunglison, New Remedies, p. 408, 0th ed. 1851
   uierbach, Die neuesten Entdeck. in der Mat. Med. Bd. i.  S. 1CI, 1837; und lid. ii. S. JJO.
  * Journ. de Pharm. t. xxii. p. 291, 1836.
   *at. Mul. p. 572, ed. Fa-s.                     ' Lib. i. cap. 27. 
590
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Composite.
   Root perennial, thick, branching.   Stem 3  to  5 feet high.   Leaves large ser-
 rated, veiny.  Heads terminal.   Flowers bright-yellow.
   Hab.—Indigenous.   Various parts of Europe.   Flowers in July and August.
   Description.—The  dried root (radix he/enii seu cnulse) of  the shops consists
 of longitudinal or transverse slices, which are yellowish-gray, and have an aromatic
 or camphoraceous smell, and a warm bitter taste.   Iodine colours  the root brown.
 Sesquichloride of iron produces in the infusion a green colour (tannate of iron).
   Composition.—The  root  has been  analyzed  by  John,1 by  Funcke,3  and by
 Schulz.3  The constituents, according to John, are—volatile oil a trace, elecampane-
 camphor 0.3 to 0.4, wax 0.6, acrid  soft resin 1.7, bitter extractive 36.7, gum 4.5
 inulin  36.7, woody fibre 5.5, oxidized  extractive with  coagulated albumen 13.9 -
 besides salts of potash, lime, and magnesia.
  1. Het.enix ; Elecampane-camphor.—Colourless prismatic crystals, heavierthan water,fusible
 volatile, very soluble in  ether,  oil of turpentine, and boiling alcohol, but insoluble in water.
 Nitric acid converts  it into resin (nitrohelenin).  Its  formula, according to Dumas, is  C'H'O8'
 according  to Gerhardt,4 C15H10O2.  Its composition, therefore, is closely  allied to that of cie-
 osote.
  2. Reskv.—Erown, fusible in boiling water, and soluble in alcohol and ether.   When warm
 it has an aromatic odour.  Its taste is bitter, nauseous, and acrid.
  3. Inulin (Alantin and Menyanthin, Trommsdorff"; Elecampin, Henry;  Dahlin and Datiscin,
 Payen) —An amylaceous substance, organized, according to Raspail, like common starch.  It is
 very slightly soluble  in cold water, but very soluble in boiling  water, from which it is deposited
 as the solution cools.  It is  slightly soluble in boiling alcoliol.  Iodine give's it a yellow tint;
 this distinguishes it from ordinary starch.  Its formula is C12H10O10.   In combination with lead
 it produces an  atom  of water, and becomes C1JH909.
  4. Bitter Extractive—In this resides the tonic property of elecampane.
   Physiological Effects.—An aromatic tonic.   It acts as a gentle stimulant to
 the organs of secretion, and is termed diaphoretic, diuretic, and expectorant. Large
 doses cause nausea and vomiting.  It was formerly supposed  to possess emmenagogue
 properties.   In its  operation it is  allied to  sweet-flag (see vol.  i. p. 158)  and
 senega.
   Uses.—It is  rarely employed now  by the medical practitioner. It has been used
 in pulmonary affections (as catarrh) attended with profuse secretion and accumula-
 tion of mucus, but without febrile disorder or heat of  skin.   In dyspepsia, attended
 with relaxation  and debility, it  has  been administered with benefit.   It has also
 been employed in the exanthemata to promote the eruption.
   Administration.—Dose of  the powder 9j  to ^ij; of  the decoction (prepared
 by boiling gss of  the root in Oj  of water) f^j  to fgij.


                           Tribe IV.  Senecionide^:.

 Style  cylindrical; its arms  linear, fringed at the  point, generally  truncate, but sometime!
             extended beyond the fringe  into a line  or appendage of some sort.


214.  ANTHEMIS  NOBILIS,  Linn. — COMMON CHAMOMILE
                        Sex. Syst. Syngenesia, Polygamia superflua.
                      (Flores simplices, L.—Flowers, E.—Flores, D.)

  Htstory.—Sibthorp5 considers the avdeple of Dioscorides8  to be Anthemis Chia;
but Fraas7 is of  opinion  that it is the Matricaria  Chamomilla, Linn.  Tragus  con-
sidered the Anthemis nobilis to be  the rxapOhtov of Dioscorides, and first  gave  it
the name  of  Chamomilla nobilis.   Camerarius  distinguished  it  as  the  Roman
chamomile.
1 Gmelin, Handb. de Chem. ii. p. 1*2>3.
3 Btrl Jahrb. d. Pharm. 1818, p. 251.
' Prodr Fl. Grazca', vol. ii. p. 189
' Synoysis Plant. Fl. Classicce, p. 214, 1845.
2 Trommsdorff's Journal, xviii. 1, 71.
4 Pharmaceulisches Central-Blatt fur 1840, p
* lab. ii. cap. 154. 
Common Chamomile:—History;  Botany; Description.       591
  Botany.   Gen. Char.—Head many-flowered, heterogamous; florets of the ray
female, in one row, ligulate (rarely none, or somewhat tubular); of the disk, herma-
phrodite, tubular, 5-toothed.   Receptacle convex, oblong, or conical; covered with
membranous palese between the flowers.  Involucre imbricated, in a few rows. Arms
of the style without appendages  at the  apex.   Achene tapering or obtusely 4-cor-
nered, striated or smooth.  Pappus either wanting, or a very short, entire, or halved
membrane ; sometimes auriculate at the inside.  (De Cand.)
  Sp. Char.—Stem erect, simple, ramose, downy-villose.  Leaves downy, sessile,
pinnatisect;  segments  split  into many  linear-setaceous lobes.  Branches flowery,
naked, 1-headed at the apex.  Scales of the involucre obtuse, hyaline at tlie margin.
Palea1 of the receptacle lanceolate, pointless, somewhat shorter  than the  floret,
slightly eroded at the margin. (De  Cand.)
  Roots shiny, with long fibres.   Stems in a wild state prostrate,  in gardens more
upright, a span  long,  hollow, round.   Flowers of  the disk  yellow; of the ray,
white.   Receptacle convex.
  Anthemis nobilisflorepleiw, De Cand.: Double Chamomile.—In this variety, the yellow tubular
hermaphrodite florets of die disk are  entirely or partially converted into white ligulate female
florets.
  Sir J. Smith'  speaks of the discoid variety, destitute of rays, as being more  rare.  It ought
perhaps lie adds, to be preferred for  medicinal use.
  Hab.—Indigenous; on open gravelly pastures or commons.   Perennial.   Flowers
from June to  September.   Cultivated at Mitcham and  in Derbyshire, for the Lon-
don market.8
  ^ Inscription.—The floral  heads (flores chamir.meli romani seu anthemidis no-
bilis) have a strong and peculiar odour,  and a bitter aromatic  taste.   When fresh,
they exhibit a strong and peculiar fragrancy when rubbed.   They should be dried
in the ^hade.
  Two kinds of chamomiles are  distinguished in the shops—the one called single,
the other double; both sorts are  cultivated at Mitcham.
  1. Single Chamomile Flowers (flores anthemidis simplices).—These are sold at
Apothecaries'  Hall, London.   Strictly speaking, single chamomiles are those which
have one row  only of white female ligulate florets;  but few flowers are in this con-
dition ; in most of the so-called single flowers, some of the yellow tubular florets
have become converted into white  ligulate florets.   It is  obvious,  therefore, that
the distinction between  the so-called single and double flowers is to a certain extent
arbitrary.   Single chamomiles are usually preferred, on account of their having the
largest  yellow disks, in which the oil  chiefly resides.   They are, therefore, more
powerfully odoriferous.
  2. Double  Chamomile  Flowers (flores anthemidis  pleni;  chamsemelum flore
plena, Lewis;  chamsemelum flore multiplici, C. Bauhin.)—These constitute the sort
usually found in the shops.   In these,  all or most of the yellow  tubular  florets
have become converted into the white ligulate ones.   The flowers are consequently
whiter,  larger, and  more showy, though rather less  odoriferous, and contain less
Volatile oil.
  At Mncham, a variety called the new sort of chamomile is cultivated, which yields  by dis-
tillation a blue volatile oil.
  I lie I lores Chamomillae of German pharmacologists are the produce of Matricaria Chamomilla,
Linn., or Common Will Chamomile.  They yield by distillation a blue volatile oil.
  1 lie Flores Chamomilla fixtida are the produce of Maruta Colula, De Cand. (Anthemis Cotula,
Linn.)                                                           v               '
  Composition.—In 1833, chamomile flowers were analyzed  by J.  P. Wys,3 who
gives the following as  their constituents: Fat, chlorophylle, traces of tannic acid,
and volatile oil  3.625, icax 1.5, bitter matter extracted by  ether,  with  traces of
malate of limc 4.000, resin 5.250, extractive matter  taken up  by alcohol, and ma-
lote of lime 3.125, albumen 1.5U0, sulphate and tartrate of potash  with chloride of

 • «,!fi:„H". V»' "'• P ir'7 „.  .               " Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. x. p. 118, 1850.
  Uuclmei a Reptrtonum, Bd. xlvi. S. IS, 1833. 
592
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Composite.
potassium and malate of lime 1.875, gum 0.750, extractive  matter taken  up by
water 5.500, extractive matter with phosphate of lime  taken  up by hydrochloric
acid 7.750,  water and loss 3.125, fibrous matter and loss 62.000=100.000.
  1. Volatile Oil (see below).
  2. Bitter  Extractive.—The bitter principle of chamomiles is soluble in both water and
alcohol.
  3. Tannic Acid.—The cold watery infusion of the flowers is darkened by sesquichloride of
iron, and forms a precipitate with gelatin.
  Freudenthal1 analyzed the dried flowers of the Common  Wild Chamomile (Matricaria Chamo-
milla), and found them  to consist of volatile oil 0 28, resin 7.89, bitter extractive 8.57, gum 7.39,
bitartrate of potash 5.31, phosphate of lime 0.97, woody fibre, soluble albumen, water, and loss 69.6.
These flowers were also analyzed by Herberger and Damur.2
  Physiological  Effects.—Chamomiles produce the  effects  of the aromatic
bitter tonics before alluded to (see  ante, p. 244); their aromatic qualities depend on
the volatile  oil, their  stomachic and tonic qualities on bitter extractive and tannic
acid.  In large doses they act as an emetic.
  Uses.—Chamomiles are an exceedingly useful stomachic and tonic in dyspepsia,
with a languid and enfeebled state of stomach, and general debility.   As a remedy
for  intermit ten ts, though they have gained  considerable  celebrity, they are inferior
to many other medicines.   The oil is sometimes used to relieve flatulency, griping,
and eructation ;  and the warm infusion is employed as an emetic.
  Administration.—The powder is rarely employed, on account of the incon-
venient bulk of the requisite quantity, and its tendency to excite nausea.—Dose,
grs. x to 3ss  or  more.   The infusion is  the  more elegant preparation ; this, as
well as the extract and oil, are officinal.  Fomentations of Chamomile flowers con-
sist of the infusion or decoction, and  are used quite hot; but  they  present no ad-
vantage over water  of the same temperature.  Flannel bags filled with chamomiles
and soaked in  hot icafer are useful  topical agents for the  application of moist
warmth, on  account of their retention  of heat.
  I. INFUSUM  ANTHEMIDIS, L. E. D. [U. S.];  Infusum  ChamsemeU;  Infusion of
Cliamomile; Chamomile   Tea.—(Chamomile 3V  [3ssj &• $■] > Boiling [distilled,
L.~\  Water  Oj, L.  E.—Chamomile Flowers, dried, gss; Boiling Water %x\j, D,
Macerate for ten [twenty,  E., fifteen, />.]  minutes.)—It is taken warm, to excite
gentle vomiting, or to promote the operation of an  emetic.  The cold infusion is
usefully employed as  a domestic stomachic bitter and tonic in dyspepsia.  Dose of
the cold infusion f^j to f^ij;  of the warm infusion  ad libitum.
  I EXTRACTUM ANTHEMIDIS, E.; Extractum  Chamremeli;  Extract of Chamo-
mile.—(Chamomile Ibj; boil  it with a gallon of  water down to four pints ;  filter
the liquid hot; evaporate in the vapour-bath to a due consistence, E.)—One  hun-
dred weight of the  flowers yield about forty-eight  pounds of extract.  The volatile
oil is dissipated during the  preparation.   The extract is a bitter stomachic and tonic.
It is generally used as a vehicle for the exhibition of other tonics, in the form of pills.
Conjoined with the oil of  chamomile,  we can obtain from it all the effects of the
recent flowers.—Dose, grs. x to 9j.
  S. OLEUM  ANTHEMIDIS, L. E. D.; Oleum  ChamsemeU  Romani; Oleum Chamse-
meU; Oil of Chamomile; Oil of the Roman Chamomile.—(Obtained by submit-
ting the flowers to distillation with water.)—One  hundred weight of flowers yields
from giss to 3ij  of oil.   The oil of the shops is frequently brought from abroad,
and is probably the produce of another plant (Matricaria Chamomilla); hence, the
London College directs  the English oil (oleum anthemidis anglicum) to be  kept.
The oil of chamomile, which, when first drawn, is pale blue, becomes, by exposure
to light and air, yellow or brownish.   Lewis3 says that  the yellow oil, with a cast
of greenish or brown, has  a  sp. gr. of 0.9083.   When fresh, its odour  is strong
1 Gmelin, Handb. de Chem. ii. 1292.              » Buchner's Repertorium, Bd. xliv. S. 361, 1833.
* Mat. Med. 
Pellitory op Spain:—History;  Botany; Description;  Composition.  593

and peculiar, and its taste pungent and nauseous.   It is stimulant and antispasmodic.
It is  a frequent  addition to tonic  and cathartic  pills; it communicates stimulant
qualities to the former, and is  believed  to check the  griping  caused by the  latter.
It is occasionally exhibited in the form of elaeosaccharum.  Dose, Try to  m„v.


  215. ANACYCLUS  PYRETHRUM,  De Canrf-PELLITORY OF
                                   SPAIN.
                             Anthemis Pyrethrum, Linn.
                                (Radix, L.—Root, E.)

   History.—Dioscorides1  was  acquainted with  rtvpeepov, and  speaks of its use in
 toothache.   The  word pyrethrum is mentioned once only by Pliny.3
   Botany.  Gen. Char.—Head many-flowered,  heterogamous.   Florets of the
 ray female, sterile, ligulate or somewhat  so, very rarely  tubular; of  the disk  her-
 maphrodite, with 5 callous  teeth.  Receptacle conical or convex, paleaceous.  In-
 volucre in few rows, somewhat campanulate,  shorter than  the disk.   All the corollas
 with  an  obcompressed, 2-winged, exappendiculate tube.   Style  of the disk, with
 exappendiculate   branches.  Achene flat, obcompressed, bordered with broad, entire
 wings.   Pappus  short, irregular, tooth-letted, somewhat  continuous with the wings
 on the inner side. (De Cand.)
   Sp. Char.—Stems several, procumbent, somewhat branched, pubescent.   Radical
 leaves expanded,  petiolated, smoothish,  pinnatisect;  the segments pinnatipartite,
 with linear subulate lobes; the cauline leaves sessile.   Branches 1-headed.   Involu-
 cral scales lanceolate, acuminate, brown at  the  margin.   Receptacle  convex, with
 oblong-obovate, obtuse palese. (De  Cand.)
   Root fusiform, fleshy, very pungent, and, when fresh,  producing a sensation of
 extreme  cold, followed  by heat  when  handled.   Florets  of the  ray white on  the
 upper side, purplish beneath;  of the disk, yellow.
   Hab.—Barbary, Arabia, Syria, and perhaps Candia.
   Description.—The root (radix pyrethri ;  r. pyrethri romani veri) is  imported
 from  the Levant  packed in  bales.  It consists of inodorous pieces, about the length
 and thickness of the  little finger, covered with a  thick  brown bark,  studded with
 black shining points, breaking with a resinous fracture, and presenting internally
 a radiated structure.   When chewed, it excites a pricking sensation in the- lips  and
 tongue, and a glowing heat.
   German pellitory root (radix pyrethri communis seu germanici)  is in much thinner,  somewhat
 longer pieces, crowned superiorly with the bases of  the stalks and petioles.  It  is the produce
 of Anacyclus qfficinarum of  Hayne,3 which  Nees.4  regards as a variety of A. Pyrethrum of
 Sclirader.  De Candolle5 considers  it to be identical with A. pulcher  of Besser.
   Composition.—It  was analyzed by John,6 by Gautier,7  by Parisel,3 and lastly
 byKoene.9   Parisel obtained acrid matter (pyrethrin) 3, inulin  25, gum 11,  tan-
 nin 0.55, colouring matter 12, lignin 45, chloride of potassium 0.79, silica 0.85,
 and iron a trace.
   Ptiikthrin; Acrid Principle; Resin.—In this resides  the  activity of the root.  It exists in
 greater abundance in the bark than in the wood.   It is brown, soft, has a burning acrid taste,
 is insoluble in water, but soluble in ether and alcohol;  still more so in acetic acid and the oils
 (volatile and fixed).  Koene says, pyrethrin consists of  three  substances:—
   a. A brown acrid resin, soluble in alcohol, insoluble in  water or caustic potash.
   8 An acrid brown fired oil, soluble in potash.
   y. A yellow acrid oil, soluble in potash.
   Physiological Effects.—Pellitory is an  energetic local irritant.   Applied to
the skin, it acts as  a rubefacient.
' Lib. iii. cap. 6fi.                               a Hist NaU iib xxv,ii. cap. 43, ed. Valp.
 Darst. u. Beschr. d. in d. Arzneykunde gebr. Gewachse, Bd. vi. Tab. 46.
* Geiger't Pharmacie. 2tc Aufl. 1- Ji).                » Prodromus. t. vi. p. 16.
• Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. ii. 12U2.                  ' Journ. de Pharm. iv. 49.
 Ann. de Chim. Phys \\x. 327.                     » Ibid. six. 251.
      VOL. 11.—38 
594
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Composite.
  Uses.—Scarcely ever  employed internally.   Its principal use is to yield a tiv.
ture for the relief of toothache.   As a masticatory and sialogogue, it is chewed in
some rheumatic and neuralgic affections of the head and face, and in palsy of th
tongue.   In relaxation of the uvula, it  is  occasionally employed in the form > t
gargle.   It was formerly employed internally as a gastric stimulant.
  Administration.—Dose, as a masticatory, 5ss to 5J-   Tinctura pyrethri (com-
posed of  Pyrethrum, Water, of each one part;  Rectified Spirit, five  parts) is used
to relieve toothache.
  216.  ARTEMISIA ABSINTHIUM, i«.-COMMON WORM-
                                    WOOD.
                       Sex. Syst. Syngenesia, Polygamia superflua.
                             (Herba florens, L.—Herb, E.)

   History.—In all  probability  this plant is the  a^ivBtov of  Hippocrates1 and
Dioscorides.3   The  term wormwood occurs  several times in our  translation of the
Old Testament;3  but  the  plant  meant would  appear to be  both  bitter and
poisonous.
   Botany.  Gen. Char.—Heads discoidal, homogamous or heterogamous.  Florets
of the ray in one row, usually female and 3-toothed, with a long bifid protruding style;
of the disk, 5-toothed, hermaphrodite, or, by the absorption of  the ovary, sterile or
male.   Involucral scales imbricated, dry, scarious at the edge.   Rectptuck with-
out paleae, flattish or convex,  naked  or  fringed with hairs.   Achene obovate, bald,
with a minute epigynous disk. (De Cand.)
   Sp. Char.—An erect  undershrub.   Leaves silky, hoary, tripinnatisect;  the seg-
ments lanceolate, somewhat dentate, obtuse.  The  heads small, racemose-panicu-
late, globose, nodding.   Exterior scales of the involucre  somewhat  silky, linear,
lax; interior ones rounded, scarious,  somewhat naked. (De. Cand.)
   Herb covered with silky hoariness, intensely bitter, with a strong peculiar odour.
Stems numerous, about  a foot high.   Leaves  rather greener on the  upper side;
lower ones  on long footstalks; upper on shorter,  broader, somewhat winged ones.
Florets  pale yellow, or buff.
   Hab.—Indigenous; in waste grounds.  Perennial.   Flowers in August.
   Description.—The  dried  herb  with  the  flowers, or the  tops (herba seu mm-
mitates absinthii), have a whitish-gray appearance, a soft feel, a strong aromatic and
somewhat unpleasant odour,  and an extremely  bitter aromatic taste.  The cold
watery  infusion  becomes grayish, olive-green, and turbid [tannate of iron) on tbe
addition of sesquichloride of iron.
   Composition.—This  plant has been analyzed  by Kunsemuller,4 by Braconnot,5
and by Haynes.6   The  extract was examined  by  Leonardi.7   Braconnot found
volatile oil 0.15, green resin 0.50, bitter resin 0.233, albumen 1.250, starch 0.133,
azotized matter  having  little taste  1.333, bitter azotized matter 3.0, woody fibrt
10.833, absinthate of potash 0.917, nitrate of potash 0.333, sulphate of potash ani
chloride of potassium, traces,  water 81.2.
   1. Volatile On (Oleum Absinthii).—Green, sometimes yellow or brownish oil,  having a
strong odour of wormwood, and an acrid, bitter, peculiar taste. Its sp. gr. is 0.972. Nitric acid
colours it green, then blue, afterwards brown.
   2.  Bitteb.  Principle  (Jbsinthin).—Caventou8 obtained what he  calls  the pure btite
principle by precipitating an infusion of wormwood by acetate of lead, and separating the «■
cess of lead by sulphuretted hydrogen.   The liquor was then evaporated to dryness, and  tie
extract digested in alcohol mixed  with ether;  and the solution abandoned to spontaneous en
poration. The product was a very bitter matter, in brown ramifications.  By heat, no crystalun
sublimate could be obtained.
1 Opera, pp. 491, 587, &c. ed. Foes.              » Lib. iii. cap. 26.
» Dent. xxix. 18; Prov. v. 4.                   * Pfaff, Mai  Xtd.jv.tol.
■ Bull, de Pharm. v. 549.                      « Geiger, Handb. d.Pkam. ii. UW.
'■ Journ. de Pharm. xiv. 620.                   8 Journ. de Chim. Mid. t. iv. p. »° 
                   Moxa-Weed:—Preparation; Effects.                  595

  3. Abbihthic Acid.—May be precipitated, according to Braconnot, from the watery infusion
of wormwood by acetate of lead.  It is very acid, uncrystallizable, and deliquescent.  It does
not precipitate the solutions of the nitrates of lead, mercury, and silver; but causes  flocculent
precipitates wben dropped into barytes or lime-water.  Absinthate of ammonia crystallizes in
quadrilateral prisms insoluble in alcohol.
  4. Salt of Woiimvvood (Sal Absinthii).—This is impure carbonate  of potash, obtained by
iocineri.ting wormwood.
  Physiological Effects.—In moderate doses  it produces the  ordinary effects
of the aromatic bitter tonics (see ante, p. 244)    Its bitter principle becomes ab-
sorbed : hence, the  flesh  and milk of animals fed with it are  rendered  bitter.
Borrich1 says that the milk rendered bitter by it proves noxious to  the infant.
  Large doses irritate the stomach and  excite the  vascular  system.   A  specific in-
fluence over the nervous system, characterized by headache, giddiness, &c, has been
ascribed to it.3   This has usually been supposed to depend on the volatile  oil;  but
a similar power has been assigned to the bitter principle.
  Uses.—Wormwood  is  but  little employed  in  medicine.  It is adapted for dys-
pepsia occurring  in debilitated  and  torpid  constitutions.   It was at one time cele-
brated for the cure of intermittents; but it has been superseded by  other and more
powerful febrifuges.   It is  said to  be  efficacious  as  an  anthelmintic, but is very
rarely employed as such.
   Administration.—Dose of  the powder, 9j to 5J; of the  infusion (prepared
by macerating 3j of the dried herb  in Oj of boiling water),  fjj  to  fjij.
  Artemisia vulgaris, or Mugwort, has been  employed in epilepsy, infantile convulsions, chorea,
hysteria, and amenorrhcea.  But I suspect its powers are  feebler than the preceding species.


             217.  Artemisia Moxa, De Cand.—Moxa-Weed.

                       Sex. Syst. Syngenesia, Polygamia superflua.
                                   (Folia;  Moxa.)
  Tbe moxa is a small mass (usually cylindrical or pyramidal) of combustible vegetable mat-
 ter, employed for effecting cauterization (moxybustion of Percy).3  It has long been known  that
the Cliinese and Japanese prepared it from a species of Artemisia,4 which Dr. Lindley5 says is
the J. Moxa, De Cand.; and  Dr. Roxburgh6 observes, that the  A indica  has none of the  soft
white down on the under side of its leaves, of which moxa is made in Japan and China.
  The Chinese and Japanese moxa is  said by some to be  prepared from  the  cottony or woolly
 covering of the leaves of the Artemisia.  Thunberg,7 however, states that in Japan the dried
 tops and leaves are beat till they become like tow; this  substance is then rubbed betwixt the
 hands till tbe harder fibres and membranes are separated, and there remains  nothing  but a fine
 cotton.
   European moxas are usually made either with cotton-wool (which has been soaked in a solu-
 tion of nitrate or chlorate of potash) or the  pith of the sun-flower (Helianthus annuus), which
contains  naturally nitrate of potash.  Their shape is either cylindrical or conical;  their size is
 variable.  Percy's moxas, prepared by Robinet, are usually found in the London shops.  They
consist of pith rolled in cotton  and enveloped in muslin.
  The physiological effects of the moxa are twofold, primary and secondary.  It first excites an
agreeable sensation of heat.   This is speedily followed by pain, which progressively increases
until it becomes most severe, and the vitality of the part is destroyed. The  parts  immediately
around the eschar are intensely red.  The eschar  may be deep or superficial, according to the
tmie the moxa is kept in contact with the skin.  Tbe action  of the moxa differs  from that of
the metallic actual cautery in  this important particular,  that  the  heat  acts  slowly, increases
gradually, and penetrates to a  greater depth.  The secondary effects consist  in the production
01 inflammation, by which the eschar is  separated, and establishment of suppuration more or
lets profound, according to circumstances.
  •loxa is employed in the treatment of diseases, on the  principle of counter-irritation, before
explained (see vol. i. p. 170).   This, indeed, has been denied by those8 who consider the  pro-
auction of a discharge as the only mode of effecting counter-irritation.  It is adapted for chronic

  ' Att. Ha/n. vol. ii. p. 165.
   »*« Lindeitolpe,  ui Murray, App. Med.; and Kraus, Heilmittell. p. 422.
  \DM.Sc..\Ud. xxxiv. 471
  , ,;(,'ur1T"'0' l'l. Cochinchincnsis, ii. 492; Thunberr, Voyages au Japon, Sec. iv. 74.   • Fl. Med. 463.
  , ''■{■*• iii 420.                                                         •> Op. cit.
    « Boyle, Treat, on Moxa, p. 89, 1S25. 
596                 VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Composite.
diseases and maladies characterized by lesions of sensation or  motion; and it is, on the other
hand, injurious in all acute inflammatory diseases.   The following is a list of the principal dis-
eases against which it has been employed;  and  for farther  information  respecting them I
must refer the reader to the writings of Larrey,1 Boyle,2 Wallace,3 and Dunglison,4 as the limits
and objects df this work do not  admit of farther details.— 1. Paralysis of the  sentient or motor
nerves.  Great benefit has been obtained by the use  of moxa in this class of diseases.   Amau-
rosis, deafness, loss of voice and speech, hemiplegia, and especially paraplegia,  have been re-
lieved by it.   2. Painful affections of nerves, muscles, or the fibrous tissues ;  as neuralgia, sciatica
lumbago, and chronic rheumatism.  3. Spasmodic diseases, either of particular parts or of the
general system; as spasmodic  asthma, epilepsy, &c.  4.  Diseased joints and  spinal maladies; as
chronic articular inflammation, white swelling, stiff joints,  hip-joint disease, curvature  of the
spine, &c.   5.  Visceral diseases; as organic diseases of the  brain, phthisis pulmonalis,chronic
hepatitis and  splenitis, &c.
   In the employment of moxa, two points deserve  especial attention ; first, the parts  proper
or otherwise for its use; and secondly, the mode of applying it.  It has been applied to nearly
every part of the body.  Larrey, however, considers the following parts improper for  its ap-
plication:  1.  All that part of the skull covered by skin and  pericranium only.  2. The eyelids,
nose, ears, larynx, trachea, sternum, glandular  parts of the breasts, linea alba, and parts of gene-
ration.   3. Over the course of superficial tendons, articular prominences, where there is danger
of injuring the articular capsules, and projecting points of bone.
   Tbe mode  of applying moxa  is as follows: Set it on fire at the summit,  and  apply its base
(by  a porte-moxa, pair of forceps, wire, or other convenient instrument) to the skin. To pre-
vent the surrounding p;wts being burnt by sparks, Larrey recommends them to  be  previously
covered  with a wet raii, perforated in the centre, to admit the base of the moxa. If the com-
bustion flag, it may  be  kept up  by the breath, blow-pipe, or bellows.   After the combustion is
over, Larrey recommends  the immediate  application of liquor ammoniae, to repress excessive
inflammation and suppuration.

            218. Artemisia.   One or more Species yielding Wormseed.

   The substance sold in the shops under the name of Wormseed consists of broken  peduncles,
mixed with the calyx and flower-buds of some species of Artemisia.   It  has  been  known by
various names; as  semencontra, (an abridgment of  the Latin phrase "semen contra vermes,")
semen santonicum, semen cince, semen sementina, &c.
   The sort usually found in English shops is that brought from the Levant  (semen rinee levanti-
cum, halepense, vel alexandrinum), and  which is considered to be the best.   By some writers it
is said to be the produce of Bucharia, and  to come into Europe through  Russia; hence it has
been called semen cina muscoviticum.  Guibourt5 declares it to be the produce of Artemisia Con-
tra, Linn.  (A. Sieberi, Besser.)   But three other species, viz.: A. Vahliana, A. pauciflora, and A,
Lercheana are also said to supply part of it.6  Barbary wormseed  (semen cince barbaricum seu
africanum) is considered by Guibourt to be the produce of Artemisia glomerata of  Sieber.  It
consists of small globular  flower-buds attached to trie extremity of the branches.  A third  sort,
called Indian or East Indian  wormseed (semen cince ostindicum) has been described.  It agrees
with the Barbary sort, except in colour, which is more greenish yellow.
   Wormseed has been analyzed by Trommsdorff7  and by Wackenroder.8   The latter found in
the  Levant wormseed the following ingredients : volatile oil 0.0039, bitter matter 20.25, resinous
bitter substance  4.45, green resin  6.05, rerin 0.35, gummy extractive  15.50, ulmin  8.60, malate oj
lime with a little silica 2.00, woody fibre 35.45,  intermixed earthy matter 6.70.  More recently, a
crystalline substance called santonine or cinin (C10H6O2) has been obtained from wormseed. It
is odourless, bitter,  and scarcely soluble in cold water.
   Wormseed is employed as  a  vermifuge in doses of from 3] to ^ij, repeated night and morn-
ing, and succeeded by a brisk purge.9


            219.  Tanacetum  vulgare,  Zw.-Common  Tansy.

                           Sex. Syst. Syngenesia, Polygamia superflua.
                                           (Folia.)

   Tansy was ordered to be cultivated in gardens by Charlemagne.10
   It is an indigenous plant, which is  cultivated  in gardens as a  medicinal or pot-herb, or for
 •  Diet, de Scien. Med. art. Moxa.                                        * ZVWZdil,
 »  Physiol. Enq. resp. Moxa, 1827.                                        ' Mw **™iM
 *  Hist. Nat. des Drogues simjil. t. iii. p. 37, 4eme fed. 1850.
 6  Nees, Geiger's Pharmacie, 2te Aufl. 1839.                                     „.   •  5927.
 1  TrommsdorfPs iVewe Journal, Bd. iii.                                 j -n 1  *r.rf BoWM.wt
 »  For farther details respecting the mediciual quahties of this drug, see VVoodville'i »<■ j»«» »'
i. p. 337.—Woodville's Artemisia santonica is the A. Maritima, var. & suavolenta, ot ue i/anuu» •
10  Sprengel, Hist. Rei Herb. i. 220. 
Mountain Arnica:—History; Botany; Description.         597
ornament.  The herb and flowers (herba et flores tanaceti) have a disagreeable aromatic odour
and a nauseous, strong, aromatic, bitter taste.  The infusion is rendered dark green  and turbid
[tannate of iron) by segquichloride of  iron.  Both leaves and  flowers  have  been  analyzed  by
Fromherz and by Peschier.1  The constituents of tbe leaves, according to Peschier, are—vola-
tile oil, fatty oil, wax or stearine, chlorophylle, bdter resin, yellow colouring matter, tannin with gallic
acid, bdter extractive, gum, woody fibre, tanacetic acid.  The volatile oil (oleum tanaceti), is yellow,
but sometimes green.   It has the peculiar odour of the plant, a warm, bitter  taste, and a sp.  gr.
of O.'.'.Vi.  The bitter matter is the substance usually denominated extractive ;  but according to
Peschier, it is in part resin.  Tanacetic acid is crystallizable, and  precipitates lime, baryta, and
oxide of lead, and causes a precipitate with a solution of acetate of copper.
  Tansy produces the usual effects of the aromatic bitter tonics (see ante, p. 244).  "A fatal case
of poisoning with half an ounce of oil of tansy is  recorded in the Medical Magazine. Nov. 1834.
Frequent and violent clonic spasms were  experienced, with  much  disturbance of respiration;
and the action of the heart gradually became weaker till death took place from its  entire sus-
pension. No inflammation of the stomach or bowels was discovered upon  dissection.''2  The
young leaves are occasionally employed by the cook to give colour and  flavour to puddings,
and in omelets and other cakes.   In medicine, the plant is rarely employed by the  regular prac-
titioner; but it has been recommended in dyspepsia, intermittents, and gout.3  Its principal use,
however, is as a vermifuge.  Tansy tea (prepared by infusing gij of the herb in Oj  of boiling
water) may be taken in doses of from f^j to f^iij.  A drop or  two of the oil may be added to
vermifuge powders and pills.  The seeds have been used instead  of semina santonici.


    220. ARNICA MONTANA, Linn.—MOUNTAIN ARNICA.
                       Sex. Syst.  Syngenesia, Polygamia superflua.
                              (Flores, Folia,  et Radix.)

   History.—This  plant does not appear to have been known to the ancients;  at
least no undoubted mention  of it occurs in their writings.
   Botany. Gen. Char.—Head many-flowered, heterogaraous.   Florets of the ray
in  one row, female, ligulate;  of  the  disk, hermaphrodite, tubular,  5-toothed.   In-
volucre  campanulate, in 2  rows, with linear-lanceolate  equal  scales.   Receptacle
fringed, hairy.   Tube of the corolla shaggy.   Rudiments of sterile stamens some-
times remaining in  the ligulae.   Style of the disk with long arms, covered  by down
running a long way down, and truncated  or terminated by a short cone.   Achene
Bomewhat cylindrical, tapering to each end,  somewhat ribbed and hairy.  Pappus
in 1 row, composed of close, rigid, rough hairs. (De Cand.)
   Sp. Char—Radical leaves obovate, entire, 5-nerved;  the cauline  ones in  1 or  2
pairs. Stem 1- to 3-headed.   Involucres rough with glands. (De Cand.)
   Perennial.  Stem hairy, about 1 foot  high.  Florets  yellow,  tinged with brown.
   Hab.—Meadows of the cooler  parts of Europe, from the sea-shore to the limits
of eternal snow.
   Description.—The root  (radix arnicse) consists of a cylindrical  caudex, from
2 to 3 inches long, and  2 or 3 lines  thick, from which many fibres arise.   It  is
brown externally, has a disagreeable  yet aromatic odour, and an  acrid nauseous
taste.   The dried flowers (flores arnicse) are  yellowish, and have a similar taste and
praell to the root.  The leaves (folia  arnicse)  have a like smell.
   Composition.—Pfaff* found in the root volatile oil'1.5, acrid resin 5.0, extractive
32.0, gum 9.0, and woody fibre 5.5.   The root has also been examined  by Weiss-
enburger.5   Chevallier  and  Lassaigne8 analyzed  the  flowers,  and  found  in  them
renn,  bitter acrid matter (cytisin), yelloio colouring  matter, gum, albumen, and
gallic ucid.  In the ashes were salts of potash, and lime, and silica.   Mr.  Bastick7
has announced the existence of an alkaloid, which he calls arnicina, in the flowers.
  1. volatile Oil.—The oil obtained from the root (oleum radicum arnica, Cod. Hamburg)  is
yellowish, lighter than water (sp. gr. 0.94), and has a burning aromatic taste.  Sixteen pounds
of the dried root yield about an ounce of oil.  The  volatile oil of the flowers is blue.

  J Gmelin, Hand. d. Chem. ii. 1290.
  , I**'"' States Disp. from the Am. Journ of the Med. Sciences, xvi. 256.
  ■ JjIUkI- MV„ M,d- ''•                                      * Mat. Med. Bd. iii. S. 210.
  ijoebel anil Kunze, Pharm. Waarenk. Rd. ii  S. 177.              • Journ. de  Pharm. t. v. p. 248.
  Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. x. p. 386, Ifol. 
598               VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Composite.

  2. Resis (Arnicin).—The acridity of the root and  flowers resides, according to Pfaff in the
resin, which is soluble in alcohol.
  3  Extractive  Matter.—According to Chevallier and  Lassaigne, this is nauseous ncrul
bitter, and soluble in both water and spirit.  They consider it to be analogous to cylisin.
  4. Arnjcixa.—Not volatile, bitter but not acrid, slightly soluble in water but more so in alco-
hol  and ether.  Its hydrochlorate is crystallizable (Bastick).
  Physiological Effects, o.  On  Animals.—The effects of tlie flowers of Arnica
on horses have been examined by Viborg.1  An infusion of six drachms of the flow-
ers  quickened the  pulse, and  acted as a  diuretic.   An infusion, thrown into  the
veins,  caused insensibility.
  f3.  On Man.—Jbrg and his pupils have submitted themselves to  the influence of
this plant.2  From their observations, as well as  from the testimony  of others,
Arnica appears to possess acrid  properties.  When swallowed, it causes burning in
tbe throat, nausea, vomiting, gastric pains, and loss  of appetite.  The active prin-
ciple becomes absorbed, quickens the pulse  and respiration, and promotes diapho-
resis and diuresis.   Farthermore, it appears to exert a specific influence over  the
nervous  system,  causing headache,  giddiness, and disturbed  sleep.   Sundelin8 con-
siders  it to  be closely allied in operation  to  senega, from  which, he says, it differs
in its stimulating influence over  the nervous system, and in its causing constipation.
  Use.—Arnica is indicated in diseases characterized by debility, torpor, and in-
activity.   It is administered as  a stimulant  to the general system in various debili-
tated conditions, and in typhoid fevers; to the nervous system in  deficient sensibility,
as amaurosis; to the muscular system in paralysis;  to the vascular system and se-
creting organs when the action of these is languid, and requires to  have its energy
increased, as in  some forms of dropsy, chlorosis, amenorrhcea, asthenic inflammation,
&c.  Farthermore, it  has been employed empirically in some maladies, as diarrhoea,
dysentery, &c.   It is rarely employed in this country.
  Administration.—1. Of the flowers.  Dose of the powder, grs. v to grs. x mixed
with syrup  or  honey  to form an electuary.  The infusion and tincture are more
convenient preparations.   Infusum arnicse  (florum), Ph.  Castr.  Ruth., is made
with 3ss of the flowers to Ibj of water; dose, f.|j to f^ij.  Tinctura arnicse (florum),
Ph. Boruss., is  prepared with giss of the flowers to Ibj of  rectified spirit; dose,  tys
to f3iss.—2. Of the root.  This may be  given in  the form of  infusion.  Infusum
arnicse (radicis), Ph.  Castr. Ruth., is made with 9ij  of  the root to Ibj of water;
dose, fgj.

   221.  LACTUCA  SATIVA, De CW.-THE GARDEN  OR COS
                                  LETTUCE.
                              Lactuca sativa, var. &, Linn.
                         Sex. Syst. Syngenesia, Polygamia aequalis
             [Herba florens, L.—Inspissated juice. E.—Inspissated juice and leaves, D.)
    History.—The ^pi'SoS, or Lettuce, was well known to the  ancient  Greeks and
Romans.   It is mentioned  by Hippocrates4 both as an aliment and medicine; and
by Dioscorides.6   It  is probable  that the $pCb~o.% jj>tpoj of  the latter writer is our
Lactuca sativa.7  " The sedative powers of Lactuca  sativa, or Lettuce, were known,
observes Dr. Paris,7 "in the earliest times;  among the fables of antiquity, we  read
that, after the death of Adonis, Venus threw herself on a  bed of lettuces to lull her
grief  and repress her  desires."                                               .  .
    Botany.  Gen. Char.—Heads  many or few-flowered.   Involucre cylindrical,
 calyculate-imbricate,  in 2 or 4 rows; outer rows short. Recej>facle naked. -^''*'
 plane, obcompressed, wingless,  abruptly terminating in a filiform beak. (De land. J

  ' Wirk. d. Arzneim.u. Gifte, i. 231.       s Ibid. S. 226.                  „  ■ ■ «on.„d635.
  ' Hand.d.sp. Heilm. ii. 170,3tte Aufl.     ' De Diata, ii. p. 359; and De Morb. Mul. l. 62J ana w
  5 Lib. ii. cap. 165.                                 .
  6 This also is the opinion of Fraas 'Synops. Plant. Fl. Classica, p. 199, 1*15).
  1 Pharmacol, vol. i. p. 13, 6th ed. 
Cos Lettuce.—Strong-scented Lettuce.
599
  Sp. Char.—Leaves not concave, erect, oblong, narrowed at the base, smooth at
the keel.   Stem elongated, leafy. (De Cand.)
  Annual.   Stem erect, simple below, branched above, 1  or 2  feet high, smooth.
Jjcans rounded or ovate, semi-amplexicaul, frequently wrinkled, usually pale green;
varying much in the different varieties.   Flowers yellow.
  Hab.—Native country unknown; perhaps the East Indies.  Extensively cultivated
in Europe under the name of the Cos Lettuce (Laitue romaine,  Lactuca romana).
  Lactcca capitata, De Cand., or Cabbage Lettuce, and L. crispa, De Cand., or Curled Lettuce,
vere considered by Linnaeus to be varieties of L. sativa.
  Description.—1. Lettuce leaves (folia lactucse) are exclusively used as a salad.
They are  gathered early, before the flower-stem shoots up, and then contain a cool-
ing, bland, pellucid, watery juice.   2. The flowering plant (herba florens, L.) con-
tains an intensely bitter, milky, slightly  narcotic  juice, having an odour allied  to
that of opium.  This  juice resides in the  root,  cortical  portion of the stem  and
branches, and in the involucre.   3. Lactucarium, or Lettuce Opium, is the inspis-
sated milky juice (see p. 600).
  Composition.—In the young state in which the plant is usually brought to table,
its juice consists chiefly of water, mucilage, albumen, and saccharine matter.  But
in the flowering state the juice also contains resin,  a peculiar waxy substance (lactu-
eerin), and a crystalline  bitter substance  (lactucin).   Pagenstecher1 obtained  from
the  distilled water  of lettuce  an odorous  sulphurated volatile oil.   (See also the
composition of Lactucarium from Lactuca sativa, p. 600).
  The decoction of the flowering herb is rendered dark green and turbid  by the
Baits of the  sesquioxide of iron.
  Physiolooical Effects.—The early leaves of the lettuce, eaten as a salad, are
easily digested, but  they yield  only a small portion of nutritive  matter.  They
probably  possess, in  a very mild  degree, soporific  properties.   The  ancients con-
sidered them anti-aphrodisiac.   The flowering plant  is more powerful, and produces,
in a feeble degree, the effects of lactucarium (see p. 601).
  Uses.—Lettuce leaves are employed at the table as a salad.   As they appear  to
possess slight hypnotic properties,  they may be taken with advantage at  supper,  to
promote sleep.  Galen,3 who in his old age was troubled with watchfulness, was  re-
lieved by  the use of lettuce at night.  On the other hand, prudence points out the pro-
priety of abstaining from the use of this plant if there be any tendency to apoplexy.
  EXTRACTDI LACTUCA, French Codex;  Thridace vel Thridacium— This is some-
times called French Lactucarium (Lactucarium  gallicum).   It  is an extract ob-
tained by evaporating the juice expressed from the stalks of the lettuce at the flower-
ing season.   This extract  has  not  been analyzed.   Its composition must resemble
that of the  juice above noticed.  Meissner detected a trace of copper in one speci-
men.  In its effects and uses  it resembles, but is much inferior to, Lactucarium.
Ganzel* found that 10 grains of the extract of lettuce introduced into the cellular
tissue of the thigh of a small dog killed the animal in three days.

      222.  LACTUCA VIROSA,  Linn— STRONG-SCENTED
                               LETTUCE.
                      Sex. Syst. Syngenesia, Polygamia aequalis.
                  (The inspissated juice, E.—Leaves ;  Inspissated juice, D )

  History.—According to Sprengel4 and Fraas,5 this is the $pl8a% dypi'a of Dios-
corides ;B but Dr. Sibthorp7 suggests that Lactuca Scariula was  the plant referred
to by Din>corides.
  Botany.   Gen. Char.—See Lactuca sativa.
Buclyicr's Repertorium, 2te Reihe, Bd. xxiii. S. 17, 1840.     a De aliment, facult. lib.ii. cap. 40.
tjuotnl by Buchner, Repert. Bd. xlii. 2te Reihe, 1847.       * Hist. R-i Herb. i. 185.
*V*ops. Plant. Fl. Class. 1&45.                        • Lib. ii. 166.
Prodr. Fl. Grac. ii. lrW. 
600
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Composite.
   Sp. Char.—Stem erect,  round;  the  base smooth or prickly-setose; the apex
panicled.   Leaves horizontal, prickly-setose at the keel, acutely denticulate, obtuse
at the base arrow-shaped; the lower ones sinuate.  Achenes striated, usually shorter
than the beak.  (De Cand.)
   Herb abounding in fetid milky juice.  Root tap-shaped.   Stem 2 to 4 feet high.
Leaves distant.   Florets yellow.
   Hab.—Indigenous;  about hedges,  old walls, and  borders of fields; not  uncom-
mon.   Biennial.   Flowers in August and September.
  Lactuca virosa, var. B maculata, De Cand.—This variety is distinguished by the purplish-
red stems, and the bloodred or purplish-red spots on the obovate radical leaves.
   Description.—1. The leaves of the strong-scented lettuce (folia latucse virosx)
and other parts of the plant, contain, during the flowering season, a milky juice which
has a strong opiate-like odour and bitter taste.   The leaves of this species, as well
as of  L. Scariola, are  distinguished from those of  L. sativa by the prickles on the
keel of the leaves.   2. Lactucarium is obtained from L. virosa as well as from L.
sativa (see p. 599).
   Composition.—The fresh milky juice1 reddens  litmus paper, and  is coagulated
both  by acids and alcohol.  It contains lactucin, odorous matter  (volatile oil?),
extractive matter, lactucerin, albumen, resin,  and some salts (viz. a vegetable salt of
potash, nitrate  and  sulphate of potash,  chloride of  potassium, sal  ammoniac,  and
some  calcareous and  magnesian salts).   By exposure to  the air it  becomes first
yellow and afterwards  brown, and gradually  solidifies.   In this state  it constitutes
lactucarium,  the composition of which will be stated hereafter.
   Physiological Effects.—The experiments of Orfila3  on  dogs show that  this
plant  possesses  narcotic qualities; but its powers are not very  great, and have been
probably much overrated.  A solution of the extract, thrown into the  veins, caused
heaviness of head, slight drowsiness, feebleness of the hind extremities, difficult and
frequent respiration, slight convulsive movements,  and death.   Glaser3 considers it
to  possess acrid properties.   On Wibmer, two grains of the extract caused sleepi-
ness and  headache.  Its activity depends chiefly on the lactucin.
   Uses.—It is employed only  to furnish lactucarium.
   Antidotes.—In  cases of poisoning by Lactuca virosa, the treatment should be
the same as that for poisoning by opium.

              LACTUCARIUM, E. D. [U. S.]—LETTUCE OPIUM.

   History.—This  is  the inspissated  milky juice (obtained by incision of the stem)
of Lactuca sativa and (chiefly) L. virosa*  It was first collected and  employed by
Dr. J. R. Coxe,5  of  Philadelphia.
   But the term "lactucarium"  has also been  applied to other preparations of the
lettuce.   Thus, Dr.  Duncan, Sen.,6 who first employed the  term, used it to indicate
the extract obtained by evaporating  the tincture  made with weak  spirit of wine;
and in France the term is frequently applied to the extract obtained by evaporat-
ing the expressed juice (see ante, p. 599).                      _
   Collection.—In the young state,  the plant abounds in a cooling, bland, slightly
bitterish, pellucid, watery juice.   At this period, while it consists chiefly of a bunch
of succulent leaves, L. sativa is employed at  table as a very  agreeable salad.  As
the flowering period approaches, the stem shoots up above the early leaves, and the
juice of the plant becomes milky and bitter, and acquires a smell allied to that of
opium.   When incisions are made into the stem, this milky juice exudes, and, by

  1 For a good summary of the known properties of the milky juice, see Buchner, Repertorium, Bd. xlvn.
^ rSci^A.                            * Wibmer, Wirk. d. Arzn. u. Gift Bd. iii. 8. MO.
  * Aubergi'er (Comptes rendus, xv. 923) states that he obtained the largest quantity of lactucarium
L. altissima of Bieberstein—a Caucasian plant.
  s Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, vol. v. p. 3S8, 1799.               ,  Cale.
  s Observations on the Preparation of Soporific Medicines from common Garden Lettuce, read in u
donian Horticultural Society, March 6, l810(Mem.oftheCaledonHort. Soc.vo\. i-P.-l°°'-A'* ■
on the Distinguishing Symptoms of three different Species of Pulmonary Consumption, p. 13», 
Lettuce Opium :—Composition.
601
exposure to the air, dries and becomes the brown solid called lactucarium or lettuce-
opium.  The incisions are effected  either by cutting off  the top of the stem and
removing a fresh slice as often as the surface ceases to yield juice, or by cutting the
sides of the stem.   The exuded juice is removed by the finger, or by scraping with
a knife, placed  in a glass or earthenware vessel, and allowed  to dry spontaneously.
  By drying in the air, the  milky juice of L.  virosa  loses about half its weight of
water,  and yields  from  50  to  55  per cent,  of lactucarium.1   According  to Mr.
Duncan,8  after the  middle  period of  inflorescence,  although  the juice  becomes
thicker, it contains  a less proportion of bitter extract, and, therefore, is  less fit for
yielding lactucarium.   The  quantities of lactucarium obtained by  Schultz3 from
one plant of the following species were—from L. sativa  17 grains, L. scariola 23
grains, and L. virosa 56 grains.
  Properties.—Lactucarium or lettuce-opium, as  usually found  in the  shops of
this  country,  is in small lumps,  which are  seldom larger than a pea or  small
bean;  they are rough and irregular on the surface, sometimes covered with an ash-
gray efflorescence, of a brown or reddish-brown colour, friable, with an  opiate smell
and bitter  taste.   This sort agrees with that said by Dr. Christison to be the lactu-
carium obtained from L. virosa in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh.
  Lactucarium from L. sativa is said by Dr. Christison to  occur in roundish, rather
compact masses, weighing several ounces.
  Lactucarium  prepared  by Aubergier,  pharmacien  at Clermont,  for commercial
purposes, is in round flat cakes, of from 10 to 30 grammes (=154.3 grs. to 463 grs.
troy) each, and is often covered with a whitish efflorescence of mannite.4
  Composition.—Lactucarium  has  been  the subject of  repeated analysis.   That
obtained from Li sativa has  been analyzed by Klink,5 Schrader,6 Peschier,7 and Pe-
retti.8  Pagenstecher9 has also contributed to our knowledge of it. Lactucarium from
L. virosa. has been analyzed  by Klink,10 Buchner," Schlesinger,12 Walz,13 and Lud-
wig."  Lastly,  that from L. altissima  has been examined by Aubergier.15
                                LACTUCARIUM.
From Lactuca sativa.
From L. virosa.
           Klink's Analysis.
Bitter extractive...............55 0
JJ"......................  10.0
Reiin......................   6.9
Caoutchouc..................  17,5
Water.....................  156


          Lactucarium.........105.0
            Buchner's Analysis.
Odorous matter...........undetermined
Lactucin, with colouring matter.....18.6
Gummy extractive.............  14.CG6
Soft resin, with wnxy matter.......12.467
Waxy matter (myricin)..........35.100
Gluten or albumen.............  19.100

            Air-dried Lactucarium .  .  99.933
From L. altissima.
          Aubergier's Analysis.
A eryatallizable bitter substance.
Two resins.
Wax.
Muinite,
Pectin.
Aaparntnide.
Albumen.
A crystallizable substance, convertible into humus
  under the influence of alkalies.
!Mlti.
            Litdwig's Analysis.
1. Matters insoluble in water—
    Lactucerin...........42
    Very fusible wax.......   3
    Vegetable fibre  ........   2
2. Matters soluble in water—
    Albumen............   6
    Bitter extractive.......27
    Watery extractive insoluble
      in alcohol..........14
    Lactucerin rendered  soluble
      by other substances.....   1
9> 48.63
0)
51.37
100.00
; Buchner. Repertor. Bd. xliii. S. 21, 1832.
 Bucnner>s Repertor. Bd. xv. S  272. 1823:
                                            Christison, Dispensatory, 2d ed. p. 5S8, 1848.
       j Repertor. Bd. xv. S. 272, 1823; Berlin, Jahrb. Bd. xxvi. Pt. 1, S. 227.
 uuibourt, Hist. Nat. des Drog. simpl. t. iii. p. 13, 4time td. 1850.
I lean"""''' ihUni Lactuccc virosa et sativa Analys. Chem.  Kiel, 1820 (PfatPs Mat. Med. Bd. vi. S.
 Gmelin, Handb. d. Chemie.
 fharm. Central-Blatt far 1831, S. 467.
                                 Wittstein's Etym.-chem. Handworterbueh, Bd. i. S. £73

"uchner's Repertorinm, 2te Reihe, Bd. xxiii. S. 17, 1840.  "> Diss, supra cit.
ik%r\0"!lml B<i- xliii  S- '• 1832-                     ,a lbid- 2te R,'iht- n<1- xvii. S. 170,
'out. uc Reihe, Bd. xxiii. S. 20, 1840; and Pharm. Central-Blatt fur K-10. S.59.
fnarm. Central-Blatt far 1617, S. 438.
1839.
" Comptes rendus, t. xv.^- "8, 1843. 
602
VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord.  Composite.
   Buchner more recently  has given  the following estimate,  founded on Ludwijr's
analysis, of  the percentage composition of lactucarium: Lactucin,  in combination
with other  substances  soluble in water and spirit of  wine, 28 (the weight of tho
odorous matter, the asparamidc, and two imperfectly examined vegetable acids was
not determined); salts,  as constituents of the ashes, and including 1 per cent, of
oxalic  acid, 7 ; mannite, 2;  albumen, 7 ; insoluble vegetable substances, '2 ; hcturtrin
(lactucon),  44;  waxy matter  and  soft  resin, 4; gummy matter; proteine,  which
Aubergier found in the  lactucarium of L. sativa, and  which  is  probably  also pre-
sent in that of  L. virosa, and water, 6.
   The active principles appear to  be the lactucin and  odorous  matter, to  which
Buchner adds the salts.   The substances which are insoluble  in cold spirit of wino
and  hot water possess  no'medicinal power.
 -  1.  Odorous  Matter;  Volatile  Oil?—This substance resembles in smell the odorous matter
of opium.   When  lactucarium is submitted to distillation with water, the odorous principle
distils over.  Its nature has not been accurately determined.  Both Pagenstecher and W'alz have
obtained a volatile oil, which  the former chemist states contained sulphur.   From the experi-
ments  of Buchner and Walz, it appears to be a basic substance  ; but Ludwig declares it to be
of an acid nature.
   2.  Lactic in ;   Bitter Principle  of  Lactucarium.—This is  a colourless,  odourless,  crystalliz-
able, fusible,  neutral substance.   It requires 60  to 80 parts of water to dissolve  it; and is
readily soluble in alcohol, but  less so in ether. Its watery solution is unaffected hy  acetnte of
lead, chloride of iron, and nitrate of silver; but, mixed with  soda and nitrate of silver, it re-
duces the precipitated oxide of silver to the metallic state; and mixed with sulphate of copper
and soda, and heated to boiling, it reduces the oxide of copper to  the state of protoxide.  It was
obtained  by  Ludwig  thus:  80 parts of lactucarium were rubbed with 80 parts of cold  dilute
sulphuric acid for half an hour, and then mixed with 400 parts of rectified spirit.  The  liquid
being filtered, slacked lime was added to it, to  precipitate the sulphuric acid, and the solution
was then evaporated.  The brown viscid extract was digested in water, the solution treated by
animal charcoal, and filtered and  evaporated so as  to yield crystals of lactucin.
   3. Lactucerin ; Lactucon ; Waxy Matter of Lttctwuriiun.—A neutral cystalline substance in-
soluble in water,  but  soluble in alcohol, ether, and the  fixed and volatile oils.  Its formula is
C°H32Os.
   The lactucic  acid of Pfaff is declared by Walz to be oxalic acid.
   A strong though unfounded suspicion  appears to have been entertained, that morphia was
contained in  lactucarium.  But in  none of the before-quoted analyses was it to he found; neither
was Caventou' able to detect an atom of either morphia or narcotin in lactucarium.
   Characteristics.—The cold aqueous decoction of lactucarium becomes, on the
addition  of sesquichloride  of iron, olive-brown  (tannate?  of iron).   Tincture of
nutgalls renders the decoction slightly turbid.  Heated with lactucarium, colourless
nitric  acid acquires an orange-yellow tint, and evolves binoxide of nitrogen.  The
alcoholic tincture of lactucarium becomes slightly turbid on the  addition of water.
   Physiological Effects.—Lactucarium  possesses  anodyne and sedative quali-
ties :  but  its powers  have, I suspect,  been overrated.   Ganzel2 states,  that ten
grains introduced into  the cellular tissue of a dog's leg caused deep  sopor,  with oc-
casional convulsions,  but  no dilatation  of the pupil.   Francois,3 who made a con-
siderable number of  trials of it, observes that it contains neither a  narcotic nor an
intoxicating principle; but that it allays  pain, diminishes the rapidity of the circu-
lation, and, in  consequence, reduces the  animal  heat, and  places the  patient in a
condition more favourable to  sleep.   Its  modus operandi is different from that of
opium;  for the  latter substance accelerates the  pulse, and produces either delirium
or stupor.  It is more allied  to hyoscyamus, from which, according to Fisher,4 it
is distinguished by its  power  of directly diminishing sensibility, being preceded by
irritation of the nervous system.   Buchner compares the action  of  lactucin to that
of digitalin,  and says  it diminishes the force and frequency of the pulse and the
animal heat,  dilates the  pupil, and causes sleep and  stupor.   A  more extended ex-
perience of the  use of lactucarium, however, is requisite to enable us to form accu-
rate conclusions as to the precise nature and  degree of its powers.

  1 Journ. de Chim. Mid. i. 300.           » Sundelin, Handb. d. sp. Heilm. Bd. i. S. 459,3tte Aul
  2 Arch. Gin. de Mid. Juin, 1825, p. 264.    * Lond. Med. Gaz. xxv. 803. 
Safflower, or Bastard Saffron.
003
  l'<i.s.—Tt is employed as  an anodyne, hypnotic, antispasmodic, and sedative,
where opium is considered objectionable, either from peculiarities on the part of the
patient or from  the nature of  the disease.  Thus, it may be used where there is
morbid excitement of the vascular system, in which condition  opium is  usually
contraindicated.   But though it is free from  several of the inconveniences which
attend the use of opium, yet it is much  less  certain in its operation.   It  may be
given with advantage to allay cough in phthisis and other pulmonary affections;1 to
relieve nervous irritation and watchfulness in  febrile  disorders  in which  opium is
not admissible.   Dr. Rothamel3 has employed it with success in  different kinds of
fevers, inflammations, exanthemata, profluviae,  cachexies, and painful  and peculiar
nervous disorders.   Vering8 found it especially useful in spasm  of the uterus; and
Angelot gave it to repress seminal discharges.
  Administration—The  usual  dose is from grs. iii to grs. v;  but  it  has been
given in larger  quantities, as from grs. x to grs. xx.

  1. TINCTURA  L.WTITARII, E.; Tincture of Lactucarium.—(Lactucarium, in fine
powder, £iv; Proof Spirit Oij.  This  tincture is best prepared by percolation, as
directed for tincture of myrrh; but may also be  prepared by digestion with coarse
powder of lactucarium.)—As lactucin  (the  bitter principle of lactucarium)  is soluble
in proof spirit, this liquid is a fit menstruum for preparing the tincture.
  I TROCHISCI  LACTUCARII, E.j Lozenges of Ladnravium.—(To  be prepared with
lactucarium in the same proportion and in the same manner as the Opium Lozenge.)—
Each lozenge weighs ten grains,  and contains  nearly one-sixth of a grain of lactu-
                             TRIBE V.  CYNAREiE.

                Style thickened upwards, and often fringed at the tumour.



 223.  Carthamus tinctorius, Linn.—Safflower, or Bastard Saffron.

                        Sex. Syst. Syngenesia, Polygamia tequalis.
                                       (Flosculi.)

  Kimue, Theophrastus, Hist. Plant, lib. vi. cap  3 and 4; xn'xoj,  Dioscorid. lib. iv. cap. 190.__A
native of the East Indies, where, as well as in many other parts  of the world (e. g. E^'vpt, South
of Europe. South America, &c ), it is cultivated  for commercial purposes.
  The officinal parts are the florets, without the involucre.  When dried, they constitute the
tajflower, or bastard saffron (flores carthami), of the shops.  They consist of the red tubular corolla
divided superiorly into five segments, and inclosing the  sexual organs. They have  a faint odour,
allied to that of saffron, and a feeble bitterish taste.  According  to Dufour,* *afflower consists of
red colouring matter 0.5, yellow colouring nuttier 2.4, acid yellow colouring matter with sulphates of lime
and potash 2 1.4, extractive with yellow colouring matter, chloride of potassium, and acetate of potash
4.2, resin 0.30, wax 0.9, woody fibre 4H.6, albumen  5.5, vegetable remains and sand 4.6, alumina and
musmsia 0.5, oxide of iron 0.'2, moisture G 2, loss 0.7.
  1\»- yellow colouring matter is  of the  nature of extractive. Its formula, according to Schlieper,5
it C'MI'OO'O.  It is soluble in water, and is useless  for dyeing. The red colouring matter (nirtha-
mine or  carlhamic acid) is of a resinous nature.  Its formula, according to Schlieper, i'- C'-'H^O*.
It is soluble  in alcoliol  and alkaline liquids, and  is  precipitable  from  its alkaline solution by
■nds.   It is sparingly soluble in water, and is perfectly insoluble in ether.   It is extracted  from
MlUower (which has been deprived of its yellow colouring matter by washing with water) by
means of carbonate of soda.  From the alkaline solution it is precipitated by acetic (or citric)
■cid.  In the moist state it is imported and sold under the name of extract  of safflower.  Spread
on saucers and dried, it constitutes the pink saucers sold in the shops for dyeing silk. The colour
which it yields is beautiful but fugitive.  Dried  and mixed with  French  chalk (talc), carthamin
ooiiMituu-a rouge (rouge vr'grtal),  which is used  as  a cosmetic.   Chinese card-rouge is a small
' Ounrnn. Oburv. on Pulm. Consump. IS1.1.
j Uirrhnrh, Stutst Fnl.l. in d. Mat. Mtd. S. 11% 1KJ7.  * Ibid S. 119
 J'm. <(« Chim  I. xlviii. p. £■".!, 1.-04.                » Chemical Gazette, vol. iv. p. 376, 1^48. 
604               VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Composite.

folded card covered with a thin film of the colouring matter of the safflower, which in this dried
state has a golden green metallic brilliancy, but which, when moistened, communicates a beau-
tiful tint.  Thin films of dried carthamin have a golden green metallic-brilliancy, like the elytra
of cantharides.
  Safflower is sometimes used to adulterate hay saffron.   The mode of detecting the fraud has
already been pointed out (see ante, p. 218).   What is called cake saffron (crocus in placenta) is
made with safflower and mucilage (see ante, p. 218).
  The achenia of safflower are called seeds (semina carthami).  They yield an oil by expression
and were formerly used in medicine.
                Sub-order II.  LABiATiFLORiE, De  Cand.

                      Flowers hermaphrodite, usually 2-lipped.

  This sub-order includes two tribes; viz:—


                          Tribe YI.  Mutisiace^.

                         Tribe  VII.  NASSAUViACEiE.

Neither of these tribes contains any  officinal plants.


                Sub order III. Liguliflor;e?  De Cand.

                      All the flowers ligulate and hermaphrodite.


                         Tribe VIII.  Cichorace.e.

Style cylindrical at the upper part;  its arms somewhat obtuse, and equally pubescent.
     224.  TARAXACUM  OFFICINALE,  Wiggers— COMMON
                               DANDELION.
                        Sex. Syst. Syngenesia, Polygamia aequalis.
                             (Radix recens, L.—Root, E.)
   History.—As this plant is a native  of Greece/ it  must have been known to
the ancients.   Sprengel2 and Fraas think that it is the a^dxrj of Theophrastus.3
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—Head many-flowered.   Involucre double; external scales
small,  closely pressed, spreading or reflexed;  internal ones in 1 row, erect; all fre-
quently callous-horned at the apex.   Receptacle naked.  Achene oblong, Striated,
muricate near the small ribs, or spinulose at  the apex, terminating in a long beak.
Pappus hairy, in many rows, very white.  (De Cand.)
   Sp.  Char.—Leaves runcinate,  toothed.   Achene linear-obovate, blunt  and equa-
mosely muricated  at  the  summit,  longitudinally  striated,   with  a  long  beak
(Babington).
   Root perennial.   Leaves  all radical, very  variable, glabrous or slightly hispid.
Scapes single-headed, radical.   Florets yellow.
  Locality and other circumstances modify the  characters of  this species.   Botanists are by no
means agreed as to the number of its varieties.   The following, considered by De Candolle and

  1 See Prodr. Fl. Greecce, ii. 129: and Fraas, Synops. PI. Flora Class, p. 201, 1845.         .. .,
  3 Hist. Rei Herb. i. 100.                                          ' Hist. Plant, vii. 81. 
Common Dandelion :—Composition.                   605
some others 88 distinct species, are regarded by Mr. Babington as mere varieties, since they are
rjuite connected by intermediate forms:—

                      I. Outer involucral scales reflexed or patent.

  «. genuinum: outer scales linear, deflexed.—This variety is the  Leontodon Taraxacum of
Smith and most botanists, the Taraxacum Dens Leonis of De Candolle.  Glabrous or woolly at
the crown of the root.   Leaves runcinate, broad.  Flowers golden yellow. The head expanded
in the morning and in fine weather.  Achenes yellow. Their upper half muricated. This is the
variety which should be employed in medicine.
  6.  larvigatum: outer scales  erectopatent, ovate—T. larvigatum, De Cand.   Leaves runcinate-
pinnatifid, with unequal teeth.   Achenes reddish-yellow, muricated at the summit, beak with
a thickened and coloured base.
  y. erythrospermum: outer scales lanceolate, adpressed or patent.—T. erythrospermum,T)e Cand.
Lenves runcinate-pinnatifid, with unequal teeth and intermediate smaller ones. Achenes bright
red, muricated at the  summit;  beak with  a thickened and coloured base.—The  lowermost
leaves are sometimes obovate and  dentate, not runcinate, when it becomes T. obovatum, De
Cand.

                              II. Outer scales adpressed.

  i.paluslre: outer scales ovate-acuminate—Leontodon paluslre, Smith.   Leaves oblong and
entire, sinuate-dentate, or runcinate.   Florets often reddish externally.  Achenes pale-yellow
or brown, muricated at the summit.—Taraxacum leptocephalum, Reichenbach, is a sub-variety,
with the outer involucral scales ovate-lanceolate or lanceolate.
  Hab.—Indigenous; very common—var. o in meadows and  pastures everywhere,
y in dry places, h in bogs.
  Description.—The fresh root (radix taraxaci)  is tap-shaped, branched, fleshy,
and  abounding  in milky juice, which  resides  in the laticiferous  tissue called  by
Grew1 " milk vessels."   Externally, it is dull yellow or brownish ; internally, white.
It is without  odour;  its  taste  is  bitter (especially  in  the  summer).   The cold
watery infusion of the dried  root deposits a dirty-gray flocculent precipitate on the
addition of sesquichloride  of  iron.
  Mr. Gileb2 states that the roots of Rough Hawkbit (Apargia hispida, Willd.) are sometimes sub-
stituted for  those of Dandelion.  They may be distinguished thus: the roots of Dandelion are
smooth-skinned, tawny-coloured,  crisp or easily frangible, and contain usually a milky juice;
those of Hawkbit  have a wrinkled cuticle, are pale-coloured, tough, break with difficulty, and
rarely exhibit a milky juice.  The leaves, when attached, also serve to distinguish the plants;
those of  Hawkbit are  hairy, whereas,  the leaves of the  genuine variety of Dandelion are
smooth.

  Composition.—C Sprengel3 analyzed the leaves and  stems, and found them to
consist of 85 parts of water, 9.140 of  matters extractible  by water (viz. albumen,
mucilage,  gum, and sugar), 3.091 of matters extractible by  dilute caustic potash
lye, 0.100 of wax, resin, and chlorophylle, and 2.069 of fibre.
  The milky juice of the  root has been analyzed by John,4 who found in it caout-
chouc, bitUr matter, traces of resin, sugar, and gum, free acid, jdiosphates, sulphates,
and hydrochlorates of potash and lime, and water.   Mr. Squire5  says  the expressed
juice contains gum, albumen, gluten, an odorous principle, extractive, and a peculiar
crystallizable bitter principle soluble in alcohol and water.
  In 1^10, Frickhinger8 made  a comparative analysis of  dandelion root  gathered
in November, 1839, and of that collected  in April, in 1j>40.   His results were as
follows:—
   Amatomy of Plants, p. 104, tab. xiii. \6<2.        » Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. xi. p. 107, 1*51.
   Krdin.-mn'i Techn. Journ. lid. v.  S. 2S<5: quoted by Wittstein (Vollst. etymol. chem. HandwOrUrbueh,
H'l.P, S 915, 1847).
 ' •■nielin. Handb. de Chem. ii. 1P27.
 ' Uramle'n Diet, of Mat. Med. and Pharm. p. 532; nnd Pharrr. Journal, vol. i. p. 421.
   Buchners li,,<,rt. 2t<- Reihe, Ud. xxiii. S 45, 1840. 
GOG
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Composite,
Gathered in Autumn.
Extract prepared 'with cold water :—
    Part insoluble in alcohol (albumen, mannite,
      extractive, mucilage with  potash, soda, and
      lime, combined with muriatic, sulphuric, und
      phosphoric acids)...............
    Part  soluble in  alcohol  (extractive, sugar.
      mannite, and chloride of potassium)  ....
Extract prepared by boiling the root in water :—
    Part insoluble in alcohol (inulin. potash, lime.
      phosphoric acid, and traces of sulphuric and
      muriatic acid).................
    Part soluble in alcoholic (extractive, chloride
      of  potassium,  traces  of  tannin, lime, and
      sulphuric acid)................
Albumen contaminated with some extractive . .
Wax..........................
Residue exhausted by cold and boiling water . .  .
Loss ascribable to the fermentation of the inulin  .
Loss..........................
Water.........................
Ashes (carbonates of potash, soda, and lime; chlor-
   ide of potassium ; sulphates of potash and lime :
   phosphate of lime ; and silica).........
Fresh Root.' Root dried
           lat 993.5 F.
6.41

3.66
3.04
 1.7S
 0.33
 0.13
 9.16
 2.94
 0.32
72.23
23 10

13.20
11.20
 6 10
 1 20
 0.48
33.00
10.62
 O.bO
100.00
Gathered in Spring.
Fresh Root. Root drud
           at 99 .', I',
1.30

3.45
0.88
 1.60
 0 52
 0.18
 9.02
 2.86
 0.19
79.94
100.00
 0.8

17.2
4.4
 80
 2.8
 0.9
45.0
14 3
 0.8
7.8
  From these analyses, it appears that the root gathered in the autumn is richer in those ingre-
dients which are extractible by water than the root collected in the spring; whereas, the latter
contains more albumen, wax, and mineral constituents (ashes).
  Dandelion root washed, crushed, and pressed, yields about half its weight of juice.  Except
in the months of April and  May, when it is  very aqueous, this juice spontaneously coagulates,
and becomes of a fawn colour.   The quantity of extract  obtained from the juice varies at differ-
ent seasons.1
                                                          Juice.
           In January and February  .............4 to 5  lbs.  yield 1  lb. of extract.
           In March.......................  6 to 7  lbs.      .  ditto.
           In April and May..................  8-to9  1bg.         ditto.
           In June, July, and August.............6 to 7  lbs.         ditto.
           In September and October.............4 to 5  lbs.         ditto.
           In November and December............      4  lbs.         ditto.

   It is obvious, then, that the expressed juice is richest in solid  constituents  in the months of
November and December.  It is remarkable, however, that the juice possesses the greatest bit-
terness in tbe summer months; while in the spring, and  late in the autumn, it has a remarkably
sweet taste.2  Squier considers this change to be effected  by the frost.
   1.  Tahaxacix ; Dandelion-bitter.—This, which is probably the active principle of the root, is
obtained by  receiving the milky juice in distilled water, heating the liquid to boiling, by which
the resin and albumen are separated, filtering the liquid when cold, and slowly evaporating, so
that crystals may be  formed.  These  may be purified  by washing, and by solution in either
distilled water or alcohol.  Pure taraxacin  occurs in stellated and dendritic masses, has a hitter
and somewhat acrid  taste, and is readily soluble in ether, alcohol, and boiling water, but diffi-
cultly so in  cold   water.  It is easily fusible  and  inflammable,  burns  without  developing
ammonia, dissolves in concentrated acids without producing  any colour, and  is neutral to test
papers.3                                                                             ,   .
   2.  Resin.—The resin obtained from the milky juice is white, crystallizable, soluble in alco-
hol and ether, but insoluble in caustic alkalies.  Its  spirituous solution has an acrid taste, and
yields no precipitate on the addition of acetate of lead.                               .
    3.  Iuulix.—According to Overbeck,4 the root collected in the spring yields  very little inulin;
but Ibj of the dried root collected in the autumn yielded him 2j ounces of the inulin.     ^
   4.  Sugar.—This has been obtained from dandelion root by Widnmann,5 by Frickhinger, and
by the Messrs. Smith.7  It  readily undergoes decomposition in the watery infusion of the root,
and probably becomes converted into mannite and lactic acid.
  1 Squire, op. cit.                                 » Geiger, Handb. d. Pharm.            , p^
  * Polcx, Arch. d. Pharm. Bd. xix.; Berlinisches Jahrb.fur d. Pharm. Bd. xln. S. 200,1839, ana r»»
maceutical Journal, vol. i. p. 425.
  4 Arch. J. Pharm.  Bd. xxiii. S. 210.
  6 Op. supra cit.
« Buchner's Repert. Bd. xliii. S. 281,1832.
' Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. vin. P- «W|m* 
Common Dandelion:—Physiological Effects; Administration.   607
                        C,2H12012  =  c6H708  -f  c6H'-o>
                        <^\'>J       (✓vV      v-*-v-w
                      Grape sugar.    Mannite.     Lactic acid.
 M'-rs. T. and H. Smith have confirmed  the accuracy of Frickhinsjer's opinion—that mannite
 docs not pre-exist in taraxacum, but is a product of the decomposition of the sugar.  I  am in-
 debted to them for a beautiful specimen of mannite procured from the infusion of dandelion.
   Physiological Effects.—Its obvious effects  are those  of a stomachic and tonic.
 In large doses it acts as a mild aperient.   Its diuretic operation is less obvious and
 constant.  In various chronic diseases  its continued* use is attended  with  alterative
 and resolvent effects.   But where  the  digestive organs are weak, and readily disor-
 dered,  taraxacum is very apt to occasion dyspepsia, flatulency, pain,  and diarrhoea.
   Uses.—It is employed as a resolvent, aperient,  and tonic, in chronic diseases of
 tbe digestive organs, especially hepatic affections ; as jaundice, chronic inflammation
 or enlargement of the liver, dropsy dependent on hepatic obstruction, and  dyspepsia
 attended  with deflcient biliary secretion.  In  some  very susceptible conditions of
 the stomach  it proves injurious.   It  has been employed in affections of the spleen,
 chronic cutaneous diseases, uterine obstructions, &c.
   Administration.—It is employed  in the form of either decoction or extract.
   A mixture of coffee and either powder or extract of dandelion has been used at
 table under the name of taraxacum or dandelion coffee;  and  a mixture of four
 parts of dandelion powder with one part of chocolate constitutes the so-called dande-
 lion chocolate.

   [1.  IXFISE.1I TARAXACI, U. &—Take  of Dandelion, bruised, gij, Boiling Water Oj.
 Macerate for two hours in a covered  vessel and strain.  Dose, f^i__ij.]

   I DECOCTI'M TARAXACI, L. E.; Decoction of Dandelion.—(Fresh Taraxacum root
 Jiv; Distilled Water Oiss.  Boil  to a pint and strain, L.—Taraxacum, herb and
 root, fresh, Jvij ; Water Oij.   Boil to  a pint and  strain, E.)—Aperient and tonic.
 Dose,  f |j to  f |ij.   To increase  its aperient property, a saline  purgative may be
 conjoined.                                                                  J

   J. EXTRACTUM TARAXACI, L. E. [U. S];  Extract of Dand.liun.—(Fresh Root of
 Taraxacum, bruised,  ILiiss  [Ibj, E.];   Boiling Distilled Water  Cong,  ij  [Cong.
 j, IJ.].   Macerate for twenty-four hours, then boil down to a gallon, and strain  the
 liquor  while  hot;  lastly, evaporate  to a proper consistence, L.   " Proceed  as for
 the preparation of extract of poppyheads," E.)—Mv. Jacob Bell1 states that the  fol-
 lowing arc the quantities of extract of taraxacum obtained by him from the root at
 different periods of tho year :—
                                         lbs. of Extract obtained in
      ,   L  ,                   Jan- Feb.  March April  Ausr   Oct.  Nov. Dec
      I cwt. of taraxacum root yielded 8$    6J     6      5     6    9    8}   9 '

 Tu£m.are the average deductions from  his laboratory-book during several years.
  [1 he following directions are given  by the U. S. Pharm.   Take  of Dandelion,
 gathered in September, ibv.  Slice the dandelion,  bruise it in a  stone mortar,
 sprinkling  on it a  little water, until reduced to a pulp;  then express the juice'
 strain, and evaporate in  a vacuum, or  in a shallow dish over a water-bath, constantly
 stirring to the proper consistence.—J. C]
  hxtruet of Taraxacum should be brownish, not  blackish.   Its taste is bitter and
aromatic; that of the shops is usually more or less sweet.  It should  be completely
soluble  in water.—Dose, grs. x to 3ss.
1 Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. x. p. 4Ui. 
608
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Composite.
      225.  Cichorium Intybus. Linn.—Wild Succory or Chicory.

                           Sex. Syst. Syngenesia, Polygamia sequalls.
                                           (Radix.)

  Ki^jSgion, Theophrast. Hist. Plant, lib. vii. cap. 11 ; ct^ie ?n6<pv\'hoe xai epurutfo; [narrow-leaved
and bitterish Seris], Dioscorides, lib. ii. cap. 160; Intybum erraticum, called by some atnbula for
ambugia], and in Egypt Cichorium, Pliny, Hist. Nat. lib. xx. cap. 29, ed. Valp.
  Stem 2—3 feet  high, bristly, alternately branched.   Lower leaves runcinate, hispid in the
keel; upper ones oblong or lanceolate, clasping, entire.   Flower-heads axillary, in pairs, nearly
sessile, bright blue, sometimes white, about the size of those of dandelion.  Involucrum round-
ish.  Corollse, anthers, and stigmas, blue.  Fruit angular.—A perennial herb; indigenous crow-
ing on banks on a  gravelly and chalky soil.  Flowers in July and August.  Cultivated in vari-
ous parts of England; also in Belgium, Holland, Germany, and France.
  Tbe root (radix cichorii sylvestris vel agrestris) is  spindle-shaped, with a single or double head ■
externally, it is  whitish or grayish-yellow ; internally, it is  whitish, fleshy, and  milky.   lis ta,te
is bitter.  English  roots are usually smaller and more fibrous than the foreign roots.
  Both  in the raw  and roasted  roots, the structures which are observed by microscopic examina-
tion are cellular tissue, pitted tissue  (dotted ducts), vascular  tissue (spiral vessels), and lactife-
rous tissue (milky vessels).  The dotted ducts are unbranched ; the milk vessels,on the contrary
are anastomosing vessels.1
  No recent analysis of the root has been made.  John2 obtained from 100 parts, 25 parts of
watery  bitter extractive, 3 parts of resin, besides sugar, sal ammoniac, and woody fibre.  Waltl* pro-
cured inulin from it.   In one experiment, half a pound (civil  weight) of the root yielded him
one ounce of good dry inulin ; but, in another much sweeter  root, he found not a trace of inulin.
Hence,  he inferred that the sugar had been formed at the expense of the inulin.  An infusion
of the root, mixed  with syrup,  becomes thick ;  forming the gomme saccho-richorine of Lacarterie.4
  The fresh root is seldom or  never used at  the present day as a  medicine.  Its medicinal
properties appear to resemble those of dandelion.   It is reputed  to possess tonic, alterative, re-
solvent, diuretic, and, in large doses, aperient qualities ; and it was formerly employed in chronic
diseases of the abdominal  viscera, jaundice, hypochondriasis, &c.  Its  protracted use is said to
>njure digestion.  It is administered in the form of decoction, prepared by boiling Jss of the dried
root, in  Oj  of water, to f^viij.6
  Radix  Cichouii torrefacta; Roasted Chicory Boot.—On  the  large  scale, chicory root is
roasted  in heated iron cylinders, which  are kept revolving, as  in the  process of coffee-roasting.
The loss during the process is from  25 to 30 per cent.
  During the roasting process,  about 2 lbs. of  lard for every cwt. of chicory are added.  This
substance is intended to  give  the chicory a face or lustre like that of coffee.6   While roasting,
chicory  evolves a not disagreeable odour, which somewhat resembles that of burnt gingerbread.
  Roasted chicory, when ground to powder, constitutes  tbe chicory sold for the adulteration of
coffee, and sometimes called chicory coffee.  The adulteration of coffee with chicory can be detected
by the microscope, as well as by chemical means (see Coffea arabica).
  Roasted  chicory powder, when thrown on water, rapidly imbibes this fluid—to which it com-
municates a  reddish-brown colour—and falls to the bottom of the vessel.  A decoction of roasted
chicory  is merely rendered brown by iodine, and neither strikes a  blue colour  with iodine nor
becomes black on the addition of the sesquichloride of iron.
  When submitted to microscopic examination, roasted chicory presents the same tissues which
are observed in  tbe raw root; the operation of  roasting not having destroyed them.
  Roasted chicory is extensively adulterated.   To colour it, Venitian red (see vol. i. p.  723),and
perhaps reddle, are used.   The former  is sometimes mixed with the lard before this is intro-
duced into the roasting machine, at other times it is  added to  the chicory during the process of
grinding.   Roasted pulse  (peas, beans, and  lupines),7 corn (rye and damaged wheat), roots
(parsnips, carrots, and mangel-wurzel), bark (oak-bark tan), wood-dust (logwood and mahogany
dust), seeds (acorns and horse-chesnuts), the  marc of coffee, coffee-husks (called coffee-ftighti),
burnt sugar, baked bread, dog biscuit, and the  baked livers of  horses  and bullocks (!), are sub-
stances  which are said to have  been used for adulterating  chicory.   A mixture of roasted pulse
(peas usually) and Venetian red has been used, under the name of Hambro' powder, for the same
purpose.8
  1 Figures of some of these tissues are given in the Lancet for March 15, 1851.
  1 Chem. Tabelle d. I'ftanzenanalysen, p. 81 (quoted by Kunze).                             _.
  * Buchner's Reperlorium, Bd. xxvii. S. 263, 1827.       4 Fee, Cours d'Hist. Nat. t. ii. p. 301, l^28'
  5 AVylie, Pharm. Castrens. Ruthenica, 1840.
  * In France, butter  is used instead of lard.  This addition is by some said to '■'• fix" the red powders
used for the adulteration of chicory (Chevallier, Journ. de Chim. Mid. t. v. 3me Per. p. 2S0, 1819).
  1 Lupine seeds are said to be imported from Egypt,  and, when  roasted and ground, are sold under tie
name of " Coffina," (Lancet, March 15, 1^51.)
  9 For farther details respecting  the adulteration of chicory, see a paper by the author in the Pharmn- 
Common Valerian:—History;  Botany.
609
  The following are the chief modes of examining chicory with a  view to the detection of
these adulterations:—
  1. Careful  examination of the odour, flavour, and appearance to the naked eye, of the sus-
pected jiowder.  In this way foreign substances may sometimes be detected.
  2. A portion of the, dried powder is to be thrown on  water; the chicory rapidly imbibes the
water, and fulls to  the bottom, whereas some intermixed powders (as the marc of coffee) float.
  3. The suspected  powder is to be submitted to careful  microscopical examination.  Pulse
and corn may be detected by the size, shape, and structure of the starch grains.  The tissues of
barks, woods, and other roots, may also be frequently distinguished  from those of chicory.
  4 A decoction of the suspected chicory is then to be prepared, and, when cold, to be tested
with solution of iodine and persulphate of iron.
  Iodine colours a  decoction of pure chicory brownish;  whereas it produces a purplish, bluish,
or blackish colour with decoctions of roasted pulse, roasted  corn, baked  bread,  roasted acorns,
and other substances containing starch.
  Persulphate or perchloride of iron does not produce much effect on a decoction of pure chicory;
but it communicates a bluish or blackish tint to a decoction of oak-bark, of roasted acorns, and
other substances containing tannic or gallic acids.
  5. By incineration, pure dried chicory yields from 4 to 5 per cent, of a gray or fawn coloured
ash.   If Venetian red or any earthy or other mineral substances be present, a larger  amount of
ash is obtained.  Moreover, when Venetian  red has been employed, the colour of the ash is
more or less red.
  Roasted  chicory has been in use  as a substitute for  coffee for more than eighty years,1 and,
at the present time, is extensively employed for'adulterating coffee.  It is, however, devoid of
that fine aromatic flavour for which cofl'ee is so  much admired.   By some persons it is said to
be both wholesome and  nutritive, by others it is declared to be neither the one nor the other.
Tin- lact is, that no obvious  ill effects are usually observed by tbe use of chicorized coffee ; but
there can be no doubt that roasted chicory  must, when taken largely, have a tendency to excite
diarrheal.  It  scarcely deserves to be called nutritive,  since, with  the exception of  sugar, it is
almost entirely devoid of nutritive principles.
Order LV. VALERIANACE^E, Lindl—VALERIAN WORTS.

                              Valerianeb, De Candolle.

  Ca aracteiis. —Tube of the calyx adnate to the ovary; the limb various, either dentate or par-
tite, or changed into a pappus, which is at first involute, afterwards expanded.  Corolla tubular,
funnel-shaped; usually 5-lobed, rarely  3-or  4-lobed;  lobes obtuse; tube equal or gibbous, or
calcaratc at the liase.   Stamens adnate by their filaments to the  tube of the corolla; free at the
apex; alternate with the lobes of  the corolla;  5 (the type), 4, 3, 2, or solitary;  anthers ovate,
bilocular.  Style filiform ; stigmas 2 or 3, free or cohering.  Fruit  membranous  or  somewhat
nuraincntnccous, indehiscent, crowned, at  least  when young, with the  limb of  the calyx, either
3-celled  (2 cells being empty) or 1-celled.   Seeds, in the fertile  cell  or fruit, solitary, pendulous,
exalbuminous; embryo erect, with a superior  radicle and 2 flat cotyledons. (De Cand.)  Annual
or perennial herbs, rarely at the base somewhat shrubby.   Roots of the  perennial species odor-
ous.  Leaves opposite, without stipules.  Flowers cymose-corymbose.
  PaoPEHTUs—The rhizomata and  their rootlets contain a  peculiar  odorous volatile  oil, on
which their nervine and antispasmodic qualities essentially depend


       226.  VALERIANA  OFFICINALIS,  Linn -COMMON
                                 VALERIAN.
                            Sex. Syst. Triandria, Monogynia.
                        (Herba; sylvestris radix, L.—Root, E. D.)

  History.—The earliest writer who  notices this plant is Fuchsius.   The <po{i of
DioscoriuVa (lib. i. cap. x.)  is not Araleriana  sylvestris,  as Hoffman supposed, but V.
Diiiscoridi*.*
  Botany.   Gen. Char.—Limb of the calyx involute during flowering,  then  un-
"utiral Journal, vol. iv. p. 119; also Chevallier, Journ. de Chim. Med. I. v. p. 276, 3me Serie. 1S10;  and
Tki Lanett lor January 4, March 15, May 10, and Nov. 1, 1851.
  ' P.O. Ciinntuntini Nachricht von d. Cichorienwurzel, Hanover. 1771 ; C.  G.  Forster, Gesehichte von
a. Erfin,Iung u Einfuhrung </. Ciehorien-Coffee, Bremen. 1773.  See also Chevallier, Journ. de Chim.
Neil t v. p. 370, 3me Si-rie, IB49.
  ' Smith. Vrodr. Fl. Graca., vol. i. p. "Jl ; nnd I'mm, Synops. Plant. Fl Classiccr, p. '217, 1815.
       vol. ii.—au 
610
VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord.  Valerianace.e.
rolled  into a deciduous pappus, consisting  of many plumose seta;.  Tube of the
corolla obconical or cylindrical,  equal at the base or gibbous, without a spur;  limb
obtusely  5-cleft, rarely  3-cleft.   Stamens  3.  Fruit indehiscent; when ripe  1.
celled, 1-seeded. (De  Cand.)
   Sp. Char.—Leaves all pinnate; leaflets in 7—10 pairs, lanceolate, dentate-serrate
or  quite  entire;  stem  furrowed;  root  1-stalked,  stoloniferous.   Flowers  flesh-
coloured.   Fruit smooth or pubescent (Koch.  Syn. Fl. Germ. ed. 2).
   Herbaceous, perennial-, from 2 to G feet high.   Root fibrous.   Flowers in June.
   Hab.—Most countries of Europe.
  This species is subject to variation.
  a. major, Koch; latifolia,  Hayne; V. palustris  major, C. Bauhin ; Larger,  Broad-leaved, or
Taller Common  Valerian.—Stem taller; leaflets broader,all toothed.  Grows in moist localities
as ditches, marshes, and the banks of pools and rivers.
  B. minor, Koch ;  angustifolia, Hayne;  V. angustifolia Tausch, De Cand.; V. officinalis var, B
Smith, Engl. Bot. vol. i. p. 43,  1S24; V. officinalis var. a foliis angustioribus, Woodvillc, Med.
Bot. t. 96;  V. sylvestris major montana, C. Bauhin ; Smaller, Narrow-leaved, or Mountain Com-
mon Valerian.—Stem shorter, leaflets narrower (linear-lanceolate), entire, or the  lower  ones
few toothed.—Grows on dry heaths and elevated pastures.—Roots more odorous, and, therefore,
to be preferred for medicinal use.
   Collection.—The Valerian  root of the  shops  is collected about August  and
September from both wild and cultivated plants.  I am informed  that the roots of
the wild sort are now gathered  chiefly in  Hampshire; but Hill1 states that, in hia
time, the heaths of Kent and Essex  furnished a great deal of  it.
   The cultivation of valerian is carried on at Ashover, near Chesterfield,  in Derby-
shire.   The plants are either  procured from  the offsets of former  plantations, or
from wild plants found in wet  places in the  neighbouring woods.   Soon after the
plant "comes up in the Spring, the tops are cut off, to prevent its running to seed,
which spoils it.  At Michaelmas, the leaves are pulled and given to cattle, and the
roots dug up carefully, and clean washed, and the remaining  top is then cut close
off, and the thickest part slit down to facilitate their drying, which is effected on a
kiln, after which they must be packed tight, and kept very dry, or they spoil.  The
usual produce is about 18 cwt. per acre."2
   Description.—The root (radix  valerianse)  consists of a short tuberculated,
underground stem or  rhizome, from which issues  one or more creeping  shoots or
stoles, and numerous round tapering root-fibres, which are from 2 to 6 inches long,
whitish internally,  and, when  fresh, grayish  or yellowish white  externally, but
when dried, yellowish brown.   They give origin  to fibrillae or rootlets.
   The  taste of the  root  is warm, camphoraceous, slightly bitter, somewhat acrid,
and nauseous.   The  odour of the fresh roots is  not very considerable, but of the
dry, especially when they have  been kept for  some time, much stronger;  it is fetid,
very characteristic, and highly attractive to  cats, and, it is said, to rats also.
   Two varieties of valerian root are found in English commerce, viz.:  the culti-
vated, which, being finer looking,  is usually  kept by druggists; and the unculti-
vated or wild sort (herbae sylvestris radix, L.;  radix Valerianae sylvestris), which  is
more fragrant, and, therefore, to be preferred for medicinal use.
   Composition.—In 1809,  a  quantitative  analysis of this root  was  made by
Trommsdorff;3 and in 1834 this chemist made a second  analysis of it,4 but he did
not determine  the relative proportion of the constituents.   He found a peculiar
volatile oil combined with valerianic acid, starch, albumen, peculiar extractive mat-
ter (valerianin), yellow extractive matter, soft  or balsamic  resin, mucilage, valeri-
anate of potash, malates of potash and lime, sulphate and phosphate of lime, silica,
and woody fibre.   The ligneous matter constitutes, on an average, about five-eighths
of  the whole.   Of  the soluble constituents  the  valerianin is  the most  abundant,
1 History of the Materia Medica, p. 581, 1751.       » Encyclop. of Agriculture, pp. 945
1 TrommsdorfTs Journal d. Pharm. xviii. 1809 : Bulletin d. 1'harmacie, t. i. p. 209, 1609.
4 Ann. der Pharm. Bd. x.; also Pharm. Central-Blatt fur 1S34, S. 7V2. 
        Common Valerian :—Composition;  Physiological  Effects.      611

and  next to this the  mucilage.   The  balsamic  resin  amounts  to about half the
weight of the  valerianin.
  1. Volatile Oil of Valehian (Oleum Valeriana)—According to Hurault,1  this oil does not
exist ready-formed in valerian  root, but is  produced only  by the action  of  water;  for pure
ether docs not extract any volatile oil  from the root.   When the root is submitted to distilla-
lion with water,  the  distillate  consists  of water,  on which the oil  floats.  Martius  obtained
ilnee ounces of oil from twelve pounds of the dried root, and Bartels eleven ounces from fifty
pounds of the root.
  Crude oil of valerian is a mixture of at  least  five  substances, whose  relative proportions
vary with the age and mode  of preservation  of the  oil.  Of these five  substances, two are
volatile oils, and may  be  regarded as the essential components of  the oil.   The more volatile
of these is borneen, C'H16, a  colourless liquid identical with a carbo-hydrogen obtained  from
Borneo camphor.  In odour it  resembles  oil of turpentine, with  which it is isomeric.  The
lot volatile  ingredient is  valerol, C12H10O2, which is  lighter than  water, ha<  an  odour  of
liny, and by exposure to  the  air absorbs oxygen and  yields valerianic acid.  The three non-
<-.«Hntial constituents of the oil are vakriunic acid, a resin, and a  kind of camphor or solid  vola-
tile oil.2
  Fresh prepared and rectified oil of valerian  is  neutral, clear,  with an  odour  which is not
disagreeable.  By exposure to the air it reunifies, becomes coloured, thick, acid (owing  to the
formation of  valerianic acid),  and acquires  a  more disagreeable odour.
  Oil of valerian has  been used in  medicine, as  a powerful stimulant and antispasmodic, in
dotes of one or  two or more drops.
  2. Yalkiuanic oh Valeiuc  Acid (Acidum Valerianicum).  C10H9O3,HO.—It is considered
hy some  to be  identical with  phocenic  acid obtained  by Chevreul from whale oil.  It can be
procured from valerian root and the fruit of Viburnum Opulus, in both of which  according to
pome persons, it pre-exists.   But in valerian  root it  is probably  formed  by the  oxidation of
valerol.   When  this root  is submitted  to distillation with  water, the distillate usually contains
valerianic acid.   Rabourdin,3 by previously acidulating the water with sulphuric acid, obtained
231 grains of valerianic acid from   4|  lbs. of the root;  whereas, when  simple water was
employed, the product was only 77 grains of acid.  By  Kabourdin's process, Aschoff4 produced
le| drachms of  acid from 15 lbs. of  root. Lefort6 advises that prior  to distillation  the coarsely
powdered root  should be macerated in  water mixed  with  sulphuric acid and bichromate of
potash, in order  to promote the oxidation of  tbe valerol, and thereby to increase the product of
valerianic acid.   He obtained  by this method from 262 to 285 grains of valerianate of zinc from
2jibs avoirdupois of the  root.   By  boiling  the root in a solution of carbonate of soda, and
decomposing  the saline solution by sulphuric acid, the Messrs. Smith6 procured four scruples of
acid from a pound of  root. Thirault7 is  of opinion that caustic alkali is preferable to the car-
bonate.
   fjut valerianic acid is a product of the decomposition of various animal and vegetable sub-
stances, and  is most economically obtnined, for commercial purposes, from oil of  grain (fusel
oil). (See Soda valerianas, Ph. Dubl. p.  15i>3.)
   valerianic  acid is  a  colourless limpid  liquid.   Its odour is strong, and  somewhat allied to,
though distinct from  that of valerian  root; its  taste is  acrid.  Its  density, at CO0  F, is 0.937.
h lx>il»  at 3-17° F.   It is very  slightly soluble in water,  with which  it forms a  hydrate.
C H90S,'(HO; but is soluble in all proportions  in alcohol and in ether.  With  the exception of
the valerianates  of silver  and  the  protoxide of mercury,  all the  valerianates are soluble in
water.8
   3  \ alehianix ;  Peculiar Extractive Matter.—A yellowish brown substance, which  taste* at
fir»t sweetish, afterwards slightly bitter.    It is soluble in water, but is insoluble in  both alcohol
and  pure ether.   Neither  sesquichloride of iron  nor  acetate of lead produce any change in
tlie aqueous solution.
  4. Ykllow  Exthactive Matter—Bitterish, soluble in  water.   The  sesquichloride of iron
> mum's a green precipitate, and acetate of lead a diny yellow  precipitate, in the aqueous solu-
tion.
  5. Ki.niv—Insoluble in water, but  soluble  in  alchol,  ether, and  oil of turpentine.   The
alcoholic  solution does not redden  litmu*, nor yield any  precipitate, on  the addition of an
alcoholic solution of  either  acetate of lead or acetate of copper.
   1'iivsiological Effects.—Valerian  excites  tbe  cerebro-spinal system.   Large
   Journ. de Pharm. et de Chim. t. xii. p. 69, 1S47.
  t yerhnrdt, Ann. d. Chem. u  Pharm. Bd. xiv. S. 2!»,  1843.
  t Journ. de Pharm. et de Chimie. Sine «fer. t. vi. p. 310, lf44.
   rkarmtteutisches Central-Blatt fitr 1h47, p. 281.
   Joum. dt Pharm. rt de Chimie, 3mr ser. t. x.  p. 194, 1846.
  t narmartutirnl Journal, vol. V. p. 110. 1-15.
  f Joum. d, I'mirm. tt de Chimie. :>me ser. t. xii. p  101, 1317
   rur I tie mode <>( eeiiurul utir valerianic  from butyric and acetic acids, see Liebig, Chemical Gazette,
v"l-vin.p.w,ia5o. 
612             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Valerianaceje.

doses cause  headache, mental excitement, visual illusions (scintillation, flashes of
light, kc),  giddiness,  restlessness,  agitation, and even  spasmodio  movements
Barbier1 says that a patient in the Hotel-Dieu d?Amiens, who took six drachms of
the root daily in  the form of decoction, awoke  up suddenly out of his sleep  and
fancied  he saw one side of the room on fire.   Its operation on the nervous system
is also evinced by its occasional therapeutic influence over certain  morbid states of
this system ; whence it has been denominated nervine (nervino-altcrative) and anti.
spasmodic (see vol. i. pp. 251 and 254).  Farthermore, it intoxicates cats (who are
very fond of it).  Under its  influence these animals roll themselves on the  ground
in "outrageous playfulness," and are  violently agitated.    However, tlie  before-
mentioned effects of valerian  on the nervous  system of man are by no means con-
stant ; whence practitioners have lost confidence in it as a remedial agent.  " Vet I
have  met  with some," observes Dr. Heberden,2 " whom  it  threw into such nota-
tions and hurries of spirits, as plainly showed that it is by no means inert."  More
inconstant still are its effects on the  functions of organic life.   For while in some
cases it has accelerated  the pulse,  augmented the  heat of  the body, and promoted
the secretions,3 in others it has failed to produce these effects.4  Large doses often
create nausea.
   Uses.—Valerian may be employed as a  nervous  excitant,  and, where stimulants
are admissible, as an antispasmodic.  It was formerly in great repute.  It has been
principally celebrated in epilepsy.   It came into use in modern  times  through the
recommendation  of Fabius Columna, who reported himself  cured by it, though it
appears he suffered a relapse.5   Its employment has found numerous advocates  and
opponents ;8  but at the present time practitioners regard it as a medicine of very
little power.    In the few cases in which  I  have employed it, it has failed  to give
the least relief.   In some of the  milder and more  recent forms of the disease,
neither dependent on any lesion  within the cranium nor accompanied with plethora,
as  in hysterical  epilepsy,  it  may occasionally prove serviceable.   In chorea,  and
other spasmodic  affections, it has   been used with  variable success.  I have found
temporary benefit from its use in females affected with hypochondriasis and hysteria.
Of its use as a nervous  stimulant in  the low forms of fever, we have but little
experience in  this country.   In Germany, where it is more esteemed, it.s employ-
ment in these cases is spoken highly of.7
   Administration.—The dose of the powder is from 9j to 3j,  or even  3ij.
Though objected to by some  on account of the quantity of inert woody fibre which
it contains, it is, when well and  recently prepared,  an efficacious form for adminis-
tration.
   1. INFUSUM  VALERIANJl,  L. D.  [U. S.]; Infusion of Valerian.—(Valerian Root,
bruised, ^ss [§ij, />.]; Boiling  [distilled, Lf\ Water Oj [|ix, D.\.  Macerate for
half an hour [an hour, ZX] in a covered vessel, and strain.)—This infusion contains
a small quantity of volatile oil,  some valerianate of potash (Trommsdorff), and ex-
tractive matter, but  no resin.—Dose, f£j  to f^ij.   This  preparation is somewhat
less apt to disturb the stomach than the powder.
   I  TINCTURA VALERIANA,  Tincture  of Valerian,  L. E.  D. [U.  S.].—(Valerian,
bruised,  |v [giv, U.  &.];  Proof  Spirit Oij;  [Diluted  Alcohol Oij, U. S.]  Ma-
cerate for seven [fourteen,  D.~] days, then express and strain, L. D.  "Proceed bj
percolation  or digestion,  as  for tiucture of  cinchona/'  E.)—Dose, f,5J  to P>w-
This preparation contains a portion  of volatile oil,  some  valerianate of  potash,
valerianin, and resin.   Though it possesses the virtues of  valerian, it is  scarcely
sufficiently strong to produce the full effects  of  the root, without  giving it  in doses
so large as to be objectionable, ou  account of the spirit contained therein.

  1 Mat. Mid. 2de ed. ii. 83.                                     s Comment, ch.69.
  3 See Carminati Opusc. Ther. i. 238: Jorir, Tourn. de Chim. Med. vii. 275  6.             .
  4 Trousseau  and Pidoux, Traiti de Thirap. i. 1 and 2.                « Murray, App. Med. i.2».
   ■ See Copland's Dirt of Med. i SOS.
   ' Riehter, Ausf. Arzneimittel. iii. 23; Sundelin. Heilmittell. ii. 126. 
               Common Valerian :—its Infusion; Tinctures.           613

   J. TTN'CTUR*  Y1I.ERIAX.E COMPOSITA,  L.;  Tinctura Valerianae ammoniata, E. ;
 Ammonittttd Tincture of Valerian—(Valerian, bruised, £v;  Aromatic  Spirit of
 Ammonia [Spirit of Ammonia,  E.~\, Oij.  Macerate for seven days, then express
 and strain, L.  " Proceed  by percolation or by digestion in a well-closed vessel, as
 directed for tincture of cinchona," E.)—Dose, f3ss to f3j.  The stimulant  influence
 of the valerian is greatly increased, and its therapeutical efficacy oftentimes  aug-
 mented, by the ammonia in this preparation.

   [I EXTRACTUM  VALERIAM FLUIDUM, [U. S.} Fluid Extract of Valerian.—(Take
 of Valerian in coarse powder |viij ; Ether f|iv;  Alcohol f|xij.   Diluted Alcohol
 a sufficient quantity.  Mix the  Ether  and  Alcohol, and having  incorporated  the
 Valerian with  one-half of the  mixture, introduce the  mass into a percolator, and
 gradually pour in the remainder; then  add Diluted Alcohol until  the whole liquid
 which has  passed shall amount to a pint.   Put the ethereal liquid thus  obtained
 into a shallow vessel, and allow it to evaporate spontaneously until reduced to f^v.
 Upon the mass in the percolator pour gradually Diluted Alcohol until fjx of tinc-
 ture have passed.    With this mix  the  f|v left after  the spontaneous evaporation,
 taking care to dissolve in a little alcohol any old resinous matter which may have
 been deposited, and  add it to the rest.   Allow the mixture to stand, with occasional
 agitation, for four hours and then filter.  The resulting Fluid Extract should mea-
 sure a pint, and if  it be less than that quantity, the deficiency should be  supplied
 by the addition of alcohol.  From its concentration this is an excellent preparation.)
 —Dose, gtt. xx—xl, in a little water.]

   5. SODjE VALERIANAS, D.; Valerianate  of Soda.—(Take of Bichromate  of Potash,
 reduced to  powder, Jix;  Fusel Oil f^iv; Oil of Vitriol of commerce f^viss; Water
 Cong, as;  Solution of Caustic Soda 0j; or as much  as is  sufficient.   Dilute the
 Oil of Vitriol with ten ounces, and dissolve with the aid of heat the Bichromate of
 Potash, in the remainder of the water.   When both solutions have cooled  down  to
 nearly the  temperature of the atmosphere, place them  in  a matrass,  and, having
 added  the Fusel Oil, mix well by repeated shaking, until the temperature of the
 mixture, which first  rises to about  150°, has fallen to 80° or 90°.   The  matrass
 having  been now  connected with a condenser, heat is  to be applied so as  to distil
 over about  half a gallon of liquid.   Let this, when exactly  saturated with  the
 solution of  caustic soda, be separated from a little oil that floats on its surface, and
 evaporated  down until, the escape of aqueous vapour having entirely ceased, the
 residual salt is partially liquefied.  The heat should now be  withdrawn ;  and when
 the valerianate of soda has  concreted, it is, while  still  warm, to  be divided into
 fragments, and preserved  in a well-stopped bottle, D.)—Fusel Oil,  also called  Oil
 of Grain or Amylic Alcohol (alcohol amylicum,  Ph. Dub.), is  transformed, under
 oxidizing influences,  into valerianic acid and water.

            Ci<>H"02    -f    0*    =   C10H9O3,HO    -f   2HO

            Fusel oil.        Oxygen.      Valerianic acid.         Water.

   In the process of the Pharmacopoeia, the oxygen is derived from the chromic acid
 of the  bichromate of potash.   When  this salt is subjected to the action of sul-
 phuric acid, the products are—oxygen (which is  eliminated), water, and potassio-
 Bulphatc of  chromium.
   KO.'JCrO3    -f   4(H(),S()Jj   =  (KO,S03+Cr203,3S033

  Bichromate     Oil of Vitriol.        Potassio-ulpliate of
   of Pfash.                              chromium.

  The valerianic acid,  being volatile, distils over, and is neutralized  by caustic soda.
 I lie solution of valerianate of soda  is then to be evaporated  to dryness, and the
residual salt partially liquefied to obtain it in the anhydrous state.
 
614
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Valerianace^:.
  Valerianate of soda (NaO,Va)  crystallizes with  difficulty, but may be obtained
in a cauliflower-like mass.   It begins to fuse at 208°, and on cooling forms a white
solid mass, which has a greasy or soapy feel.  Its odour resembles that of the acid;
its taste is sweet, but nauseous.   It is deliquescent, and soluble in both water and
alcohol.   Heated in a platinum  capsule, it first  fuses, then  decomposes, evolves a
vapour which burns  with a yellow flame, and leaves a residue of carbonate of soda
If to an  aqueous solution of the valerianate of soda, hydrochloric acid be  added
the valerianic acid is set free, and floats on the solution.
   Valerianate of soda is used for the preparation of other valerianates; as those of
iron, quinia, and zinc.
   6, ZINCI VALERIANAS, D. ;  Valerianate of Zinc—(Take of Valerianate of Soda
giiss;  Sulphate of Zinc ^ij  and 3vij;  Distilled Water Oij.   Dissolve the vale-
rianate of soda in one-half, and  the sulphate of  zinc in the remaining  half of the
water, and, having raised both solutions to 200°, mix them, and skim off the crys-
tals which are produced.   Let the solution be now evaporated at a temperature not
exceeding 200°, until it is reduced to the bulk of four ounces, removing, as before,
the crystals from  the  surface, in  proportion  as they form, and  placing them with
those already obtained.   The salt thus procured  is to be steeped for  an hour in as
much  cold water as  is just sufficient to cover it, and then  transferred  to a paper
filter,  on  which it  is to be first drained, and  then dried at a heat not exceeding
100°)—By the mutual action of valerianate of soda and  sulphate of zinc, we obtain
sulphate  of soda and valerianate of zinc;  the former salt remains in solution, while
the  latter separates and  floats on the solution.   Prepared  in this way, valerianate
of  zinc is anhydrous, and its composition  is represented by the formula ZnO,Va.
But if valerianate of  zinc be prepared  by stirring carbonate of zinc  with so little
water as to form  a  paste, and adding the  calculated quantity of valerianic acid,
we obtain an hydrated salt whose composition  is ZnOjVa^HO.1
   The anhydrous salt crystallizes in snow-white pearly plates, like boracic acid.  It
has a  faint odour of valerianic acid, and a metallic astringent taste combined with
that of the acid.   It  dissolves in 160 parts of cold  water, and  in 60 parts of alco-
hol.   The solutions have an acid reaction, become turbid on the  application of heat,
but become again clear  on cooling.   Cold ether  takes up only -gl^th, boiling ether
^th,  of  the salt.2   The hydrated salt  is  more soluble,  and requires  only 44 part.-
of water to dissolve it.
   Valerianate of zinc is subject to adulteration. According to Laroque and Huraut,*
butyrate of zinc is  sometimes  substituted  for it.   To detect  this, add sulphuric
acid, and subject  the mixture to distillation to separate the volatile acid.   If this
be  butyric acid, it  immediately  causes a  bluish-white precipitate when added to a
 concentrated solution of acetate of copper; whereas, valerianic acid causes no pre-
 cipitate ;  but, on shaking  it with the solution, it gives rise to some oily drops of
 anhydrous valerianate of copper.   Another fraud consists in substituting acetate of
 zinc flavoured with  oil of valerian.   This may be distinguished  by  its odour, and
 by its yielding acetic ether (recognized by its odour), when mixed with a little proof
 spirit and one-fourth the volume of oil of vitriol.4
    This salt was first introduced  into medicinal use  by Prince Louis  Lucien Bona-
 parte.5  Its  physiological effects are not  very obvious; they have been assumed,
 however, to combine those of valerian  and zinc.  But, before  this  is admitted, it
 must be shown that valerianic  acid  is the essential active ingredient of valerian,
 which I  do not believe to be the case. Dr. Devoy8 states that, in doses of 2 \ grains,
 it produces a little headache, slight vertigo, and some confusion of hearing.
    Valerianate of zinc has been employed  in medicine as an antispasmodic, chiefly in
 neuralgia, but also  in some other neuroses—as epilepsy.   It is reported by severa

   1 Wittstein. Buchner's Repertorium, 3tte Reihe, Bd. i. S. 189, 1848.
   a Wittstein! ibid. 2ter Reihe, Bd. xxxvii. S. 302, 1645.                        ...  _- Xum
   3 Chemical Gazette, vol. iv. p. 302, 1846.          * Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. viiivP- »">
   » Journ. de Chim. Med. t. ix. 2de ser. p. 336, 1843; and Pharm. Journ. vol. iv. p._131, low-
   6 Journ. de Pharm. 3me ser. p. 141, 1814; and Chemical Gazette, vol. ii. p. 469,1844. 
Valerianate of Iron.—Valerianate of Quinia.
615
practitioners to have produced beneficial results;  but, although  I have repeatedly
employed it, I am unable to report favourably of its effects.1
  The dose of it is from one to six or more grains.   It may be administered either
in the form of pill, or dissolved in water.  As a topical astringent and sedative, it
has been employed in chronic conjunctivitis,  in  the form of collyrium, prepared by
dissolving from 2 to  4 grains of the salt in two ounces of distilled water.
  7. FERRI VALERIANAS, D.;  Valerianate of the Sesquioxide of Iron ;  Valerianate
of Iron.—(Take of Valerianate of Soda |v and 3i'j ; Sulphate of Iron ^iv; Distilled
Water Oj.  Let the  sulphate of iron be converted into a persulphate,  as directed in
the formula for Ferri Peroxydum Hydratum, and, by the  addition of distilled wa-
ter, let the solution of the persulphate  be augmented  to the bulk of  eight ounces.
Dissolve  the valerianate   of  soda  in ten ounces of  the water, then  mix the  two
solutions  cold, and, having placed the  precipitate which  forms upon a filter, and
washed it with the remainder  of  the water, let it be dried by placing  it for some
days rolled up in bibulous  paper on a  porous  brick.   This  preparation should be
kept in a  well-stopped  bottle )—When valerianate of soda  and sulphate of the ses-
quioxide  of iron are mixed, double decomposition ensues, sulphate of soda is formed
in solution, aud valerianate of the sesquioxide of  iron (Ferri  Valerianas,  D.) is
precipitated.
   According to Wittstein,3 the formula for valerianate of iron  is 3Fe303,7Va,2HO
or  7(Fe803,oVa)+2(Fe903,3HO).   The  valerianate  of  iron  precipitated  in  the
cold is, therefore, a  basic  salt, the  two  equivalents of acid required  to produce a
neutral salt being replaced by two equivalents of water.  If the valerianate  be  pre-
pared with warm  solutions, its composition, according to Rieckher,3 is 4Fe20',,9Va,
without regarding the water, which he  considers as hygroscopic.
   Valerianate  of  iron, prepared according to the Dublin College, is a  tile-red loose
amorphous powder with a  faint odour and taste of valerianic acid.   When heated it
first fuses, then evolves its acid, and is converted into sesquioxide of iron.   At a
temperature of 212°  it gives out  part of its acid.  It is nearly insoluble in water ;
it does not intermix well with cold water, but repels it  like lycopodium ; and boil-
ing water gradually extracts the acid from it.  It dissolves in acids and in alcohol.
   Various adulterations are said*to  be practised  with it.   Citrate  and  tartrate of
iron, flavoured with a few drops of oil of valerian, have  been extensively sold;  but
these  substitutes arc  soluble in water and insoluble in spirit.  Another substitute is
in the form of a brown powder, soluble in water and in spirit.   It smells of vale-
rianic acid, but, on  being  decomposed  with  hydrochloric  acid or sulphuric acid,
yields no appreciable quantity of the oily product.4
  The valerianate of iron which  I have found  in  the most  respectable shops in
London, is only partially  soluble  in  alcohol.   It does not dissolve  in water, but
when  gently heated with  hydrochloric acid it dissolves and evolves a considerable
quantity of valerianic acid which floats on the solution.
  It is but little employed in medicine; nor is it probable that it will  come into
use, on account of its  insolubility in water, its disagreeable odour, and its liability to
adulteration.   It possesses the medicinal qualities of the sesquioxide  of iron  and
valerianic  acid  combined.   It may be used in chlorosis or anaemia complicated with
hysteria.   The dose of it  is from two to four grains  in the form of pill.
m 8. QIIXI.E VILERIIX.1S. D.; Valerianate of Quinia.—(Take of Muriate of Quinia
3vij;  Valerianate of  Sodagr. clxxiv;   Distilled Water Jxvj.   Dissolve the vale-
rianate of  soda in two ounces, and the  muriate of quinia in  the remainder of  the

.  ' For further details and references, sec DumIbiHi, Die neuest. Entdeck. ind. Mat. Med. Bd. iii. S 4'-*6,
18U; Awhrnlirenni-r, Die »< ueren Arzivim. HH ; ruid Dunirlison's New Remedies, 6th edit. p.699, 1S51.
  ('>'■" ical Gazette, vol.  iii. i>. 327, is 15.   Sec  hIho Wittstein's second analysis, Pharm. Central-Blatt
far IWs, 8. 73-.'.
 ' Jahrtsbtrirhi Cber d. Fortsrh rittr in <1. Pharm. in alien Land, in Jahre  l!:ls, S. 100 ; and Liebig and
k<JPP»  Annual lirport, vol. i. IM7— IS, p 120.
  ' Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. viii. pp. 577—579. 
616
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rubiace^b
water, and, the temperature of each solution being raised to 120°, but not higher
let them be mixed, and  let the mixture  be set  by for four-and-twenty hours, when
the valerianate of quinia will  have become a mass of silky acicular crystals.   Let
these be pressed between folds of blotting-paper, and dried  without the application
of artificial heat.  Instead of weighing out seven drachms of muriate of quinia,  and
dissolving  it in water, as is above prescribed, we  may employ the solution of  the
muriate prepared from  an  ounce of  the  sulphate, as directed in the formula for
Quinia' Murias, such solution having been first evaporated to fourteen ounces.   It
may be observed here that, should it  become necessary to  evaporate  a liquid con-
taining valerianate of quinia, care must be taken that its temperature does not  rise
higher than 120°.)—By the  mutual action of the hydrochlorate or muriate of qui.
nia and of the valerianate of soda, we obtain, by double decomposition, chloride of
sodium and valerianate of quinia; the last-mentioned salt separates as a crystalline
form.   <#HCl+NaO,V^NaCl-fQ2Va+HO.
   Valerianate of quinia crystallizes in colourless  rhomboidal  tablets with a slight
mother-of-pearl  lustre, or in white opake  radiately grouped needles.  QWa 24HO.
It has a faint odour of valerianic acid and a bitter taste.   It, dissolves in 110 parts
of cold, and in 40 parts of boiling water; in 6 parts of  cold, and in  equal parts of
boiling alcohol, of sp. gr. 0.863 ; and likewise in ether.   All  the  solutions  are
neutral.
   There is also an amorphous resinous-looking valerianate of quinia obtained by
concentrating  the solution at  a  temperature above  122°; and which is  scarcely
soluble in  water.  Its composition, according to Wittstein,1 is Q2Va 41IO.
   A  spurious  valerianate of  quinia  has been met with  in  commerce.  It consists
of the disulphate  of quinia, to which a few  drops of  oil  of valerian have been
added to disguise it.a   When added to water this yields  a thin film of oil.  It dis-
solves in about 30 parts of boiling water; and as tbe solution cools  it deposits the
well-known crystals of disulphate of quinia.
   Valerianate  of quinia was first prepared by Prince  Louis Lucien  Bonaparte,3
who tried   it  on some of the inhabitants of the  marshy region, la  Maremma, of
Rome, and found that it produced less disorder  of the nervous system than sulphate
of quinia.  It has also been employed by Devay,4 Castiglioni,5 and others, as an
antiperiodic and an antispasmodic in  intermittent and remittent diseases, especially
intermittent neuralgia.
   It may  be administered  in doses of from  one to three or four grains, either in
the form of pill, or in that  of a mucilaginous mixture.   If given  in the latter form
it must be remembered  that it is readily decomposed by acids.  Dissolved in sixty
parts of oil it has been  used as a liniment rubbed over the region of the spleen.
                  Order LVI.  RUBIACE^ Jussieu.

                        Cinchonace.e and Galiaceje, Lindley.

  Chakactf.hs—Tube of the calyx adherent  to the ovary; limb various, truncated or many-
lobed, frequently regular; the lobes as many as those of the corolla, rarely intermixed with ac-
cessory teeth.  Corolla gamopetalous, inserted into the top of the tube of the calyx; lobes usu-
ally 4 to 5, rarely 3 to 8;  contorted or valvate in aestivation.   Stamens as many as, and alternate
with, the lobes of  the corolla; more or  less adnate to the tube of the corolla; anthers oval,
bilocular, turned inwards.  Ovarium within  the calyx to which it coheres, usually 2 or many-
celled, rarely by abortion  1-celled, crowned with a fleshy urceolus, from which a  single style
arises.   Stigmas usually 2, distinct, or more or less coherent, rarely many, distinct or coherent
Fruit baccate, capsular,  or drupaceous, 1 or many celled; the cells 1-, 2-, or many-»eede .
Seeds in the 1-seeded cells attached to the apex, or usually at the base; in the many-seeded ones,

  ' Chemical Gazette, vol. iii. p. 326, 1845.                  a Pharm. Journ. vol. viii. P- 577,1S49.
  3 Journ. de Chim. Mid. t. viii. 2de ser. pp. 518—673, 1842: also Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. iv. p «*i
1844.                                                                 .        .,
  1 Pharm. Journ. vol. iv. p. 430, 1844.   » Quoted by Bouchardat, Ann. de Thirapeuttque, pour i.«. 
Dyer's Madder:—Composition.
617
connected with a central placenta, usually horizontal;  albumen horny or  fleshy, large; embryo
straight, or somewhat curved, in the  midst of albumen ; the radicle terete, turned to the hilum;
the cotyledons foliaceous. (De Cand.)—Trees, shrubs, or  more rarely herbs.   Leaves simple, quite
entire.opposite,or rarely verticillate, with stipules.   Flowers arranged variously, rarely unisexual
by abortion.
  Properties.—The roots often abound in colouring matter, and  hence are used in dyeing; as
some of those belonging to the genera Rubia, Gardenia,  Hedyotis, Genipa, Galium.  Asperula, Pali-
churen, Oldenlandia, &c.   Many roots  possess emetic properties, as  those of Cephaelis,  Psychotria,
Rirhardsonia, Spermaroce,  Manetlia, Chiococia, &c.
  The barks are often bitter astringent, and somewhat aromatic;  and are  eminently  distin-
gnished for their tonic, febrifuge, and  antiperiolic qualities, as those of Cinchona, Exostema,
Coutarea, Cosmibuena, Remija, Hymenndvtyon, Pinkneya, &c.
  The important use of  the torrefied albumen of Cujfea arabira is well known.   Tt is prolwble
that the albumen of  other species possesses analogous properties ;  that  of Psychotria herbacea
has been used for similar purposes.
                      Sub-order  I.  Coffeace^e, Endl.

  Ciuiuctkiis—Ovules solitary, or very rarely 2  in  each cell.  Fruit with 1, very rarely 2,
seeds in each cell.


            227.  Rubia tinctorum, Linn.—Dyer's Madder.

                            Sex. Syst. Tetrandria, Monogynia.
                                        (Radix )

  'Egoism Hippocrate?, de  Morb. Mill,  lib  1, &c; to yira^riv Ifuf^o'Javov, Dioscorides, lib. iii.
cap. 160; Rubin. Pliny, lib. xix. cap. 17; and lib. xxiv. cap. 50.   According to Beckmann (Hist.
of Invent, and  Discoveries, vol. iii. p. 275), it was  called  lurantia  in the  middle ages.—An
herbaceous plant.—Root perennial, horizontal,  long, crouch in tt, reddish brown.   Stems  several,
herbaceous, tetragonal, with hooked prickles.   Lenves somewhat membranous.   Flmnrs small,
yellow.  Berries dark purple.  A  native  of the Levant and south of Europe; cultivated in
France, Holland, &e.  for the sake of the  roots.   The variety 8 Iberica is said to yield the  best
root* for tinctorial purposes.
  Madder roots (radix rubia' tinctorum) are long, cylindrical, about the thickness of a writing-
quill, branched, externally deep reddish brown.  They consist of a dark easily separable  cor-
tex, whose epidermis is thin, and of a ligneous  meditullium, which in the fresh slate is yellow,
but by drying becomes reddish.  The  odour of  the  root is feeble; the taste is bitter and astrin-
gent.  The microscope discovers abundance of  needle-shaped crystals (raphides) in the cells of
the cortex of the root.
  In commerce, madder occurs in two forms—in the entire root, and in the ground or pulver-
ized M;iK>.
   1. Tim name of lizari or alizari1 is applied  to the  entire roots.  The sort which is usually
found in  English commerce is the Levant, Turkey, or Smyrna Madder.  It is cultivated in Greece
und Turkey.  Potter  states that the best sort is that  obtained from Rubia peregrina (which is by
some regarded ns a mere variety of R. tinctorum).   In  France, the lizari of Avignon is the kind
usually found in the markets.  East  India Madder or munjeet is the produce of Rubia Munjisla,
Roxb.
  2. (iround or  prepnred madder, called in France garance, is imported  from Holland  and
France.  Dutch  or Zealand madder is of four kinds, viz. crops (the best), ombro, gamene, and mull
(the worst).  Alsatian  madder has replaced the Dutch  sort  in  French manufactories.   It is
mnniillicturpil at Strasburgh, Hagenau, and Geisselbrunn.  Avignon madder is the kind  most
KPiienilly used in France2
  ^mall quantities of Spanish Madder are imported.
  1 lie powdered madders are subject to adulteration.   The substances employed  for this pur-
pose are  mineral or vegetable.  The mineral substances are brickdust. ochre, sand, and argilla-
ceous  ciinhs.  The vegetable substances are sawdust,  bran, almond shells, &c.  To determine
the tinctorial value of commercial madders, Labillurdiore used a colorimeter.  Others have de-
termined it by dyeiiiir; and some by the quantity of the colouring principle.  (For details, the
reader is referred to (iirardiu s paper  before quoted.)
  Madder root 1ms been  analyzed by Bucholz,3  by John,4 and by  Kuhlmann.5
' The TurkiRh word alizari is derived from i'.t&u, the modern Greek name for madder.
' Glnudm, Chemical Gazette, vol. ii. p. 14, 1841.
 (•mrlin. Hnndb. d. Chem ii. 1X1.                                          * Ibid.
' iH* Chim. el Phys. xxiv. •->■.», If'-M. 
618
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rubiace^:.
                   Bucholz.
Resinous red colouring matter.........   1.2
Extractive ditto.................39.0
Reddish-brown substance, soluble in potash
  and hot alcohol................   I ■'■'
A pungent extractive..............   0.6
Gummv matter..................   9.0
Woody fibre.................. .  22.5
Matter soluble in potash............   4.6
Vegetable salts of lime, with colouring matter   1.8
Water   ......................  12.0
Loss........................   7.4

           Madder root............100.0
              Kuhlmann.
Red colouring matter.
Yellow ditto (Xanthin).
Mucilage.
Nitrogenous matter.
Bitter substance.
Gum.
Sugar.
Woody fibre.
Vegetable ncid.
Porous reBin.
Salts in the ashes.

       Madder  root.
  The colouring matter of madder has been the subject of repeated investigation.   Decaisne1 has
shown that in the living state madder root contains only yellow colouring matter.  This is held
in solution, and  resides not in any peculiar vessels or secretory apparatus, but in the cellular tis-
sue and latex vessels.   Nor is it confined to the root, for in the stem  of full-grown plants, larger
or smaller spots are here and there found, where the cells and spiral  vessels are filled with it.
As the root  becomes older the yellow liquid becomes  deeper coloured.   By exposure to atmo-
spheric oxygen  this yellow liquid becomes red, cloudy, and granular; the granules appearing to
be of a gummy-resinous nature, and partly soluble in alcohol.
   Several chemists have investigated  the nature of the colouring  matter of madder; those
which deserve  to  be especially mentioned are Robiquet and Colin 2 Gaultier de Claubry and
Persoz,3 Runge,< Schunck,5 Debus,6 Strecker,7 and  Rochleder.8  The  result of their investiga-
tion has been the production of several colouring matters, which, if Dccaisne's observations be
correct, must be derived from a single principle.
   Runge  states  that madder contains two colourless acids (termed respectively maddericand ru-
biacic acids)  and five  colouring  matters, which he calls  respectively madder purple, madder red,
madder orange, madder yellow (the xanthin of Kuhlmann) and  madder brown.  Of these, how-
ever, the  two red colouring matters  (madder purple and  madder red) alone require separate
notice.
   1. Alizarine, Robiquet and Colin;  Red colouring matter, Claubry  and  Persoz;  Madder red,
Runge; Lizuric acid,  Debus. This occurs in two forms, the anhydrous and  hydrated. Anhydrous
alizarine  (C^H6©6 according to Strecker; C^H^O19 according  to Rochleder) has a red colour
passing more or less  into yellow.   It fuses  and sublimes in orange-coloured needles.  It dis-
solves in boiling water, in alcohol,  and in ether.   The solutions  are yellow.   The slightest
trace of alkali colours the aqueous solution red.  It dissolves in alkaline solutions.  The liquid
obtained is, if dilute, violet coloured, but if concentrated, blue by reflected, and purple by trans-
mitted light.  It is insoluble in  a cold solution of alum.   It forms a red  solution in hydrated
sulphuric acid.   Hydrated alizarine (C^H^O10 or C20H6O6-(-4aq) occurs in small scales having
the appearance of mosaic gold.
   2. Pcrpurine,  Robiquet and Colin;  Madder-purple, Runge; Oxylizaric acid, Debus.   This
differs from alizarine  chiefly in its solubility in solution of alum ; the resulting liquid has a fine
bright red colour—by reflected light an orange colour.  Anhydrous pur purine (C'^H'O8) i3 in the
form of red acicular crystals. It dissolves more readily in warm water than alizarine; it is also
soluble in alcohol,  ether, concentrated sulphuric acid, and  potash.  Its aqueous, alcoholic,and
potash solutions are red ;  by the colour of its potash solution it may  be distinguished from aliza-
rine.  Hydrated purpurine (C'8H707 or ClsH606-flaq)  is in the form of orange-coloured crystals.
   The influence of madder over the system is exceedingly slight.   Its topical effect is scarcely
obvious. Home9 ascribed to it emmenagogue qualities.   Others have  declared it to be diuretic.
Neither of  these effects, however, were observed by Dr. Cullen.10   It  may, perhaps, possess
mild astringent and tonic properties.
   But the most remarkable physiological effect of madder is that of colouring the bones of ani-
mals fed  with it, red.  This fact was noticed by Belcher;11 though Beckmann12 has adduced evi-
dence to  prove  that some hints of it are to be found in the works of  the ancients.  This effect
on the bones is  produced more effectually, and in a much shorter time, in young than in old ani-
mals.   In birds, the beak  and  claws become coloured.  As the nerves, cartilages, aponeuroses,
  1 Recherches Anatom. et Physiol, sur la Garance, Bruxelles, 1837.  Also. Meven's Report o» the Pro-
gress of Vegetable Physiology during the year 18J7, translated by W. Francis, p. 49, Lond. 1639; anaJourn
de Pharmacie, t. xxiv. p. 424, 1838.
  3 Ann. Chim. et Phys. xxxiv. 225, 1827.                     » Ibid, xlviii. 69.
  4 Records of Science, ii. 452; and iii. 44 and 135.
  • Ann. der Chem. u. Pharm.  Bd. lxvi. S. 174, 1843 ;  also Chemical Gazette,  vol. vi. p. 347, l^l".
  s Chemical Gazette, vol. vi.  p. 437, 1848.                                                  .
  ' Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society of London, vol. iii. p. 243, 1851;  also Wolff and  treexer,
in the Chemical Gazette, vol. viii. p. 329, 1850.
  8 Chemical Gazette, Jan. 15.  1S52.
  9 Clinical  Experiments, p. 422. 2d edit.                     ,0 Mat. Mfd.                ...  .,
 11 Phil. Trans, vol. xxxix.                                a Hist, of Invent, and Discov. ui.HJ- 
True Ipecacuanha:—History.
619
tendons, and periosteum are not tinged, the effect is ascribed  to the chemical affinity of the
phosphate of lime for this colouring matter.  Mr. Gibson1 accounts for it as follows: The blood
charged with the red particles imparts its  superabundance of them to the phosphate as it circu-
lates through the bones.   But as soon  as the blood is freed from  the madder by excretion,
the scrum then attracts the colouring matter, and in a little time entirely abstracts it.
  This hypothesis, has, however, been combated by Mr. Paget,2  who asserts that the madder
colours only those particles of phosphate of lime which  are deposited during its use, and that it
has no influence on the phosphate already existing in the bones  before its administration, nor
has the serum any chemical power to remove the colour from the  phosphate once tinged.  The
coloured phosphate does indeed regain its whiteness after a time, when the madder is no longer
exhibited; but this he ascribes to the  "gradual decomposition  of  the madder, as  reddened
skeletons gradually lose their colour when exposed to air and light."   As, however, living bones
are not subjected to the same influence  of air and light (powerful  decolorizers), which  the
skeletons referred to are, the analogy does not hold good; and this part of Mr. Paget's hypothe-
sis is, therefore, unsatisfactory.
  Tiedemann and Gmelin3 could not detect the colouring matter of madder in the chyle: and the
red tint of the serum prevented them from ascertaining  its existence in the blood, though of this
scnrcely a doubt can exist, inasmuch as it has been found in the excretions (for example, urine,
milk, and sweat).
  It was formerly a favourite remedy in jaundice, in which disease Sydenham used it.4 On ac-
count of its  capability of tinging the bones  red, it  has been recommended in rickets and mollities
ossium, on the supposition of its  promoting the  deposition of bone earth ;5 but this  notion ap-
pears to be  groundless.  Home6 employed  it as an emmenagogue in uterine complaints.—The
dose of it is Jss to gij three or four times a day.



     228. CEPHAELIS IPECACUANHA,  Richard—THE TRUE

                             IPECACUANHA.

                            Sex. Syst.  Pentandria, Monogynia.
                                (ltadix, I..—Root, E. D.)

  IIistory.—Ipecacuanha  is  first  mentioned by Michael  Tristram,7 who calls it
Itjpecttyn or Piyaya.  In 1G84, it was described  and figured by Piso.s   In  1686, it
w;m  celebrated in Paris  as a  remedy for dysentery.   It appears  that Jean-Adrian
Helvetius  (then a young  man) attended with Afforty, a member of the faculty, a
merchant,  named Greuier, or Gamier, who, when he recovered  from his illness,
gave to his physician, as a testimony  of his gratitude, some of this  root, as a valu-
able remedy for dysentery.   Afforty  attached very little importance  to it, but gave
it to his pupil, Helvetius, who tried  it, and  thought  he had found  in  it a specific
against  dysentery.   Numerous placards were placed about the streets of Paris, an-
nouncing to the public the virtues of the new medicine, which Helvetius sold with-
out discovering its nature.   Luckily for him, some of the gentlemen of the court,
and even the Dauphin, the son of the king (Louis XIV.),  were at this time afflicted
with dysentery.   Reing  informed by his  minister Colbert of the  secret possessed
by Helvetius, tlie king deputed his physician Aquin and his confessor Le  P. de
Chak' to arrange with Helvetius for the publication of the remedy.  1000 louis-d'or
was tbe price which was p:iid, after some trials had been made with it at the Hotel-
Hieu, and  which were crowned with the most brilliant success.  Gamier  now put
in his claim for a part of the  reward, saying  that he, properly speaking,  was  the
discoverer of the medicine; but the claim was not allowed.   Subsequently,  Helve-
tius obtained the first medical honours of  France.   He wrote a treatise, describing
the use  of ipecacuanha in diarrhoea and dysentery.9
  Great confusion existed for a long time respecting the plant yielding Ipecacuanha.
In lfSOO, Dr. (Joiues returned from the  lirazils, and  brought with  him the  plant,

  ' Manchester Memoirs, i. 146, 2d ser.                 a  Lond. Med. Gaz. Nov. ].>, 1^39.
  , *'«". u. d. Wvgrn au'f welch Subst. S. 7.
  > Sydrnlinm'i, Works, by Dr. Pechey, 4th ed. p. 150,  1705. •  Journ. de Mid. t. xxxvii. 1772.
   Clin. F.rVrT.                                   i  Purchas, Pilgrimes, fol. vol. iv. 1311.
   Hist. .Yal. Brasil. 101.                           •  K. Sprengel, Hist, dt la  Mid. t. v. p. 468 
620
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Rubiace*:.
on  which he published a dissertation.   In  IS02, Brotero' described it  under the
name of Oallicocca Ipecacuanha, which  Richard2 afterwards changed to Cephaelis
Ipecacuanha.
   Botany.  Gen. Char.—Tube of the calyx obovate;  limb very short,  5-toothed.
                             Corolla somewhat funnel-shaped ;  its lobes 5, small
          Fig-321.            rather obtuse. Anthers inclosed. Stitjma bifid,usually
                             exserted.   Berry  obovate-oblong, crowned  with tbe
                             remains of the calyx, '2-celled, 2-seeded. (De Cand.)
                               Sp. Char.—Stem ascending, at  length erect, some-
                             what pubescent at the apex.  Leaves oblong-ovate
                             rough above, finely pubescent beneath.  Stipules cleft
                             into setaceous  segments.  Heads terminal, erect, at
                             length  pendulous.   Bracts 4, somewhat cordate. (De
                             Cand.)                                       V
                               Root perennial, annulated, simple, or dividing into
                             a few diverging branches, flexuous, from 4 to 6 inches
     Cephaelis Ipecacuanha.       long;  when  fresh, pale brown  externally.  Stem
                             somewhat shrubby, 2 or 3 feet long, emitting runners.
Leaves rarely more than 4 or 6, placed at the end of  the stem and branches; peti-
oles pubescent, which are connected to each by the erect stipules.  Stipules mem-
branous at  their base.   Peduncles solitary, erect when in flower, reflexed when  in
fruit.   Head semiglobose, 8- to 10-flowered.   Involucre 1-leafed, spreading, deeply
4- to 6-parted ;  segments obovate.  Bracts acute, pubescent; a single one to each
flower.   Calyx  minute.   Corolla white.   Stamens 5.   Ovary  obovate; style fili-
form, white;  stigmas linear, spreading.   Berry soft,  fleshy, violet-black.  Snth
(nucules) pale, plane-convex; albumen horny.3
   Hab—Brazil;  in moist shady situations from 8° to 20°  south latitude.   Abund-
ant  in the valleys of the granitic mountains, which run (more or  less distant from
the  sea) through  the provinces of Rio  Janeiro, Espirito  Santo, and Bahia; also
met with in  Pernambuco.   Humboldt and  Bonpland found it on the  St. Lucar
mountains of New Grenada.
   Collection of the Roots.—The roots are gathered at  all seasons of the year,
though more frequently from January to March inclusive;  and as no care is taken in
the cultivation of the plant, it has become scarce around the principal towns. Those
Brazilian farmers  who reside in the neighbourhood of the  plant carry on consider-
able commerce with it. The native Indians also are very assiduous in  the collection
of it.  Those  called by the Portuguese the Coroados, who live near  the river Xipoto,
in the  province of Minaes, as well as their neighbours, the Puri,  are the greatest
collectors of it.    They sometimes leave their villages for  two  months at a time,
fixing their habitations in those places in which this  plant abounds.   They cut the
roots from the stems, dry them  in the sun, and  pack them in  bundles of various
sizes and forms.4
  Ipecacuanha is  imported  into  this country  from  Rio Janeiro,  in bales, barrels,
bags, and seroons.
  Description.—The root of this plant is the ipecacuanha [radix ipecacuanhas)
of the shops.   No other root is known  in English commerce by this name.  By
continental writers it  is denominated annulated ipecacuanha (radix ipecacuanhae
annulatse), to distinguish it from the roots of  Psychotria emetica and Richardsonia
scabra; the first of which is termed striated  ipecacuanha—the second, undulated
ipecacuanha;  both of which will  be described hereafter.
  The root of Cephaelis Ipecacuanha occurs in pieces of three or four inches long,
and  about the size of a small writing-quill;  variously bent and contorted; simple
or branched.  It  has a knotty appearance, in consequence  of  a  number  of deep

  1 Trans, of the  Linn. Soc. vol. vi. p. 137.              » Bull, de la Soc. de la Fac. de Mid. 1818.
  3 Condensed from .Martius, Spec. Mat. Med. Brasil. p. v. 1824.           * Martius, op. eit. p. »• 
                     True Ipecacuanha:—Description.                    621

circular fissures about a line  in depth, and which extend  inwardly  to a central  lig-
neous cord, so as to give  the idea  of a number  of rings strung  upon a  thread
(hence the name, annulated).  These rings are unequal  in size, both with  respect
to each other and to different parts  of the same  ring.   This root has a resinous
fracture.   Its substance consists of two parts :  one called the cortical portion, which
is brittle  and resinous, of a horny appearance, with  a grayish or brownish-gray
colour—sometimes whitish;  and  a second, called meditullium, and which consists
of a thin,  yellowish-white, woody, vascular cord,  running  through  the  centre of
each piece.  In  100 parts of good ipecacuanha  there are about 80 of  cortex and
20  of meditullium.   Ipecacuanha  root  has  an  acrid, aromatic,  somewhat bitter
taste, and a slightly nauseous, but peculiar odour.   The colour of the root varies
somewhat,  being  brownish, reddish-brown, grayish-brown, or gray.

                                     Fig. 322.
                              Brown Ipecacuanha Root.
                   a, Ringed portion,  b, Portion of a root without rings.

  Richard,1 Merat,2 and Guibourt,3 admit three varieties of annulated ipecacuanha, whose prin-
cipal distinction is the colour of the epidermis.  The age of the root, the nature of the soil, and
the mode of drying, are among the different circumstances producing these  varieties.  Some-
limes they are met with in the same bale.
  Yur. a.  Bhown Annulated Ipecacuanha, Richard ; Brown Ipecacuanha,  Lemery.   (Radix
Ipecacuanha annulalce fuscce.)—This is the best kind.   The greater part of the ipecacuanha of
commerce consists of this variety.  Its epidermis is more or less deeply brown, sometimes even
blackish; its fracture is gray or brownish,  its powder is gray.  The cortical portion has a horny
appearance.  The root which 1 have received from  Professor Guibourt, as blackish-gray ipeca-
cuanha, is somewhat  less brown.   It is the gray or annulated ipecacuanha of Merat.
  I have occasionally found in commerce a brown non annulated variety of ipecacuanha (Fig. 322 6)
imported in distinct bales.  It consists of  slender, cylindrical, often branched pieces, frequently
several inches long, smooth, or slightly warty, but not annulated  or moniliform, with a very thin
cortex, and a woody  meditullium of the usual size, or thicker.  These  pieces appear to be the
subterraneous basis of the stems or runners, and the ends of the roots.   Occasionally, pieces of
the brown annulated  ipecacuanha are found attached.
  Var. $.  Red Annulated  Ipecacuanha, Richard.—This differs from the preceding by the
lighter nnd reddish colour of its epidermis, by its less powerful odour, and by its want of aro-
matic taste.  Sometimes it  has, when broken, the same horny and semi transparent quality of
ibe brown ipecacuanha, but  more frequently it is opake,  dull, and farinaceous; in which case
it is generally less active.  These differences probably depend on the nature of the soil on which
 l/'i!"" grCW'  Tl'e r°0t which l have  receivefl fr°m Professor Guibourt under the  name of
rtddtsh-gray annulated ipecacuanha, is scarcely so  red  as the pieces which  I  have met with in
c-nglisb commerce.   It is the red-gray ipecacuanha of  Lemery and Merat.
  yur y  Gray Annulated  Ipecacuanha, Richard; White-gray Ipecacuanha, Merat;  Greater
Annulated  Ipecacuanha, Guibourt.—The colour of this variety is grayish-white.  Professor Gui-
*>«rt  has  met with  it of a reddish gray colour.  Gray ipecacuanha occurs in pieces of larger
diameter than either of the foregoing kinds, with fewer, more irregular, and less  prominent
nngs.  Guibourt says that of late years considerable quantities of it have arrived unmixed with
tl'e ordinary sort, and he  therefore thinks that it is a distinct kind coming from a different part
01 Brazil, and derived from another species of Cephaelis.
  I have found, in English commerce, a gray ipecacuanha, whose roots were not longer than
me brown variety, but whose rintis were  imperfectly developed.


 i •/*"':   n          ...     * DicU dt$ s"«»c. Mid. t. xxvi.; und Diet. Mat  Mid. iii.
  nut. disDrog. torn. ui. p. 79, 4meed. 1350.                                         "cu-m. 
622
VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord.  Rubiace^e.
   Composition.—The most important analyses of  ipecacuanha are those of  Pelle-
tier,1 Richard and Barruel,2 Bucholz,3 and more recently  by Willigk.4
Pellktieh's Analyses.
             Brown Annulated Ipecacuanha. Red ditto.
                                            Cortex.     Meditullium.
Emetina........................16  ......   1.15
Odorous fattv matter  ................   2  ......traces
Wax ....'......................   6  ......     0
Gum........................:  •  10  ......   5.00
Starch.........................42......20.00
Ligneous matter...................20  ......66.60
Non-emetic extractive................   0  ......   2 45
Loss..........................   *  ......   4 SO
Ipecacuanha............100
100.00
Cortex.
  14
   ii
   0
  16
  IS
  48
   0
100
             Bucholz's Analysis.
Emetic extractive [emetina].........   4.13
Soft resin....................   2.43
Wax.......................   0.75
Gum.......................25.17
Starch......................   9.00
Woody fibre  ..................  10.60
Bitter extractive................10.12
Sugar......................   2.00
Extractive, gum, and starch, extracted  by
  potash.....................31.80
Loss.......................   O.S0
     Willigk's  Analysis.
Fat (small quantity).
Unpleasant smelling volatile oil.
Gum
Starch.
Pectin.
Emetina.
Ipecacuanha acid.
Woody fibre.
            Ipecacuanha..........100.00

   1. Odorous fatty matter.—It is extracted from ipecacuanha by ether. It is of a brownish'
yellow colour, soluble in alcohol and ether, to both of which it communicates a yellow colour.
Its odour is very strong, and similar to that of the  essential oil of the  horseradish; it  becomes
insupportable when heat is applied, but is weak, and analogous to that of the ipecacuanha root,
when diluted.  The taste is acrid ; the specific gravity is greater than that of alcohol.
   This fatty matter consists of two substances ;  1st, a very  fugacious volatile substance, which is
the odorous principle of ipecacuanha root; 2dly, a fixed fatty matter (which some chemists have
mistaken, when mixed with emetina, for resin), having little or no odour.
   Notwithstanding its strong taste and odour, the fatty matter of this  root does not seem to have
any effect on the stomach.  Given in  large doses to animals it  had no sensible operation.  Ca-
ventou took six grains at  one time, but experienced no marked  effects therefrom.  Pelletier and
Magendie  swallowed some grains of it, and  experienced a disagreeable impression on the
throat, but  it was temporary only.
   2. Emetina.—When first discovered  by Pelletier and Magendie, in 1817, it was termed la
matiere vomitive, or emetine (from Ipteai, I vomit).
   Pure emetina is  white (when not absolutely pure it has  a grayish-yellow tinge), pulverulent,
inodorous,  with a slight  bitter taste; fusible at 122°  F.;  very slightly soluble in cold, but much
more so  in hot water; very soluble in alcohol, but scarcely soluble in ether and  oils.  It dis-
solves in  acids, the acidity of which  it does  not  entirely destroy.  The salts of emetina are
slightly acid, and very crystallizable.  They form gummy masses in some only of which are
traces of crystallization occasionally found.  Emetina restores  the blue colour of litmus which
has been reddened by an acid.   I find that the yellowish-white emetina, sold  in the shops
under the  name of pure emetina,  is coloured red  by nitric acid, the  red colour  beint? much
deepened on the addition of ammonia.   An alcoholic solution  of iodine, added to an alcoholic
solution  of emetina, produces a reddish precipitate (hydriodate of emetina?).  Tincture of galls
copiously precipitates solutions of emetina (tannate of emetina).  The effect of these reagents
on emetina is similar  to their effect on  morphia;  but from this  last  substance emetina is dis-
tinguished by the salts of iron, which produce no change of colour in it.
   The following is the composition of emetina:—
Carbon......	Atoms. . . 35 . . . . 25 . . . . 1 . .	Eq. Wt. . . . 210 25 . . ... 72 . . . . . 321	Per Cent. . . . 65.42 . . . . 7.79 ... 100 00	Dumas and Pelletiet. .... 64.57 .... 7.77 .... 4.30
	9 . .			.... 22.59
Emetina .	. . 1 . .			.... 99.59
The following are stated by Magendie5 as the effects of impure emetina: From half a grain
1 Journ. de Pharm. iii. 148
3 Gmelin, Handb. de Chem. ii. 1231.
s Formulaire, 95.
2 Ibid. vi. 264.
' Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. x. p.
5, lsol- 
       True Ipecacuanha:—Chemical Characteristics; Effects.      623

to two grains given to cats and dogs, caused at first vomiting, then sleep.  In doses of from six
to ten grains, vomiting, sleep, and  death  took  place.   Dissection showed inflammation of the
pulmonary tissues and of the mucous membrane of the alimentary canal, from the cardia to the
anus. The same effects (namely, vomiting, sleep, and death)  were observed  when impure.
emetina was dissolved in water, and  injected  into the jugular  vein, into the  pleura, into the
anus, or into the muscular tissue.   On man, a quarter of a grain excited nausea and vomiting ;
a grain and a half, or two grains, taken fasting, caused continued vomiting and  decided disposi-
tion to sleep.
  The effects of pure emetina are similar, but more energetic. In one case T'ff of a grain caused
vomiting in a man eighty-five years of age : two grains are sufficient to kill a dog.
  Emetina has been proposed as a  remedial agent, as a substitute for ipecacuanha, all  the ad-
vantages of which it is said to possess in a much smaller dose, and without the unpleasant taste
and odour which the root is known to have.   I confess, however, I  think very little advantage
is likely to be gained by the  substitution.   When we wish to give emetina in a liquid form, it
may l»- readily dissolved in  water by the  aid of acetic or dilute sulphuric acid.
  3. Staiich.—The cortical portion of the root  abounds in starch, the grains of which  are com-
pound, and consist of particles which present  more or less flattened faces, some being mullar-
shaped, others dihedral or trihedral at one end.
  4. Ipecacuanha Acid, C14!!^)6.—This acid  was mistaken  by  Pelletier for gallic acid.  It is
reddish-brown, bitter, soluble in ether, alcohol,  and water. It colours the persalts of iron-green,
and  acts as a reducing agent on the salts  of silver and mercury. It absorbs oxygen from the
air, and  becomes darker coloured.
  Chemical Characteristics.—A decoction of the root, filtered and  allowed to
cool, becomes, on the addition of a solution of free iodine blue, (iodide of starch).
Tincture of nutgalls forms in the decoction, as well as in the tincture diluted with  water,
a grayish-white  precipitate (tannate of emetina).    Sesquichloride of iron communi-
cates a  greenish tint (ipecacuanhate of iron)  to the  decoction  as  well  as to  the
diluted tincture.  A solution of isinglass forms  in the infusion, after  twelve hours,
a precipitate.  Alcohol renders the decoction  turbid (gum).   Diacetate of  lead forms
with the tincture, and especially with the decoction, a precipitate (colouring matter,
avm, and oxide of lead).
  Physiological Effects.—If the powder or dust of  ipecacuanha  be  applied to
the eyes  or face, it acts as an  irritant, and  causes redness  and  swelling of these
parts.  Inhaled, it irritates the respiratory passages, and, in some persons, brings
on difficulty of breathing, similar to  an attack of spasmodic asthma.1   Mr. Roberts,
surgeon at Dudley, is affected in  this way ; and I  have  received from him the fol-
lowing  account of his case :  " If I remain in a  room where the preparation of ipe-
cacuanha is going on—for instance, making  the pulv. ipecac, comp.—I am sure to
have a regular  attack of asthma.   In a few seconds dyspnoea comes on in a vio-
lent degree, attended with wheezing and  great weight and anxiety about the prae-
cordia.   The attack generally remains about an hour, but I obtain  no relief until a
copious expectoration takes place, which is invariably the case.   After the attack is
over, I  suffer no farther inconvenience.   I have always considered  that the attack
proceeds from the minute particles of the ipecacuanha floating in the atmosphere
acting as an irritant on the mucous membrane of the trachea and bronchial tubes."
In some cases, the mere odour  of the  root seems sufiicient  to excite difficulty of
breathing, with  a feeling  of suffocation.
  There is one case recorded of poisoning by the incautious inhalation of the dust
of ipecacuanha,  in the process of powdering  it, by  a druggist's assistant.   It is
mentioned by Dr. Priegher.3    The   patient, who  was suffering from  catarrh  and
oough, inhaled,  during three  hours, the  dust from  the root;  in  consequence  of
which, vomitiug came on, followed by a tightness  of the chest.   An hour after this
he complained of a sense  of suffocation, and  constriction  of the  trachea and throat;
hi* appearance was pale and deathly.   The physician who was  called  in  bled  him,
and gave assafetida  and belladonna, with temporary relief; but  in  five hours a
fresh attack came on, with the most  imminent danger of suffocation.   A  strong  de-
coction  of uva-ursi, with the extract of rhatany, was administered with  almost imme-

 ' Scott, Phil. Trans, for 1770, p. 164).                      » Rust's Ma-. B. xxxii. H. i. S. lvj. 
624
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rubiace^.
  diate relief, and in an hour  his  breathing was much freer.   He was able to leave
  the house in two days, but suffered several days with difficulty of breathing.
     When taken in small and repeated doses, ipecacuanha principally directs its influ-
  'ence to the secreting organs, especially those of the chest, whose activity it  promotes
  It specifically affects the bronchial membrane, in some morbid conditions of which it
  promotes expectoration, while in. others, attended with a profuse secretion of phlcm
  it exerts a beneficial  influence, and  often contributes to the restoration of the part
  to its normal  condition.   In somewhat larger doses it creates nausea,  with it.s con-
  comitant phenomena, depression, increased secretion  of  saliva and  buccal mucus
  &c.  If a diaphoretic regimen  be adopted, it exerts a  powerfully relaxing  influence
  over the skin.  In full medicinal doses it occasions vomiting, followed  by a  tend-
  ency to sleep.  Its operation as an emetic is  exceedingly safe, since inflammation
  is not produced by it, even when an overdose has been swallowed.
     The vomiting produced  by ipecacuanha is not so violent as that induced by emetic
  tartar,  neither is  it so long continued, nor attended with such nausea and depression.
  Farthermore,  ipecacuanha  is  less disposed  to act on the  bowels.   The tonic and as-
  tringent qualities of  the zincic  compounds, as well  as  their want  of  diaphoretic
  power, distinguish these  emetic substances  from  ipecacuanha.   Squill (with which
  ipecacuanha agrees in its expectorant and  emetic qualities) is distinguished by its
  greater acridity, and by its influence not being concentrated on the  pulmonary or-
  gans, as is the case with ipecacuanha, which does not, therefore, possess that power
  of stimulating the urinary  organs possessed by squill.
     The most remarkable of the effects of ipecacuanha seem to be  produced by the
  agency of the eighth  pair of nerves.   " How singular it is," says Dr. M. Hall,'
  " that ipecacuanha taken into  the  bronchia should excite  asthma, and taken into
  the stomach should induce another affection of the respiratory system, vomiting."
  Sundelin2 ascribes the red  condition of the  bronchial membrane, and the congestion
  of the lungs of animals killed by  emetine, not to  the specific stimulus exerted by
  this substance over the pulmonary mucous membrane, but to  an exhausting stimu-
  lus over the  eighth  pair  of nerves,  by which a  condition similar to suffocative
  catarrh (Steckfus) is brought  on;  for he has observed the same appearances in the
  bodies  of  persons who have died of this disease, where there was certainly no in-
  flammatory condition of  the  bronchial membrane, but a paralytic condition of its
  small bloodvessels.
     Uses.—Ipecacuanha  is employed in full doses as an emetic, or in smaller doses
  as an expectorant and nauseant.
     1. In full doses, as an emetic.—The  mildness of its operation adapts ipecacuanha
  for the use of delicate and  debilitated persons, where our object is merely to evacu-
  ate the contents of the stomach.  Thus, it is well fitted for the disorders of children
  requiring  the use  of emetics  (as  when the stomach is overloaded with  food in
  hooping-cough, croup, &c), on account of the mildness and certainty of its action.
  It is also exceedingly useful for adults  (especially delicate females); thus, in gas-
  tric disorders, to  evacuate  undigested  acrid matters from the  stomach—to promote
  the passage of biliary calculi—as a counter-irritant at the commencement of fevers—
• in many inflammatory diseases (as acute mucous catarrh, cynanche, hernia humo-
  ralis, and ophthalmia)—in asthma—and as an evacuant in cases of narcotic poison-
  ing.   When the indication is to excite gentle vomiting in very weak and debilitated
  frames, Dr. Pye3 has  shown that it may be effected frequently with the utmost ease
  and safety by ipecacuanha in doses of  from  two to four grains.   Dr. Cullen4 has
  expressed  some doubt with respect to  the correctness of this  statement;  but it u
  well known that ten grains of Dover's powder (containing one grain of ipecacuanha)
  not unfrequently  cause vomiting.
     The  mildness of its operation is not the only ground for  preferring ipecacuanha
  to other emetic substances.   Its specific power over the pulmonary organs and tbe

                                                       * Han'tb. d. sp. Heilmittell. ii.S
                                                       1 Mat. .lleci.ii.474.
1 Lectures in the Lancet, for April 21, Ibjfc.
3 Med. Observ. and Inq. vol. i. 210. 
Trtje Ipecacuanha :—Uses.                      625
stomach leads us to prefer it in maladies of these parts, in which vomiting is likely
to be beneficial; especially in those affections in which the nerves appear to be more
than ordinarily involved, as spasmodic asthma and hooping-cough.   In the first of
these complaints, Dr. Akenside1 has shown that it proves equally serviceable even
when it fails to occasion vomiting, and  merely produces nausea.   He gave a scruple,
in the paroxysm, to create vomiting, and, in the interval, five grains  every morning,
or ten grains every morning.  Dr. Wright2 recommends gentle emetics of ipecacu-
anha at the commencement of the treatment of  dysentery.
   2. In small doses, as a nauseant, antispasmodic, diaphoretic, and expectorant.—
When given in doses insufficient to occasion vomiting, ipecacuanha is serviceable in
Beveral classes of complaints, especially those of the chest and alimentary canal.
   o. In affections of the respiratory organs.—Nauseating doses of ipecacuanha are
used with considerable advantage  in acute cases of mucous catarrh.  They favour
expectoration and relaxation of the cutaneous vessels.  In milder and more chronic
forms, smaller doses, which  do not occasion nausea, will be sufficient.   In children,
who bear vomiting much better than  adults,  full  nauseating or even emetic doses
are to be preferred.
   "When a child becomes hoarse, and begins to cough," says Dr. Cheyne,3 " let
every kind of stimulating food be withdrawn; let him be confined to an apartment
 of ugreeable warmth; have a tepid bath; and take a drachm of the following mix-
ture every hour,  or every two hours if it produces sickness : R. Vini Ipecacuanhas
3iij;  Syrupi  Tolut. 3?;  Mucil. Acacise %').   Mix.; and all danger will probably
be averted; whereas, if no change be  made in the quality of the food, and if he be
 sent into the open air, he will probably undergo an attack of bronchitis or croup."
   In horjping-cough, in which disease considerable benefit is obtained by the use of
 emetic substances, ipecacuanha  is  frequently administered with advantage.   After
 giving it to create vomiting, it should  be administered in nauseating  doses.  In
 asthma, benefit is obtained by it, not only when given  so as to occasion nausea and
 vomiting, as above noticed, but also in small and repeated doses.  In both this and
 the preceding disease, the benefit  procured by the use of ipecacuanha arises,  not
 from the mere expectorating and  nauseating  operation  alone of this remedy, but
 from its influence otherwise over the  eighth  pair of nerves.   In bi-onchial  hemor-
 rh<i;/c (haemoptysis) the efficacy of ipecacuanha  has been greatly commended.  A.
 N. Aasheim,4 a Danish physician, gave  it in doses of  one-fourth  of a  grain every
 three hours during the day, and every four hours during the night.   In this way  it
 excites nausea, and sometimes even vomiting.   It checks the hemorrhage, alleviates
• the cough, and relaxes the skin.
   /3. In affections of the alimentary canal.—In indigestion, Daubenton5 gave it in
 doses just sufficient to excite a slight sensation of vermicular motion  of the stomach,
 without carrying it to the point of nausea.  Eberle" tried it, in his  own case, with
 evident advantage.  An auti-emetic quality has been assigned to it by Schbnheider.7
 In dysentery, ipecacuanha has gained no trifling celebrity, whence its name of radix
 antidysenterica.  In severe forms of the disease no one, I suspect, now would think
of relying on it as his principal remedy;  but, as an auxiliary, its efficacy is not to
 be denied.   The  advocates for its  use, however, are not agreed as to the best mode
of using it.    Sir George  Baker8 and Dr. Cullen9 consider it to be of most  benefit
where it acts as a purgative; but this can scarcely  be its methodus medendi.   From
my own observations of its  use in  the milder forms of dysentery met with  in this
couutry, I am disposed  to ascribe its efficacy in part to its diaphoretic powers, since
I have always seen it promoted by conjoining a diaphoretic regimen.    But its tend-
ency to produce an antiperistaltic  movement of the intestines doubtless contributes

  ' Med. Trans  i. 03.
  J CyrloV 0f pracr fad art Croup, vol. i. p. 496.
   Jixutllia-mopt. rod. ipec. in Acta Reg.  Soc. Med. Hafn. i. 170
   Treat. ,,f the Mat. Med. i. 11, 2d edit.
   "t dyttnttria, 1701.
       VOL.  Ill—40
* Memoirs of, pp. 379 and 397.

 • Mem. sur les Indigest. 1798.
 1 Acta n, g. Soc. Hafn. ii. 139.
 • Mat. Med. ii. 477 
626
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Rubiace^.
to its antidysenteric property.   It is best given, I think, in conjunction with opium
Its determination to the skin should be  promoted by warm  clothing, and the free
use of mild, tepid  aliments.   Mr. Twining1 gave ipecacuanha in large doses (grs
vj), with extract of gentian, without causing vomiting.   Mr. Playfair2 recommends
from  half a drachm to a drachm of ipecacuanha, with from thirty to  sixty drops of
laudanum, to be given at the commencement of the disease.
   y.  In various other maladies.—As a sudorific, ipecacuanha is  given in combina-
tion with opium (see Pulvis Ipecacuanhas compositus) in various  diseases.  On the
continent it  is esteemed as an antispasmodic.    In uterine hemorrhage, also, it has
been  employed.   In chronic visceral enlargements it has  been administered as a
resolvent.
   Administration.—The  usual dose of ipecacuanha, in  powder, as an emetic is
grs. xv.  But  a  much smaller quantity (for example, six, or  four, or even two
grains) will frequently suffice, as I  have before mentioned.   But a scruple,  or half
a drachm, may be taken with perfect safety.  A commonly-used  emetic consists of
one grain of emetic tartar, and ten or fifteen grains of ipecacuanha.   For infants
half a grain or  a grain of this root  is  usually sufficient to occasion vomiting.   In
all cases the operation of the remedy should  be assisted by diluents.   As a nause-
ant, the dose is  from one to three grains.  As an expectorant and  sudorific, the dose
should  not  exceed one grain; for  infants, one-quarter or  one-eighth of a grain.
Ipecacuanha  lozenges contain usually from a quarter to  half a grain of the powder,
and may be used in catarrhal affections to promote expectoration.  Infusion of ipe-
cacuanha (prepared by digesting  3*j of the coarsely-powdered root in fjvj of boiling
water) may be used as  an emetic, in cases of narcotic poisoning, in doses of f£j
to fjij.
   1. VISUM IPECACllM, L. E. D. [U. S.];  Wine of Ipecacuanha.—(Ipecacuanha,
bruised, ^ijss;  Sherry Wine Oij.   Macerate for seven [fourteen, D.~\  days, and
strain.)—[The  U. S. Pharm. directs Ipecacuanha, bruised, ^ij;  White Wine Oij.
Macerate for fourteen days, with  occasional agitation;  then express  and filter
through  paper,  or by  displacement.]—According to Dr.  A. T. Thomson,  a pint
(i. e.  f£xvj)  of  wine  takes up  100  grains of the soluble matter of ipecacuanha.
This preparation is diaphoretic,  expectorant, and emetic —Dose for an adult, as a
diaphoretic and  expectorant, rr^x to ttlxI ;  as an emetic, f3ij to f3iv.   On account
of the mildness  of  its operation,  it  is given, as an emetic, to children;  the dose is
from  n^xx to f3j, according to the age of the child.  It is also exceedingly useful
as an expectorant in the diseases of  infants; dose from  n^v to rn^x.              ,
   2. SYRUPUS  IPECACUANHA,  E.  [U. S.];  Syrup  of Ipecacuanha.—(Ipecacuanha,
in coarse powder, Jiv;  Bectified  Spirit Oj ; Proof Spirit and Water, of each, fjxiv;
Syrup Ovij.   Digest the ipecacuanha in four fluidounces of the rectified spirit, at a
gentle heat, for  twenty-four  hours;  strain and squeeze  the  liquor, and filter. Re-
peat  this process with the  residuum and proof spirit, and again with the water.
Unite the fluids, and distil off the spirit till the residuum amount  to twelve ounces;
add to the residuum five fluidounces of rectified  spirit, and then the syrup.)—[The
U. S. Pharm. directs Ipecacuanha in coarse powder 3j ;  Diluted Alcohol Oj; Syrup
Oij. Macerate the ipecacuanha in the alcohol for fourteen days and filter.  Evaporate
the filtered  liquor to f^ij, aud again filter;  then  mix it with the syrup and evapo-
rate by means of the water-bath to  the proper consistence, or prepare the alcoholic
solution by displacement, and proceed as after directed.]—A syrup of ipecacuanha
is a very useful  preparation for children ;  but some  difficulties attend its prepara-
tion.  An aqueous decoction of this root contains so much starch that it can scarcely
be filtered.   Even  the infusion filters slowly, is always turbid, and yields a syrup
which does not keep well.  Hence MM. Guibourt and Henry3 introduced a process,
1  Trans, of the Med. and Phys. Soe. of Calcutta, vol. iv. p. 170.
a  Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journal, vol. ix. p. 18.
»  Pharm. Raison. i. 502, 8de edit. 
Pulvis Ipecacuanha.—Pilula Ipecacuanha.       '     627
 of which that of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia ia a modification (improvement?).
 They prepared an  alcoholic extract, which is dissolved in water and  mixed with
 concentrated syrup.  About two  fluid-scruples of the Edinburgh preparation con-
 tain  the strength of one grain of  ipecacuanha; hence the dose of it, as an emetic,
 for infants, will be half a teaspoonful;  for adults, f£j  or f^iss.   As an expectorant,
 the dose is f3j to f^U-
   I.  PI LVIS IPECACUANHA  COMPOSITUS, L. E.  D.;  Compound powder of Ipeca-
 cuaidia; Dover's  Powder; Pulvis Doveri, offic.   (Pulvis  Ipecacuanha et  Opii,
 U. S.)—(Ipecacuanha, powdered, Hard  Opium,  powdered, of each  3j; Sulphate
 of Potash, powdered, 3j.   Mix them.  The proportions used  by all  the  British
 Colleges are the same.)—This preparation is an imitation (though not a very exact
 one) of a formula given by Dover ;* whence it is  commonly known in the shops as
 Dover's Powder.   The following is Dr. Dover's recipe:—
   "Take opium gj; saltpetre, tartar vitriolated, of each giv; ipecacuanha gj; liquorice ^j.
 Put the saltpetre and tartar into a redhot  mortar, stirring them with a spoon  until they have
 done flaming. Then powder them very fine. After that, slice in your opium ;  grind these to a
 powder, and then mix the other powders with them. Dose, from 40 to 60 or 70 grains in a glass
 of white wine posset, going to bed.   Covering up warm, and drinking a quart or three pints
 of the posset drink while sweating."
   The compound  powder of ipecacuanha is one of our most certain,  powerful, and
 valuable sudorifics.  The sulphate of potash is intended to serve the double purpose
 of promoting the sudorific operation  of the other  ingredients, and of minutely
 dividing, by the hardness of its particles, the opium and ipecacuanha.  The nitrate
 of potash also employed by Dr. Dover probably contributed still further to the su-
 dorific effect of the powder.  The opium and ipecacuanha, combined, enjoy great
 sudorific properties not possessed by either  of these substances individually.   I am
 inclined, however, to ascribe the  greater part of the activity of the compound to
 the opium, which, it is well known, strongly determines to the cutaneous surface (see
 Opium),and often produces pricking or itching of the skin; and, when assisted by
 the copious use of warm aqueous diluents, operates as a sudorific.  This effect, how-
 ever, is greatly promoted by the ipecacuanha, which has a relaxing influence over
 the cutaneous vessels.  The use of the posset, enjoined by Dr. Dover, is  an im-
 portant part of the sudorific plan.  The contra-indications for the use of compound
 powder of ipecacuanha are an irritable condition  of the stomach (when this prepa-
 ration  is apt to  occasion sickness) and  cerebral  disorder.   Thus, in fever, a dry
 furred tongue, and a dry skin, with much disorder of the cerebro-spinal functions,
 it, like other opiates, is calculated to  prove injurious.   In  such cases, the antimo-
t nial  sudorifics may be resorted to.  But when the tongue is moist, the  skin, if not
 damp, at least soft—and the functions of  the brain not much involved, it will pro-
 bably operate beneficially.   In slight colds, catarrhs, and rheumatic pains, it often
 proves most  effectual.   In various inflammatory affections, when the  febrile excite-
 ment dues not run too high, and when the brain is  undisturbed, it may be used
 with good effect.   In acute rheumatism it is occasionally highly serviceable;  in
 diarrliira and dysentery also.  In hemorrhages from internal organs,  as the uterus,
 it is  useful on the principle of revulsion or counter-irritation, by its power of deter-
 mining to the skin.   The dose of this preparation is  usually from grs.  v to grs  x,
 given in currant jelly or gruel, or made into a pill  (see Pilulse Ipecacuanha et Opii),
 or administered  in a  common saline draught.  Where  the stomach  is irritable, I
 have frequently seen  five grains cause sickness.   On the other hand, in some cases
 where a powerful sudorific is required, and  the head quite free, grs. xv or even 9j,
 of this powder are not unfrequently given.

   4.  PILI-LJE IPECACUANHA CUM  SCILLA, L.;  Pilulse Ipecacuanha Composite, Ph.
   ,  ' '.r.'^', t*',t,s "f Ipecacuanha and Squills.—(Compound powder of Ipecacu-
 anha 3nj;  Squill, fresh-dried, in powder,  Ammoniacum, of each 3j; Treacle, as
' The Ancient Physician's Legacy to his Country, p. 14, 1733. 
628
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rubiace*:.
much as may be sufficient.  Beat them together until incorporated.)—Narcotic and
 sudorific.   Employed in chronic catarrh.—Dose,  gr. v to gr. x.

   5. PILULE IPECACTANILE ET OPII, E.; Pills of Ipecacuanha and Opium.—(Vow-
der  of  Ipecacuanha and opium, three parts;  Conserve of  Red Roses, one  part.
Beat them into a proper mass, which is  to be divided  into  four-grain pills.)—The
properties of this are the same as those of  Pulvis Ipecacuanhse  compositus.—Dose
one  to three pills.

   6. TROCHISCI MORPHIA ET IPECACUANHA.  (See Morphia.-)


      229. Psychotria emetica,  Mutis.—Striated Ipecacuanha.
                               Sex. Syst.  Pentandria, Monogynia.
                                        (Radix.)

  Ronabea  emetica, Richard.—A small perennial  plant, which grows  in Peru and New Grenada
and on the  banks of the Magdalena.  Its roots constitute the striated ipecacuanha (radix ipecacu.
anlue striata) of Richard, Guibourt, and Merat;  the black or Peruvian  ipecacuanha (radix ipecacu-
anha nigra  vel peruviana) of some other authors.  They are neither annulated nor undulated)

                                       Fig. 323.
Striated Ipecacuanha (Roots of Psychotria emetica).
     •           a. An old root with a well-marked intersection.  6. Contorted root.

but longitudinally striated.   They have  deep circular intersections at various distances, giving
them the appearance of being articulated; and, when slight force is used, they fracture at these
parts.  As met with in commerce, they have externally a blackish-gray colour, with a brownish
tinge; but when  fresh they are said to  be dirty reddish gray.  Their fracture is  resinous; the
meditullium, or central ligneous cord, is yellowish, and perforated by numerous holes, which are
very visible  by a magnifier;  the cortical portion is softish,  easily separable, and of a grayish-
black colour, becoming much deeper when moistened.  Its powder is deep gray.  According to*
the analysis of Pelletier,1 this root consists of— emetina 9, fatty matter  12, gallic acid a trace, gum,
starch, and ligneous matter 79.   In its medicinal qualities it resembles the annulated or true ipe-
cacuanha, than which it is somewhat weaker;  but it is not met with in  English commerce.


   230. Richardsonia  scabra, De Cand.—Undulated Ipecacuanha.
                              Sex. Syst. Hexandria, Monogynia.
                                        (Radix.)

   Richardsonia pilosa, Ruiz  et Pavon ; Richardia brasiliensis, B. A. Gomes.—A perennial plant;
a native of the Brazils, New Granada, Peru, Vera Cruz, &c.  Its root is the undulated ipecacu-
anha  (radix ipecacuanhae. undulatos) of  Guibourt;  the  amylaceous or while  ipecacuanha  (radix
ipecacuanha farinosa seu amylacece) of Merat.   It has a  jointed appearance, from constrictions
which are'remote from each other.  It is about the same size as that of tbe annulated species;
is tortuous, attenuated at the extremities ; externally of a grayish-white colour, becoming brown-
ish by age.  It presents  no rings properly so  called, but is marked by semicircular grooves.  It
consists, like the  annulated species, of a  thin yellowish meditullium, and a cortical portion.
   The fracture of the root is not at all resinous, but farinaceous, and of a dull-white colour; the
fractured surface presenting, when examined by a magnifier, numerous shining pearly, proba-
1 Journ. de Pharm. t. vi. p. 265, 1820. 
The Coffee Tree.
629
                              Undulated  Ipecacuanha Root.
                 a. Root of Richardsonia scabra.  6. Root of a Richardsonia.

bly amylaceous spots.  The odour is musty.  The  composition of it, according to Pelletier,1 is
tmetina 6, fatty matter 2, starch and  ligneous matter (very little of the latter) 92*.   In its medi-
cinal qualities it ngrees with the annulated  ipecacuanha, than which it is somewhat weaker.
This, like the preceding sort of ipecacuanha, is not in use in England.
             231. CofFea Arabica, Linn.—The  Coffee Tree.

                            Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Monogynia.
                                       (Semina.)

  According to manuscripts contained in the Bibliotheque Royale, at Paris, coffee was in use in
 Persia in the year a. d. 875.2  It was first introduced into England in  1652.3  The coffee plant
 is a native of Arabia Felix and Ethiopia, but is extensively cultivated in Asia and America.   It
 is an evergreen shrub, from  15  to  20 feet high, with oblong-ovate, acuminate, smooth leaves, a
 5-toothed calyx, a white tubular corolla, with a 5-parted spreading limb, 5 stamens, 1 pistil with
 a bifid style, and an oval, succulent, blackish-red or purplish 2-seeded  berry.  The seeds are in-
 closed in a  membranous  endocarp (the parchment-like  putamen of some  botanists), and are
 convex on one side, and flat  with a longitudinal groove on the other.   They consist of a horny,
 yellow, bluish or greenish convoluted  albumen, at  the one end of which is the embryo, with
 itscordiform cotyledons; the  position of the radicle  being indicated by  the micropy.—The dried
fruiti or berries are rarely imported.  In 1839, there was an importation  of them  into London
 from Demerara.  Occasionally, the seeds contained in their endocarp (coffee in the husk) are met
 with in commerce.   The raw coffee of the shops consists of the seeds (in commerce frequently,
 but  erroneously, called •'berries") deprived  of their endocarp and in  part of their testa.   Por-
 tions of the testa are, however, found  on the convex surface, and lining the groove on the flat
 surface.   The varieties of raw coffee are distinguished in commerce according to  their places
 of growth; but considered with reference to  their physical properties, they are characterized by
 colour (yellow, bluish, or greenish) and size (the smallest seeds  are  about three lines  long and
 two broad, the largest five lines  long and two  lines and  a  half broad).  Arabian or Mocha
 Coffee is small, and dark yellow.   Java and East   India (Malabar)  kinds are larger, and paler
 yellow.   The Ceylon is  more analogous to the West India kinds (Jamaica, Berbice, Demerara,
 Dominica, Barbadoes, &c), which, as well as the Brazilian, have a bluish  or greenish-gray tint.
 The structure of the  raw coffee seed  has been  fully described  and depicted by Dr.  Hassall.*
 The testa or investing membrane of the  seed is made up of very elongated cells more or less
 tapering at one or both extremities, with oblique markings on their surface.  In the act of roast-
 ing it separates from the  seed, and is commonly termed by the roasters " flights" or " the fibre."
 Tbe great mass of  the seed (vulgarly and improperly called "berry") is  made up  of  the peri-
 sperm or albumen, which is  composed of angular  cells, containing  each  one or more drops of
 aromatic volatile oil.  The cells of the embryo are smaller than those of the albumen.
  Coffee has been chemically examined by Hermann, Cadet, Schrader, Robiquet and  Boutron,
 K"chleder, Payen, and others.  Schrader made a comparative examination of raw and roasted
Martinique coffee, and obtained the following results :—
Peculiar coffee principle.......17.59
Gummy and mucilaginous extraet .  .   3.64
retractive...............   0.62
!*e"">..................   0.41
£»«yoil................   0.52
Solid residue..............  66 66
Ln«» (water ?).............  10.57

         Raw coffee........100.00
Coffee principle.................12.50
Extractive...................  4.80
Gum and mucilage...............  10.42
Oil and resin..................  2 08
Solid residue..................68.75
Loss.......................  1.45
Roasted coffee......100.00
! £/'.;•*' Drogues, t. iii. p. 265, 1888.
 rhtl. Trans, vol. xxi. p. 311,1UU9.
a Merat and De Lens, Diet. Mat. Mid. torn ii. p. 345.
* Lancet, Jan. 4, 1851. 
630
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. RuBiACEiB.
  The latest quantitative analysis of coffee is that of Payen,1 who  gives  the following as the
approximative composition of it:—

              Cellulose...........................34.000
              Water (hygroscopic)......................12 000
              Fatty subst.-i nees.....................10 to 13.000
              Glucose, dextrine, and undetermined vegetable acid.......15 500
              Legumin, casein (glutin)?  ...................K).O(X)
              Chlorogenate [caffeate]  of potash and qaffein........3.5 to 5.000
              Nitrogenous substance....................   3.000
              Free caffein..........................   OHIO
              Concrete essential oil.....................   0.001
              Aromatic fluid essential oil..................   0.002
              Mineral substances......................   6.697

                                                                        100.000

  A decoction of raw coffee is coloured  green by the  persalts of iron.  Raw coffee macerated
in water undergoes fermentation, and evolves carbonic acid and sulphuretted hydrogen gases.
This fermentation is  probably due to the decomposition of an albuminous and sulphurous sub-
stance contained in coffee.  Alcohol extracts from  raw coffee a double salt, the caffeate (called
by Payen the chlorogenate) of potash and caffein.   Berzelius states  that caffeic acid (C^rTO7
according to Payen) bears the same relation to the tannin (caffeotannic acid) of unroasted coffee,
that gallic  acid  bears to the  tannin of nutgalls.   The  aromatic volatile oils of raw coffee are
tenaciously  retained by the fatty oil; they undergo alteration of properties by the operation of
roasting.  Caffein  (C8H5N202)  is a  weak  alkaloid, white, crystallizable  in long silky needles,
fusible, volatile, and  soluble  in water, alcohol, and  ether.   Its aqueous solution is precipitated
by tannic acid.   It is  identical with theine extracted from  China  tea, and  from Paraguay tea
(Ilex paraguayensis), and with guaranin obtained from  guarana (Paullinia sorbilis).
  The chemical  changes effected in  coffee by roasting, require farther investigation.  The cells
of the seeds are charred and rendered friable, but  they retain their characteristic shape.  The
volatile oil, however, is no  longer visible  in them  in  the form of drops, but appears to have
been partially dissipated  and partially diffused through the charred cells.   The two  most inter-
esting  products of the  torrefaction are a brown bitter  principle, and  a brown aromatic oil called
caffeone.2  Both of these are products of the decomposition of that  part of raw coffee which is
soluble in water;  for if raw coffee  be first exhausted by water, and afterwards  roasted, it is
then found  to yield to boiling  water neither  the  bitter substance  nor the aromatic principle.
Caffeone is  slightly soluble in boiling water, and  may be extracted  from  the distilled water of
roasted  coffee by means of ether.   If coffee' be over-roasted, either by employing  too high a
temperature, or by carrying on the process too long, its flavour is greatly  impaired.8
  The ground coffee sold by grocers is in general  largely adulterated 4   The  usual agent em-
ployed by the grocers for this purpose is roasted chicory ; but as the chicory roasters frequently
adulterate this article, as I have  already stated (see  ante, p. 608), it follows that besides chi-
cory, properly so  called,  various other foreign matters may frequently be detected  in ground
coffee.  The following are the readiest modes of  proceeding in order to detect the  fraud:—
  1. Place a portion of the suspected coffee gently upon the surface of water in a glass.  If it
be genuine  it becomes very slowly  moistened by  the  water, even  when we stir  them up to-
gether, and  in consequence floats on the surface, and  communicates scarcely any colour to the
liquid.  This arises from the coffee being  impregnated with volatile oil, which exercises a re-
pulsive influence on  the  water.
  Chicory, on the other  hand, readily absorbs and  mixes with the water, to which  it speedily
communicates a deep reddish-brown tint, and sinks to the bottom of the  liquid.
  Roasted corn and roasted pulse (peas, beans, and lupines) behave, in relation to  water, like
roasted chicory.
  2. An infusion or decoction of pure roasted coffee, when cold, becomes, on  the addition of a
solution of iodine, of a deeper reddish-brown tint.
  A similar effect is produced on the addition of a solution of iodine to an infusion or decoction
of pure roasted chicory.
  But if  roasted  corn, roasted pulse (peas or beans), or  potatoes  be present, the iodine com-
municates a deep-blue, blackish-blue, or purplish-red colour.  If the starch of these adulterat-
ing ingredients be  but  little altered  by roasting, the resulting colour, on  the addition of iodine,
will be blue; but if  the starch be converted into dextrine, the colour caused by iodine will be
purplish-red.  The presence of much chicory, however, obscures the effect of this test.
  3. If a decoction of genuine roasted coffee be submitted to Trommer's test (see ante, p. lw),
it gives no  indication of  the presence  of glucose (grape sugar).   By this test, burnt  sugar or

  1 Chemical Gazette, vol. V. p. 34, 1847.                                                M
  ' Boutron and Fremy, quoted by Pelouze and Fremy, Cours de Chimie Gintrale, t. iii. p. 250, IBau.
  * For farther details, see Payen;s paper before quoted.                                   ..,
  ' See a paper by  the author, m the Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. iv. p. 85,1844; also Dr. Hassan s re-
ports, in the Lancet for Jan. 4, April 26,  May 3, and Nov. 1,  1851. 
Cinchona :—History of its Discovery.                  631
partially charred saccharine matter (sold under the name of " refining powder" [ot adulterating
coffee), as well as glucose derived from other sources (as the conversion of amylaceous matters),
may be detected.
  4. The most important aid in detecting the presence, and in determining the nature, of adul-
terations of coffee, is the microscope.  The presence of chicory may be detected  by the size,
form, and ready separation of the cells of the cellular tissue, and by the presence and abundance
of the  pitted tissue (dotted ducts)  and  vascular  tissue or spiral vessels (see ante,  p.  608).
Roasted corn, pulse, potatoes, and other amylaceous substances, may be detected and identified
by the characters (size, shape, and markings) of the starch grains.  (For farther details, see Dr.
Hassall's observations contained in the Lancet.)
  Raw coffee must  be  slightly nutritious, on account of the gum and other nutritive principles
which it contains.  Rasori employed it, like powdered  bark, in intermittent fever; and Grindel
used it, in other cases, also as a substitute for cinchona.  By roasting, its nutritive principles are
(for the most part) destroyed, while the empyreumatic  matters developed communicate a stimu-
lant influence with respect to the nervous system.
  Roasted coffee  possesses  powerfully  anti-soporific  properties;  hence its use as  a  drink
by those who desire nocturnal  study, and as an antidote to counteract the effects of opium and
other narcotics, and  to relieve intoxication.   In those unaccustomed  to its use, it is apt to occa-
sion thirst and constipation.  On some persons it acts as a slight  purgative.   It is occasionally
useful in relieving headache, especially the form called nervous.   It has also been employed
as a febrifuge, in intermittents ; as a stomachic, in some forms of dyspepsia; and as a stimu-
lant to the cerebro-spinal system, in  some nervous disorders.   Floyer, Dr. Percival, and others,
have used it in spasmodic asthma; and Laennec* says,'' I have myself seen several cases in
which coffee was really useful."   The  immoderate use of coffee is said to produce nervous
symptom*; such as  anxiety, tremor, disordered vision,  palpitation, and  feverishness.
  The action of caffein requires farther investigation.  Mulder gave a grain of it to a rabbit;
the animal ate but little  the next day, and aborted  the  day after.  Liebig has  suggested that
it probably contributes to the formation of taurine, the nitrogenized constituent of bile.  Accord-
ing to Lehmann,2 caffein, in doses of from 2 to 10 grains, causes violent excitement of the vas-
cular and nervous systems, palpitations of  the heart, extraordinary frequency, irregularity, and
often intermission of pulse, oppression of the chest, pains in the head, confusion of the senses,
singing in the ears, scintillations before the eyes, sleeplessness, erections, and delirium.  In all
cases an augmentation was found in the amount of urea secreted.
                           232.  CINCHONA,  Weddell.

 C.Calisaya,Condaminea, et species rnserta, L.—C. Condaminea, micrantha, and other undetermined species, E. D.
                             Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Monogynia.
                               (Cortex, I,.—The Bark, E. D.)

   History.—Tbe precise period and manner of the discovery of the therapeutic
 power of cinchona are enveloped in mystery.   Some writers (e.  </.  Geoffroy,3 Ruiz,4
 »nd Joseph de Jussieu5) believe that the  Indians were acquainted with it long before
 the arrival of the Spaniards; whereas others  (e. g. Ulloa9  and  Humboldt7) are  of
 opinion  that  the natives were ignorant of  the  medicinal qualities of the bark until
 the Spaniards discovered them.
  The traditions of tbe mode of discovery of the remedial power are of a very fabulous cha-
 racter. One, told by Geoffroy, is that an Indian was cured of an ague by  drinking at a pool into
 which some cinchona trees had fallen.8  Another, related by Condamine, is that the Indians ob-
 served that the American lions, when'ill with ague, ate  the cinchona bark !  A third, mentioned
 by Humlioldt, and considered  to be less improbable, is that the Jesuits accidentally discovered
 the bitterness of the bark, and tried an infusion of  it  in tertian ague.
  The period when  bark was first  introduced into Europe  is usually stated  to  be
 1640; but Sebastian Badus9 gives an  extract from a letter of a Spanish physician,

  ' Tnaiise on Diseases of the Chest, by Forbes, 2d edit. p. 418
  Physiological Chemistry, translated by Dr. Duy, vol. i. p. 138, Cavendish Society, 1851.
  Trortatus de  Matrria Medica, t. ii. p. 179, 1741.
  Quinologia, Madrid, 17JC2 (German translation, 1794).
 ( Wmlilcll, Hist. Naturelle des quinquinas, p. 15, 1849.
 , J* Voyage to South America, English translation, 3d edit, vol, i. p  323, 1772.
 ( Umbert's Illustration of the Genus Cinchona, p. 22. 1821.
  W '■ddell (op. cit. p. 40) observes, that he doubts whether at Loxa, more than elsewhere, cinchona trees
"tn   *°"ntl on the borders of  lakes or pondB, unless they have been carried there.
  Quoted by Bergen, Monographic, p. 84. 
632
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rubiaceje.
D. Joseph Villerobel, from which it appears  that  it was imported  into Spain in
1632, though no trial was made of  it until 1639.
   The  statement of Condamine,1 that the Countess of Cinchon, wife of the Vice-
roy of  Peru, brought some bark to  Europe  on her return from South America  in
1639, is not improbable; and from this circumstance it acquired the names of tho
Cinchona Bark  and the Countess's  Powder  (Pidvis Comitissse).   About ten years
afterwards  it was carried by the Jesuits to Rome, and  by them distributed among
the members of  the order, by  whom it was  taken to their respective  stations and
used with great  success in agues.   Among  those most active in promoting its em-
ployment was Cardinal de Lugo.  In this way it acquired the names Jesuits' Bark
Pulvis  Patrum, Jesuits' Powder (Pulvis Jesuiticus), Pulvis Cardinal is de Lugo &c.«
It fell, however, in disuse,  but was again brought into vogue, in France, by  Sir
Robert Talbor, who acquired  great reputation for the cure of intermittents by a
secret remedy.   Louis XIV. purchased his  secret (which proved  to be Cinchona)
and  made it public.3   Hence  it  became known in France as Talbor''$ powder, or
the English Remedy.
   Botany.—Linnaeus4 established  the genus Cinchona in 1742.  Endlichcr5 first
divided it into two sections or sub-genera, one of which he  called Quinquina,8 in
which the dehiscence  of  the fruit is from below upwards : the other, Cascarilla,
in which the dehiscence is from above  downwards.  Weddell7 has formed these two
sections into genera, which  he calls respectively Cinchona and Cascarilla?  The
distinction rests not  merely on the dehiscence of the fruit—an apparently trivial
distinction—but on the  important  fact  that  the proper cinchona alkaloids have
hitherto been discovered  in  the species  of  the first section  or genus only, which,
therefore, exclusively yields true or genuine cinchona barks.   For these reasons,
therefore, I shall follow Weddell.
   Gen. Char.— Calyx with  a  turbinated tube, connate with the ovary, pubescent;
limb  superior, 5-toothed,  persistent; the  teeth  valvate  in praefloration.  Corolla
salver-shaped, with a terete or  subpentagonal tube, limb 5-cleft; the segments lance-
olate,  valvate in aestivation.   Stamens  5;  the filaments inserted in and  adnate
to the  lower  tube; anthers linear, inclosed  or  somewhat exserted  at  the apex.
Ovary  crowned with a fleshy disk.   Ovules  numerous, peltate, in linear placentae,
which are affixed on  both sides of the dissepiment.  Style simple;  stigma bifid,
concealed within  the  tube of the corolla, or  somewhat  exserted.   Capsule ovate,
oblong, or linear-lanceolate, grooved on  both sides, crowned   by  the  limb of the
calyx, 2-celled, many-seeded, septicidal, dehiscing from the base  to the apex, the
valves disjoined, the pedicel split lengthwise.  Seeds numerous, affixed in angular-
winged ultimately free placentae.   Embryo straight in the axis of fleshy albumen.
Evergreen trees  or shrubs growing in the intertropical valleys of the Andes between
10° North and 19°  South latitude, at from 1200 to 3270 metres (3937 to 10,728
English feet)  above the level of the  sea.   Trunk and branches terete, with a bitter
bark rich in quinia and  cinchonia.   Leaves opposite, entire, petiolated.  Stipuks
usually free, and soon deciduous.  Flowers  cymose-paniculate, white or usually
roseate or purplish,  very  fragrant.   (Condensed  from Weddell.)
   Species—Weddell admits 21 species of this genus;  but of these not  more than
13 are  known to yield their bark for commercial purposes.
   1.  C. Calisaya, Weddell.—Leaves  oblong  or lanceolate-obovate, obtuse, attenu-
ated at the base, rarely acute at both ends, smooth, shining, or pubescent beneath,

  1 M6m. Acad. Sc. de Paris, p. 226, 1738.            3 Geoffroy. op. supra citato.
   'Talbor, English  Remedy, 1682.                  < Genera Plantarum, ed. 2nda, p. 527, 1742.
  ' Genera Plantarum, p. 556, 1836—40.
  « According to Condamine, Quina signifies, in the Quichoa language, " a bark;" and the duplication of
the word (Quina Quina)  would be equivalent to saying " the bark of barks."
   Hist. Nat. des Quinquinas, 1849.
  • This name (cascarilla) for the new genus is highly objectionable (especially in a pharmaceutics! pmnt
of view), on account of its being already in use  to designate a well-known enphorbiaceous bark (caw*["
rilla or eleutheria bark, see ante, p. 370).—The word cascarilla is the diminutive of cascara bark, and,
therefore, literally signifies " small bark." 
Cinchona :—Description of its Species.
633
pitted in the axils of the veins.   Filaments usually shorter than one-half the length
of the anthers.  Capsule ovate,  scarcely equal  in length  to the  flowers.   Seeds
frequently fimbriate-denticulate at the  margin (Weddell).—Bolivia and Southern
Peru.
325.
                                Cimhona Calisaya.
A.Frolt-bearlng branch (from a specimen collected
    in (At province of Carabaya, in Peru).
». Flowers {natural size).
*, Corolla laid open (magnified).
D, Capsule (magnified).
E, Seed (magnified).
F, Leaf of var. Josephiana (from a specimen ga-
    thered in the province of Yungas, in Bolivia). 
634
VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord. Rubiace^:.
   Weddell has described two varieties of this species; they are as follows:—
   a. Calisaya. vera.—A tree, with obtuse oblong obovate or oblong-lanceolate leaves.__A tall
 tree.  Trunk straight or  bent, naked, not unfrequently twice the  thickness of a man's body
 The leafy head for the most part, elevated above all the other forest trees.
   It grows in declivities and steep and  rugged  places of the mountains, at an altitude of from
 1503 to 1800 metres [4921  to 5905 English feet], in the hottest forests of the valleys ol Bolivia
 and  Southern Peru ; between 13° and 16° 30' South latitude, and from f>S° to 72° West longi-
 tude; in the  Bolivian provinces  of Enquisivi, Yungas, Larecaja, and Caupolican ; and in the
 Peruvian province of Carabaya.  It flowers in April and May.
   The bark is commonly called indiscriminately by the Spaniards and Indians, Cascarilla Colisaya,
 Calisaya, or Culisaya.  It is the genuine Calisaya or yellow bark of English commerce.
   8. Josephiana.—The  Lhu-CascariUa  or Cascarilla  del PajonaP [Meadow Cinchona] of the
 natives.  A shrub with somewhat acute, oblong lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate leaves.—Krom GA
 to about  10 feet high, with a slender  branched trunk of from 1 to 2 inches thick.  Branrhea
 erect.  Bark  adhering firmly to the wood; that  of the trunk and  branches schistaceo-blackish,
 smoothish, or furnished  with different lichens, and marked in an annular manner by some nar-
 row, distant cracks;  that of the branchlets reddish brown.   It grows in  mountainous meadows
 in the same regions as the  preceding variety.   Both the bark of the trunk and  branches, and
 of the stumps of the larger  roots, is collected and occasionally imported with  Calisaya ot yellow
 bark.
   2. C. Condaminea, Weddell.—Leaves  lanceolate,  ovate  or  subrotund,  usually
 acute, very  smooth and shining above, beneath sometimes pitted in  the axils of the
 veins.    Teeth of the calyx triangular-acuminate or lanceolate.  Filaments nearly
 equal to, or larger than,  half  the length of the anthers.  Capsule oblong or lanceo-
 late, much  longer  than   the  flowers.   Seeds elliptical, tooth letted  at  the margin.
 (Weddell.)
   Of this species Weddell makes lour varieties, as follows:—
  a.  Condamineavera; Quinquina,2 Condam. M£m. de I'Acad. Roy. 1738; Cinchona officinalis,
 Sp. PI.; C. Condaminea, Humb. and Bonpl. Pi. JE.q. i. 33, t. x.—Leaves ovate-lanceolate, acute,
 pitted in  the  axils  of the veins.  Limb of the  calyx  subcampanulate, with triangular teeth,
 Capsule oblong-ovate, scarcely twice  as  long as  it  is broad (Weddell).—On  the declivities of
 the  mountains of Quito, in  the province of Loxa, between  3° 42' and 4° 40' South  latitude,
 at an elevation of from  1600 to 2400 metres (= from 5249, to 7874 English feet).  Its bark
 is called  by the Spaniards Cascarilla fina3 de  Urilusinga, and forms part of the Loxa or crown
 bark  of commerce.  Caldas4 states that  it yields a yellow  bark (probably the Quinquina jaunt
 or yellow Cinchona of  Condamine, and hence is called  Cascarilla fina amarillo [fine yellow
 bark] by the  natives.  A sub-variety yields a red bark (probably the Quinquina rouge or red
 bark-  of Condamine), and  is  in consequence termed cohrada fina [fine red].  Its leaves are
 thicker and blunter.
  B.  Candoli.ii;  C.macrocalyx, Pav. MSS. ined.; De Cand. Prodr. iv. 353.—Leaves obovate or
 subrotund, wedge-shaped, rotund, or  subcordate  at the  base, aoutish at the apex.   Limb of the
 calyx campanulate, smoothish, with lanceolate teeth.  Stigmata subexserted  (Weddell)—Cu-
 enca.  Its bark probably forms a portion  of the Loxa bark of commerce.  It occurs in Pavon's
 collection in  the British Museum under the names of Cascarilla de Quiebro de Cuenca de Loxa,
 and  Quina negra5 [black cinchona].
  y.  lucum^folia;  C. lucumafolia, Pavon, in Herb. Lamb.;  Lindl.; Fl. Med. p 416.—Leaves
 elliptical-lanceolate, very obtuse, attenuated  at  tbe base.   Limb of the calyx sub-campanulate,
 with  triangular, subaeuininate teeth (Weddell).—Loxa.—The bark of this variety is called by
 the Spaniards cascarilla con hojasde Lucuma [the lucuma-leaved cinchona bark]. Specimens of it
 are contained  in Pavon's  collection in the Briti.sh  Museum.6 It occurs in large quills with a white
 silvery, lustrous, or corky coat, and is found occasionally in Loxa bark.  A chest of it  was put
 up for sale  in London, in 1848, under the name of crown bark; buHt is very different from
 the bark usually known by this name.
  $■.  lancifolia;  C. lancifolia, Mutis, Papel periodieo  de Santa Fe, Num. iii. Oct. 11,1793, p.
 465;  Humboldt, in Lambert's Illust. p. 51;  C. angustifolia, Ruiz and Pav. Suppl. a la Quinol.

  1 Weddell says that ichu in the Quichua language and paja in the Spanish signify herb or grass.—Pfl;«i
 however, strictly signifies " straw."                                                        .
  2 Condumine's plant is usually regarded as identical with Humboldt's C. Condaminea; but Ginboon
 (Hist, des Drog. 4me edit. t. iii  p. 99), who has pointed out  some differences between them, propose! w
 distinguish Condainine's plant by the name of uCinchona academica."                      .  ,
  * I am indebted to Mi. Berthold Seemann for a specimen of bark gathered by himself in the neighbour-
hood of Loxa from a tree called there "Quina fina."  This bark corresponds to what I have termed Jim
silvery crown bark.  Mr. Seemann was also kind enough to lend me, for examination, dried *Pe'J"I1'n'.,.
the flowers and leaves taken from the same branch which he had decorticated.   The plant is undoubted
Humboldt's Cinchona Condaminea.                                                    .  „„,
  4 Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. xi.                   » J. E. Howard, Pharm. Journ. vol. il "*»■
  6 J.  E. Howard, op. supra cit. 
                  Cinchona:—Description of its Species.                635

p 21—Leaves lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, acute at both ends, without pits.  Teeth of the
calyx short, triangular.  Anthers usually shorter than the filaments. Capsules for the most part
lanceolate (Weddell).—Peru, Equador, and New Grenada.  In Santa Fe, the bark is known by
the  name of quina naranjada, or orange-coloured bark.  It is extensively imported into  Eng-
land from Carthagena and other ports of the Caribbean Sea ; and is best known to our dealers
by the name of Caqueta or Coquetta or Bogota bark.  It is the bark which I formerly designated
ns n«o spurious yellow bark, and which M. Guibourt described as  spongy Carthagena bark (quin-
nuna de Carthagene spongieux).  He now calls it Mutis's orange-coloured bark (q. orange^ de
Mutis).
  i. Pjtatexsis.—C. lanceolata, Bentham.—Leaves lanceolate, very acute at both ends. Limb
of the calyx 5-parted; the segments linear (Weddell).—New Granada.—It is the probable
source of Pitaya, Colombia, or Antioquia bark (the quinquina Pitaya of M.  Guibourt—not the
Tecamez, or Acatamez, or bicoloured bark, which is sometimes called Pitaya bark).
  3. C SCROBICULATA, Weddell.—Leaves oblong or lanceolate, acute at both ends,
somewhat coriaceous, above shining, beneath smoothish and minutely pitted in the
axils of the  veins.   Teeth of the  calyx  triangular, acute.  Capsule  ovate-lanceo-
late, scarcely twice as long as it is broad.  Wing of the seeds narrowed at the base,
setose-toothletted at the margin  (Weddell).—Peru; between 4° and 13° of South
latitude, at about the same altitude as  C. Condaminea.   It chiefly occurs in Jaen,
Cuzco, and Carabaya.   Its  bark is largely collected, and is sold as a substitute for
the Calisaya sort,  to which it is greatly inferior.   It is to this bark that Guibourt
has especially applied the name  of light (or flimsy) Calisaya of commerce (Calisaya
leger du commerce).
  Of this species Weddell makes two varieties:—
  ». benoisa ; scrobiculata, Humb. and Bonpl. PI. iEquin. i. p. 165 ; C. purpurea, Lambert, III.
p. 6; C. micrantha, Lind. Fl.  Med. p. 412.—Leaves oblong.—Peru.—Its bark  is termed by the
Peruvians Cascarilla cohrada del  Cuzco [red  Cuzco bark], or sometimes Cascarilla de Santa-Ana
[St. Ann's hark].
  Humboldt1 says that this species forms immense forests in the province of Jaen de Braca-
morros, where it is called Quina fina. He adds that the inhabitants of the town of  Jaen annu-
ally gather large quantities of its barks,  which they send to Piura, where they are shipped, on
the Pacific, for Lima.  These facts would lead us to  presume that some portion of the Loxa
barks of commerce is derived from this species.
  8. Delondriaka.—All the leaves sublanceolate, smaller than in the typical plant. The pits
not very conspicuous.—Middle Peru.—The  bark of this variety is known in the London mar-
ket by the name of Peruvian  Calisaya.
  4. C. AMYGDALIFOLIA,  Weddell.—Leaves lanceolate, subacuminate, acute, attenu-
ated at the  base, above  shining and veiny, beneath smoothish.  Stipules subper-
Bistent.  Teeth of  the calyx triangular, acute.   Anthers equalling  the  filaments.
Capsule lanceolate, slightly pubescent,  3  or  4 times longer than it is broad.  Seeds
acutely toothletted  at the margin (Weddell).—Bolivia aud Peru, between 13°  and
17° South latitude.—Its  bark  is called  in Peru cascarilla-echenique,* and  by the
Bolivians cascarUla- Quepo or Quepo-cascariUa, but it has no reputation with them.
It occasionally occurs  in  English  commerce,  but is not distinguished by  any
name.
  o. C. nitida, Ruiz and  Pavon ; Lindl.—Leaves lanceolate-obovate, acute, attenu-
ated at the base, smooth on both  sides,  shining or slightly hairy beneath, not  pitted.
filaments equalling the anthers.  Capsule lanceolate,  twice as long as it is  broad.
Seeds lanceolate,  toothletted  at  the  margin (Weddell).—In  Peru, especially Hua-
naco, Panatahuas,  Casapi,  Cuchero, &c, about  10° North latitude.—The bark of
this species forms a portion of the LTuanuco or gray bark of English commerce.
  o. C. australis,  Weddell.—Leaves broadly elliptical or obovate, obtuse, acute
at the base,  very smooth  on both  sides, shining, minutely pitted beneath  in  the
Mils of the  veins or veinlets.   Capsule ovate-lanceolate, remarkably attenuated
^p<Tiorly.   Wing of the seeds setose-toothletted at the margin (Weddell).—South
**>livia, at  about  19° South latitude, at an altitude of about  P200 metres [3937
kogl. feet].  Its  bark, called by the Bolivians  Cascarilla de  la  Cordillera or de

 '}PI*ntes Mquinoxialts.
ti »n "fit"0 Ca"ed aftCr * certain Colonel Echenique, who collected it in the hope of making a good specula- 
636
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rubiace*:.
Piray, or  Cascarilla de Santa Cruz de la  Sierra [Cordillera, Pira, or Santa Cnw
de la Sierra bark], is, perhaps, to  be occasionally met with in English commerce
but I have not been able to identify it.
   7.  C. Boliviana, Weddell.—Leaves elliptical or oblong-obovate, obtuse  cuneate
or attenuated at the base, smooth above, smoothish or pubescent and purplish below.
Teeth of the  calyx  triangular.   Filaments equalling the  anthers.—Bolivia and
Peru.   In  Bolivia, it grows in the  same localities as the C. Calisaya;  also  in some
of the valleys of the Peruvian province of Carabaya, at  13° South latitude.  Its
bark is called in Bolivia  Calisaya morada  [mulberry-coloured  Calisaya], and in
Peru Cascarilla verde [green] morada.1   It is usually intermixed with the bark of
C.  Calisaya, and  constitutes, therefore, part of the Calisaya bark of commerce.
Guibourt classes it among the light or flimsy Calisaya barks (Calisayas legers).
   8.  C. MICRANTHA, Weddell.—Leaves broadly ovate, obovate, or roundish, rather
obtuse, more  or less attenuated at the base, membranous,  smooth  above, very
slightly pubescent beneath, pubescent or hairy on  the veins and in the axils. Teeth
of the calyx  short  and acuminate.   Fruit-bearing panicle thyrse-like,  somewhat
compressed.   Capsule lanceolate.   Wing  of the  seeds  toothletted at the  margin
(Weddell).—This species grows in  the Bolivian provinces Larecaja and Caupolican;
in Carabaya, and  also near Chicoplaya and Playa Grande, in Peru.  Its bark is
called by the  inhabitants of Huanuco,  Cascarilla provinciana;  in Carabaya, it is
termed Motosolo ; and by the Bolivians, Quepo Cascarilla or Cascarilla verde.  It
is collected in large quantities in Carabaya, and is confounded with the bark of Cin-
chona ovata, under the  name of Cascarilla morada ordinaria.  The quilled bark
constitutes part of the LTuanuco or  gray barks of English commerce; the flat pieces
are used to adulterate Calisaya bark.
   Weddell makes two varieties of this  species.
   a.  rotundifolia;  C. micrantha, Ruiz and Pavon—Leaves ovate-rotund.—Peru and Bolivia.
  B.  oblongifolia, C. affinis;  Weddell.—Leaves oblong-ovate.—Peru.
   9.  C. pubescens, Weddell.—Leaves broadly ovate, subacute,  at the base (espe-
cially  in  the  younger  ones) attenuated,  membranous,  above  smoothish,  beneath
pubescent, with short petioles.   Teeth of the calyx triangular-acuminate.   Anthers
subsessile.    Fruit-bearing  panicle loose,  straggling.   Capsule   linear-lanceolate.
Seeds setose, toothletted at  the margin (Weddell).—Peru and Bolivia.—It occurs
frequently between 4° and 16° South latitude.
   Weddell admits two varieties of this species.
  a.  Pelleteri ana ; C. pubescens, Vahl.—Leaves on both sides green.—The bark of this variety
is known in  its native country as carua-carua or cargua-cargua2 (indicative of its inferior quality).
In Carabaya, it is also called cascarilla or quinia amarilla  [yellow bark].   It  is known in Europe
as Arico or Cusco bark.
   B. purpurea; C. purpurea, Ruiz and  Pav.; Cascarilla morada, Ruiz.—Adult leaves purplish
beneath.—In the valleys about  Huanuco, the bark of this variety is called cascarilla bobd* at
hojas moradas [the mulberry-leaved booby bark].
   10.  C. cordifolia,  Weddell.—Leaves  ovate-suborbicular, obtuse at both  ends,
or cordate  or slightly  attenuated  at  the  base,  submembranous  above, at length
smoothish, beneath pubescent, usually with long petioles.   Teeth of the calyx short,
mucronate.    Anthers much longer than  the filaments.    Panicle  subcorymbose.
Capsule lanceolate.  Wing of  the  seeds toothletted  at the margin, and with small
holes (Weddell).   This species grows at an altitude of from 1700 to 2700 metres
[=5577 to 8858* English feet].
   Weddell makes two varieties of this  species.
   a.  vera ; C. cordifolia, Mutis, MSS. apud Humboldt, in Lamb. Illust. p. 54; Lindl. Fl. Med.-

  1 These names have reference to the colour of the leaves, not of the barks.          Th.Hnnlication
  » Carua or Cargua signifies the Llama—an animal considered to be of an inferior  kind.  ln*Y,u»" „ yery
of the word gives force to the expression, and may be taken to signify (figuratively) " very Dau
inferior."                                                      .      , . _.,„« hecaun.
  a The word 6060 is equal to that of fool or booby.   The inhabitants  have given it tins name u
having the same good qualities as the other cinchonas, it has not their colour (Laubert).      .. . fwl
  * Boussingault and Goulot state that it occurs mogt abundantly at an elevation ot  law nug
(Boussingault's Rural Economy, Engl, transl. 2d edit. p. 205,1S45). 
Cinchona :—Description of its Species.
637
Leaves subcordate, pubescent beneath.—New Granada and  Peru.  Its bark is  the quina ama
rdla or yellow bark of Santa Fe, better known in the English market  as hard Carthagena bark.
By the common people in New Granada it is called velvet bark.
  8. rotunih folia; C. rotundifolia, Pavon, in  Lamb. III. p. 5; Lindl. Fl. Med.—Leaves rotund,
obtuse at both ends, denuded or with veins beneath, and with pubescence above.—Loxa.__It is
probably the source of the ashy crown bark of commerce.
   11. C. ptjrpurascens, Weddell.   Leaves large, suborbicular,  acute, attenuated
&t the base, membranous, smoothish  above, downy beneath, the younger ones sub-
geesile.   Stipules ovate-lanceolate.—Bolivia.—Guibourt thinks that its bark is what
he has termed white Loxa cinchona, but which Weddell thinks is furnished by  C.
oordifolia and pubescens.
   12. C ovata,  Weddell.—Leaves broadly ovate, subacute,  attenuated  at the
base, subcoriaceous, above  at  length  smoothish,  beneath   pubescent-tomentose.
Teeth of the calyx short, acute.   Anthers much larger than the  filament.   Fruit-
bearing panicle diffuse.   Capsule  lanceolate or  oblong-lanceolate.   Wing of the
seeds fimbriate-toothletted at the margin  (Weddell).
  Weddell admits three varieties of this:—
  a. vulgaris; C. ovata, Fl. Peruv.;  C. pubescens, Lambert; C.  pubescens  var  B, De  Cand.__
Leaves on both sides green.  The bark, when dry, yellow; the  cellular coat persistent,  or at
length separating more or less from  the liber (Weddell).—Peru  and  Bolivia;  from 9° to 17°
South latitude, at an altitude of from 1800 to 2300 metres [=5905 to 7546 Engl. feet].   This
variety yields the bark called in  South and Middle Peru.  Cascarilla pata de  Gallareta, or Casca-
rilla pata de Gallinazo}  This bark is frequently met with in English commerce, and is known
by tbe names of Ash, Jaen, or Ten bark.
  To this variety must also, for the  present, be referred the bark now largely imported into
England under the name of Carabaya bark, which Dr. Weddell has recently assured Mr. J.  E.
Howard is the  produce of C. ovata, var. a.  vulgaris.
  8. nuriNKHvis.—Leaves beneath  sanguineo-venous.  The dry bark yellowish, the cellular
tunic at  length separating from the liber.  Carabaya in Southern  Peru, and Bolivia.  In Peru,
the bark is called Cascarilla-Carabaya, and sometimes Cascarilla zamba-inorada.
  y. erythroderma.—Leaves submembranous, beneath pubescent, green on both sides.  Dry
bark of a deep  reddish-brown colour, the  cellular  coat  persistent.  Peru.  The bark of this
variety is of a red colour.
   13. C. glandulifera, Ruiz and Pavon.—Leaves  ovate-lanceolate,  acute  at both
ends, above smoothish, beneath glandular-hairy, and  fitted in  the axils of the veins.
Teeth of the calyx short, triangular, subacuminate  (Weddell).—Peru,  in  10° South
latitude, especially about Panatahuas, Chicoplaya, Monzon, and Cuchero.   Its bark,
called Cascarilla negrilla [blackish bark], forms, according to Peoppig, one of the
best Huanuco barks.
   14. C. IIirsuta,  Ruiz and  Pavon.—Leaves elliptical ovate, obtuse, usually
subacute at the  base,  coriaceous,  above veiny,  ultimately smooth,  beneath with
fcttise-pilosc veins.   Teeth of the calyx lanceolate  acuminate.   Tube of the corolla
pubescent within at the base  of the  filaments.   Wing of the seeds  broad, tooth-
 etted (Weddell).—Peru; about Pillao, Acomao, and  Panatahuas,  at 10°  South
latitude.  Its bark is called Cascarilla delgada or  delgadilla [slender  bark] by the
Peruvians.  It may, perhaps, be  the bark  known in  English commerce as wiry
crown Lark.
   J'he remaining seven species of Cinchona are not known to yield any of the Cinchona barks
l,i commerce.
   15. C cuomeliawa, Weddell.—Bolivia.—Its bark  approximates in  character to that of C.

   IC C aspeiufolia, Weddell.—Bolivia.—A small tree.
   7. C. Hcmboliitiana, Lambert, 111.  7 ;  C. villosa, Lindl.  Fl. Med.—Peru.
   I*. t. Carabaikssis, Weddell.—Peru.—Its bark is very thin, and has  not  been collected
>'>r commercial purposes.
   ' J- C Mitisii, Lambert, III. 9; C. glandulifera, Lindl. Fl. Med.—Loxa.
   " fddell notices two varieties of this:—
   «. microphyUa; C. microphylla, Mutis;  C. quercifolia, Pavon, in Lamb. III. p. 9.—This

vLd^J'J' gZ!laTi,a; f00t of the wiM duck > pata dt gallinazo. foot of the black vulture (Vultur Aura)
af OtLnhi.  J1  i   laUe,r. name arl8es from the blackish and radiated appearance caused by some species
  "™pi'is, which generally grows upon the bark. 
638                 VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rubiaceje.

         variety is commonly called Cascarilla con hojas de roble [oak-leaved cinchona]- and
         under this name there is a bark in Pavon's collection in the British Museum.  It is in
         quills, with  a whitish epidermis, and approximates  in appearance to either C. lanci-
         folia or lucumaefolia bark.
     $.  crispa; C. quercifolia var. crispa,  Pavon. in Lamb. III. p. 9.
  20. C. discolor, Klotzsch.—Peru.—Cascarilla hofa de Oliva [olive-leaved cinchona],
  21. C. pelalba, Pavon.—Peru?
   Bark-peeling.—The  method of peeling and  preparing the cinchona barks for
the  market  has  been noticed  by  Gray,1 by  Stevenson,9 by Ruiz, by  Poppig, and
more recently by Weddell.
  The name of cascarilleros [bark-peelers], Mr. Weddell states, is given not only to the men who
cut the cinchonas in the woods, but also to those who are specially engaged in this commerce.
They gather the bark at all seasons, except the  rainy season, which  in duration  corresponds
with our winter;  and even during this  period the collection of the bark is only suspended on
account of the physical obstacles to its continuance.                              ,
   The cutters  are not generally engaged on their own account, but are mostly in the service of
some merchant or small company; and are accompanied into the forests by a confidential person
called the mayordomo or major domo, whose duty it is to receive and examine the barks brought
to him by the  different parties in the forest, and to superintend the distribution of provisions.
   The first thing  done by those who engage in this kind of speculation in a region previously
unexplored, is to have it examined by experienced cascarilleros, who are called dieslrot or prac-
ticos [skilled or experienced persons].  The duty of these is to penetrate the forests in different
directions, and to  ascertain  to what points they may be profitably explored.  If their report be
favourable, a road is immediately commenced up to the point which is to form tbe centre of tbe
operations; and from this time all those parts of the forests  adjacent to the road become pro-
visionally the property of those who have formed it, and no other cascarilleros can  work there.
   On the arrival of tbe major domo with his cutters in the neighbourhood of the part to be ex-
plored, he chooses a favourable site for  his encampment, as near as possible to a spring or river.
He constructs a hut to shelter the provisions and the produce of the cuttings; and if he antici-
pates  having  to remain for some  time in  the same  locality, he commences  the cultivation of
maize and a few  vegetables.  Experience, indeed, has shown  that an  abundant supply of pro-
visions is one of tbe  most important conditions of success.  The cascarilleros, during this time,
are distributed through the forest, one by one, or in small parties, each carrying, under b\a pon-
cho or cloak, and  suspended at his back, provisions for  several days, and the coverings which
constitute his bed.
   The cinchonas rarely constitute an entire forest, but form more or lesa compact groups,called
manthas, distributed  in different parts of it.  In some  cases, and most frequently, they j$row
separately   However  this may be, it is in discovering  them that the  skill of the cascarillero is
principally exerted.  If the position be favourable, the  tops of the trees first attract his notice;
a slight movement peculiar to the  leaves of certain species, a particular colour of the foliage,
the  aspect produced by a great mass of inflorescence, enable him to distinguish the  cinchonas
from a great distance.   Under other circumstances he confines his inspection to the trunks, of
which the.  external layer of the bark,  or enves, as it is called, presents remarkable characters.
 Very frequently, the  dry leaves which he finds on the ground  are sufficient to indicate to him
the  vicinity of the object of his search; and  if these indications  have been brought there by
the  wind, he  knows in what direction  to look.  An Indian, under these circumstances,  is an
interesting object for observation.  Passing in and out through the narrow pathways of the forest,
glancing through  the foliage, and appearing to sniff the earth, he seems to walk like an animal
pursuing its prey, and darts forth when he thinks he has discovered  the object of his search,
 nor stops until he has arrived at the foot of the trunk which he has descried from the distance.
 It is not always, however,  that the exertions of the cascarillero are productive of such favouir™
able results.   Too often he returns to the camp empty banded,and without provisions; and net
 unfrequently,  when  he has discovered on the side of a mountain, indications of the  tree, M
 finds himself  separated from it by a torrent or ravine.  Entire days may then pass before
 can attain the object which, during this period, he allows not to escape from his sight.
   In order to strip the tree of its bark it  is felled with a hatchet, being cut a little above
 root, and the bark previously removed from this part, so that  nothing may be lost; and as at
 base the bark is  thickest, and, therefore, most profitable, it  is customary to remove the  earl
 from around  the  trunk, so  that the barking  may be more  complete.  The  tree seldom faU
 .mmediately when cut through, being  sustained either  by climbing plants or by  tlie adj^*V
 trees;  these are fresh obstacles to be overcome by the cascarillero.  I remember, says Mr.  Wen-
 dell, having once cut the  trunk of a large cinchona in the hope  of bringing its flowers within

              1 From the papers of Mr. Arrot;  Phil. Trans. 1737—8, vol. xl.  pp. SI—6
              a Narrative of Twenty Years' Residence in South America, vol. ii. p M, 1S«S 
                           Cinchona :—Bark-peeling.                         639

reach, and, after having felled three adjacent trees, had the mortification to find it yet standing,
being held up by the interlacing creepers.
  When at length the tree is down, and  the useless  branches have  been cut off, the  periderm
is removed by striking it with either A little wooden mallet, or the back of the hatchet; and the
inner bark, being thus exposed, is  often farther  cleaned  by means of a  brush.  The  bark is
then divided by uniform incisions circumscribing the pieces which are to be removed, and these
are separated from the trunk with a common knife or some other instrument, the point of which
ii carried as close as possible to  the surface of the  wood on introducing it into the incisions
previously made; and if the position of the trunk prevents  the  operator from removing the
whole of the bark by the first operation, it is subsequently divided  so as  to admit of its being
turned.   The dimensions and regularity of the pieces necessarily depend more or  less on cir-
cumstances; in general, however, for  the convenience of transport and facility of preparation,
tbey endeavour to make them from  fifteen to eighteen inches long, and four or five inches wide.
The bark of the branches is separated in the same way as that of  the trunk, excepting that it
is not deprived of its exterior coating or periderm.
  The details in the process of drying also vary slightly  in the two cases; the thinnest pieces
of bark from the branches or small trunks, intended to make the quilled bark or canuto, are sim-
ply exposed to the sun's rays, and they take of  themselves the desired form, which  is that of a
hollow cylinder;  but the bark taken from large trunks, which is to constitute the flat cinchona, or,
as it is called, tabla or plancha, must  necessarily undergo a certain  degree of  pressure  during
tbe process of desiccation,  without which  it would  become misshapen, or  take  a  cylindrical
form.as in the preceding case.   To effect this, after first exposing the pieces of bark to the sun,
they are placed one on the other in crossed  squares, in a simitar manner to that practised in
timber-yards in the arrangement of tbe planks of wood ; and on the top of this pile a heavy
wei(?lu is placed.  This  process is repeated  for several days until the bark is  completely
dried.
  In many places the bark  is not pressed at  all, or but imperfectly so, and it is then generally

                                       Fig.  326.
The Valley of 8an Juan del Oro.
                   Bark-peeling in the Forests of Carabaya in Peru.

in^ni«^e.^f**far!"er0'* or barkers i«represented as engaged in barking a felled stem; two others are occupied
of th.JLlS "k  L  "'"'iuarelw'aP! to flatten and dry it; while a fourth is seen in the distance carrying a load
ul «• ariea bark on lus back to the camp.) 
640                 VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. RuBiACEiE.

out of form  or  slightly curled.   The periderm is  oAen  but partially removed, or simply
scraped.   Finally, whether it be accidental, or whether it be done with the view of augment-
ing the weight,  there frequently remains a certain  quantity of moisture  in the bark whic.
greatly deteriorates it.   The labour of the cascarillero  is by no means ended, even when he has
finished the  preparation of the bark; he  has yet to carry his spoil to the camp, and, with K
heavy load on his shoulders, to retrace his  steps along those parts which, while unburdenc I
he traversed  with difficulty.   The labour involved in this part of the operations can hardly
conceived.   Mr. Weddell has seen more than one district where the bark had to  be carried f r
fifteen or twenty days' journey to get it out of the wood from which it was obtained.
  The packing of the bark is effected by the major domo.  As  the cutters bring him the bar ,
he submits it to  a slight examination, and rejects that which  is bad.  It is then, if neci^ary
exposed to a fresh  process  of desiccation, and formed into  bundles of nearly equal weigh
which are sewn up  in coarse canvas kept  for  that purpose.  In this condition the bundles ir-
conveyed on  the backs of men, donkeys, or mules, to  the depots in the towns, where they get
rally receive  an exterior  envelop, consisting of a fresh  hide, which as it dries makes a hi
and compact package.  In this form the packages  are known by the name of serons, and it ,»
thus that they arrive in Europe.   The usual weight of a seron is from 70 to 8(J  kilogrammes
(=150 to 176 lbs. avoirdupois);  but it is sometimes much less than this.
   Description,   a.  General Description.—Before describing  the various kinds
of cinchona barks met with in  commerce, it will be necessary to offer a few remarks
on their general  characters.   These may be  noticed  under  the following heads:
cryptogamia, structure, fracture, markings, quilling, colour, taste, and  odour.
   1. Cryptogamia  found on Cinchona  Barks.—These,  especially the Lichens, have been
elaborately examined by  Fee' and by Zenker.2
   a. Musci, or Mosses.—We frequently find mosses on Cinchona  barks; but as they are never
met with in  fructification, it is almost impossible to determine the genus to which they belong.
They are probably species of Hypnum.
  B. Lichenes.—These are found  in  great abundance, especially on Loxa or  Crown bark.  For-
merly their presence was considered to  be a  mark of goodness of barks, which were valued
in proportion to the  number of lichens growing on them.
   We may conveniently arrange  them, according  to Zenker, in four  sections: Sect  1. Conia-
lichenes, or  the powdery  lichens (Lichenes pulveracei).—In this section, we have Lepra flava.
Sect. 2. Cryolirhenes,  or  the crustaceous  lichens (Lichenes crustacei).—These frequently put on
very beautiful forms, and  so colour the surface of the epidermis that they appear to constitute
a part of this coat.   In that kind of pale bark usually called gray, or silver, the surface of  tlie
epidermis has a white cretaceous appearance, from the presence of  various species of Arthonia
and Pyrenula.   Sect. 3. Phyllolichenes, or the foliaceous  lichens (Lichenes foliacei).—These  are
found most abundantly on the Crown or Loxa bark.   The most  common species  belong to  the
genera Parmelia, Sticta, and Collema.  The P.  coronata is  a  beautiful species, and one  fre-
quently met  with.  So also the Sticta aurata, remarkable for its yellow colour. Sect. 4. Dendro-
lichenes, or the filamentous lichens (Lichenes fruticosi).—The Usneas are good examples of this
section; they are found in abundance on  the  Crown bark.  Two  species  are met  with—U.
florida and TJ. barbata;  a variety of the latter is curiously articulated.
  y. Hepaiicce.—Jungermannias are found on  Cinchona  barks, but  in  too broken a  condition
to determine their  species.   Fee, however,  examined Humboldt's  Herbarium, and found
four.
  h Fungi.—As Fungi usually grow on weakly or dead trees, their presence on Cinchona bark
is a bad characteristic.  Very few, however, are met with.  That most commonly met with
(especially on quilled Calisaya bark) is Hypochnus rubrocinclus, a red fungus.
  2. Structure.—The bark of young Cinchona  stems  consists of four parts:  1st, the fp."
mis or outer coat, composed of a row of oblong, brownish cells, flattened in the direction lrom
without inwards, and often partially destroyed or blended  with the thallus of lichens.  2dly,
the epiphlamm, also called phleum, periderm, or suberous coat, composed of layers of oblong tabular
cells,  which  in some barks (as those of C. pubescens and amygdalifolia) constitutes a layer
true cork, but in others consists of a modified cork, which is  distinguished by the name of th*
resinous circle.  3dly, the mesophlamm, placed immediately within  the suberous coat, and  some-
times termed the cellular  or herbaceous envelop or green luyer.   It  is composed of regular cells,
which are flattened  in  the direction from without inwards, and contain resinous matters which
readily dissolve in alcoliol.  This coat is separated from the liber by one or two rows of lacuni
analogous to latitiferous vessels, from which, in the  fresh bark, a gummy-resinous, astrn^"'
rather than bitter, fluid escapes.   4thly, the internal tunic called  the  endophlceum or liber,  and
composed of pentagonal cells filled with resinous-matters,and of woody tissue (pleurencfoyma).
forming tbe cortical fibres.
  During  the growth  and augmented diameter of the  ligneous action of the  stem, the nine
portion of the bark continues to live and grow also, but the outer portion dies, and either remains

  1 Essai sur  les Cryptog. 1824.                      '  Goebel and Kunze. Pharm. Waarenk. S 1W 
Cinchona:—Structure and Fracture of the Bark.
641
attached to the inner living portion, forming what
j» called  coated bark (cinchona cum cortice exteriore
of Bergen), or exfoliates and falls off.  This dead
part 19 termed  by Weddell1 the periderm—while
the living part he calls the derm.  Thus, he ap-
plies  the term periderm to  what  the druggists
commonly call  the coat of the bark; and the word
derm to what is usually termed uncoated bark, or
bark deprived of Us coats (cinchona nuda of Bergen).
  3.  Fractuhk.—The character of the  trans-
verse fracture furnishes an important criterion of
the quality of bark, and has long  been  in  use
imong dealers.  It  depends  mainly on the ana-
tomical elements  of the  bark, but partly also on
tbe contents of the  cells.   Thus, cellular  tissue
breaks with a short  and  smooth  fracture,  and
when the cells abound in  resin, the  fracture be-
becomes  glistening and resinous.  Woody tissue,
on the other hand, breaks with a  fibrous fracture.
In a general way, therefore, it may be stated that
there are hut two  kinds of fracture—1st, the short
and smooth; and  2dly, the fibrous.   But of the
fibrous fracture there are three varieties, viz. the
thortfibrous, the stringy, and the ligneous or woody.
These are respectively shown  in  the bark of C.
Calisaya. scrobiculata,  and pubescens.  (See Figs.
328 to 330 inclusive.)
  The cause of these  peculiarities is to  be  found
in the anatomical structure of the bark as displayed
by the microscope.  In the  Calisaya bark, the  lig-
Fig. 327.
 Transverse section  of the  very young  bark of
   Cinchona ovata, showing the disposition of
   the layers  before their  modification  by the
   progress of vegetation.

 ep, Remainsof theepidermis.
 s', Suberous eoat or resinous circle.
 ec, Cellular envelop.
 la, Lacunae : these, aa well as  the cells of the
  cellular envelop,  are filled with resinous  mat-
  ters, which require to be removed, in order to
  render the cell-walls obv.ous.
 I, Liber.
fl', Cortical fibres.
Fig.  328.
Fig. 329.
Fig. 330.
Bark of C. Calisaya entirely
   deprived of periderm.
^lort-fibrous  fracture of liber.
Eark of C. scrobiculata.

Strngy fracture of liber.
   Bark  of C. pubescens  coated
    externally  by its periderm.
Smooth or suberous fracture of the
  external  or purely cellular por-
  tion of the bark
Ligneous fracture of the  internal
  portion or liber.
"f "l'J«bn-f,?r?„.,?!  ,?nVt:n'?nt' "?d l B^a11' there<"0<-e, adopt them.  But they are by no means devoid
H'ipfcWo'r  rid -n  'efT/  .''T^r.'? r,8611 by.M"hl> in !l P'ecise anatomical sense, to indicate the
k°A..mld<°»no olfi."•  / 'e bn.-k' We^11 ust,s " »»°re >"°sely to signify merely the dead part of the
w tubero.. coat  Emm- «         T*' Thl,S' '" lts s,ulPleBt f(,rln- Weddell'. periderm is the epiphteum
hcrnied mSJoJ. «"..»■   T." c,omnlex 8tate ll consists of the exfoliated mesophlcpum chiefly, with the
    ■«i tuberous coat; and, lastly, m some cases it contains also a portion of the  liber.
       VUL. II.—41 
642
VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord. Rubiace*:.
neous fibres are short, fusiform, equal, loosely attached to each other by their oblioue end. .
surrounded, for the most part individually, by a cellular tissue filled with resin   In theliX
culata bark the ligneous fibres are nearly twice as long, more numerous, and adherent bv n
more tapering extremities.  Lastly, in the pubescens bark, we find that the ligneous fibres ar
      Fig.  331.
Longitudinal section of
     C. Calisaya.
             ft
    * "  i 4m
      Ma
      Fig. 332.
Longitudinal section of
   C. scrobiculata.
     Fig. 333.
Longitudinal nection of
    C. pubescens.
fi' , „ «
ft   ee
                                       fi  ■■•                   -I'lecljli

    Microscopic structure of the liber of C. Calisaya, scrobiculata, and pubescens.
fl', L:gneous fibres.       ee, Cellular {issue of the liber.        rm', Medullary rays.
three or four times as large as those of the preceding barks, and are united together in bundles:
moreover, the internal face of the bark is formed in great part of cellular tissue. (See Figs. 331
to 33G inclusive.)
   As Calisaya bark yields a larger proportion of quinine than any other bark, and breaks with
a short-fibrous fracture, Weddell lays down a general rule, that the more the transverse fracture
of a cinchona  bark approaches to  the short-fibrous  form, the greater  the amount  of quinine
which we may presume it to contain.  On the other hand, the more the fracture approximates
to the short or suberous  form, the greater the amount of cinchonine.   But these rules probably
only apply to Bolivian barks.
   4.  Seat of the Active  Principles.—I have repeatedly submitted sections of cinchona
barks to  microscopic examination,  with  the view of determining the seat and appearance of
the alkaloids in their native tissues.
   The liber  of many barks presents, even to the naked  eye, a speckled appearance, owing to
the  presence of minute white  spots.  When we  examine these spots  by a  low magnifying
power, they  are seen to be cells filled with a white solid  substance.   If we use the  compound
microscope, with an object-glass of two inches focal length, the inner surface of the liber pre-
sents an amygdaloid appearance, owing to the presence of ovoid cells filled with a  white sub-
stance, and imbedded in  the yellowisb-brown tissue of the  bark.  Sometimes these cells are
rectangular.   Longitudinal and transverse sections of  the  bark show that these white masses
are confined to the liber, and chiefly to its inner portion.   In one  specimen, I discovered a thin >,
layer of tbe white  matter between the  liber and the mesophlasum.  These white masses I
have met with more abundantly in the cinchonine barks.   When the white sultftance is sub- ,
mined to high magnifying power it appears like a crumbling mass, without presenting any dis-
tinct crystalline form.   It  is readily soluble in diluted hydrochloric acid, and the solution is not
precipitated  by oxalate of ammonia.   It dissolves also  in diluted  sulphuric acid ; and tbe solu-
tion  by evaporation crystallizes.  In alcohol, ether, and  solution of  caustic  potash, it is only
slightly soluble.   It is probable, I think, that this white matter  consists chiefly of some com-
pound of the alkaloids of the bark.
   5. Markings —Furrows (sulci) are the result of the organizations of the stem, and are often
nothing but scars (cicatrices) left by the fall of leaves and stipules—as the circular impres«H**i
or annular furrows (sulci annulati) or rings, observed on crown or Calisaya barks. Rents or crac s 
Cinchona:—Special Description.
643
Fie. 334.
Fig. 335.
Fis. 336.
! ;f--

f^
            C. Cal'saya.              C scrobiculata.              C pubescens.
     Microscopic structure of transverse sections of the barks of  C. Calisaya, scrobiculata, and
                                       pubesnens.
  cc, Cellular tissue of the liber.                 I    I, The liber.
  tr, Cellular envelop.                            pd, A portion of the periderm attached to the liber.
  fl, Fibres of the liber (t. e. cortical fibres).      |    s, Suberous coat.

 (ifu»wr« vel rima) are  produced either by the distension of  the bark during the growth of the
 item, or by the drying of the bark after its removal from the stem; transverse rents or fissures from
 tlie latter cause are best seen in a false cinchona bark (quinquina nova of  the  French writers).
 Wrinkles  (ruga)  are usually  the result of desiccation;  they give the bark  a shrivelled appear-
 ance.  Warts, or  tubercles (verruca vel tuberculi), are observed on  some barks, especially on  red
 bark.
  6. Taste.—A  bitter taste  is essential to all  good cinchona barks, and is usually assumed to
 indicate the presence of an alkaloid.  Experienced dealers, however, have remarked that those
 barks whose alkaloid is cinchonine  (as C. pubescens) more rapidly communicate a bitter taste,
 when chewed, than those whose base is quinine.  Moreover, the cinchonine barks have a more
 disagreeable taste, and one allied to that of sulphate of magnesia.   An astringent or styptic taste
 indicates the presence of tannic acid; an aromatic taste, volatile oil or  resin.
  " and 8. Colour and Odour.—Little need be said of these characters.  The same kind of
 bark often varies  in its colour, while several kinds may have the  same tint.  Moisture usually
 deepens the colour.

  0- Special Description.—In  describing the various kinds of cinchona  barks,
 wme classification or arrangement  of them is desirable.
  In commerce, the distinction  usually followed  is a geographical one; a  bark being termed
 Bolivian, Peruvian, or  New Granadian, according  to the country of its growth.  This arrange-
 ment involves, for the most  part, a botanical one;  because the barks  of the several countries
 wre referred to differ from each other essentially, on account of being  the  produce of different
 •pecies of cinchona.   But such an arrangement is objectionable, on the  ground that barks do not
 ayy with them any characters  by which their geographical or botanical  origin can  be deter-
 mined.
  An arrangement founded on the physical (including microscopical)  or chemical  characters of
harks would, if practicable, be more useful.  But, at present,  the difficulties which stand in the
way of such  arrangements are insuperable.   In the last edition of this work, I arranged  the 
644
VEGETABLES.—Nat.  Ord. Rubiace-e.
barks according to their colour—a proceeding which I have subsequently ascertained to be oh-
jectionable.  The same  species  of bark (e. g. the  bark  of C. lancifolia) which, in the youn-
state, has a brown epidermis, is found, at a more advanced  stage of its growth, to be  whitish
externally, owing to the exfoliation of its  periderm, and  the exposure of its white, micaceous
suberous coat.   Moreover, the yellow or red colour of the  liber, on which is founded  the di*
tinction of yellow and red bark,s, cannot  be relied on for characterizing any particular sort of
bark;  since the same species of bark  may, under  some circumstances, be red—under others
yellow.  Of this we have a good example in lancifolia bark.
   In  a commercial  point of view, the value  of a  cinchona bark depends on  the quantity of
quinine which it is capable of yielding;  and an arrangement of barks founded on the nature of
the alkaloid which they respectively contained would be the most useful both for commercial
and medicinal purposes.   But though, in a general way,  a bark is termed a quinine-bark, a qui-
nidine-bark, a  cinchonine-bark, or  an  aricine-bark, yet cinchona  barks cannot be correctly thm
classified, because most cinchona barks contain two or three of these alkaloids, and differ from
each other essentially in the relative proportion of these bases which they are capable of yield.
ing.  Their chemical distinction, therefore, is rather one  of  degree than of absolute difference.
   In the absence of  any scientific  arrangement, I shall notice the barks in geogra-
phical order;  commencing with the  more valuable  barks of the southern cinchona
district  (Bolivia), and, proceeding northerly,  finishing with the  less valuable barks
of  the most northern cinchona district (New  Granada).
Bolivia.......  1 Calisaya (yellout) bark.
                   (2 Carabaya         "
                   3 Cusco            "
                   4 Huanuco (gray)   "
                   5 Huamalies (rusty) "
                   6 Jaen (ash)        "
Ecuador
New Granada
 7 Loxa (crown and pale)] bark.
 8 Guayaquil (redand pale) "
 9 Pitaya (condaminea)    "
10 Bogota or Caqueta (lance- "
11 Carthagena    [leaved.)"
12 Maracaibo            "
     I. CINCHONA  CALISAYA1  SEU REGIA—ROYAL  OR GENUINE
                                    YELLOW BARK.

                        Cinchona flava (regia), L.—Cinchona flava, E. D.
   Synonymes.—Quinquina  Calisaya ou  Jaune royal,  Guibourt.   China regia,- Konigt-China,
Bergen.   China regia; Cortex China  regius, s.fiavus, s. luteus; China Calisaya, Goebel.
   History.—Dr. Relph2 says, that in a  letter  from a  Spanish merchant at Cadiz, dated Sep-
tember 1789, it  is observed that the yellow bark had only been lately known there.  "The first
parcel which arrived here was tried at Madrid, and was immediately bought by the King's
order for his own use."  In  1790, Murray3 first saw  it at Frankfort on the Maine.  He after-
wards received it under the name of cortex china flavus ; arid to prevent confusion  he proposed
to term  it royal yellow bark  (cortex china regius flavus).  Dr. Relph says it was  unknown in
England  till  1793 ;  but this  must be an error, for Murray, who died in 1791, had received it
from London.
   Botany.—This bark is the produce of Cinchona Calisaya, Weddell (see Fig. 325, p.  633).—
In the Pharmacopoeia Londinensis of  1836, and in some other works, it was ascribed to  C. cordi-
folia.  The error arose from  the circumstance of the bark  of the  latter, as well as of the for-
mer species  bearing the name of "yellow bark."  I drew attention to the error in the formet
editions  of the Elements of Materia Medica;  but, as it  has been rectified  in  the Pharmacopoeia
Londinensis for  1851, it need  not be farther dilated on.
   Commerce.—In Bolivia, there has  been established a monopoly4 in the  trade of this  bark, in
virtue of which it can be exported only by a  National Company at La Paz ; and hence the bark
sold  by this Company is usually known in trade as Monopoly bark.  From time to time it has
been found necessary to issue decrees5 prohibiting, for a limited period, the cutting of the bark,
in order to protect the bark-forests (whose existence has been endangered  by excessive cutting),
and also to keep up  the price of  the  bark.   The  effect of this monopoly has been to force the
  1 Weddell  says that the etymology of the word " Calisaya" is very obscure.   " .M. Humboldt," [set
Lambert's Illustr. p. 53.] he adds, '• believes that it is derived from the name of the province which pro-
duces it; but well-informed people of  the country have assured me that it never existed in the province of
this name.  In the department of La Paz, moreover, where it is found most abundantly, it more frequently
bears the name of Colisaya or of Calisaya ; and I am inclined to think that these names have been given to
it on account of the red colour which the external face of its denuded  bark often assumes on drying, ot
which its leaves sometimes have.  For Colli signifies ' red' in the Quichua language; and saya, token
figuratively, means ' sort' or ' form.' "  I prefer Humboldt's derivation, and do not see any force in Wed-
dell's objection to it—for other drugs (e. g. Balsam of Peru, which is not the produce of Peru, but '■!' S.n-
somite) have been named after places which were supposed, though erroneously, to yield them. Poeppig
says that ■'Colla" signifies remedy, and " Salla" rocky ground.
  1  Inq. into the Med. Effic. of Yellow Bark, 1794.               " Apparatus Medicaminum, vi. 1""
  4  See Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. xi. p. 215, 1851.
  >  See the 2d ed. of these Elements (p. 1376) for a copy of the decree issued in 1337; and the Pharm. Journ.
(vol. xi. p. 218) for a copy of the decree issued in 1850. 
Cinchona :—Calisaya Bark.
645
Fig. 337.
 manufacturers of quinine to use as substitutes  the inferior, but cheaper, quinine-yielding barks
 of Carabaya, Bolivia, and New Grenada.
  Calisaya bark  is usually  exported from Arica, the nearest Peruvian port to the Bolivian dis-
 trict of La Paz.
  Vahiitiks avd Description.—Three sorts of genuine Calisaya bark  are distinguished in
 Bolivia ;  these are the orange-coloured, the dark, and the pale.
  1. Orange coloured Calisaya bark.—This is called in Bolivia Colisaya amarilla, C. dorada, or
 C.anaranjada (yellow, golden,or orange-coloured Colisaya).   It is the sort most frequently met
 with in commerce.
  In commerce,  two kinds  are distinguished ; tbe quilled and thenar.
  *. Quilled yellow bark (cinchona flava regia tubulata seu convoluta).—The quills vary in length
 from three to twenty four inches;  in diameter, from two lines to one and a  half or even two
 inches; in thickness, from half to  six  or seven  lines.  Very small quills, however are rare;
 those usually met with  having  a  diameter of from one to one and a half inches, and a thick-
 ness of from three to six  lines.   Sometimes they are doubly, though in general they are singly,
 quilled.
  Quilled yellow bark is usually coated;  but occasionally we meet with quills which are more
 or less uncoated.   Some of these uncoated quills somewhat resemble coarse cassia lignea (Cin-
 minion-like Calisaya  quills).   Are they the  produce of C. Calisayfi, var. 8 Josephiana?   They
 agree  in appearance with  the latter; and  Mr.  J. E. Howard tells me that  he suspected this
 origin of them on account of their  stypticity (see  p. 649).
  The periderm  or coat varies in its thickness.1   It is more or less rugous, and is marked with
 transverse impressions or furrows or^cracks, which often form complete  circles or rings around
 lhequills,and whose edges are thick, raised, and everted. When the
 periderm  is very thick, its  substance acquires a corky or elastic
 consistence, and  the  annular  furrows  assume  the appearance of
 deep incisions.   Between these rings there are longitudinal  wrin-
 kles and cracks.   These furrows and cracks, in the coarser quills
 especially, give  the  bark a very  rough  or rugous character, by
 which it  may generally be readily distinguished from  the  large
 quills of Huanuco or gray bark.  The periderm is almost insipid.
 lis colour is naturally brown, but it  is often rendered more or less
 silvery or gray by the  crustaceous  lichens with which it is  co-
 vered.
  The derm or uncoated  portion consists chiefly of liber, whose
 taste is very bitter and but slightly astringent.  Its transverse frac-
 ture is resinous externally, and fibrous internally. Externally it is
 brown, and is marked with impressions corresponding to the fur-
 rows or  cracks of the periderm.  Internally it is  finely fibrous,
 and bas a deep cinnamon-brown colour.
  Fine large coated quills are sometimes selected for filling drug-
 gist's show Ixitiles.
  B. Flat yellow bark (cinchona  regia plana).  The pieces of this
 «<rt are from eidit to fifteen or eighteen inches  long; from one to
 tbree inches broad, and from one to  five  lines  thick.   They are
 hutlutle curved or arched; occasionally the inner surface is slightly
 wnvex, and  the  outer one concave from drying.   In general, the
 pieces are uncoated (cinchona regia  nuda), and then consist almost
 •olely of liber, which sometimes has a thickness of one-third or
 even half of an inch.  This derm or liber lias considerable density,
 u»iw.lly a perfectly uniform texture, and on the.external surface is
 marked by longitudinal digital furrows,2 which are  more or less
 ^fluent a"d separated from  one  another by  projecting  ridges.
 l he colour of its  external surface is slightly  brownish tawny-yel-
 ow, frequently with blackish-red patches.  The  internal surface
 "norous, often with an  undulating grain, of a  yellowish tawny
 tureT' 80m"'mes with an oranKe tint, especially when the bark is fresh.   The  transverse frac-
 itaitiTt   k? U",formly ttbrous- the fibres beinS sll0rt and readily detached, and irritating
 Drettnti      r    * °f Dollchos Pruriei1s-  Tlie longitudinal  fracture is without splinters, and
nuded fil8     T COVered  with brilliant points, owing  to the reflection of light from  the de-
drvelJLi e"' 8      a uniiorm colour-  Its ta*>»e  is very bitter—the bitterness being gradually
  2D i °n mastlcat,on> wilh scarcely any  astringency.
   • Uark Calisaya bark— This is called  Colisaya zamba, C. negra, or C. macha (sambo, black
Bark of C Calisaya entirely
   deprived of periderm.

(This figure shows the digital
  furrows, and the short fibrous
  fracture of the liber.)
 1 W«.<ld«II o?,l uT""  •',?nd P}-C-a Wh0se Peri<lerm >« four-tenths of an inch thick.
tips nf «,. «„„'.„ n sAlloMS d'e'taux, because they are somewhat like the impressions
r^emblanceToVh\°h" M,,ft P,l8/e or cla>'; ,Tl,e sPu»^ru" term them conchas, on account
      uic lu lne nollown of certain nhollo                             '
produced by the
of their fancied 
646
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rtjbiace*:. •
or male Colisayn).  It is remarkable for the dark tint of its external  surface, which is often of
a vinous black.   Weddell met with  it especially at Apolobamba, and  in the province of Cara-
baya in Peru.
   3. Pale Calisaya  bark—This is termed Colisaya blanca (white Colisaya).  It is less une-
qual on the surface, sometimes semi-cellular, and of a paler colour.
   Diagnosis,  a. Physical.—The  periderm or  coat is brown  internally,' deeply furrowed  or
cracked transversely or circumferentially so as  to form rings,  wrinkled longitudinally, and. in
the older branches, brittle and readily detached.  The derm or liber  is of a uniform orange or
Cinnamon brown; yields slowly, when masticated, an  intensely bitter, very slightlv ustriivent
taste;  and breaks with  a fibrous  fracture which  is equal internally  and externally.  The ex-
ternal surface of uncoated fiat pieces is marked  by digital furrows.
   Barks whose periderm is white  or micaceous, or red, or which is devoid of the transverse or
annular furrows or cracks, are not genuine Calisaya barks.  Those barks whose derm or liber has
an ochry or very red tint, or which presents two distinct colours (a whitish one internally und a
reddish one externally), or whose fracture is more fibrous internally than externally, are suspicious.'
   " The best characters," says Dr.  Weddell, " by which the true Calisaya may be distinguished
from every other species, are—the shortness of  the fibres which cover the whole surface of its
transverse  fracture,  and the facility with which they may be detached instead of being flexiblo
and remaining adherent, as is the case with the barks of rufinervis and scrobiculata.  Lastly, its
uniform dull yellow (tawny)  colour, and its substance not being marbled  with white, readily
distinguishes it  from C.  Boliviano.
   "Add to  these characters its  great density (which is such  that when a nail is drawn across
it, a bright mark is left): the depth of the  digital furrows and the prominence of their separating
ridges are  generally sufficient to distinguish  the  flat Calisaya  from  all  the other barks with
which it may be mixed.
   " The quilled  Calisaya  is more  difficult  to  distinguish, because  its  periderm, in its physical
characters, greatly resemble several other species, especially  scrobiculata and rufinervis; and
also because the  fracture does not  present  the same clear characters which it does in the older
barks.:'  To these characters we must add the degree of  bitterness,  which, in doubtful cases,
is the most sure  method of deciding the question.
   0. Microscopical—"If we resort  to the microscope to aid us," says Dr. Weddell, " the charac-
ters by which  the bark is to  be  distinguished are very slight;  namely, a slight excess in the
thickness of the  periderm, and tbe broader resinous circle."   If we examine by the microscope
a  transverse section of this bark (see Figs. 338 and 339), we observe that the texture is homo-
geneous, and consists of ligneous fibres uniformly  distributed  in cellular tissue filled with resin-
ous matter.  This tissue is interposed between the fibres so  as almost to isolate them.  If we
examine a longitudinal section of the liber (see  Fig. 340), it will be seen that the ligneous fibres
are short and fusiform, and their obliquely truncated extremities are only loosely adherent to, or
are even completely independent of, those next to them.
   y. Chemical.—It is doubtful whether there are any chemical means  of distinguishing this from
other allied cinchona barks.  Anthony3 gives the  following:  Digest one part of finely-cut bark
in four parts of boiling distilled water for twelve hours;  then filter.   This infusion yields with
reagents the following  results:  Dilute liquor ammonias (sp. gr. 0.990) renders it turbid, and
occasions a precipitate :  neither a  solution of iodide of potassium (one  part iodide and si* parts
water) nor a saturated solution of nitrate of baryta occasions  any change in it: lastly, solution of
fresh-made sulphate of protoxide of iron (one part sulphate and six parts water) colours the in-
fusion green, but does not, within four hours,occasion any precipitate. According to Anthony, these
results taken together characterize Calisaya bark, and distinguish it from all other cinchona barks.
   Guibourt4 uses  sulphate of  soda to distinguish Calisaya  from   Loxa and  Lima  barks:
Coarsely pulverize the  suspected  bark, and  rub the powder in a mortar, so as to form a thin
paste, which is  to be placed on a filter.   Add some,  crystals of pure sulphate of soda to the
filtered liquor:  if the bark be the Calisaya sort, a white precipitate is obtained ; but if it be a
gray bark this effect does not take  place.
   The following are the characteristics of Calisaya given  in the  Pharmacoparia Londinensii
for 1851 :—
   "Thick,  chiefly composed of very slender acute fibres, either flat  or  quilled: the external
surface of the latter ash-coloured  or brownish, wrinkled longitudinally, deeply fissured  trans-
versely or  circumferentially: the former denuded for the most part, and of a cinnnmon-brown
colour.  Very bitter.  From a  pound  of this bark  should  be obtained, by means of sulphuric
acid, about three drachms of disulphate of quina."—Ph. Lond.
   Crtptoramia.—The following is a classified list of  the  cryptogamie  plants found  on this
bark, according to Fee :5—
1 Externally, it may be variously coloured by lichens.
2 See, on this subject, Guibourt, Journ. de Pharm. t. xxii. p. 614, 1836.
3 Buchner's Repertorium, Bd. iv. S. 54, lfc&5; and Bd. vi. S. 58, 1836.
4 Journ. de Pharm. t. xxii. p. 614, 1836.
* Cours d'Histoire Naturelle, t. ii. p. 262, 1628. 
Cinchona :—Calisaya Bark.
Fig.  338.
Fig. 339.
Fig. 340.
Transverse section of  the
entire thickness of a piece
nf bark w th a portion of
the periderm attached.
Transverse section of a  portion of the
  I ber (much more h.ghly magnified than
  in Fig. 338).
Longitudinal section of a por-
  tion of the 1 ber made parallel
  to the medullary rays.
Microscopic structure of  Calisaya bark.
pd,  Portion of periderm.
 /,  Liber.
 tt,  Cellular tissue of the liber.
 fl. Ligneous fibres of the lrfcer  (cortical
        fibres).
rm, Medullary rays.
  1. Fungi.—Hypochnus rubrocinctus ; Triclinum  Cinrhonarum.
  The first of these  fungi  is frequently met with  on quilled yellow bark.  Its receptacle is
irregular in shape, scarlet, with a whitish surface.
  2. Lichenes-7-Tlie crustaceous or adherent lichens are:  Opegraphii peruviana ; 0. Scaphella;
Q-wata:  0. rhizocola ,- Graphis cinerea ; G. Cinnubnrina ,- Arthnnia obtrita ; Fissurina Dumastii ;
Chiodecton spharale;  Trypethelium  verrucosum;  T chiodectonoides;  Pyrenula  annularis; Porina
nimncana; Asddium  Cimhonarum; Lepra flava;  Variolaria amara ;  Lecidea  aurigera ;  L.  tuber-
"data; L. soredifera ; and L. punitea.
  The foliaceous lichens  are:  Parmelia perlata; Sticta macrophylla;  Collema azureum; and
Mlortna vitellina.
  The filamentous or hairy lichens are Usneaflorida and U.burbata.
  3. Hepaticie.—Jungermannia atrata.
  4. Musci.—Hypnum Langsdorfii.
  Composition.—Deschamps1 discovered in this  bark the salt which he termed the quinquinate
V "me, but which is  now called kinate of lime.  In  1820, Pelletier and Caventou2 analyzed this
 «rk, and found in it superkinate of quinine, kinate of lime, red cinchonic, soluble red colouring mat-
" I tannin), fatty matter, yellow colouring matter, lignin, and starch.   At first, they thought this
Wfk contained no other vegetable alkaloid than  quinine, but  they afterwards3 discovered cin-
 ionia in  it.  In  1829, Sertumer4 announced  the existence of a third alkaline base  in  it, to
aid   ii  RaVe '1)e "ame °f 1ui™i(nne   ln  l846>  Liebig5 declared this to be  amorphous quinine;
 w still more recently, Van Heijningen6 has resolved it into four or five different substances, of
' Ann. Chim. t. xlviii. p. 65.
,/*"'■«• vii. p. 302, 1H-.M.
a Journ. de Pharm. t. vii. p. 89, 1^21.
  Buchner's Repertorium, lid. xxiii. S. 95, 1629.
■ JW*P- afS' ,Mr y ^.1840; Ann. d. Chem. u. Pharm. Bd. I viii. S. 31S, 184G.
 t narmaciut.cal Journal, vol. ix. p. 322, 1850. 
648                 VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Rubiaceje.

which one is a peculiar base called quinindine or B-iptinine, and  another yquininex  Schwart7J
has recently detected both kinovicand cincho tannic  as well as kinic acid in this  bark.
  In  1827, Pelletier3 consumed 2,000 quintals of this bark  in the manufacture of 90,000 ounces
(French) of disulphate of quinine:  this is about three drachms of disulphate  for one lb. of
bark.  Sonbeiran4 states that one lb  (French) of uncoated yellow bark yields three drachms and
from  30  to 50 grains (French) of disulphate of quinine ; while the same quantity of coated yellow
bark yields three drachms (French) of the disulphate.  It may be stated generally, that 100 parts
of yellow or Calisaya bark yield from  3 to 3£ per cent, of crystallized disulphate of quinine-
or, 2 lbs. avoird. of bark yield nearly 1 oz.avoird. of  the crystallized  sulphate.  Assuming that
this sulphate contains 74.3 per cent, of  pure quinine, it follows  that 100 parts of Calisaya bark
contain from 2£ to 2£ parts of pure quinine.  I have heard that as much as 4  per cent, of disul-
phate of quinine has been obtained  from one sample of Calisaya bark.
  Puttfarcken5 states that this bark yielded him only 0.58 per cent, of ashes, being a smaller
amount  than  he obtained  from any other either genuine or false cinchona bark.   The ashes
were of a green colour (owing to  manganateof potash).   The percentage of carbonate of lime
and of caustic lime in the bark were respectively (on the average) 0.45 and 0.25—proportions
which were smaller than in any other cinchona barks examined, and seem to  favour the notion
that  with the  increase of the alkaloids in the barks the proportion of  lime diminishes.
  Medicinal Properties—Yellow or Calisaya  bark, on account of the large quantity of
quinine  which it yields, possesses more powerfully tonic and febrifuge qualities than any other
cinchona bark, red bark, perhaps, excepted.  In the London Pharmacopoeia of 1851, it has,
therefore, been directed to be used  as " Cinchona'' when the particular sort  is omitted  to be
specified in the preparation of Decoctum Cinchona, Extractum Cinchona, Infusum Cinchona, Infu-
sum  Cinchona spissatum, and Tinctura Cinchona.
  Considered as an astringent, yellow bark is  inferior to  some o'her sorts of Cinchona, on ac-
count of its containing a smaller proportion of tannic acid  (Pelletier and Caventou).


                              Pseudo-Calisaya  Barks.

  Under this  name I include various barks, both quilled and flat, which are more or less allied
to or  simulate the genuine Calisaya sort, and are known to the dealers as false or spurious Cali-
saya barks.  They are imported from Bolivia and Peru, and, except in one instance (that of C.
scrobiculata. var. B Delondriana), are not  known to the London dealers by any special  names to
distinguish them  from one another.  In France, the  term Calisaya  leger  (light or flimsy Cali-
saya) has been applied  to some of them.   From Germany, I have  received one of them (C.
micrantha) under the name of cortex china pseudo-regius. From Sweden I received, as a genuine
Calisaya bark, the bark of C. amygdulifolia.  I have very little doubt, therefore, that on the Con-
tinent, as well as in  this country, they frequently pass as the genuine  Calisaya sort.
  They  are imported either alone or intermixed with genuine Calisaya bark.   The intermix-
ture, says Dr. Weddell,  is especially made in Bolivia with the barks of C. Boliviana and C.ovata
var. B rufinervis; and only on the coast with  C. scrobiculata.
  Under the general head of Pseudo-Calisaya barks I include—
   1. The barks of C. Calisaya var.  B Josephiana and of C. Boliviano;  the former perhaps strictly
entitled  to the name of a genuine Calisaya bark, and the latter bearing the name of Calisaya
bark in Bolivia.
  2. The barks of C. ovata var. B rufinervis,  C. micrantha, C.  amygdalifolia, and C. scrobiculata var.
a genuina and var. B Delondriana.
  M. Guibourt mentions  several other barks (for example, C. pubescens var. a Pelletieriana, and
C. cordifolia)  as being used for adulterating the  Calisaya sort.  But inasmuch as they differ con-
siderably in appearance from the  latter, and are distinguished in trade, by Cusco bark (Cartha-
gena  bark), special names, as distinct sorts, I have not included them under the general head
of Pseudo-Calisaya barks, but shall describe them  separately hereafter.

                               1. C. Calisaya var. B Josephiana.

  Bark  of C. Josephiana.—The  shrub called by the  Peruvians Ichu-cascarilla, which yields
this bark, being considered  by Weddell   to be a variety of  C. Calisaya, its bark  must rank as a
sort of Calisaya, though in appearance it differs considerably from the genuine Calisaya bark.
The bark both of the stems and of the  wood is found in commerce.
  1. Stem bark.—Weddell  observes of it, that though it rarely occurs in commerce, yet by the
natives it is used as often as any other bark, in  consequence of the facility with which it is pro-
cured.  Its periderm (or coat), he adds, is  brown  or blackish-gray, or slate-coloured (a colour
1  Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. xi.
3  Diet. Mat. Med. t. v. p. 603.
*  Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. xi. p. 129, 1851.
* Ibid. vol. xii. p. 17, 1851.
4 Traite de Pharm. t. i. p. 583. 
Cinchona:—Pseudq-Calisaya Barks.                   649
 common to all cinchona barks developed under the influence of wind and sun), and is covered
 by pale elegant lichens.   As the bark adheres strongly to the wood, it i9 separated with diffi-
 culty from the latter; and to this circumstance is to be attributed the fact that the internal surface
 of this bark is often torn.  The cinnamon-like Calasaya quills before alluded  to  (p. 645) are
 exactly like some recently sent to Dr. Weddell as Ichu-Cascarilla.
   2. Root-bark.—Weddell was shown, in  Peru, the bark obtained from the larger roots, or rather
 stumps, of C. Josephiana.  He  describes  it as being  in short, flattened, undulated, or more or
 If-s contorted  pieces, deprived of tbe periderm, fibrous or  almost smooth on the inner surface,
 very slightly cellular, externally of a uniform ochre-yellow colour, and decidedly bitter, but less
 intensely so than good Calisaya, whose internal structure it  possesses the characters of.
   Weddell suggests that this root will become valuable, notwithstanding the difficulty of collect-
 in;; it, as  it is superior to some of the barks at present in use, and  lias not hitherto been much
 employed.   A root-bark, apparently the one in question, has been imported into England by
 way of the Pacific, and found to yield quinine, but in  very small quantity.
   New Granada Cinchona root-bark.—There is a  root-bark  of a species of cinchona imported
 from New  Granada by way of Santa Martha and  Maracaibo, which must not  be confounded
 with the root-bark of C. Josephiana.  In its curly or  twisted  or contorted character, it much
 resembles the latter; but it yields cinchonine—whereas the root-bark of C. Josephiana yields
 quinine.

                                     2. C. Boliviana.

   Cortex Cincbonje Bolivian*:.  Weddell; Calisaya morada, Boliv.;  Cascarilla verde morada,
 Peru;  Bark of the Mulberry-coloured Calisaya.—This constitutes part  of the Calisaya  bark of
 commerce.   Its occurs  both quilled and flat, and  resembles  the genuine Calisaya, from which
 it  is with difficulty distinguished;  but  its fibre is somewhat coarser, and more  easily reduced
 to powder.  Its taste is bitter, with a somewhat smoky  flavour.  The fractured surface presents,
 when quite fresh, paler or whitish patches, which, however, become at first red and afterwards
 brownish-yellow in the air.   The periderm or coat  is less  thick, and  its  fissures less marked
 than in the genuine Calisaya.  Quilled Boliviana bark is quite  similar to quilled Calisaya.   Flat
 Bohviana bark is composed solely or liber.  It is in general equally dense but thinner than flat
 Calisaya.   The digital furrows are shallower, a little more confluent, and  the separating ridges
 more rounded.  Its  colour  is brownish fawn yellow,  with somewhat greenish tints in some
 places.

                               3.  C. oavta var.  B rufinervis.

   Coiitex  Cinchona rufinervis;  Cascarilla Carabaya; Cascarilla  zamba  morada, Peru v.;
 Dark Mulberry coloured Calisaya— Dr. Weddell states that in  the province of Carabaya,  where
 this bark is collected, it  is habitually used to sophisticate Calisaya bark, from which it  is fre-
 quently very difficult  to distinguish it.  In  the quilled  variety,  called  by Dr. Weddell//>set«fo-
 Cuhsuya, the periderm exfoliates very readily.  The flat pieces consist either of liber only, or
 of liber with a portion of the cellular coat.  The fibre  is finer and closer than the Calisaya
 sort; and the external surface presents darkish spots due to  the  remains of the cellular crust
 filled with a brown juice.   "I have seen," says   M. Guibourt, "a  manufacturer of sulphate of
 quinine complain much at having been deceived by the appearance of this bark."


                                    4.  C. micrantha.

   Coiitex  CiNciioyjs micrantha.—By the inhabitants of Huanuco it is called Cascarilla pro-
 ri'irwwi;  in the province of Carabaya, it  is termed Cascarilla  motosolo. and, by the Bolivians,
 Vepo-Casianlla or Cascarilla verde.   In  Carabaya, where  it is extensively collected, it is con-
 '<"'<ided with the ordinary forms of C. ovata, under the name of Cascarilla morada ordinaria.
   It is obvious to me that either  this bark  puts  on several very dissimilar forms, or that the
 auks of several distinct species are confounded together under tbe same  name.   M. Guibourt
 I'pears also to have arrived at a somewhat similar conclusion; for, after describing two sorts
 w micrantha bark, he observes that it appears to him that they are not the produce of PoeppiA
 morantha, which, therefore, cannot be identical with that of Weddell.
   U«e?ut/W micrantha bark, according to the statements of Poeppig and Reichel, constitutes
 I■•  « oi u,e Huanuco or  gray bark of commerce.   Its characters, as given by Weddell, are as
 ^,owi: periderm very thin, adherent, slightly wrinkled longitudinally as if shrivelled,or very
 "jintly  warty, bright brownish-gray, marbled with some  deeper tints.  Derm almost smooth
    "my, hnely fibrous, and of a bright orange fallow  internally.   Transverse  fracture short
   "nally, hbrous  internally.  Bitterness  very marked  and rapidly developed.   (See also p.

oiiir1 o^p m'Crantha simula«es genuine Calisaya, but is less dense.  It consists either of liber
  r.or oi  the liber and cellular tissue; the latter  is usually semi-fungous and imperfectly ex- 
650
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rubiace*:.
foliated.   The external surface frequently presents concavities or superficial digital  furrows
like those of Calisaya  bark, and separated by irregular suberous elevations; much more rarely
smooth by the  persistence of the whole of the  cellular coat; of a  grayish and  bright oran»e
yellow colour.   Internal surface is remarkably fibrous,1 and of a brighter tint than the external
one.   Transverse fracture  stringy throughout the whole thickness of the  bark__or somewhat
suberous externally.  Longitudinal fracture a little splintery, with a dullish surface.  Taste very
bitter,  speedily developed, a little piquant, scarcely styptic.
   In rather aged barks, Weddell observes that the  periderm is not very thick, and appears to
be entirely formed of the suberous coat; but between this external layer and the  derm there is
frequently found a reddish pulverulent matter, of. which it is in part made up, and which re-
sults from the decomposition (not desquamation or exfoliation, as in other species) of this part
   Poeppig says  that  three kinds of micrantha bark are  known  in  trade; but  he does  not
specify them.
   M. Guibourt includes Weddell's flat micrantha  bark under his orangeyellow bark (quinquina
jaune  orange), and observes  that  its exterior surface is, as it  were, greenish,  is  marked with
transverse impressions and oval cavities filled  with some fungous  matter, and  presents asperi-
ties and inequalities not met with in any other sort.
Fig. 341.
                                      5. C. scrobiculata.

   Cortex Cinchona scrobiculatje.—The  barks of the  two varieties of C. scrobindata atf
                            not distinguished by Weddell; but the specimens which I have in
                            my possession are very distinct.
                              If we examine a piece of flat scrobiculata bark, we shall find,
                            says Dr. Weddell, that instead of the digital furrows with a fibrous
                            bottom,  which characterize  Calisaya bark, it  presents a surface
                            almost even, and  consisting  of cellular tissue, traversed  here and
                            there  by a slight  linear  impression; the inner surface being, as in
                            Calisaya  bark, of a fibrous  texture.  The transverse  fracture is
                            more or less suberous or fungous externally, according to the thick-
                            ness of the  cellular coat; and  very fibrous or stringy internally;
                            tbe fibres being long and pliant2
                              When  a  transverse  section of the bark is submitted to micro-
                            scopic examination, we observe  that the fibres are  more numerous
                            than in  Calisaya bark, and are  nearer the inner surface; but they
                            lessen in number  rapidly towards the outer or epidermoid surface,
                            and the outermost layer is almost devoid of them.  To this circum-
                            stance is due the fact  that the transverse  fracture  is more fibrous
                            internally than externally  (Fig.  341).  The cortical fibres, instead
                            of  being free or isolated, in the  midst of cellular tissue, touch each
                            other, and adhere by one of their surfaces  with neighbouring fibres
                            to form  parallel series (Figs. 342 and 343);  and if we examine a
                            longitudinal  section (Fig. 344) of the liber by the microscope, we
                            observe that these fibres are nearly twice as  long as  those of C
                            Calisaya (Fig.  340), and their extremities are always attached to
                            those  of neighbouring fibres, so that the  oblique  truncations are
                            more  elongated (Fig.  344).  To this peculiarity  of the fibres is
       J               '     due the more fibrous or stringy transverse fracture of this bark.
  Stringy fracture of liber.
   1. Cortex C. scrobiculata var. a genuina.—This bark is  called  in Peru Cascarilla  Colorado del
Cuzco (i. e. Red Cuzco Bark), or Cascarilla de  Santa-Ana  (i.  e. St. Ann's Bark).  This is one of
the barks which Guibourt terms Calisaya  leger (i. e. Light or Flimsy  Calisaya).  I have met
with it in English commerce under the name of Cusco bark.   It occurs  in fiat pieces composed
of the liber covered externally by a thin  layer of the cellulo-resinous tissue.  My specimens
are readily distinguishable from  Calisaya bark by their  fresher or brighter colour ; but  Weddell
states that the colour of this bark is very  variable.  The external or cellulo resinous surface is
brick-red  or purplish red, or within  reddish-orange; marked  by superficial transverse impres-
sions or furrows.  The internal  surface (of the liber) is of a fine reddish orange colour.  Frac-
ture more or less  short or suberous externally, according  to  the thickness of the cellular coat:
fibrous or  stringy internally; the colour  of the fractured  surface is  not  uniform.  Taste both
astringent and bitter  The  reddish colour  of  this bark explains why it is called red bark (Cas-
carilla colorada) in  Cuzco, and why De  Candolle thought C. scrobiculata was the source of the
red bark of commerce.   Guibourt  states that if this bark be isolated  in a bottle it evolves an
1 The fibrous grain of some of the flat pieces is remarkublv wavy or undulating.
2 The best method of rendering these fibres evident is to effect the fracture by "torsion (Weddell). 
Cinchona :—Psetjdo-Calisaya Barks.                    651
agreeable  raspberry-like odour.  This bark is imported  both  unmixed  and  mixed  with
Calisaya.
  2. Cortex C. scrobiculata var. B Delondriana.—This bark is imported from  Lima, and is known
     Fig. 342.

Transvrrse section of the
 bark  completely de-
 prived of its periderm.
          Fig. 343.

Transverse section of the 1 ber
  (more highly magnified.)
        Fig. 344.

Long tud'nal section of C.
 scrobiculata, parallel to
 the direction of the me
 dullary rays.
Microscopic structure of the bark of  C. scrobiculata.
Fie. 312 shows the analogy which exists between
 the external layer (ec) of this bark, and the in-
 ternal layer of the periderm ot the Calisaya bark
 (Fig. 338).                          '
 oe, Cellular tissue of the liber.
 ec. Cellular envelop.
 fl', Ligneous or cortical fibres of the liber.
tm', Medullary rays.
 in English commerce  by the  name of Peruvian Calisaya.  It occurs in  flat pieces which  in
 colour closely resemble the genuine Calisaya bark, for which it is often passed off.   They are
 thicker and denser  than  the  Cascarilla de  Santa Ana, from which  they also differ in colour
 Ulernally, this bark is smoother than the Calisaya bark, and  the ridges between the furrows
 are smoother and rounded, not sharp, as in tbe bark just mentioned.  The fracture is fibrous-
 the taste, in the larger pieces, less bitter than that of Calisaya bark.
  The  younger quilled and coated scrobiculata bark  probably constitutes  part of the crown
 Dark of commerce, with which it agrees in chemical'constitution.
  Weddell states that  1000 parts of the scrobiculata bark  yield  only from 7 to 8 parts of sul-
 phate of cinchonine, and  from 3 to 4 parts of disulphate of  quinine; and he adds that the
 wrge quantity of red colouring matter  which it contains is a great  impediment to its use for
 manufacturing purposes.


                                   6. C. amygdalifolia.

 ^"//"n'r0"0^ AMT0DAL1F0"-,E; Cascarilla-Echenique, Peruv.;  Cascarilla-Quepo,or Quepo-
 JIflii  •  j     " lmP°rtet1' either alone or mixed  with other Bolivian barks, both quilled
 nu nat.  it is distinguished from genuine Calisaya bark by its lightness, its more orange colour,
 "e presence of the  persistent  cellular coat  in the  so-called uncoated pieces, the more stringy
 •nn„rrSl'  , Ct"re an<l  lhe sPlin,ery longitudinal fracture of the liber,  the want of very marked
 .Z »nrTu   °" .    Peri,lerm' and the styP^ dually not very bitter taste.  The flat pieces
 it i. 1           Ce"ular COat' oftetltimes more or less covered  by  the periderm ; externally
 XffV' ■VPer^i",l|y wrinkled longitudinally by drying.  A portion of the quilled  sort,
 Which had been identified  by Dr. Weddell, yielded  Mr. J. E. Howard 7 parts of quinidine and

diiTan f ,Kne.'.0nine ,nl00° Rr,S  °f bark>   The  flat Pieces  yielded him 2-3  Pa'1* of quini-
 '"*>, «nil the like quantity of cinchonine, in  1000 parts  of  bark. 
652                  VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rubiace^.
     II. CORTEX CINCHONiE DE CARABAYA—CARABAYA BARK.

  Carabaya or Caravaya bark was first imported  into London in 1846.  Its name would lead
to the suspicion that it was obtained from Weddell's Cinchona carabayensis; but such is not the
case.   According  to  information furnished by Dr. Weddell to Mr. J. E. Howard, it is the pro-
duce of Cinchona  ovata-var. a  vulgaris.   " Dr. Weddell assured  me," says Mr. Howard (in a
letter to me), "when here this  spring [1852], that it was var. a vulgaris, and his specimens
given me include it. The rufinervis bark,  which he has also given  ine, is a distinct variety."
It is obvious,  however,  that Carabaya bark is very different in appearance, and even in chemi-
cal  composition, from the bark usually known as the produce of the ordinary variety of C. ovata.
Moreover, in  Peru, the name of  Cascarilla Carabaya  is given to C. ovata var. B rufinervis; so
that the designation of "Carabaya bark" is not a very precise one.   I  apply it, however, exclu-
sively  to the bark known  by this name in the London  market, and which is tolerably uniform
in its properties.
  Carabaya bark is imported from Islay, the nearest port to the province of Carabaya,in which
the bark is collected.  Large importations of it are  now made into London.
  It is essentially a thin, flimsy bark, of a more-or  less  rusty colour; some of the pieces resem-
bling in appearance Huamalies bark, from which, however, it appears to be essentially different.
The quills are about the thickness of the  finger, and of  variable length. I have some which are
two feet long; some are coated, others are uncoated quills.  The coated quills (coatedCarabaya
quill) have a  dull, rusty or grayish  rusty, warty coat, marked by longitudinal furrows, but rarely
by  transverse furrows or cracks.  Some of the uncoated quills have a dark or more or less tea-
green tint (lea-green Carabaya  quill).  The  flat  pieces  (flat  Carabaya) consist either of liber
only,or of liber with a portion of the cellular coat.   The external surface of the liber, in some
of  the uncoated pieces, is blackish, with rusty round flattish warts.  In some  cases the dark
'.-xternal surface looks as  if it  had been dusted over with a yellowish powder (e. g. powder of
gamboge or turmeric), by which a kind of bloom has been given to it.  The colour of the liber is
usually more  or less orange ; but some pieces resemble in colour red  bark (red Carabaya bark).
Carabaya bark is used by the manufacturers of sulphate of quinine as a cheap substitute for the
more valuable Calisaya  bark.  The total amount of alkaloids (cinchonine, quinidine, and
quinine) which it yields, is from three to four per cent.
           in. CORTEX CINCHONAS DE CUSCO.—CUSCO BARK

  Under the  name of  Cusco  or Cuzco bark, I  have met with, in English commerce, several
very distinct barks, viz. 1st. The bark of Cortex Cinchona scrobiculata var. a genuina, known in
Peru  as Red  Cusco  bark, and which  has already been noticed (see ante, p.  650).  2dly,
The bark of Cortex pubescens var. a Pelletieriana.  As tbe last-mentioned bark is the one which
was first known in Europe as Cusco bark, and which is usually indicated by this designation
in pharmaceutical works, I shall continue to call it by this name.  3dly, I have also received
under the name of " Cusco bark," specimens of a quilled bark, and also of a flat bark, which I
beiieve to be the produce of C. ovata (see Cortex Cinchona de Jaen).
  Cusco bark,  or the bark of C. pubescens var. a Pelletieriana, was first introduced into Europe in
1829 as yellow or Calisaya bark.   It appears  to have been imported at about the same time
into England, Hamburg, and  Bordeaux.'  Bergen2 called it  rusty bark (China rubiginosa), on
account of its  rusty yellow colour.   The bark described in 1829 by Pelletier and Coriol,3 under
the name of Arica Bark (ecorce d Arica ; quinquina d'Arica), is a variety of it.
   Weddell has ascertained that this bark is the produce of Cinchona pubescens.  The var. a Pel-
letieriana yields Pelletier's Arica bark,  which, by the Bolivians and  Peruvians, is called Carua-
Carua or Cargua-Cargua, and  in Carabaya it is sometimes termed Cascarilla amarilla or Quina
amarilla (yellow  bark), tbe name  which Mutis gave to the bark of C. cordifolia.   The bark of
var. B purpurea  is called, in  tbe  valleys about Huanuco, cascarilla  bobo de hojas morada*, or
"spurious bark with mulberry leaves."
  The bark of C. pubescens is  never entirely devoid of its external  cellular coat; and hence,
when fractured  transversely,  this  coat breaks smooth or corky, while the liber presents a short
fibrous or ligneous fracture.   In this bark  the periderm consists only of some rows of the cubi-
cal  cells of the suberous coat   If we submit sections of  the bark to microscopic  examination,
we observe that the portion of  the suberous coat which remains adherent to the bark is membrani-
form, and consists of cubical or rectangular cells (Fig. 346 »). The limits of the cellular envelop
1 Jobst. Buchner's Repert. Bd. xxxii. S. 464, 1829; Guibourt, Journ.de Chem. Mid. I. vi. p 353,1--9-
2 Buchner's Repert. Bd. xxxviii. Sv 9, 1839.
3 Journ. de Pharm. t. xv. p. 565, 1829; also. Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. t. Ii. p. 184. 
Cinchona :—Cusco Bark.
653
and the  liber are less clearly defined  in  this bark than in the
others  before figured.   The cells of the cellular envelop, how-
ever, are more flattened  in  the direction from without inwards
than those of the liber.  The greater  part  of the transverse sec-
lion (Fig. 346) of the bark is seen to consist of cellular tissue, in
which  the fibres form  but a small number of irregular and con-
centric series in  the inner half of the bark.  A very remarkable
circumstance is the size of the fibres, which are frequently three
or four times as  large  as those of Calisaya or scrobiculata bark
before figured (see ante, Figs. 338 to 344). Bundles of these fibres,
united  together laterally, are arranged in  zones in the midst of the
cellular tissue of the bark (Figs. 347  and 348).
  Bergen observes, that Cusco bark somewhat resembles  what is
called fibrous Carthagena bark.  It varies in  appearance according
to its age; but in  general  its orange-red or rusty colour, the remains
of the white or grayish  suberous coat, and the absence of transverse
cracks, serve to distinguish  it.  The young  quills are coated, thin,
externally smooth, and of an almost uniform  yellowish-gray colour;
on the inner surface  they are yellowish, and have  a fibrous tex-
ture. The middling-sized quills are covered by a whitish, smooth,
uncracked, suberous coat, beneath which is  an orange-red  cellular
envelop.   The inner surface of the  liber is dull yellowish cinna-
mon brown.  The cortical fibres are coarse and pale, but become
red by exposure to the air.   The larger and  flat pieces consist of
tbe liber covered externally by  the cellular envelop, with  the
remains of some portion of the suberous coat.  By inexperienced
persons they may be mistaken for yellow (Calisaya)  bark.  " They
may be readily distinguished," says  M. Guibourt,  " by  their more
regularly cylindrical  form, by their  smoother external  surface, by
the remains of  the  white and fungous layer, by their two tints
of colour, orange or brownish  externally, almost  white or very  pal
their not occasioning any precipitate  with sulphate of soda."
Fig. 345.
Bark of C. pubescens coated
   externally by periderm.
Smooth or suberous fracture of
  the external or purely cellu-
  lar portion of the bark.
Ligneous fracture of the inter-
  nal portion or liber.

e internally, and, lastly, by
     Fig 346.                       Fig. 347.                            Fig. 348.
Tnuverte section of the  Transverse section of the liber of C. pubescens  Longitudinal  section of the
 b rk of C. pubescens.       (more highly magnified than in Fig. 34<i).        liber of C. pubescens.
 *• tuberous coat.
•'• Cellular envelop.
 •  L.btr.
Microscopic structure of the bark of C. /albescens.
 cc. Cellular tissue of the lihcr.
 fl. L'gneous or cortical fibres of the liber.
rm. Medullary rays. 
654
VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord. Rubiace^.
   This bark was analyzed by Frank,1 who obtained, in one experiment, 4 S ounces of cinchonine
and a trace of quinine, from  100 lbs. of bark.   In another  trial, he procured 50 ounces of cin'
chonine from the same quantity of bark.  Winckler2 reports, that he got 256  grains from 16
ounces of the best  heavy sort of rubiginosa  bark, and only 77  grains from the same weight of
an inferior sample of the bark.   M. Guibourt3  examined  a  kilogramme  (about 2  lbs. 3 oz
avoird.) of  Cusco bark, and estimates the quantity of cinchonine contained in it at one drachm
for every pound of bark.  He observes, that the bark is very  rich in  red cinchonine.  Some of
the pieces, according to Bergen, are very rich in resin.
   Arica Bark; Ecorce dArica, Pelletier; Quinquina dArica.   The bark which, in 1S29 Pelle-
tier and Corriol  analyzed  under this  name, appears to  be essentially Cusco bark.   It diffi-rs
however, says M.  Guibourt, a little from the ordinary  Cusco  bark, though it constitutes n part
of it.  According to Pelletier, Arica bark becomes deep green when touched by nitric acid and
yields, on  analysis, an alkaloid (aricina), which acquires an  intensely green colour when dis-
solved in concentrated nitric acid, and  which forms, with sulphuric acid, a sulphate, not crystal-
lizable from its aqueous solution, but forming a white, trembling, gelatiniform mass.  In KS30
I procured from M. Pelletier  a specimen of his  Arica bark (which is now in the Museum of
the  Pharmaceutical  Society), but  it is not  rendered  green on  the  application of nitric acid.
"The bark analyzed  by Pelletier," says M. Guibourt,4 " does  not become coloured by nitric acid;
and I am now at liberty to state, that  Pelletier, having  requested me to return him the greater
part of the Arica bark which he had  previously given  me, in order  that he might verify the
characters which he  no longer found  in that which remained  with him, obtained only negative
results, which left him in great doubt as to the peculiar nature of aricina."
   Cortex Cinchona purpurea ; Cascarilla boba de hoja morada.  (Spurious bark with purple
leaves).—This is the bark of Cinchona pubescens, var. B purpurea, Weddell.  Reichel6 has de-
clared  that the bark of this  tree, which Poeppig  brought to  Europe, is identical with the Hu- '
amalies bark of commerce.   But I  am satisfied that  this is a  mistake.   For in  the first place,
Martiny,6 who also received a specimen of the bark from Poeppig, has declared that it has not
the most remote resemblance  to Huamalies  bark; and  in the  next place, the barks of C.pur-
purea, in  Pavon's collection in tbe  British Museum, as well as those  brought by Weddell, are
entirely different from Huamalies bark, but agree with  the description given of  them  by Ruiz
in the Quinologia.
   The genuine bark  of Cinchona purpurea has some resemblance to that of  C. cordifolia.  The
quills have a rigid  fibre, are somewhat warty, and  have a smooth, light gray epidermis, some-
what like that of Cusparia bark.   They are almost entirely devoid of transverse cracks.  The
colour of the inner surface of the  bark (liber)  is  cinnamon-brown.   The coarser bark of the
trunk  is dark brown, with patches of the grayish epidermis  adherent to it.  In 1849, a con-
siderable quantity of this bark, mixed with others,  was imported.
   The thick coarse bark yielded Mr. J. E. Howard in 100  parts only 0.85 of impure quinine,
and 0.60 of cinchonine.
   Considered in a  medicinal point of view, all the above  three  sorts of bark are of inferior
quality.  Poeppig says that the bark of C. purpurea may probably be  found useful for making
cheap decoctions, as it can be sold at a very low price.


       IV.  CORTEX CINCHONA  DE HUANUCO—GRAY OR SILVER
                                      CINCHONA.

   Synonymes.—Quinquina de Lima, Guibourt; China Huanuco,  Graue China, Bergen;  China
Huanuco, Yuanuco,  Guanuco, Havane, Goebel; Cascarilla provinciana, Poppig; Cinchona cinerea,
Ph. Ed.
   The appellations of gray or silver applied to this bark refer to the colour given to the bark by
the thallus of various crustaceous lichens  (Graphidea).
   History.—This bark was first known in  Spain in 1799.  One hundred and eighty chests of
it  were  brought to Santander, in that  year, by the frigate La Veloz ; and  Ruiz was appointed
to examine the cargo.  He found in the chests a thick bark, till then  unknown to the  botanic
of Peru, mingled with the  barks of C. nitida and  C. lanceolata, and with  those  of the species
which Tafalla has  designated by the  phrase " similar to Calisaya.'1  Poppig8 says the trade
in  the barks of Huanuco commenced in 1785 ; but that in 1815 it almost entirely ceased.  Tbe
scarcity of yellow bark will be likely again, I should think, to give a fresh impulse to it, as, the
quality of good Huanuco bark is excellent.
   Botany.—It is unnecessary to detail the  speculations of botanists  as to  the  origin of tbis
bark previous to Poppig's discovery.  This celebrated  traveller brought to  Europe a bark called

  1 Buchner's Repertor. Bd. xxxiii. S. 353.  1830.     > Ibid. 2te Reihe, Bd. xxv. S 3:4. 1842.
 * Journ. de Chim. Mid. t. vi. p. 353, 1830.        4 Hist, des Drogues, 4me edit. t. iii. pp. 160—101
 * Hooker's Companion to the Botanical Magazine, vol. i. p. 252, 1835.
 6 Encyclop. d. Med. Pharm. Naturalien und Rohrwaarenkande, lid. 1. s. 381, 1C43
 * Laubert's Memoir, in Lambert's Illuslr. of the Genus Cinchona,  p. 78.
 1 Hooker's Comp. to the Bot. Mag. vol. i. p. 244. 1835. 
Cinchona :—Huanuco or Gray Bark.
655
 Cascarilla provinciana, and which was the produce of Cinchona micrantha.   Reichel, an apothe-
 cary at Hulienstein  in  Saxony, examined  and carefully compared  it with his own collection
 of cinchona barks, as well as with that of Von Bergen at Hamburg, and declared it to be identi-
 cal with the Huanuco bark of commerce.
  But under the name of Huanuco or gray bark two distinct barks are found in English  com-
 merce_one of which is the produce of C. micrantha, the other probably of C. nitida.
  Commerce.—Gray bark is collected in Cuchero and Huanuco, and is conveyed to Lima, from
 whence it is exported to Europe.  It comes over in chests, and  also in serons.
  Description.—Gray  bark always occurs in  the form of quills, which are usually coated.
 Two sorts are distinguished in English commerce—one as fine gray bark; the  other as coarse or
 inferior gray bark.  These sorts  usually come over mixed, but sometimes separately.  At a sale
 of gray bark, in April, 1852, Mr. J.  E. Howard found  the proportions to be  as  follows: 30
 chests of unmixed fine gray, 30 to 40 chests of almost all inferior gray, and 100 chests of fine
 gray mixed with inferior gray.
  I. Fine Gray Bark; China Huanuco, Goebel, Pharm. Waarenk. Taf. vii. Figs. 1 to 4 ;  Quin-
 quina rouge de  Lima ; Guibourt;  La [Cascarilla] Peruviana or Quina cana legitima, Laubert,  Bull.
 Pharm. t. ii.—Mr. J.  E. Howard regards this bark as the produce of C.  nitida, R and P.,  for  it
 Bgrces  with the bark of this species in Pavon's collection, and its description answers to that
 |dven in the Quinologia, and by Laubert, of the bark of C. nitida.  The  length  of  the quills  is
 from three to fifteen inches; their diameter from  two lines to one and a quarter, or even two
 inches; their thickness one-third of a line  to five lines.  At the edge of most of the perfect
 quills we distinctly observe a sharp oblique cut, made probably to loosen the bark.  These ob-
 lique cuts are  rarely found on other barks.  Tbe quills are  frequently somewhat spirally rolled.
 We observe on the  epidermis  numerous short, irregular,  transverse cracks;  but they do not
 form rings,as in the Loxa or crown bark, and their  edges are flat, scarcely separated or everted.
 The colour of  the outer surface  is clear or silvery gray, or whitish; in the  smaller quills it is  a
 uniform whitish gray, while in the large quills we observe a kind of cretaceous  covering, owing
 to the thallus of some crustaceous lichens.   The structure of the inner  surface of this kind of
 bark is, in the  small  quills, smooth ; in the  larger ones fibrous:  the colour is rather reddish, or
 rusty brown, than cinnamon brown.   The fracture  is smooth and resinous;  the odour clayish
 or tweet, and which Bergen says is peculiar to this kind.  The taste is  astringent, aromatic, and
 bitti r, but not disagreeable ; the powder of a deep cinnamon  brown.   Mr. J.  E.  Howard, in
 drawing a parallel between the fine gray (or nitida) bark and  tbe inferior gray (or micrantha)
 bark,describes  the former bark as having been when fresh " very fleshy," thicker, and  not wrin-
 kled longitudinally.   The external colour of  its  derm varies from maroon to  rusty, and of its
 periderm (where not covered with lichens) of  a more or less deep  brown.  The substance of
 the bark is red.  In  microscopic structure this sort approximates to Calisaya bark.  The decoc-
 tion of fine gray bark becomes turbid on  cooling and  deposits an abundant sediment.   The
 resinous circle, which is very distinctly seen in this bark,4l is connected," observes Mr. Howard,
 " with the constitution of the bark, as indicated by various  chemical reagents, which, so far as
 1 have made experiments, concur in showing that it is rich in all the usual constituents of the
 tap of the cinchonae,  whilst the predominant feature is the abundance of the tannin."   On  ana-
 lysis this bark yielded him 2.113 per cent, of alkaloids; namely, quinine 0.571, quinidine crystal-
 lized 0.142, and cinchonine 1.4.
  2.  Inferior or Coarse Gray Bark :  Quinquina de Lima gris brun, Guibourt;  Cascarilla pro-
 tuuiana, Poeppig.—This is the bark of C. Micrantha (see ante p. 649).  It has been well  de-
 scrilied  by M.  Guibourt as follows:   " Bark in the form of long tubes, well quilled, of the size
 of" writing-quill to that of the  little  finger, very frequently wrinkled longitudinally by drying.
 1 lie external surface  is, moreover, moderately rugous, often almost devoid of transverse fissures,
 Inning a general deep-gray tint,  but with black or white spots, and bearing here and  there the
 "tine lichens as those found  on Loxa barks.   The liber is of a  deep-brownish yellow, and  as if
 '"fined of agglutinated fibres.  The taste is bitter, astringent, acidulous, and aromatic: the odour,
 "'••it of Rood gray barks."
  -Mr. J. E. Howard,  in comparing  this bark with the fine gray sort (C. nitida), describes it as
 wing woody or finely fibrous, thinner than the nitida bark, wrinkled  longitudinally, glaucous
 externally (both as regards the derm and epiderm), rusty yellow internally, and approximating
 Jo the icrobiculata bark in its microscopic structure (see ante, p. 650).  Its decoction be finds to
 ■* P«le, and to  give a small  flocculent deposit on cooling.   In reducing this bark to powder, its
 *<»dy character is very marked.  Mr. Howard analyzed a specimen  of this  bark, and found
 that it  yielded  1.773 per cent, of alkaloids—namely, quinine, 0.243; quinidine, 0.28; and cin-
 Conine, 1.25.
   kiptocamia—Mosses and Jungermannias are never found on this bark. Foliaceous lichens
 are mud, more scarce than on Loxa bark.   The following is Fee's list of the Cryptogamia :—
  Lwheiws.—Opegrapha Ruiziana; O. Condaminea; O. rugulosa ;  O. lumidula ; Graphis Acharii;
  Kr?tntina:  Arthonia confluens; A.  divergens; A. oblrila ;  Trypethelium variolosum ;  Pyrenula
mmtta,- P. myriocarpa ;  P. mollis ;  Verrucaria nitens ;  V. theioplaca ;  Ascidium Cinchonarum  •
*"Mta tuberculosa.                                                                         ' 
656                  VEGETABLES.—Xat. Ord. Rubiace.e.

  Composition.—I  am unacquainted  with any complete analysis  of gray  barks, though their
alkaloid strength has been determined several times.  But until  the analyses, above quoted, of
Mr J. E. Howard, no  one  had determined the comparative quantity of alkaloids in the two
kinds of gray bark above described.  Soubeiran' states, that one pound of Gray Lima Cinchona
yields a dracbm and a half of sulphate of cinchonia, but he omits all mention of quinine.
  The following are the quantities of pure cinchona and quinine in this bark, according to the
undermentioned authorities:—
                                                     In one pound of Bark.
                                              Cinchonia.                  Quina.
          Von Santen.............from 74 to 210 grains......   0 grains.
          ... ,  ,.         (finest sample  ......   50   "       .....32  "
          Mlchaehs.....\ second sample......   74   "       .....28  «
          Goebel and Kivst................168   "       .....   0  "

  Winckler2 obtained  190 grs. of cinchonia from 16 ounces of strong, middling-sized quills.
  According to Puttfarcken,3 Huanuco bark yielded, on an average, only 1.6 per cent, of u»hes,
the colour of which he describes as being, in different samples, dark green, greenish, green, and
gray.
  Medicinal Properties.—It must be obvious, from the results of Mr. J. E. Howard's ana-
lyses, that the  fine gray bark must possess more medicinal activity than the inferior or coarse
gray sort, because the total amount of alkaloids (especially of quinine) which  it contains is larger.
  Good gray bark is, medicinally speaking, a valuable sort of cinchona.  Ruiz and Pavon state
that the nitida  bark (which I believe to be the fine gray sort) is less nauseous and disagreeable
to sick persons than other kinds of bark.   The micrantha, or inferior gray bark, is more nau-
seous, on account of the greater preponderance of  cinchonine which it contains.


             V. CINCHONA HUAMALIES.—HUAMALIES BARK

  Synonymes.—Quinquinas de  Huamalies, Guibourt; Quinquina Havane of French  commerce;
China Huamalies ; Braune  China, Bergen :  China Huamalies, Guamalies, seu  Abomalies, Goebel;
Braune China ; China Huamalies ; China fusca, Geiger.
  History.—It is not known precisely when this  kind of bark first came  into Rurope.   Von
Bergen thinks that it probably was introduced simultaneously with silver bark, at the end of the
last or commencementof tbe present century. In 1803, it was frequently carried direct from Lima
to Hamburg.  This bark is not used as a distinct kind in this country, and hence most druggists
are unacquainted  with it;  but  it  is bought  by some of our merchants for the foreign markets,
especially for Germany.
  Botany.—According to Reichel,4 who examined  Poeppig's samples, the  Huamalies bark of
commerce is identical  with the Cascarilla boba; and, therefore, is the produce of Cinchona pubt-
tcens var. Bpurpurea, Weddell.  But several reasons lead  me to believe that  this  inference is
not correct,   lstly. Huamalies bark is  not identical with  tbe bark of this species contained in
Pavon's collection in the British Museum, nor with  that brought over by Weddell. 2dly. Dr.
Julius Martiny,5 who obtained specimens of Poeppig's bark, declares that Cascarilla boba, given
to him by Poeppig, does not resemble Huamalies bark; and I can confirm his statement, as he
kindly sent  me a small  sample of the Casrarilla  boba, which  is now in  the Museum of the
Pharmaceutical Society.  3dly.  The bark of Cinchona purpurea is very poor in alkaloids, wbile
Huamalies  bark  is comparatively rich.  4thly.  The microscopic structure of the two barks  is
very different.6  Mr. J. K. Howard, who has devoted much attention to the subject, is of opin-
ion  that  Huamalies bark is very  near to, if it  be  not identical  with, Cinchona  Chahuarguera,
Pavon (C. Condaminea var. B Chahuarguera, De Cand.), which Weddell  regards  as identical
with his  C. Condaminea var. a. vera.
  Description and Varieties.—This kind of bark  presents very different appearances  at
different ages, so as almost to defy arrangement.  Some of the fine quills might readily I* mis-
taken  by  inexperienced persons for Loxa bark.   The large flat pieces, on the other hand, I  have
known mistaken by an experienced dealer for what he termed "flimsy' red bark.
  Some of the finer quills  (Huamalies simulating  Loxa Bark) resemble  those of Loxa Bark,
but are dull  gray  externally, have fewer transverse cracks, are smoother, or  finely striated  or
wrinkled longitudinally, and, when  broken, appear nearly white in  the interior.   This is the
dull gray Huamalies (quinquina huamalies gris terne) of M. Guibourt.   Another kind frequently
occurs  in the Loxa Bark of commerce, and I  have heard it termed rusty crown bark.  Jt is in
larger quills, with a whitish or grayish epidermis, which  is striated or furrowed longitudinally,
but  is devoid of transverse cracks, and maybe removed by the nail.  This is the thin andrta-
« Traiti de Pharm. i. 583.                         ■ Buchner's Repert. 2te Reihe, Bd. xxv. S.324.
a Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. xi. p. 129, 1&51.
« Hooker's Companion to the Botanical 3Iagazine, vol. i. p. 252. IS35.
s Encyklopadie d. med.-pharm. Natural, u. Rohwaarenk. p. 3b1.
6 Mr. J. E. Howard. Pharm. Journal, vol. xii. p. 61, 1S52. 
Cinchona :—Ash  Cinchona.
657
iih Huamalies (quinquina huamalies mince et rougeatre) of M. Guibourt.   On some of the pieces
we observe rusty-coloured warts, which, when numerous, are  disposed in irregular longitudinal
lines.  A flat or arched variety (verrucous white Huamalies bark)  has a whitish epidermis, with
large red warts, from which  the epidermis has been removed.  Another  kind (verrucous rusty
Buamaliei) is in quills or flat pieces, distinguished by the ochrered or rusty colour of its outer
surface, the presence of warts, arranged for the most part longitudinally, and the almost total
absence of transverse cracks.
  Crtptogamia.—The following cryptogamic plants are mentioned by Von Bergen as existing
on this bark:—
  Lichenes.—Opegrapha  enteroleuca;  Graphis  duplicata ;  Verrucaria  phaa; Porina  papillata •
Pyrenula  discolor;  P. mastoidea;  and  P. verrucarioides;  Lecanora punitea;  Parmelia  melano-
leiica; and Usneaflorida J Cinchona.
  Composition.—The  proportion of cinchona alkaloids in this bark has  been investigated by
Von Santen,'  Michaelis, Goebel and Kirst,2 and Winckler.3  The following are their results:—
(•]
                           1 lb. of Bark.                               Cinchonia.    Quina.
          1. Fine and middling fine quills, and flat pieces (from Cadiz in 1821)  60         0
         J 2. Thick warty quills, and flat pieces (from ditto)...........  75         0
Von Santen < 3. Sorts (from Lima in 1803).....................'  '  [  60  .       0
         14. As No. 3 (another chest), rather heavy................  48         0
         15. As No. 3 (a third chest), rather light................. -95         0
          Slst sort................................'  '  '   0        12
          2d sort................................'.''.'  48        "8
13d sort
60  ....  34
  Goebel and Kirst (fine and thick quills of commerce)..................38         28
            ( 1. Thick quills and flat arched pieces..................  66         23
  Winckler .  J2. Strong, coated, middling thick, fresh-looking quills .  ........   8         0
            (3. Thin quills, which were mixed with Loxa Bark   ........\  \   8.5  '.  '. '.   0.6

  It is tolerably obvious from the above analyses,  that either different  barks have been examined
  under the name of Huamalies, or that this bark is most unequal  in  the proportion of alkaloids
  whicb  it yields. Mr. J.  E.  Howard4 says: "I have experimented on a sample of brown warty
  Huamalies, agreeing in general appearance with Goebel's PI. x. Figs. 1—5, and  found the bark
  rich in alkaloids, and with no peculiarity5  such as always  marks  the two varieties  of C.
  pukscens."
   Medicinal Phopertiks.—These must vary with the proportion of alkaloids which the bark
  contains.  Some specimens are undoubtedly  of  first-rate medicinal quality.


         VI. CORTEX  CINCHONiE DE JAEN—ASH  CINCHONA.

  Quinquina de Loxa  cendre A, Guibourt;  China Jaen; Blasse. Ten-China, Bergen ;  China Jaen
  seu Term, seu Tena, Goebel; Blackish Huanuco, Batka; Cascarillo palido, Ruiz.—It is uncertain
  at what period it was introduced into commerce.  Bergen states he found  it in an old collection
  ofdrugs made in 1770.  It  agrees with the bark described in the Quinologia  as cascarillo palido
  (f.wata, Fl.  Peruv.); a specimen of which, in  Ruiz's collection of barks, was  examined  by
  Bergen,'1 and found to be identical  with Ash Cinchona.   It is, therefore, the produce of C. ovata
 w. t vulgaris of Weddell.  It  differs, however, completely, both  in  appearance and composi-
 tion, from Carabaya bark, which, according to Dr. Weddell, is also  obtained from this variety
 of C. ovata.
  Mr.J. E.Howard7 admits  seven sorts of bark of C. ovata, and  refers ash  bark  to  bis  first
 wrt,or the smooth-skinned or pale variety having a light brown substance.
  Ash bark is usually imported  in chests, but also in serons.  It is met with  in a quilled  form
 only; the quills being of middling size, or somewhat  thick;  being  from  4 to  16 inches  long,
 from 'ijj lines) to 1 inch in diameter, and from i to 2 lines thick.  A  very remarkable character
 fcjtlns bark is the crookedness of the quills, which are more or  less arched and twisted ;  from
 *l*h circumstance we  may infer the probability of its  being obtained   from  a  tree which
 Krows in a damp situation.  On the outer or epidermoid surface we observe a few  transverse
 cracks,and some faint  longitudinal cracks; but  in these respects there is a manifest difference
 * Ween 'b'8 a,"l Loxa bark.  The colour of the outer surface varies between  ash  gray, whitish
 Kra.v.and pale yellow, with  blacki>h or brownish spots.  Tbe inner  surface  is either even or
 jP"i'«ry, and of a cinnamon-brown  colour.  The  fracture is  even or  splintery; the odour  is
 ■wise; the t;lste feebly  astringent and bitter;  the colour of the powder  is cinnamon brown.
r~ ...,.?inchona must  not be confounded with the ashy crown bark to be  hereafter  described
^p. U'lll.)
 1 UuH,..'..  1?";'r"''A- ' lrat- v-                    2  Pharm. Waarenkunde, i. 71.
 ' P Z   " H'I"TI- ite K*'he> BJ- «v. S 291 and 326, 1S42.
 ' y^""0'""'1"1 Journal, vol.  xii. p. CI, 1652.
11 diJwMih6?11 Iar"v here alluded to is the presence of an intensely yellow colouring matter, from which it
 ,'JjJ™lt,n»<'Paratc the alkaloids.
   ""'gr. 3lu.                                  ,  pharmaceutical Journal, vol. xii. p. 126, 1852.
      vol. 11.—42 
658
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Rubiaceje.
   Under  tbe  name of "Cusco Bark" I have met with in commerce two barks which are pro-
bably the produce of  C. ovata var. a vulgaris of Weddell, and, therefore, are allied to Asli ("in.
chona.   One of these  is a  thick coarse quilled bark ;  tbe other a thin, flat, leathery sort of bark
in pieces which are four or five inches broad.
   Few cryptogamic plants are found on ash cinchona.  The following is a list of them, accord-
ing  to  Bergen:1—Graphis sculpturata;  Porina granulata;  Pyrenula verrucario'ides;  Lecanora
punicea ;  Parmelia melanoliucn, and Usnea florida $ Cinchona.
   Goebel and Kirst2 obtained only 12  grains of quinine from a  pound of the bark; but Winckler8
procured 28 grains from  16 ounces.   Subsequently, Manzini4  declared that it contained neither
quinine nor cinchonine, but a new alkaloid, which be called cinchovatine or cinchovine.  Winckler,''
however, after a careful comparison, found this supposed new  alkaloid to be cusconin or aricine.
Guibourt6 regards it as cinchonine. From a mean-looking specimen, Mr. J. E. Howard obtained
crystallized quinidine, 0.61, and  crystallized cinchonine  8.86 per cent.  Some flat pieces yielded
him 1.2 of quinidine and 1.6 of cinchonine.
   The  medicinal powers of  this bark  must be inferior, on account of  the small proportion of
alkaloid which it yields.


             VH. CORTEX CINCHONA DE  LOXA.—LOXA  BARK.

   Stsontmks.—Quinquina de Loxa,  Guibourt; China Loxa, Kron-China, Bergen ;  Cortex China
fusca, seu corona, s. de Loxa, s. peruvianus, Goebel; Loxa or Crown Bark, Engl, commerce.
   Histort.—Loxa bark,  if not the first, was  one of the earliest kinds of Cinchona bark intro-
duced into Europe.   It was probably tbe bark which Horbius,7 in 1693, denominated  Cascarilla
della Oja, but which  Condamine  more correctly termed Corteza, or Cascara de Loxa.  Of late
years, however, various kinds of quilled barks, differing in botanical origin, in appearance, and
in chemical constitution, have been imported—sometimes mixed, sometimes unmixed—under
the  name of  Loxa or crown  bark.
   Botanx.—According to Humboldt8 (who speaks very positively on  this point), the plant
figured  by M. de la Condamine is the one which Weddell terms Cinchona Condaminea var. a
vera;  though, as I have before  stated (see ante, p. 634, footnote), M. Guibourt  entertains some
doubt about the accuracy of this statement. It is probable, therefore, that this is  the source of
the  original or old Loxa bark.
   C. Condaminea var. 8 Candollii, furnishes an  inferior Loxa bark. From M. Guibourt's observa-
tion on the barks in M. Delessert's collection, it would  appear that C. Condaminea var. 8 Can-
dollii, yields yellow Loxa bark (amarilla de Loja).
   The bark of  C. Condaminea var. y lucumafolia,  has also been sold in  London as  crown bark;
I  shall distinguish it as white crown bark.
   From Humboldt's observations respecting the bark of C. scrobiculata var. a, genuina (see ante,
p. 635), it would appear  that this forms part of  the Loxa bark of commerce.
   Mr.  J. E. Howard9 thinks that C.  glandulifera is the  source of the H. 0. crown  bark.
   C. cordifolia var. B rotundifolia, may perhaps yield the Ashy crown bark of commerce.
   Commerce.—Ciown bark is  imported from Loxa and Lima; in  the former case it is shipped
 atPayta, in the latter at Callao.  It is imported in serons and  chests.   After  its arrival, it is fre-
 quently picked and sorted.   The slender, finest, thinnest, and longest quills, with  a short trans-
 verse fracture, form the finest or picked crown bark (cortex cinchona corona electus).10  A some-
 what  larger  quill, with  a  silvery appearance  of the epidermis, derived  from  the  adherent
 crustaceous lichens, constitutes the silvery crown bark.   A similar kind, but in  which the external
 coat has a speckled appearance from the whitish lichens, with  the intermediate dark-brown
 colour  of the epidermis, constitutes the leopard crown bark.
   Varieties and Description.—The chief  and most important  barks to which the name of
 Crown or Loxa bark has been applied, are the following: —

   '  Monogr. S. 318.                         a Pharmaceutische  Waarenkunde, Bd. i. S. 67, 1*27—29.
   »  Buchner's Revert. Bd. xxv. S.  323, 2te Reihe, 1842; also, Chemical Gazette, vol. i. p. 99, lsJ2.
   «  Journ. de  Pharm. et de Chim.  t. ii. p. 95, 1812; also, Chemical Gazette, vol. i. p. 45, 1842-
   >  Buchner's Repert. Bd. xxx. S.  249, 2te Reihe, 1843; also, Chemical Gazette, vol. ii- P-  1&9» 1W4.
   s  Hist. Nat. des. Drog. 4eme edit. t. iii. p. 161, 1850.      1 Bergen. Monogr. S. 313.            „
   s  Plant. JEquin. vol. i. p. 33. tab. 10.                    9 Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. xii. p. i«-
   10  Condamine observes: " They told me at Loxa, that anciently they preferred the  largest barks \u'r.
 grosses ecorces), which were put aside with care as the  most precious; now, thesmaUest.are pre *^^
 One may suppose that id
 pass.   But a director of
goes to Europe necessarily passes, assured  me that  the preference now shown for trie sm<ui^« |
founded on analyses of English chemists of both barks, and it is probable that the difficulty ot ary.'n°),d^
fectly the large quills, and their consequently becoming damaged, has contributed to bring them '   . ^
credit. The common prejudice is, that, in order to lose none of their virtue, the tree should be strip;
the waninsr of the moon, and on the east side of the tree ; and they did not forget to make arbrinanon
a notary of  these circumstances in 1735, as well as of its having been gathered on ine mountain >   ^
numa, when the last Viceroy of Peru  made a provision of  bark to carry to Spain on his re. jg cauied
interest of the collection, which furbids them to remain inactive three-quarters oi the year,  j  'suK,j
most of those who gather the bark to give up their prejudice, such as my host at Cayanuina, w i
me that all the seasons of the year were equally proper, so Ion,; as the weather was dry. 
                     Cinchona :—Loxa or Crown Bark.                    659

  1. Obigival or Old Loxa Bark.—This is the original or true crown bark, and is probably
the produce of C.  Condaminea var. a vera, Weddell.   It is said to have received its name from
the following circumstance:—
  In October, 180-1, a Spanish galley, returning from Peru, was  taken by our countrymen off
Cadiz.  Among the treasures  found therein were many parcels of cinchona bark, two sorts of
which were distinguished  from the others by their  external  appearance and mode of packing.
Two of these chests were marked " Para la real familia," i. e. " For the royal family," and  were
lined with sheet iron;  they  contained fine quills, of thirteen  inches long, tied up by means of
hill into bundles  of about  three  inches in  diameter.  Von Bergen states be  received from
England, in 1824,siinilar bundles, under  the name of second crown.   The other sort was  marked
'Para la real corte," i. e. "  For the royal court:' >   Occasionally, but less frequently  than formerly,
bundles thus  packed occur  in the serons of crown bark of  commerce.  Hayne2 pointed out
wme differences  between the Loxa bark of commerce and a  bark found in Humboldt's col-
lection, marked Quina de  Loxa,  and which bad been  collected  from C. Condaminea; the pe-
culiar  characteristics of the latter are the warty prominences, the transverse  cracks, which do
not form rings, the browner  tint of the outer surface, and a more astringent taste.  In a  chest
of 120 lbs. of commercial Loxa bark, Goebel  found only three ounces of bark corresponding
to the description here given of  the true  Loxa bark.
  I  have received from Mr. Berthold  Seemann a specimen of quina fina which he himself
gathered from C. Condaminea var. a. vera, Weddell, at Loxa.  It is in slender quills, with nu-
merous transverse cracks, and  has  a silvery  appearance  externally,  from the presence of
adherent crustaceous lichens.   It is the kind which I have designated silvery crown bark.
  Mr. J. E. Howard analyzed some "fine old Loxa" quills which  were sold in 1850.   They
had traditionally remained in the London Docks twenty five or thirty years, and the packages
were decaying with age.  Some of them were tied up in bundles; some resembled quinquina
grisfibreux royal d'Espagne of M. Guibourt; others were thick heavy quills.  The fiist sort in
bundles yielded him, in 100  parts of  bark, quinine 0.714, quinidine 0.514, and cinchonine  0.04.
The larger and stouter quills were richer in  alkaloids, especially in cinchonine.   "I conclude,
therefore," says Mr. Howard,3 "that the old original 'crown bark,' the fine Loxa of Uritusinga,
was one which well merited  its character, on account of the quantity of alkaloids contained,
which (taking the  whole together, for the bark is rich in cinchonine, and Calisaya is not) equals
the sum total of alkaloids  in some specimens of Calisaya bark."
  2.  White Crown Bark.—By this designation I propose to distinguish the lucuma-leaved cin-
chona  bark.  In 1848,  a chest of it was sold in London as  "crown bark," yet it differs in
appearance considerably from the ordinary crown bark of commerce.  Tbe small or fine quills
are scarcely distinguishable from some quills of  silvery crown bark given me by  Mr. Seemann,
who  gathered them from C.  Condaminea.   The  large quills, however, present an entirely
different appearance from every other  sort of cinchona bark  with which  I  am acquainted.
The coaled large  quills are devoid of transverse tracks, but are  rugged externally from the
longitudinal rents or fissures  produced by the expansion of the growing stem; and the subja-
cent suberous coat which  is  thus exposed is remarkable for  its white satiny or silvery lustre.
This  bark is the  produce of C.  Condaminea  var. y lucumafolia, Weddell; and  its produce  in
alkaloids resembles that of other varieties of C. Condaminea.
  3. H.O. Chows4 Bark.—This is the crown bark usually found in commerce.   It is imported
from  Payta, and occurs in  the  form of single and double, fine and middling,  coated  quills,
wbieb vary in length from 6 to 15 inches; in diameter, from 2  lines to an inch;  in thickness,
from one third of a line to 2  lines.
  «. Some of the quills are remarkably devoid  of lichens ; are composed of a thin bark, which
externally  has a brown shrivelled appearance, being covered  with  numerous  longitudinal
wrinkles, and having very  few transverse cracks. The transverse fracture is short.  The inter-
nal surface is of a cinnamon  colour, but the fractured surface  is pale yellow.
  ft Other quills  approximate in appearance to those of gray bark.   They are larger and
«»rser than  the preceding, are more or  less grayish externally from adherent lichens, and are
furnished with numerous transverse cracks, some of which extend completely around the quill
in the form of a ring.
  y-  Some of the  quills greatly  resemble those of ashy crown bark,  consisting of twisted
quills, which have  the same  patchy (black and white) appearance, from the adherent lichens.
  Hie origin of "H. O. crown" bark is not accurately known.  Mr. Howard and myself found
no hark: exactly resembling it  in  Pavon's collection.   As Humboldt states that the bark of C.
*Tf n     'S S°'d aS Ufluitia  rina>" n miSnt ue presumed that this  is in part the  source of the
 H-U. crown" bark, which appears to have replaced, in
I'  ('•"idaminea).   But Mr. J. E. Howard has assigned s
several  reasons for believing that ashy
  | jJfrpTi, Monograph  S. 310.                       i Goebel und Kunze, Pharm. Waarenk. i. 36.
  ' <■ .''™c"",r:at Journal, vol. xi. p. 491.
•■■rli  ■ h'L•0,'.?nd a crown were brands adopted, in the timeof the Spanish dominion, for two different
i'i,a.H  i   ' w,l'c!l are l>"th now included under the general title, • crown bark.' ;'—(J. E. Howard,
'"arm. Journ. vol. xi. p. 494.) 
660
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Rubiace-e.
crown bark is identical with the cascarilla  negrilla of Poeppig, and, therefore, is produced I
Cinchona glandulifera.
   Mr. J. E. Howard  has analyzed  two  samples  of this bark, and the  following are  his
results:—

                                              Quinidine (finely crystallized
                              1000 parts.                from ether).            Cinchonim
           Fine sample (in the market in 1850).......     5.7      .....     0 6
           A beautiful sample (in the market in 1851) ....    10.5      .  . .  .  .     O.s

   The sample last mentioned " was in larger  quills, and the large quills must always be ex
pected to contain more alkaloid than those which consist almost entirely of outer coat. So that
we have not only the  substitution of barks poorer in alkaloids for the old Loxa richer in alka-
loids, but we have quinidine substituted for quinine, if this be of any importance."
   4. Ashy Crown Bark of English commerce;  China Pseudo-Loxa or Dunkele-Ten-China, Bergen-
Dunkle Jaen China, Goebel;  Quinquina de Loxa cendri B, Guibourt.—This  bark  must not  be
confounded with the ash or pale Jaen bark (p. 657), from which it is quite distinct.1  It is imported
from Lima in  serons and bags.  It occurs in quills of about the  size of the fingers, and which :
abound in foliaceous and  filiform lichens, (Parmelia melanoleuca,  Sticta aurata, Usnea, fyc.)  The
powdery and  crustaceous lichens  give this bark  a very speckled or patchy appearance; the i
white, gray, and black patches being predominant.   Some of the black patches are  soot-like. *
Many of the quills are covered with  rusty warts or fungoid tubercles, which perhaps have been
produced by the puncture of an insect.  Quills covered with these warts (which are sometimes
as large as a coffee-seed)  have  a scabious appearance.  Tbe epidermis is marked by longitudinal
wrinkles and  transverse cracks, by which, as well as by its blacker colour, it is readily distin- ;:
guished from ash  bark.   The internal surface  is of an orange or cinnamon  colour.  The taste
of this bark is bitter.   This bark agrees with the specimen in Pavon's collection marked"Cai-
carilla con hojas  redondas de Quiebro de Loxa," (i. e.  " the bark of the round-leaved cinchona of \
the Quiebro of Loxa.")   From this  it would appear  to  be the produce of C. cordifolia tar. i
rotundifolia of  Weddell.   Bergen says that it agrees with a bark contained in Ruiz's collection,
which was said to be obtained from C. lancifolia  of Mutis.   But it differs from the  lancifolia
barks with which I am acquainted.
   This bark has been analyzed by Mr. J. E. Howard ; and the following are his results:—   -■

                                                Quinidine                          Total
                   1000 Parts of                and Quinine.            Cinchonine. Alkaloiit
   Ashy crown, from Lima............   5.00   ........   9.14   =  14.14
   Ashy crown mixed with corky crown, from Lima    4.00 (quinidine chiefly)   2.85   =-=   6.85
   Ashy crown (corresponding with the Dunkele-
   Ten-China), from Lima.............    4.57   ........   3.00   =   7.57

   5. Wirt Loxa Bark;  Twiggy Loxa Bark.—Imported from Payta in serons.  In April, 1882,
I saw three serons of this  bark put up for sale.   It occurs in very slender, wire-like quills,
which are tolerably smooth externally, with scarcely any transverse  cracks.   The epiderm is
brown, in some places  slightly gray, without any adherent foliaceous or filiform lichens.  Many
of the quills are lined  by a thin shaving of pale yellow wood with the bark from the branch.
Its taste is very astringent, and but slightly bitter.   To the fracture  it is short and resinous,  It
yields scarcely any alkaloid, and  its quality,  therefore,  is very inferior.  Nothing certain n
known of its origin."
   Cryptogamia.—The following  is  Fee's list of the Cryptogamia found on Loxa bark:—
   Lichenes.—Opegrapha globosa ±  O.  Condaminea;  Graphis fulgurata; Arlhonia sinensigraphvi;
A. marginata ; Glyphis favulosa (rare); Chiodecton effusum; Pyrenula verrucario'ides; Atciattfo,..
Cinchonarum ;  Lepra flava ;  Lecidea  peruviana ; Lecanora russula;  L. subfusca; id. var. 8 p* ,
verulenta;  Parmelia crenulata;  P. glandulifera; Sticta aurata;  Collema  azureum; and C.aW^
phanum.                                                                                ' -.'
   Compositiost.—Loxa bark (quinquina gris) was analyzed  by Pelletier and Caventou, an
by Bucholz.4

  1 M. Guibourt (Hist. Nat. des. Drog. simpl.  4me ed. torn. iii. p. 152, 1S52, has included both ajAorj>«'<
Jaen bark and ashy crown bark under one name ;  viz. that of quinquina de Loxa ctndri (ashy Luis. Da
The former constitutes his variety l'A,"  the latter, his variety '• B."                        ., .^
  3 On account  of its remarkably slender quills,  this bark might be presumed to be the caseartlla a*V .
or delgadilla (slender bark), or cascarilla fina delgada (fine slender bark), which Ruiz and Pavon B'^e
obtained from Cinchona hirsuta; but it is devoid of the small transversal cracks which, it is salu, r
the surface of the delgada bark rough.  In its smoothness and colour, wiry Loxa bark somewhat rest
voung negrilla bark.                                                               .. ..^j
  3 Journ. de Pharm. vii. 70.                                * Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. n. !«<>• 
Cinchona :—Red Cinchona Bark.
661
 Pelletier and Caventou's Analysis.
Kinate of cinchonia.
Kinate of lime.
Green fatty matter.
Bed oinchonic.
Soluble red colouring matter (tannin).
Yellow colouring matter.
Cum.
Starch.
Lignin.

       Gray cinchona.
              Bucholz's Analysis.
Cinchonia................    n.36
Kinic acid................    1.17
Kinate of lime . .  .•...........    ] .30
Hard resin (red cinchonic)........    9.97
Bitter soft resin.............    1.56
Fatty matter, with chlorophylle.....    0.78
Tannin, with some chloride of calcium (?)    5.80
Gum..................    443
Starch..............'.'.' .'a little
Lignin.................74.43
Commercial Loxa bark .
99.80
 S ■beiran' states, that  one lb. of  Loxa bark  yields from one and a half to two drachms of
s-.phate of cinchonia.  It is somewhat remarkable that Von Santen2 obtained quina, and  but
little cinchonia, from Loxa bark, as the following table shows:—

                      1 lb. of Loxa Bark.         Sulphate of Quina.  Pure Cinchonia.
                                                       grains.          grains.
           Fine selected quills...............   5  ......__
           Moderately thick quills and pieces........12  ......   42/
           Fine and middling quills.............   2  ......   2y
           Moderately thick pieces.............2Vyi ......   —
           Selected thick, heavy pieces, with grater-like bark  53^ .'.'.'. '. .   —

 Winckler3 procured  from  1G ounces of selected  Loxa  bark 56  grains of alkaloids; namely,
33grains of pure quinine and 23 grains of cinchonine.
 Mr. Howard's analyses before quoted have shown that the different barks, known in com-
merce as Loxa or  Crown bark,  vary considerably in the  proportion  of alkaloids which they
oontain,

 Medicinal Properties.—Fine old  Loxa  bark is probably  almost equal  in  therapeutical
powers to Calisaya bark;  and the same may be said of the lucuma leaved cinchona bark. The
ordinary Loxa barks of commerce are, however, very inferior in medicinal activity.
        VIH. CORTEX CINCHONiE  RUBILE3.—RED CINCHONA.

                               Cinchona rubra, L. E. D.

  8iiontmks.—Quinquina rouge verruqueux, and non-verruqueux, Guibourt;  China rubra Rothe
 China, Bergen; China  rubra, Cortex  China ruber, Goebel;  Cascarilla  roxa  verdadera, Laub.
 [genuine red cinchona.]
  Histohy.—The earliest travellers  in  South America, who have noticed cinchona  bark, dis-
 linguish the different sorts by their colour; and  both Mr. Arrot and Mons. Condamine speak  of
 l red bark (cascarilla Colorado.), and  describe  it as  being of superior quality.  Dr. Saunders4
 totes that, in the year 1702, a parcel  of bark (which he says was tbe red kind) was taken on
 board a Spanish vessel, and a portion  of it fell  into  the hands of  a celebrated London  apoth-
 j»ry,Mr. D. Pearson.  In 1779, another  Spanish ship, bound  from Lima to Cadiz, was taken
 bran English frigate, and carried into Lisbon.  Her cargo  consisted principally  of red bark,
 JBdwas,for tbe most part, sent  to Ostend, where it was purchased at a very low price by some
  rTU druggist8' wno' after some difficulty, contrived to get it introduced into practice.
  "'""•—Although the term  red bark is now usually employed  to designate a particular sort
 °i bark, yet a  red  colour is in  reality not characteristic of any one bark in  particular, but is
 Mmmon to many; and, moreover, it  appears to be a non essential quality, and to  depend on
 wwdental circumstances, such as locality, soil, age of the tree, mode of drying the bark. &c.
 «« C lancifolia yields both a  red as well as an orange bark ;  and some of the pieces  of the
 "« bark of commerce are  scarcely distinguishable in colour from those of yellow bark.  Wed-
 «U says he has met with the red tint in the barks of C. ovata,  C. scrobiculata,  C. pubescens, and
  en in C. Calisaya; and at one time he fancied  that the first-mentioned of these species (C.
 wjjii) was the source of the genuine,  red bark of commerce.
 nuroi l\icarilla maSnifolia var. a vulgaris of  Weddell (Cinchona oblongifolia of Mutis)  yields a
 posed   1 ^^ Cal'et, ®uina roxa' or  Quina Azahar  0 roja de Santa Fe ;  and which was  sup-
 in th '° 11  the red bark °f co,nmerce-  But Bergen  has  examined the bark bearing this name
of th  P    °U °'  Ru'Z' and fin(,S that  il is  not comtnercial red  bark but tbe Quinquina nova
HurnhniiT0]1 Pllarmacolog'sts-   Moreover, Schrader (who received a piece of tbe bark from
wluch     ,   ared il  t0  be  a new  kind 5 and Guibourt6 states  that the red bark of Mutis,
 ««> was deposited by Humboldt in tbe Museum of Natural History  of Paris,  is not  com-


 ,CLn«f/B.arW,;'-.603-„  „  ...  „                       * Bergen, Monogr. Tab. zur 5ten Platte.
 ' 06., °"   "'P'rtonum, 2te Reihe, Bd. i. S. 213, 1835;  and Bd. xiv S. 325, 1642.
 ' Hutf'"!?' °n!he SuT"rior Efficacy of the Red Peruvian Bark, p. vi. 1782.
   "'•"«' "fog- line 6dit. t. iii. p. 123, 1850. 
662
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Rubiaceje.
 mercial red  bark, but  Quinquina nova.   To  these  statements may be added  tbe testimony of
 Ruiz and Pavon, and of Humboldt;  the first two of which writers state that the Quina roxa is
 obtained from Cinchona oblongifolia,1  but they do not know the origin of Quina  Colorado (the red
 bark of commerce) ;  and Schrader states that Humboldt declared he did not know the tree that
 yielded red bark.2
   Commerce.—Imported from Guayaquil and Lima  in chests.  Good samples are scarce.   I
 am informed by an  experienced dealer  that this bark was formerly imported in much larger-
 sized pieces than are now  met with.
   Description.—Red bark occurs in quills and flat pipces.  The quills vary in diameter from
 two lines to an inch and a quarter;  in  thickness, from one-third to two lines;  in length from
 two to twelve or more Inches.   The so-called flat pieces are frequently slightly curled- their
 breadth is from one to  five inches; their thickness from one-third to three quarters of an inch •
their  length from two  inches to two  feet.
   Red bark is generally coated, and consists of liber, the cellular and suberous coats, and usually
 more or less of the epidermis ; its outer surface is  usually rough, wrinkled, furrowed and fre-
 quently warty.   The colour of the epidermis varies;  in the thinner quills it is grayish-brown
 or faint red-brown ;  in thick  quills and flat pieces it varies from a reddish-brown to a chestnut-
 brown, frequently with a purplish tinge.  As a general rule, it may be said that the larger and
coarser the quills and  pieces, the deeper  the  colour.   Cryptogamic plants  are  not so frequent
on  this  as  on some other kinds of  bark.   The  cellular  coat is frequently thick and spongy,
 especially in large flat  pieces; much  more so than in yellow bark.  It forms the round tubercles
or warts.  The inner  surface of the bark is, in  fine  quills, finely  fibrous;  in  large quills and
 flat pieces, coarsely fibrous, or even splintery.   Its colour increases with the thickness and size
 of the pieces; thus, in fine quills, it  is light rusty brown;  in  thick quills and flat pieces it is a
deep  reddish or purplish brown.  Some of  the specimens of red bark which I have received
from  Von Bergen, as well as of those which I have found in English commerce, approach yel-
low bark in their colour.  The transverse fracture of fine quills is  smooth;  of  middling quills,
somewhat fibrous; of  thick quills and flat  pieces, fibrous and  splintery.  The taste is strongly
bitter, somewhat aromatic, but not so intense and persistent as that of yellow bark ; the odour
is  feeble and tan-like;  the  colour of the powder is faint reddish-brown.
   Varieties—The  obvious and common distinction  is into quilled  red bark and flat red bark.
The  warty  pieces constitute the  quinquina  verruqueux of Guibourt ; the pieces without warts
are the quinquina non-verruqueux of tbe same pharmacologist.  In the red bark of commerce, we
frequently find pieces  with a  white micaceous suberous  coat; these, which are probably the
produce  of a distinct  species  of Cinchona, constitute the quinquina rouge de Carthagent of
Guibourt.3
  The consumption of red  cinchona being very very small, but little attention has been paid to
it,  and no distinctions are made of it, except into the quilled and the flat; the latter being sub-
divided into coated and uncoated.
   Composition.—According  to Pelletier and  Caventou,4 red bark contains superkinate of cinchonia,
superkinate of quina, kinate  of lime, red cinchonic, soluble red colouring matter (tannin), fatty matter,
yellow colouring matter,  lignin, and starch.  Soubeiran5  states that one  lb. of deep red  cinchona
yields two drachms of sulphate of quina and one drachm of sulphate of cinchonia;  while one
lb. of pale red cinchona yields a drachm and a half of the sulphate of quina and one drachm
of sulphate of cinchonia.
  The following are the quantities of cinchona alkaloids obtained from this bark  by Von Santen,1
by Michaelis, by Goebel and Kunze,7 and by Winckler.8
  1 The Cinchona oblongifolia, Mutis (C. magnifolia, Fl. Peruv.), is the Cascarilla magnifolia var.d
vulgaris, Weddell. It is, therefore, a false cinchona, and its bark might be distinguished as false red baric.
It is the Savanilla bark of Batka (Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. xi. p. 321, 1852).
  a Bergen, Monogr. S. 268.
  3 Hist. Nat. des Drag. 4eme edit. t. ii. p. 126.—In the 3d edit, of Guibourt's work, this bark is called
quinquina rouge a ipiderme blane et micaci, and in the 2d edit, quinquina Carthagine rouge.  The author
thinks that it differs from spongy Colombia bark (quinquina de Colombie spongieux) only in colour.  He
says that " the evident resemblance which exists between the genuine red non-verrucous bark and tbe red
Lima bark, between the red woody Carthagena bark and woody Colombia bark, and lastly, between red
and spongy Carthagena bark and spongy Colombia bark, has for some time prist led me to think, what I
have not hitherto stated verbally, that these red cinchonas do not constitute distinct species, but are only
particular states of other species, caused probably by the great age of the trees.''
  * Journ. de Pharm. vii. 92.                                           »  Traiti de Pharm. l. 603.
  8 Bergen, Monogr. Plate 1.                                           1  Pharm. Vt'aartnk. i. 72.
  9 Buchner's Repert. 2te Reihe, Bd. xxv. S. 325, 1812. 
Cinchona :—Pitaya Condaminea Bark.
663
1 lb. of Bark.
         f 1. Fine quills of fresh appearance (from Cadiz in 1803) . .  .
           2. Large, broad, flat pieces, of fresh brownish-red appear-
              ance (same chest)......................
           3. Middling quills, from their pale appearance pTobably
              twenty years older thnn the previous  (from Cadiz in
              1819).............................
Von Santen I 4. Broad flat pieces, not so thick as No. 2 (same chest as
              No. 3)............................
           5. Middling quills, heavy, old (from  London to Hamburg
              in 1815 ; not met with now)................
           6. Thicker, heavier quills (same chest)............
           7. Thick flat pieces, quills, and fragments (above 80 years
         (    in Hamburg; a pale kind).................
Michaelis.....................................
Goebel and Kunze (flat pieces).........................
           1. Dark heavy flat-coated pieces................
           2. Pale thin flat pieces...................."
 Cin-
chonia.
Winckler .
grs.
 70
97
150
184

 20
 32
 05
180
Sulphate ,-. .
Quina.  Qu)na
grs.
 77

 15

 31

 30

 11
 9
grs.
64
40
  Cryptogamia — The following  are the cryptogamic plants on  red cinchona, according  to
Fee.-1
  Lichenes— Opegrapha Bonplandi; O. farinarea : Graphis Acharii; G. exilis ; G frumentaria;
Pyrenula verrucaro'ides ;  Verrucaria  sinnpisperma ; Thelotrema urceolare ; T. terebratum ; T. myrio-
carpum; and Lendea conspersa.
  Medicinal Properties.—Red bark, when of good quality, approximates in its therapeutical
powers to the best Calisaya bark.


  IX. CORTEX CINCHON-ZE CONDAMINEA  PITAYENSIS—PITAYA
                             CONDAMINEA BARK.
       >rina Pitaya,ou de la Cidombie, on  de Antioquia;  Guibourt, Hist, des Drog. t. iii. p. 140,
 4me ed. 1850;  Quinquina  Pitaya,  Peretti, Journ. de  Pharm. t  xxi. p. 513, 1835?; Muratori,
 Pbarm. Central-Blatt fiir 1S39, p. 662 ?2   According to  the  observations of Mr. J. E. Howard
 ind myself, made  on M. Guibourt's specimens, the quinquina brun  de Carthagene of  the last-
 mentioned author is identical with the Pitaya Condaminea bark.
  Tbe  bark of  Cinchona Condaminea var. t Pitayensis,  Weddell.3   Imported into  England
 from Buenaventura in New Granada.
  Bark  consisting of single or double quills, or half-rolled pieces.  I have specimens which are
 more than a foot in length.  Some samples, however, which I have received, consist of pieces
 not exceeding two or three inches in  length,  sometimes entirely, at others only partially, coated ;
 tlie  partially coated pieces  consist of the suberous and cellular  coats and  liber.  Epidermis,
 when present, dark  brown, frequently coated  by  crustaceous lichens, marked  by numerous
 closely set, transverse cracks, with prominent or slightly everted borders, which  give  the bark
 a graterlike feel; and here and there presenting round or  oval  warts or fungoid rusty tuber-
 cles, varying in  size from  a grain of wheat to a seed of coffee, and usually marked  like  the
 latter with  a longitudinal, sometimes also with a  transverse, fissure.  The  suberous coat  in
 •ome pieces much developed, spongy or fungous, fawn yellow, sometimes brown in the interior
 and  fawn-yellow externally and internally.   Resinous tissue,  on the inside of tbe suberous coat
 from which it is definitely separated, shining, of a dark-reddish colour.  Liber gradually passing
 into  the resinous  coat, hard, dense, dark  reddish-brown  ; cortical fibres fine and short.
  Pitaya-Condaminea is a firm heavy bark, having a very bitter, rather  disagreeable flavour,
 which is slowly developed.
  Tins bark  is rich in alkaloids, and serves  for the manufacture of disulphate of quinine.   It
 rontains cinchonine, quinidine, and  quinine.  From one kilogramme (or 1000 grammes) of
 "">  bark, M. Guibourt obtained 23  grammes of crystallized cinchonine, and 11  grammes  52
 j^mgrammes of sulphate of quinine; showing  that it is  one of the  richest  cinchona barks.
Muratori has published  an  analysis of "Pitaya bark,-' but I am doubtful whether his bark is
  \ fours d'Hist. Nat. ii. 265.
it ii^ml?'i?n.a!-'in ''1Pita>'a or Pitoya bark" having been loosely applied to several different sorts of bark,
U fimh™  i  dl,n.cu't to determine with certainty the synonymes of the bark described in the text. From
bourt „..,,  rfce,ved »<»»'Ples of it in 1630. Mr. J. E. Howard informs me that the bark which M. Gui-
h-rk  1,7 ,7 8,l',wed hlm "8 I'gneous Pitaya bark, and as the bark which Peretti analyzed, is a lancifolia
bark Hh,,l J."ere(?re' Preble that Prretti's pitayne is identical with quinidine .-The Pitaya-Condaminea
which ]hiiialso".'«■'  ™ll"d "°P   c.onfonnt|?d wUh tne oicoloured bark (quinquina bicolore of M. Guibourt),

WfiMr'in!" Na,Yrtl.1' des  Quinquinas, 1S49.—More recently (Ann. des  Sciences  Naturelles, May, 1849)
•" otiS".  IVa'eVrpf'^lh' i"""' T™? .""n?' l,,e »'"»• ^ C* Pitayensis ; but, to avoid the confusion
  "■"'irs, i nit e preferred the designation of " Pitaya-Condaminea bark" to that of « Pitaya bark." 
664                  VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rtjbiace,e.
identical with that which I have described.  From 12 ounces of bark he obtained 17 grain* of
quinine, 80 grains of cinchonine, arid 18 grains of a peculiar alkaloid [quinidine?].
  If the observations of Mr. Howard and myself, as to the identity of Guibourt's brown Cartha-
gena bark and the Pitaya Condaminea bark, be correct, it  follows that this is the bark which
Pelletier and Caventou1  analyzed  under the name of quinquina Carthagene, and which they
found  to contain both quinine and  cinchonine, and to be perfectly analogous in composition to
red bark.  The resinoid matter  in it was very abundant.
  Chemical analysis proves that, in a medicinal point of view, the Pitaya-Condaminea bark is
one of the most valuable cinchona barks.  In New Granada it is in great repute;2 and experi-
ments  made  with it in Italy3 show  that its reputation is well deserved.


X.  CORTEX CINCHONA LANCIFOLIA—LANCE-LEAVED CINCHONA
                                          BARK.

  Synonymes.—Quina naranjada  vel  Q.  primitiva, Mutis; Quinquina orange, Htimb.;  Casca-
rilla naranjada de Santa Fe, Laubert; Quinquina Carthagene spongieux, Guibourt, 1820; Q. orangf.
de Mutis, Guibourt, 1850 ;  Quinquina rouge de Carthagene, Guibourt; China flava fibrosa, Goebel,4
1827—29 ; New Spurious  Yellow  Bark, Pereira, 1830 ; Cinchona auranliurcu de Simla Fe, Pereira,
1842;  Orange-coloured Cinchona  Bark; Coquet! a  [Caqueta /] Bark, English commerce; Bogota
Bark, Chinarinde von Bogota (China Bogotensis), Mettenheiiner,5 1852.
  In  English commerce, the  name of Carthagena bark is applied to this, as  well as  to the
bark of C. cordifolia, even when it is shipped from a port on the Pacific.  By way of distinction,
the former may be called  spongy or fibrous Carthagena bark, and the  latter hard Carthagena
bark.
  History.—This bark  was  distinctly noticed in 1793 by Mutis,6  who claims to be the dis-
coverer of the tree yielding it;  but the claim is contested  by Lopez Ruiz,  who asserts that he
discovered it at  Santa Fe in 1772.T  By Mutis and his followers the febrifuge qualities of this
bark have been  greatly lauded; by others, much depreciated.  "The effect of mercantile cun-
ning,'1  says M. Humboldt, "went so  far, that, at the  royal command, a quantity of the best orange-
coloured cinchona  bark, from New Granada, which  M. Mutis  had caused to  be peeled at the
expense of the king, was  burned, as a decidedly inefficacious remedy, at a time when  all the
Spanish field-hospitals were in the greatest want of  this valuable  product of South America.''8
In 1830, 1 met with it in English commerce under the name of New Spurious Yellow Bark.  It
was unsalable, and lying in a  warehouse at the London Docks.  I sent a specimen of it to M.
Guibourt, who identified it as  the bark which he had described as spongy Carthagena bark
(Quinquina  Carthagene spongieux), and which M. Humboldt had deposited in  the Museum
d'Histoire Naturelleof Paris, as Mutis's  Quina naranjada.
   Within the last  few years  it  has  been  again  introduced into  commerce by  M. Lopez, of
Bogota, as a  source of quinine, under the name of Coquette? (or Caqueta?)  bark;  and the high
price of Calisaya bark has induced manufacturers to employ Coquetta bark in the manufacture
of disulphate of quinine;  and in this way it has obtained, as is observed  by Mr. J.  E. Howard,10
"a certain reputation in commerce,and proves neither so good as was boasted on the one hand,
nor so bad as was  represented on the other, in the  celebrated controversy between the botanists
of Peru and of New Granada."
  Botany.—Tbis  bark is  the produce of C. lancifolia of Mutis (the C. condaminea var. t lanci-
folia of Weddell.)
   Commerce.—The lancifolia bark is chiefly brought  to  England  from New Granada, usually
by way of Bogota and Carthagena on the Atlantic  side.  Occasionally, a similar species of bark
is brought from Lima in  Peru.
   Description.—The lancifolia barks of commerce vary considerably in  appearance.  Those

  1 Journ. de  Pharm. t. vii. p. 101,  1821.                                                    ,  .
  a In  the Times newspaper for September 29, 1824, it is stated that a mule's load  of " Pitoya bark  had
been sent to the British Consul at Bogota, for transmission to Englnnd;  the Colombians considering it to
be equal, if not superior, to Peruvian bark.   But as no description of the bark is given, it is impossible to
determine what sort of bark is here referred to.   More recently, the government of Colombia sent to Kome,
as a present to Pope Gregory XVI.. some " Pitaya bark," which fetched a high price, and was said to be
preferred in Colombia to other species of cinchona barks for the treatment of fevers (Journ. de PhaTm- y
xxi. p. 513, 1835).  A specimen of this bark was sent to Paris, and was declared br  Guibourt (Bullet, at
VAcadimie Royale de Midecine,  t.  iv. p. 245, 1839—40) to be identical with his Colombia or Antioquia
bark.  The medicinal efficacy of Muratori's Pitaya bark has been proved  by Dr. Vallenzesca, of Venice.
  3 Vallenzesca, quoted by Muratori.                               ' Pharm. Waarenkunde, p. ou.
  s JahrbuchfUrprakt. Pharmacie, Bd. xxiv. p. 229, April 1852.                          i/„„,,7i
  « Papel Periodico de Santa Fe, Num. iii. Oct. 11, 1793, p. 465;  also,  Mercurio Peruana de w,"°""'
Literatura, y Noticias Publicas que da a luz la Sociedad Academica de  Amantes  de Lima, tomo xn.   •
211, Lima. 1795.                                                          ,   .  ,   ■ ....hridni
  1 Lambert's Illustr. pp. 28 and 83 ; also, Lopez Ruiz, Defensay Demostracton del verdadero deseuonuv
de las  Quina  del Reyno de Santa Fi, en Madrid, 1802.
  8 Humboldt, in Lambert's Illustr. p. 33.                              .               . ,  ld k.
  » The commercial name for it is Coquetta or Coqueta. It is probable, I think, that the wora snoui
Caqueta, one  of the names of the Yapura or Japura River, which rises in  the Andes of -New uranau .
  10 Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. xi. p. 562, lt52. 
Cinchona :—Lance-leaved Cinchona Bark.
665
obtiined from the younger  stems and branches would  scarcely be  identified, by a superficial
observer, with those procured from older stems.  But their leading and common characteristic
is an extremely  fibrous quality.1   They may be arranged in two divisions:—
  1. Barks of young stems and of branches, mostly quilled, coated usually with a brownish or
yellowish epidermis, often covered with whitish crustaceous  lichens, which give it a grayish or
silvery appearance, as well as  with  foliaceous and  fibrous lichens.   The quills vary  in  size,
from that of the little finger to an inch and a half in  diameter.   Some of them are smoothish,
others  rather rough  from  numerous  short  slight cracks  (longitudinal  and  transverse),  with
lli»htly everted  edges.  They are extremely fibrous, and moderately bitter.   Altogether, they
would  pass with many observers for gray barks.2   It is the very fibrous character of this bark
that must have  given  origin to  the name of towy bark (C. stupca ;  Quina estoposn).  Mr.  J. E.
Howard  considers this bark  to be identical with  Guibourt's King of Spain's  fibrous red  Loxa
cinchona (quinquina de  Loxa  rouge  fibreux  du Roi d Espagne),  and with Lambert's lizard-
coloured (lagartijada) bark, which is described as  being entirely ligneous.
  According to Mr. J. E. Howard, the bark which was  analyzed by Peretti,3 under the name
of Pitaya bark,  was a  coated  lancifolia bark in coarse quills.  His opinion  is founded on the
examination of  specimens shown to him  by M. Guibourt,4  who has described it as being identi-
cal with Pitaya-Condaminea bark (see p. 663.)
  Uncoated lancifolia quills are sometimes met with.   In  form  and  size  they  resemble coarse
cassia lignea.
  2. Barks of the  trunk or of-old stems composed of the  liber,  tbe  cellular  coat, and usually a
whitish or yellowish-white thin  micaceous suberous coat.  The larger pieces are semi-cylindrical,
or more or less channelled, 4 or 5 inches in diameter, $ of an inch thick, and vary in length from
1 or 2 to 21 inches.  The liber is extremely fibrous, very  slightly bitter, in some pieces almost
insipid, and of an orange or red colour.  The fracture of  the cellular coat is short, of  the liber
long-fibrous or stringy.  Many  of the pieces are marked  by one or more oblique grooves or de-
pressions apparently produced  by a  twining plant,  and  which are almost  peculiar  to this
bark.
  In general, this bark, as found in commerce, is trimmed;  that is, part of the outer coat has
been removed  by rasping.6  These trimmed pieces are somewhat  smooth externally,  covered
with bark dust, as if abraded from mutual  friction,  and present here and there  flat and  angular
marks, the  result of the  trimming  process, and  resembling those  seen on  trimmed  Russian
rhubarb.
  In regard to colour, there are two sorts of lancifolia bark, one  orange or yellow, the other red.
Orange lancifolia bark  is  the standard sort, and  to  which  the  name of Coquetta bark  is exclu-
rively applied.  It is Guibourt's quinquina orange de Mutis.  The red lancifolia bark is known in
oommerce as red Carthagena bark.   It is Guibourt's  quinquina rouge de Carthagene.   It is a  New
Granada hark, gathered from  a  tree growing  side by side with that which yields the  orange
lancifolia bark, and is employed by chemical manufacturers in the preparation of  quinidine.
The trees which respectively yield the§e two barks are  probably varieties of the same  species.
A red lancifolia bark  is imported from Peru, and  is of better  quality, for, though  not rich in
alkaloid, it  yields  quinine.
  Composition.—This  bark yields quinine,  quinidine, and cinchonine, but  in very  variable
proportions.  In some sorts (e. g. the red Carthagena sort) the quinidine greatly predominates ;
and hence  they are sometimes called " quinidine barks."
  Mr. J. F.. Howard suspects that Peretti s pilnyne is identical with  quinidine.
  The following are the results of some experiments on Coquetta bark:—
  Expt. 1.—7000 grains of bark yielded 158 grains of alkaloid, soluble in pure washed  ether,
and 44 grains of alkaloid, insoluble in ether but soluble in alcohol.   The 158 grains of  alkaloid,
when converted into disulphate  of quinine, yield 112 grains of  the crystallized salt.
  Expt. 2.—7000 grains of bark furnished 158 grains of alkaloid, which yielded  126 grains of
crystallized disulphate of quinine.
  Expt. 3.—7000 grains of bark gave 56 grains of alkaloid, which, converted  into disulphate
of quinine, yielded 36 grains of the crystallized salt.
  Mr.  Hindsley has kindly furnished me with bis results obtained by operating on  1 lb. avoird.
(7000 grains) of bark; they are embodied with the preceding  in the following table: —
  The bark contained in Pavon's collection in the British Museum, and marked " Quina estoposa de
Lorn," (Towy [or Fibrous] Cinchona of Loxa,)is probably a lancifolia bark (see Mr. J. E Howard's paper
IMhe Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. xi p. 558, 1852).
  In April. 1*58. some serons of a quilled lancifolia bark were exposed for sale at the London Docks,
U"M with serons of gray burks, from which they did not appear to be distinguished.
 t Journ de Pharmacie, t. xxi. p. 513, l!-:i.r>.
  Bulletin de. VAcadimie Royale de Midecine,  t.  iv. p. 245, 1839: and Hist. Nat. des Drog. 4me edit. t.
"I- P.141, IN>0.
 1 Ruiz, in his Quinologia (Germ, trans, p. 36), expresses his opinion that the stems and thick branches of
cinchona trees should be rasped, before peeling tbem, in order to get rid of  the epiderm. 
666
VEGETABLES.—Nat.  Ord. Rubiacejj.
                                            Disulphate of
                7000 grs. of Bark.               Quinine.        Quinidine.        Cinchtmint.
     Expt. 1. Coquetta bark..............112    ....  Undetermined. . .  . tndetermined.
       "   3.      "       ..............   36    ......      "   '.'.'...'.   '.
                  I Coquetta bark..........   78.1  ......     10.5  ......30 «
     Mr. Hindsley ) Lancifolia trimmed.......   32.2......     17.5......  21.5
                  ( Uncoated quill lancifolia. . .  .   57.4......     16.1  ......gg.'a

  Medicinal Propehties.—Chemical analysis shows that this bark varies considerably in its
strength ;  but in general it may be regarded as a moderately good bark.


XI. CORTEX  CINCHON2E DUR31 DE CARTHAGENA.—CARTHAGENA
                          HARD  CINCHONA  BARK.

  Synonymes.—Quinquina de  Carthagene jaune pale, Guibourt;  China flava dura; Harte gtlbt
China, Bergen ;  Quina amarilla [Bogotensium], Mutis ; Quina jaune, Humboldt; Cascarilla-Mula
vel Mula-Cascarilla, Peru v. and Boliv.;  Yellow Bark of Santa Fe ; Carthagena bark.
  Histohy.—This bark was first noticed by Mutis,1 under the name of quina amarilla, or yellow
bark of Bogota.
  In English commerce, the name of Carthagena  bark  is applied generally to the barks of C.
cordifolia and C. lancifolia.
  Botany.—Hard Carthagena  bark  is the produce of C. cordifolia var. a., vera, Weddell.  This
is proved by the evidence of both Guibourt and Bergen, the former of whom examined Hum-
boldt's  authentic  specimens of Mutis's  yellow bark ; and the latter, the specimens in Ruiz's
collection.
  Commerce.—This bark is  imported chiefly from  New Granada, but sometimes  from Peru
and Bolivia.  It usually comes over in drum-like serons of about 80 lbs. net, or in half-chests
of about 70 lbs.
  Deschtption.—Tt occurs  in fine,  middling,  and thick quills, and  in flat  pieces.   The quills
vary in diameter  from  three to eight lines, in thickness from half to one and a half  lines, in
length from five to nine,  rarely to fifteen inches.  The  flat  pieces  are  more or less twisted,
arched, or  warped (sometimes like pieces of dried horn) in drying, and are from a half to two
inches  broad, two to seven lines thick, and four to  eight, rarely to twelve inches, long.  Both
quilled and flat pieces  are met with  either coated or  uncoated.   The coated pieces  often bear
considerable resemblance  to Cusparia bark.   Weddell compares the appearance  of the derm of
the quilled pieces to that of the bark of the  same age of C. pubescens.  The periderm or coat,
which  is  usually  more or  less rubbed off, is thin, soft, somewhat corky, laminated, with irregu-
lar longitudinal furrows;  transverse cracks are very rare.  The epidermis is whitish, yellowish-
white, or ash-gray.  In the flat pieces, tbe periderm  is  sometimes rendered tuberculous by the
development of small cellular masses between the periderm and the cellular coat. The uncoated
pieces consist of the liber and  cellular coat.   On  their  external  surface we frequently observe
irregular, flexuous, longitudinal, but not  very  deep  furrows.    Here and  there we perceive
whitish or grayish spots arising from the persistence of shreds or  fragments of the periderm.
The internal surface varies from smoothish  to fibrous; often the fibres project obliquely, giving
the bark a scaly fibrous appearance.  The prevailing tint of the cortical layers is usually dull
ochre-yellow.  Externally, the uncoated pieces are reddish or brownish-yellow.  Internally, tbe
tint is brighter  and more or less orange-coloured in the  younger and fresh pieces;  in older
pieces it is more brownish.  The transverse  fracture  short, externally suberous, internally more
or less fibrous.  The longitudinal fracture (which is  with difficulty effected) is uneven, short,
and in some  pieces coarse-splintery.   The taste  is moderately bitter and astringent.   Tbe
powder is cinnamon-coloured.
  Some of tbe coarse  uncoated quills  are very smooth  to the touch, and might well bear the
name of velvet  bark, which Humboldt says is applied to  this  bark by the  common people in
New Granada.
  I  have received from Sir William Hooker two sorts  of hard Carthagena bark, differing but
slightly from each other, accompanied with a note signed by Jose Manuel Restrepo, and dated
Bogota, 13th of December, 1850.   They are described as being the produce of two varieties of
C. cordifolia:—
  " O. cordifolia, No. 1.—The fruit of this species is long, yellow, and abundant. It is found in theforeiti
under a h'gher temperature than C. lincifolia, and is more  luxuriant and thicker than the lattT.
  " C. cordifolia. No. 2.—The fruit is smaller than that of No. 1, and is black.  'Ihe fibres of the leaves
have but little red,  and rather incline to green.  Is this the (.'. ovata of Weddell-*         _      .   ,
  " In some foresti these  two kinds of bark produce no sulphate of quinine.  To what can this be owing.
Probably to the nature of the soil or the age of the tree ?"
   Cryptogamia —Very few cryptogamia are found on this bark.  The following are those men-
tioned by Bergen:—

    1 Papel Periodico de Santa Ft de Bogota [edited by Rodrigo Socorro], No. 89—128,1793—1794. 
CiNcnoNA:—Carthagena and Cinchona Bark.              667
  Lichenes.—Trypethelium variolosum;  Thelotrema bahianum ; Pyrenula poronoides; P. discolor;
Parmelia melanoleuca ; Usneafloiida i Cinchona.
  Compositiox.—This bark yields quinidine and cinchonine.  Weddell  says that in France it
has  been found to yield a very small proportion only of cinchonine, and scarcely any quinine.
Bat the reports of the German chemists are  very different.
  The following  are the quantities of  the  cinchona  alkaloids which  Von Santen  and  Goebel
and Kirst obtained:—
                  1 lb. of Bark.
          (1.  Quills and flat pieces (from Cadiz in 1814)
Von Santen J2  rqat pieces (from Cura.ao inJ806)  -  - .
                                                           Cinchonia.      Sulphate of Quina.
                                                          . 30 grs.......32 grs.
                                                          . 36 grs.......   5 grs.
              Goebel and Kirst found 56 grs. of Quina, and 43 grs. of pure Cinchonia.

  The bark analyzed under  the name of Carthagena cinchona, by Pelletier and Caventou,1 was
Carthagena brown cinchona2 (see Pitaya Condaminea bark, p.  663.)
  Gelatine occasions no precipitate in  the infusion  ; tincture of galls produces turbidness; ses-
quichloride of iron a green colour.
  Mkiucinal Properties.—These are greatly inferior to those of Calisaya bark, though, accord-
ing to Weddell, Mutis declares that "Ea  est species, qua? China? auctoritatem  perditam restituet,
etqua? a tempore ejus introductions, a. 1742, in medicina singulare pretium obtinuit."



  XIX CORTEX CINCHONiE  DE  MARACAIBO.—MARACA1EO BARK.

  In 1831, Mr.  Carpenter,3 of Philadelphia, published  some  observations on a new variety of
cinchona bark,  called  Maracaibo  bark.  In  1841, M. Guibourt met with, in commerce, large
quantities of Maracaibo cinchona (quinquina de Maracaibo).
  1 have found  in English commerce three barks under  the  name of "Maracaibo bark:" —
  1. A root-bark which was  given to me by Mr. J. E. Howard as "curly  Maracaibo bark," and
to which I have already referred (see New Granada Cinchona Root-bark, p. 649).  It  contains
cinchonine.
  2. A stem-bark consisting of short  broken twisted quills  and  flat  pieces, rarely more and
usually less than  three  inches long.   Some of the quills are entirely uncoated, and consist ex-
clusively of liber.   Other quills and flat pieces  are partially covered externally by a grayish-
white coat.  This variety contains very little alkaloid, and is closely allied in  appearance to the
bark of Cinchona cordifolia.   This probably is the sort referred to by Mr. Carpenter.
  3. A very coarse powder or  small fragments of the liber of a very bitter friable bark.
             TABLE OF COMMERCIAL CINCHONA BARKS,

WITH THE BOTANICAL SPECIES FKOM WHICH THEY ARE PRESUMED TO BE OBTAINED.
               Name.
1. Genuine Calisaya or Yellow Bark (Cin-
   chona flava [regia], Ph. Lond.)   .....

2. Josephian Calisaya  Bark (Ichu-Cascaril-
   la; Cascarilla del Pajonal, Boliv.....
3. llolivinn  Mulberry  Calisaya  (Cascarilla
   morada, Boliv.)  ..............

4. Cascarilla-Carabaya; Zamba morada, Pe-
   ruv......................
5. Cascarilla provinciana, Huanuc >;  C. mo-
    tosolo,  Carabaya;   Quepo-Cascarilla,
    Boliv....................
6. Cascarilla Colorado del Cuzco;  Casca-
   rilla de Santa-Ana, Peruv.........
". Peruvian Calisaya..............
B. Cascnrilla-Echenique, Peruv.; Cascarilla-
   Quepo, Boliv.................

9. Carabaya Bark................
If. Cuieo Bark [Carua-carua, Peruv.; Casca-
   rilla- or Quina-amarilla, Carab.)  .  . .  .
        Remarks.
Monopoly  bark  may  be
  taken as the type  ....

Sold as  Calisaya barks.
  Strictly speaking,  they
  are false Calisaya barks

Except No. 7, these  barks [
  are not distinguished by
  any special  names  in
  English commerce; but
  are usually known  as
  spurious or false.  Cali-
  saya barks.  In France,
  the designation of  Cali-
  saya  tiger   (light  or
  flimsy Calisaya) is given
  to some of them («. g. to
  Nos. 3. 5, and 6)  . .  .  . (
This is  not  to be   con-
  founded with No. 4 .  . .

This is not  to be
  founded  with  the
  Cusco bark, No. 6
con- )
 red >
Botanical Species.
Cinchona Calisaya var.
  a. vera, Weddell.
C. Calisaya var. Q. Jo-
  sephiana, Wedd.
C. Boliviana, Wedd.


C. ovata var. & rufi-
  nervis, Wedd.
C. micrantha, Wedd.
10.
C. scrobiculata var. at
 genuina, Wedd.
C. scrobiculata var. ,5
 Delondriana, Wedd.
C.  an ygdalifolia,
  Wedd.
tt vul-
C. ovata  var.
 garis, AVedd
C. pubescens var. et
 Pelletieriana, Wedd.
| Journ. de Pharm. vii. 101.
 Mlunnn's American Journal of Science and Arts, vol. xx. p.
 Q Guibourt, Hist, des Drog. ii.
,1631. 
668
VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord. Rubiaceje.
                     Table of  Commercial Cinchona Bares—continued.

                 Name.                            Remarks.
                                        { Occasionally   imported
11. Cascarilla morada, Ruiz; Cascarilla bobo I    with  No. 10, and  not
    de hojas moradas, Huanuco........)    distinguished by name
                                        I    from it.
Botanical Species.

C. pubescens var
 purpurea, Wedd,
12. Gray Bark; Huanuco or Lima Bark (Cin-
    chona cinerea, Ph Ed.):—
      u.  Fine Gray  Bark (Quinquina  rouge
          de Lima. Guib.)
      3.  Inferior or Coarse Gray Barkj
          quina de Lima gris brun,
ark (Quin-
i, Guib.)  . J
These two sorts of gray f jg,
  bark are not distinguish-
  ed in English commerce;
  they are usually import-
  ed  mixed together, but
  are sometimes  brought
  over^separately.....
C. nitida, Ruiz
  iind Puvon.
C.  micrantha.
  Wedd.
13. Huamalies Bark; Rusty Bark
14. Ash Bark (Quinquina de Loxa cendri A,
    Guib.;  Blasse Ten-China, Bergen) . .  .

15. Original or  True Crown Bark (Cinchona
    pallida [de Loxa], Ph. L.;  Cinchona co-
    rona, Ph. Ed.................
16. "White Crown Bark.............
Not to be confounded with
 ashy crown bark (No. 18;
17. H. O. Crown Bark
18. Ashy  Crown  Bark (Quinquina  de  Loxa
    cendri  B, Guib.; Dunkele Ten-China.
    Bergen)...................
19. "Wiry Loxa Bark   ..........
  13. C. Condaminea var. i
      Chahuarguera, De
      Cand. ?

  14. C. ovata  var. * vul-
      garis, Wedd.

f  15. C. Condaminea var. t
      vera, Wedd.
In commerce, these barks
  are called Loxa or Crown \  l'(
  Barks..........
J
20. Red Bark (Cinchona rubra, Ph. Lond.) .  .
21. Pitaya Condaminea Bark (Quinquina Pi-
     taya, Guib.)  ................

22. Fibrous  Carthagena  Bark   (Quinquina
     orangi de Mutis, Guib )..........

23. Hard  Carthagena Bark (Quina amarilla,
     Mutis)  ...................

24. Maracaibo Bark, No. 2...........
Not distinguished byname
  in English commerce .  .

The Coquetta or Bogota
  Bark is a variety of this
This  and  the  preceding
  bark are called Cartha-
  gena Bark  in English
  commerce........
22.
23.
25. Bolivian Cinchona Root Bark.......
26. New Granada Cinchona Root Bark; Curly
    Maracaibo Bark..............J
"| Both these root barks are
 v    in   short,  contorted
twisted pieces
C. Condaminea var. y
 lucumerfolia, Wedd.
C. glandulifera, Ruiz
 and Pavon ? ?
V. cordifolia var. 5
 rotundifolia, Wedd ?

C. hirsuta, Ruiz  and
 Pavon ?
C.-----?
C. Condaminea var. I
 Pitayensis, Wedd.

C. Condaminea var. i
 lancifolia. Wedd


C. cordifolia var. t
 vera, Wedd.

C. cordifolia ?

C. Calisaya var ft Jo-
 sephiana, Wedd.
V. -
s  f 25. C. Calisa
 <      sephian
.  { 26. C.-----
   The barks enumerated in the above  table, and which  have  been previously de-
scribed, yield very unequal quantities of the cinchona  alkaloids, and, therefore, in
a  medicinal point  of view,  are  of very  different  qualities.   The following are,
according to M. Guibourt, the most active barks:—

                   1. Calisaya bark.
                   2. Orange-yellow  [includes C. micrantha, see ante, p. 649].
                   3. Pitaya [Pitaya  Condaminea, see ante, p. 662].
                   4. Red genuine, verrucous [see ante, p. 662].
                   5. Red genuine, non-verrucous [see ante, p. 662].
                   6. Red Lima [Fine Gray, see ante, p. 655].
                   7. Gray Lima [Inferior Gray, see ante, p. 655].
                   8. Huamalies, white verrucous [see ante. p. 656].

   Composition.—In February, 1791, Fourcroy1 published an analysis of St. Luna
or St.  Domingo bark (a false cinchona bark, yielded  by Exortemma floribnnrfum),
which  was  long regarded as a model of vegetable analysis.  In 1802, Seguin2 con-
cluded that, as the active principle of cinchona was precipitated by an infusion of
nutgalls, it  must  be gelatine;  and  therefore  proposed and employed the use of
clarified glue as a febrifuge in intermittents !   In 1803,  Dr. Duncan, jun.* showed
that the active principle could not  be gelatine,  but must be a substance sui generis,
which  he  therefore termed cinchonia.   In  1806, Vauquelin* published some experi-
ments  on  seventeen kinds of cinchona.   In  1810, Gomes5  succeeded  in isolating
1  Ann. de Chim. viii. 113, and ix. 13.                3 Ann. de Chim. xcii. 121; and xci. 273 and 301.
*  Nicholson's Journal, vi.225.                     4 Ann. de Chim. lix. 113.          ..
1  Mem. da Acad. Real das Sciencias de Lisboa, iii. 201; and Ed. Med. and Surg. Journ. vn. <M>- 
Cinchona:—its Composition.                       669
cinchonia, and obtaining it in a crystalline form.  In 1820, Pelletier and Caventou1
announced the  existence of two cinchona alkaloids—cinchonia and quinia—in cin-
chona bark.  In 1829, Pelletier and Coriol3 discovered a third cinchona alkaloid—
aricina—in a new sort of  cinchona bark, which they termed Arica bark (the bark
of Cinchona pubescens var. a. Pelh'ticriana,  Weddell).  In  the  same year (1829),
Serturner3  gave the name of  quinoidine (chinoidine)  to another supposed  peculiar
alkaloid contained  in yellow and red  barks;  the existence of which, however, was
denied by Henry fils and  Delondre.4   In  1833,5 the last-mentioned  chemists  an-
nounced a  new cinchona alkaloid, called quinidine, which they obtained  from yellow
bark, and which was doubtless contained in Serturner's quinoidine;  but, finding its
composition to be  identical with quinia, they subsequently6  stated that their sup-
posed new  alkaloid, quinidine, was nothing else than hydrate of quinine.  In 1846,
Liebig7 declared that a considerable portion of the resinous-looking body called qui-
noidine, which  the  makers of sulphate of quinine obtain from their mother waters,
was amorphous quinine, and bore the same relation to ordinary quinine  that barley-
sugar does  to sugar-candy.  In 1849, a Dutch chemist, Van Heijningen,8 submitted
quinoidine to a careful examination, and found in it quinidine, or, as he termed it,
0 quinine; and the year following (1850) he obtained from it another  alkaloid,
which he called y quinine.9
  The organic  constituents of the cinchona barks, as determined by Pelletier and
Caventou, and  subsequently by other chemists, are quina, cinchonia, aricina, qui-
nidinc, kinic, tannic,  and kinovic  acids, cinchona  red, yellow  colouring matter,
green fatty matter,  starch, gum, and lignin.
  Puttfarcken10 found that, by incineration,  the cinchona  barks yielded from 0.58
(yellow or  Calisaya bark)  to  3.4 (ash cinchona) per  cent,  of ashes, the chief con-
stituent of which  was carbonate of lime.   Some barks (e. g. Calisaya and Huanuco)
yielded ashes of  a  green  colour, owing  to the  presence of manganate of potash.
Puttfarcken's results favour the opinion that with the increase of the alkaloids in
the  barks, the proportion of lime diminishes.
  1. Volatile Oil of Cinchona Bark  (Odorous, Jlromatic, or Balsamic Principle.)—This was
procured first by  Fabbroni," afterwards by Trommsdorff.18  It was  obtained by submitting bark
with water to distillation.  The distilled water had the peculiar odour of the bark, and a  bit-
terish acrid taste.  The oil which floated on the water was thick and butyraceous, and had  the
peculiar odour of the  bark, and an acrid taste.  From 20 lbs. of bark, Trommsdorff  obtained
two  grains of oil.  Zenneck13 says the cinchona odour is imitated  by a solution of turmeric in
potash, as well as by chloride of iron.
  2. Cijtcho-tanmc Acid (Tannic Acid; Astringent Principle; Soluble Red Colouring matter).—
Cincho tannic acid differs from the tannic acid of nutgalls in being  less astringent, in yielding a
Kreen colour or  precipitate with  the salts of the sesquioxide of iron, and in the remarkable
facility with which its solution absorbs the oxygen of the air, especially under the influence of
alkalies. Farthermore, the compounds which it forms with acids are more soluble than those of
the nutgall tannic acid.  According to Schwarz,14 the formula of the hydrate of cincho-tannic
acid  is C«H807-f 2HO=CI1H809.   The products of the oxidation of this acid are, according to
the same  authority, 1 eq. of cinchona red, C12H707, 2 eq. of carbonic acid, 2CO,2 and 1 eq. of
water, HO.  So that it must absorb 3 eq. of oxygen.
  3.  Cinchona Red (Bed Cinchonic; Insoluble Red Colouring Matter).—Berzelius'5 and Schwartz
re^rd  this substance as a product of the oxidation  of cincho tannic acid.   It  is an inodorous,
insipid, reddish-brown substance, insoluble or nearly so in cold water, somewhat more soluble
m hot water, but  readily soluble in alcohol and alkalies.   As obtained by  Schwartz, it also  dis-
solved easily in ether.  Acids favour its solution  in water.  Its alkaline solution is  intensely
fed.  Dried at 212°, Schwartz found it to consist of C12 H707.
  In the previous edition of  this work, I expressed  an opinion that red cinchonic resembled in
most of its properties catechuic acid (catechine) which is found in abundance in another genus

 | Journ. de Pharm. t. vii. p. 49, 1821.              * Ibid. t. xv. p. 565, 1829.
 , 'I'*-l- *vi. p. 44, 1S30.                        « ibid. t. xvi. p. L44,1830.
 , IM t. xix. p. 623, 1K1.-1.                       s Ibid. t. xx. p. 157, 1834.
 t Lancet, p. 585, .M.-iy 23, 1M0 ; Ann. d. chim. u. Pharm. Bd. Iviii. S. 348, 1t-4G.
i. '''aJm,teiutital Journal, vol. ix. p. 322, 1850.      s Ibid. vol. xi. p. 521, 1852.
n u   ■• Vul; *'• p  12"-  185K                      " Berl. J^hrb. ^07.
m Hiii-lmtr'a lie,,,  rt. lid. xviii. S. 223, lc>l.          » Pharm. Central-Blatt fur 1832,  S. 23G.
  fharmaceutxcal Journal, vol. xii. p. 17, 1652.      '» Traiti de Chimie, t. v. p. 5s5, 1831. 
670
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Rubiace^:.
of cinchonaceous plants (see Uncaria Gambir).  Pelouze  and Fremy1  assert that  "the  tannin
contained in  cinchona is nothing  else than catechuic acid, and red cinchonic is a product of its
oxidation which  precedes the formation of rubinic acid."
  4. Kinic Acid (Cinchonic or Quinic Acid).  C7H404,2HO.—Exists in cinchona barks in com-
bination probably with  the  cinchona alkaloids and with lime.  It crystallizes from its aqueous
solution in prisms with  rhombic bases.   Its presence may be most readily detected by convert-
ing it  into kinone (Cl2H404).   This  is  done  by submitting  the substance supposed to contain
kinic acid to distillation with  peroxide of manganese and  sulphuric acid;  the kinone  di.<tila
over.  It is  a  yellow crystallizable substance, soluble in  water, and having  a  pungent  odour,
If its watery solution be treated with ammonia, it  absorbs  oxygen from the air, and  becomes
first brown,  and finally black,  owing probably to  the  formation of melanic acid (C"H4044-
20=C12H406).  If chlorine water be added  to  another portion of the solution of kinone, the
liquid  assumes a bright green  colour.  Dr. Stenhouse2 has proposed to detect  the presence of
kinic acid in cinchona bark  by converting it  into kinone.
  5. Kinovic  Acid  (Kinova Bitter; Chiococeic Acid).   Cl2H809.—Has been  found in  Calisaya
bark, as well as  in the false cinchona bark called  quinquina nova.   It exists  in  the latter bark
most probably  in combination  with lime.3   It is a white amorphous substance, almost insoluble
in water, but readily soluble in alcohol and ether.  A solution  of the  kinovate of ma^ne^ia
yields  precipitates (kinovates) with solutions of acetate of lead, bichloride of  mercury, and the
salts of cinchonia.   Kinovic acid is devoid of febrifuge power.4
  6. Cinchona Alkaloids.—Three alkaloids obtained from genuine cinchona barks have been
used  in medicine;  viz. Quina, Cinchonia, and Quinidinu.  Aricina, another but  imperfectly
known cinchona alkaloid, has  not hitherto been applied to medicinal purposes.
  The cinchona  alkaloids exist in cinchona  bark in combination with one or more acids; pro-
bably with kinic and.  tannic acids;  according to Henry  fils and  Plisson,5 with kinic acid and
cinchona red.  They reside chiefly in the  liber.
  Cinchonia, quina, and aricina, were regarded by Pelletier as being respectively the monoxide,
binoxode, and  teroxide  of an  hypothetical  nitrogenous  base,  which  he  called quinogen, and
whose formula is C20H12N.
  The following are the formulae and equivalents for those cinchona alkaloids which have
been best studied:—
    Cinchona Alkaloids.     Formula..
Quinidina...........C3SII

Quina.............| C20Hiai\CH
                           SC38H'22N'iOQ
                           C °H'QNO
          Equivalents.
NT3Oa.....216  .  .
         .  . . 300  .  .
162
2.il
Authority.
 Leero.
 I/iiurent.
 Liebig.
 Laurent.
154   .....Liebig.
TABLE, SHOWING THE PERCENTAGE  AMOUNT OF ALKALOIDS OBTAINED FROM THE OFFICINAL BaEKS
                               of the British Pharmacopoeias.
          100 Parts of Bark.

Calisaya :—
  Average produce (see p. 64S)......
  Uncoated thick flat pieces........
  Best sort..................
  Var. Q Josephiana.....'.......
Red Bark :—
  Best sort..................
  Large broad flat pieces..........
  Dark heavy flat-coated pieces......
  Pale thin flat pieces  ...........
Loxa or Crown :—
  Fine old Loxa quills, in bundles  ....
  Finest Crown...............
  H. O. Crown, fine sample, 1850.....
     Ditto       ditto     1851.....

  Ashy Crown, from Lima.........
  Ashy Crown, mixed with Ashy Crown
   from Lima................

Gray or Huandco :—
  tine gray.................
  Inferior or coarse gray..........
  Strong middling-sized  quills.......
Quina.
2.2 to 2.6
2.14
3.8
3 29

2.65

0.104-
0.078

0.714
0.52
Quinidina
0.514
0.571
0.243
0.142
0.2a
 1.51

 2.34
 1.04

 0.04
 0.42
 0.06
 0.08

 0.914
' 0.285
1.4
125
2.5
 Total
Alkaloid.
Autlv/rity.
4.16
3.85
1.268
0.94
0.63
1.13

1.414
0.685
2.H3
1.773
1  Cours de Chimie Ginerale. t. iii. p. 171,1650.
3  Memoirs of the Chemical Society of London, vol. ii. p. 226, 1E.45.
3  Hlasiwetz. Chemical Gazette, vol. ix. p. 441, Dec. 1, 1851.
'  Weil, Buchner's Repertor. 2te Reihe, Bd. iii. S. 396, 1835.
5  Journal de Pharmacie, t. xiii. pp. 259 and 369, lsJ7.
Pelletier and
Soubeiran.
Winckler.
Riegel.
Riegel.

Riegel.
Riegel.
Winckler.
Winckler.

J. E. Howard.
Riegel.
J. K. Howard,
J. E. Howard,

J. E. Howard.
J E.Howard.
 
Cinchona :—its Composition.
671
                                       1.  Quina.

  Quina;  Quinininum;  Chininum;  Quinine.   Formula  C3SH22N204  (Laurent).1   Eq.  370.
      •+■
Symb Qn-—Discovered in 1820, by Pelletier and Caventou.  It is a probable constituent of all
genuine cinchona barks, but especially of the genuine yellow bark (Cinchona  Calisaya), from
which it is chiefly obtained.  It is also procured  by chemical  manufacturers from the cheaper
but inferior cinchona barks of Carabaya, Bolivia, and New Granada.
  The simplest, readiest, and cheapest  mode of procuring quina is by adding ammonia to a
jolution of the sulphate of quina and collecting and drying the precipitated quina.
  As usually procured, quina is in the form of a whitish, porous mass.   Pelletier crystallized
it by dissolving it in alcohol of sp. gr. 0.815, and setting the solution aside to evaporate sponta-
neously in a dry place.  Liebig  obtained  it from a somewhat ammoniacal  watery solution, in
ihe form of fine silky needles.   Quina crystallized from its aqueous solution is a hydrate, and
has for its formula Qn, 6HO=C38H22N204,6HO.
  Quina is inodorous, very bitter, and fusible at about 300° F.   The fused mass, when cold, is
yellow, translucent, friable, and somewhat like  resin in appearance.  One part of quina requires
about 400 parts of cold water, or 250 parts of boiling water, or 2 parts of boiling alcohol and
60 parts of cold ether, to  dissolve it.  The aqueous and  alcoholic solutions  react  as  an alkali.
Dissolved in either alcohol  or acidulated water, quina possesses the  property of left handed
rotatory polarization.  At a temperature  above 72° F. this rotatory power decreases.
  When quina  is distilled with  excess of potash, an oily  liquid base, called quinoline or cincho-
line, C'8H7N, is  obtained.  Some other organic  bases, as cinchonia, and  strychnia, also yield,
when  distilled with potash, the same product.   Dr. Stenhouse2 has proposed to detect the pres-
ence of an alkaloid in bark by this test.
  Quina and its salts may be readily detected by the following test: if the alkaloid or its salt
be diluted with  water, and chlorine water be then added, the alkaloid is  dissolved  without pro-
ducingany remarkable effect.  But if ammonia be now added, the liquid acquires a grass-green
colour.3  By this colour quina  may be distinguished from cinchona and quinidina.   If a sub-
itance suspected to contain quina be powdered, then shaken with ether, and afterwards succes-
sively treated with chlorine and  ammonia, the liquid will assume a green colour if the slightest
trace of quina be present.
  The salts of quina are of two  classes, one  termed neutral, the other acid;  the former  contain
one,the latter, two, equivalents of  acid to each equivalent of base.4 They are for the most part
readily crystallizable, very bitter, and of a pearly aspect.   The  less soluble salts are the  oxalate,
the tartrate, the tannate, and fcrrocyanate.  The  soluble  salts  are more  bitter  than the corre-
sponding salts of cinchonia. They yield precipitates on the addition of tannic  acid (or tincture of
Dutgalls), ammonia, bichloride of mercury, and bichloride of platinum.   Hyposulphite of soda
causes a  white crystalline  precipitate (hyposulphite of quina) when  added to a solution of hy-
drochlorate of quina.  According  to Winckler,5 neither  amorphous quina nor  amorphous cin-
chonia, when saturated with hydrochloric acid, yield  any precipitate with the  hyposulphite of
soda.
The follow in	gis	the	composition of quina:—			Pelletier
		Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent.		Laurent.	Liebig.	and Dumas.
Hydrogen Nitrogen			38 .... 228 .... 73.54 . 22 ... . 22 ... . 7.09 . 2 . . . . 2S . . . . 9.03 . . 4 . . . . 32 ... . 10.33 .	. . 73.54 . . . 7.07 .	. . 74.40 . . . 7.61 . . . 8.11 . . . 9.88 .	. . . 75 02 . . . 6.66 . . . 8.45 . . . 10.43
Anhydrous	Quina.		1 .... 310 .... 99.99 . .	. . 100.00 .	. . 100.00 .	. . . 100.56
  Amorphous Quina.—A supposed uncrystallizable form of quina contained  in the mother-
liquors from which sulphate of quina has crystallized, and which is  usually found in the sub-
stance called quinoidine.  Liebig6 considers that it bears the same relation to crystallizable quina
that bnrley-sugar does to sugar-candy; and  Winckler7 states  that  ordinary quina  may be ren-
dered amorphous by the action of acids.  He farther informs us that  the amorphous cinchona
   Ann.de Chim. etde I'hys. 3d Ser. t. xix. pp.359—377, 1847.  Llebig^s formula is CWNO1: equiv. 162.
 ^ Memoirs of the Chemical Society, vol. ii. p. 227, ls45.
   Mt-eson (by mistake printed Roper), in the Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xi. pp. 320 and 362; also in the Phil.
Nag. Kel). 1KJ.J;  Andre, Journ. de Pharm. xxii. 127, 1»36.  The green product of the action of chlorine
»nd ammonia on quina has heen called hy Brandes and Leher (Pharm. Central-Blatt fiir 1838, p. 875), dal-
•WocAin, Cl,H|0.\O' (more, properly thalleiochin. from S-iAAer.)  They also mention two other products
Of decomposition ; one  termed inelanotkin, and the other rusiochin.
   If Liebig's formula for quinu be udopted, the ahove two classes of salts would be called respectively
"*»« and neutral, although ihe Intter possess an acrid reaction.  The duplication of the equivalent for
quina, as suggested hy  Regnault, necessarily alters the nomenclature of the sails.
  Chemical Gazette, vol. vi. p. 122. IMS.                                              • Lancet.
  Chemical Gazette, vol. vi. p. 121, lb48. 
672
VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord. Rubiace*:.
alkaloids (quina and cinchonia) may be distinguished  and separated from  the crystalline a'  i-
loids by hyposulphite of soda, which precipitates the latter, from their muriatic solution, in the
form of crystalline hyposulphites, but occasions  no precipitate with corresponding solutions of
the amorphous alkaloids.
   Some'doubts, however, still  exist  as to tbe real  nature of the so-called amorphous quina
Roder1 declares  that  it is merely ordinary quina combined with a resin;  while Van Heiinin-
gen2 resolved the so-called quinoidine  into ordinary quina, cinchonia, quinidina,  and a resinous
substance.
   Dilute solutions of quina (especially an  acidulated  aqueous solution of the commercial sul-
phate) exhibit in certain aspects a peculiar celestial blue colour.  This property has been de-
nominated, by Professor Stokes,3 fluorescency.   Sir John Herschel4 considered  it  to be a case of
superficial, ox, as  he  termed  it,  epipolic (from Itmro'hh, a surface) dispersion.   Sir D.Brewster'
however, showed that the effect was not confined to the surface, but extended  to a considera-
ble depth  into the body of the liquid, and he, therefore, regarded it as a particular case of inter-
nal dispersion.   More  recently, Professor Stokes has  shown reason for concluding that  in this
process of true internal dispersion the  chemical or  invisible  rays of the spectrum, which are
more  refrangible  than the violet rays, change their  refrangibility,  thereby  becoming  visible
and produce the blue superficial light in question.6 .
   1.  QuiNiE  Sulphas (Quina Disulphas, Ph.  Lond.).   See post.                    +
   2.  Quixje  Bisulphas.   Formerly  called  Neutral  Sulphate  of Quina.  Formula7 (Qn, HO)
2S03,+ 16HO=(C38H22N204,HO),'S03= 16HO.   Eq. weight  543.—This salt  is readily  formed
by adding sulphuric acid to the  sulphate.   It  is sometimes produced  in the manufacture of the
latter salt, and remains, on account of its greater solubility, in the mother liquor, with the sul-
phate of cinchonia.   It crystallizes in rectangular prisms or silky needles, reddens litmus, and
dissolves in  about 11  parts of water at  ordinary temperatures, and  also in spirits of wine,
When heated, it melts in its water of crystallization, and at 212° loses, according to both Baup
and Liebig, 24.6 per cent, of water.   It is distinguished from the ordinary sulphate by its acid
reaction and its greater solubility in water.   Its solution is fluorescent, and possesses the property
of left-handed rotatory polarization.   With sulphate of the sesquioxide of iron it forms a double
salt, which crystallizes  in octohedra resembling those of alum.


                                      2.  Cinchonia.

   Cinchonine; Cinchonina; Cinchoninum.   Formula C^H^N2©2, Laurent.8   Equiv. 294.  Sym.
bol Ci.—Its presence was inferred in  1803 by Dr.  Duncan, Jun.;  but Gomes first succeeded in
obtaining  it in  1810.  It  is a probable constituent of all  genuine Cinchona barks, but  is met
with most abundantly in Cusco  and  Gray barks.   It is obtained from the sulphate of cinchonia
in the same way that quina is procured from its sulphate.
   Cinchonia readily crystallizes  from its alcoholic solution.  The crystals are anhydrous, colour-
less, inodorous, and bitter, though  less  so than  quina.  Their shape is  that of a four-sided
prism,  with oblique  terminal  facets.  It  fuses, but with more difficulty than  quina, and, by
the cautious application of heat, it is  volatilized, and yields a  crystalline sublimate.  During its
sublimation, it evolves  an  aromatic odour  (by which, according  to Liebig, it is distinguished
from quina).   Heated with potash, it yields cinchonine.
   It is  less soluble in water, alcohol, and ether, than quina.  Thus, cold water scarcely dissolves
any of  it, and boiling water takes up only ^jiyth part of its weight.  It  is somewhat soluble
in spirit of wine, and  the  more so   in proportion as the spirit  is stronger and its temperature
higher.  According to Duflos, strong spirit of wine dissolves only 3  per cent, of its weight of
cinchonia.   In ether it  is insoluble, and by this property it is both distinguished and separated
from  quina.   Cinchonia, dissolved either  in alcohol  or in acidulated water, possesses tbe pro-
perty of right banded rotatory  polarization,  and is  thereby  distinguished from quina, whose
rotation is  left-handed.
   Cinchonia or its salts dissolves in chlorine water without undergoing any obvious change. In
this  respect it agrees with quina or quinidina.  But  if ammonia be added  to  the solution, a
white precipitate  is  produced.   By  this  latter  character  cinchonia is distinguished from both
quina and quinidina.

  1 Pharmaceutical Journal,  vol. viii. p. 295, 1848.                      a Ibid. vol. ix. p. 322, 1h50.
  3 Philosophical  Transactions for  1852.                                * Ibid, for 1*15.
  » Edinburgh  Transactions, vol. xvi. part ii. 1846;  also Lond. Edinb. and Dubl. Philosoph. Mag. lot
June, 1818.                                                                             .  ,
  6 For an abstract on the views of Herschel, Brewster, and Stokes,  see the Fharmaccutital Journal,voi.
xii. p. 245. 1852.                                                                       ,   ,,„
  1 Regna'ult (Conrs Elimint. de Chimie, 2me edit. 4me part, p. 720, 1850), gives  the following  lorrouia
for this salt: iCMHMN-04,HO), 2S03-4-8HO). This would give onlyl5 per cent, for the water of crystalli-
zation.  It is probable, therefore, that the "8HO" is a misprint for " 16HO.:'
  s Ann. der Chemie u  Pharm. Bd. lxii.  p. 99,  1&47.—Liebig's formula for it is CwHnNO, and its corre-
sponding equivalent 154. 
                          Cinchona :—its Composition.                         673

  Of the salts of cinchonia those which are interesting  in  a medicinal point of view are the
 two sulphates.                                                                        +
  ]  Ciscwjni.h Stlphab; Sulphate of Cinchonia;  Cinchonia Disulphas.   Formula  (Ci HO)
 Sf/.-'H0=(C3'H2-'J\2O2HO),SO3+2HO.   Eq. weight 361.   The sulphate  of cinchonia of'com-
 merce is  usually obtained from the mother waters  from which sulphate  of quina  has crystal-
 lized.  The crystals of this salt are  short, oblique prisms, terminated by dihedral summits.  Its
 B&te is bitter.  When heated  it becomes phosphorescent; at 212° it fuses;  at 248° F. it loses
 its water of crystallization.  At ordinary temperatures it is soluble in 6£ parts of alcohol of sp.
 p. 0 s'1, and in Hi parts of absolute alcohol.  It requires 54 parts of cold water to dissolve it.
 Its solution possesses the property of right-handed  rotatory polarization ; and is not fluorescent.
 By these properties it is distinguished  from the sulphates of quina and quinidine.  In ether it
 is insoluble.
  2. Cinchokijb Bisulphas ;  Bisulphate of Cinchonia.  Formerly called the Neutral Sulphate of
 Cmhonia  Formula (Ci,HO),2S03,+ 8HO=(C38H22N202,HO),2S03,+ 8HO.  Eq. Weight  455.
 —Obtained by dissolving the sulphate in water  acidulated with sulphuric, acid, and  evaporat-
 ing  the solution so that crystals may form.   These are rhomboidal octohedra, which, in dry air,
 become opaque and  efflorescent.  When heated, they lose  their water of crystallization.  At
 ordinary temperatures 100 parts of this salt dissolve  in 46 parts of water,  in 90  parts of spirit-
 wine, sp. gr. 0.85, or in 100  parts of absolute alcohol.  It  is  insoluble in ether.   The optical
 properties of  a solution of this salt resemble those of a solution of the neutral  sulphate of
 cinchonia.


                                    3. Quinidina.

  Quinidin or Quinidine; Chinidin ; 0 Quinine ; Cincholin.  Formula C^H^N2©2. (Leers)  Eq.
 Weight 282;  C2°H,2N02  Van Heijningen, Hlasiwetz.  Symbol Qdn.—In 1833,  Henry  and
 Delondre1 discovered  this alkaloid, to  which  they gave the name of quinidine;  but, in the fol-
 lowing year,2  they declared it to be identical with quina. It is probable, however, that  Bucholz3
 in 1822, and Thiel4 in 1823, had actually obtained it,  though  in an impure  form.   In 184 8,  Van
 Heijningen6 recognized it as a  peculiar base which possessed the same composition  as quinine.
 He, therefore, called  it jS quinine to distinguish it from  ordinary quinine,  which he  termed a
 jitiiiiMf.   His  statement as to its composition was confirmed  in 1850 by Hlasiwetz,6 who called
 it the alkaloid cinchotin.   Winckler,7 in 1848, gave a description  of it and  of some of  its salts;
 and, in livVJ,  Leers8 published  a very elaborate account of its salts.
  It is found in many, perhaps in most,of the  genuine Cinchona barks; especially in lancifolia,
 xata, cordifolia, and amygdalifolia barks.9   It  is  obtained  from  them by  the same process as
 that by which quina is  procured from the  quina-yielding barks; but its sulphate  being more
 Bluble than sulphate of  quina,  is left in the mother waters.   In order to obtain the alkaloid
 pure it is to  be  repeatedly crystallized  from  its alcoholic solution to deprive it of a  greenish
 yellow resinous substance, and  then shaken with  ether, to  remove any adherent  quina, until
 ibe ethereal liquor no  longer indicates  the presence of quina by  yielding a green colour on the
 addition first of chlorine water, and  afterwards of ammonia.
  Quinidina readily crystallizes by the  spontaneous evaporation of its  solution  in alcohol.  The
 crystals are anhydrous, colourless, hard prisms, with a vitreous lustre.   Their taste is bitter, but
 Im  so than that of quina.   When heated in a platinum  crucible over the flame of the  spirit-
 lamp they at first retain their  shape and lustre, and  then fuse, without either decomposing or
 gi'ing out water, at 347° F , and form  a clear wine yellow liquid, which,  by cooling, congeals
 inio  a whitish-gray crystalline mass.  If  the heat be raised  above 347°, the liquor takes  fire
 and  burns with a very sooty flame, and  evolves an odour of quinole and of oil of bitter almonds.
 One part of quinidina is soluble in 2580  parts of water at 62^°  F., or in 1858 parts of boiling
 *aier, or in 12 parts of alcohol, sp. gr.  0 835 at 62£°  F. (in boiling spirit it is freely soluble) or
 in about 142 parts of ether at 02^° F.  From both its alcoholic and ethereal solutions it readily
 tf/atallizes.
  A solution of quinidina in acidulated water agrees  with one of quina, both in  possessing the
 property of left-handed polarization,  and in being fluorescent.   These properties distinguish it
 from a solution of cinchonia.
  u  the solution of quinidina be treated first with chlorine water and then with ammonia, it

  J Journ. de Pharm. t. xix. p. 623, 1833.                     ' Ibid. t. xx. p. 157, 1S34.
  TriimmsdorfTs Journ. der  Phwm. Bd. vi. p. 94, 1822.
  ' Gear's Magazin der Pharm. 1. Jahrg. Bd. ii. p. 79, 1623.
  (tJKirmaccutical Journal, vol. ix. p. 322, lf5().            s chemical Gazette, vol. ix. p. 90, 1851.
  fkarmactuiical Journal, vol. vii. p. 527. IMS.  Some other  notices of quinidine bv Winckler will be
 Tdi"1 """ sl""e >' ur,ml> vo1- 'V- p. !'>-, 1?45, and the  Chemical Gazette, vol. vi. p. lol. lsls.
 trkarmacrutical Journal, vol. xii. 1852.
  njnekler oliiiiiiu-d it from a bark which he says somewhat resembled Huamalies bark.  This probablv
*U Carabaya bark.                                                                          '
      VOL.  II.--43 
674
VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord. Rtjbiaceje.
does not become green like a solution of quina.   It either yields a white precipitate like a solu-
tion of cinchonia, or, when a considerable excess of chlorine has been used, remains apparently
unchanged.
  The salts  of quinidina  are, for the  most  part, more  soluble  in water  than those of quina.
They readily dissolve in spirit of wine, but  scarcely at all in ether.  Like those of quina and
cinchona the salts  of  quinidina are of two kinds, the one neutral, the other acid salts.

  1. Quiniihnje  Sulphas; Sulphate of Quinidine.  Formula Qdn,SO4H,+ 6aq.= (C36HMXJ0-'),
S04H,+ 6aq.1   Eq. Weight 403.—This salt crystallizes in  long, silky, shining, acicular crystals,
which dissolve in 130 parts of  water at 62£° F., or in 16  parts of boiling water.  It is readily
soluble in two parts of rectified spirit; but it is  almost  insoluble in ether.  Zimmer2 states that
in dry warm air it parts with its water of crystallization without delinquency or losing its crys-
talline aspect. Its  aqueous solution agrees with a solution of  sulphate of quina, in being fluore-
scent,  and in  possessing the property of left-handed  rotatory polarization.
  In appearance, this salt closely resembles sulphate of quina.   Winckler,3 indeed, says it is
undistinguishable  from the latter salt;  but Zimmer states that it differs from the latt-r in having
a greater sp. gravity and less flocculent crystallization.   It appears to  me  also to have a  more
vitreous  lustre.  It differs also in  its  much greater solubility both  in water and in  rectified
spirit.   Moreover, if  its solution be successively treated with chlorine-water and ammonia, it
does not yield a green colour as a  solution of sulphate of quina.4   Farthermore, if a solution
of  sulphate of quinidina be  decomposed by  ammonia, the precipitated alkaloid (quinidina)
may be readily distinguished from  quina by its more  difficult  solubility in ether (see Quina
Sulphas).
   From sulphate  of cinchonia, the sulphate of  quinidina is readily distinguished by the appear-
ance of its  crystals,  by the difference of its solubility  in  water,  in  alcohol,  and in  ether, and
by  its  solution being fluorescent and  possessing the property of left handed rotatory polari-
zation.                                                                                   +
   2. QuurxniNX Bistjlphas ; Bisulphate of Quinidine ; Acid Sulphate of Quinidine.  Formula  Qdn,
2(S04H),12aq.  Eq. Weight 488.   Obtained by adding sulphuric acid to the neutral salt.  It
consists of an asbestuslike mass of fine acicular crystals. By  drying at 212° they lose 19 per
cent, of water (Winckler).


 Comparative Table of some distinguishing Properties of  Quina. Quinidina, and Cinchonia.
Quina.
The anhydrous alkaloid is


Taste............
Optical properties ( Fluoresceney
 of a solution  of \ Rotatory  po-
 .1. « .. 1 lrn I .-.</!        1 q r i -r-A H nr
Amorphous (the hy-
  drate  crystallizes
  with difficulty).
Very bitter.....
the alkaloid .
larization .
Solubility
  of 1 part
Cold water.....
Boiling water  .  .  .

Cold rectified spirit
          rectified
of alka- j Boiling
Ioid in .    spirit .
        \ Cold ether
A solution of tbe alkaloid (e. g
 of the sulphate in water)treat
 ed first with  chlorine-wate
 then with ammonia......J
\\
Solubility
  of 1 part
  of  the
  sulphate •
  of  the
  alkaloid
Cold water.....
Boiling water  . . .
Cold rectified spirit

Boiling  rectified )
  spirit  ......)
Cold ether.....
Fluorescent

Left-handed
In 400 parts.....   In 2.5*0 parts
In 250 parts.....   In lS5s parts
Quinidina.
Crystalline (crystal-
  lizes from the alco-
  holic solution).
Bitter (less intensely
  so than quina).
Cinchonia.
Fluorescent?

Left-handed.
In 2 parts of boiling
 spirit;  the solution
 does not deposit any
 thing when cold.
In 60 parts.
Becomes  emerald-
  green.
In 12 parts of cold
  spirit; the alkaloid
  is much more solu-
  ble in boiling spirit.
Remains unchanged,
  or yields a white
  precipitate.
In 740 parts.....   In 130 parts .  .
In 30 parts.....   In 10 parts.
In 60 parts .....   Easily soluble
[Much more soluble
 than in cold spirit.]
Slightly soluble  .  .
Very easily soluble.

Almost insoluble .  .
Crystalline (readily
crystallizes from the
alcoholic solutionl.
Bitterish, unpleasant
 (somewhat analo-
 gous to sulphate of
 magnesia).
Not fluorescent.

Right-handed.

Almost insoluble.
In 2500 parts.
In 33 parts.
Insoluble.
Becomes pinkish,and
 yields a white pre-
 cipitate.

In 54 parts.

In 6i p.rts [in \\\
  parts of anhydrous
  alcohol.]

Insoluble.
  ' Van Heiinin^en's formula, as corrected by the editors of the Ann. der Chemie (Bd  lxxii. p. 3M),"
2rCJ0H"N(V») SO'II, + 6aq.  This would indicate 12.6 per cent, of water;  the quantity oblainefl  oy _»
Heijningen being 12 s4 per cent.  But Winckler (Pharm. Journ. vol. vii p. 531), Ni.dl7.5IW Pe'c™^
water in the crystallized salt, and 5.777?  per cent, in the efflorescent salt.  The formula in '^""J'jL,
sents 17.86 per cent, of water.  The formula for the salt dried at 212? is, according to Leers (O  a. n

^'pharmaceutical Journal, vol. xi. p. 394, 1852.                         'Ibid. ^^jJ^'J^ici
  « Commercial sulphate of quinidina usually contains sulphate of quina, and in consequence i » ■
becomes green when successively treated with chlorine-water and ammonia. 
Cinchona :—Chemical Characteristics.
675
                                   4. Aricina.

  In 1S29,1 Pelletier and Coriol obtained from  Arica  bark (see ante, p. 652), an alkaloid to
which they gave the name of Aricine.  They describe  it as being crystalline, and resembling
in appearance cinchonia, from  which it was distinguished by not being volatilizable;  by its
jolubilityin ether; by its sulphate not crystallizing  from its aqueous solution, but forming a tremu-
lous jelly,2 which by desiccation acquired a horny appearance ; by the alkaloid acquiring a green
rolour by the action of nitric acid ;  and lastly, by its weaker saturating power. In 1833, Pelletier3
Itated that the gelatinizing property of the sulphate only belonged to the neutral solution,  for he
found that when there was an excess of acid the  sulphate crystallized in flattened needles; and
he farther observed that  aricine  contained one atom  more oxygen  than  quina, its  formula
being C»H18N03.
  These statements have not been  confirmed  by subsequent observers.   Guibourt4 declares
that the bark yielded him cinchonia and not aricine;  and from his statement (already quoted at
p. 654), it would appear  that  Pelletier himself subsequently doubted  the  peculiar nature of
aricine.  Winckler5 asserts that the green colouration by nitric acid depends on the presence
of a minute portion of resin ; but he admits the existence of a cinchona alkaloid, distinct from
both quina  and cinchonia, and which he calls cusconin; and  declares  it to be identical with
Manzini's cinchovatin or  cinchovine.6   Since the discovery of quinidine, however, the whole
subject requires re-examination.
  Paricink— This  name (derived from Para and aricine) has been given,  by Winckler,7 to a
supposed distinct cinchona alkaloid obtained from Para bark.  It closely resembles aricine  but
differs from it by its greater solubility in ether, its uncrystallizability, and its greater equivalent
weight.   Nitric acid causes a precipitate in a solution of the sulphate of paricine.  In this and
some other properties  paracine  resembles bibirina (see ante, p. 409).   Winckler8 at first con-
sidered  it to be  identical  with Manzini's cinchovatine  or cinchovine,9 but he  subsequently dis-
covered bis error.
   Chemical Characteristics.—The   chief constituents of  the  cinchona barks
for which tests or reagents  are applied,  are the cinchona  alkaloids, and principally
fjuina.   But as  the  therapeutical value of the  barks depends, in  part,  on  their
astringency, tests are also employed to detect  the  cincho-tannic  acid.   " There
exists a law in Sweden,"  says  Berzelius,10 " in virtue of which every cinchona bark
imported into the country is   tested  by the  infusion of  galls, the persulphate  of
iron, a solution of gelatine,  and  emetic  tartar;  and  it is proved, by an experience
of more than sixteen years, that the most efficacious bark is that which precipitates
the most strongly a solution of  gelatine and  emetic tartar;  in other  words, that
which contains  the  most tannin."   Moreover, as the bitterness of cinchona barks
is not in all, if indeed it  is   in any cases exclusively dependent on  the alkaloids
but usually depends  in part (in some of the false cinchona barks it depends exclu-
sively) on the presence  of kinovic acid, Winckler11 recommends the  testing  of barks
to determine the amount of  this acid which they contain.   Lastly, the detection  of
kinic acid  has been proposed  by Dr. Stenhouse13 as a means  of discriminating the
true cinchona barks from the  false ones.
  1.  Tests for the Cinchona Alkaloids.—The tests for the cinchona alkaloids which
deserve especial notice are the  following  :—
  1. Tannic acid is a very delicate  test of the cinchona alkaloids, which it  precipitates from
il'i'ir solutions in the  form of lannates.  On  this  depends the value of infusion or tincture of
Mlgalls, employed as a test of  the goodness of bark by Vauquelin,13 by Bdrzelius," and by 0.
Henry"  Winckler regards this as  the only  test applicable for tbe discovery of the cinchona
alkaloids.
  2. Chloride of platinum.—Duflos's quinometrical  method16 is founded on the property of the

 J Journ. de Pharmacie, t. xv. p. 565, 1829.
Uin Hferk°nn (Bucnner's Hepertorium, Bd. xxxii. S. 478, 1829; and Bd. xxxiii. S. 353, 1830),  also ob-
m h....'!"  mCI! Imrk a Blll,stnnee whose sulphate possessed a gelatinizing property ; but he declares it
"mw neither alkaline nor crystallizahle.
  Journ. il, Pnarmacie, t. xix. p. 101, 18.3.   * Hist. Nat. des Drogues, 4me edit. t. iii. p. 160, 1850
 t Huehner's llrptrlorium, 2ter Reihe. Bd. xxv. p. 298, 1324.
 • ff!i'o!er ih!16' HcL XKxi- p 'U'K  MS-                   ' Ibid- 2ter Re'he, Bd  xlii. p. 29, 1846
 " tJ.:V  Lelhe' Bd- x,i> P- 14r'- 1>4(i-                    " Chemical Gazette,  vol. i. p.  15, 1812
 , ,]""<* •ie (him. v. 567, Paris, lt-31.                                             '    '
 (| Jnltrbuchfur prakti-rhe Pharmacie, Bd. xxv. S. 129, 1852.
 u •'""<>»■» of the Chemical  Society, vol. ii. p. 226, 1845.     " Ann. de Ghimi*. lix. 113.
 - Pi,  '''fliimie. t. v. p.587, Paris, 1831.                >» Journ. de Pharm. xx. 129, 1834
  rkarm Cmtral-Blattfur 1831, S  537.                                          ' 
676
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Rubiace^:.
cinchona  alkaloids to form with [neutral] chloride of platinum double salts (platinum-chloniK
of the alkaloids), which are  insoluble  in  alcohol, and very difficultly soluble  in  cold water
One grain of these salts dried in the air contains about half a grain of the alkaloids.
   3. Production of Cincholine.—Dr. Stenhouse1 has proposed to detect the cinchona  alkaloids in
a bark by the following process: "Macerate  the bark with  dilute sulphuric acid, and precipitate
with  a  slight excess of carbonate of soda  or potash.   Collect  the  dark coloured, very impure
precipitate, and distil it with a great excess of caustic soda or potash;  cincbolin will distil over
in oily drops if the bark has contained either of these vegetable alkaloids.  Cincbolin is easily
recognizable by its peculiar taste and  smell, and  its strongly marked alkaline  properties.  It is
nearly insoluble in water,unless first neutralized by an acid, when it readily dissolves; but it ia
immediately precipitated in  oily drops on the addition of an alkali."   This test  only indicates
that the bark contains at least one alkaloid, the nature of which must be determined by other
means; for other alkaloids (as strychnia) yield cincholin when distilled with potash.
   Oxalate of Ammonia and Sulphide of Soda  (see ante, p. 646), have  been used as tests of the
alkaloid value  of bark.  They detect  not the alkaloids, but  lime; and it  has been assumed
(erroneously, as I believe) that  in proportion to the quantity of lime in bark so is that of the
alkaloids.  But Puttfarcken's results,  before  referred to (see ante, p. 669), lead to an opposite
conclusion.
   2. Tests for Tannic Acid.—These are three in number:—
   1. A  solution of gelatine, which occasions in infusion of cinchona a whitish precipitate (cincho
tannate of gelatine).
   2. A solution of a sesquiferruginous salt (as persulphate of iron or sesquichloride of iron), which
produces  a green colour or precipitate (cinchotannate of the sesquioxide of iron).
   Winckler2 says that the precipitates caused by sesquichloride of iron and  isinglass solution
are those  formed by the oxidized tannin ; and he adds that the quantity of non-oxidized tannin,
contained in the fluid, obtained by filtration from the separated magma, may be determined
by iodic acid, which oxidizes the tannin, and causes the separation of a yellowish-brown pulve-
rulent precipitate, with the evolution of the odour of iodine.   The amount of the two precipi-
tates enables us to determine the proportion of the oxidized and pure  cinchotannic acid.
   3. A  solution of emetic tartar, which causes a  dirty white  precipitate (tannate of leroxidtof
antimony).
   3.  Tests for Kinovic Acid.—The  best test for this acid is sulphate of  copper.
   In  an infusion of a  cinchona bark devoid of kinovic acid sulphate of copper produces no
appreciable effect; but  when this acid is present,  a dark green colour is immediately produced,
and very  shortly  a precipitate of kinovate of copper falls down, which, when  collected and
washed in a filter, has a bitter  metallic taste.   The amount of the precipitate is in proportion to
the quantity of kinovic acid present.
   4. Tests for Kinic Acid.—The  readiest   method of  detecting  this  acid is that
described  by Dr. Stenhouse, and which consists in converting  it  into kinone (see
Kinic Acid).
   Winckler3 detects kinic acid by digesting the bark (previously exhausted by rectified spirit)in
cold distilled water.  Filter the  infusion, and concentrate  by evaporation.  Then mix it with
binoxide of manganese and moderately  strong sulphuric acid, and submit the  mixture to distil-
lation.  The slightest quantity  of kinic acid may be detected  by the production of kinine.  The
presence of this  may be  recognized by its odour; or, if this  be doubtful, by the dark colour
which the distilled liquor assumes on  the addition of a few drops of a solution of ammonia.
   Differential Diagnosis.—The differential diagnosis of  the cinchona barks is
effected  by a consideration  of the  external or  physical  characters of the bark, by
microscopical examinations, and by chemical means.
   The external  or  physical characters of the  more important  of  the genuine cin-
chona  barks  of commerce  have   been  already  described.   Their  examination may
be greatly aided  by  coloured plates,4 but chiefly by comparison with well-authenti-
cated specimens.5
   The microscopical examination of the barks  is calculated  to be more useful in
  1 Memoirs of the Chemical Society of London, vol. ii.p. 227, 1845.
  » Jahrbuchfur praktische Pharmacie, Bd. xxv. S. 129, 1852.          » Ibid. Bd. xxv. S. 136,1KB.
  • Coloured plates of the cinchona barks have been published by Bergen (Versuch einer Monographui
China, 1826;, by Goebel (Pharm. Waarenkunde, 1827—29), and by Weddell (Hist. Naturelle des QuinqvttUU
1S49).
  5 An excellent collection, partly formed by myself, and  including the specimens exhibited by Mew"
Howards and Kent at the Great Exhibition in 3851. is contained in the museum of the Pharmaceutical ^
ciety, in Bloomsbury Square, London.—Pavon's  collection of Peruvian harks, in the British Museum- '
the largest original collection in  England. It has been ably described by Mr. J. E. Howard (Pharm'
ceutical Journal, vols. xi. and xii. Ie52). 
      Cinchona:—Quantitative Determination of its Alkaloids.    677

eomparing and distinguishing cinchona barks than is usually supposed (see ante, pp
640, 641, G4o, 651, and 654;  Figs. 327—348).
  The chemical  diagnosis of  the  genuine  and  false cinchona  barks  has  been
attempted hy E. F. Anthon.1   His  most important results are  embodied in  the
following table:—

   Differential Chemical Diagnosis or true and false Cinchona Bark, according to
                                  E. F.Anthon.
Nil', turbid-
 ness and pre-
 cipitute.
KI, within J of
  an hour tur-
  bidness.
Fe^A8, within five
  or  six  minutes
  turbidness  and
  precipitate.
Fe'U3,  green  co-
 lour without tur-
 bidness.
(" FeO,SO»after5hours
    turbidness and pre-
i    cipitate.
  FeO,SO3 green colour,
I    without turbidness.

(  FeO,SO' after a few
    minutes' turbidness
    and precipitate.
  FeO,SO'green colour,
    without turbidness.
1. Loxa.
2. Huanuco.
3. Rubiginosa.
4. Rubra.
f  FeO,SO', after 4 f BaO.NO5 immediately   5. Cusco.
Kl, after i of
  an hour no ■<
  change.


             i
 hours green co
 lour without tur-
 bidness.

FeO,SO3, after 4
  hours  turbid-
  ness and pre-
  cipitate.
  turbidness and pre-
  cipitate.
BaO,NOs no change.

NaO.SO3 after  a few
  minutes' turbidness.
NaO,S03 no change.    8. Flava fibrosa.
6. Regia.

7. Huamalies.
NH', brown-
ness without
turbidness;
or no change.
f SO1, immedi-
   ately turbid-
   ness and pre-
   cipitate.
SO',no change <
f Kl,  immediately
   turbidness and
   precipitate.
e"  f
i-
KI, for  the  first
  hour no change.

CuO,SOa,  imme-
  Uiately  turbid- j
  ness  and   pre-  ]
  cipitate.        I


CuO,S03, no
  change.
NaO.SO3 after J of an
  hour turbidness and
  precipitate.
NaO,SO'no change.

Gelatine, turbidness.
Gelatine, no change.

StCl,yellow flocculent 13.
  precipitate.
StCl. pale red floccu- 14.
  lent precipitate.
9. Brasiliensis.
10. California.
11.
12.
Nova.
St. Lucia.
Bicolorata.

Cariboea.
BaO.NO5  turbidness  15. Flava dura.
  and precipitate.
BaO,NOs no change.   16. Pseudo Loxa.
  The infusion of bark used in these experiments was prepared by pouring 4 parts of boiling
 distilled water over one part of bark  cut  in very small pieces.   After  12  hours digestion the
 liquid was filtered and  the tests immediately applied.  If the infusion  be kept for some time
 before it is tested discordant results may be obtained.
  Tlie following were the tests employed :—
  IVH3. Pure liquor ammonia?, sp. gr. 0.990.
  ki One part of  iodide of potassium dissolved in 6 parts of water.
  SO*. Pure diluted sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1.090.
  r l .One part of pure sublimed chloride of iron dissolved in 8 parts of water.
  FeO^O8, One part of newly  made sulphate of the protoxide of iron dissolved in 6 parts of
    water.
  CuO.SO8. One part of pure sulphate of copper dissolved in 12 parts of  water.
  BaU.XlJ*. A  saturated aqueous solution of  nitrate of baryta.
  XaO.SIO3. One part of pure sulphate of soda dissolved in 6 parts of water.
  bdatinc. One part of gelatine (weisser Leim)  dissolved in 12 parts of water.
  ktCI  One part of newly made muriate of  the protoxide of tin dissolved in 8 parts of water.

  Quantitative Determination of the Cinchona Alkaloids.  Quinometry.
—\anous alkaloimetrical  processes, applicable to the  cinchona barks, have  been
recommended.   ^hey are essentially  of two kinds;  some consist in the use  of cer-
tain reagents or tests already described, others  are  processes for the  extraction of
 ,  a»c»doids, which are obtained either in the  free state or as salts (usually as sul-
phates).                                                               v

  luz Kdnilmrgh Pharmacopeia  gives  the following directions  for  ascertaining
W good quality of yellow bark :—

  A filtered decoction of 100 grains in two fluidounces of distilled  wator gives, with a fluid-
1 Buchner's Repertorium, 2te Reihe, Bd. iv. p. 43, 1835; and Bd. vi. p. 29, 1836. 
678
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rubiace.-e.
ounce of concentrated  solution of carbonate of soda, a precipitate, which, when heated  in tho
fluid, becomes a fused mass, weighing when cold 2 grains or more, and easily soluble in solu-
tion of oxalic acid."   In  this process, the native salts of the alkaloids extracted by the boiling
water are decomposed by carbonate of soda.  By heat (he alkaloids fuse.
   This process, however, is quite insufficient for  the purposes of commerce.
   In commerce, the value of  a  cinchona bark mainly depends on tbe quantity of
crystallizable sulphate of quina which it is capable of yielding;  and it is not  there-
fore, sufficient  to determine the amount of  quina  which it yields, because the whole
of this may not be convertible into crystallizable sulphate.
   Some  manufacturers subject  their  barks  to  the operation,  hereafter to be de-
scribed,  for  the manufacture of the crystallized  sulphate of quina.   The quantity
operated on should never be less  than a pound of bark;  and even  then the product
is always  smaller (to the extent of at least from | to }) than can  be obtained in
operations  on a large scale,  where the loss is proportionately smaller.
   Wdhler's cinchona bark  test1 is  thus applied: Take half an ounce of the powdered bark, a
sufficient quantity of water, and a scruple of hydrochloric acid.   Boil, filter the decoction, and
wash the  residue with water.   Evaporate the decoction to dryness, redissolve the extract in
water acidulated with a few drops of hydrochloric acid; the cinchona red remains  undissolved.
Precipitate the alkaloids from the solution by ammonia, and collect, dry, and  weigh the preci-
pitate.   The alkaloids are separated from each other by ether, which dissolves quina and qui-
nidina, but leaves the cinchona.
  Buchners  cinchona  bark test2 is thus employed:  Take one ounce of cinchona bark in powder,
twelve ounces of water, and dilute sulphuric acid half a scruple.  Boil for half an hour.   Wash
the residual  powder  with  four ounces of hot water.   Filter the decoction and immediately add
to it ammonia or carbonate of soda.  Wash the precipitate with  a little  cold water, press it
between folds of blotting-paper, dry it in a  water-bath,  and then weigh it.  The whole  opera-
tion may be performed within one and a half or two hours.   (The alkaloids comprising the
precipitate may be separated from each other by ether.)
  The following is Rabourdin's cinchona bark test3 as applied for yellow bark: Take five drachms
of bark powdered and passed through a fine horsehair sieve ; exhaust it with  water acidulated
with hydrochloric acid (2  parts by  weight of acid  to 100 parts of water)  in  a displacement
apparatus.  The percolation of the liquid is to be  stopped when  it passes through colourless
and insipid.  We thus obtain about five or six ounces of liquid, to which about  a drachm and a
half of caustic potash and two and  a half drachms of chloroform are to  be added. Agitate
them for  a  short time, and then set  them aside.   A whitish,  very dense deposit,  composed of
quina, cinchonia, and chloroform, is formed.  Someiimes  the  separation is  completely effected
in an instant, leaving a red transparent supernatant liquid which may be immediately decanted,
and  the chloroformic solution washed, collected in a small capsule, and allowed to evaporate
spontaneously, leaving the alkaloids in a  pure state.
   Winckler's cinchona bark test is as follows:  Exhaust the  powdered bark by rectified spirit, sp.
gr. 0.840.  Decolorize the tincture by a mixture of  equal  parts of slacked lime  and animal
charcoal, and then distil  off the greater part of the  spirit in a water-bath.  The residue con-
tains the  alkaloids in combination with  kinovic acid (when this acid  is a constituent  of the
bark), and a peculiar fatty matter.  Frequently, there is  also present a small  quantity of oxi-
dized tannin, which  is mechanically mixed with the other ingredients.   To  purify  the alkaloids
dissolve them in water  acidulated with sulphuric acid, and filter  the solution; by this  means
we get  rid of the kinovic acid and fatty matter.   Add to tbe filtered liquor a slight excess of
ammonia, and evaporate  the mixture to dryness;  and then extract the sulphate of  ammonia by
means of a  little cold water.   The residual  alkaloids are afterwards to be dried and weiylied;
as any farther purification of them is attended with too great a loss to be practised.  The quina
and cinchonia are to be separated  from each other by means of ether.
   The separation  of the cinchona-alkaloids from each other is usually  effected by
means  of ether, which dissolves quina and  quinidina, but leaves cinchona.   Quini-
dina is separated from quina by its crystallization from its ethereal solution;  quina
not being crystallizable.
   Pelletier and Caventou4 separated quina and cinchonia  by means of  boiling alcohol;  as the
solution cools the cinchonia crystallizes, leaving  the quina in  solution.  Winckler1 employed
rectified- spirit to separate quinidina from quina ;  the former alkaloid crystallizes from the alco-
holic solution.
1 Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. xi. p. 164, 1851.           a Ibid.
3 Journ. de Pharmacie et de Chemie, 3sne ser. t. xix. p. 11, 1851; and Pharmaceutical Journal,
.470, 1851.
* Journ. de Pharmacie, t. vii. p. 305.                    « Chemical Gazette, vol. vi. p. 164, 
Cinchona :—Quantitative Determination op its Alkaloids.
679
  The different solubilities of the sulphates of the  three alkaloids in water may also be em-
ployed to separate them ;  the sulphate of quina is the first to deposit as the solution  cools,
leaving the sulphate of cinchona in solution. Sulphate of quinidina has an intermediate solubility.
TABLE showing ins Quantity op Alkaloids obtained from Cinchona Barks, according
                           to recent Authorities.
		i	.2	j ±		
100 parts of Bark.	a	;=	a	:•§ ! 2		Observations.
						
			O			
	w	^		«	<	
Calisaya or Yellow Bark.						
	38.0	[+] [+] [+]	[+] [+] [+]	?	Riegel. Riegel.	According to Pelouze, 1000
	25.0			?		parts of Calisaya bark yield from 30 to 40 parts of sul-
	32.9			?	Riegel.	
						phate of quina.
						An ounce of commercial sul-
						phate of quina is obtained
						from \} lbs. to 2£ lbs.
						avoird. of bark.
Carabaya Bark.						
Commercial (see ante, p. 652).	+	+	+	30 to 40	J. E. Howard.	Used in the fabrication of sulphate of quina.
Red Bark.						
	26 5	[+] [+]	15 1	41.6	Riegel. Riegel.	According to Pelouze, 1000 parts of bright red bark yield from 15 to 16 parts
	[+]		[+J	3S.5		
						
						of sulphate of quina, and
						from 8 to 9 parts of sul-
						phate of cinchonia. The
						produce of the paler sort
						is less.
Loxa Bakk.						
Oripiaal old sort in bundles .	7 14	5.14	0.4(1	12.68	J. E. Howard.	According to Pelouze, 1000 parts of gray Loxa bark
	0	5.7	0.6	6.3	J. E. Howard.	
H.O. Crown, 1~51......	0	10.5	08	11 3 J.E. Howard.		yield from 10 to 12 parts
	5	0	9.14	14.14	J. E. Howard.	of sulphate of cinchonia.
Ashy Crown mixed with corky						
	4 52	0	2.85 4.2	6.85 9.4	.I.E. Howard. Riegel.	
The so-called finest crown . •						
Geay or Huanuco Bark.						
Fine gray (Cinchona nitida?)	5.71	1.42	14.0	21.13	J. E. Howard.	Fine gray and inferior gray are frequently imported in-
Inferior or coarse array (6*in-						
	2.43	2.80	12.5	17.73	J. E. Howard.	termixed. Pelouze states
Heavy niediutn quills .....			24.0		Riegel.	that 1000 parts of gray
			18.7		Riegel.	Lima bark yield 11 to 12 parts of sulphate of cin-chonia.
Ash-Bark.						
Fist pieces...........	0 0	12 6.1	16 8.6	28 14.7	J. E. Howard J.E Howard.	
Mean-looking specimen ....						
Huamalies or Rusty Bark.						
White-coated sort.......	0	2.57	7.4	9.97	J. E. Howard.	It is tolerably obvious that
Thick quills and arched flat						very different barks have
pieces.	3		8.6	11.16	Winckler.	been included under the
Fine and medium quills and						designation of Huamalies
flat pieces......			14.6		Riegel.	bark.
Thick warty quills and flat						
			9.3		Riegel.	
Pitaya-Condaminea Bark.						
	+	+	+		J. E. Howard.	Used in the fabrication of
Quiuquina Pitaya.......		+	23		(iuibourt.	sulphate of quina. 1000 parts, according to Gui-bourt, yield 11.52 of sul-phate of quina.
Carthagena Barks.						
o Hard sort (C. cordifolia). China flava dura........						The fibrous Carthagena or
	10.4		13.5	239	Riegel.	Coquetta bark is used by
i Vilirmii gort (C. lancifolia).						sulphate of quina manu- 1
	10.4		10.4	20.8	Riegel.	facturers, but the produce
l'in|urtia hark.........	+	1.5 2.5	4.4 35		Hindsley. Hindsley.	is exceedingly variable. From the three samples
Trimmed lancifolia bark . . . Uncoated quill.......						
	+	2.3	12.6		Hindsley.	analyzed by Mr. Hindsley, he obtained respectively
						
						10.3,4.6, and 8.2 parts of
						sulphite of quina from 1000
						parts of bark. An ounce
						of sulphate of quina is ob-
						tained from 4 to 6 lbs. of j
.__						bark.
 
680
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rubiace*:.
  Physiological Effects.—Before I proceed to describe the effects of cinchona
barks it appears to me desirable to notice the separate effects of those principles on
whose combined operation  the activity of the bark depends.


              I. Effects  of the Active Principles of Cinchona Bark.

  The essential or tonic and antiperiodic  or  specific effects of the bark reside in
the cinchona alkaloids;  but  these  are aided  by some of the  other constituents.
The astringent and aromatic qualities  of the bark reside in other principles.
  1.  Effects of Cincho-fannic Arid.—Like other varieties of tannic acid, this  acid
possesses astringent qualities, and promotes the tonic operation of the alkaloids. It
is  remarkable, in  a  chemical  point of view, for the  facility with which it  suffers
oxidation; and  it  is  probable, therefore, that  in its passage through the system it
more  readily undergoes oxidation than most other  forms of tannic  acid (see ante
P-  325l'
  2.  Effects of Kinomc And.—As  this is a bitter principle, it might be expected
to  possess tonic and  possibly febrifuge properties.   Dr. Weil,1 however, declares
that it is not a febrifuge; for it failed to relieve a  case of tertian fever, which was
afterwards  readily cured by sulphate of quina.  This is all that  is known of its
physiological and  therapeutical powers.
  3.  Effects of Kinic Arid.—Nothing positive  is  known of the  effects of kinic
acid or the kinates.    Kinate of lime, which Deschamps erroneously fancied to be
the active  principle of cinchona bark, is probably inert.   It has neither bitterness
nor stypticity.
   4.  Effects of Cinchona-red  or Red  Cinchonia.—May perhaps slightly contribute
to the astringent and  tonic effects of the barks.
   5.  Effects of the Volatile Oil and Resin.—The aromatic flavour depends on these
principles.
   6.  Effects of the Cinchona Alkaloids.—Quina, cinchonia, and quinidina are the
only alkaloids with whose  operation we are acquainted.
   I.  Effects of Quina-  op  On  Vegetables.—According  to Goeppert, the leaves of
plants plunged in a  solution of sulphate of quina  (gr. ss of the salt to  sss of
water) presented evidences of contraction in six or eight hours.3
   |3.  On Animals generally.—x\s soon as  Pelletier had discovered  the alkaloids in
bark, he sent some of them to Magendie for trial, who ascertained that neither in
tbe pure  nor saline  state  were they poisonous;  and  he  found  that ten  grains
of  tbe sulphate or acetate of these  bases might be injected into  the veins of a
dog without any ill effect.3   Hartl4 found  that three grains of quina applied to a
wound in a rabbit occasioned no ill effects.
   Later observations, however, have  shown  that  in certain doses sulphate  of qui-
nine  proves fatal  to animals.   Melier5 found  that  it occasioned stupor, staggering,
or sudden falling down,  dilatations of the  pupil, coma, convulsions, and in all  cases
increased  frequency  of  pulse.   The  post-mortem  appearances were congestion of
the lungs and deficient coagulability  of the blood.
   y.   On Man.—In small doses  quina occasions an intensely bitter taste, promotes
the appetite, and assists digestion.   It possesses in  a pre-eminent degree the  proper-
ties of a pure or  simple bitter (see vol. i.  p. 244).
   In large doses  (as  ten to twenty or  more grains), disulphate of quina has pro-
duced three classes of effects :—
   1.  Gastro-enteritk irritation, marked by pain and heat in tbe gastric region, nausea,  sripings,
and purging.  Occasionally, ptyalism has  been observed.  Constipation sometimes follows its
use.
  1 Buchner's Repertorium. 2te Reihe, Bd iii. p. 396, 1835.  a De Candolle. Phys. V£g. 1349.
  * Journ. de Pharm vii. 1:38.                         « Wirk. d. Arzneim. u. Gifte, Bd. n ^  I*»-
  ' Exper et obs. sur les propriitis toxiques du sulfate de quinine (Mem  de VAcad. Royale de Mid. t. x.
p. 722,1»43). 
Cinchona:—Physiological Effects.                  681
 2. Excitement of the vascular system, manifested by increased frequency and  fulness of pulse
and augmented  respiration.  Furred tongue, and other symptoms of a febrile  state, are also
observed.
 3. Disorder of the cerebro-spinal functions, indicated by headache, giddiness, contracted, in some
ca«t>9 dilated, pupils, disorder of the external senses, agitation, difficulty of performing various
voluntary acts (as  writing), somnolency, in some cases delirium, in others  stupor.
  A remarkable case is  mentioned by Trousseau and Pidoux.1  A  soldier took
forty-eight grains  of sulphate of quina  for  the cure  of  an asthma [spasmodic],
which returned daily at a certain hour.   Four  hours after taking it he experienced
buzzing in the ears, diminished sensibility, giddiness, and violent vomitings.   Seven
hours after taking  the quina he was blind  and  deaf, delirious, incapable of walking
on  account of the giddiness, and vomited  bile copiously.   In  fact, he was in a state
of  intoxication.   These effects subsided in the  course of  the night.
  On  man, as in the lower animals, sulphate  of  quina has  produced  fatal  effects.
Recamicr,3 at the Hotel Dieu, prescribed for a  patient affected with acute rheuma-
tism three grammes  [=46 grs.  Troy] of the sulphate in twelve powders, one to be
taken  every  hour.   The  next  day  the  quantity  was increased  to five  grammes
[=77 grs. Troy] similarly divided, to be taken every  hour as before.   When the
patient had taken three and a half grammes [=53 grs.  Troy]  he was suddenly seized
with violent agitation, followed  by furious delirium and death in  a few  hours.
   Dangerous consequences have  been reported  by other writers.3   But  in  many
cases no ill effects have  resulted from  the use of large  doses.   Thus, Bally has
given  110 grains daily without  any inconvenience.   From  these and  other cases
sulphate of quina  has been  denominated  a narcotic.   In some instances  it  has
appeared to act as a  stimulant, in others  as a sedative.*
   I have already (see ante, p. 263) mentioned Piorry's observation  that quina di-
minishes the volume of the spleen, and in  this way cures  ague.
  Sulphate of quina, when taken  into  the  stomach,  becomes absorbed  into  the
blood, and is eliminated by the  urine, the sweat, and the milk.5  Merat even states
that after  the use of it  he  has observed in his own person  that the expectorated
mucus smells of cinchona !
   II. Effects of Quinidina.—But few observations have hitherto been  made on the
effects of  this alkaloid.   From  the similarity of its chemical properties to those of
quina it has been inferred, and, as I believe, correctly, that  it resembles the latter
alkaloid  in its medicinal qualities.   Bauduiu"  declares it  to  be as effective a febri-
fuge as quina.   I  have for some  months past used  at the  London Hospital the
sulphate of quinidina as  a substitute for sulphate of quina, and have found it equally
serviceable both as a tonic and  febrifuge.   Several cases of  ague  in the  Hospital
have got entirely well under its use.  I  have administered it in varying doses not
exceeding tengrains.
   III. Effects of Cinchonia.—If we take into  consideration  the similarity of
chemical properties of cinchonia and quiua, we  are led to suspect  analogy of physio-
logical effects.   When  they were in the first  instance submitted  to examination,
cinchona and its salts were thought, principally on the evidence of  Chomel, to be
much inferior  in activity to quina and  its salts.  But  the subsequent  observations
of Dufour, Petroz, Pottier, Bally,  Nieuwenhuiss, Mariani,  Bleynie,  and  others,
uave appeared to  prove  that the sulphates of these  alkaloids may be  substituted
liir each other.7  Nay, Bally gives the preference to the sulphate of cinchonia, on
toe ground that it is  less irritating than the sulphate of quina.   That  cinchonia is
^ active as quina might have been  anticipated, a priori, when we  recollect that
those barks in which cinchonia  is the predominant principle, were the first which
were celebrated as  therapeutic agents.

 '  JhMttd'?j!jrap- ''■ 217,                 " Bouchnnliit. Annuaire de  Thirap. pour 1843, p. 170.
 'lini  P   r,  .d  173-                    4 Duntrlison, New Remedies, 6th edit. p. 6 8, 1-31.
oiot«l i'.. «: B,lcl,Iler's Repert. 2te Reihe, Bd. v. p. -J31 ; also Quevenne, Piorry, Lavallee, Meher, &c.
 • Oi iV}[  "l{Sur'pl- au Dict- de Mat- md- P- coa- 1^6).
 '  hi., j X. "n "''Jnmgen, in the Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. ix. p. 227, 1850.
  fut.de Mm Mtd. t.  v. p. 5%. 
682
VEGETABLES.— Nat. Ord. Rubiaceje.
   As cinchona and its salts are less bitter than quina and its  salts, we might ex-
pect that the former would possess somewhat less medicinal activity than the latter •
and this inference is probably correct.   Moreover, as cinchonia and its salts have a
more nauseous flavour, and are more allied to that of sulphate of magnesia,  it mi"ht
naturally be  anticipated  that large doses  of sulphate of cinchonia  would  bo more
apt to create nausea and  vomiting than like doses of sulphate of quina; and I have
been informed by some medical friends, that this  is  in  reality the case.  I must
confess, however, that I have been unable to verify it.  I have extensively used in
hospital practice, sulphate of cinchonia, in  doses not exceeding ten grains, and have
not met with the nausea  and vomiting  I expected to  have met with.   In  a case of
ague, I ordered the patient  (a young man) to take ten-grain doses of  the sulphates
of quina,  quinidina, and  cinchonia on  separate  successive days, every two hours
before  dinner; that is, the sulphate of quina on one day, the sulphate of quinidina
on the second, and the sulphate of cinchonia on the third day.   The case  was very
carefully watched by one of my clinical clerks, but no difference of effect was dis-
cernible.   No sickness or vomiting took place.   I have found  the sulphate of cin-
chonia valuable both as a tonic and a febrifuge, or antiperiodic.
   Comparison of the Cinchona Alkaloids with their Salts.—Some of the salts of
the cinchona alkaloids being more soluble than their bases, it  has  been inferred that
they are, consequently, more active.   But it has  been asserted  by Nieuwenhuiss,
Mariaui, Bleynie, and others, that the  bases are equally  active, and may be substi-
tuted for the salts with advantage.   Acid  drinks  should  be  given  to favour their
solution in the stomach.  Quina, in  the crude or impure state, has  been employed
with success by Trousseau.1  Its advantages over the disulphate  are,  that it is less
apt to  purge; it may  be  exhibited in a smaller dose,  and it  loses but little  bitter-
ness.  This last property facilitates the use of it, especially  in  children.
   Comparison  of the salts  of the  Cinchona Alkaloids with each  other.—I  have
already described the  effects of the sulphate of quina.   The bisulphatc of quina is
formed when we dissolve the sulphate in  water, acidulated with sulphuric acid; it
is somewhat more irritant than the last-mentioned  salt.   The phosphate of quina is
said to be not so apt to disturb the stomach, or to excite  the vascular system, as the
sulphate.   Hence, it  is better  adapted for cases accompanied with gastric  irritation
and febrile disorder.  The ferrocyanate of quina has been recommended, in prefer-
ence to the sulphate,  in  intermittent fevers, accompanied with inflammatory symp-
toms.   The tannate of quina has been declared, by Dr. Rolander, of Stockholm, to
be the most powerful  of  the quina salts.   The tannic acid, though not the peculiar
febrifuge  constituent  of  cinchona bark, yet contributes  to  its tonic  powers, and
thereby promotes the  activity of the alkaloids.   This statement is supported  by the
already referred-to remark of Berzelius, that the most active cinchonas are those
which contain the largest quantity of tannin.  Recent observations have not, how-
ever, confirmed Rolander's  statement.    The nitrate, hydrochlorate, acetate, and
citrate of quina, have been employed in medicine;  but  I am not acquainted with
any remarkable advantages  they possess over the sulphate.   The kinate. of quota,
as  being one of the native  salts of alkaloid, deserves farther examination.  Ihe
arsenite of quina might, perhaps, be found available in some obstinate  intermittents,
and well deserves farther examination.  The valerianate of quina has been already
noticed (see ante, p. 615).   The sulphate of quinidina is  the only  salt  of quini-
dina whose effects have  been examined.   The salts of cinchonia, except  the disul-
phate, have been imperfectly examined.2
  1 Soubeiran, Traiti de Pharm. i. 604.
  2 For farther details respecting the effects of the salts of quina, consult Merat and De Lens,
Mat. Mid. t. v. 597, and Merat, Suppl. au Diet, de Mat. Mid. p. 600, 1846 ; Dierbach. Neuest.
Mat. Med. Bd. i. S. 237, 1837, and Bd. ii. S. 366, 2te Aufl.; and Dunglison, New Remedies, 6th eel 
Cinchona :—Physiological Effects.                  683
                     II.  Effects of the Cinchona Barks.

  The experiments of Dr.  Adair  Crawford1 on  the effects of tonics in promoting
the cohesion of the animal  tissues, have been already (see ante, p. 243) referred to.
He found  that  a  kitten's intestines, which had been immersed in a thick mixture
of cinchona bark and  water, required a  greater weight  to break them than  those
immersed in water merely, in the ratio of 25.5 to 20.7.    He found, moreover, that
the same effect was produced on the bloodvessels and nerves; but an opposite effect
on  the skin, the  cohesion  of  which  it  diminished in  the ratio of  24.5  to 7.9.
Hence, he inferred that  cinchona bark  strengthened the alimentary  canal, blood-
vessels, and nerves, but had a debilitating or relaxing effect  on the skin.3   The
error pervading these  inferences has been already pointed out.  Admitting that the
dead animal tissues are invariably affected by cinchona in the way Dr. Crawford
states, the  conclusion that living  tissues would be influenced in the same way is not
supported  by  facts.    Cold water relaxes dead,  but  corrugates living,  animal
tissues.
  a. OnVegetables.—Leaves of plants immersed in an  infusion of pale bark were
dried, but  not contracted, in twenty-four hours.3
  3. On Animals generally.—Dr. Freind4  states that  an ounce and a  half of a
strong decoction of bark, injected into the jugular vein  of a dog, caused, in fifteen
minutes, strong palpitations of the  heart, and frequent spasms.   Half an ounce
more being injected, brought on tetanus and death.  The blood was found after  death
liquid, the lungs red  and turgid; the right ventricle was distended with blood, the
left contained scarcely any.   Rauschenbusch5 has also made experiments with cin-
chona bark.  In  animals to whom he had given  it for some days, he found the
Btomach and alimentary canal  contracted, and the coats  thickened, but no traces of
inflammation.   The heart was firmer,  the lungs  covered with red  spots, the  liver
yellowish,  the bile watery and greenish.   When the blood was exposed to the air,
it remained dark-coloured for a longer time than usual, was less coagulable, and the
serum separated more slowly;  it appeared  like that drawn in  inflammatory cases.
The pulse  was  stronger and fuller, the animal  heat increased, and, when the bark
had been used  for a long period, the muscles were pale, and their energy enfeebled.
Some experiments on  the effect of cinchona on the blood-disks of frogs were  made
by Leeuwenhoek,6 who found  that the infusion of bark  divided  some of the disks,
and coagulated others.
  y. On Man.—The topical effects are astringent and  slightly irritant.   The astrin-
gency depends on tannic acid [and red cinchonic?] : hence those barks whose infu-
Bions are most  powerfully affected by gelatine and the sesquiferruginous salts, enjoy
the greatest astringent power.   The  constitutional effects are principally manifested
by the disordered  conditions of the vascular and cerebro-spinal  systems.  In  some
conditions  of system cinchona  operates as  an irritant or stimulant; in others as a
tiotnachic,  tonic, and corroborant.
  If a man in a state of  perfect health takes a small or moderate dose of bark, no
obvious effects  are produced, or perhaps a little thirst,  with some slight disorder of
stomach; or a  temporary excitement of appetite may be brought on.   If the dose
be increased, the  alimentary  canal becomes disordered  (indicated  by  the  nausea,
vomiting, loss of appetite, thirst, and  constipation, or even purging) ; a febrile state
of the system is set up (manifested by the excitement of  the vascular system, and
 W J0I?£ue)> auc' tue cerebro-spinal system becomes disordered, as is shown by the
throbbing headache and giddiness.  The disturbance of the functions of the stomach
U produced not only when the bark is  given in the more nauseating form of  pow-

 | Frperimental Inquiry into the  Effects of Tonics, 1816.
   11» obvious that the tann c ac;d continued in cinchona bark would exercise a local chemical influence
 i ,.e "«»ue, combining with both the albuminous and gelatinous tissues.
  I'e tand.ilte, Phys. Vig. 1319.                                 * Emmenol.  c. xiv.
  quoted by Wibmer, Wirk. d. Arzneim. u. Gifte, Bd. ii. 132.          « Contin. ad  Epist. p. 119. 
684
VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord. Rubiaceje.
der, but also in the form of infusion, or decoction, or tincture.  These symptoms indi-
cate a stimulant operation,  which is still more manifest when  the  bark is given to
a person suffering with gastro-enteritic irritation, accompanied with fever.   All the
morbid phenomena are exasperated, the febrile disorder is increased, and symptoms
of gastritis  come on.  None of the effects now enumerated include those  to which
the terra tonic is properly applicable.  These are  to be  sought for in patients suffer-
ing from debility, without symptoms of local irritation.   In such, we find  cinchona
improves the appetite, promotes the digestive functions, and  increases the strength
of the pulse.   The  muscular  system acquires more power, and the individual is
capable of making greater exertion, both mental and  bodily, than before; the tis-
sues acquire more firmness  to  the touch, and lose their previous flabbiness; more-
over, it has been asserted (and with great probability of truth) that the quality of
the blood improves.
   The real  stomachic, tonic, and corroborative effects of cinchona, as indeed of other
agents of the  same class, are then only observed  in certain morbid  conditions.
   " The general operation  of cinchona bark," observes Sundelin,1  "consists in the
increase  and  exaltation of the tone of the irritable fibres and of  the fibres of the
vessels  (hence, by its use the pulse becomes fuller,  stronger,  and regular, and  the
muscular power increased); also in the general augmentation of the cohesion of the
organic mass (hence, it  counteracts a tendency to liquefaction [ Verflussiguntj] and
disintegration \_Entmischung~\,  diminishes  profuse secretions, which proceed from
atony of the extremities  of the vessels and of the secerning surfaces and organs,
and improves generally the crasis);  and lastly, in the augmentation of  ihe vital
energy of the sensible system. (By the last-mentioned property it restores sensibility,
when defective or abnormally increased, and the property of reaction of the nervous
system  to their normal state, and  augments the influence of this system on the
muscular fibre and on the reproductive system.") As these effects are not produced
until the active constituents of the bark have  been absorbed, they take place gradu-
ally, and by the long-continued use of this agent.
   The power possessed by  cinchona, of suspending  or  completely stopping periodi-
cal diseases, deserves to be  noticed here, though  it will have to be  again referred to
hereafter.   It is doubtless in some way related to the before-mentioned effects;  but
the connection is, as yet, mysterious and incomprehensible.
   Comparison of the  Cinchona Barks with each other.—Those barks are  the most
active which contain the largest proportion of the cinchona  alkaloids, especially of
quina.   In this point of  view yellow or  Calisaya bark  stands pre-eminent; and Dr.
Relph's2 assertion of its superiority to both the red and the pale barks is fully borne
out by modern observations.   Red bark is also a very valuable sort.   The experi-
ments and observations of  Saunders,3 Rigby,4 Kentish,5 Irving,6 and Skeete,7 seem
to have established its superiority to the  pale or quilled kind.   But in  adopting
this statement, we ought, if possible, to ascertain what kind of pale bark  was used
in making the above observations; and also to determine whether the red bark re-
ferred  to be identical with that now in commerce.   Mr. J.  E.  Howard (see ante,
p. 659) has  shown that the originator old  Loxa  bark, the sort, probably, which
was originally employed  under the name of pale or Crown bark, is as rich  in  cin-
chona alkaloids as many  specimens of Calisaya bark.
   The H.  0. Crown  bark and ashy  Crown bark are, especially the last-mentioned
bark, greatly inferior to the old Loxa bark; yet  they  are the  barks usually found
in the shops under the name oi pale or quilled bark.   Fine gray bark is  a bark of
excellent quality.   Pitaya-Condaminea  bark, is but little  known in commerce;
but it is a bark rich in cinchona alkaloids.
1  Handbuch d. speciHlen Heilmittellehre. Bd. ii. S. 307, 3tte Aufl. 1833.
*  Inquiry into the M:dical Efficacy of Yellow Bark, 1794.
3  Observations on the superior Efficacy of Red Peruvian Bark, 1782.
4  Essay on the Use of Red Peruvian Bark. 1763.
'  Experiments and Observations on a New Species of Bark, 1784.
•  Experiments on Red and Quilled Peruvian Bark, 1785.
'  Experiments and Observations on Quilled and Peruvian Bark, 1786. 
Cinchona:—Uses.                           685
  Comparison of the Effects of the Cinchona Barks with their Alkaloids.—It has
been asserted that the cinchona alkaloids possess all the medicinal properties of the
barks, and may be substituted for them on  every occasion ;  but I cannot subscribe
to either of these statements; for, in the first  place, the alkaloids  are deficient in
the aromatic quality possessed by the barks, and which assists them to sit easily
on the stomach ; and it is to this circumstance that I  am  disposed to  refer a fact
which I have often observed, that sulphate of quina  will sometimes irritate the
Btomach, occasion nausea and pain, and give  rise to febrile  symptoms, while the
infusion of bark  is retained without the least uneasiness.   Moreover, we must not
overlook the tannic acid, which confers on bark an astringent property.  So, that
while we admit that the essential tonic operation of the barks  depends on the alka-
loids which they  contain, yet the latter are not  always equally efficacious.  In some
cases, however, they are of great advantage, since they enable  us  to obtain, in a
email volume, the touic operation of a large quantity of bark.
  Uses.—From  the  preceding  account of the physiological  effects of cinchona,
Bonie of the indications  and contraindications  for its use may be readily inferred.
Thus its topical employment is obviously indicated in cases of local relaxation, with
or without excessive secretion ; also in poisoning by those agents whose compounds
with  tannic acid  are difficultly soluble, and, therefore,  not  readily absorbed.  But
as a topical remedy, or astringent, cinchona is greatly inferior to many other agents
which contain a  much larger quantity of tannic acid.   The contra-indications for
the local use of cinchona,  are, states of irritation  (nervous or vascular), and of in-
flammation.   In  these conditions it aggravates  the morbid symptoms.
  The indications  for its  use, as a general or  constitutional  remedy, are, debility
with atony and laxity of the solids, and profuse discharges  from the secreting oro-ans.
I have observed that it proves less successful, and often quite  fails, when the com-
plexion is chlorotic or anaemic;  in such cases chalybeates often succeed where cin-
chona  is useless  or injurious.   As contra-indications for its employment, may be
enumerated acute inflammation,  inflammatory fever, plethora,  active hemorrhages,
inflammatory dropsies, &c.   To these may be added, an extremely debilitated con-
dition of the digestive aud assimilative  organs.  Thus,  patients recovering from
protracted fever are at first unable  to support the use of bark, which acts as an irri-
tant to the stomach, and causes an increase of the  febrile symptoms.  In such cases
I have found infusion of calumba a good  preparative for cinchona.
  Hitherto, I have referred to those indications  only which have an obvious relation
to the known  physiological  effects of cinchona.   But  the diseases in which this
remedy manifests the greatest therapeutic power, are those which assume an inter-
mittent or periodical  type.   Now, in such, the methodus  medendi is quite inex-
plicable; and, therefore,  the remedy has been called a specific,  an antiperiodic, aud
a febrifuge.   But the more  intimately we become acquainted with  the  pathology
of disease, and the operation of medicines, the less evidence have we of the specific
influence of particular medicines  over  particular maladies.  Some diseases, however,
are exceedingly obscure;  their seat or nature,  and the  condition of system under
which they occur, or the cause of their occurrence, being little known.   There are
also many medicines, the  precise  action of which is  imperfectly understood, but
which  evidently exercise a most  important, though to  us quite inexplicable, influ-
ence over the system.  Now, it sometimes happens that  imperfectly known diseases
arc most remarkably influenced by remedies, the agency of which we cannot com-
prehend ; in other words, we can trace no known relation between the physiological
effects of the remedy and its therapeutical influence.  This incomprehensible rela-
tionship exists between arsenic  and lepra;  between the cinchona bark and ague.
nut  though  this connection is to  us  mysterious (for I do not admit  the  various
hypotheses which have been  formed to account  for it), we are not to conclude that
11 is necessarily more intimate than that which  exists in ordinary cases.
  j. In periodical or intermittent diseases.—The  system is subject to several diseases,
which assume  a  periodical form; that  is,  they*disappear and  return  at  regular 
686
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rubiace*:.
intervals.  When the patient appears to be quite well during the interval (i. e. when
the intermission is perfect and regular) the disease is called an intermittent; whereas
it is called remittent when the second paroxysm makes its  appearance before the
first has wholly subsided (i. e. when the disease presents exacerbations and remis-
sions, but  not  intermissions).   The  pathology of these affections  is involved in
great obscurity, and the cause or causes of their periodicity are completely unknown.
Various circumstances, however, induce us to regard intermittent maladies as  nmr.
bid affections of the nervous system ; for the phenomena of periodicity, both healthy
and morbid, seem to be essentially nervous.1  One of the most curious circum-
stances connected with the history  of these diseases is the facility with which  they
are sometimes cured.  It is well known  that sudden and powerful  impressions,  both
mental  and corporeal (as those caused by terror, alcohol, opium, cinchona, arsenious
acid, &c), made during the intermission,  will sometimes prevent  the return of the
succeeding paroxysm; and  occasionally from that time  all morbid phenomena dis-
appear.  In remittent diseases, on  the other hand, the same impressions are much
less frequently successful, and sometimes, instead of palliating, exasperate the symp-
toms.   The  agents which are capable, under certain circumstances, of making these
curative impressions, are  apparently so  dissimilar  in their nature  and physiolofical
action,  that we  can trace in  their methodus medendi scarcely anything in common,
save that of  making a powerful impression on tbe nervous system.  Of these anti.
periodic agents, cinchona  and arsenious acids stands pre-eminent for their greater
frequency of success, and, therefore, are those usually resorted to.  I have already
(see p.  635) made some remarks on their relative  therapeutical value.   They differ
in two  particulars; first, cinchona may be given, as an antiperiodic, in any quantity
which the stomach can  bear; whereas,  arsenious  acid must be exhibited in  cau-
tiously-regulated doses; secondly, there are  two  modes of attempting  the cure of
an intermittent by cinchona; one is, to put an immediate stop to the disease by tbe
use of very large doses of the  remedy given  a  few hours prior  to  the recurrence
of the  paroxysm—the other is, to  distinguish the disease gradually by the exhibi-
tion of moderate doses at short intervals  during the whole period of the intermission,
so that the violence  of every succeeding paroxysm  is somewhat less than that of the
preceding one ;  but in the case of  arsenious acid, the latter method is alone  safe,
and, therefore, to be adopted.
  It has been asserted that cinchona is  admissible in the interval  only of an inter-
mittent fever;  and that, if it be exhibited during the paroxysm,  it has a tendency
to prevent the subsidence of the latter.   But this statement is much overcharged.
Morton2 and others  have given it in almost every stage  without injury.  Dr. Heb-
erden3 observes, " the only harm which  I believe would follow from taking the bark,
even in the middle of the fit is, that it might  occasion a sickness,  and might harass
the  patient by  being vomited up, and might  set him against it."  It is, however,
more efficacious during the interval, though it may not be absolutely hurtful in the
paroxysm.   Dr. Cullen* was strongly of  opinion  that the nearer  the exhibition of
the cinchona is  to the time of accession, the more certainly effectual will it be.  I
have already stated (vol. i. p. 635) that arsenious acid may be given with good effect
during  the whole period (paroxysm and intermission) of the disease.
  A very necessary condition to its  perfect success is that it sit well on the stomach;
for  if it occasion vomiting or  purging, it is  much less likely to act beneficially.
Hence  an  emetic and a  purgative are  recommended to  precede its employment.
The  use of these is more especially necessary if the disease be recent.  For an
adult, about fifteen grains of ipecacuanha, with a grain of tartarized antimony, may
be exhibited as  an emetic, unless there be symptoms of  determination to the brain,
or of inflammation of the digestive organs.   A senna draught, with a calomel pill,
forms a good purgative.   To enable it to  sit well  on the stomach, cinchona (or the

   1 See some remarks on periodic movements, in Muller's Elem. of Phys. by Baly. vol  i. p. M
   2 Pyretologia.                      -        3 Comment, art. Feb. Interm.
   4 Mat. Med. ii. 96. 
Cinchona :—Uses.                           (jg7
 sulphate of quina) is frequently given in conjunction with aromatics.   The infusion
 or decoction of cinchona, though much less effective, is, however, less liable to dis-
 turb the stomach than the powder of cinchona or the sulphate of quina.  Opium
 is sometimes a necessary adjunct to cinchona to prevent  its running off  by the
 bowels.  In some cases where  the  stomach was too irritable to admit of the ad-
 ministration of cinchona or sulphate of quina by the mouth,  these agents have been
 otherwise introduced  into  the  system.   Thus, clysters of cinchona were used by
 Helvetius, Torti,  and  Baglivi.1   Van Swieten2 says  he has often seen this method
 successful in infants, but that it takes three times as  much bark as would suffice
 if the remedy were swallowed.   Cataplasms of cinchona have also been employed.
 Rosenstein applied them to the abdomen, Torti to  the wrist.3   Alexander4 cured
 an ague by &pediluvium of decoction of  cinchona, but Heberden5  tried it without
 success. Bark jackets were employed with success in the agues  of children, by Dr.
 Pye.8   They consisted of  waistcoats  between whose  layers powdered cinchona was
 quilted. The dry powder of cinchona has been applied to the skin; thus,  Dr. Dar-
 win strewed it in  the  patient's bed.   Chrestien" successfully used  the tincture and
 alcoholic extract by the iatralcptic  method.  More recently,  sulphate of quina has
 been employed in the same way.  The last-mentioned  operation has also been ap-
 plied by the endermic method;* but  this  mode of using it  is sometimes  attended
 with intense pain and  an eschar.9  To infants at the breast,  Rosenstein advises its
 indirect exhibition by  the nurse, in whose  milk its active principle  is administered
 to the child.10  More recently, sulphate of quina mixed with tobacco  (in  the pro-
 portion of fifteen grains of the  former to an ounce of the latter) has been employed
 asa snvff in intermittent headache.
   Cinchona and its preparations prove most successful  in the simple or uncompli-
 cated form of intermittents; that is, where the disease appears to be purely  nerv-
 ous.   But  when  agues are accompanied  with  inflammatory excitement or with
 visceral disease, cinchona  generally proves either useless or injurious.  In remit-
 tents it proves much less successful  than in regularly-formed intermittents.   In all
 these cases we endeavour to promote the efficiency of the cinchona by reducing the
 disease to the form of a  pure or simple  intermittent.  The means to effect this
 must of course  depend on a variety  of circumstances;  but bloodletting, both  gene-
 ral and local, purgatives, and  diaphoretics, are  those  which for  the most  part will
 be found available.  Under some circumstances,  mercury given in alterative doses,
 or even as a very slight sialogogue, proves beneficial.
  Intermittent fevers  are not  the only periodical diseases in which cinchona has
 been found beneficial.  It is a remedy which has proved serviceable in several other
 cases in which a paroxysm (of  pain, spasm, inflammation, hemorrhage, or fever) re-
 turns at stated periods. Thus,  intermittent neuralgia, rheumatism, headache, amau-
 rosis, catarrh, ophthalmia,  stricture,  &c.  have  been greatly benefited  by  its  use.
 oorue of these affections have  been  regarded as  masked agues.   When periodical
 diseases recur at uncertain  periods, as in the case of epilepsy, no particular advan-
 tage can he expected from the  use of cinchona.
  2. In continued fever.—In  the latter stage of continued fever, when  the vital
 powers are beginning to sink, and when there is  no marked  and  decided symptom
 ot inflammatory disease of the   brain or digestive  organs, cinchona  or  sulphate of
 quina sometimes proves highly  beneficial.   If the tongue be dry, as well as furred,
 and  the skin hot and dry,  no advantage, but the reverse, can  be anticipated  from
 ««i emp oyment. ^  It is most applicable to the low forms of fever occurring in de-
 iiitatc.1 constitutions.   When exacerbations or remissions, however indistinct,  occur
"regular periods, the  administration of cinchona is the  more likely to be  followed
• mIY,**' AM-?Ud- *■ 871-                    » Commentaries, vii. 277.

• Z).7T»,;.! v  ,   .                        s Mid. Obs.and'lnq.ii.'M.'i.
• Tt,,?.?!ik0d, la'rahP<- 2^ »"d 270.           « Archir Gin. dc Mid. 1826;  Revue Mid. 1-
 "nuMeuu and Pidoux, Traiti de Thirap. ii. 219.  «° Ibid. 231 
688                VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rubiace*:.

by good effects.  Under  the preceding  circumstances there  can  scarcely be two
opinions as to  the  admissibility of bark.   But on the general propriety of admi.
nistering this remedy in continued fever, considerable difference of opinion has pre-
vailed.1  Dr. Heberden3 cautiously observes: " I am not so sure of its being useful as
I am of its being innocent."   In  order to avoid offending the stomach, it is fre-
quently advisable to begin with the infusion, for which, afterwards, first  the decoc-
tion, then the sulphate of quina, may be substituted. In the stage of convalescence
the use of cinchona or sulphate of quina may often be advantageously preceded by
infusion of calumba; without  this precaution, irritation of the  stomach or febrile
symptoms are readily set  up.
   3. In inflammatory diseases.—As a general rule, stimulants and tonics, as cin-
chona, are improper in inflammatory diseases.   Yet to this statement, which applies
principally to  the first stage, to acute and active cases, and  to the disease when it
occurs in strong and vigorous habits,  many exceptions exist.   Thus, when it takes
place in old and debilitated constitutions; when it is of a mild or atonic character,
and has existed for some  time without giving rise  to any obvious organic changes;
when it assumes an intermittent or even remittent form ; or when it is of a certain
quality, which experience has shown to be  less benefited by ordinary antiphlogistic
measures,  cinchona  is sometimes admissible  and  advantageous after evacuations
have been made proportioned  to  the  activity of the disease and  the vigour of the
system.   In scrofulous inflammation  (as of the eye) its value is fully  appreciated.
In rheumatism, in which  disease Morton, Fothergill, Saunders, and  Ilaygartb,  have
so strongly recommended  it, its use is now obsolete,  except under circumstances
similar to those which regulate its employment in ordinary inflammation.  The same
remarks apply to its employment in erysipelatous inflammation, in  which it was at
one time much  esteemed.
   4. In maladies characterized by atony and debility.—Cinchona  is  useful  in a
great variety of diseases  dependent  on, or attended  by,  a deficiency of tone or
strength, as indicated by a soft and lax condition of the solids, weak pulse, incapa-
bility of great  exertion,  impaired appetite,  and dyspeptic symptoms.  Thus, in
chronic atonic  affections of the alimentary canal, it proves very serviceable, espe-
cially in some forms of dyspepsia and  anorexia. In  these, it should be given half an
hour or an hour before meal-times. In some chronic maladies of the nervous system,
as chorea,  when it  occurs in delicate girls;  also,  in the  neuralgia of  weakly sub-
jects.   Disulphate of quina has been used  by Dr.  Bright3 in tetanus.    In mortifi-
cation, it is useful in those cases  in  which tonics and astringents are  obviously
indicated; but it has no specific power of checking  the disease, as  was formerly sup-
posed.   In passive hemorrhages, from  relaxation  of vessels,  as  in some cases of
profuse menstruation, or uterine hemorrhage consequent on miscarriage.  In profuse
mucous discharges with great  debility, as in  leucorrhcea, excessive bronchial secre-
tion, old diarrhoeas, &c.   In cachectic  diseases, as  enlargements and indurations of
the absorbent glands, of a scrofulous nature, strumous ophthalmia, obstinate ulcers,
&c*  Also in venereal diseases, when the secondary symptoms occur in shattered
and broken-down constitutions, and  after  the full  use of mercury.   Likewise in
some of the chronic skin diseases, which are seen in cachectic habits.
   5  In the convalescence of either acute  or chronic lingering diseases, as fever,
inflammation, hemorrhage, profuse suppuration, &c.;  also after important surgical
operations, when the strength is greatly reduced. In no class of cases is the etncacy
of cinchona or its alkaloids more manifest than in these.
   6  As a topical  astringent  and  antispeptic.—The efficacy of cinchona as an as-
tringent and antispeptic depends on tannic acid. But as many vegetable substance
exceed cinchona in the quantity of this acid which they contain, so  they surpass»
in astringency.   Hence, the topical  uses of  bark  are  comparatively unimportant,

  • Clutterbuck, On the Seat and Nature of Fever, 399, 2d edit. Ib25.  ^      Hospital Reports, vol. i.
  a Comment.                   .*■-,,
  4 See Dr. J. Fordyce, Med. Obs. and Inq. n. 184. 
Cinchona :—Administration.   Infusions.             689
 and, for the most part, are  nearly obsolete.   Powdered cinchona is frequently em-
 ployed as a tooth-powder. Formerly, it was used as an application to mortified parts,
 foul ulcers, caries, &c.  The decoction, with or without hydrochloric acid, is applied
 as a gargle in putrid sore throat.
   7. As a chemintl antidote.—The value of cinchona bark, as a chemical antidote,
 depends on its tannic acid.  I have  already offered some observations on its employ-
 ment in poisoning by emetic tartar (see ^oh i- P- 670).  I believe, in all cases, it might
 be advantageously replaced by other and more powerful astringents; as nutgalls, or,
 on an emergency, green tea.
   Administration.—In the form oi powder, cinchona is now rarely administered.
 The bulk of a full  dose, its  disagreeable taste, its  tendency to cause  nausea and
 vomiting, and the quantity of inert  woody fibre which it contains, form  great ob-
 jections to its employment.  Yet, of its great efficacy, as a febrifuge or antiperiodic,
 in intermittents,  and of it.s superiority in these cases  to the decoction  or infusion,
 no doubt can exist; but sulphate of quina has almost entirely superseded it.  The
 dose of the powder of cinchona is from a scruple to a drachm,  or  even more than
 this when the stomach can bear it.

   1. INITSDI CIMIIONiE, L. E.; Infusion of Bark.—(YeWow Cinchona [any  species
 of Cinchona, according to prescription, E.), bruised [in  powder, E.~], |j ; Boiling
 [Distilled, L.~\  Water Oj.   Macerate for two [four, E.]  hours  in a covered  vessel,
 and strain [through linen or calico, E.~\.)—Water extracts from cinchona  bark  the
 kinates of quina,  cinchonia, and lime, gum, soluble red cinchonic (tannic acid) and
 yellow colouring  matter.   The greater part of the cinchona alkaloids remain in  the
 marc,  as a very small quantity only of the compound of red cinchonic and the cin-
 chona alkaloids is extracted. The London College has  very properly directed  yellow
 bark (the most powerful of the cinchona barks) to be used in the preparation of
 the infusion.—The infusion of cinchona is stomachic and tonic, but is scarcely ener-
 getic enough to be febrifuge.  It is a light preparation, applicable as a tonic where
 the stomach is very delicate, and cannot support the  more active preparations of
 this medicine.—The dose is f.^j tofjij thrice a day.

   2. INFUSI! CINCHM  PALLID!, L.; Infusum Cinchona, D.  ; Infusion of Pale
 Bark.—(Prepare this  in  the same  manner as Infusum Cinchonse, L.—Take of
 Peruvian Bark (Crown or Pale), in coarse powder, 3j j Boiling  Water Oss.  Infuse
 for one hour in a covered  vessel, and filter through paper.  The product should
 measure about eight ounces, D.)—Dose, 3j to 3 i j -   This infusion is inferior to the
 preceding iu activity, and is a very  unnecessary one.   It  is  said to  oppress  the
 stomach less than that of  the other cinchona bark;   the reason is obvious—it is
 Weaker.
   [The U. S. Pharm. directs the fnfusum  Cinchonse Flavae as the Infusum Cin-
 chona; above directed, and in the same way the Infusum  Cinchonx Rubrse.~\
   %. l.\FL'Sni CINCHONA SPISSATUM, L.; Inspissated Infusion of Bark.—(Yellow
 Cinchona, coarsely bruised, ibiij ;  Distilled Water Ovj ; Rectified  Spirit,  as much
 as may be  sufiicient.   Macerate the cinchona iu the same manner as we  have  di-
 rected the Kxtractum CinohonEe to be prepared, and strain.  Evaporate the mixed
 infusions in a water-bath, to a fourth part, and set aside that the dregs may subside.
 Pour off the clear liquor, and strain  what remains.   Then mix them, and  again
 evaporate until the sp. gr. of the liquor becomes l.'iOO.   Into this, when  it has
 become cold, drop the spirit very slowly, that  throe fluidrachms may be  added to
 each fluidounce of the liquor.   Lastly, set  aside  the liquor for twenty days, that
 the dregs may entirely subside.)—Concentrated solutions of  this  kind  have long
 been in  use, to save  trouble in preparing the  ordinary infusion.   The  inspissated
infn>ion of the College is said to be from twenty-four to thirty-six times the streno-th
of the pliarmacopceial ordinary infusion ; but it is obvious that the preparation must
       vol. 11.—44 
690
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rubiace^.
 be liable to variation in strength.   In a general way, f$j  may be considered equal
 to f^iij  of the infusion.                                                    '

   4. INFUSUM CINCHONE  PALLIDA SPISSATUM,  L.; Inspissated Infusion of Pak
 Bark.—(Prepare this in the same manner as Infusum Cinchonse Spissatum.)__Vn
 unnecessary preparation.   Its properties  are similar to those of  the preceding pre-
 paration, but its strength is less.

   [S. INFUSI M CiNOIIOM COMPOSITUM, U.S.; Compound Infusion  of Cinchona Bark.
 Take of Red Bark, in powder, an ounce; Aromatic Sulphuric Acid a fluidrachm-
 Water  a pint.  Macerate for  twelve hours,  occasionally shaking, and strain.  It
 may also be prepared by displacement.]

   6. DECOCTUM CINCHONA, L. E.; Decoction of Bark.—(Yellow Bark, bruised, 5x;
 Distilled Water Oj.   Boil for ten minutes in  a covered vessel, and strain the liquor
 while hot, L.—Crown, Gray, Yellow, or Red Cinchona, bruised, gj; Water fjxxiv.
 Mix them, boil for ten  minutes, let the decoction cool, then filter it, and evaporate
 to sixteen fluidounces, E.)—The preparation of the  London College  becomes turbid
 on cooling; the Edinburgh College directs the preparation to be  filtered after it has
 become  cold.
   By  boiling, water extracts from  cinchona  the kinates of quina, cinchona, and
 lime, gum, soluble red cinchonic (tannic acid), yellow colouring  matter, starch,and
 a  portion of  the compound of the red cinchonic with the cinchona alkaloids.  While
 hot, the liquor  is transparent;  but as it cools, it becomes turbid—owing  partly to
 the  deposition of the  tannate of starch  when the temperature falls below 88° F.,
 and partly because the red cinchonic  compound, being more soluble in hot than in
 cold water, is deposited on cooling.   If the  deposit, with a portion of the super-
 natant liquor,  be poured off and gently heated, it is dissolved.   The sesquichloride
 of iron  almost blackens it; a few drops of sulphuric  acid and a few drops of solution
 of iodine render it  bluish-black—indicative of  the presence of starch.  Of  146
 parts of the  deposit from  decoction of yellow  (Calisaya) bark, Soubeiran1 found 60
 parts (principally tannate  of starch) were insoluble in alcohol, and  the remaining
 86 parts were  readily soluble in alcohol,  and yielded the cinchona alkaloids. The
 same author also found that, by decoction, yellow (Calisaya)  bark lost two-thirds of
 its weight;  whereas,  by infusion, it  merely lost  one-third of its weight.   If the
 water employed in preparing the decoction or  infusion be acidulated (with sulphuric
 or hydrochloric acid), the medicinal value of the preparation is greatly increased;
 for the  acid  decomposes the insoluble red cinchonic salt, and forms with the cin-
 chona alkaloids a soluble combination.   Alkaline solutions, on the other hand,
 yield less powerful, though highly coloured, preparations; they readily dissolve the
 red cinchonic and the acids, but they render the alkaloids insoluble.   Decoction of
 cinchona is stomachic,  tonic, and febrifuge.  The dose is f^j to  f^ij.
   7. DECOCTUM CINCIIONJ PALLIDJE, L.; Decoctum Cinchonse,  D.;  Decoction of
 Pale Bark.—(Prepared like  Decoctum  Cinchonas, L.—Take of  Peruvian Bark
 [Crown  or Pale], in  coarse  powder, |ss ; Water Oss.   Boil for ten minutes in a
 covered  vessel, and  strain while hot.   The  product  should measure about eight
 ounces, D.)—The  properties, uses, and  doses are like the  preceding preparation,
 than which it is weaker.
   8. DECOCTUM CINC1I0M RUM, L. [U. S.] ; Decoction of Red  ^.-(Prepared
like  Decoctum Cinchonas.)—Its properties, uses, and  doses  are similar to those of
Decoctum Cinchonas, L.—[The U. S. Pharm.  likewise directs the  Decoctum Cm-
chonse, Flavee.~\
   9. TINCTURA CINCHONA, L. E. [U. S.];  Tincture of Bark.—(Yellow  [Yellow,
or any other  species, according  to  prescription, E.~\  Cinchona, bruised [in  fine pow-
1 Traiti de Pharm. i. 607. 
CixcnoxA:—Tinctures; Extracts.
691
 der, El gviij rjvj,  U.  &]; Proof Spirit  Oij  [Diluted  Alcohol Oij, U.  £.].
 Macerate for seven [fourteen, U. S.~\ days, then express and strain.  The directions
 of the Edinburgh College are as follows: " Percolate the bark with the spirit, the
 bark being previously moistened with a very little spirit, left thus for ten or twelve
 hours, and then firmly packed in the cylinder. This tincture may also be prepared,
 though much less expeditiously, and with much greater loss, by the usual  process
 of digestion, the bark being in that case reduced to coarse powder only.")—Spirit
 extracis all the  bitter and astringent principles of cinchona—both  the kinates of
 the cinchona alkaloids, ;»s well as the combination of these substances with the red
 cinch'>nic.  If the spirit be too concentrated,  the kinates are less readily dissolved
 by it.   Tincture of cinchona is stomachic, tonic, and stimulant.—The dose of it is
 fjj to f3i'j-   It is usually employed as an adjuvant to the infusion or decoction of
 cinchona, or to the solution of the disulphate  of quina.
   10. TINCTURA CINCnONJl PALLIDiE, L.;  Tinctura Ciachomc, D.; Tincture of Pale
 Bark.—(Prepared like Tinctura Cinchonas, L.—Take  of Peruvian  Bark [Crown
 or Pale], in coarse powder, gviij ;  Proof Spirit Oij.  Macerate for fourteen  days,
 strain, express, and filter, D.)—Properties, uses, and doses as the preceding prepa-
 ration, than which it is weaker.
    11. TINCTURA CINCHONiE  COMPOSITA, L. E. D.  [tf £.];  Compound  Tincture  of
 Bark.—(Pale  Cinchona [Yellow Bark, E.~\, [Red Bark, U. S~\, bruised [coarsely
 powdered, D. E.; fine, if percolation be followed, E.~], giv;  Orange Peel [Bitter,
 E.  D.], dried [bruised,  E.~\,  §iij  [^ij, D.~\; Serpentary,  bruised, 5vj J Saffron
 [chopped, E. D.~\ 5'j ; Cochineal,  powdered,  Jj)  Proof  Spirit  Oij.   Digest for
 seven [fourteen, D.~\ days, then express and strain.  " Digest for seven days; strain
 and express strongly; filter the liquors.  This tincture may also  be conveniently
 prepared by the  method of percolation, in the same way as the compound tincture
 of cardamom," E.)—[The proportions  of the U.  S. Pharm. are,  Peruvian  Bark,
 in powder,  ^ij ;  Orange Peel, bruised, 3iss;  Virginia Snake-Root, bruised,  5>'j j
 Saffron,  cut, Red Sunders, rasped, aa,  3J >  Diluted Alcohol f^xx.  Macerate for
 fourteen days, and filter, or proceed  by displacement.]  This is  usually sold  as
 Huxham'n Tineture of Bark.   It  is a more agreeable  and more  stimulant, though
 less powerful, tonic than the simple -tincture, and is less apt to disturb the stomach.
 Made  according  to  the London Pharmacopoeia, it contains one-half  less cinchona
 than the simple tincture.  It is employed as a tonic and stomachic.—The dose  of
 it is f3j  to f'3iij.
   12. EXTRACTUM  CINCIJONJl, L. E.;  Extract  of Bark.—(YeUow Bark, coarsely
 bruised,  Ibiij;  Di.-tillcd Water Ovj.   Add four pints  of water  to the cinchona,
 and stir constantly with a spatula until the bark is thoroughly moistened; macerate
 for twenty-four hours, and strain through linen.  Macerate  the residuum in the re-
 maining water  fur twenty-four hours, and strain.  Then evaporate the mixed liquors
 to a proper consistence, L.—Take  any of the  varieties of Cinchona, but especially
 the Yellow or Red Cinchona, iu fine powder, |iv;  Proof Spirit fjxxiv.  Percolate
 the cinchona with the spirit; distil off  the greater part of the spirit;  and  evapo-
 rate what remains in  an open vessel over the vapour-bath to a due consistence, E.)
 —The iratery extract of cinchona (extractum cinch'infv, L.) contains the same con-
 stituents already mentioned as being found in decoction of bark.  Mr. Brande says
 lance-leaved (/. e. pale) bark yields 30 per cent, of watery extract.   The active
 principles of this preparation  are the  kinates of  the  cinchona alkaloids.    The
 fjn'rifuous extract (< xtractum cinchonas, E.) is  a more efficacious preparation, as  it
 contains, besides  the  alkaline kinates, the compound of  the red cinchonic with the
 cinchona alkaloids.   When prepared with rectified spirit, '24 per cent, of extract is
 obtaiued from pale bark.   But as the Edinburgh  College direct proof spirit to be
employed, the produce is larger.—Well-prepared (i. e. not decomposed by evapora-
tion) extract  is a very useful preparation, which,  however, has been  nearly super-
seded by sulphate of  quina.   It is given in the form of pill, iu deses of from grs. v 
692
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rubiace.e.
to grs. xx.   The watery extract may be dissolved in water or in infusion of roses •
and for administration  to children, in syrup of mulberries or of orange-peel.  Ex-
tract of bark, however, is rarely employed in medicine.

   IS.  EXTRACTUM CINCHONA PALLIDA, L. ; Extract of Pale Bark.
   14.  EXTRACTUM CINCHONA RUM, L.j  Extract of Red Bark.
   These two extracts  are  prepared  in  the same manner as Extractum Cinchona)
L.—[The Extractum  Cinchonse  Flavse, U. S. is thus prepared :  Take of Yellow
Bark, in coarse powder, a pound ;  Alcohol, four pints;  Water,  a sufficient quantity.
Macerate the Peruvian Bark with  the Alcohol for four days; then filter by means
of percolation, and when tbe liquid  ceases  to pass, pour gradually upon the Bark
sufficient  Water to keep its surface covered.   When the filtered tincture measures
four pints, set  it aside, and proceed with the  filtration until six pints of infusion
are obtained.  Distil off the alcohol  from the tincture and  evaporate the infusion
till the liquids respectively are brought to the consistence of thin honey; then mix
them and evaporate so  as to form  an  extract.]—The Extractum Cinchonse  Rubrse,
U. S-, is prepared in the same manner.
   15.  HIM DISULPIIAS,  L.;  Quinse Sulphas,  E. D.  [U.  S.];  Sulphate  of Qui-
nine, offic;  Subsulphate of Quina..—[Although the Disulphate of (fiinine is now
placed by the London College among the articles of Materia Medica, we have con-
sidered it proper to retain the author's description of the method of preparing this
salt according to  the formula of  previous  editions of the Pharmacopceia.—Ed.]
  Take of  Heart-leaved Cinchona,   bruised, Ibvij;  Sulphuric  Acid  Jix;  Purified Animal
Charcoal ^ij; Hydrated Oxide of Lead, Solution of Ammonia, Distilled Water, each  as much
as may be sufficient.  Mix four ounces and two drachms of the  Sulphuric Acid with six gal-
lons of distilled Water, and add the Cinchona  to them ;  boil  for  an hour, and strain. In the
same  manner again boil  what remains in Acid  and Water, mixed  in the same proportions,
for an hour, and again strain. Finally, boil  the Cinchona in eight gallons of  distilled water, and
strain.   Wash what remains frequently with  boiling  distilled water.  To  the mixed liquors
add Oxide of Lead, while moist, nearly  to saturation.   Pour off the supernatant liquor, and
wash what is thrown down with distilled water.  Boil  down the liquors for a quarter of an
hour, and  strain;  then  gradually add Solution of Ammonia to precipitate the Quina.  Wash
this until nothing alkaline is perceptible.  Let what remains be saturated with the rest of the
Sulphuric  Acid, diluted.  Afterwards, digest with two ounces of Animal Charcoal, and strain.
Lastly, the Charcoal being thoroughly  washed, evaporate the liquor cautiously, that crystals
may be produced.
   Mr.  Phillips1 gives tbe following explanation of this process.  "The quina exists
in combination with a  peculiar acid, called Kinic Acid, forming with it Kinate of
Quina, which is  soluble to a certain extent  in  water,  and is rendered  more so by
the sulphuric acid employed in the process, and perhaps by decomposing it.  What-
ever  may be the state  of combination, the  solution contains sulphuric acid, kinic
acid, and. quina, mixed with extractive  and  colouring matter, the latter being got
rid of by tbe animal charcoal.   On  adding  oxide of lead the sulphuric acid com-
bines with  it, and  the resulting sulphate being insoluble is precipitated, while the
kinic acid and quina remain in solution;  when ammonia is added, after the separa-
tion of the sulphate of lead, the kinic acid unites with it, and the kinate of ammonia
formed is soluble, while the quina is precipitated, and this, when afterwards com-
bined with  sulphuric acid,  forms disulphate of quina, which crystallizes."
   The directions of the Edinburgh College for  the preparation  of disulphate ot
quina are as follows:—
   Take of Yellow Bark, in coarse powder, one pound;  Carbonate of Soda, eight ounces; on-
phuric Acid, half a fluidounce; Purified Animal Charcoal, two drachms.   Boil the bark for ao
hour in four  pints of water, in  which half the carbonate of soda has been dissolved ; strain, an
express strongly thrpugh linen or calico;  moisten the residuum with water, and express aga> ■
and repeat this twice.  Boil the residuum for half an hour with four  pints of water a^' *
the sulphuric acid; strain, express strongly,  moisten with water, and express again.
' Transl. of the Pharm. 
Cinchona:—Disulphate of Quina.                    G93
residuum with three pints of water and a fourth part of the acid; strain and squeeze as before
Boil again the residuum with the same quantity of water and acid;  strain  and squeeze as for
merly.  Concentrate the whole acid liquors to about a  pint; let the product cool; filter it, and
dissolve in it the  remainder of the carbonate of soda.   Collect the  impure quina on a cloth,
wash it slightly, and squeeze out the liquor with the hand.   Break down the moist precipitate
in a pint of  distilled water; add  nearly one fluidscruple of sulphuric acid, heat it to 212°, and
Stir occasionally.  Should any precipitate retain its gray  colour, and  the liquid be neutral, add
sulphuric  acid, drop by drop, stirring constantly, till the gray colour disappears.  Should the
liquid redden litmus, neutralize it with a little carbonate  of soda.   Should  crystals form on the
surface, add boiling distilled water to dissolve them.  Filter through  paper, preserving the fun-
nel hot; set the liquid aside to crystallize; collect and  squeeze the crystals;  dissolve them in
a pint of distilled water heated to 212°, digest the solution for fifteen minutes with the animal
charcoal;  filter, and crystallize as before.   Dry the crystals with a heat not exceeding 140°.
  The mother-liquors  of each crystallization will yield a little more  salt by concentration  and
cooling.
  The object  of this process is to extract, by means of tbe solution  of carbonate of
soda, the acids,  the  colouring  and extractive matters, the  gum, &c.  from the bark,
but leaving the cinchona alkaloids.   Stolze  used for  this  purpose lime; Badollier
and Scharlau  caustic potash.   The alkaline decoction  has a  very  deep colour.   By
boiling the residuum in  water acidulated with sulphuric acid, the alkaloids are dis-
solved.   On the addition of carbonate of soda, double  decomposition takes  place,
and the impure quina is precipitated.   This is afterwards dissolved  in water acidu-
lated with sulphuric acid, and  the filtered  liquid is set aside  to crystallize.   The
impure disulphate of quina  thus  obtained  is redissolved in  boiling water, and  the
Bolution, after being decolorized by digestion with animal  charcoal,  is  filtered, and
put aside to crystallize.
   I have repeated this  process, which has the  great  merit of obviating  the  use of
alcohol, aud  I  believe  it  to  be an excellent one,  combining  both simplicity and
economy.   In  one  experiment, I employed  one  pound  of picked uncoated yellow
(Calisaya) bark, and found  that the   precipitated impure quina required two fluid-
scruples  and five minims of sulphuric acid to saturate it, instead of one fluidscruple,
directed  by the  Edinburgh College.    In another experiment, I  could not get the
impure sulphate  of quina to  crystallize until  it had been  digested with  animal
charcoal.
  The process  of the Dublin College  is similar  to the method  of manufacturing
disulphate  of quina which has  been usually  followed by  manufacturers in  this
country ; it is as follows :—
  Coarsely  pulverized yellow (Calisaya)  bark is boiled with water  acidulated with sulphuric
or hydrochloric acid.  The residuum  boiled a second  or  a  third time with  acidulated water.
Some repeat the process a fourth time.  Finely-powdered  slacked lime is  added to the  filtered
decoction (when cold), until the  liquor is sensibly alkaline, and acquires  a dark colour.  The
precipitate is collected, drained on a cloth, and then submitted to graduated pressure (usually
in a hydraulic press)   The cake thus obtained is, when dry, reduced to powder, and digested
in rectified  spirit.  The filtered  tincture is distilled until  the residuum (impure quina) in the
retort has a brown viscid appearance.  This  residuum  is  then to be  carefully saturated with
very diluted sulphuric acid, the solution filtered, and set aside to crystallize.   The disulphate of
quina  thus  obtained  is yellowish-brown.   It  is drained in  a cloth, compressed, dissolved in
water, decolorized by  animal charcoal, recrystallized, and dried.   This last  part of the  process
mus-t be very carefully conducted, to avoid etilorescence.
  Some persons think it preferable to convert the quina of  this alcoholic solution into a sulphate
before distillation, in  order to separate the fatty matter.  I am  informed, by a maker  of this
salt, that the use of spirit  in the process does not, on the  large scale, add  much more than a
penny an  ounce to the cost of the disulphate, as the greater part is recovered.
  On the  large scale, the decoction of the bark is  usually prepared in a large vat,
the boiling being effected by steam.   The acidulated decoction contains the  quina,
the cinchonia, the  yellow colouring  matter, the  red  cinchonic, the kinic, and  the
sulphuric  (or  hydrot-lii  nii>  acids.   The lime  saturates all the  acids, and forms
soluble salts (if sulphuric acid  have been employed, sulphate of lime is formed, the <
greater part of which precipitates),  which remain  in the liquid with  a portion of
red colouring matter.   The precipitate is composed of quina, cinchona, a combina- 
694
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rubiaceje.
tion of lime and red cinchonic, fatty matter, excess of lime, and when sulphuric
acid has been employed, sulphate of lime; the whole is contaminated with colour-
ing  matter.  Alcohol extracts from this precipitate the quina and cinchonia the
fatty matter, and the  colouring matter;  leaving undissolved the excess of lime the
compound of lime with the red  cinchonic, and, when sulphuric has been used sub
phate of lime.   The sulphuric acid  being then added to the impure quina, converts
it into a disulphate.   On account of the expense of spirit of wine, various substi-
tutes have  been proposed.   Pyroxilic spirit has been tried ; but I believe has not
answered.   Pelletier  has taken out a patent for  the employment of a volatile oil
(oil  of  turpentine).   The dried cake of quina and lime, obtained in the usual man-
ner, is  to be digested in oil of turpentine, which dissolves the quina.   The oleagi-
nous solution is  then to be agitated with water acidulated with sulphuric acid by
which a sulphate of quina is obtained.   By repose, the oil rises to the top, and
after removal may be employed  again, while  the solution of the sulphate is to be
evaporated  as usual.  Hitherto, however, this process has not succeeded, partly be-
cause  the turpentine does  not extract more than nineteen-twentieths of the quina
present.  If any attempts, however, should be made to procure  the disulphate in
America, it is possible that some modification of this process would be the  best.
   Disulphate of quina occurs in small, fibrous, odourless, very bitter crystals, which
have a pearly aspect, and  a flexibility like amianthus.   Exposed to the air, they
effloresce slightly.   When heated, they become  luminous; friction promotes this
phosphorescence.  At 240° F. they melt like wax;  at a more elevated temperature
the salt assumes a fine red colour;  and when  ignited  in the air burns, leaving at
first a carbonaceous residuum, but which is subsequently dissipated.   One  part of
this salt requires 80 parts of  cold alcohol (sp. gr. 0.850) or 740 parts of cold, or
30  parts of boiling water to dissolve it; as the saturated solution cools, part of the
salt separates.   A  remarkable  property of this salt is to give a  blue tinge to the
surface of  water (see  Quina, ante).   The  following  is the  composition   of this
salt:—
                                    Atoms.
       Sulphuric Acid............1.....
       OJuina................2.....
       Water................8.....
Eq. Wt.	Per. Cent
40 ....	.... 9.17
	
72 ....	
       Crystallized Disulphate of Quina ... 1........436........100.00

   By exposure  to the air the crystals  lose 4 (Soubeiran says 6) equivalents of
 water, equal to about eight per  cent.   When  fused they evolve  two more equiva-
 lents.   One hundred grains of the crystals dissolved in water, acidulated with hy-
 drochloric acid, yield, by the addition of chloride of barium, a quantity of sulphate
 of baryta, which, when ignited, weighs 20.6 grs.   For the tests, see Quina, ante.
   Adulterations.—Various foreign  bodies (as earthy and alkaline salts, gum, sugar,
 starch, fatty matters, sulphate of cinchonia,  and salicine) are, it is said, occasionally
 intermixed  with disulphate of quina.  The following  are the tests  by which the
 presence of these bodies  is  ascertained :   By  digesting  disulphate of quina in
 alcohol  this  salt  is  dissolved, leaving  any alkaline or  earthy sulphates, gum, or
 starch, that may be  present.   Gum  is soluble in cold water;  starch is  coloured
 blue by a solution of iodine.  When heated in the open air the disulphate of quina
 is burned  and  dissipated;  tbe earthy  salts,  on the other hand, are left.  The
 disulphate is soluble in water acidulated with sulphuric acid, whereas, fatty matters
 are insoluble.   To detect  sugar, add to a solution of the  disulphate, carbonate of
 potash:  quina is precipitated, while sulphate of potash and sugar are left in  solu-
 tion ;  the latter may  be detected by its sweet taste,  or by evaporating the  liquid to
 dryness, and digesting the  residue with spirit, which dissolves the sugar, but leaves
the sulphate.  Ammoniacal salts are detected by the ammoniacal odour emitted on
 the addition of caustic potash.  Salicine may be recognized by oil of  vitriol, whicfi
turns it red.  Sulphate of cinchonia may be made  to  crystallize  in  a pulverulent
form, by stirring  tbe  solution, and in this state it may be  readily intermixed ww 
Gambir :—History.
695
disulphate of quina.   This fraud, I suspect, has been recently carried on to no very
slight extent.   To detect it,  precipitate a solution of  the suspected salt in water by
potash; collect the precipitate, and boil it in alcohol.   The cinchona crystallizes as
the liquor cools, while the quina remains in the mother-liquor.
  The characteristic marks  of  the purity of disulphate of quina are, according to
the London College, as follows:—
  "It is dissolved by water, especially when mixed with  an acid.  Quina is  thrown  down by
ammonia; the liquor being evaporated ought not to taste of sugar.  One hundred parts of disul-
phate of quina lose eight or ten part* of water by a gentle  heat. It is destroyed by heat. Chlo-
rine being first  added  to it, and afterwards ammonia, it  becomes  green."   From  100 grains
dissolved in  water mixed with hydrochloric acid, 26.6 grains of sulphate of barytes, dried at a
red heat, are obtained.
  The characters given by the Edinburgh College  are  as follows :—
  " A solution of ten grains in a fluidounce of  distilled water, and  two or three drops of sul-
phuric acid,  if decomposed by a  solution of  half an ounce  of carbonate of soda, in two waters,
and heated till the precipitate shrinks  and fuses, yields, on cooling, a solid mass, which, when
dry, weighs 7.4  grains, and in powder dissolves eniirely in a solution of oxalic acid."
  The quantity of carbonate of soda  required to decompose 10 grs. of disulphate of
quina, to which a few drops (say six grains) of sulphuric  acid have been added, is
less than twenty-five grains.1
   Disulphate  of quina is  given in  doses of from gr. j to grs. v.  Occasionally, it is
exhibited in much larger doses as a febrifuge; but it is very apt to disagree, causing
disturbance of stomach, febrile disorders, and  headache.   I have known  fourteen
grains taken, and have heard of  a scruple  or half a drachm  being exhibited at a
dose.  It may be given either in the form of pill, made with conserve of roses, or dis-
solved in some aqueous liquid by the aid of an  acid. Infusion of roses is a favourite
vehicle for it.   An ointment (composed of 3J of disulphate of quina and 3lj  of lard)
rubbed into the axilla has been used with success to  cure ague in children.3
  16.  TINCTURA (U'lNJE COMPOSITA, L.; Compound Tincture  of Quinine.—(Disul-
phate of Quinine 3v and 5j ;  Tincture of Orange  Oij.  Digest for  seven days, or
until the quinine be dissolved, and strain.)—The solution is  hastened  by digesting
the mixture in a warm place.   Mr. Squire states that in seven days only 39-40ths
of the quinine are dissolved.   Every  fluidrachm contains about one  grain of the
disulphate.—Dose, f3j to fjij, or more.
  17.  QIINjE MURIAS, D.—A process  for preparing  this salt is given  in the Dublin
Pharmacopoeia.   It  is procured in decomposing a solution of Disulphate of Quina
by a solution of Chloride of Barium.   It is employed in the preparation of  the
Valerianate of Quinine.

  18.  ([UNjE  VALERIANAS, D.—This salt  is  prepared in decomposing  Muriate of
Quina, by the Valerianate of Soda (see ante, p. 615.).
       233. UNCARIA GAMBIER, Roxburgh.—THE GAMBIR.
                              Nuuclea Gambir, Hunter.
                           Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Monogynia.
            (The extract obtained from the leaves, E.; Gambir, or Gambir-Cutechu.)
  History.— Gambler,  or Gambir,  is the Malay name of an extract obtained
from the leaves of this shrub.  Rumphius3 has described the plant under the name
of Funis uncafus or Daun  Gatta (lambir.
  Botanv.  Gen. Char.—Limb of calyx short, urceolate, 5-cleft.   Corolla funnel-
shaped ; tube slender; throat naked ;  lobes  5, spreading, oval-oblong.   Anthers in-
closed or protruded.  Style filiform,  protruded ; stigma  tumid, undivided.  Capsides
pedicellate, clavate, tapering to the  base.  Seeds numerous, imbricated, winged.—
 Mr. R. Plullipi, Lond. Med. Gaz. Aug. 17, 1S30.              > Lond. Med. Gaz. April 3, 1840.
i Herb. Amboin. vol. v. tub. 34. 
696
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rubiace^.
Climbing shrubs.  Peduncles when old becoming axillary compressed hooked spines
Flowers in loose heads. (Lindley; De Cand.)
   Sp. Char.—Branches terete.   Leaves ovate-lanceolate, acute, with short petioles
smooth on  both  sides.   Stipules ovate-   Peduncles  axillary,  solitary, opposite'
bracteolated about tbe middle; the lowest ones sterile, converted into hooked <inin.-'
(DeCand.)                                                              '[
   A stout, scandant shrub.   Florets green and pink.    Capsules stalked elevate
2-celled, 2-valved.                                                      '      '
   Hab.—Islands of East Indian Archipelago.   Extensively cultivated.  On the
Island of Bintang there are 60,000  Gambir plantations.1-
   Extraction op  Gambir.—Two  methods  of obtaining Gambir are described:
one consists  in  boiling the  leaves in water,  and  inspissating the decoction • the
other, which  yields the best  Gambir, consists in infusing the leaves in  warm w'ater
by which a fecula is  obtained, which  is  inspissated by  the  heat of the sun  and
formed into cakes.2
   Dr.  Campbell3  has described  the  method of making the circular or cylindrical
variety of Gambir, as  followed  in the  colony established by the Sultan of Mooo
where the manufacture is carried on  to a considerable extent.   It consists in shred-
ding and bruising the young shoots and leaves " in water for some hours, until a
fecula is deposited;  this, inspissated in  the sun  to the  consistence of a paste, is
thrown into moulds  of a circular form, and in this  state the Gambir is brought to
market."   Dr.  Roxburgh4  describes the manufacture of the cubical  variety as
practised eastward  to  the Bay of Bengal.  The  process consists in " boiling the
leaves and young shoots; evaporating the decoction by fire and the heat of the sun.
When sufficiently inspissated, it  is spread out  thin, and cut into little square cakes,
and dried."  Mr. Bennett5 has given a very full account of the method of making
the cubical variety as  practised  at Singapore.  The leaves are  plucked from the
prunings, and boiled in a qualie, or cauldron (made of bark, with an iron bottom);
after being boiled twice and rinsed, they are used  as a manure for the  pepper vine.
The decoction is evaporated to  the  consistence of a very thick extract,  of a light
yellowish-brown  colour, like clay, which is placed in oblong moulds.   The pieces
thus obtained are divided  into squares,  and dried  in the sun on a raised platform.
Hunter6 says, Sago is often intermixed with the extract, but Bennett denies that this
is done at Singapore.   [The decoction of the  leaves is said to be thickened  by the
manufacturers at Singapore by stirring it with a piece of wood obtained from a tree
of the country, which it is to be presumed supplies  mucilaginous and  starchy mat-
ters.   Seemann,  unfortunately, could not succeed  in obtaining  this wood from the
Chinaman whose laboratory he visited.7—Ed.]  The best Gambir is made at Rhio,
in the Isle of Bintang; the next best is that of Lingin.
   Commerce.—Gambir (the cubical variety) is  imported from  Singapore  princi-
pally.  Its principal  use here is for tanning; and  among dealers it is distinguished
from  catechu, cutch, &c. by the  name of terra japonica.   The following are the
quantities imported  during the last four years :—8
          In 1836...........970 tons. I In 1838..........1600 tons.
           1837...........2738    j  1839..........5213

   During the last three years, its price bas varied from 15s. to 26s. per  cwt.  The
duty on it is Is. per cwt.  It is brought over in cane  baskets, lined with  palm leaves.
Mr. Bennett says they are made of  a kind of rattan found in  the jungle at  Sin-
gapore.
   Description and Varieties.—Gambir (Terra  Japonica, oi tanners; Catechu
in square cakes,  of  druggists;   Cubical Resinous  Catechu,  of Guibourt; Gambir

  > Bennett's Wanderings, ii.                  3 Asiatic Researches, xi. 183.
  ' Roxburgh, Fl. Ind. i. 518.                  4 Ibid.
  ' Wanderings, ii. 163.                      6 Linn. Trans, ix.                    „,ft
  * Hooker's Journal of Botany.                s Messrs. Powell's Annual Price Current lur it*"- 
Gambir :—Description and Varieties.
697
  of Second Quality, Bennett),1 occurs  in cubes,  whose faces are about one inch
  square.   When thrown into water, it floats.  These cubes are externally of a deep
  reddish or yellowish-brown  colour ; their fracture  is dull and porous, and internally
  their colour  is  paler  than  that of their surface, being yellowish cinnamon brown;
  the fractured surface not unfrequently presenting some darker feebly shining stripes,
  extending from without inwards.   This kind has  no odour ; its taste is powerfully
  astringent and  bitter, but  subsequently becoming sweetish.   It  melts  entirely in
  the mouth.   When heated  in a platinum crucible it undergoes a kind of semifu-
  6ion, and  swells up; and when incinerated leaves  a light white ash.  Nees v. Esen-
  beck2 says twenty grains of  this Gambir leave only half a grain of ash.  It is par-
  tially soluble in cold water.  When boiled in water, it is almost completely dissolved,
  and yields a decoction which, while hot, is of a  clear reddish-brown colour, but, on
  cooling, becomes turbid, owing to the deposition of catechine.  By digestion in
  ether, it forms  a deep  reddish-brown tincture, which, by evaporation, yields a reddish-
  brown astringent  extract;  the portion which is  insoluble in  ether  is dark-brown,
  tough and elastic.   Examined  by the microscope, Gambir is  found  to consist in
  great part of myriads of minute crystals (catechine) intermixed with a  kind of
  mucous tissue.
    Mr. Bennett3 has described three qualities of Gambir, specimens of which are contained  in
  my own collection, as well as  in  that of the Medico-Botanical  Society of London.   To  these I
  must add a fourth, which I  have received from Professor Guibourt.
    1.  Small Circular  Moulded Gambir:  Gambir  of the first quality, Bennett;  Lozenge
  Gambir.—This occurs in  small  round cakes, about the size of a small lozenge.  Its form is some-
  thing like that of a plano-convex lens, slightly flattened on the convex side. One of its surfaces
  is flat, round, about half  an  inch in diameter;  the other  one is convex, with a star like  pattern
  impressed on it.  Its  colour  is  pale pinkish yellowish white.  It  has a chalky or earthy feel,
  and is brittle.  Specimens of this are  in the collection  of the Medico-Botanical Society.
    Amylaceous Lozenge.Gambir.—Under the name of Gambir, or  China Catechu,  I have received
  from  Bombay small circular cakes of  Gambir adulterated with sago meal.  The cakes are cir-
  cular  and cylindrical, about 3^  lines in  diameter, and  2 lines  thick; flat at  the bottom, and
  slightly convex at the top. They are grayish yellowish white;  have a cretaceous feel, and are
  easily reduced to powder.  Their decoction, when cold, is rendered blue by tincture of iodine.
  Examined  by the miscroscope,  multitudes of particles of sago may be detected,intermixed with
  crystal.s of catcchine.  I  have  received the same kind of  Gambir from  Dr. D. Maclagan, of
  Edinburgh, under the name of White  Gambir.
    2.  Gambir in Parallelopipeds : Gambir of the second quality, Bennett.—This  occurs in
  two forms: cubes (forming the  Gambir of English commerce, described in the text) and square
  prisms or  oblong pieces.  The  latter  I received  from  Dr. Maclagan, of Edinburgh, under the
  name of Yellow Gambir in parallelopipeds.  The length of the prisms is two inches ; the »ize of
  the terminal faces half an inch square.  In other respects the  oblong variety agrees with the
  square kind.
    3.  Cylindrical Gambir:  Gambir of the third quality,  Bennett.—This occurs in circular
  disks, or short cylindrical pieces, the length of the cylinder being only about one-third of an inch,
  while its diameter is one inch  and a  quarter.   One of the round surfaces is marked with the
  fibres  of a cloth, on which  the cakes  have been dried.  The  colour internally is pale, dull,
  pinkish yellow, externally being a shade darker.  Its fracture is dull  and  porous.  It is easily
  scraped to powder with  the nail, and  in this state has a chalky  feel.  Its taste is astringent,but
f  less so than the other  kinds; it is gritty under the teeth. It sinks  in water.   The samples in
  the .Medico-Botanical Society are somewhat smaller than those which I have found in commerce.
  This  kind contains many impurities.
    4.  Cubical Amylaceous  Gambir.—It  is in cubes, which  swim in water, and  whose
  faces  are about half  an  inch square.   Externally these  cubes  are dark brown, being darker
  coloured than the kind just described. Its fracture is dull and porous, its colour internally being
  pale cinnamon brown.   It is readily distinguished from all other kinds of Gambir, by the black
  colour produced when the tincture of iodine is applied to the fractured surface. When digested
  in water it is resolved into two parts—
            Matter soluble  in water...........................45
           Matter insoluble in water, principally amylaceous.............55

                                                                           100
    Tlie amylaceous matter is probably sago.
1 Med. and Phys. Journ. vol. lxv.i.
• Med. and Phys. Journ. lxvii.
2 Handb. d. med. pharm. Botan. 1. S81. 
698             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Orb. Caprifoliace^e.

   Composition.—Gambir  (the cubical variety) was  analyzed by Nees v. Esen-
beck,1 who found Tannic  Acid 36  to 40  per cent., Peculiar Matter Cum or
Gummy Extractive,  Tannic  Deposit (similar to red cinchonic), and 2-1- per cent
of Woody Fibre.
   1.  Taxxic  Acid.—The properties  of this acid have been before (p. 326) described.  That
extracted from  Gambir is soluble  in water, alcohol, and ether, and gives a green  colour to the
salts of iron.
  2.  Catechine; Catechuic Acid; Tanningensdure,  Buchner;  Resinous Tannin, Nees.__When
Gambir is treated with  cold water, an insoluble residuum is left; this is impure catechine ami
was termed by Nees, Resinous Tannin.  When obtained quite pure, it is a white, light powder
composed of silky needles, having a peculiar sweet taste.  It is very slightly soluble only in
cold  water, more so in boiling water.  Ether, and especially alcohol, are better solvents for it.
It produces a green colour with  salts of iron, but does not produce a precipitate with a gelatinous
solution.  Its composition is C15 H6 O6.  If it be digested in caustic  potash, and the solution
exposed to the air, oxygen is absorbed, and the catechuic  acid is converted into Japonic Acid
composed of C12 H4 O4.   But if it be dissolved in carbonate of potash, and exposed to the air
without heat, it is converted into Rubinic Acid, composed of C2i H8 O8.
   Physiological Effects.—Gambir  is  one of the most  powerful of the pure
astringents, whose effects have been before described (see vol. i. p. 201).  Its sweet
taste depends, in  part at least, on catechuic acid.
   Uses.—It is employed by druggists as catechu (see Acacia Catechu).
   [Gambir is the name applied to  the extract of the  leaves, while catechu is the
extract  of the inner wood.—Ed.]
  Order LIV.  CAPRIFOLIACE^,  Jussiea.—THE HONEY-

                              SUCKLE TRIBE.

  Characters.—Calyx superior, 4- or 5-cleft, usually with two or more  bracts at its base.
Corolla superior, monopetalous or polypetalous, rotate or tubular, regular or irregular. Stamens
epipetalous, equal in number to the lobes of the corolla, and alternate with them.  Ovary with
from 1 to 3 or 4 cells, one of which is often  monospermous. the other  polyspermous: in  the
former, the ovule is pendulous; style 1; stigmas l,or 3 to 4. Fruit indehiscent, lor more celled,
either dry, fleshy, or succulent, crowned by the persistent lobes of the calyx. Seeds either soli-
tary and pendulous, or numerous and  attached to the axis; testa often long;  embryo straight, in
fleshy albumen ; radicle next the hilum.—Shrubs or herbaceous plants, with opposite leaves, desti-
tute of stipules.   Flowers usually corymbose, and often sweet-scented (Lindley).
  Properties.—Not uniform.


       234. SAMBUCUS NIGRA, Linn -COMMON ELDER.
                             Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Trigynia.
                (Flores, I..—Flowers, E— Flores, Baccae, Cortex interior, D.)

  History.—Hippocrates employed the elder (ax-fr)) in medicine.
  Botany.  Gen. Char.—Limb of the calyx  small, 5-cleft.  Corolla rotate, pitcher-
shaped, 5-cleft;  its lobes  obtuse.   Stamens 5.    Style  none.   Stigmas 3, sessile.
Berry roundish, scarcely  crowned, pulpy, 1-celled (Gaertn.), 3-  to 5-seeded; funiculi
bearing the oblong seeds in the axis  of tbe fruit. (De Cand.)   *
  Sp. Char.—Stem shrubby, somewhat  arboreous.   Leaves pinnatisect, smooth;
segments ovate-lanceolate, serrate.   Corymbs 5-partite.  (De Cand.)
  Stem much and irregularly (though always oppositely)  branched, of quick  growth;
branches  (after a year's  growth) clothed with smooth gray bark,  and  filled with a
light  spongy pith.  Leaflets deep green, smooth, usually 2-pair, with  an odd one.
Cymes [corymbs] large,  smooth, of numerous cream-coloured flowers, with a sweet
but faint  smell; some in each cyme sessile.  Berries globular, purplish-black; their
stalks reddish  (Smith).
  Hab.—Indigenous : in hedges, coppices, and woods; common.     ^           ,
  Description.—The  liber or inner  bark (cortex interior sambuci)  is collected
' Pharm. Centr.-Blatt fUr 1830, 45. 
Nat. Ord.  Araliace;e.
699
from the branches: its colour is greenish-white;  its taste sweetish  astringent;  its
odour feeble.   Its infusion is rendered slightly green by the sesquichloride of iron.
Elder flowers ([flores sambuci) are white when fresh, but by drying  become yellow,
and retain  an agreeable odour. Elder berries (baccse sambuci) yield, by expression,
a purple juice, called elder rob.
   Composition.—I am unacquainted with  any analysis of elder bark.1  The flowers
were analyzed by Eliason,9 who obtained from them volatile oil, acrid resin, tannic
acid, oxidixd cxf native, nitrogenous extractive, gum, woody fibre, glutinous matter,
albumen, malates of potash and lime, mineral salts, and a trace of sulphur. Elder
juice contains ma fie. acid, a little citric acid, sugar, pectin, and cohuring matter,
which is reddened by acids, and made green by alkalies.
   Physiological Effects.—The flowers, owing to  their  volatile  oil, are  mildly
stimulant,  and, perhaps, sudorific.   The berries are cooling, aperient, and diuretic.
The inner  bark (liber) is hydragogue, cathartic, and emetic.   The leaves, probably,
possess  similar, though less energetic, properties.
   Uses.—The flowers are  seldom employed, except in  the preparation of elder-
flower water and elder ointment.  The use of the berries  is now almost solely con-
fined to the manufacture  of elder  vine.   The  inspissated juice of  the berries  is,
however, an officinal preparation.   The inner bark has been used as a hydragogue
cathartic in dropsy.  It may be given in decoction (prepared  by boiling 3j of the
bark in Oij of water to Oj), in doses of f^iv.  Smaller doses have been used as
an aperient and resolvent in various chronic disorders.
   1. AQUA  SAMBUCI, L. E.; Elder  Water.—(Elder Flowers [fresh],  Ibx;  Water
Cong, ij; Rectified Spirit f^iij, E.  Mix  them, and let a  gallon  distil.)—Elder
water is frequently made from the pickled flowers (flores sambuci saliti),  which are
prepared with alternate layers of  the flowers and  common salt compressed and pre-
served  in  a well-closed vessel  [usually  a  cask] ; the  water which exudes being
rejected. It is principally used as a perfume.
   2. I'XGI'EXTl'M SAMBUCI, L.; Elder Ointment—(Elder Flowers,  Lard, of  each
ibj.   lioii  the  Eldur  Flowers in  the Lard until they become  crisp; then press
through a linen cloth.)—The Unguentum Sambuci, Ph. L., is the white elder oint-
ment of the shops.  Except in its agreeable odour it has no advantage over sperma-
ceti ointment.   It  is popularly used as a cooling application to irritable surfaces.


Order LV. ARALIACE./E, Richard.—TllE ARALIA TRIBE.
                                 AralijE, Jussieu.
                     235. Panax quinquefolium.—Ginseng.
  1.  Panax  auiNauEFOLiuM,  Linn,  is  a native of North
America, growing in the Northern, Middle, and Western States
of the Union. Its root  is the American Ginseng (radix ginseng).
It is exported to China, where it is highly valued.  Pieces of
it are said to be occasionally found intermixed with senega root.
  2.  Panax  Niiinseng, Nees  v. Esenbeck, is a  native  of
Asia, and has been usually confounded  with the preceding
species.  Nees admits three  varieties: P. Schin seng, var. Co-
rait nsis;  P.Srhin-seng, var. japonica; and P. Schin-seitg.xar. ne-
palensis (P. Pseudo-ginseng, VVallich). The root of this species
is the Asiatic Ginseng  (radix ninsi).
  The Chinese physicians ascribe the  most  improbable and
extravagant virtues to ginseng.  They regard it as an invigo-
rating  and aphrodisiac agent   At Pekin, it is said to  have
heen sometimes worth its weight in gold!  To the taste it is
mucilaginous, sweetish, somewhat bitter, and slightly aromatic.
In Europe, it is believed to possess very little power.
  1 Sunon hie analyzed tlie bark of the root, and states that its active  principle is a soft uncrystallizable
tihiii.  Tuinty grains of the nlcoholi'- extract of the bark produced vomiting four or five times, and as
innny stools {journal </• I hurmncie, 1S40, p. 247).
  ■Gmclm, Handb. dt Clum. ii. 1279.
. Fig. 349.
Panax quinquefolium. 
700
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Umbellifer^e.
Fig. 350.
Order   LVI.   UMBELLIFER^E,  Jussieu,—THE  UMBELLI-

                               FEROUS  TRIBE.

                                    Apiacejs, Lindley.

  Diagnosis.—Polypetalous dicotyledons, with definite perigynous stamens, concrete carpella
an  inferior ovarium of several cells, pendulous solitary ovula, leaves sheathing at the base'
umbellate flowers, embryo at the base of fleshy albumen.
  Characters.—Tube of the calyx adherent to the ovary;  the  limb [superior calyx of Lindltii]
entire, or 5-toothed, or obsolete.  Petals 5, inserted into the upper part of the calyx ["inserted
on  the outside of a fleshy epigynous disk, Lindley], usually inflexed at  the  point- activation
imbricate, rarely valvate.   Stamens 5, alternate with the petals, incurved  in Eestivation.  Ovary
[inferior, Lindley']  adherent to the calyx, 2- (rarely 1-) celled, with solitary pendulous  ovules:
styles 2, distinct, incrassated  at the  base into, stylopodia, covering the whole of the ovarium-
                                         stigmas simple.  Fruit (called diachana, polyachana
                                         or cremocarpium, from K^ptaiu,  I suspend, and xa»wc,
                                        fruit) consisting of two mericarps (from jui^f, a
                                        part)  (i.  e. 2 carpella, with  half of the calyx at-
                                         tached, so that  they can  be called neither carpdla
                                         nor achenia), separable from a common axis (carpo-
                                        phorus, from K*?iroc, fruit, and <poee»>, I bear),\o which
                                         they  adhere  by their  face (commissure) ; the dorsal
                                         surface of each carpel is  traversed by ridga, of
                                         which  5 are primary (costa, seu juga primaria), and
                                         4 secondary  (juga secundaria) : the latter are some-
                                         times absent;  the  spaces between the ridges are
                                         called channels (vallecula;).  In the channels,  within
                                         the pericarp, are  sometimes linear oily receptacles,
                                         called vitta..  Seed pendulous, usually adhering in-
                                         separably to the pericarp, rarely loose; embryo minute,
                                         pendulous from the  apex of the axis (carpophorus);
                                        radicle pointing to  the hilum;  albumen abundant,
                                         horny, flat (Orthospernux), or rolled inwards  at the
edges (Campylosperma), or rarely curved inwards from the  base to  the apex (Ccclosperma).—Her-
baceous plants, with fistular furrowed stems.   Leaves usually divided, sometimes simple, sheath-
ing at the base.   Flowers  in  umbels, white,  pink, yellow, or blue, generally surrounded by an
involucre (condensed from De Candolle).
  Properties.—Extremely variable.
  The Umbelliferse may be thus arranged:—
      Fruit of Pastinaca sativa.
      a, Dorsal surface.
      b, Horizontal section of the fruit.
a,b b, c c, juga primaria;  1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
              vittse.
1. Umbelliferous carminative fruits used in medicine :—
         Caraway.            Angelica.
         Anise.               Dill.
         Fennel.              Cumin.
2. Umbelliferous roots used in medicine :—
         Angelica.            Carrot.
3. Umbelliferous fetid gum Resins :—
         Assafetida.          Galbanum.
         Sagapenum.          Ammoniacum.
4. Narcotic umbelliferce:—
         Conium.
Carrot.
Coriander.
Faenugreek.
Opoponax.
            1. Umbelliferous  Aromatic  or  Carminative Fruits.

   Vitta.—These are not present  in  all umbelliferous  fruits.  They exist, however, in all the
fruits now under  consideration.   In  fact,  these  fruits  owe  their aromatic and carminative
qualities to the oil  contained in these vittae.
  a. In general, the vittce are found in the channels or valleculai; and in some cases there is only
one—in others there are more than one vitta in each channel.   Sometimes there are vitta; also
at the commissure.
       Ex.— Univittate channels (bivittate commissure): Caraway: Fceniculum; Anethum; Cu-
              min  ; Carrot.
       Ex.—Multivittale channels: Anise.
  b. In some  cases, however, the  vittce axe not found in  the channels, but;in the commissure only'.
       Ex.— Coriander: cominUsure bivittate. 
           Common Caraway:—History; Botany; Description.         701

  The contents of these vittae is an oleo-resinous juice.  It is usually deeply coloured.  Probably
primitively it is oil  (volatile) which has  become resinified by the air.
  Volatile Oil.—When the fruits are submitted to distillation with water, the volatile oil comes
over with the water.
  The quantity obtained varies with the fruit and a variety of circumstances.  In  a general
way, we may say 4 or 5 per cent, is the amount.
  It is probable that in all cases there are two oils obtained from the fruit; one a pure hydro-
carbon—the other an  oxyhydrocarbon.   At  least, in  a few cases, by redistilling  the oil  with
caustic potash, we obtain a  pure hydrocarbon.  In the case of caraway oil, this hydrocarbon
(carum) has for its formula C10 H8.  In the case of cumin, it (cumen) has a formula C1S H24.
  The oxyhydrocarbonaceous oil is probably an acid  formed by tbe union of the hydrocarbon with
atmospheric oxygen.  A still  higher oxidation probably furnishes a resin.  The agency of the
potash, in the distillation, is to fix the acid by combining with it; the non-acid  or pure hydro-
carbon then distils over.
  Di-solved in alcohol we obtain the so called spirits (as of caraway, anise, Sec).   Besides the
pharmaceutical preparations of this kind, there are analogous ones sold by the spirit dealer
under the name of compounds or British liqueurs (as aniseed, caraway, &c). These are weaker
than the pharmaceutical spirits, and sweetened.
  Dilfused through, or slightly dissolved in water, these oils  impregnate the  water with  their
odour, and to a certain extent with  their medicinal properties.  Caraway, dill, anise, and other
waters, are examples.
  Of the properties of the oils individually some remarks will be made hereafter. Those which
are subject to fraud or substitution, accidental or purposed, especially deserve notice.
   I. Oil of Fennel.—There are two varieties—the oil of sweet fennel and the oil of wild fennel.
The London College orders sweet fennel.  The Edinburgh College adopts Fceniculum officinale.
Now, this by botanists is usually regarded as only a variety, perhaps, of the wild fennel.  Chris-
tison says the seed is found  among  nurserymen as  Florence seed.
   2. Oil of Anise.—I notice this  for the purpose of mentioning  that oil of star-anise is fre-
quently substituted for it.  I know  of no ill-consequences likely to result therefrom :  one oil is
probably as good as another.  Still, as there  is a difference in  price,  the substitution of one  for
the other is a fraud.
   Respecting caraway, dill, cumin, angelica, and coriander fruits (called seeds), I have nothing
particular to remark.  Carrot fruit deserves notice  for its structure (see Daucus Carota).
          236.  CARUM  CARUI,  Linn -COMMON CARAWAY.
                                Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Digynia.
                           (Fructus, L.—Fruit, E.—Semina, D.)

     History.—Caraway is not mentioned in the writings attributed to Hippocrates.
   Pliny1 aud  Dioscorides3, however, speak of it:  the former calls it Care urn (from
   Caria, its native country)—the  latter terms it xdpoe.
     Botanv.   Gen. Char.—Margin of the calyx obsolete.   Petals  regular, obovate,
   emarginate, with an innexed lobe.  Stylopodium depressed.  Styles deflexed.  Fruit
   contracted at the side, ovate, or oblong.   Mericarps [half-fruits]  with five  equal
   filiform  ridges, the lateral  ones marginal.   Commissure flat, bivittate.   Channels.
   1-vittate.    Carpophorus free, forked at the apex.  Seeds terete-convex, flat in front.
   —Smooth, often perennial herbs.   Root tuberous, edible.   Leaves pinnatisect; the
% segments many-cleft.   Involucre variable.  Flowers  white. (De Cand.)
^   Sp. Char—Root fusiform.   leaves  bipinnatisect;  the  lower  segments  of the
   branches decussate, all many-cleft.   Involucre none.  (De Cand.)
     Bitnnia 1. Stem branched, about 2 feet high. Umbels numerous, dense. Flowers
   white or pale  flesh-coloured; appear in June.
     Hab.—In meadows and  pastures  all  over Europe; naturalized in  England.
   Largely cultivated in  Essex.
     Inscription.—The  mericarps,  commonly  called caraway seeds (fructus seu
   semina carui) are from 1J to 2 lines long, usually separated, slightly curved inwards,
   of a brownish colour, with  five lighter coloured primary ridges; there are no second-
   ury ones.   In each channel is one vitta, and on the commissure are two.  The smell is
1 Hist. Xat. lib. xix. cap. 49, ed. Valp.
9 Lib. iii. cap. 06. 
702
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Umbelliferje.
Ml

 a. Coriandrum sativum.
 b. Carum Carui.
                                     aromatic  and peculiar,  the taste  warm and
                                     spicy.  The caraway of the shops is in part
                                     the produce of this country, but is partly sup
                                     plied from  Germany.   In  1839, duty (M*
                                     per cwt.) was paid on  515 cwt. which were
                                     imported.
                                        Composition.—No analysis of the fruit has
                                     been  made.   The  aromatic qualities depend
                                     on a volatile oil.   (See  below.)
                                        Physiological  Effects.—Caraway is ;m
                                     aromatic stimulant and condiment,  its  ef-
                                     fects are similar to those of dill and anise.
                                        Uses.—Caraway is principally consumed by
                                     the confectioner and cook.   It is  also used by
                                     the distiller for flavouring liquors.  Its medi-
                                     cinal employment is not extensive. It is given
                                     to relieve the flatulent colic of children, and
                                     enters,  as an  adjuvant  or corrective, into
                                     several officinal compounds.  It is less seldom
 employed in substance than in the form of oil, spirit, or water.

    1. OLEUM  CARUI, L. E. D. [U. S.];  Oil of Caraway.—(Obtained by submitting
 the fruit [bruised, E ] to distillation with  water).—The quantity obtained from a
 given weight of fruit is variable:  Kecluz  says about 4-7 per cent.; but I am in-
 formed, by a manufacturing  chemist, that he has obtained 213 lbs. of  oil from 35
 cwt. of the fruit; which is about 5.43 per cent.   When fresh prepared  it  is colour-
 less ; but it becomes yellow and subsequently brown by keeping.  It is limpid, and
 has  the  aromatic  odour of the  fruit  and an  acrid  taste.   Its sp.  gr. is 0.950
 (0.938, PL.).   According to  Schweizer,1 it consists of carbon 86.14,  hydrotjm
 10.68, and oxygen 3.18.   When submitted  to distillation with  caustic  potash, it
 yields a carbo-hydrogen (caruen), whose formula is C10 II8.   The brown residue in
 the retort yields, when mixed with  water, a brown resin and a brown alkaline solu-
 tion.  If the latter be saturated with an acid and distilled, an acrid oil  (caruacrol)
 is obtained.   Oil of caraway is generally employed in  the preparation of the spirit
 and water.  It is used to impart flavour, to correct the nauseating and griping quali-
 ties of some medicines, and to relieve flatulence. It is  frequently added  to cathartic
 pills and powders.—Dose, one to ten drops.

   [2. SPIRITUS CARUI, L- E.; Spirit of Caraway.—(Oil of Caraway fjij  [Bruised
 Caraway ibss,  E.] ; Proof Spirit Cong, j [Ovij, E.~\.  Mix.  [Water Ojss,  E]
 Macerate for two days in a covered  vessel, E.; distil off Itvij, E.,  by a gentle
 heat.  The simple solution of the oil, as recommended by the London College, is
 by far the best  mode of preparing this and  the other spirits of the Pharmacopoeia.
 —Ed.]  It  is aromatic and carminative.  Dose, f3j to f5iv.  Sweetened  with sugar,
 this spirit is drunk in Germany as a dram (Kumelliqueur;  Kumelbrandtwein).
   8. AQUA  CARUI, L. D.; Caraway  Water.—(Caraway Oil fjij;  Powdered Flint
 Jij ;  Distilled Water Cong. j.  Beat up  the  oil  thoroughly  first with the flint,
 afterwards with the water, and filter the liquor, L.  Essence of Caraway %]; Dis-
tilled Water ^ix.  Mix with  agitation, and  filter through  paper, D.)—This water
is  employed as  a carminative vehicle for purgatives (as saline purgatives, mag-
nesia, &c.) and  in the flatulent colic of children.
I
1 Pharmaceutisches Central-Blatt fur 1841, S. 789. 
Anise:—History;  Botany; Description;  Physiological Effects.   703
         237. PIMPINELLA  ANISUM, Linn— THE ANISE.
                             Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Digynia.
                          (Fructus, I,.—Fruit, E.—Semina,D.)

    History.—Anise was used  by  Hippocrates.1   It is also mentioned by Pliny3
  and Dioscorides.8  The latter terms it avieov.  It was introduced into this country
  in 155L.  In our translation of the New Testament,4 the word anise occurs instead
  of dill.
    Botany.    Gen. Char.—Margin of the calyx  obsolete.   Petals obovate,  emar-
  ginate, with an inflexed  lobe.   Fruit contracted  at the side,  ovate, crowned  by a
  cushion-like disk, and reflexed, somewhat capitate styles.   Mericarps [half-fruits]
  with five filiform, equal  ridges, the  lateral ones being marginal.  Channels multi-
  vittate, with a bifid  free carpophorus.   Seed gibbous  convex, anteriorly flattish.
  Roots ^ simple, radical leaves  pinnatisect; the  segments roundish,  toothed, rarely
  undivided;  those of  the  stem more finely cut.   Umbels of many rays.   Involucre
  none.   Petals white, rarely pink or yellow.  (De Cand.)
    Sp. Char.—Stem  smooth.   Radical leaves  cordate, somewhat roundish, lobed,
  incised, serrate;  middle  ones pinnate lobed, the  lobes cuneate or lanceolate; the
  upper  ones  trifid,  undivided, linear.  Fruit  bearing  a few scattered  hairs.  (De
  Cand.)
    Root tapering.  Stem erect, branched,  about  a  foot  high.   Flowers small
  white.                                                                         '
    Hab.—Island  of Scio and Egypt.   Largely cultivated for  its fruit in Malta,
  Spain,  and various parts of Germany.   It also  grows in  Asia.
   Description.—The fruit,  called  aniseed (fructus seu semina anisi), is slightly
  compressed  at the sides.  The  separated mericarps are ovate, of a grayish-<rreen
  colour, with  five paler, thin, filiform, primary ridges (there are  no  secondary o'nes),
  and covered with  downy hairs.  In  each channel  are three vittaa.   The  odour is
  aromatic, and similar  to  that of the fruit of Illicium anisatum, or star  anise, a
  plant belonging  to the  family Winteraceae.   The taste  is sweetish and aromatic.
  Ity careless observers, aniseed may be confounded with the fruit of hemlock.
   Commerce.—Aniseed  is principally imported from Alicant and  Germany (the
 first is preferred) ; but some is also brought from the East Indies.   In 1839, duty
  (5s. per cwt.) was paid on 192 cwt.
   Composition.—A very elaborate  analysis of  the fruit was made by Brandes and
 Hcimann in  1*26.* The following are their results :  Volatile oil 3.00, stearin com-
 bined uith chlorophylle 0.12, resin 0.58, fatty oil soluble in alcohol 3.38, phytocol
 7.N.), incrystallizable sugar 0.65, gum 6.50, extractive  0.50, substance  analogous
 to ulmin (Anis-ulmin) 8.60,  gumoin 2.90, lignin 32.85, salts (acetate,  malate,
 phosphate, and sulphate)  of lime and potash 8.17, inorganic salts,  with silicic acid
 ami oxide of iron 3.55, water 23.00 (excess 1.65).
■ Oil of Anise (see p.  704).

* Physiological Effects.—Anise is an aromatic stimulant.  Its effects are simi-
 lar  to those of dill.  The odour of anise is said to be recognized  in the  milk of
 those  who have taken  it;   moreover,  the urine, we are told, acquires an unpleasant
 smell  from it; hence it would  appear that  the oil of anise becomes absorbed.  It
 has been supposed to promote the secretion of  milk, uriue, bronchial mucus,  and
 "f the menses, though without sufficient evidence.  Vogel6  says that he accidentally
 discovered that pigeons are readily killed by a few drops of the  oleum ani.-i.  Hil-
leficld7 also notices it.s  poisonous operation on pigeons.

  J Pp_ 20), 285, &c. ed. Iocs.                           ' Hist. Xat. lib. xx. cap. 72, ed. Valp
  l.h.iu.c.-.|i r..-,.                                  * Matth.xxi.i.'iX
  • "'"a-lin, Ihmdb. d. Chem. \.. 1077                      • Hist. Mat. Med.~m.
  W ibincr, Wirk. d. Ann: im. B.J. ix. S 207. 
704
VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord. Umbellifer^b.
  Uses.—Anise is used  to flavour liqueurs, sweetmeats, confectionery of various
kinds, ragouts, &c.
  In medicine, it is employed to relieve flatulence and colicky pains, especially of
children, and to prevent the griping effects of some cathartics.   Nurses sometimes
take it to promote the secretion of milk.  It has also been employed in pulmonary
affections.   It is used as a horse medicine.

  1. OLEUM  ANISI, L. E. D. [U. S.] ;  Oil of Anise.—(Obtained by submitting the
fruit with water to distillation.)—Mr. Brande  says, that from one cwt.  of fruit
about two pounds of oil are obtained.   The greater part of the oil consumed in this
country is foreign.  The oil of anise of the  shops is imported into  this  country
from Germany and the East Indies.   In 1839, duty (Is. Ad. per lb.) was pajd on
1544 lbs.   It is  procured, by distillation, from the  fruit, in whose pericarp it re-
sides.   When carefully prepared it is transparent and nearly colourless, having a
slightly yellow tinge.   It  has the odour and taste of the fruit from which it is ob-
tained.  Its specific gravity increases  with its age; thus Martius  says that, when
the oil is fresh distilled, the specific gravity is only 0.979; but after keeping it for
a year and a half, the specific  gravity has increased to 0.9853.   It congeals at 50°
F.,*and  does not  liquefy again under  62°.   It is soluble in all  proportions in alco-
hol; but spirit whose  specific gravity is 0.84,  dissolves  only 0.42 of its weight.
By  exposure to the air it forms resin,  and  becomes less disposed to concrete.  It is
composed of two volatile oils,  one solid at ordinary temperatures (stearoptene); the
other liquid (eleoptene), in  the following proportions: eleoptene  75, stearoptene 25.
According to Cahours, the stearoptene consists  of CX}11202.
   The oleum badiani, or  the oil of star-anise (Illicium anisatum), has the odour
and taste of the oil of anise;  but it preserves  its fluidity at 35.6 F.  It is some-
times fraudulently substituted for the  oleum  anisi.
   Adulterations.—Spermaceti, which is said to be  sometimes added to oil of
anise, to  promote its solidification,  may be distinguished by its  insolubility in cold
alcohol.   Camphor, said to be  added for the  same purpose, is recognized by its
odour.—Dose, five to fifteen drops  on sugar, or rubbed up with sugar in camphor
mixture.
   t SPIRITUS ANISI,  L.;   Spirit of Anise.—(Oil  of Anise f3iij;  Proof Spirit
Cong. j.   Dissolve.)—Stimulant, stomachic,  and carminative.   Dr. Montgomery1
says that the preparation under this name, formerly in the Dublin Pharmacopoeia,
had nearly the composition of the  Irish Usquebaugh, which is  coloured yellow by
saffron, or green by sap-green.  A  spirit of anise, sweetened  with sugar, is sold by
the liqueur dealers.  A somewhat  similar compound is prepared in France, under
the name of crime d'anise.—Dose, fjj to f3iv.
   S. AQUA ANISI, D.; Anise Water.—(Extemporaneously made by diffusing the oil
through water by the aid  of sugar  or  spirit;  or, according to the Dublin formula,
by mixing 3j of the oil with  half a gallon of water, and filtering.)—Employed t^
relieve flatulent colic of infants, and as a vehicle for other medicines.          fl

  238. FCENICULUM VULGARE, Gart.-COMMON FENNEL.
                               Fceniculum officinale, E.
                            Sex. Syst. Pentandria Monogynia.
   History.—Fennel (pdpa$pov) was used by Hippocrates.2  Some botanists (e. g-
Matthiolus) have been of  opinion  that the  fidpa$pov of Dioscorides3 is sweet fennel
([Foeniculum dulce, De Cand.), and that the Irtrtoudpadpov of  the same authority* is
common fennel (Foeniculum vulgare, De Cand.); but the latter part of the opinion.
from an observation of Bauhin,5 does not appear probable.6
3 P. 551, &c. ed. Fees.
* Lib. :ii. cap. 62.
6 Dierbach, Arzneim. d. Hippocr.
1 Observ. on the Dubl. Pharm.
8 Lib. iii. cap. 81.
5 Prodromus. p. 76, 
    Sweet Fennel:—History; Botany;  Physiological Effects; Uses.  705

     Bota n v.  Gen. Char.—Margin of the calyx swollen, obsolete, toothless.  Petals
   roundish, entire, involute, with a squarish, blunt lobe.   Fruit by a transverse sec-
   tion nearly taper.  Mericarps [half-fruits] with five prominent bluntly-keeled ridges
   of which the lateral ones are marginal,  and rather broader.   Channels univittate!
   Commissure bivittate.  Seed nearly semiterete.—Biennial or perennial herbs.  Stems
   taper, somewhat striated, branched.  Leaves pinnatisect, decompound; the segments
   linear, setaceous.  Inrolurre  scarcely any.   Flowers yellow. (De Cand.)
     Sp. Char.—Stem  somewhat terete at the base.   Lobes of the leaves linear, sub-
   ulate, elongated.   Umbels of 13 to 20 rays.  Involucre none. (De Cand.)
     A biennial, three or  four feet high.  Flowers golden yellow.   Fruit scarcely two
   lines long, oval, of a dark or blackish aspect;  the channel is brownish, owing  to
   the vitta, the ridges are pale-yellowish gray.
     Hab.—Sandy and chalky ground all over Europe.
     Description —The fruit, called  wild fennel seed (semina seu fructus fceniculi
   rulijarh) has  a strong aromatic, acrid taste, and  an aromatic odour.  Its other quali-
   ties have beeu described.
     Composition.—The peculiar properties of the fruit depend on a volatile oil.
    Oil of Commo.v, Wild, or Bitter Fennel  (Oleum Faniculi vulgaris)—A pale yellow lim-
   pid oil, havmg the peculiar odour of the fruit.  Its sp. gr. is 0.997.  It congeals  by a cold below
   oO , though with much more difficulty than oil  of anise.  It consists of a stearoptene which has
   the same composition as that of oil of anise;  and a  liquid oil which is isomeric with oil  of
   turpentine.  [The formula of oil of fennel is C^H^O2.—En.]
     Physiological Effects.—Aromatic  stimulant, similar to those of sweet fennel.
     Uses.—This species  is not employed in medicine.

       239.  FCENICULUM DULCE, C.  Bauhin; De Cand.-SWEET
                                  FENNEL.
                           Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Monogynia.
                                    tFructus,L.)

    History.—This plant is  regarded by some  botanists as  a cultivated variety of
  the former plant.  De Candolle1 is the principal systematic writer who regards them
  as distinct species.
    Botany.   Gen. Char.— See F. vulgare.
    Sp. Char.—Stem somewhat compressed  at the base.  Kadical lea res somewhat
  distichous; lobes capillary, elongated.   Umbels  of six to eight rays. (De Cand.)
    This plant differs from F. vulgare in several  other particulars.  It is an annual
  and much smaller plant.    It flowers earlier.   Its turiones are sweeter, less aromatic
  and  therefore  edible.   The fruit is much longer; some of the  specimens  being
  nearly five lines in length, less compressed, somewhat  curved and  paler, with  a
  greenish  tinge.
4 Hab.—Italy, Portugal, &c.   Cultivated as a pot-herb, and for garnishing.
^Dksciuption.—The fruit, termed sweet fennel seeds (fructus seu semina foeniculi
■P'm vel faniculi cretici), has a more  agreeable odour and  flavour than common
••wild fennel.   Two kinds are known in trade, shorts and longs; the latter is most
  esteemed.
    Composition.—The peculiar properties of the fruit depend on a volatile  oil.
    Physiological Effects—Sweet fennel is an aromatic stimulant;  its effects are
 •similar to those of anise or dill.
    TJsks.—Seldom employed.   May  be  given in the flatulent colic of children, or
 as a carminative vehicle for remedies which are apt  to gripe.

   LOLOT Ffl-XMTLI, L.  E. D. [U. S.];  Oil of Sweet Fennel;  Oleum Faniculi
'fulcis.—(Obtaiued by submitting the fruit [bruised, E.] with water to distillation.)

                                 '  Prodr. iv. 142.
       VOL. II.---15 
706
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Umbellifeiue.
—Nineteen cwt of the fruit (shorts) yield 78 lbs. of oil.1  This oil is distinguished
from the oil of wild fennel by its more agreeable odour and taste.   Stimulant aud
carminative.   Seldom used.—Dose, two to twenty drops.
           FOIGUII, E. D. [U. S.] ; Fennel  Hater.—(Obtained like Aqua Anethi,
see p. 707.)—Carminative.   Employed to relieve flatulent colic  of infants, and
as a vehicle for other medicines.—Dose, for an adult f^j to f^iij; for an infant
f3J t0 f3ij-

       240.  ANETHUM  GRAVEOLENS, Zum.-COMMON
                             GARDEN DILL.
                            Sea:. Syst. Pentandria, Digynia.
                               (Fructus, L.—Fruit, E.)

  History.—This  plant  is mentioned by Hippocrates,3 by Dioscorides,3 and  by
Pliny.4   It is also noticed in the New  Testament.5
  Botany.   Gen. Char.—Margin of the calyx obsolete.  Petals roundish, entire,
involute, with  a squarish  retuse lobe.   Fruit lenticular, flattened from the back,
surrounded by a flattened border.  Mericarps [half-fruits] with equidistant, filiform
ridges;  the three  intermediate [dorsal] acutely keeled, the two lateral  more obso-
lete, losing themselves in the border.    Vittse broad, solitary in the  channels, the
whole of which they fill, two  on the  commissure.   Seeds slightly convex, flat in
front.   Smooth erect annuals.   Leaves decompound, with  setaceous linear lobes,
Involucre and involucellse none.   Flowers yellow. (De Cand.)
  Sp. Char.—Fruit elliptical,  surrounded with flat dilated margin.  (De Cand.)
  Root tapering long.  Stem one and a half to two feet high, finely striated, simply
branched.   Leaves tripinnated; segments  fine  capillary;  leaf-stalks broad  and
sheathing at the base.  The plant  greatly resembles common fennel, though its
odour is less agreeable.
  Hab.—South of Europe,  Astrachan, Egypt, Cape of Good Hope, Timor,  &c.
Probably migratory.   Cultivated in England.
  Description.—The fruit, commonly called dill seed (fructus seu semina anethi),
is oval,  flat, dorsally compressed, about a line and a half long, and from a half to
one line broad, brown  and surrounded by a lighter-coloured  membranous margin
(ala).  Each mericarp (or  half-fruit)  has five  primary ridges,  but  no secondary
ones.   In each channel is  one  vitta,  and on the commissure are two vittse.  These
vittae contain the aromatic oil.   The odour  of the fruit is strongly aromatic; the
taste  warm and pungent.
  Composition.—Dill owes its peculiar properties to a volatile oil.  (See below.)
  Physiological Effects.—Aromatic stimulant, carminative and condimentary,
analogous to other aromatic  umbelliferous fruits.
  Uses.—Employed  as a condiment  by the Cossacks.  Loudon6 says the leaves
" are used to heighten the relish of some vegetable pickles, particularly cucumbei
and also occasionally in soups  and pickles."
   In medicine, it is principally employed in  the diseases of children.  It is a
mon domestic remedy among  nurses, to relieve  flatulence  and griping of infants.
Occasionally j it is taken under the idea of its  promoting the  secretion of myk
Practitioners  generally use  dill as a vehicle  for  the exhibition  of purgative  and
other medicines to children, the griping of which it assists in  preventing.  The
whole fruits may be given to adults in doses of ten grains to a drachm.
  1. OLEUM ANETHI, L. [IJ. S.]; Oil of Dill.—(Obtained by submitting the  bruised
fruit  of dill, with water, to  distillation.)—Two cwt.  of  the fruit yield  81bs. 5 ozs.
of oil."  This oil  is  pale  yellow.   Its  sp. gr. is  0.881.   Its odour is peculiar and

  1 Private information.                               a Opera, p. 359, ed. Fffis.
  8 Lib. iii. cap. 67.                                  * Hist. Nat. lib. xx. cap. 74, ed. Valp
  6 Matt, xxiii 23.                                  * Encyclopedia of Gardening.
  1 Private information.
)erqfr

coW 
         Officinal Cumin:—Description;  Composition; Effects.       707

 penetrating, analogous to that of the fruit.  Its taste is hot, but sweetish.  Alcohol
 and ether  readily dissolve it.   According to Tietzmann, 1440 parts of water dis-
 solve one part of this oil.   Principally used to prepare dill water.   May be taken
 in the dose of a few drops on sugar, or dissolved in spirit.

   2. Aftl'A  ANETHI, L. E.;  Dill Water.—(Dill, bruised, lb. iss. [gxviij, #.] ;  Rec-
 tified Spirit 3iij,  E.;  Water, Cong. ij.   Mix.   Let a gallon  distil.   [Vel, Oil of
 Dill f3ij; Powdered flint 3ij ; Distilled  Water  Cong. j.   Beat up the oil carefully
 first with the flint, afterwards with the water, and strain the liquor.   According to
 the London Pharmacopoeia,  it may be  made like the  Aqua Carui,  by triturating the
 oil with powdered flint and filtering through paper.—Ed.]—Carminative.   Dose
 for adults f|j  to fjiij;  for  infants f3j  to fjiij.   It is generally given  to infants
 with their food.


      241. CUMINUM  CYMINUM, Linn.—THE OFFICINAL
                                   CUMIN.
                            Sex. Syst. Pentandria,  Digynia.
                              (Fructus, L.—Fruit, E.)

   History.—This plant is mentioned  in both the Old and New Testament,1 and
 by Hippocrates,2 Dioscorides,3 and Pliny.*  The Greeks  call it ^w  rl(is?oV vel
 aidtortixov.
   Botany.  Gen. Char.—Teeth of the  calyx 5, lanceolate, setaceous,  unequal,
 persistent.  Petals oblong, emarginate,  erect, spreading,  with an inflexed lobe. Fruit
 contracted at  the side.    Mericarps [half-fruits] with wingless  ridges;  the primary
 ones 5, filiform, minutely muricated, the laterals forming a border;  the secondary
 ones 4,  more  prominent, and aculeate.   Channels under the secondary ridges  1-
 vittate.   Carjwphorus bipartite.   Seed somewhat concave  anteriorly, on the  back
 convex.—Herbs.   Leaves many-cleft; lobes linear,  setaceous.  Leaflets of the in-
 volucre 2 to 4, simple or divided.   Involucellum halved, 2- to 4-leaved, becoming
 reflexed.  Flowers white or pink. (De Cand.)
   Sp. Char.—Lobes  of the  leaves linear, setaceous,  acute.   Umbel 3- to 5-cleft.
 Purtial involucre equalling the pubescent fruit.  (De Cand.)
   Root  annual.    Stem  slender, branched,  about a foot high.   Leaves filiform.
 Flowers white or reddish.
   Hab.—Upper Egypt, Ethiopia.   Extensively cultivated in Sicily and Malta.
   Description.—The fruit, commonly  termed cumin seeds (fructus  seu  semina
 cummi), is larger  than  anise, and of a  light-brown  or grayish-yellow colour.  It
 has some resemblance to, though it is larger  than,  caraway.  Each mericarp has
 five primary ridges, which are filiform, and furnished with very fine prickles.   The
 tour secondary ridges are prominent and  prickly.  Under each of these is one'vitta.
 PThc odour of  the fruit is strong and aromatic.   Both odour and taste are somewhat
  alogous to, but  less  agreeable than, caraway.   Cumin  is  imported from  Sicily
  u xMalta.   In 1839, duty  (2s. per cwt.) was paid on  53  cwt.
  Composition.—The peculiar properties of cumin  reside  in a volatile oil.
  Oil or Clmin; Oleum Cumini.—Obtained by submitting the fruit to distillation with water.
 fcutrcn cwt.  of the  fruit yielded aliout 44  lbs. of oil.   Tliis oil, as  usually met with, is pale-
 yellow and limpid.  Its smell is disagreeable ;  its ta>te very acrid.  It consists of two oils, one
 a carbo-liydro^en, called Cumen or Cymen. C18H21; the  other an oxygenated  oil called Hydruret
 ofCumyl, 0»H"02-f-H.  Cumyl is an hypothetical base composed of CMH"02.  When treated
 wnli caustic  potash, oil of cumin  yields hydrated cuminic acid,  C-0H"034-Aq.  This i« a crvs-
 tnllizable solid.
  Physiological Effects.—Cumin  agrees with the other aromatic  umbelliferous
fruits in  its  mildly  stimulant and carminative qualities.

 ', {'"'"''. "viii. 27; Matthew xxiii. 23.                s Opera, 107, &c. ed. Fees
  Uli. in cup. 03.                                4 Hift  Var lib xix cap  4Tj ed Va,p 
708              VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Umbe^lifer^.

  Uses.—Internally, cumin is rarely used;  caraway being an equally efficient and
a much more agreeable medicine.   As a discutient and resolvent, it is employed
externally, in the form of plaster (Emplastrum cumini,Ph. L. 1824) and cataplasm
(cataplasma e cymino, Quincy).  In the recent London Pharmacopoeia, the Emplas-
trum  Cumini has been restored.   The dose of Cumin seeds is grs. xv to 5*s.  It
is principally used in veterinary surgery.

  [EMPLASTRUM CUMINI, L.—(Cumin, Caraway, Laurel, each giij; Prepared Burgundy
Pitch lbs. iij;  Wax |iij ;  Olive Oil, Water,  each f^iss.  Add the oil and water to
the pitch  and wax, melted together  and powdered dry,  then evaporate  to a proper
consistence.)—This preparation  was excluded from the Ph.  L. of  1836, but is now
restored.—Ed.]

   242. CORIANDRUM SATIVUM, Linn— THE OFFICINAL
                               CORIANDER.
                            Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Digynia.
                          (Fructus, L.—Fruit, E.—Semina, D.)

  History.—Coriander is mentioned by Moses.1   It was used by Hippocrates.'
Dioscorides3 and Pliny4 also mention it. The Greeks called it xdptoi/ or xopiaww.
  Botany.—Gen. Char.—Teeth of the calyx 5, acute, unequal, persistent.  Petah
obovate, emarginate, with an inflexed lobe, the exterior radiating, bifid.   Fruit glo-
bose,  10-ribbed,  scarcely  separating.   Mericarps  [half-fruits]  with five primary,
depressed, wavy ridges, and four secondary ones [besides the marginals] more pro-
minent and keeled.   Channels evittate.  Commissure bivittate.   Carpopodium in
the middle face, semi-bifid, adnate  at the base and apex.   Seed excavated in the
front,  covered with  a  loose membrane.—Smooth herbs.    Stem round.   Leaves
(upper ones at least) many-cleft.   Umbel with three to five rays.   Involucre none.
Involucella about 3-leaved, halved.  Flower-bud sometimes roseate.  Flowers white.
Stylopodium conical. (De  Cand.)
  Sp. Char.—The only species.
  Root tapering.   Stem  erect, twelve to eighteen inches  high.   Leaves scarcely
stalked, all  bipinnate and  cut;  the leaflets of some of the lowermost wedge-shaped
or fan-shaped ; acute notched; of the rest, in fine, linear segments.  Flowers white,
often with a reddish tint.
  Hab.—Grows  wild about Ipswich and some parts of Essex, but is not really in-
digenous.  Native of the South of Europe.   Cultivated in Essex.
  Description.—The fruit, commonly termed coriander seeds [fructus seu semina
coriandri),  is globular, about the size of white pepper,  of  a grayish-yellow colour,
and is finely ribbed.  It consists of  two hemispherical mericarps, adherent by their
concave surfaces.  Each  mericarp  has five primary ridges, which are depressed
and wavy;  and four secondary ridges, more prominent and  carinate.  The channels
are without vittae, but the  commissure has two.  The odour of coriander is peed™
and aromatic. •                                                           ■
  Composition.—The odour, taste, and medicinal qualities of the fruit depend o^
volatile oil.
  Volatile  Oil of Coriander (Oleum Coriandri).—Yellowish;  smells  strongly and pretty
agreeably of the coriander.
  Physiological Effects.—Aromatic  stimulant,  like  the other carminative
umbelliferous fruits.
   Uses.—Dr. Cullen considered coriander as more powerfully correcting the odour
and taste of senna than any other aromatic; and hence, it was formerly a consti-
tuent of the compound infusion of  senna, though  now ginger is substituted for it
1 Exod. xvi. 31.
' Lib. iii. cap. 71
' Opera. 359, 529, &c. ed. Fees.
4 Hist. Xat. lib. xx. cap. 82, ed. Valp. 
 Garden Angelica:—History;  Botany; Description; Composition.   709

It is only employed in medicine as an adjuvant or corrigent.  It is used, however,
by the confectioners  and distillers.   It is a constituent of the Confectio minx.—
The dose of coriander is 3ss to 3J.

               2. Umbelliferous Roots  used in Medicine.

  There are only two umbelliferous roots used in  medicine and  introduced into the Pharma-
copoeia.   These are, Angelica and  Carrot.  Both contain a volatile oil.


     243. ARCHANGELICA  OFFICINALIS, Hoffm. and Koch-
                        GARDEN ANGELICA.

                         Angelica Archangelica, Linn. E. D.
                           Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Digynia.
                              (Root, E.—Semina, D.)

   History.—It is doubtful whether the ancient Greeks and Romans were acquainted
with this plant, as  no certain  notice of it appears in  their writings.   C. Bauhin1
calls it Angelica sativa.
   Botany.  Gen. Char.—Margin of  the calyx with 5 short teeth.   Petals ellipti-
cal, entire, acuminate, with the point curved inwards.   Fruit somewhat compressed
at the back, with  a somewhat central raphe, 2-winged on  each side.   Miricarps
[half-fruits] with   thick,  keeled  ridges;  the  three  dorsal  ones  elevated, the two
lateral ones dilated into a twice as broad wing.   Seed  not adhering to the integu-
ment;  the nucleus free, covered all  over  with  numerous vitta).   Carpophorus
2-partite.—Perennial herbs.    Leaves  pinnatisect; segments broadly ovate, acute,
coarsely dentate, terminal, lobed.  Petioles  large, sheathing,  saccate.   Involucre
scarcely any;  partial one halved, many-leaved.   Flowers white, or greenish.  (De
Cand.)
  Sp. Char.—Stem smooth,  terete, striated.   Leaves bipinnatisect;  segments sub-
cordate, lobed, sharply serrated, the odd one 3-lobed; sheaths loose, saccate.   Leaf-
lets of the partial involucre equalling the partial umbel.  (De Cand.)
   Root biennial, large, fleshy,  branched,  resinous,  pungently aromatic.   Stem four
or five  feet high, a little glaucous.   Foliage, stalks, and  even the flowers, bright
green.   It flowers from June to September.
  Hab.—Indigenous; northern parts of  Europe.   Cultivated in moist situations,
and on the banks of ditches.
   Description.—The dried angelica root (radix angelicas) of the shops is imported
from Hamburg in casks.   In 1839, duty (4s. per cwt.) was  paid  on  386  cwts.
Formerly, Spanish angelica was alone employed  for medicinal purposes.   The
dried root of the shops consists of a short  cylindrical head, from which  numerous
(branches arise.  The size of these branches varies;  the larger ones  are as thick as
the little finger, and six  or eight inches  long.  Externally, the root is corrugated,
pad grayish brown.  Internally,  it  is  dirty white, and presents, when cut  trans-
versely,  numerous dark points, which are the cut extremities of vessels or intercel-
lular spaces filled with a liquid, strongly odorous  oil, or  oleo-resin.   To the  taste,
the root is at  first  sweet, then hot, aromatic, and bitter.   The odour  is peculiar,
and not very disagreeable.   The  fruit, called angelica seeds (fructus  seu semina
anyeliex), have the odour and taste, but in a diminished degree,  of the root.
  Composition.—Angelica root  has been analyzed by John,3 and by Bucholz and
Brandos.  The latter chemists obtained volatile oil about  0.70, acrid  soft  resin
b.02, bitter extractive llG.40, gum with some common salt 31.75, starch (not inulin)
5.40, woody fibre 8.60, peculiar matter (oxidized extractive)? 0.66,  albumen  0.97,

   1 Pinax, 155.                                     3 Gmel.n, Handb. d. Chem. h. 1277. 
710              VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Umbellifer^e.
water 17.50 [loss 2.0].   The aromatic qualities of the root and  seeds depend on
the volatile oil and resin.
   Physiological Effects.—Both root and seeds are pungent aromatic stimulants
and mild tonics.
   Uses.—Angelica (either root or seeds) is scarcely employed in modern practice
though it was formerly much esteemed.  The tender stems, stalks, and midribs of
the leaves are made, with sugar, into a sweetmeat or candy (candied angelica •
caules  seu rami angelicse conditi), which, taken  as a dessert,  is  a very agreeable
stomachic.   The seeds were formerly used in the preparation of the Spiritus anisi
compositus of the Dublin Pharmacopoeia.   The principal  consumption of angelica
root and seeds is by rectifiers and  compounders in  the  preparation of gin aud the
liqueur termed bitters.


  224. DAUCUS  CAROTA (var. SATIVA), Linn.—COMMON  OR
                              WILD CARROT.

                             Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Digynia.
                         (Fructus; Radix recens, L.—Radix, D.)
                      D. Carota var. sativa, De Candolle, E.  (Root.)
                         D. Carota var. sylvestris, D.  (Semina.)

   History.—According to Dr. Sibthorp,1 this plant is the atafvnvoe of Dioscorides.'
Hippocrates3 employed it in medicine under the  same name.   The  atafvuvoe dyptoj
of Dioscorides is, according to Dr. Sibthorp, the Daucus guttatus.
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—Margin of  the  calyx 5-toothed.  Petals obovate, emar-
ginate, with an  inflexed point;  the outer generally radiating, and  deeply bifid.
Fruits  somewhat compressed from the  back, ovate or oblong.   Mericarps  [half-
fruits] with the  five primary ridges filiform and bristly;  the three middle ones at
the back;  the  two  laterals on  the plane of  the  commissure;  the four secondary
ridges  equal, more prominent, winged, split into a simple row of spines.   Channels
beneath the  secondary ridges 1-vittate.   Seed anteriorly flattish.—Usually biennial
herbs.   Leaves bipinnatisect.  Involucre of many, tri-, or pinnatifid leaflets; partial
involucre of many, entire, or trifid leaflets.   Flowers white or yellow; the central
generally fleshy, blackish purple, sterile. (De Cand.)
   Sp. Char.—Stem hispid.   Leaves 2- or 3-pinnatisect;  the segments pinnatifid;
the lobes lanceolate, cuspidate, almost equal  to the umbel.  Prickles equal  to the
diameter of the oblong-oval fruit. (De  Cand.)
   Root slender, yellowish, aromatic, and sweetish.    Stem two or three feet high,
branched, erect, leafy, hairy, or bristly.  Leaves  on broad, concave, ribbed footstalks,
distinctly hairy.   Umbels large, white, except the one central neutral flower,  which
is blood-red.  Fruit  small, protected  by the incurvation of the  flower-stalks, by
which the umbels are rendered hollow, like a bird's nest (condensed from Smith).
   Hab.—Indigenous; in pastures and the borders of fields, in a gravelly soil, com-
mon.   Europe, Crimea,  and the Caucasus; from thence, probably, carried to CbinaJ
Cochin-China, and America.                                                   \
   Daucus Carota var. saliva, DC, E.;  Cultivated or  Garden Carrot.—This has a thick succulent
root, whose colour  varies.  Loudon mentions ten garden  varieties.
   Description.—The officinal  root  is that  of the cultivated  plant [radix dam
sativi).   It is tap-shaped, now and then branched,  reddish, or  pale straw-coloured,
succulent, of .a peculiar, not unpleasant odour, and a sweet, mucilaginous, agreeable
taste.   Carrot juice (rob dauci) is reddish, turbid, with the odour and taste of the
root.    By standing, a feculent matter [amylum dauci), which has  been recentty
employed in medicine, is deposited.4  It coagulates at a temperature under 212° 1.
The coagulurn is yellow, and when dried amounts to 0.629 of the juice.  The root
1  Prodr. Fl. GrcecA. 1H3.                       » Lib. iii. cap. 59.
8 Page 666, ed. Fees.                          * Pharm. Central-Blatt fUr 1841, p. <a>». 
        Common or Wild Carrot:—Physiological Effects and Uses.    711

  of the wild or uncultivated  carrot is small, woody, acrid, and  bitter, with a strong
  aromatic odour.
    The officinal fruits, usually called carrot seeds (fructus  seu semina dauci sylves-
  trix), are those  of the wild  carrot; they are brownish, from one to one and a half
  lines long, with a peculiar and aromatic odour, and a bitter and warm taste.   Their
  other characters have  been  already described.   The seeds of the cultivated carrot
  are much milder.
    Composition.—The fruit  (commonly termed seeds) has not been analyzed; the
  seeds owe their peculiar properties  to volatile oil (oleum seminum dauci sylvestris).
  The root has been  analyzed by Vauquelin,1 by Wackenroder,2 and by C. Sprengel.3
  The  constituents of the expressed juice, evaporated  to  dryness, are,  according to
  Wackenroder, fixed oil tcith some volatile oil 1.0, carotin 0.34, uncrystallizable sugar
  with some starch and malic acid 93.71, albumen 4.35, ashes composed of  alumina,
  lime, and iron 0.60.
    1. Volatile Oil of Carhot Thee.—Colourless, has a smell of carrots, a strong, permanent,
  unpleasant taste, and a sp. gr. of 0>!st',3 at 54° F.   It is little soluble in water, but very soluble
  in alcohol and ether.  From 34 lbs. of the fresh root only half a drachm of oil was obtained.  It
  is probable that the volatile oil of carrot-fruits possesses analogous properties.
    2. Carotin.—A crystalline, ruby red, tasteless, odourless, neutral substance.  It is fusible and
  combustible, but not volatile, soluble in  the mixed and  volatile oils, slightly so in alcohol, not in
  ether, unless fat oil be present.  Its solutions are decolorized by solar light
    3.  Pfxtic Acid.—By the action of alkalies on the  ligneous tissue of carrots, Braconnot pro-
  cured pectic acid.   I have  repeated  his experiments, and can confirm  his statements, but the
  quantity obtained is small.  Pectic acid  consists,  according to Fremy, of C2|H,7022.
    Physiological Effects and Uses.—The fruit (seed of the shops) of the carrot
  is an aromatic  stimulant and  carminative, like the other  aromatic umbelliferous
  fruits.   Aretacus says  it  possesses diuretic  properties, a statement confirmed by
  Eberle.4  It has been employed  in suppressions of  urine and  painful micturition,
  and also iu dropsies.   The expressed juice  has been used  as an anthelmintic.
    The boiled root is a well-known article of food.  Raw scraped carrot is sometimes
  applied  to chapped  nipples;  it  is a stimulant, and occasionally proves a painful
  application.   Boiled carrots are only employed in  the form of poultice5 to ill-condi-
  tioned sloughing sores.8


                     3. Umbelliferous Fetid  Gum-Resins.

    These are  solid compounds, essentially composed of resin, gum, and  volatile oil.  The  most
  important are Assafatida, Galbanum, Ammoniacum, Sagapenum, and Opoponax.
    They arc obtained from  the roots and stems of umbelliferous plants growing in eastern coun-
  tries, Persia especially.   By distillation with water they yield a volatile oil.  This oil, at least in
  the case of assafamda, is sulphuretted.  It is remarkable that many of the strong-smelling fetid
  volatile oils (as garlic, mustard, &e.) also contain sulphur   The  action of alcohol and water
  upon these gum-resins may be thus generally  stated : Alcohol dissolves the oil and  the resin, and
  leaves the gum.   Water, subsequently added to the alcoholic liquid, precipitates the resin.
    Water dissolves the gum, and suspends the ot/  and resin, forming a milky mixture.
^   We are in  want of good means  of distinguishing the different gum resins, chemically. Their
| pcrulinr odours at present enable us to distinguish  them.  In some  cases,  odours become particu-
larly distinctive by heat, as in  the case of ammoniacum.   The gum-resin of assafatida is red-
  dened by light.
 ' Ann. de Chim. et Phys. xii. 4(5.                            » Gmelin, Handb. de Chem. ii. l'>77.
 1 Pharm Central-Blatt fitr lu*2. p. 443.                     4 Mat. Med. 2d edit  ii. -JrtO.
 ' For further detuiU respecting the medicinal linen of the carrot, see  Bridault, Traiti sur la Carotte. et
Recuril d'Observations sur I'Usage et les effets salutaires de cette Plante dans les Maladies externes et in-
Urnrs. Svo. Rochelle, An. xl.
 • M'd. Obstrv. and  Inq. vol. iv. pp. P4-191, and 458. 
712              VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord. Umbellifer*:.
     245.  NARTHEX (Ferula) ASSAFCETIDA  (Falconer).—THE
                        ASSAFCETIDA FERULA.
                             Sex. Si/s(. Pentandria, Digynia.
                   (Gummi-resina, L. D.—Gummi-resinous exudation, E.) -
                                  [Assafetida, U. S.]

   History.—It is uncertain  at what period assafcetida  was first known or de-
scribed.   The difficulty in determining  its history arises from the confusion which
has existed with  respect to the Succus Cyrcuaicus and assafcetida.  By many writers
the two substances were considered to be identical ;*  but this opinion seems now to
have been satisfactorily disproved by the discovery of the plant, called by the Greeks
o-a<3Hwv, by  the  Romans  laserpitium (Thapsia  Silphion,  Viviani), which yields
the Cyrenaic juice, and which agrees tolerably well with the rude figures struck on
the Cyrenean coins.3   It would appear, however, that tbe Cyrenaic juice becoming
scarce, the ancients employed some other substance, of similar though  inferior pro-
perties, as a substitute, and  to both of  these  they applied  the term  laser.   " For
many years," says Pliny,3 " this plant [laserpitium or silphion] has not been found
in Cyrenaica, because the publicans [or  farmers of the taxes] who rent the pastures,
finding it  more  profitable, destroy it, as food  for cattle.  One stalk only, found in
our days, was  sent to the Emperor Nero.  We may know when cattle  meet with
young shoots of  it, by the sleeping of the sheep when  they have eaten it, and tbe
sneezing of the goats.   For a long time past the only laser  brought to us is that
which  is produced abundantly in Persia, Media, and America; but it is far inferior
to the  Cyrenaic."   It  is  not at  all improbable that the laser of Ferula may have
been our assafcetida.  The word " assafcetida," says Murray,4 " seems to have been
introduced  by the Monks  into the school of Salernum."   But  it appears to have
been of oriental  origin, and may  be, as some have suspected, derived from the word
laser.   Nicolaus Myrepsus,5 almost the  last of the Greek physicians, and who lived,
according to  Sprengel,6 about  1227, a. d., speaks of aoa<}Hfi6a. "There are two
kinds  of  Assa [i. e. laser, Lat.  trans.]," says Avicenna,7  " one fetid,  the  other
odoriferous."9
   Botany.   Gen.  Char.— Umbels compound.   Involucres 0.    Calyx obsolete.
Fruit thin, compressed at the back, with a dilated border.  Ridges 3 only, dorsal.
Vittx 1 to each  dorsal furrow and 2 to  the laterals.   Albumen thin, flat.
   Sp.  Char.—Assafcetida (Falconer).  Radical leaves  3-parted;  segments bipin-
natifid, with oblong-lanceolate, obtuse, decurrent lobes.
   Hab.—Saristan, Afghanistan, the Punjaub.
   Root perennial, tapering, ponderous, increasing to the size of a man's arm or leg,
covered with a blackish-coloured  bark,  beset near the  top with many strong, rigid
fibres;  its internal substance white, fleshy, abounding with a  thick, milky juice,
which  has an excessively strong, fetid,  alliaceous smell.  Stem two or three yards M
high or more, six or seven inches  in circumference at the   base, smooth,   Radical
leaves nearly two feet long.  Kaempfer9 compares their shape  to the  leaves of Paeonia^
officinalis;  but  in colour, and  other respects, he says they resemble Ligusticum
Levisticum, or Lovage.   The fruit is flat, thin, reddish-brown, like that of parsnip,
only rather larger and darker (Kaempfer).
  1 See Geoffroy, Tract, de Mat. Med. ii. 609.
  3 Penny Cyclopadia, vol. viii. p. 265; and Lindley, Fl. Med. ii. 52.
  3 Hist. Nat. lib. xix. cap. 15, ed. Valp.                              * App. Med. i. 361.
  * Antidotarius, cap. xxvii. p. 365, quoted by Alston, Mat. Med. Ii. 438.     • Hist, de Med. iv. 368.
  * Lib. 2ndus. tr. 2ndus, cap. 53.
  8 The word ferula is derived from ferire, to strike.  The stalks were used as rods for children, »ef!aD*'
they made more noise than did harm (Loudon).  Tlie term ferula is, in fact, an English word to indicate
the instrument with which scholars are beaten on the hand (Walker).  The instrument is a little wcxxKa
pallet or sl.ce ^Chambers). Hence, Martial calls it the sceptrum pcedagogorum, or schoolmaster's sceptn
(see Lemery).
  8 Aman. exot. 535. 
Assafetida :—Extraction.                        713
  This  is now considered to be the genuine assafetida plant; but there is reason to believe
that a gum-resin, like assafetida, is obtained from other species of ferula.'  Ferula persica has
been described by Dr. Pope2 as the assafetida plant; and the Edinburgh Collese has admitted
it as bein;:, probably, one source of assafetida.  Michaux sent its fruit from Persia as assafce-
tida.3  That it does  really yield assafcetida seems farthermore probable, from the strong smell
of that  drug which  pervades the whole plant.4  It  is, I  think, not unlikely that the  tear and
lump assafcetida of the  shops are  procured from different sper-ies.  Dr. Royle5 suggests that
Prangos pabularia was one of the kinds of Silphion of the ancients, and  may be an assafcetida
plant.
  Extraction.—Assafcetida is obtained by making  incisions into the upper part
of the  root; the footstalks of  the leaves  and the fibres at the  top of the root beino-
previously removed.    Kseinpfer divides  the business  of collecting  into four parts';
the first begins about the middle of April, and consists in digging  the earth about
the root, removing the leaves and fibres,  which are afterwards laid  over the root to
defend it from  the sun.  The second  commences on  the  25th of May.  Each col-
lector  is provided with a sharp knife to cut the root, a broad iron spatula to scrape
Extraction of Assafatida.
off the juice, a cup fixed  to his thigh  to receive it, and two baskets  hung over his
shoulders  upon a pole.   The top of  the root  is then cut off  transversely, and, on
the third day (i. c.  the 27th of  May),  the juice is scraped off and put in the cups.

 | Lindley, Fl. Med. pp. 45-6 : and Bot. Reg. Aug. 1839.               ' Phil. Trans, vol. Ixxv
  l.llKllry, Fl, Med. 46.
 ' M- v.ns.in und Churchill, Med. Bot. iv. 169; and Nets and Ebermaler. Handb. ii. 55.
  llluslr. L'JO.
14 
714             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Umbellifer*.
A fresh  incision is  then made, and the juice removed the day but one following
(i. e. the '29th of May), when they again cut the roots.  The cups are from time to
time emptied  into large vessels.  The juice is exposed to the sun to become harder
and is  conveyed home in baskets  (see Fig. 352, p. 713).   The third and fourth
acts are  mere repetitions of the second.   The  third  commences about the 10th of
June, the fourth about the 3d of  July.   Except after the last operation, the roots
are carefully  defended from  the sun, after  each  incision, by covering them with
leaves.1
   Commerce.—Assafcetida is exported  from the Persian Gulf to Bombay, from
whence it is sent to Europe.   It comes over usually in casks and cases.   In 1825
the quantity imported was 106,770 lbs.; in 1830, only 8,7'22 lbs.  The quantity
retained for home consumption is, however, very small.  In  1838, duty (6s.  per
cwt.) was paid on 60 cwt.; in 1839, on 24 cwt.
   Description and Varieties.—Assafcetida (Assafcetida  ;  Gummi Assafcetida,
offic.) occurs in irregular pieces of variable size.  Externally, they are yellowish or
pinkish-brown.   The fracture is  conchoidal, whitish,  or  milk-white, translucent,
pearly, with a waxy lustre.   By exposure to light  and air, the recently-fractured
surface acquires, in a few hours, a violet-red or peach-blossom red colour, which after
some days or  weeks diminishes in  intensity, and gradually passes into yellowish or
pinkish-brown.   Assafcetida is  fusible and inflammable, burning in the air with a
white flame and the evolution of much smoke.   Its taste is acrid and bitter, audits
odour strong,  alliaceous, and peculiar; to most persons being remarkably disagreeable,
whence the Germans have denominated assafcetida Teufelsdreck, or Stercus Diaboli;
in plain English, Devil's dung.   However, this dislike to the assafcetida is Dot uni-
versal ; some  of the Asiatics  being exceedingly  fond  of it, taking it with their food
as a condiment, or  using it to flavor their sauces, or even  eating it alone.  Hence,
among some of the older writers, we  find it  denominated  Cibus Deorum, Food of
the Gods.   Captain M. Kinnier9 tells us that, in Persia, the leaves of the plant  are
eaten like common greens, as is the root when roasted; and Lieut. Burnes,3 speaking
of assafcetida, says,  " in  the fresh state it has the same  abominable smell, yet  our
fellow-travellers greedily devoured it."  But the fondness for this substance is  not
confined to  the Asiatics; for  I am assured, by an experienced  gastronome, that  the
finest relish which a beefsteak can possess, may be communicated by rubbing  the
gridiron, on which the steak  is to  be cooked, with assafcetida.
   I  am acquainted with three varieties only  of assafcetida  :—
   tt. Assafcetida in the Tear (Assafcetida in granis seu lacrymis).   1 Assafcetida
of the Ferula persica.—This kind, which is comparatively rare, occurs in distinct,
roundish, flattened,  or oval tears, and also in irregular pieces,  varying from the  size
of a pea to that of a walnut, of a  yellow or  brownish-yellow colour externally,  but
white  internally.   I think  it  not at all improbable that this variety is obtained
from a different plant to that which furnishes the lump variety;  for its colour  ex-
ternally is  more yellow, its  odour is much  feebler, and its  fresh-fractured surface
becomes more slowly and less intensely red by exposure to  the  air.*   As it  has
considerable resemblance to  ammoniacum in the  tear (with which, indeed, except
by its  odour,  it might be readily  confounded),  may it not be the substance  which
Olivier5 calls  ammoniacum, and which he says is produced by Ferula persica.
   ]3. Lump Assafcetida (Assafcetida in massis);  Assafcetida of the Ferula Assafoztida.
—This variety is the kind usually met with in the shops.   It occurs in variable-
sized masses, of irregular forms, and having a reddish  or brownish-yellow colour.
Frequently, these masses are observed  to be  made  up of tears, agglutinated by >
reddish-brown substance; these form  that kind of assafcetida sometimes denominated
amygdaloid (assafcetida  amygdaloides).

  1 Kajmpfer, op. cit.                * A:nslie. Mat. Ind. i. 21.               ' Travels, ii.*&■
  * [According to Guibourt, tlie reason why it does not become so red by exposure to air is owing
fact that it contains less volatile o 1.—Ed.]
  ' Fee, Hist. Nat. Pharm. ii. 199. 
Assafo3ttda:—Composition; Characteristics; Effects.       715
  y. Stony Assafcetida (Assafcetida petrcra).   I have never met with this kind in
English commerce.   My samples were received  from Dr.  Martiny.   It occurs in
irregular, more or less angular pieces, which have the odour of assafcetida, and a yel-
lowish-brown  colour,  and  present  numerous  small  shining points  or plates.   It
Blightly effervesces in  hydrochloric  acid.   By incineration  it  yields a white  ash,
which  strongly effervesces on the addition  of acids.    Angelini found in stony assa-
foetida  51.9 percent, of gypsum.
  Composition.—Assafcetida  has   been  analyzed   by  Pelletier,1   Trommsdorff,
Brandes, and Angelini :2—
           Pelletier's Analysis.
Resin...................65.00
Gum....................19.44
Bassorin.................  . 11.66
Volatde oil................3.60
Fupermalate of lime, and loss........0.30

            Assafcetida.........100.00
             Brandes's Analysis.
Resin...................4S.85
Gum, with traces of saline matters.....19.40
Bassorin..................  6.40
Volatile oil................  4.60
Extractive, with sal;ne matters.......  1.40
Sulphate and carbonate of lime.......  9.70
Oxide of iron and alumina.........  0.40
Sand and lignin..............  4.«0
Water...................  6.00
                                                         Assafoetida.........101.35

  1. VoLATitE Oil  of AssAFCETiriA.—This is obtained by distilling assafoetida with either
water or alcohol.  It is on this principle that the odour of this gum-resin depends. It is lighter
than water, and is at first colourless, but by exposure to the air acquires a yellow tinge.  It dis-
solves in all proportions in alcohol and ether, but requires more  than 2,000 times its weight of
water to dissolve it.   Its taste is at first mild, then bitter  and acrid; its  odour is very  strong.  It
evaporates  very quickly, and soon  fills a large room with  its odour.  Sulphur, and probably
phosphorus, areamong its elementary constituents. The presence of sulphur in assafcetida is shown
in various ways: thus, if chloride of barium be added to water distilled from  assafcetida, and
likewise a little chlorine, the sulphur becomes gradually acidified, and after some time a pre-
cipitate of sulphate of baryta is formed.  If the oil be rubbed with mercury, it forms sulphate
of mercury.  Moreover, if pills  made  of assafetida be rolled in  silver leaf, the latter, after a
few days, is blackened  by the formation of a sulphuret of silver.   According to Hlasiwetz, the
oil is composed of two sulphurets of the  hydrocarbon, Cia H", and when fresh  distilled, like
tbe essential oils of black  mustard and horseradish, it contains no oxygen.  It becomes acid by
exposure to air. and  on boiling the oiljhydrosulphuric acid is disengaged.
  2. Resin  of Assafcetida—The resinous  matter of assafcetida is soluble in alcohol.  When
the alcoholic solution is  mixed  with water, a milky fluid is  formed,  owing to the  deposition
of the hydrated resin.   Oil of turpentine and the oil  of almonds also dissolve the resin, but less
readily than alcohol.  The resin obtained by  evaporating  the alcoholic  solution, consists, ac-
cording to Johnston, of C40 H26 O10.  By exposure to the sun's  rays it becomes violet red. Brandes
has shown that the resin of assafcetida is of two kinds;  one insoluble in  ether, the other  solu-
ble.  The proportion of the first to the second is as 1.6 to 47.25.
  m.  Resin insoluble in ether.—Is brownish-yellow, brittle,  tasteless, has a slight alliaceous odour,
is fusible, and soluble in warm caustic potash.
  6. Resin soluble in ether.—Is greenish-brown, brittle, has an aromatic odour,  and a faint, but
permanent, alliaceous bitter taste.   Chlorine decolorizes it.   Cold oil of vitriol renders it  dark
red;  if heat be applied, sulphurous acid  is evolved, and the  mixture becomes black; if the
liquid be diluted with water, and saturated with an alkali, the surface assumes a sky-blue colour.
Mtric acid renders it first orange, then yellow, and makes it almost insoluble in ether.   Hydro-
chloric acid dissolves it, and colours it pule-red.  It dissolves in boiling  concentrated acetic  acid,
but is deposited when the solution cools.
  Characteristics.—Assafoetida  possesses  the usual characteristics of a gum-
resin.   From other  gum-resins it is distinguished by its  peculiar odour, which is
especially obvious when a small portion of this substance is heated  on the point of
a knife, and by its fresh-fractured surface becoming red on  exposure to air. Heated
with sulphuric acid it is  blackened, yields  a  dark, blood-red  liquid,  and  develops
sulphurous acid gas; if the  liquid be diluted with  water, and saturated with caustic
potash, it becomes blue,  especially on the surface, by reflected light, similar to that
observed when disulphate of quina  is dissolved in  water (see p. 672).
  Physiological  Effects.—Assafcetida is usually placed, by  pharmacological
writers, among those remedies denominated antispasmodics or stimulants.   It is the
' Bull.de Pharm. iii. 556.
a Gmelin, Handb. de Chem. ii. 6'24. 
716
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Umbellifer*:.
most powerful of the fetid gum-resins.   Its local effects are moderate ;  it is devoid
of those acrid and irritating properties  possessed  by gamboge, euphorbium scam-
mony, and many other resinous  and gummy-resinous substances.   In the mouth
as already mentioned, it causes a sensation of heat; and the same effect, accompa-
nied by eructations, is  experienced in the stomach, when it is swallowed.   In Pro.
fessor J'drg1 and his pupils (males and females), who endeavoured  to elucidate the
effects of this medicine by experiments made on themselves, doses of assafrjetida
not exceeding a scruple, caused  uneasiness and pain of the stomach, increased se-
cretion of the gastro-intestinal membrane, and alvine evacuations.   The pulse was
increased in frequency, the animal heat  augmented, the respiration quickened, and
the secretions from the bronchial  membrane and skin promoted.   A very constant
effect was headache  and  giddiness.  The urino genital  apparatus appeared to be
specifically effected; for in the males there was an increase of the venereal feelings,
with irritation about  the glans penis, while in the females the catamenial  discharge
appeared before its usual period,  and uterine pain was experienced.  These stimu-
lant effects of assafoetida  were observed in a greater or less degree in all the nine
persons experimented on;  and it should be borne in mind  that the dose did not, in
any one case, exceed a scruple.  Very opposite to these results, and to the observa-
tions  of practitioners generally,  is the statement of MM.  Trousseau and Pidoux,'
who tell us that they have taken half an ounce of good assafoetida at one dose, with
no other effect  than  that  of  altering the odour of their secretions, by which they
were kept for two  days in an infected atmosphere, possessing a more  horrible de-
gree of fetidity than even  assafoetida itself !  These apparently contradictory results
seem  to prove that different individuals are  most unequally susceptible of  the in-
fluence of this remedy.  The influence  of assafoetida in  convulsive and spasmodic
diseases seems indisputable.   As in these cases the functions of  the excito-motory
system  are the functions principally or  essentially involved, it is not assuming too
much to suppose that the influence of assafcetida is principally directed to the excito-
motory nerves.   To paraphrase the words  of Dr.  M. Hall,3 assafoetida acts through
the exciter nerves ; its  effects are manifested  through the motor nerves.   The vary-
ing degrees of excitability or susceptibility (natural and morbid)  of these  nerves in
different  subjects, will, perhaps,  in  some  measure account for the unequal effects
produced by this agent on  different healthy individuals, as  well as for the  therapeu-
tical influence in certain subjects being disproportionate to the  observed physiolo-
gical effects.
   Assafcetida, or its  odorous principle, becomes absorbed by  the veins, though
slowly.   Flandrin4 gave half a pound of this gum-resin to a horse; the animal was
fed as usual, and killed  sixteen hours  afterwards.  The  odour of assafoetida  was
distinguished in the  veins of  the stomach, of the small intestine, and the caecum;
it was not noticed in the arterial  blood,  nor in the lymph.  Tiedemann and Gmelin5
were  not successful in their search for it; they gave two  drachms  of assafoetida to
a dog, and at the end of three hours were unable to recognize the odour of it, either
in the chyle of  the thoracic duct, or in the blood of the splenic and  portal veins;
but they detected it  in the* stomach and small  intestines.    In farther proof of the
opinion that  assafoetida becomes absorbed, may be mentioned the  detection of the
odour of this substance in the secretions.  The experience of MM. Trousseau and
Pidoux, already related, may  be adduced as  corroborative  of  this statement.  >Ve
are told that the transpiration of Asiatics who use assafoetida  daily, is extremely
fetid;  a circumstance to  which Aristophanes6 alludes.   Vogt7 says that the secre-
tions  from carious  ulcers  sometimes smell of assafoetida, when  this substance has
been taken for some time.
   The stimulant influence of assafcetida  over  the organs of circulation and of secre-
tion (as the bronchial membrane and skin) depends apparently on the topical action

  1 Wibmer, Wirk d. Arzneim. u. Gifte, Bd. ii. 366.       2 Traiti de Therap. pp. 1-2, 13.
  5 Lectures, in the Lancet, April 14,  1838.              4 Magendie, Physiol  by M.lligen,^
  5 Versuch. S. 9.                                 6 Equites, Act. ii. Seen. 4.
  ' Pharmahodyn. ii. 126, 2te Aufl. 
ASSAF03TIDA:—USES.
717
of the oily and resinous  particles on  the vessels  in their passage  through  the
latter.
  Uses.—From the foregoing remarks, it will be readily gathered that assafcetida
is contraindicated in febrile  and inflammatory diseases, on account of  its stimulant
properties; as also in vascular irritation or inflammation of the stomach, on account
of its topical influence  on this  viscus.  On the other hand, it is found highly use-
ful  in  spasmodic or convulsive diseases,  not dependent on  disease of the nervous
centres, but of the kind called by Dr. Hall eccentric.
  1. In spasmodic and  convulsive  diseases.—Few remedies have acquired such
celebrity in hysteria as assafoetida.   Dr. Cullen1 speaks in the highest terms of it,
and I believe the experience of most practitioners  corroborates  his opinion of its
virtues.  " I  have found  it," says he, " to  be the most  powerful  in all hysteric
cases;  and when the presence of an hysteric paroxysm prevented medicines being
taken by the mouth, I  have  found it given in clyster to be very effectual."   When
the circulation is very languid, ammonia may with advantage be  conjoined.  Schbn-
heyder3 recommends assafcetida with  opium, in the form of clyster.   In infantine
convulsions, clysters of assafoetida are  often  used with good effect.   Even in  the
epilepsy of adults they are not always without value.   In purely  spasmodic asthma,
I have never seen relief from the use of assafcetida.   This observation, which accords
with Dr. Cullen's experience, does not agree with the statements  of others.  Trous-
Beau and Pidoux* declare they have  seen it produce  good and  undoubted effects.
But in old  chronic  catarrhs, with occasional spasmodic difficulty of  breathing  and
 spasmodic cough, I  have  procured the most  marked relief by the combined use of
assafcetida and ammonia.   I have no experience of the use of this gum-resin  in  the
disease called  laryngismus stridulus, in which Millar* and others  have found it
beneficial.   In hooping-cough, both Millar and Kopp5 have found it beneficial.  It
promotes expectoration, and diminishes both  the  violence  and  frequency of  the
attacks.  The  repugnance which  children manifest  to  its use is, however, a great
drawback  to its employment.  In flatulent colic of hysterical and dyspeptic indi-
viduals, or of infants, few remedies are more efficacious, when the disease is unac-
companied by any marks of inflammatory action, and is attended  with constipation.
Of  its efficacy  in the flatulent colic of infants,  I  can speak from repeated observa-
tion ;  it is given with great benefit in the form of clyster.   In most cases, its laxa-
tive operation is an advantage;  but should this be an objection, it may be counter-
acted by the addition of laudanum.
  2. As  a stimulating expectorant  and  antispasmodic in  chronic catarrh, it is
often of considerable use.   It is adapted  for old persons, and where the  disease is
of long standing.   I have found it most beneficial in  those  cases where the cough
and difficulty of breathing assume at intervals  a  spasmodic form, and where  the
wheezing is considerable.  In such, I have found full doses of assafoetida with am-
monia  give great relief.  In delicate females, subject to repeated  attacks of catarrh,
attended with wasting,  sweating, and  other constitutional  symptoms of phthisis, I
have found assafoetida of frequent benefit.   In these cases, it does not act merely by
its expectorant effects, for  oftentimes one good  consequence of its use is diminution
of excessive bronchial secretion.
  3. In affections  of the  alimentary canal.—The  use of assafoetida in flatulent
colic has been above noticed.  It  is  often  of considerable value  in relieving flatu-
lence  in old persons,  especially in hypochondriacal and  hysterical  subjects, and
when accompanied with constipation, as it has a laxative effect.    It  provokes  the
expulsion of the gaseous matter, and  appears to  aid in preventing its reproduction.
It is beneficially used in the form of clyster, to  relieve a tympanitic condition of the
abdomen and flatulent distension of the bowels in low fevers.   In constipation with
flatulence, it is a useful addition to purgative  mixtures or enemata.   It  has often
been used as an anthelmintic ; but is of less frequent efficacy.

  J Mat. Mid. ii. 307.                  a Acta. Reg. Soc. Hafn. i  lOi.
  Op. cit p. 15.                     « Observations on the Asthma and Hooping-Cough, 1709.
  'Lond. Med. Gag. i. 581. 
718              VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Umbellifer,e.
   4.  As an emmenagogue in uterine obstructions (amenorrhcea and chlorosis)  a^t
fcetida has been employed from a notion  that it  specifically affected the womb—an
opinion which is supported by the reports of  Jorg's female pupils, that it brought
on the catamenial  discharge earlier  than usual.  Experience, however, has not
been  much in favour of the emmenagogue operation of assafoetida when this remedy
has been employed in uterine diseases.   " Whether it be owing,"  says Dr. Cullen
" to the imperfect state in which we too frequently have this medicine, or to some'
what in the nature of the amenorrhcea, I would not positively determine • but this
is certain, that  I have very seldom succeeded in  employing  the  assafoetida as an
emmenagogue."
   5.  As a  condiment.—I have  already referred to the condimentary uses made of
assafoetida,  especially by oriental nations.   At the Pass of " Dundan Shikun," says
Lieutenant Burnes,1 "we found the assafoetida plant in exuberance, and which our
fellow-travellers ate with great  relish."  It is much used by the Brahmins against
flatulence, and to correct their cold vegetable food.3
   Administration.—The dose of assafoetida is  from  grs. v. to 9j  or 3ss.  It may
be given in substance, in the form of pill, or made into an  emtdsion.   In hysteria
and flatulent colic, where we want an  immediate effect, it is best administered in a
liquid form.  Used  as  an enema,  it  may be administered  to  the extent of two
drachms, rubbed up with warm  water.  The following are the officinal preparations
of assafcetida:—
   1. ENEMA ASSAFffiTIM, L.  [Enema  Fcetidum, D.  E.];  Assafcetida or Fetid
Clyster.—(Assafcetida, prepared, 3j;  Decoction  of Barley Oss.  Beat up the assa-
fcetida with the decoction gradually added until  they are perfectly  mixed.  Accord-
ing to the  Dublin Pharmacopoeia, two drachms of the tincture are to be added to
twelve ounces of water.)—The fetid clyster is a valuable stimulant, antispasmodic,
and carminative purgative, which maybe used with most beneficial  results in hysteria,
flatulent colic, infantile convulsions, and  worms in  the rectum.

   2. TINCTURA ASSAF1ETM, L. E. D. [U. S.] ; Tincture of Assafcetida.—(Assafcetida,
in small fragments,  ^v (giv, TJ. S.) ;  Rectified Spirit Oij.  Macerate  for fourteen
[seven, L. E.~\ days, and strain.  "This tincture  cannot be made by percolation,
without much delay," E.)—Stimulant and antispasmodic.   Used in hysteria and
flatulent colic.   Dose, 3ss to f^ij.  Pennyroyal is a good  vehicle for it.  When
mixed with aqueous liquids, it becomes milky,  owing to  the  deposition of the
hydrated resin.

   8.PILULEASSAF(ETIIhE,D. E. [U. S.]; Assafcetida Pills.—(Assafoetida, Galbanum,
and Myrrh, three parts of each ; Conserve of Red Roses four parts, or a sufficiency;
mix them, and beat them into a proper  pill mass, E.—Galbanum |j; Myrrh and
Treacle, of each gj; Assafcetida 3ij-  Heat all the ingredients in a capsule, by means
of a steam  or water bath, and stir the mass until it assumes a uniform consistence,
D.)—As the most powerful ingredient of this combination is  assafcetida, the more
appropriate name for the pills would be  pilulx assafcetidx compositse.  This com-
pound is stimulant and antispasmodic.   It is used in hysteria, chlorosis, &c.  Dose,
grs. x to 9j.  The Pilulce Assafoztidx (U. S.) is composed of Soap and Assafcetida,
1 part of the former to 3 of the latter.

   4. PILUL1 ALOES ET  ASSAF(ETM, E.—(Socotrine Aloes, Confection of Roses,
Assafcetida, Soap, of each equal parts.   Mix.)—An antispasmodic and purgative,
allied to the Pilula Sagapeni Composita of the former  London Pharmacopoeias.
   This preparation of the  U. S. Pharm.  is composed of equal parts of Aloes, Assa-
fcetida, and Soap.

   5. SPIRITUS ABIONLE  FffiTIDUS, L. E. D.  (See vol. i. p.  437.)
  6. B1PLASTRM ASSAFtETIDM, E.  [U.  S.];  Plaster  of Assafcetida.-(Uth^
Plaster,  Assafcetida, of each  gij;  Galbanum, Beeswax, of each 3j.   Liquefy
1 Travels, i. 143.
a Ainslie, Materia Indica, vol. i--1- 
 Sagapenum:—History;  Botany; Description; Composition; Uses.   719

the gum-resins together, and strain them; then add the plaster and wax, also in the
fluid state, and mix them all thoroughly.)—It is applied as an antispasmodic, over
the stomach or abdomen in hysteria with  flatulence, to the chest or between the
shoulders in hooping-cough.
  [7. MISTURA ASSAFffiTIDJl [U. S.] ; Assafcetida Mixture.—Take of Assafoetida 3ij ;
Water Oss.  Rub  the assafoetida, with the water gradually added, until they are
thoroughly mixed.   Dose f^ss.]
    246. FERULA? aw uncertain Species yielding SAGAPENUM, L.
                           Sex. Syst.  Pentandria, Digynia.
                                (Gummi-resina, L.)

  History.—Sagapenum (oaydrtrivov) is mentioned both by Hippocrates1 and  Dios-
corides.*  Pliny3 calls it Sacopenium.   Dioscorides says it is a liquor obtained from
a ferulaceous plant growing in Media.
  Botany.—Nothing is known with respect to  the plant yielding  sagapenum.
Willdenow considered it to be Ferula persica, and he has been followed by Sprengel
and F6e.   But his opinion was not supported by any well-ascertained fact;  on the
contrary, several circumstances already mentioned seem to show  that this plant pro-
duces a kind of  assafoetida.   There is,  indeed, no evidence to prove that sagapenum
is got from a Ferula, for the statement of Dioscorides cannot be admitted as having
much weight.
  Description.—Two kinds of sagapenum  (sagapenum ;  gummi sagapenum) are
occasionally met with.   The finest  (sagapenum in the tear) consists of masses  made
up  of  agglutinated,  brownish-yellow,  semitransparent tears,  and  resembling gal-
banum, but  having  a darker colour and a  more  alliaceous odour.   A commoner
kind (soft sagapenum) occurs in soft,  tough  masses, in which no distinct  tears are
distinguishable.   "When  heated on the point of a knife  in  the  candle, sagapenum
gives out a much more aromatic and agreeable odour than galbanum.    It has a hot
and acrid taste.   It is imported from the Levant.
  Composition.—Sagapenum has been analyzed by Pelletier,4  and by Brandes.5
                                                     Brandes's Analysis.
                                         Resin...................50.29
                                         Gum, with calcareous salts........32.72
                                         Volatile oil................   3.73
                                         Bassorin.................   4.48
                                         Malate and phosphate of lime.......   1.12
                                         Impurities................   4.30
                                         Water..................   4.60
                                                     Sagapenum........101.24

  1. Oil of Sagapenum.—Pale yellow, lighter than water, soluble in alcohol and ether.   Has a
itrong alliaceous odour, and a mild (afterwards hot) bitter, alliaceous taste.   Sulphuric acid
renders it dark red.
  2. Rbsin of Sagapenum.—Obtained by evaporating an alcoholic  solution, it is pale yellow,
having a strong garlic odour, and becoming fluid at  '212° F.  Its composition,  according to  John-
ston, is C^H^O9.   By the action of ether it is resolved into two resins.
  «. Resin insoluble in ether.—Brownish-yellow, tasteless, odourless, fusible, soluble in warm  liquor
potassre and in spirit, but insoluble in the oils of turpentine and almonds.
  8. Resin soluble  in ether.—Reddish-yellow, with a feeble  odour of sagapenum, and a mild
(afterwards bitter) taste.  It is  soluble in spirit, and  slightly so in  the oils of turpentine and
almonds.   It dissolves in  sulphuric acid, forming a blood-red solution, from which water  sepa-
rates a violet substance.
  Physiological Effects and Uses.—Its effects and  uses are the same as  those
of assafoetida.  It is usually considered to hold an intermediate  rank between  assa-
uetida and galbanum;  but it is rarely employed.
           Pelletier's Analysis.
Renin...................54.26
liuiu...................31.94
Volatile oil and loss............11.80
Uussnrin.................   1.00
Malate of lime..............   0.40
I'eculhr matter..............   0.60

           Sagapenum........100.00
' Pajfc 626. ed Fn-s.
' Hist. Sat. lib. xx. cap. 75, ed. Valp.
' Omelin, Handb. d. Chem. ii. 025.
Lib. iii. cap. 95.
Bull, de Pharm. iii. 481. 
 720             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Umbellifer^.

    Administration.—It is given in substance, in the form of pill, in doses of from
 grs. v. to 9j. or Jss.

    1. SAGAPENIM  PRM'ARATtDI. L.—(Prepared in the same manner as directed for
 Ammoniacum; Vide Ammoniacum  preparatum.)—It enters into the composition,
 of the  Pilula  Galbani Composita of the London Pharmacopoeia (see post).  Saga-
 penum is used as a warm stimulating purgative in  dyspepsia, with flatulence and
 costiveness.  Dose, grs. v. to 9j.


 247. DOREMA AMMONIACUM,  Don.—THE AMMONIACUM
                                  DOREMA.
                            Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Digynia.
                     (Gummi resina, L.—Gummy-resinous exudation, JB.)
                               [Ammoniacum, U. S.]

    History.—The term ammoniacum has been applied to two different gum-resins ■
 one, the  produce of Ferula tingitana ;  the other, of Dorema Ammoniacum.  The
 first is  the ammoniacum of Hippocrates,1 Dioscorides,3 and Pliny;3 the latter is the
 commercial ammoniacum of the present day.
    Dioscorides says anp.u>vt.ax6v is obtained from a species of Ferula, which he calls
 ayatsoxnc, growing near Gyrene, in Africa.   Pliny terms the plant  Melopion, and
 says it  grows in that part of Africa which is subject to ^Ethiopia, near the temple
 of Jupiter Ammon, which, as well as the gum. resin, received its name from d^o{
 sand, on  account of the  sandy soil of the  country.   Both  Dioscorides and Pliny
 mention two kinds of ammoniacum : the best, called Thrausfon  (^avaua), resembled
 olibanum, and had an odour like castoreum, and a bitter taste; and the commonest,
 termed Phyrama (fyvoupo) had a resinous appearance, and was adulterated with earth
 and stones.  African ammoniacum (in Arabic, Fasogh or Feshook) is, Dr. Lindley
 informs me, " certainly the product of Ferula tingitana."
   I have not been able to ascertain when Persian ammoniacum (the produce of
 Dorema Ammoniacum) first came into use.   As the Greeks and Romans make no
 mention of it, they were, probably, unacquainted with it.  Avicenna4 does not men-
 tion the origin  of his ammoniacum (assac.h, Arab).  The ammoniac (eschak, Arab.)
 of  Abu Mansur Mowafik,5 an ancient  Persian  physician^ who wrote about 1055
 A. D.,was doubtless of the Persian kind; as was also the ammoniac  (derukht rnhak)
 of  Beva  Ben Khiias Khan, A. D.  1512.6   The Arabic terms (assach, ushalc, and
 oshac) by which the  three  last-named authors designate ammoniac, resemble  the
 name (oshac) by which the ammoniacum plant is now known in Persia;7 hence we
 infer they all referred to the same object.
   Botany.  Gen. Char.—Epigynous disk cup-shaped.  Fruit slightly compressed
 from the back,  edged; with three distinct, filiform, primary ridges near the middle,
 and, alternating with them, four obtuse secondary ridges; the whole enveloped in
 wool.   Vittos, 1 to each secondary ridge, 1 to each primary marginal ridge, and 4
 to the commissure, of which two are very small (Lindley).
   Sp. Char.—The only species.
   A  glaucous green  plant, about 7 feet high, looking like the Opoponax.  Root
 perennial.   Stem  about 4  inches  in circumference  at the base.  Leaves large,
 petiolate,  somewhat bipinnate, 2 feet  long;  pinnae in  three pairs;  petioles downy,
 sheathing  at the base.  Umbels proliferous, racemose; partial ones globose, on short
stalks, often arranged in a spiked manner.   Involucre, general or partial, none.
Petals white.  Stamens and styles white.   Ovaries buried in wool.  Fruit naked,
(Condensed from Don.)

 1 Poge 670, ed. Fees.                                         2 Lib. Hi. cap 9?.
 3 Hist. Nat. lib. xii. cap.  49, ed. Valp.                            4 Lib. it. cap. 8.   .
 » Lib. Fund. Pharm. i. 35, ined. R. Seligmann, 1830.                 6 Ainslie, Mat. Ind. l. iw.
 ' Linn. Trans, xvi. 605. 
     Ammoniacum Dorema:—Extraction;  Commerce;  Composition.  721

  Hab.—Persia, in the province of  Irak, near Jezud Khast, and on the plains be-
tween Ycrdekaust and Kumisha.
  Extraction.—The whole plant is abundantly  pervaded with a milky juice, which
oozes forth upon the slightest puncture being made, even at the ends of  the leaves
This juice, when hardened, constitutes ammoniacum.  Through the  kindness of my
friend Dr. Lindley, there is in my museum  the upper part of  the (apparently flow-
ering) stem, about ten inches long, with lumps of ammoniacum sticking  to it at fjhe
origin of  every branch.   It  was  gathered by Sir J. M'Niell, in  Persia (I  believe
between Ghorian and Khaff).   It does not  appear that artificial  incisions are ever
made in  the stem.   Lieut. Col.  Rennet1 says: ''When the plant has  attained per-
fection, innumerable beetles, armed with an anterior and posterior probe of  half an
inch in length, pierce it in all directions; it [ammoniacum] soon  becomes dry, and
is then picked off, and sent via Bushire to India, and various parts of the world."
  Commerce.—Ammoniac is usually imported from Bombay, but  occasionally it
comes from the Levant.   It is brought over in chests, cases, and boxes.   The quan-
tity imported is but small.
  Description.—Common or Persian ammoniacum, usually termed gum  ammo-
niacum or ammoniac (gummi ammoniacum), occurs in two forms;  in the tear and
in the lump.
  o. Ammoniacum in the Tear (Ammoniacum  in lachrymis  seu granis) occurs in
distinct dry tears, usually more  or less spheroidal,  though  frequently of irregular
forms, varying in size  from that of the fruit of coriander (or even smaller)  to that
of a walnut.  Externally, they are of a yellow (pale reddish  or  brownish)  colour,
with a waxy lustre; internally, they are white or opalescent, opake, or only feebly
translucent at the edge of thin films.   At ordinary temperatures  it is moderately
hard and  brittle, but softens like wax in the hand.
  0. Lump Ammoniacum (Ammoniacum  in placentis seu massis).—This occurs
in masses usually composed of agglutinated  tears, whose properties it possesses.   It
is sometimes met with in' soft plastic masses of  a darker  colour, and mixed with
various impurities.   To separate these, it is melted and strained  (Strained ammo-
niacum; Ammoniacum colatum).
  Both kinds have a faint, unpleasant, peculiar odour, by which this  gum-resin may
be readily distinguished from  all others.  This odour  is best detected  by  heating
the  ammoniacum on  the point of a  penknife.   The taste  is  bitter, nauseous, and
acrid.   Umbelliferous fruits are not unfrequently found intermixed with  both sorts.
In most of its other properties ammoniacum agrees with other gum-resins.
  lam indebted to Dr. Lindley for a fine  sample  of African Ammoniacum  (a^jUtanoxov,  Diosc.).
It was sent by W. D. Hays, Esq., the British Consul at Tangier, to the  Hon VV. T.  Fox Strang-
ways, and is marked, " Gum Ammoniac or  Fusogh, Tangier, 17 June, 1839, J. VV. D. H."  It is
an oblong piece, about three inches long,  and one and a half inch thick,and broad. Its weight
is about S30 grains.  Externally, it is  irregular and uneven, and has a dirty appearance, similar
to what ammoniacum would acquire from repeated handling and long  exposure to the air in a
dusty situation.  It  is partially covered with paper.  A few  pieces of reddish chalky earth
(which effervesces with acids) are found  sticking  to it,  thus confirming the account given of it
by Jackson,2 though  the quantity of this on my specimen is not sufficient to affect  in any way
tbe sal ibility of it.  It appears  to be  made up of agglutinated  tears, like the lump  Persian
ammoniacum. Internally, it has very much the appearance of lump ammoniacum, but is not
so white, but lias a brownish, reddish, and in some places a faint bluish tint.  Its odour is very
faint,arid not at all  like Persian ammoniacum.  Heated on the point of a  knife, its distinction
from Persian ammoniacum is very obvious.  Its taste is also  much slighter  than that of the
commercial ammoniacum.  Rubbed with water, it forms an emulsion like  the latter.  It is the
produce of Ferula tingitana (Lindley).
  Composition.—Ammoniacum has been  analyzed by Calmeyer,  Bucholz,3 Bra-
connot,4 and by Hagen.5
Linn. Trans, xvi. 605.                    a Account of the Empire of Morocco, 3d edit. p. 156.
(>mehn, Handb. d. them. ii. 024.            4 Ann. de Chem. lxviii. GO.
Schwiirtze, Pharm Tabel. WO, Site Ausg.
    VOL. II.---4t> 
722
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Umbellifer^.
           Braconnot's Analysis.
 Resin......................
 Gum......................
 Gluteniform matter, insoluble in water and
    alcohol..................
 Water.....................
 Loss......................
            Ammoniacum.........

  1. Volatile Oil of Ammoniacum—Transparent, lighter than water.
  2. Rf.siw of Ammoxiacum.—Reddish-yellow, tasteless, has the odour of the gum-resin. Solu-
ble in alkalies  and  alcohol;  partially soluble in ether and the oils (fixed and volatile). Its
constitution, according to Johnston, is C^H^O9.
  Physiological Effects.—The effects of ammoniacum  are similar  to, though
less powerful than, those  of  assafcetida and of  the other fetid  gum-resins already
mentioned.  MM. Trousseau and Pidoux1 assert that,  in all the cases in which they
have  employed it, it had no stimulant effect either local or general.   " We have
taken," say these authors, " two  drachms of this substance at once, without ex-
periencing any of those accidents complaisantly indicated by authors."  I would
remark, however,  that  the local irritation  produced by the plaster of ammoniacum
is known to most practitioners, a  papular eruption being a  frequent result of the
application of this agent.  Ammoniacum  contains much less volatile oil than either
assafcetida or  galbanum ; its stimulant influence is less  than either of these.  Full
doses of it readily disturb the stomach.
  Uses.—Though applicable to all the same cases as assafoetida and the other fetid
gum-resins, its internal use  is principally or almost solely confined to chronic pul-
monary affections.   It  is  not fitted for irritation or  inflammation of the bronchial
membrane.   But  in chronic  coughs,  with deficient expectoration, or in  chronic ca-
tarrhs and  asthmatic cases  of old persons  with profuse secretion, it sometimes
gives slight  relief.  Though  I  have seen  it extensively employed, in  a few cases
only have I observed it beneficial.  As a  topical, discutient, or resolvent applica-
tion, in the form  of plaster,  to glandular enlargements and indolent  affections of
the joints, it occasionally proves useful.
   x\dministration.—The dose of ammoniacum is from grs. x to 3ss.  It may be
given in the form of pill or emulsion.  It is a constituent of the Compound pills of
squills, a  very useful expectorant iu old catarrhs.
   L MISTURA AMMONIACI,  L.  D. [U. S.];  Lac  Ammoniaci;  Ammoniacum  Mix-
ture.—(Ammoniacum  3v [3ij, U. S.], [3ij, D.]; Water Oj  [Oss, D. &.];  [Water
f^viij, D.]  Bub the ammoniacum with  the water gradually poured on, until they
are perfectly  mixed.   [It should be strained through muslin, D.J).—The resinous
constituent of ammoniacum  is more effectually suspended  in  water by the aid of
the yelk of an egg.  This mixture operates as a stimulant to  the bronchial mem-
brane, and  is used as  an expectorant in chronic coughs, humoral  asthma, &c.  It
is a convenient and useful vehicle for squills or ipecacuanha.  Dose, f|ss to fjj.
   2.  EMPLASTRUM AMMONIACI, L. E. I). [U.  S.] ; Plaster of'Ammoniacum.-(Am-
moniacum  ,^v;  Diluted  Acetic Acid f^viij;  [Distilled Vinegar f^ix, E.; Gum
Ammoniac, in coarse powder, giv; Proof Spirit f^iv, D.]  Dissolve the ammonia-
cum in the acid,  vinegar, or spirit, then  evaporate  the  liquor with a -slow fire, L.
 [over  the vapour-bath, E.; or water-bath, D.], constantly stirring, to a proper con-
sistence.   The best solvent  is  undoubtedly proof  spirit, as recommended in the
Dublin Pharmacopoeia.)—A very adhesive,  stimulant,  and discutient or resolvent
 plaster.  It sometimes causes an eruption.  It  is  applied  to indolent swellings, as
 of  the glands and joints.  A very useful  application  to the housemaid's swollen
 knee.
   I  EMPLASTRUM AMMONIACI CUM HYDRARGYRO, L. E. D. [U. S.] (See vol. i.786.)
 [The  appearance of a new edition of the Dublin Pharmacopoeia since  the first vo-
 70.0
 ISA

  4.4
  6.0
  1.2

100.0
            Hagen's Analysis.
 £e8in......................68.6
 Gum.....................jgn
 Gluten (colla).................  g'i
 Extractive.................'  \  j'j
 Sand.....................   '  j j
[Volatile oil and water...........'  °  j pi

            Ammoniacum.....     innn
1 Traiti de Thirap. p. 19. 
                Officinal Galbanum :—History;  Botany.              7:23

 lume of this work was printed, renders it necessary to state here that the Emplas-
 trum Ammoniaci cum Hydrargyro is no longer made as  there directed.   The pre-
 sent formula is Ammoniac Plaster £iv, and Mercurial Plaster g vii j.  These plasters
 are melted together by means of a steam- or water-bath, and constantly stirred
 until the mixture stiffens on cooling.—Ed.]

   4. AMMONIACUM PRiEPARATUM, L. ;  Prepared Ammoniacum.—(Ammoniacum, in
 the mass, ibj;  Water, as much as may be necessary to cover the  ammoniacum.
 Boil until mixed ; strain the mixture through a  hair sieve, and evaporate by water-
 bath,  carefully  6tirring,  so  that  it hardens on  cooling.)—This cleansing is only
 necessary for the ammoniacum as obtained in the mass  (lump ammoniacum),but is
 not required for the tear ammoniacum.


      248.  GALBANUM OFFICINALE, Don.—OFFICINAL
                              GALBANUM.
                          Sex. Syst. Pentandria Digynia.
     (Gummi-resina, L. D.—Concrete gummy-resinous exudation of an imperfectly ascertained
                  umbelliferous plant, probably a species of Opoidia, E.)

   History.—Galbanum is mentioned by Moses,1 who  ranks it among  the sweet
 spices.  It was used in medicine by Hippocrates.8 Dioscorides3 says it (Xaxi3a.vrf) is
 the fifrwrfiof, growing in  Syria.
   Botany.—Much uncertainty still exists  respecting the  plant which yields gal-
 banum.   " The Bubon Galbanum of Linnaeus possesses neither  the smell nor the
 taste of Galbanum, but in these particulars agrees better with Fennel, and the fruit
 has no resemblance whatever to that found  in the gum."4   The Dublin College, in
 its new  Pharmacopoeia, describes  galbanum as the gum-resinous exudation of the
 Opoidia galbanifera.  This is assigned on the authority of Lindley.   Mr. Don
 found an umbelliferous fruit in the galbanum of commerce, which he believes to be
 that of the plant yielding this  gum-resin ;  and, as it  constitutes a new genus, he
 has called it Galbanum officinale. The following are the characters of the fruit :—
   Fruit compressed at  the back, elliptical; ridges, seven, elevated, compressed, bluntly keeledi
 not winged; the lateral distinct, marginal.  Channels broadish, concave, without vitffi.  Com-
 missure flat, dilated, bivittate ; vittae broad, somewhat curved.  (Don.)
   But though it is not at all improbable that  these fruits are the produce of the
 galbanum plant, yet no proof of this has been hitherto adduced, and Dr.  Lindley,
 therefore, very properly asks: " Did  the fruit found by  Mr. Don upon  the gum
 really belong to  it ?"s
   More  recently, Sir John M'Niell sent home  specimens of a plant called a second
 tort of ammoniacum, gathered  near Durrood, July 27, 1838, to the branches of
 which are sticking lumps of a pale yellow waxy gum-resin, which Dr. Lindley took
 for galbanum; and the plant which yields it being essentially different from all others,
 has been named  by him  Opoidia galbanifera,8 the name now selected by the Dub-
 lin College.   Dr. Lindley was kind enough  to send me  a small fragment of this
 gum-resin for examination, but I was unable to identify  it with any other known
 product of the order Umbelliferae.  It certainly was neither  assafcetida nor ammo-
 niacum ; nor did it appear to me to be either sagapenum or galbanum.  The precise
 country where galbanum is produced has not been hitherto ascertained. Dioscorides
 Bays it is obtained in Syria;  a statement which is  perhaps correct, though hitherto
 no evidence of this has been  obtained.   It is not improbable that it is also procured
in  Persia, or even  in Arabia, as suggested by  Dr. Royle.  Opoidia galbanifera
grows in the province of Khorasan, near  Durrood.  The German pharmacologists
 P.toiIus xxx. 34.
, ifctd. in. 97.
 fl. Mid. 51.
* Page 401, &c. ed. Fobs.
4 Don, Linn. Trans, xvi. 603.
• Botanical Register for August 1,1839, pp. 65-6. 
'24
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Umbelliferje.
distinguish two varieties—Galbanum Lcvanticum and Galbanum Pcrsicum.  The
names indicate the localities whence they are supposed to be derived.
  Extraction.—Geoffroy1 says, though I know not on whose authority, that gal-
banum  is  generally obtained by making an incision into the stalks about three
fingers' breadth  above the root,  from which it issues in drops, and in a few hours
becomes dry and hard enough to gather.
  Description.—The gum-resin galbanum (galbanum seu gummi-rcsina galbanum)
occurs in the two forms of tears  and lumps.
  a. Galbanum in the Tear (galbanum in lachrymis seu gram's) is rare ; it occurs
in distinct, round, yellow, or brownish-yellow,  translucent tears;  none of which,
in my collection, exceed the size of a  pea.  Their  fracture is feebly resinous and
yellow.
  8. Lump Galbanum  (galbanum in  massis) is the ordinary galbanum  of  com-
merce.   It consists of large irregular masses of a brownish or dark  brownish-yellow
colour, and composed of agglutinated  tears ; some few of which, when broken, are
observed to be translucent and bluish, or pearl-white.  The mericarp, pieces of the
stem, &c. are found  intermixed  with  the  tears.   To separate these, galbanum is
melted and  strained (strained  galbanum; galbanum  colatvm).   The  odour  of
both kinds is the same, viz.  balsamic  and peculiar.   The taste  is  hot, acrid, and
bitter.   When exposed to cold,  galbanum becomes brittle, and may be reduced to
powder.  In many of its  other properties, it agrees with the other gum-resins.  It
is imported from the Levant and from  India in cases and chests.
   Becently, another gum-resin from India has been introduced as galbanum; but it
is said  to resemble the latter in colour only, and to be unsalable.9
   Composition.—Galbanum  has been analyzed  by Neumann,3 Pelletier,4 Fidde-
chow, and Meissner.5
             Pelletier's Analysis.
Resin......................6G.86
Gum.......................  19.28
Volatile oil and loss..............   6.34
Wood and impurities .............   7.52
Supermalate of lime..............traces
Galbanum...........100.00
            Meissner's Analysis.
Resin.......................65.8
Gum........................22.6
Bassorin.....................  1.8
Volatile oil....................  3.4
Bitter matter with malic acid.........  0.2
Vegetable remains................  2.8
Water  ......................  2.0
Loss.......................  14

             Galbanum...........100.0
  1.  Volatile Oil of Galbanum.—Obtained by submitting the gum-resin, with water, to dis-
tillation.  It is colourless and limpid.  Its sp. gr. is 0.912 ; its odour  is like  that of galbanum
and camphor ; its taste is hot, afterwards cooling and bitterish. It is soluble in spirit, ether, and
the fixed oils.
  2.  Resin.—Is the residue obtained by boiling the alcoholic extract of galbanum in water.
It is dark yellowish-brown, transparent, brittle, and  tasteless;  soluble in ether and alcohol,
scarcely so in spirit containing 50 per cent, of water, or in almond oil. Very slightly soluble in
oil of turpentine, even when aided by heat.  It dissolves in  oil of vitriol, forming  a dark yel-
lowish-brown liquid.  According to Pelletier, galbanum-resin  has the remarkable property of
yielding an indigo blue oil when heated to 248° F. or 266° F.  The composition of galbanum-
resin is, according to Johnston, C^H^O7.
   Physiological Effects.—The general effects of galbanum are those of the fetid
antispasmodic gum-resins already described.  It is usually ranked between assafcetida
and ammoniacum, being weaker than the former but stronger than the latter.  As
it yields, by distillation, more volatile oil than assafcetida does, it has been supposed
that it must exceed the latter in its stimulant influence over the vascular system; but
as an antispasmodic, it is decidedly inferior to assafoetida.   A specific stimulant influ-
ence over the uterus has been ascribed to it; hence the Germans call it Multerharz
(i. e.  uterine resin).
  1 Trait, de Mat. Mid. ii. 623.                                                  .    .
  a Mr. E. Solly. Proceedings of the Committee of Commerce and Agriculture of the Royal Astatic Soctetv,
p. 144, Lond. 1841.                                                             .  .,
  ' Pfaff. Syst. de Mat. Mid. iii. 294.                                4 Bull, de Pharm. IV. »v.
  s Schwartze, Pharm. Tabel. 284, 2te Ausg. 
Opoponax:—History; Botany.
725
  Uses.—Galbanum is principally  adapted for relaxed and torpid habits, and is
objectionable in inflammatory or febrile disorders.   It is employed in the same cases
as assafoetida, with which it  is generally given in  combination.   It is principally
used in chronic mucous or pituitous catarrh, in which it oftentimes proves serviceable.
It has also been employed in  amenorrhcea and chronic rheumatism.  Externally, it
is applied as a mild stimulant, resolvent, or  suppurant, in indolent swellings.
  Administration.—It  may be  given in  substance, in the form of pill, in doses
of from grs.  x to 3ss, or in the form of emulsion.

  1. PILULE  GALBANI COMPOSITE, L—(Prepared Galbanum 3ij;  Myrrh, Prepared
Sagapenum, each 3iij ; Prepared Assafcetida 5j;  Soft Soap 3ij; Treacle,  as  much
as may be necessary.   Beat all  together that a mass may be formed.)—Dose, gr.
x to gr. xx.

  2. EMPLASTRUM GALBANI, L.;  Emplastrum gummosum,^.; Plaster of Galbanum.
—(Galbanum £viij ; Plaster  of Lead Ibiij ; American  Turpentine  ,fj ; Prepared
Frankincense, powdered, giij.   Add first the  Frankincense,  then the Plaster of
Lead melted over a  slow fire, to the Galbanum  and Turpentine  melted together,
and mix them all, L.—" Litharge Plaster |iv; Ammoniac, Galbanum, and  Bees-
wax, of each gss.  Melt  the gum-resins  together,  and strain  them : melt also
together the  plaster  and wax;  add the former to the latter mixture, and mix  the
whole thoroughly," E.)—This  plaster, spread upon leather, is applied to indolent
tumours, to promote  their suppuration, and to disperse them.  Its operation appears
to be that of a mild stimulant.  It is also applied to the chest in chronic pulmonary
complaints.   In weakly, rickety children, with  weakness of the lower  extremities,
it is applied to the lumbar region.
  [Emplastrum Galbani Compositum, U. S., Compound  Galbanum Plaster, is made
as follows: Take of Galbanum £viij; Turpentine 3x; Burgundy Pitch giij;  Lead
Plaster ibiij.   To  the  galbanum and turpentine, previously melted together and
strained, add first the Burgundy pitch and afterwards the lead plaster melted over a
gentle fire, and mix the whole together.]

  I. CUBAN I'M PILEPARATM, L.—This  is directed to be  prepared in the  same
manner as is ordered for the prepared ammoniacum.
    249.  OPOPONAX CHIRONIUM, Each.—THE OPOPONAX.
                           Pastinaca, Opoponax, Linn.
                         Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Monogynia.
                                (Gummi-resina.)

  History.—Hippocrates,1 employed opoponax (ttavdxsi).  Theophrastus3 mentions
 four, aud Dioscorides3 three kinds of na.vd.xij. The latter of these writers has given
 a good account of opoponax (oTtottdvo.^), which he says is procured from rtavdxef
 fydxXt iot>.
  Botany.  Gen. Char.—Margin of the calyx obsolete.  Petals roundish, entire,
 rolled inward, with a rather acute  lobe.   Styhpodium  broad, thick.   Styles very
 short.  Fruit flattened at the  back,  with a dilated convex margin.    Mericarps
 [half-fruits] with three  dorsal, filiform, very thin ridges, and no distinct lateral ones.
 Vtttx '6 to  each channel,  6 to 10 to each commissure.   Seed smooth.—Perennial
 herb.  Root  thick.  Stem rough.   Leaves bipinnatisect;  segments unequally cor-
 date, crenate, obtuse.   Umbels compounded  of many rays.   General and  partial
involucre few-leaved.   Flowers yellow.  (De Cand.)
  Sp. Char.—The only species.—A plant  six  or  seven  feet  high, resembling the
parsnip.
  Hab.—Sunny parts  of  the south of France,  Italy, Sicily, Croatia, and Greece.
' Opera, p.4(W, ed. Fas.                              a Hist. Plant, lib. ix. c. 12.
* Lib. ui. cap. 55-7. 
726             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Umbelliferje.

  Extraction.—According to Dioscorides, whose account is probably correct, this
gum-resin is obtained by incisions into the root; a milky juice exudes, which  by
drying, becomes yellow, and forms opoponax.
  Description.—Opoponax (gummi opoponax) occurs in  irregular yellowish-red
lumps (opoponax in massis), or in reddish tears (opoponax  in lachrymis).   It has
an  acrid bitter taste, and  an unpleasant odour.  Kubbed with water it forms an
emulsion.   Its general properties as a gum-resin have been  already noticed.
  Composition.—Opoponax has been analyzed by Pelletier.1   He found the con-
stituents to be:—
            Resin...................................42.0
            Gum....................................33.4
            Starch  ..................................   4.2
            F.xtractive................................   l.fi
            Wax....................................   0.3
            Malic acid.................................   2.8
            Lignin...................................   9.8
            Volatile oil, traces of caoutchouc, and loss..............   5.9
                            Opoponax.....................100.0

  Rests.—Reddish-yellow; fusible at  122°F.   Soluble  in alkalies, alcohol, and ether.  The
alkaline solution is reddish; the resin is precipitated from  it by hydrochloric acid, in the form
of yellow flocks.  Nitric acid acts freely on the  resin.  Its composition, according to Johnston,
is C^H^O14.
  Physiological  Effects.—Similar  to  the other fetid,  antispasmodic  gum-
resins.   It is,  perhaps, more allied to ammoniacum than to any other of  these sub-
stances.
  Uses.—Opoponax is  rarely employed.   It is adapted  to the same cases as the
other gum-resins of this class.
  [Although opoponax  no longer finds a  place in any British Pharmacdpceia, we
have thought it desirable to retain the description given by the author;  as,judging
of the future by the past,  it will probably be restored to the Materia Medica in a
future edition of the Pharmacopoeia.—Ec]
   250. CONIUM2 MACULATUM, Lw.-THE COMMON OR
                         SPOTTED  HEMLOCK.
                            Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Digynia.
                                   Folia, L. E. D.

   History.—This plant is usually supposed to be the xwvstoi' of the Greek writers
—the  celebrated  Athenian state poison, by which Socrates3 and Phocion4 died—
and the cicuta of the Koman authors.  Various reasons contribute to give the common
opinion on this point a high degree of probability. Dioscorides5 described the plant suf-
ficiently well to prove it must have been one of the Umbelliferae; and he tells us that
it  had a heavy odour, and a fruit like that of anise.   The latter simile  applies to
our Conium, for a very intelligent  druggist mistook, in my presence, the fruit of
the hemlock for that of anise ;  and at the examination for M. B. at the University
of London, in 1839, a considerable  number  of the candidates, to whom the hemlock
fruit was shown, made the same mistake.   Dioscorides also tells us that the xdviw
of Crete and Megara was the most  powerful, and next to this  came  that of Attica,
Chio,  and Cilicia.  Now,  Dr.  Sibthorp6 found Conium maculatum growing near
Constantinople, not unfrequently in  the Peloponnesus, and  most  abundantly be-
tween  Athens and Megara.  So that the locality of our Conium agrees, as far as
has been ascertained, with  that of the ancient plant. Moreover, Conium maculatum

 1 Bull, de Pharm. iv. 49.
 a This word is sometimes incorrectly accented co'nium. Bat " those words which, in Greek, are writ-
ten with ei before a vowel, and in  Latin with e or i, have the e or i long; as Mngas, Cassiopea, Cytharta,
Centaursa,"  &c. (Grant's Institutes of Latin Grammar, 2d edit. p. 343, 1S23.)
 3 Works of Plato, by T. Taylor, vol. iv.;  The Phcedo, p. 340.         " Plutarch's Lives.
 « Lib. iv. cap. 79.                                           ' Prodr. Fl. Graces, i. 187. 
Spotted Hemlock :—its Botany.                   727
is at this present time called  by the Greeks xavnov.1  We  may gather from the
poetical  account of the effects of xCjvtwv given by Nicander,3 that this plant " brings
on obliteration  of the mental faculties,  dimness  of sight, giddiness,  staggering,
stifling, coldness  of the limbs, and death  by asphyxia; a view of its effects," says
Dr. Christison,3 " which differs little from the modern notions of the poisonous ac-
tion of the spotted hemlock."  It is also remarkable that the ancients regarded
xuvaov as having the power of discussing tumours—a virtue which has been  as-
signed to hemlock by  writers of the present day.
   I am  fully aware that the characters of the ancient plant, as given us by Diosco-
rides and Pliny,4 are  insufficient to distinguish it from some other  Umbelliferae;
yet I  think the evidence of its being our  Conium  maculatum  is deserving of much
greater confidence than Dr. Christison  is  disposed to give it.   The absence of all
notice, in the writings of  the ancients, of the purple spots on the stem, has been
urged against the probability of this opinion.  " Pliny's term nigricans, applied to
the stem, is but a feeble approach," says  Dr. Christison, " to  the very remarkable
character of the  modern plant, the purple-spotted stem."   But in  1839, I showed
to the pupils attending my lectures a stem of hemlock, to which the term blackish
might be applied without greater impropriety of language than is daily made use of
when a  man is said to have a black eye;  for the  dark purple spots had coalesced
so as  to cover  most completely the  lower part of  the stem.   Admitting, however,
that the term is not strictly correct, I would  observe, first, that there is no poison-
ous umbelliferous plant to which it applies so well as to  hemlock; and, secondly,
Dioscorides and Pliny  may be well excused for  using it, seeing that a distinguished
toxicologist described  the spots on the  stem as blackish.5
   It  is evident  that our generic  term Conium  is  derived from the Greek word
xuvnov.   Linnaeus has been  censured by Lamarck for using  this name, since the
Latin authors  call our hemlock Cicuta, which  he, therefore, contends ought to be
its designation now. But it should  be  remembered that Linnasus has only restored
its ancient  name, for the word Cicuta is unknown  to the Greek language.   By
modern botanists the latter term is  applied to a distinct genus  of plants ; and when,
therefore, we meet with it in  botanical works,  we must not  confound it with  the
cicuta of the Romans.  Especially careful should the student be not to confound
 Conium maculatum with  Cicuta  maculata.  It  is certainly much  to be regretted
that such a ground of confusion should exist, but I am afraid it is now too late to
obviate  it.
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—Margin of  the calyx obsolete.   Petals obcordate, some-
what  emarginate, with a very short inflexed  lobe.   Fruit  compressed at  the side,
ovate.   Mericarps  [half-fruits] with  5  prominent,  undulated, crenulated, equal
ridges, the lateral ones marginal.    Channels with many striae, but no vittae.  Car-
pophorus bifid at the  apex.   Seed incised  with  a deep narrow groove, and con-
founded  with  it.—European,  biennial, poisonous  herbs.   Root  fusiform.   Stem
round, branched.  Leaves decompound.   Both  partial and general involucres, 3- to
5-leaved; partial one, halved.   Flowers white, all fertile.  (De Cand.)
   Sp. Char.—Leaflet of the  partial involucre lanceolate.   Partial umbel short. (De
Cand.)
   Root  biennial, tap-shaped,  fusiform,  whitish, from 6 to 12 inches long, somewhat
resembling a young parsnip.   Stem from 2 to 6 feet high, round, smooth, glaucous,
shining, hollow, spotted with dark purple.  Leaves tripinnate, with lanceolate, pin-
natifid leaflets, of a dark and  shining green colour, smooth, very fetid when bruised,
with long, furrowed foot-stalks, sheathing at their  base.  Umbels of many general as
well as partial rays. General involucre of several (usually 3 to 7) leaflets; partial vn-
  1 V a/.«»/«« i*.qua.KOiroiitt, 1^37.                         alAlexipharmaca, f. 31-5, Paris,1549.
   Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. xiii.   4 Hist. Nat. lib. xxv. cap. 95, ed. Valp.
  • See Orfiln, T xicol. Gin ii. 299, 1818.  [In a later edition of his  Toxicology (1S13), Orfila describes
thr Rtem of the plant as " olTrant des laches d'une couleur pourprc foncee." Toxicologic, ii. 422, 1843__
Ed.J 
728
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Umbelliferjs.
volucre of 3 leaflets on one side.   Margin of calyx obsolete.  Petals 5, obcordate
white, with inflexed points. Stamina 5, epigynous, as long as the petals. Ovarium
ovate, 2-celled, striated; styles 2, filiform, spreading; stigma round.  Fruit ovate
compressed  laterally;  mericarps [half-fruits] with 5 primary,  but no secondary
ridges, which  are undulato-crenated;  the channels have  many striae, but no vittse.
Seed with a deep,  hollow groove in front.
   Hab.—Indigenous ; hedges and waste ground, especially near  towns and villages.
In other parts of Europe, the East of Asia, and in the cultivated parts of North
America and Chili, into which it has  been introduced.
  In distinguishing Conium maculatum from other Umbelliferae, the following characters should
be attended  to: The large, round, smooth, spotted stem;  the smooth, dark, and shining ureen
colour of the lower leaves ; the general involucre of from 3 to 7 leaflets ; the partial involucre of 3
leallets; the fruit with  undulated, crenated, primary ridges.   To these must be added, that tbe
whole herb, when  bruised, has a disagreeable smell  (compared by  some to that of mice, by
others to that of fresh cantharides, or of cats' urine).
  The indigenous Umbelliferfe most  likely  to be confounded  with Conium maculatum are
CElhusa Cynapium  and  Anthriscus vulgaris.  CEthusa Ctn-apiu.m, or Fools Parsley, is ilistin»
guished from hemlock by its smaller  size, by tbe absence of the strong disagreeable smell which
distinguishes the leaves of hemlock, by  the want of a general involucre, by the 3  long, narrow,
unilateral, pendulous leaflets composing the partial involucre, by the ridges of the fruit being
entire (i. e. not undulate or crenate),  and by the presence of vittce.  Anthiusccs vulgaris, or
Common Leaked Parsley, is known from hemlock by the paler colour and slight hairiness of tbe
leaves, by the absence of spots on the stem, by the swelling under each joint, by the absence of a
general involucre, by the  roughness of  the fruit, and by  the absence of a strong unpleasant odour
when the leaves  are bruised.  Anthriscus  sylvestius (Chcerophyllum sylveslre), or Common  Cote-
Parsley, is scarcely likely to be confounded with hemlock.  The stem, though purplish,is striated,
downy at the lower  part, and slightly swollen below the joint; the leaves  are rough-edged;
there is no general involucre; and the partial one usually consists of 5 or  more leaflets.
   Description.—The  leaves (folia  conii) only  are officinal.   They  should be
gathered from wild plants, just before the time or at the commencement of flower-
ing.   If intended for drying, the larger stalks should be removed, and the foliaceous
parts  quickly  dried  in  baskets  by the  gentle heat (not exceeding 120° F.)  of a
proper stove.   Exclusion from solar light contributes greatly to the preservation of
the colour.   If properly dried, the leaves should have a  fine green colour, and their
characteristic  odour;  and when  rubbed with caustic potash  they should evolve the
odour of conia.  They  should  be preserved in  cool, closed, perfectly opake, and
dry  vessels.   Tin canisters possess these properties.   However, no reliance can be
placed on the dried leaves, however carefully prepared, for they sometimes yield no
conia, though  they possess the proper hemlock odour and a fine green  colour.   If
the fresh leaves be subjected to pressure, they yield a greenish juice (succus conii),
from which, on standing,  a  green fecula  subsides.   The fruit, commonly termed
hemlock seeds  (fructus seu semina conii), has very little odour,  and a slight, some-
what bitterish taste.   It retains  for a much longer  time than the leaves its active
principle unchanged  (see Conia).1
   Composition.—Schrader2 made a comparative analysis of wild and  cultivated
hemlock, but  with no important result.   He also made a comparative examination
of hemlock and cabbage (Brassica oleracea), the  only curious  part of which  was,
that he found a striking resemblance between them.8  Peschier4 found in hemlock a
salt which  he called  coniate of  conia, being composed  of a peculiar crystallizable
acid (coniic acid, or coneic acid), and  a peculiar base.   Hemlock juice was analyzed
by Bertrand;3 the  leaves  by Dr. Golding  Bird;6 the ashes by Brandes.7  An ana-

  1 [Conia, like hydrocyanic acid, undergoes spontaneous changes, whereby it is resolved into ammonia
and a bitter extractive matter, which is  possessed of no poisonous properties.  The salts of coma dis-
solved  in water  are thus  rapidly converted into  harmless substances. This tendency to spontaneous
change, which is materially increased by a high temperature, may account  for the variable proportion ot
the active principle in some of the preparations of Hemlock, as also for the conflicting accounts of author!
regarding their medicinal action.—Ed]
  a Berlin. Jahrbuch, 1«05, S. 152.              » Pchweigger's Journ. far Chem. Bd. v. S. 19, mi.
  Pfaff, Syst. d Mat. Med. Bd. vii. S. 300; Berzelius, Traiti de Chim. vi. 254
1  Recueil de Mem. de Mid. de Chir. et de Pharm. Mil. t. ix. p. 300.
6  Lond. Med.  Gaz. xi. 248.                                 "' Berlin. Jahrbuch, 1819, b 
Spotted  Hemlock :—its Composition.
729
lysis of hemlock  (leaves?) by the  last-mentioned  chemist is quoted by Merat  and
De Lens.1   Peschier and  Brandes first  announced the existence, iu this  plant, of
a peculiar  basic principle, which  Giseke,3 in  1*'27,  obtained in  combination  with
sulphuric acid.    But Geiger,3 in 1831, procured it, for the  first time, in an isolated
form, and described some of its properties and effects  on animals.  It was afterwards
examined by Dr.  Christison,4 and by MM.  Boutran-Charlard and 0. Henry.5
                   Schrader's Analyses.
                                    Hemlock.
Extractive....................   2.73
Gummy extractive................   3.52
Resin.......................   0.15
Vegetable albumen................   0.31
Green fecula...................   0.80
Water, with acetic acid and various salts .  . .  92.49

               Total............100.00
Cabbage.
.  .   2.34
.  .   2.S9
.  .   0.05
.  .   0.29
.  .   0.63
.  .  93 80

.  . 100.00
       Brandes's Analysis.
Peculiar basic principle (conicine).
Very odorous oil.
Vegetable albumen.
Resins.
Colouring matter.
Salts
[Lignin and water.]
Hemlock.
  1.  Volatile Oil of Hemlock (Odorous principle).—The distilled water of hemlock possesses,
in a high degree, the characteristic odour of hemlock, but is scarcely, if at all, poisonous.   Hence
it is obvious that the odorous matter is not the active principle.   Farthermore, it shows that the
characteristic odour of hemlock, in the different preparations of this plant, is not to be taken as
a necessary indication of their activity.  Bertrand isolated the odorous matter, and  found it to
be a  volatile oil of an acrid taste and  peculiar odour.
           +
  2.  Conia Co (Conicine; Conein; Cicutine).—Exists in hemlock in combination with an acid
(coniic acid, Peschier); so  that it cannot  be recognized by its odour, nor obtained by distillation,
without the assistance of an  alkali.   It  exists, probably, in all  parts of the plant, but is  more
copious in  the fruit than in the leaves; and, most remarkably, it may be  preserved for a much
longer time in the former than  in the latter.  Geiger procured  from 6 lbs. of fresh, and 9 lbs.
of dried fruits, about one ounce  of conia ; whereas from 100 lbs. of the fresh  herb he obtained
only  a drachm of this alkaloid.  He could get traces only of it  in  fresh dried leaves, while he
extrac-ted a drachm of it from nine ounces of the fruit which had been preserved (not very care-
fully) for sixteen years. This by no means agrees with my own observations and experiments;
for I  have  found that fruit which had been kept for three years yielded only a very minute por-
tion of conia; though, from the same sample, when fresh gathered, I had obtained a considerable
quantity.   From 40 lbs. of the ripe, but  green, seeds (mericarps), Dr. Christison obtained  two
ounces and a half of hydrated conia.  Conia, free from all impurity but water, may be obtained
by distilling the alcoholic  soft or syrupy extract of the seeds (mericarps) with its own  weight
of water and  a little caustic potash.  The conia passes over readily, and floats on the surface of
the water (which contains conia in solution).   When pure, conia  is an oily-looking, transparent
liquid, lighter than water; sp. gr. 0.89.   Its odour is strong, penetrating,  and stupefying, some-
what like that of hemlock, or more analogous to a combination of the odours of tobacco and mice.
Its vapour  excites a flow of tears.   Its taste is acrid ; it is sparingly soluble in water, but is en-
tirely soluble in alcohol and ether.  It  reddens turmeric, and neutralizes the dilute acids, forming
salts.  While saturating, the  liquors have a bluish-green  tint, which subsequently passes to a
reddish-brown.   It  combines with about a  fourth of its weight of water to form a hydrate of
conia, in which state it has a strong alkaline reaction.   When placed  in a vacuum, in the pre-
sence of  bodies very attractive of water, it in part volatilizes, and leaves a reddish, very acrid,
pitchy residue, which appears to be anhydrous [partially decomposed?] conia.   The vapour of
conia is  inflammable.  By exposure  to the air,  liquid  conia acquires a dark colour, and is re-
solved into a brown  resin  and ammonia.  Its boiling  point  is  370° F. (338°?), but it readily
distils with water at 212° F.   [It is  partially decomposed when heated in  contact with air,
ammonia being  produced.  It is also decomposed by the strong mineral acids as well as by
chlorine, yielding coloured compounds.—Ed.]
  Conia is  characterized  by  its  liquidity at  ordinary temperatures, its volatility, its peculiar
odour, its reddening turmeric paper,its vapour forming white fumes (hydrochlorate of conia) with
tbe vapour  of hydrochloric acid, its solution in water forming, with infusion of nutgalls, a white
precipitate  (tannate of conia), its sulphate and other  salts being deliquescent and  soluble  in
alcohol, its  not being reddened  by either nitric or iodic acids, and lastly, by its alcoholic solu-
tion not being precipitated by the alcoholic solution of carbazotic acid.  Several of the salts of
conia  are crystallizable. When solutions of them are evaporated, they lose a part of  their base,
the odour of which becomes sensible.   The nitrate of  conia, when decomposed  by heat, yields
brown pyrogenous products.  The solution of hydrochlorate, when evaporated in air, becomes
' Dict.de Mat. M-'d. ii. 391.
* Mag. lur Pharm. xxxv. 75 and 259.
' Trans. K  y. Soc. Edinb. vol. xiii.; and L~nd. Med. Gaz. xviii. 123.
1 Journ. de  Chim M d. t. ii. 2nde ser. p. 530.
a Journ. de Pharm. xiii. 366. 
730                VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord. Umbelliferae.
first purple, then deep blue.  Potash added  to a salt of conia sets the base free, which is then
recognized by its odour.
  Liebig analyzed conia.  Its constituents are:—

                                  Atoms.       Eq.Wt.       Per Cent. '        Liebig.
Ca^on..............12  ......  72  ......66.67.....66.913
Hydrogen.............14  ......  14  ......12.96  ......12 (ioo
Nitrogen.............  1  ......  14  ......12.96  ......12.M15
                                                                  ...   b 282
Oxygen..............   1  ......  8......   7.41
              Conia...........   1  ......108......100.00......100.000

But, according to Artigosa, its formula  is C16H16N.
   The effects of conia have been tried  on mammals  (the dog, cat, rabbit, and  mouse), birds
(pigeon, kite, and sparrow), reptiles  (slow-worm), amphibials (the  frog), annelides (earth-
worm), and insects (fly and flea).  One drop placed  in  the  eye of a rabbit killed it  in nine
minutes; three drops employed in  the same  way killed  a strong cat in a minute and a half'
five drops poured into the throat of a small dog began  to act  in thirty seconds, and in as many
more motion and respiration had entirely ceased.  [It does not dilate the pupil.—En.]
   The following are the symptoms produced, as  detailed by Dr. Christison: " It i9, in the first
place, a local irritant. It lias an acrid taste ;  when dropped into the eye, or on the peritoneum,
it causes redness or vascularity; and  to whatever texture or part it is applied, expressions of
pain are immediately excited.   But these local effects are soon overwhelmed by the indirect or
remote action which speedily follows.  This consists essentially of swiftly-spreading palsy of
the  muscles, affecting first those of  voluntary  motion, then the respiratory muscles of tlie chest
and abdomen, lastly, the diaphragm, and  thus  ending  in death  by asphyxia." Convulsive
tremors, and twitches of the limbs, sometimes, though not invariably, are observed.  The ex-
ternal senses do  not appear to be affected until respiration is impaired.  If a rabbit be lifted
up by his ears when under the influence of the poison, he makes the same kind of struggles to
be released  that  he does when in  health.   So also, if  we place him in an uneasy posture, he
makes attempts to alter his position, proving that his senses are unimpaired.   After death, the
muscles are susceptible of the  galvanic influence.  MM.  Boutran-Charlard and O. Henry state,
that most of the  animals to whom  they gave conia  became " a prey to the most dreadful con-
vulsions.   The plaintive cries, the contortions, and the rigidity of the limbs, which have always
preceded death, leave no doubt  as to the cruel pains which this kind of poisoning brings on."
This  account agrees neither  with my  own  observations, nor with those published  by Dr,
Christison.
   Does conia become absorbed?  In  favour of the  affirmative view of this question may be
mentioned  the fact, that this alkali acts on all the textures admitting of absorption; and that
the  quickness with  which the  effects occur  are  in proportion  to the absorbing power of the
part.  But the rapidity of its action, when introduced into the veins, is a barrier to the supposi-
tion of its acting on the nervous centres by local contact; for  Dr. Christison  states, that two
drops, neutralized by dilute muriatic acid,  and injected into  the femoral vein of a young dog,
killed  the animal in two or three seconds at farthest.
   The primary seat of the action  of  conia  is probably  the  spinal  cord.  In this, conia and
strychnia agree;  but in the nature of the effect they seem, as Dr. Christison has observed, to be
the  counterparts  of  each  other.   Conia exhausts the nervous energy of the cord, and causes
muscular paralysis;  strychnia irritates it, and produces  permanent spasm of the respirau>7
muscles.   It  is  evident, therefore, that, like strychnia and nux-vomica, its operation is on the
seat of the reflex functions, which, according to Mr. Grainger,1 is the gray matter of the spinal
cord.
   These effects of conia suggest its employment in convulsive or spasmodic diseases; as tetanus,
poisoning by strychnia, brucia, or nux-vomica, hydrophobia, &c.   I have tried it on two rabbits
under  the influence  of strychnia, and found that it stopped the convulsions, but hastened rather
than prevented death.  In September,  1838, it was tried  in a case of hydrophobia at the Lon-
don  Hospital.  The following is a brief report of tbe case:  "  In  the  case of hydrophobia, in a
middle-aged man, after the disease  was fully  formed, two minims of conia, dissolved  in thirty
drops of acetic acid, were applied endermically to the praecordium (the cuticle being previously
removed  by a blister).  The effects were  instantaneous.  The  pulse  fell from  64 to 46, and
became more regular.  The vomiting and convulsions  ceased;  the respiration became  less
difficult, and the symptoms of  the disease appeared to be altogether mitigated.  The man ex-
pressed himself as feeling much better, and entertaining hopes of an ultimate recovery. These
effects were, however, but transitory,and in about seven minutes the symptoms began to reappear,
and shortly assumed their  previous urgency.  Three  minims of conia were  injected »n,ot*
rectum about a quarter of an hour after the endermic application of it, but it produced no ene'
in allaying the symptoms of the disease. The remedy  was not repeated, and the man became
1  Observations on the Struct, and Fund, of the Spinal Cord. 
              Spotted Hemlock:—Physiological Effects.             731

rapidly worse, and died  in a few hours."  The properties of conicine have been  recently ex-
amined by Orfila.'
  3. Empirecmatic Oil of Hemlock.  (Pyro-conia ?).—This oil, obtained by the destructive
distillation of hemlock, resembles, according to Dr. Morries,2 that procured from foxglove.
  Characteristics  for Medico-legal Purposes.—Hemlock can only be pro-
perly recognized by its botanical characters, already described ;  yet its remarkable
odour may sometimes be of  considerable assistance in  recognizing the plant or its
preparations)  nor is  the fact  to be lost sight of, that  a solution of potash rubbed
with the leaves or fruit develops a strong smell of conia.   In some cases it might
be possible to  obtain conia by distilling the alcoholic extract of  the suspected sub-
stance with water and caustic potash.
  Physiological Effects,   a.  On Vegetables.—Marcet placed a haricot  plant
(Phaseolus vulgaris) in a solution of five grains of the  extract of hemlock.   In a
few minutes the two lower leaves curled at their extremities; the next day they were
yellow,  and subsequently died.3   Schubler and Zeller4 also confirm  its poisonous
operation.
  0. On Animals generally.—The  effects of hemlock on animals have  been tried
by Harder,5 Wepfer,6 Orfila,7 and Schubarth.8   The animals experimented on were
the dog, wolf, rabbit, and guinea-pig.  The action of hemlock on the solipedes and
ruminants is very much less energetic than on the carnivora.   Moiroud9 has given
three pounds and a half of the plant to a young horse,  without inconvenience ; but
in another instance the decoction of four ounces proved fatal.   It caused dejection,
Btupor, dilatation of  the pupils, trembling, salivation, nausea, spasmodic contraction
of the  muscles of the extremities, rolling of the eye, grinding of the  teeth, and
copious cold sweats.   From the observations of  Orfila,  hemlock is a local  irritant
(though this action was not constantly observed), and  produces giddiness,  convul-
sions, loss of sensibility, palsy, and  coma. This account, as Dr. Christison observes,
does not agree with  the symptoms induced by conia, which does not seem to affect
the senses so long as  the respiration goes on.   "But it is possible," he adds,  "that
the difference  is more apparent than real, and  that hemlock has been supposed  to
extinguish sensation,  merely because by inducing paralysis it takes away the power
of expression; at least, in some experiments I have made, sensation did  not appear
to be affected; and the whole phenomena were identical  with  those produced by
conia.  In these experiments, I  used very strong extracts, prepared by  absolute
alcohol from  the  fresh leaves or full-grown seeds', and each of  them occasioned,
in doses of  thirty grains or thereabouts, paralysis of the voluntary muscles, with
O'jiasional slight convulsions, then paralysis of  the respiratory muscles of the chest
and abdomen, and finally cessation of the action of the diaphragm.  Sensation ap-
peared  to continue so long as it was practicable  to make an observation on the sub-
ject ; and the heart  contracted vigorously for a long  time after death."   But from
the united observations of the effects of hemlock on animals and  man, I cannot help
Buspecting, either that this plant  contains a second active principle, whose operation
is somewhat distinct  from conia, or that the influence of this  alkaloid is greatly
modified in the plant  by combination with other matters.
   y- On Man.—In  small or medicinal doses, hemlock  has been  frequently ad-
ministered for  a considerable  period, with obvious  relief, in certain diseases (tu-
mours of various kinds, for  example), without any other evident effect; hence the
Btatement of some authors, that hemlock acts insensibly on the  system.  " It sel-
dom purges," says Storck,10 and  very rarely vomits.   Sometimes it increases per-
spiratiou, and often it occasions  a copious discharge  of viscid urine.   In  many
patients, nevertheless, it does not sensibly augment any of  the secretions."    Long-
continued use, especially if the doses be increased, will  sometimes occasion disorder

  ' Sc« hit paper in Annalts d;Hygiene, 1851, ii. p. 147.  8 Ed. Med. and Surg. Journal, xxxix. 377.
  ( Ann. Chim. et Phys. xxi*. 219.                 * S -hwe jrger's Journ f. d. Chem. Bel. i.S. 54.
  t Bnneti, S,,,u'chr. 1. iv. BCCt. X. obs. iv. p. 488.      « Hist. Cic»t. equal, p. 201. 1733.
  t Toxicol. 0 n. ii.                            • Wibmer. Wirr. d. Arzneim. u. Gifte, ii. 169.
   fharm. Yit. 359.                            " Essay on Hemlock, Eng. tr. 2d edit. 17t«. 
732             VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord. Umbelliferae.
of the digestive organs or of the nervous system, dryness of the throat, thirst, and
occasionally, it is said, an eruption on the skin.  Choquet1 mentions the case'of a
man who gradually increased the dose of the extract to half a  drachm ; it produced
slight delirium and syncope, which obliged him to suspend its use.   The ancients
were of opinion that hemlock exercised a specific influence over the breasts and tes-
ticles.   " It extinguishes the milk," says Dioscorides, " and  prevents the develop-
ment of the mammae of virgins;  moreover, in boys, it causes wasting of the testicles."
Pliny gives a similar account of it, and adds, " it reduces all tumours."  The same
notions of its effects seem to have  been entertained by the Arabians; for Avicenua
praises it as a remedy for  tumours of  the  breasts and testicles.   More recently*
somewhat similar effects on the breasts have been ascribed to it.  In two cases it is
said to have caused atrophy of the  mammae.
   In large or poisonous doses, the symptoms are those  indicating  disorder of the
cerebro-spinal functions.  In some of the best recorded cases  the leading symptom
was coma ;  the effects being altogether analogous to those of  opium. In other in-
stances, convulsions, or violent  delirium, or both, were the prominent  symptoms.
As an illustration of  the comatose condition sometimes  brought on by this  poison,
I shall  quote a case recorded by M. Haaf, a French  army surgeon,  and which oc-
curred to him while in garrison at Torrequemada, in Spain, in March,  1812.*  A
soldier having eaten of some broth into which hemlock had been put, went to sleep
immediately after his supper.   In an hour and a half he was found groaning and
breathing with difficulty ; in consequence of which M. Haaf was sent for. He found
his patient in a profound sleep,  without  sense, respiring with  difficulty, and lying
on  the ground.   His pulse was 30, small, and hard;  the extremities cold; the face
bluish, and distended with  blood, like  that of a person  strangled.   Twelve grains
of emetic tartar were given, and occasioned  some fruitless attempts  to vomit.  He
became gradually worse, had violent  palpitations of the heart, and  died in  three
hours after  his fatal supper.  Several  other cases in which coma was the leading
symptom might be quoted, but  the one just  related is the best.
   We have no well-detailed  cases  in  which  delirium was the leading symptom.
The following must suffice, by way of illustration ; it is from Kircher :4  Two priests
ate hemlock root by mistake; they became raving mad,  and mistaking  themselves
for geese, plunged into the water.   For three years they suffered with partial palsy
and violent  pain.  Orfila also mentions a vine-dresser and his wife, who became
mad and furious from hemlock.
   General paralysis has also  been observed in this form of poisoning.  A case in
which this was a most prominent symptom is mentioned  by Alderson.5  An over-
dose of Conium maculatum " produced general paralysis; the under jaw fell, the
saliva ran from the patient's mouth, the urine dropped  from  the bladder, and the
contents of the rectum were  discharged; in short, every voluntary muscle lost its
energy, and the patient continued for nearly an hour in this most deplorable  state,
unable to move or to command  the slightest exertion, though  all the time perfectly
sensible."   He recovered by the use of stimulants.
   As illustrations of the convulsions caused  by hemlock, I may  refer to the cases
mentioned by Limprecht and Ehrhard.6  The first states that an old woman suf-
fered for three months with abdominal pain and convulsive movements of the limbs,
in consequence of eating hemlock  root.  Ehrhard mentions trismus as one of  the
symptoms in another case.   Dr. Watson7 has related two cases in which giddiness,
coma, and convulsions  occurred.  These statements, as  well  as others of a like
tendency which might be quoted, do not agree with  the  (as yet ascertained) effects
of conia.                                                                     ,
  The post-mortem appearances throw but  little light on the modus operandi of

  1 Orfila, Toxicol. Gin. ii. (not mentioned in later editions—Ed.)       * Lond. Med. Gaz. viii. 125.
  » Orfila, Toxicol. Gen. ii. p. 426, ed. 1843.                         4 Wibnwr, Wirk. Sec ll. la-
  ' An Essay on the Rhus Toxicodendron, p. vi. Hull, 1811.            * Wibmer, op. cit.
  ' Phil. Trans, vol. xliii. No. 473, p. 18. 
Spotted Hemlock :—its Uses.
733
 hemlock.  Venous congestion, especially of the  cerebral vessels, a fluid  condition
 of the blood, and, in  the lower animals, redness of the alimentary canal, are the
 occasional appearances.
   Usks.—In the present state of uncertainty with respect to the real physiological
 operation of  hemlock, it is obviously impossible to lay down indications or contra-
 indications for its use, which can be much  relied on.  Acute inflammation,  fever
 apoplexy,  or tendency to it, and paralysis, are among  the circumstances'which
 oppose the employment of hemlock.
   The uses of hemlock may be reduced  to  two heads:  those which depend  on its
 influence over the organic functions; and, secondly, those which have reference to
 its influence  over the cerebro-spinal system.   The resolvent or discutient and altera-
 tive  uses come under the first head;  the antispasmodic and anodyne under the
 second.
   1. As a resolvent or discutient and alterative.—Under the continued  use of small
 and repeated doses of hemlock, glandular and visceral enlargements have frequently
 subsided;  hence has arisen the opinion, entertained in all ages, of the resolvent and
 discutient  powers of this remedy, and of the  stimulus which it communicates to the
 absorbing  vessels.  The mammae and the  skin are the parts in which these powers
 have  been supposed  to  be more especially manifested;  and the asserted  effects
 (wasting of the breast, profuse sweating,  and eruptions) of hemlock on these parts
 in healthy individuals, lend support to  this opinion.   But the influence of hemlock
 over the organic functions does not appear to be limited to this resolvent operation.
 In foul ulcers, the quality of the discharge has been greatly improved, while  pain
 has been alleviated, and the tendency of the sores  to spread has apparently  been
 greatly diminished.  If, then, these effects be really referable to hemlock (and  they
 have been asserted by so  many writers, in all  ages,  that we can  scarcely  refuse to
 admit them), they prove  that this  plant  exercises  a most profound influence  over
 nutrition and the other organic functions, and which we  have  no  better term to
 indicate than that of alterative.   But so frequently has this influence  failed  to
 manifest itself, especially in  those  cases where it was most desired,  that a  very
 proper doubt has prevailed among practitioners of the present day, whether it really
 exists,  and whether those phenomena which  have been supposed to indicate it are
 not really referable to other influences and circumstances.   That  hemlock has some
 influence of the kind referred  to, I do  not doubt;  but it has been greatly exagge-
 rated, and thereby much unmerited discredit has been brought on the remedy • for
 practitioners, finding  that it would  not do all  that  had been ascribed to it, have
 frequently dismissed it as altogether useless.  Whether the failures ought, in  part
 at least, to be ascribed to imperfect modes  of preparing and administering this plant
 we are, as yet, unable  positively to affirm.   One fact, however, is certain^ that many
 of the preparations of hemlock in ordinary cases are inert, or nearly so;  and others,
 probably, have had their properties greatly changed in the process of their prepara-
 tion.   The remark made by Dr. Christison, with respect to the physiological effects
 of this plant, applies well to  the point under  discussion.   "If," says this writer,
 'physicians or physiologists would acquire definite  information as to the physiolo-
 gical  effects of  hemlock, in small or medicinal  doses, they must  begin  the inquiry
 anew.  Little importance can be attached to  anything already done in this field, as
 I have no doubt whatever that by far the greater  proportion  of the preparations of
 Hemlock hitherto employed have been of very little energy, and,  in the doses
 commonly used, are absolutely inert."
  The diseases to which the-preceding remarks  especially apply,  are, enlargement*
 and, indurations of tlte absorbing and secreting glands and of the viscera, scrofula
 obstinate chronic  skin  diseases, and foul  ulcers.   I am not  prepared  to  offer any
 opinion, as to whether the  diseases to which  the terms scirrhus and cancer are
 strictly  applicable, have ever been cured by hemlock.   One fact is undoubted, that
diseases, supposed  to  have been  scirrhous and  cancerous, have been greatly alie-
nated, and in some cases, apparently cured  by this  remedy.  This fact  does not 
734
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. UMBELLiFERiE.
rest on the sole testimony of  Storck,1 but on that of a  multitude of practitioners."
Bayle has collected, from various writers, forty-six cases>of cancerous diseases said
to have  been cured, and twenty-eight ameliorated,  by hemlock.   In  scrofula, in
which  disease  Fothergill,3 and many others,4 have  praised it, it seems to be occa-
sionally useful as a  palliative  in irritable  constitutions.  It allays the pain, and
assists in reducing the volume of enlarged lymphatic glands,  and in scrofulous
ulcerations improves  the quality of the  discharge, and  disposes the sores to heal.
Even enlargements of the liver, spleen, and pancreas, have been, at times, apparently
benefited by hemlock.   In mammary tumours and profuse secretion of milk (galuc-
torrhoea), a trial of it should never be omitted.   In  bronchoeele it,  has been found
efficacious by Dr. Gibson, Professor of Surgery in the University of Pennsylvania.5
In  syphilis it  is useful, by  alleviating nocturnal pains, and in diminishing the
tendency to spread of irritable sores.8  In chronic skin diseases (lepra,  herpes, &c.)
it is now but rarely employed.
  2. As a cerebrospinal agent  (antispasmodic  and  anodyne).—The  power pos-
sessed by conia of paralyzing the motor nerves, suggests the employment of hem-
lock as an antispasmodic.  Hitherto, however, trials of it have been made in a few
spasmodic diseases only, and those  have not proved favourable to  its reputation.
In  some spasmodic  affections of the respiratory organs it has  gained a temporary
celebrity only.    In hooping-cough, Dr. Butter7 spoke favourably  of it, as having the
advantage  over opium of not being liable to check  expectoration.  But though the
violent and  periodic fits of  coughing are  obviously of  a spasmodic nature, and,
therefore, apparently adapted for the  use of hemlock, experience has fully proved
that the disease  is one which will  run  through a certain course.  At the best,
therefore, hemlock can prove  a palliative only.   In other forms of spasmodic  cough,
as well as in spasmodic asthma, hemlock deserves farther trial.  In tetanus, conia
or hemlock held out  some hopes of doing good.   Mr. Curling has kindly furnished
me with the notes of a  case which occurred in the London Hospital.   A tincture
of hemlock seeds was exhibited on the eighth day of the disease,  at first in doses
of Tr^xx every hour, which  were increased in the course of the three following
days  to  fjij every quarter  of an hour,  until the  patient  (a  man  aged  4<j) had
taken, in all, two pints ! but without any decided effect  on  the spasms or  brain.
Morphia and laudanum were afterwards used, but the man died.   A small quantity
of conia, obtained from  three ounces of the  same tincture used in this case, killed a
cat in  less  than four minutes.   In a case  of chorea, treated by Mr.  Curling, no
relief was obtained by the use of the above-mentioned  tincture, given to the  extent
of  three ounces in  twelve hours.   The  patient (a  young man) ultimately died,
exhausted from the long-continued and violent convulsions of nearly all the  volun-
tary muscles.
   Hemlock  has  been frequently employed  as an anodyne, and often with  apparent
relief.   As, however, conia does  not appear to have the same paralyzing influence
over the sensitive, that it has over the motor nerves, some doubt has been raised  on
the real anodyne influence of hemlock.  However, in  tender glandular enlargements,
in painful ulcers, in scirrhus  and cancer, in  rheumatism, and in neuralgia, hemlock,
has, at times, evidently mitigated pain ; and its power of allaying troublesome, cough,
is, in some instances, referable  to its diminishing the preternatural sensibility of the
bronchial membrane.
   Anaphrodisiac properties have been ascribed to hemlock, and hence  this remedy
has been used in nymphomania and satyriasis.
   Administration.—Hemlock is  used in the form of powder, tincture, extract^
ointment, and poultice.
   Antidotes.—No chemical antidote is known for hemlock, though  it is not im-
1 Essay on the Med. Nat. of Hemlock [English transl.], 2d edit. 1762.                 ... tnn
» See Bayle, Bibl. Thirap. iii. 618.                            ' Med. Obs. and Inq. in. *<»'■
4 See Bayle, op. cit.                                        • United States Dispensatory.
• Pearson, Obs. on the Effects of Yar. Art. of the Mat. Med. in Lues Venerea, p. 62, 1800.
' Treat, on the Kink-cough, 1773. 
               Spotted Hemlock :—its Powder; Tincture.             735

probable that an infusion of galls might be serviceable, as mentioned for conia.   The
first object, therefore, is to evacuate the poison from the stomach; this is to be effected
by the same means as directed for poisoning by opium.   If the poison be suspected
to have passed into the bowels, a purgative is to be administered, unless  diarrhoea
have come on.  The subsequent  treatment will depend on the  symptoms; blood-
letting is frequently required, to relieve the congested state of the cerebral vessels.
Opium is generally prejudicial.  Artificial respiration should not be omitted in ex-
treme cases.  As strychnia  and nux-vomica appear  to produce a condition of the
spinal cord opposite to that of conia, it is a question whether either of these agents
might not be serviceable in the treatment of a case of poisoning by hemlock.
  1. PULVIS CONII;  Powder of Hemlock.—The  powder, when  properly  prepared
from  the  leaves,  has the peculiar  odour  of the  plant, and a fine green colour;
but neither the odour nor the colour are absolutely indicative of activity.   The test
of the presence of conia  is caustic potash, and,  as the Edinburgh College properly
observes, " the  powder, triturated with  aqua potassae,  exhales a powerful odour of
conia."  But the odour of the volatile oil of the plant being very analogous to that
of conia, creates some difficulty with inexperienced persons.   The vapour of conia,
evolved from powdered hemlock by  potash, fumes with hydrochloric acid; but the
same occurs with ammonia, set  free by the same  agent.  As  the powder, however
well prepared, quickly spoils by keeping, it is not a preparation which  deserves con-
fidence, and should  never be used if it have been  kept  beyond the year.   The dose
of it is three or four  grains twice or thrice daily, the quantity being  gradually in-
creased until some obvious effect (nausea, dryness of the throat, giddiness, headache,
or disordered vision) in the  system is produced.    As different parcels of the powder
possess very unequal powers, it is necessary, when changing  the parcels,  to recom-
mence with small doses.   I have elsewhere referred to the observation of Geiger,
as to the small quantity, or even entire  absence, of conia, in the  dried  leaves of
hemlock.
   I  TINCTURA CONII,  L. E.  [U. S.];   Tincture  of Hemlock.—(Hemlock Leaves,
 dried, £v;  Proof Spirit  Oij.  Macerate for seven days and strain, L.   The for-
 mula  of the Edinburgh  College is  as  follows: "Fresh  Leaves  of Conium  Jxij  ;
 Tincture  of Cardamom Oss; Rectified  Spirit Oiss.   Bruise the hemlock leaves,
 and express the juice strongly; bruise the residuum, pack it firmly in a percolator;
 transmit first the tincture of cardamom, and then  the  rectified spirit, allowing tho
 Bpirituous liquors to mix with the expressed juice as they pass through ; add gently
 water enough to the percolator for pushing through the spirit remaining in the re-
 siduum.  Filter the liquor after agitation.")—The process of  the Edinburgh College
 yields a much  more energetic preparation  than that of  the  London  College, as  it
 obviates the necessity of drying  the leaves, and, therefore, much deserves the pre-
 ference.   If, however, the percolation were dispensed with, and the tincture prepared
 merely by adding spirit (not tincture of cardamom) to the expressed juice, the pro-
 cess would be greatly improved.  If the leaves  have been sufficiently pressed, the
 percolation is scarcely necessary, and, therefore,  only adds to the labour and expense
 of the process.   Any active matter lost by omitting percolation, may be easily com-
 pensated  by increasing the quantity of juice employed, the cost of which scarcely
 deserves notice.  The employment of tincture of cardamom  is objectionable, since
 it prevents the apothecary from forming a judgment of the colour, taste,  and  smell
 of, and the effect of potash on, this preparation; hence, in  the London  tincture it
 has been judiciously omitted.   And lastly, if  the percolation process  be adopted,
 surely the directions of the Edinburgh College are too loose.   The quantity of water
 which is to be  employed " for pushing  through  the spirit" should be accurately de-
 fined, or it will be  impossible to have preparations made at different  times, and by
different persons, of uniform strength.   Good tincture of hemlock should evolve  a
strong odour of conia on the addition of potash.  In 1837,11 recommended  the  use of
1 Lond. Med. Gaz. xix. 770. 
736
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Umbelliferae.
an alcoholic tincture of the bruised fruit.   More recently, Dr. Osborne1 has advised
the same.   Tinctura  conii, L. is given  in  doses of f5*s or f^j, which are to be
gradually increased until some effect is produced.   Tinctura conii, E. must be cm-
ployed more cautiously; though the quantity of hemlock leaves used by the Edin-
burgh College would, if dried, be scarcely half that employed by the London College
(as 1000 parts of the fresh leaves  yield only 185 parts when dried, according to
Henry and Guibourt).3   The drying, however, as I have  already noticed, greatly
deteriorates the activity of  the leaves.
   [The U. S. Pharm. directs Hemlock Leaves ^iv, Diluted Alcohol Oij.]
  Stjcctjs Conti ; Preserved Juice of Hemlock.—The  method of preparing the preserved vege-
table juices has been described.  Mr. Bentley informs me that, from 1 cwt. of hemlock leaves
gathered in Mary, he procured twelve imperial quarts of juice.  The preserved juice of hemlock
appears to me to be an excellent preparation.
   I EXTRACTUM CONII, L. E. D. [U. S.]  (Succus spissalus  Conii, D.) ; Extract »f
Hemlock.—(The London College directs this extract to be  prepared in the same
manner as Extract of Aconite; viz. Fresh Hemlock Leaves ibj;  bruise in a stone
mortar; then press  out the juice and evaporate it undefecated  to a  proper consist-
ence ; and the Dublin  College adopts a method of preparation the same as that for
Extractum Belladonnae.  The  following are the directions of the Edinburgh Col-
lege : " Take  of  Conium any convenient quantity, beat it into a  uniform pulp in a
marble  mortar, express the  juice, and filter it.   Let this juice be evaporated to the
consistence of a very firm extract, either  in a vacuum with the aid of heat, or spon-
taneously in shallow vessels  exposed to a strong current of air freed  of dust by
gauze screens.   This  extract is of  good quality only when a very strong odour of
conia is disengaged by degrees, on its being carefully triturated with aqua potassac.")
—Most of the extract of the  shops is inert, or nearly so.   " We were one  day,"
says Orfila,3 " in the shop of an apothecary, who had  several times furnished us with
the extract of hemlock, which  we had  administered  to dogs in the  dose  of ten
drachms, without producing any serious accident. We endeavoured to prove to him
that the medicine was  badly prepared;  and,  in  order to convince him effectually,
we swallowed, in the presence of several persons who happened  to  be in his shop,
a drachm of  this extract (seventy-two  grains) dissolved in  two drachms of water.
We felt no effect from it, whilst twenty or thirty grains of the  extract, well pre-
pared,  would have probably proved fatal to us.   Let it be conceived now what ad-
vantage a person is  likely  to derive from such an extract, who  takes one or two
grains  of it per day, or even thirty or forty, with the hope  of getting rid of a scir-
rhous tumour, or of any other disease."
   The extract of hemlock contains very little conia ; this has been shown by Geiber
and Christison, and has been verified  by myself.  From §iv. of extract, procured
from one  of the most respectable drug  houses  in  town, I was unable to procure any
sensible quantity of this alkali.  " From what has come under my own observation,"
says Dr. Christison, " the extracts of hemlock may become feeble, if not inert, in
one of two ways—either by the heat being continued  after the concentration has
been carried to a certain extent, or by long keeping.   On the  one hand,  I have
always  observed that, from the  point at  which the  extract attains  the consistence
of thin  syrup, ammonia begins to be given off in abundance, together with a modi-
fied odour of conia; and,  on the  other hand, I have found extracts, which were
unquestionably well prepared at first,  entirely destitute of  conia in a few  years—
a remark which  applies even to the superior extract  prepared  by Mr. Barry, of
London, by evaporation in  vacuo."
   Mr. Brande4 observes that " the most  active extract is that which is procured by
moderate pressure  from the leaves  only  ; when the stalks and stems are used and
violent  pressure  employed, the  extract is glutinous, dark-coloured, and viscid, and
less active than in the former case,  when it has a somewhat mealy consistency, and
1 Dub. Journ. xvi. 469.
» Toxicol. Gin. ii.
a Pharm. Raison. i. 27.
* Vict, of Pharm. 195. 
Other Umbellifer^.                          737
an olive-green colour.   With every caution, however, on  the part of the operator,
the colour, odour, and efficacy of extract of hemlock will  vary with the season, and
with the situation and soil in which the herb has grown.   The best method of pre-
paring this and similar extracts consists in gradually heating  the expressed  juice
to a temperature of about 212° [by which  the vegetable  albumen is coagulated,
and retains, mechanically or chemically, a portion of the active principle], then to
suffer it to cool, to strain it through moderately fine linen, and evaporate the strained
liquor, and when it has nearly acquired a proper consistency, to add the matter
which remained upon the strainer."  One cwt. of hemlock yields  from three to five
lbs. of extract.  If ammonia be evolved during  the preparation of the extract, we
may infer that a decomposition  of the conia is going on.  However carefully extract
of hemlock may be prepared, I  prefer for medicinal use the  tincture made with the
expressed juice as before stated.   The dose of the extract should, at the commence-
ment, be two or three grains, and gradually increased  to  five grains, or until  some
obvious effect is produced.   [The  goodness of the extract may be  determined by
the disengagement of a strong  odour of conia when it is gradually triturated with
Liquor Potassae.—Ed.]
  [The U. S. Pharm. also directs the Extractum  Conii Alcoholicum, made in the
way directed  for the same Extract of Belladonna  (see page 477).]
  4. PILULE  CONII COMPOSITE, L.;  Compound Pills  of Hemlock.—(Extract  of
Hemlock 3^;  Ipecacuanha, powdered, 3J;  Treacle, as  much as may be sufficient.
Beat them together until incorporated.)—Antispasmodic, slightly narcotic, and ex-
pectorant.  Used in  spasmodic coughs, bronchitis, and the  incipient stage of phthisis.
—Dose, grs.  v to grs.  x twice or thrice daily.   [In  this preparation, the  London
College has substituted treacle for a solution  of gum.—Ed.]
  6.  UNGUENTUM CONII, L.;  Hemlock Ointment.—(Fresh Leaves of Hemlock, Pre-
pared Ilogslard, of each  ibj.    Boil the leaves in the lard until they  become
crisp, then express through linen.)—It is employed as  an  anodyne application to
foul, painful, and  cancerous sores, to glandular and  scirrhous swellings, and  to
painful piles.  An extemporaneous  substitute may be prepared with lard and the
extract of hemlock.
  6.  CATAPLASMA CONII, L.;  Hemlock Poultice.—(Extract of Hemlock gj ;  Boiling
Water ^x; Powdered Linseed givss.  Add the linseed gradually to the water,
constantly stirring  to make a cataplasm.   On this spread the extract, first softened
with water.)—.1 poultice of hemlock is sometimes employed as a soothing anodyne
application to cancerous, scrofulous, venereal, and  other  foul ulcers.   It is some-
times prepared with the unstrained decoction and bruised  meal;  occasionally, the
bruised leaves, or the  dried herb with hot water, are used.   Hemlock fomentation
(fvtus conii)  is sometimes  applied to painful swellings.   It is prepared with the
herb (fresh, when it can be procured) and hot water.

        OTHER UMBELLIFERiE, DIETETICAL  OR POISONOUS.

  All tlie more important medicinal Umbelliferae have been noticed.  It remains now to enu-
meraie those plants in common  use for dietetical  purposes, or which are  indigenous and poi-
nnoiis.
  Of the Dietetical  Umhellifer.e several have  been already mentioned.  To these may be
added Parsley (Petroselinum sativum) and Chervil (Anthriscus Cerefolium), used as pot-herbs and
garnishings; the Parsnip (Pastinaca saliva) and Skirret (Sium Sisarum), employed  on account
of their esculent roots; Celery (Apium graveolens), an acetarious plant, the blanched leaf-stalks of
which are eaten raw as a salad; Common Samphire (Crilhmum maritimum), which is pickled ;
l.ryngo (Eryngivm campestre), the root of  which is preserved, and eaten  as a candy (Candied
r-ryngo; Radix Eryngii condila); and Lovage (Levisticum officinale), used by distillers for prepar-
ing :t liijiienr termed Ionise.
  the Puisonois Indmjenoi-s Umdellifer.'k are acro-narcoties.  When swallowed, they cause
gastric irritation,giddiness, delirium, convulsions, and coma.  The  most important (after Conimn
Maculatum, before mentioned), are Fool's Parsley (JEthusa Cynupium), which contains a pecu-
      vol. u.—±7 
738
VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord. Cucurbitace*:.
liar alkaloid called cynapina; Hemlock Water-drop wort ((Enanthe crocata); Celery-leaved H'n
dropwort ((Enanthe apiifolia);  and Water Hemlock (Cicuta virosa).
  Order  LVIL—CUCURBITACEiE, Jussku,—THE GOURD
                                      TRIBE.

   Characters.—Flmvers usually unisexual, sometimes hermaphrodite.   Calyx 5-toothed, some-
 times obsolete.   Corolla 5-parted, scarcely distinguishable from the calyx, very cellular, with
 strongly marked reticulated veins, sometimes  fringed.  Stamens ft, either distinct or cohering in
 3 parcels; anthers 2-celled, very long and sinuous.  Ovary inferior 1 celled, with 3 parietal pla-
 centa?; style short; stigmas very thick, velvety, or fringed.  Fruit fleshy, more or less succulent
 [occasionally dry, opening by valves], crowned by the scar of the calyx,  1-celled  [in some Mu-
 mordicas 3- or 4-celled], with three parietal placenta?.  Seeds flat, ovate, enveloped  in an aril
 which is either  juicy or  dry and  membranous; testa coriaceous,  often thick at the margin-
 embryo flat, with no albumen; cotyledons foliaceous, veined ; radicle next the hilum.—Roots annual
 or perennial, fibrous or tuberous.  Stem succulent, climbing by means of tendrils formed by abor-
 tive leaves (stipules, St. Hit.).   Leaves palmated,or with palmated ribs, very succulent,covered
 with numerous asperities.  Flowers white, red, or yellow (Lindley).
  Properties—Variable; suspicious.   The roots and fruits of many species are drastic cathar-
 tics.  The fruits of other species are employed as articles of food.

   251. CITRULLUS (Cummis, Linn.) COLOCYNTHIS, &W-THE
              BITTER  CUCUMBER,  OR  COLOCYNTH.
                             Sex. Syst.  Monrecia, Syngenesia.1
              (Fructus Decorticatus, L.—Pulp of the Fruit, E.—Fructus pulpa, D.)
                                   [Colocynthis, V. £.]

   History.—Colocynth  is supposed to be  the plant termed, in the Old Testament,3
 the-wild vine (literally, the vine of the field), whose fruit the sacred historian calls
pakkoth, a word which in our translation is rendered wild  gourd.  To understand
 the  passage referred to, it is to be remembered that different  kinds of gourd  are
 commonly  used in tbe  East for shredding into pottages.3  Colocynth was employed
 by  the Greeks at  a very  early  period.   Hippocrates* employed xokoxwOU aypia
 (cucurbita  sylvestris, or wild gourd) only in pessaries  for bringing  on menstruation.
 Dioscorides5 gives a good description of  colocynth.   Pliny6  calls it colocynthis.
   [Botany.   Gen.  Char.— Corolla  persistent, quinquepartite, roundish.   Avtheri
 triadelphous and bilocular.   Style trifid.    Stigmas obcordate, convex.   Fruit fleshy
 (peponida) many-seeded (Arnott).7—Ed.]
   Sp. Char.—Stem procumbent, somewhat  hispid.   Leaves cordate-ovate, many-
 lobed,  white, with  hairs beneath;  the  lobes  obtuse; the  petioles as  long as  the
 lamina.   Tendrils short.   Flowers axillary, solitary, stalked; females with the tube
 of the calyx globose, somewhat  hispid, the limb  campanulate, with narrow segments.
 Petals small.   Fruit globose, smooth, yellow, when ripe, with a thin solid rind and
 a very bitter flesh. (De Cand.)
   Root annual, white, branched.   Stems  herbaceous, angular, branched.   Leaves
 bright  green on the  upper side, paler, and clothed with whitish  hairs underneath.
 Tendril filiform, branching, opposite each leaf.   Calyx 5-toothed.   Corolla yellow,

  1  The followers of Linnaeus are by no means agreed with their great master, or among  themselvei, ai
 to the true order of Cucumis, and some other cucurbitaceous genera. The male flowers hav:. apparently,
 three stamina; but of these, two  have an anomalous structure, and are regarded by sonn- botanists as
 stamina with doubly-folded anthers; by others, as being composed each of two adherent stamina. Hence
 some have considered the flowers  to be triandrous, others  pentandrous—the latter, taking into account
 the adhesion of the stamina, consider them  to be  syngenesious, triadelphous (polyadelphous), or mona-
 delphous.  So that while Linnaeus adopted  Monacia, Syngenesia, as the class and order, Turton placed
 Cucumis in Monacia, Triandria; Smith in Monacia, Pentandria, or Mon. Polyadelphia (see his Introd.
 to Botany, 4th edit. p. 363); Willdenow, Persoon, and Loudon, in Monacia, Monadelphia; while Sprra-
 gel, in conformity with his modification of Linuaeus's sexual system, places it in Monadelphia, Monandria.
  2 •> Kings, iv. 39.                                      " Picture Bible, ii. 2-26.
  4  Pages 203 and 265, ed. Fees.                           * Lib. iv. cap. 1*8.         ...
  6 Hist. Nat. xx. s, ed. Valp.                           7 Hooker's Journal of Botany, in. 271' 
Colocynth:—Description; Composition.                739
with  greenish veins.  Males: stamens 3, short, free;  two of which have doubly-
bent anthers, or  consist of two anthers; in which case the number of stamens is
really five.   Females: ovarium  round,  smooth,  inferior; style  short, cylindrical;
ttigmas 3 ; f laments without  anthers.   Fruit (pepo) about the  size of an orange,
with a thin but solid rind.
  Hab.—Japan,  the sandy lands of Coromandel,  Cape  of Good Hope,  Syria,
Nubia, Egypt, Turkey, and the islands of the Grecian Archipelago.   Cultivated in
Spain.
  Preparation  of the  Fruit.—The fruit  is  gathered in autumn, when  ripe
and yellow, and in most countries is peeled  and dried,  either  by the sun  or by
stoves.
  Commerce.—Colocynth is imported from Spain (Almeria,  Gibraltar, Cadiz, and
Malaga), Trieste,  Smyrna,  Alexandretta, and  Mogadore.   It  comes over  in cases,
casks, boxes, &c.   In 1839, duty (2d. per lb.) was paid on 10,417 lbs.
  Description.—The fruit called colocynth or  coloquintida (colocynthis; poma
colocynthidis) is imported  either peeled (generally), or  sometimes  unpeeled.   Its
pulp (pulpa colocynthidis exsiccata) is nearly white, inodorous, light, spongy, porous,
tough, intensely and nauseously bitter.  The seeds (semina colocynthidis) are smooth,
either white or yellowish-white  (white  colocynth seeds),  or brownish (black colo-
cynth seeds), bitter, especially the dark-coloured ones, and  inodorous.  By digesting
them  in repeated portions of boiling water, and afterwards well  washing them,  the
greater part of the bitterness  may be  extracted.   Two kinds of colocynth,  distin-
guished  as Turkey aud Mogadore colocynth, are known in commerce.
  a. Turkey Colocynth: Peeled Colocynth.—This is imported from the Levant and
Spain.   The usual size of each  pepo is about two or three inches in diameter;  the
shape is  more or less  globular, according to the evenness with which the rind  has
been removed, and the degree of contraction in drying; the colour is white, or pale
yellowish white.   One hundred parts by weight are said to consist of 28 parts pulp,
and 72 parts seed.
  fl.  Mogadore Colocynth: Unpeeled Colocynth.—The pepo of  this kind is  larger
than the preceding, and is  covered with a yellowish,  smooth, firm  rind.   It  is im-
ported from Mogadore in small quantity only, and is principally used by  druggists
for show-bottles.
  The seeds of colocynth are usually described as white, perfectly bland, and highly nutritious.
Captain Lyon'states, they constitute an important article of food in  Northern Africa.  "The
seeds of CucurbitaeeaV' says  De Candolle," "do not participate in the qualities of the pulp which
surrounds them; they are bland, demulcent, of an oily nature,and susceptible of easily talcing the
form of an emulsion."  These  statements  do not apply to Colocynth seeds of commerce, which
I never found devoid of bitterness; and Hillefeld3 says a scruple of them purged a dog.  Heise4
found them poisonous.
  Composition.—In 1817, Braconnot5 analyzed the watery extract.   The pulp
was analyzed in 1818 by Meissner.6   A'auquelin7 examined the active principle.
           Meissner's Analysis.             i             Braconnot's Analysis.
Bitter,mntter (Colocynthin)..........  14.4 I Bitter matter (Colocythin), with some resin .  41.4
Eitructive....................10.0 j Resin.......................   4.3
Bitter fixed oil..................   4.2 j Vegetable jelly (pectin).............   18.6
Resin insoluble in ether.............13.2  Azotic matter..................21.4
Gom........................   9.5  Acetate of potash................   5.7
BiMorin . . ...................   3.0  Deliquescent salt of potash not soluble  in
Gummy extract (obtained from the ligneous        alcohol.....................   7.1
  fibre by potash)................  17.0                                       ----
vegetable jelly..................   0.6              Watery Extract of Colocynth  98.5
rhoiphate of lime and magnesia........   5.7
Ligneous fibre..................19.2
Water.......................   5.0
           Colocynth Pulp........101.8
1 Duncan, Edinb. Disjicns.                        " Essai sur les Prop. Mid. des Plantes, 191.
' Marx, Lehre v. d. tiiften, ii. 27                    * Ibid. 34.
• Journ ih Phys. Ixxxiv. £37.                      « PfufTs Syst. d. Mat. Med. v'. 365.
1 Journ.de Pharm x.  416 
740              VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Cucurbitaoeje.

  Colocynth : Colocynthite; Bitter or Purgative Principle of Colocynth.—By digesting the water
extract of colocynth in alcohol, and evaporating the tincture thus procured, we obtain a tna-
composed, according to Vauquelin, of a bitter  principle and acetate of potash.  A little water
readily dissolves the latter, leaving the bitter resinoid matter, to which tlie name of Colocynth n
has been applied.  It is a yellowish brown, translucent, brittle substance, dissolving in wai r
but much more readily in  alcohol.  The aqueous solution is  precipitated by the tincture of %,!■'<
and by some metallic solutions (proto-sulphate of iron, sulphate of copper, and nitrate of mer-
cury).  [This latter effect is owing, however, to the colocynth not being pure ; as Mr. Win. Bastick
has shown that, when quite pure from foreign matters, it possesses neither hasic nor acid pro-
perties.  It appears also, from the experiments of the same gentleman, that colocynthin is oxi-
dized by digestion with nitric acid, and a substance formed having  weak acid properties, for
which he proposes the name of colocynthic acid.1—En.j
  Chemical Characteristics.—The cold infusion is pale yellow, and very bitter-
nitrate  of  mercury, sulphate of copper, and acetate of lead,  cause in it gelutinous-
flocculent precipitates (pectates?); sesquichloride of iron and  tincture of nutgalls do
not render it turbid.   Powdered colocynth gives scarcely any evidence of the pre-
sence of starch, on mixing it with tincture of iodine and water.
  Physiological  Effects,  a.  On  Animals generally.—The animals on whom
the action of colocynth has been examined are  horses,  dogs,  sheep, and pigs.  On
dogs  its operation appears  to be analogous to that on  man.   Thus,  Viborg* states
that two drachms caused in a dog violent vomiting  and purging; and Orfila3 has
shown  that three drachms introduced into the stomach (the oesophagus being tied)
are capable of causing death.  It is remarkable,  however, that its operation on horses
is comparatively slight, at least  according to the testimony of Viborg, Bourgelat,
and Moiroud.4   The last-mentioned writer says  he has given four drachms to a horse
without exciting the least disorder;  and he adds that another cucurbitaceous plant
(bryony) has likewise very  little effect  on the horse.
  £.  On Man.—Thunberg5 tells us that, at the Cape of Good Hope, the colocynth
fruit is said to be eaten when pickled, both by the natives and colonists, although it
is very bitter.   Mr. Dunsterville, Surgeon, of Algoa Bay, formerly one of my pupils,
tells me that the colocynth growing there does  not possess the least bitterness.   This
may not be the medicinal plant.
   Colocynth taken in small or moderate doses acts as a very safe and useful purga-
tive.   Its operation is  not limited to the acceleration of the vermicular movements,
but is extended to the secreting  and exhaling vessels of the alimentary canal, whose
functions  it promotes.   Moreover, it stimulates  the other  abdominal organs; and
after the absorption  of its bitter  acrid principle, it not unfrequently proves diuretic.
In  full doses, it operates as a very active or drastic  cathartic and  hydragogue; but
I have never seen  any ill effects from its use.   These remarks apply to the com-
pound extract, the only preparation of colocynth  of which I have personal experience.
It would  appear, partly from observation in the human subject, and also from the
experiments of Orfila on dogs, that colocynth  is one of  those purgatives which exert
a specific stimulant influence over the large intestines.  In excessive doses, colocynth,
both in powder and decoction, has on several  occasions operated as a mortal poison,
causing violent vomiting and purging,  griping pain, and other symptoms of gastro-
intestinal inflammation.   A teaspoonful and a half  of the powder (about 3iss) has
proved fatal.6  In a case related by Orfila,7 there were, besides the preceding symp-
toms, dimness of sight and slight delirium.   In M. Carron d'Annecy's case,9 the
purging was followed  by extreme tension and  tenderness of belly, suppression of
stools  and urine, retraction of the testicles, and priapism.  On a post-mortem ex-
amination there were found, besides  the usual  evidences of  inflammation of the
bowels, traces of inflammation of the liver, kidneys,  and the bladder.
   Considered in relation to other  cathartics, colocynth will  be found  to rank near
gamboge, from which  it  is distinguished  by at least  two circumstances;  first, its
1 Pharmaceutical Transactions, x. 239.
3 Toxicol. Gin.
* Travels, ii. 171.
' Toxicol. Gin.
1 Wibmer, Wirk. d. Arzneim. u. Gifte, u. 2-30.
4 Pharm. Vit. 271.
8 Christison, On Poisons.
• Ft id. 
            Colocynth:—Uses; Administration;  Antidote.           741

cathartic effect  is not the mere result of its topical acrid operation, but, in part, of
its specific influence over the bowels;  secondly, its action on the large intestine i3
more manifest than that of  gamboge.   In the  latter  property, colocynth  approxi-
mates to aloes;  but while it greatly exceeds  the latter in its cathartic and hydra-
gogue effects, it is devoid of the tonic influence possessed by aloes, when used in
small doses.
  Uses.—Besides being useful as an ordinary purgative, colocynth is adapted for
acting as a stimulus to the abdominal and pelvic vessels and nerves in  cases of tor-
por or inactivity, and on the principle of counter-irritation  already explained for
determining from other organs.  The objections to its use are acute  inflammatory
affections of the alimentary  canal, diseases of the  large intestine, &c.   The follow-
ing are  the principal cases in which it is employed :—
  1.  In habitual constipation.—As  an ordinary purgative for  keeping the bowels
regular, the compound extract of colocynth is in common  use both among the public
and medical men.  It operates mildly, certainly, and effectually.   I am acquainted
with individuals who  have taken this substance for  years without suffering any
inconvenience therefrom.  The simple extract is  sometimes employed as a substi-
tute, but is less advantageous.
  2. In alvine  obstruction.—In some cases of obstinate constipation, with  sickness,
and other symptoms of  an  extremely irritable stomach, the compound extract of
colocynth occasionally  proves invaluable.  Occupying but  a small bulk,  it is re-
tained on the stomach, and  succeeds  in  producing alvine evacuations, where  the
ordinary liquid purgatives  fail, in consequence of being vomited up.   Doubtful
cases of intussusception and hernia, even with stercoraceous vomiting, I have seen
completely relieved by it.   More than once have I known an operation averted by
its use,  in those who, in  addition  to the  above symptoms, had old herniae, which
led the  surgeon to suspect strangulation.  A slight degree of abdominal tenderness
is not to be considered as absolutely prohibiting its use.   Occasionally, the extract,
is rubbed down with  soap and water,  and administered  as an  enema (see Enema
Colocynthidis).
  3.  In diseases of the brain.—In apoplexy, or a tendency thereto,  in paralysis,
insanity, violent headache, &c, colocynth is  sometimes employed with good effect,
on the principle of revulsion or counter-irritation.
  4.  In dropsy.—In dropsical  affections, colocynth has been used as a hydragogue.
But in this country it is  less frequently employed  for this than for other purposes;
various  other hydragogues (especially elaterium and jalap) being usually preferred.
It is sometimes employed as a diuretic, being given in the form of decoction. Hufe-
land regarded it as a most effectual diuretic in persons of a cold and sluggish  habit
of body.1
  5.  In amcnorrlxm and  chlorosis.—In some cases of obstructed menstruation,
benefit is obtained  by the use of drastic purgatives, like colocynth, which act on the
rectum,  and, by contiguous  sympathy, affect  the uterus.
  Administration.—The  powder, which is rarely used, may be administered  in
doses of from two to  eight or ten grains, intimately mixed with some  mild powder
(gum, or starch).  The  decoction  (prepared  by boiling  5ij  of colocynth  in Oj of
water for six minutes,  and,  mverding  to  Hufeland, adding  to the  strained liquor
fyj. of  the spirit of  sulphuric ether, and fjj  of syrup of orange-peel) is given  in
doses of f^ss three times a  day.  The  tineture (prepared  according to the Prussian
Pharmacopoeia,  by digesting 3j of colocynth  pulp  and 3j of star anise, in ibj  of
rectified  spirit) is given in doses of twenty drops.   Colocynth has  been employed
latralcptjcally by Dr. Ourestien.3  The tincture of colocynth, or  an ointment con-
sisting of twenty grains  of  tbe powder  mixed with hogslard,  has been used  by
w*y »f friction  on  the  abdomen and  inner side of the  thighs, in disorders of the
intellectual  functions.   Diuresis was a common effect.
  A.N'TIDOTK.—Sec Elaterium.
1 Eberle, Mat. Med. 2d edit. i. 119.                   a Mith. Iatral. p. 172. 
742              VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Cucurbitace*:.
      The following are the officinal preparations of colocynth:—
      1. EXTRACTDI COLOCTMHIDIS, L. E.;  Extract of Colocynth.—(Colocynth, cut in
   pieces, rejecting  the  seeds,  ibiij; Distilled  Water Cong. ss.  Macerate the  colo-
   cynth for thirty-six hours, frequently squeezing it  with  the  hand.  Press out the
   liquor, and finally evaporate to a  proper consistence, L.  Colocynth ibj;  Water
   Cong. ij.   Boil gently for six hours, replacing the evaporated water occasionally.
   Strain the liquor while hot, and evaporate it in the vapour-bath to due consistency
   E.)—When  the decoction  is very concentrated, it readily gelatinizes on  cooling-
   hence it is necessary  to strain it while hot.  At Apothecaries'  Hall, the  produce of
   100 lbs. of pulp is about 65 lbs.  of extract.1  Extract of colocynth is an objection-
   able preparation, as it is very apt  to become either mouldy  or tough and  hard by
   keeping.  The dose  of it is grs. v to 9j.

      2. PILULA  COLOCYNTHIDIS COMPOSITA, L.D.; Pilulse Colocynthidis, E. (formerly
   called  Compound Extract  of  Colocynth)',  (Extractum Colocynthidis Compositum,
   U. S.)—(Extract of Colocynth 3 j; Powdered Extract of Aloes 3vi; Powdered Scam-
   mony 3>j ;  Powdered  Cardamoms 3ss; Soft Soap 3Jss.  Mix the powders,  and,
   the remaining ingredients being  added, beat  all together so  that a  mass may be
   formed, L.  Pulp of Colocynth, in fine powder, 3jj; Hepatic Aloes, in fine powder,
   :|ij; Scammony, in fine powder, £j; Oil of  Cloves 3,1;  Castile Soap 3j;  Treacle,
•  by weight, 3x.   Reduce the soap  to  a fine powder, and mix  it with the  colocynth,
   aloes, and scammony, then  rub all together with the oil of cloves and treacle, and
   beat them into a mass of a uniform consistence, D.2—The process of the Edinburgh
   College is as  follows:  " Socotrine or East Indian  Aloes, and Scammony, of  each
   eight parts;  Colocynth, four parts; Sulphate of Potash and  Oil of Cloves, of  each
   one part; Rectified Spirit, a sufficiency.   Pulverize the aloes, scammony,  and sul-
   phate of potash, together;  mix with them the  colocynth previously reduced to fine
   powder; add the oil of  cloves; and, with  the  aid  of a  small quantity of  rectified
   spirit, beat the whole  into a proper pill mass, which is to be divided into five-grain
   pills.")—Compound pill of colocynth, made according to the London Pharmacopoeia,
   is  an exceedingly valuable preparation; but  owing to  carelessness, inattention,
   fraud,  or ignorance, the preparation of the shops  is very unequal in its  powers.
   The aloes used in the  process  should be purified (by straining) as directed by the
   London College;  the  necessity of this will be obvious  to any one who has  ever
   seen a cwt. of aloes melted.   Should the Cape variety  be substituted for the finer
   kind  of aloes, the odour will  detect the fraud.  The  scammony  employed should
   be of the  best quality.   If  the common (i. e. adulterated) kinds be used, the  acti-
   vity of  the preparation  is thereby deteriorated.  If the compound pill,  rolled into
   a ball and dropped into water, effervesce3 on  the addition of  hydrochloric acid, we
   may infer that the scammony employed was adulterated with chalk.   If the filtered
   decoction, slightly acidified, become blue or purplish on  the  addition of  tincture of
   iodine, the presence  of some starchy substance (as  jalap or adulterated scammony)
   may be inferred.  The mode of  detecting gamboge will  be described hereafter (see
   Gamboge).   If colocynth seeds have  been employed as a substance for the pulp,
   the tenacity of the extract, I am told, is greatly deteriorated.    Some druggists sub-
   stitute oil of cardamoms for the  powder of the seeds, and by this means  increase
   the odour of the preparation; but unless some inert powder be added to compensate
   for the  powder of the seeds omitted, the strength of the preparation  would be
   somewhat greater than that intended in  the Pharmacopoeia.
      [The compound extract  of colocynth is thus directed by the U.  S- Pharm.:
   Take of Colocynth, deprived of the seeds  and sliced, six ounces;  Aloes,  in powder,
   twelve ounces; Scammony, in powder, four ounces;  Cardamom,  in powder, an
   ounce; Soap three ounces; Diluted Alcohol a gallon.  Macerate the colocynth in the
  1 Barker and Montgomery, Obs. on the Dub. Pharm.
  3 In the Dublin preparations, avoirdupois weight is directed to be used.
  3 If the extract has been kept for some time, it will effervesce, though it be made from pure scammony—
probably from the alkali of the soap becoming carbonated. 
Wild Cucumber:—History;  Botany.                 743
diluted alcohol with a gentle heat for four days.  Express and filter the liquor, and
add to it the aloes, scammony, and soap; then evaporate to the proper consistence,
and, near the end of the process, mix the cardamom with the other ingredients.]
  The compound pill  of colocynth is a powerful, sure, yet safe cathartic.   Its uses
are the same as those of extract of colocynth, before described.  The dose of it is from
five grains to a scruple.   Calomel  is frequently given in combination with it.  The
Pihdse catharticse compositse, U. S. contain the compound pill of colocynth, extract
of jalap, and calomel.  Extract of hyoscyamus is frequently given in conjunction
with  the compound extract  of colocynth.   (See  Pilulse  Colocynthidis  et  Hyos-
cyami, L.)
  In the shops, a cheap substitute  for  the  compound  pill of colocynth  is often
sold under the name oi pill, cochise (piluhe coccio?, or pilulse cochise  minores of
Galen).  The substitute sold under  this name at Apothecaries'  Hall, London, is
the Pilulse colocynthidis,  Ph. Ed. without the sulphate of potash.
  Colocynth is a constituent of  Morison's Pills.1

  I  PILCLjE  COLOCYNTHIDIS ET HYOSCYAMI, E.; Pills of Colocynth and  Henbane.
—(Colocynth pill mass two jmrts; Extract of Hyoscyamus one part.  Beat them
well  together, adding a  few drops of rectified spirit, if necessary; and divide the
mass into thirty-six pills.)—Extract of hyoscyamus diminishes the pain and griping
frequently experienced from the use of colocynth,  but does not injure its evacuant
properties.   Both Sir H. Halford  and Dr. Paris9 bear testimony to this.—The dose
of this pill is grs. v to grs. xv.

   4.  OEM  COLOCYNTHIDIS,  L.; Colocynth  Glyster.—(Extract of Colocynth gssj
Soft  Soap 3J;   Water Oj.   Mix, and  rub  them together.)—A useful cathartic
enema in obstinate constipation, whether arising from  colic or from other non-in-
flammatory conditions.


      252.  ECBALIUM OFFICINARUM, z., ECBALIUM
            AGRESTE,  D. (Momordica Elaterium).—WILD  OR
                      SPIRTING  CUCUMBER.
                       Sex. Syst.  Moncecia, Syngenesia, Linn.3
    (Fructus recenstantum non  maturus. L.—Feculence of tbe juice of the fruit, E.—Fructus;
                       Fajcula, Folia, D.)  [Elaterium, U.S.]

  History.—The term liatriptov (from ixawu, I impel or urge forward) was em-
ployed by the Greeks  to signify,  not  merely a medicine prepared from the olxvc
aypiof, or wild cucumber (Momordica  Elatarium),  but  also any purgative sub-
stance.4  Hippocrates5 employed the root and leaves of the plant, as well as ixa-
trfiiov, in medicine.   Dioscorides6 minutely describes the method of preparing Jxo-
rijpioi' by drying  the feculence of the expressed juice of the fruit, and making it into
troches.  Pliny7  calls the plant Cucumis sylvestris, and gives a short account of the
method  of making  elaterium.  C. Bauhin8 terms  the plant Cucumis asininus, or
asses' cucumber.
  [ISotany.  Gen. Char.— Tendrils lateral.  Stamens monadelphous.   Anthers
connate.  Calyx of males campanulate.   Fruit expelling the seeds with elasticity;
indehisoent.   (Richard.)
  Sp. Char.—Hispid, scabrous.   Stem  dwarf, without  tendrils.   Leaves cordate,
somewhat lobed, crenate-toothed, very rugose, on long stalks.  (Richard.)—Ed.]
  Root,  annual.   Stem thick, round,  trailing,  and  branching.   Leaves obtuse,

 ' Ser Frazcr's Report of the Trial of Joseph Webb, at York Assizes,  1834, p. 53.
 ^ Phannacologia, Oth edit. i. 299.               » See the note to Cucumis Colocynthis, p. 1735.
  Fo-sius, a.ronom. Hipp.                    » Opera, ed. I'u-s. pp. 41*, o!7, and 877.
  Lib iv. cap. 155.                           ■> Hist. Nat lib. xx. cap. 1 and 2, ed. Valp.
 'Pin.*, 314. 
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Cucurbitace^:.
grayish,  and  strongly reticulated  on  the  under side; petioles  long  and bristly
                                         Flowers axillary :  the males form racemes of
                                         5 or 6 flowers.   Calyx adherent, with 5 lan-
                                         ceolate acute teeth.    Corolla campanulate
                                         yellow, reticulated with green veins.  Main)
                                         Stamina 3, two of which bear doublyfolded
                                         anthers [or 5, four of which cohere, so  as to
                                         form  two bundles of two anthers  each].   /;>
                                         males: filaments 3, sterile; ovarium inferior
                                         1-celled  (spuriously  3-celled);  style simple-
                                         stigmas  3,  bifid.  Pepo small, elliptical, pe'
                                         dunculated, grayish-green,  covered with soft
                                         prickles; when ripe separating from its stalk,
                                         and expelling with  considerable  violence its
                                         brown seeds, and a thin mucus  through  the
                                        aperture at  the insertion of the stalk.
    Momordica Elaterium.

a. Pepo expelling its seeds.
b. Stalk.
c. Transverse section of the pepo.
                                             The phenomenon of the expulsion of the seeds of
                                          this  plant has acquired, of late years, increased in-
                                          terest from  the  circumstance  of Dutrochet1 having
                                          adduced it as one of the effects of endosmosis.  It is
                                          well known that when two fluids of unequal dens-
                                          ity are  separated  from each  other  by membrane
                                          (animal or vegetable), a double permeation of fluids
                                          takes place—that  is, each fluid passes through the
                                          membrane, and  mixes with the other fluid; the
                                          current  in one direction is called endosmosis, that in
                                          the opposite  direction exosmosis.
                                            Now  to apply these facts to the  phenomena of
                                          the Elaterium apple.  In  die  centre  of this fruit,
                                          and surrounding  the seeds, is a very singular variety
                                          of organic matter,  which appears like thick mucus,
                                          It is called by some botanists placentary matter (see
                                          Fig. 353, c).   External to  this, that is, in the tissue
                                          of the pericarp, there is another organic liquid, whose
                                          density is less than that  of the placentary matter,
                                          These two  fluids being separated from each other
                                          by membrane, are in a proper condition for  the ope-
 ration of endosmosis;  consequently, the central cell  gradually becomes very much distended
 (at the expense of the liquid in the tissue of the  pericarp), and  ultimately  gives way at the
 weakest  point; namely, where the peduncle is articulated  with the fruit, and the contents of
 the  cells are  expelled  with great  violence, from the  sudden  contraction  of the distended
 tissues.
   Seat of Elaterium.—Some  years since Dr. Clutterbuck2 ascertained that  the active substance,
 elaterium, " is  neither lodged in the roots,  leaves, flowers, nor stalks, in any considerable quan-
 tity;  nor is  it to be found in  the body of the  fruit itself, or in the seeds contained  within it; it
 was only in the juice around the seeds, therefore, that it could be looked for," and here it was
 found.  The precise situation of it will be readily comprehended by inspecting a transverse
 section of the elaterium  pepo (see Fig. 353, c).  We observe that the external portion of the
 pericarp (namely, tbe epicarp)  is furnished with rigid-hairs;  within the  epicarp is a  whitish
 sarcocarp, forming what Dr.  Clutterbuck terms the body of the fruit.  The centre of the fruit is
 divided into three cells, by projections of  the three parietal placentae to which the seeds are
 attached.  Between these projections, and  surrounding the seeds, is the pulp, the placentary mat-
 ter, or the juice  around the seeds (Clutterbuck).   It is paler than the sarcocarp, and is composed
 of a very lax tissue, which, as the  fruit maturates, takes on, says Aug. St.  Hilaire, a gelatinous
 consistency, becomes  disorganized, and melts into water.
  "The centre  of the fruit of Momordica Elaterium," says Dutrochet,3 "contains  a very singu-
 lar organic substance, and which has no resemblance to any other vegetable tissue.  It seems
 to be  a green very thick mucus.  Viewed by the microscope, it appears to consist of an immense
 quantity of very small globules, agglomerated sometimes confusedly, sometimes so as  to form
irregular striae.   This substance  is penetrated by a whitish liquid, by a sort of emulsion, which
is so much the  more dense as we observe it at an epoch nearer maturity.   This aqueous liquid
1 Nouv. Rech. sur VEnd. p. 66, 1628.
3 Op. cit. p. 69.
1 Lond. Med. Rep. vol. xii. 
               Wild Cucumber :—Extraction; Description.             745

rscapes immediately we open the green fruit.  By the microscope, we see some almost imper-
 ■cpiible globules which  swim in this liquid.   At the epoch of maturity, this whitish liquid is
much more  abundant, and at the  same time much denser; the globules, which it holds in
suspension, have become much larger."
  Hab.—South  of Europe.   Common on rubbish in the villages of Greece and the
Archipelago.   A few acres of it are annually cultivated at Mitcham.
  Extraction  of  Elaterium —We are  indebted  to Dr.  Clutterbuck for  the
present improved method of manufacturing elaterium.
  a. Db. Clutterbuck's Process.—"The cucumbers should be gathered when nearly as ripe
as possible, and without violence that might endanger  their  bursting.  They should then be
wetted by the affusion of cold water, that less of the juice when they are cut may adhere to
the external  surface.   In this state, they should be cut through longitudinally, and the  juice
allowed to strain  through a fine sieve placed in a large earthenware vessel.  The  seeds and
surrounding pulp should be scooped out upon the sieve, and washed with repeated affusions of
cold water, by which they will  be  freed from all adhering juice.   Something will be saved
also by afterwards rinsing the split cucumbers themselves in cold water, from  which a portion
of elaterium may be collected.
  "After standing a few hours, a sediment is formed, from which the clear liquor is to be
poured off; it is then to be thinly spread  on fine  linen, and exposed to the air  to dry; a gentle
warmth may be employed without injury, but the access of sunshine destroys the  fine green
colour which the substance otherwise acquires."  From forty fruits, Dr. Clutterbuck obtained
only six grains of elaterium.  The elaterium  thus  procured is of the finest quality;  but the
product is very small.
  &. Piiocess of  the  British Pharmacoposias.—The London College, gives the following
 directions for its preparation: Slice ripe wild cucumbers lengthwise, and strain the juice,  very
 gently expressed, through a very fine hair-sieve;  then set it by for some hours,  until the thicker
 part lias subsided.   The  thinner supernatant part being rejected, dry the thicker part with a
 gentle heat.—The processes of the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges are essentially the same.
  y. Process actually followed.—The following is the mode of preparation which I have
seen practised at Apothecaries'Hall, London: The fruits are cut longitudinally in  halves by
women, and are then placed in a hempen cloth, and put into a common screw-press.   Appa-
rently, a tolerable pressure is applied, but for a few minutes only, being removed before all the
juice lias ceased running out.  A greenish, slightly turbid liquor runs out.  When the fruits are
taken out of the press, they are but very slightly crushed, so that the pressure cannot have been
 great.  The juice, as it runs from tfie press, falls into a hair-sieve, through which  it flows into
a cylindrical-lipped glass jar.  Here it is  allowed to remain for about two hours, during which
time a greenish fecula is deposited.   The supernatant liquor  is then carefully poured off, and
the thicker liquor at the bottom is placed  on a paper filter supported by a cloth filter stretched
on a wooden frame.  A bitter, yellowish-brown  (sherry-coloured) liquor runs through, and a
green mass is left on the filter.  Tlie latter is then carefully dried  by a stove, and constitutes
the finest elaterium.  The mother liquor, which was poured off from tlie deposit,  is placed in
shallow brown pans, and there  lets fall a  fresh  deposit, which, when separated and dried,
forms a paler elaterium.
  After the elaterium has been deposited from the juice, a mucilaginous  matter
subsides, which  greatly deteriorates  the  elaterium (if it  has  not been  previously
separated), and renders it,  when dry, dark,  gummy, and much curled.
  Theory of the Process.—Dr. Clutterbuck's  experiments have shown that the
finest elaterium  is obtained without pressure from the fruits when  nearly as ripe as
possible.  In practice, however, pressure  must be employed; because the  cucumbers
must not be too ripe when gathered,  or they are  apt to burst  during  their journey
to town, or by handling;  aud in this imperfectly ripe state the juice  does  not flow
from them until  pressure be employed.   If the juice of one of the fruits  be received
on a plate of glass, it is at first nearly colourless and transparent.  In a few  minutes,
however, by exposure to the air, it  becomes slightly turbid (milky);  and  small
white coagula are formed in  it.    By slow and spontaneous  evaporation, crystals of
a rhomboidal  figure  are  perceptible on  the glass when  examined by a magnifier.
These crystals are Elatcrin.   They are probably formed by the influence of the air
on the juice.  Elaterium of  commerce consists essentially of  this elaterin contami-
nated with the green colouring  matter,  cellular tissue, and  starch, expressed from
the fruit, and mixed  with  the residue obtained by drying  the bitter liquor  above
referred to, with which the tissues and elaterin were moistened.
  Description.—The Elaterium (Elaterium;  Extractum  Elaterii,L. E. D.)  of 
746             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Cucurbitaceje.
commerce is a very variable article.   Two kinds are distinguished, the English and
the Maltese.
   1. English Elaterium  (Elaterium avglicum) is manufactured at Apothecaries'
Hall, at Mitcham, and perhaps at other places.  The finest (Elaterium album, Aut.)
occurs in light,  friable, thin, very slightly curled flakes, or flat cakes, or fragments
which frequently bear the impression of the paper or muslin on which the elaterium
was dried.   Its colour is pale, grayish-green, which by exposure becomes yellowish.
Its taste is acrid and  bitterish ; it has a faint animal odour (not very dissimilar to
that of ergot of rye),  but combined  with a fragrancy which reminds me of senna or
tea.   By keeping nine or ten years, a sample of good elaterium in my museum has
assumed a sparkling appearance, as  if it contained very minute crystals.
   Inferior kinds  (Elaterium nigrum, Auct.) are sometimes hard, break with  diffi-
culty, or with a  resinous  fracture,  are much  curled, gummy, and dark  coloured
(brown or olive-green).  They are probably  prepared from the juice, after the finest
elaterium has been separated.   In my museum, I have several varieties of this in-
ferior kind, which were collected by Dr. Clutterbuck.   One is  in  the form of a
brownish powder.  Dr.  Clutterbuck states that of the best specimens of elaterium
from  Apothecaries' Hall, spirit dissolves more than half;  while of inferior sorts, a
fourth  part  only  is dissolved.   Mr. Barry1 says  that the solubility of elaterium,
manufactured by  Dr.  Clutterbuck's  process, is as follows:—
Ten grains of Elaterium'manufactured according to                  Dissolved in spirit, of Specific
           Dr. Clutterbuck's process.                                  gravity 0.8ni).
                          fist sample   ........................5.5 grains.
      By Messrs. Allen and Co.< 2d sample   ........................6.2  "
                          (3d sample   ........................6.4  ."
      At Apothecaries' Hall.................................6    "

   2. Maltese Elaterium (Elaterium melitense).—This is imported from Malta. It
is in much  larger flakes  than the best English elaterium, and frequently has some
adherent paper on which it has been  dried; its  colour is much  paler, sometimes
with  hardly a trace of green.   Some  specimens are more friable and  softer, and
occasionally are rather chalky to the touch.   My specimens are mixtures of chalk
and starch;  hence they  effervesce with acids, and become blue with iodine.  I am
assured that Maltese  elaterium is mixed, in this country, with buckthorn juice, to
deepen  its colour, and promote its purgative operation.
   Composition.—Braconnot2 analyzed  the  expressed, boiled, filtered, and evapo-
rated juice of the plant.   Soon after  Dr. Clutterbuck's experiments on elaterium,
Dr. Paris3 analyzed this  substance.   In  1831, Mr. Hennell4 published an analysis
of it.   In  1835, Landerer5 examined  the juice of  the  fruit growing in Nauplia
(Napoli).   Farthermore, the  active principle of elaterium was examined in 1831
by Dr.  Monies,6 and  afterwards by  Marquart.7
1.2
        Dr. Paris's  Analysis.
 Elatin......),
 Bitter matter .  .  . S  ......
 Extractive...............2.6
 Fecula................2.8
 Gluten.................0.5
 Woody matter.............2.5
 Water................0.4
i                                  —
          Elaterium.........10.0
           Mr. HennelVs Analysis.
Crystallizable substance 'Elaterin) ... 44
Green Resin..............1?
Starch.................  6
Woody fibre..............27
Saline matters.............  '

              Elaterium.......101
  1. Elatf.riv  (Elaterine ; Momordicine).—Dr. Clutterbuck showed, in 1819, that the active
principle of elaterium  was insoluble  in water, but soluble in alcohol; for he found a watery
infusion of eight grains had no effect, whereas the alcoholic extract in the dose of one-sixteenth
of a grain produced considerable purging, and often vomiting; and when the dose was increased
to a quarter of a grain  the effect was more considerable, and often took place in a very few
minutes. The action of these liquids on elaterium, led Dr. Clutterbuck to believe that the active
1 Paris. Pharmacol.
3 Pharmacologia.
8 Pharm. Central-Blatt fur 1835, 154.
' Pharm. Central-Blatt fur 1833, S. 850.
5 Journ. Phys. lxxxiv. 292.
4 Journal of the Royal Institution, 1.S32.
6 Ed. Med. and Surg. Journ. xxxv 32J. 
"Wild Cucumber:—Characteristics.
747
principle was of a resinous nature.  But the alcoholic tincture of elaterium contains three prin-
ciplei: elaterin,  the green resin, and a bitter matter.  By treating this alcoholic  extract with
boiling distilled water, the bitter matter is dissolved ; the residue (elaterin and green resin) was
termed by Dr. Paris elatin. Dr. Morries, in 1831, separated the green resin and isolated elaterin ;
though Mr. Hennell seems to have discovered it about the same time.  Dr. Morries obtained
it by evaporating the alcoholic tincture of elaterium to the consistence of thin oil, and then throw-
ing it into boiling distilled water;  a white crystalline precipitate was formed, which  increased
as the liquor  cooled.  This precipitate was afterwards purified by a second solution in alcohol
and subsequent  precipitation  by water.   Mr. Hennell's  process  was  different.   He  separated
the resin from the crystalline  tnatter of the alcoholic extract of elaterium by ether, which took
up the rfsin and left the elaterin ; the  latter  was then purified  by solution in hot alcohol and
subsequent crystallization.  Marquart's process is less likely to yield  pure elaterium, since he
procured it from  an extract  prepared by evaporating the expressed  juice.  Another  method
(founded, I presume, on the  directions of the Edinburgh College)  for  the determination of the
goodness of elaterium, is to treat the  alcoholic extract of elaterium with a solution of  potash,
which takes  up  the bitter matter  as well as the resin, and leaves the  elaterin.   The quantity
of elaterin in elaterium is thus stated by different authorities:—

                   100 parts of Elaterium.                           Quantity of  Elaterin.
      Prepared according to the London College (Hennell).............44
      Best British Elaterium (Morries)......................26
      Worst ditto (Morries)...........................15
      French Elaterium (Morries)...............•.........5 or 6
      Elaterium (Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia)...................14.3 to 25
      Best specimens (Balmer1)..........................33
      Fine sample, prepared at Apothecaries'  Hall in 1839, and dried by steam heat
        (Pereira).................................26

   These discrepancies must arise principally from the different degrees of goodness of samples
examined; but partly also from different modes of proceeding.   I found that 30 grs. of fine ela-
terium, prepared at Apothecaries' Hall in 1839, lost by drying  on a steam-bath  1.5 grs.   Boiled
in repeated portions of rectified spirit, the dried mass  lost 18 grs.  The concentrated green
tincture poured into dilute liquor potassre (see process  of the Edinburgh  Pharmacopoeia, p. 1506)
deposited crystals which, dried by  steam heat, weighed 7.5 grs.
   Elaterin possesses the following qualities: it is crystalline, and has a silky appearance; the
crystals,  viewed by a  magnifying glass, are observed  to  be rounded prisms with striated sides;
it is very bitter, but odourless; is neither acid nor alkaline, and is insoluble in water, but  soluble
in hot alcohol.   Mr. Hennell  says  if is only very slightly soluble in  ether; whereas Dr. Morries
Hates it to be readily soluble  in  both ether and fixed oil.  It is fusible, according  to Mr. Hen-
nell, at 350°  F., or at 392° Phillips.   Mr. Hennell states  that it is composed of Carbon 36.9,
Hydrogen 23.9, and Oxygen 39.2, which nearly corresponds to the formula C6H12052   Dr. Mor-
ries says that at a high temperature it is dissipated  in a thick, white,  pungent vapour, having
an ammoniacal odour; if so,  nitrogen must be a constituent.   But neither by the odour, nor by
turmeric, can  I detect ammonia in this vapour.  The late Dr. Duncan, of Edinburgh, ascertained
that in doses  of one-twelfth or one sixteenth of a grain it had all the effects of a dose  of elaterium.
"A tenth of a grain," says Dr. Christison, "as I have myself witnessed, will sometimes cause
purging in man; and a fifth of a grain, in two doses, administered at an interval of twenty-four
hours to a rabbit, killed it in seventeen hours after the second dose."   Dr. Golding Bird  thinks
one-sixteenth of a grain a fair dose to commence with; he repeats it every two hours until  some
effect is produced.  It may be taken dissolved in spirit, and by this  diffused through an aqueous
vehicle.
  2. Green  Resin (Chlorophylle?).—Is insoluble in  water, but dissolves in alcohol, ether, and
caustic potash.  It does not redden litmus, though from its ready solubility in caustic potash its
acid  nature might be suspected.  Some of it, prepared  by Mr. Hennell, was  tried at  St. Bar-
tholomew's Hospital, and found to act  powerfully as a  purgative in doses of  less than a third
ofagrnin.  Perhaps this might have arisen from the presence of elaterin; for twenty-one grains
of the resin yielded four grains of elaterin.
  3. Bitter  Matter—This is soluble both in water and alcohol.   Its taste is intensely bitter;
il» colour is brownish yellow.
   Characteristics.—Good elaterium  is  friable,  has  a pale  greenish-gray colour,
and an animal odour.  Digested in  rectified spirit, it  yields a fine green  tincture.
lhrown into water it floats.   It does not  effervesce  in diluted hydrochloric acid;
the acid liquor being digested  on elaterium, and subsequently  rendered nearly neu-
tral by ammonia, gives scarcely any cloudiness on the addition of oxalate of ammonia.
Touched with  tincture of iodine, it  gives  no  evidence of the presence of starch;
though,  if it be boiled in  water,  the decoction,  when cold, gives  traces of starch, by
1 Lond. Med. Gaz. xxv. 909.           a [According to Zweuger, its composition is Ca0H14O».—Ed.] 
748              VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Cucurbitace^.
the blue colour developed on the addition of iodine.  If the ash formed by the burn-
ing of elaterium in the air be ignited in the outer cone of the flame of a candle the
presence of potash is indicated by the bluish or violet tinge.
   Maltese elaterium has no odour, and scarcely any green tinge.   Examined by the
microscope, it is found to contain globules of wheaten starch.  It sinks in water
effervesces with diluted  hydrochloric acid, yielding a solution which, when  nearly
neutralized by ammonia, gives a copious precipitate (oxalate of lime) on the addition
of oxalate of ammonia.  Tincture of iodine stains it bluish or greenish black (iodide
of starch).   If the cinder  obtained by burning  Maltese  elaterium  in the  air  be
ignited in the outer cone of the flame of the candle, it communicates an orange tint
to the flame (lime?).  The adulteration of elaterium by starch was known to Dios-
corides.   The Edinburgh College (1841), gives  the following characteristics of good
elaterium:—
  " Colour pale-gray ; when exhausted by rectified spirit, the solution, concentrated, and poured
into hot diluted aqua  potassse, deposits, on cooling, minute silky, colourless crystals, weighing
from a seventh to a  fourth of the elaterium."
   In the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia for 1839, it was  stated that elaterium  should
yield "at  least a  seventh" of  elaterin; and  in  the first edition of the Elements, I
observe  that "these characteristics  are  not sufficiently accurate.   Good elaterium
is pale greenish-gray; and when treated as the College directs, should yield 26 per
cent, of crystals (i. e. elaterin)."   It will be seen that the College  has somewhat
modified its original statement.
   Physiological Effects,   o.  On Vegetables.—Macaire found a branch of the
Momordica Elaterium was speedily destroyed by immersing it in a solution of the
extract of this plant.1
  /3.  On Animals.—Viborg2 gave a pound of the fruit of Momordica Elaterium to
a horse without any effect.  Two and a half pounds of the whole plant (roots, leaves,
and stem) also appeared inert.
  The only experiments made with  the extract of elaterium  that I am acquainted
with, are those of Orfila3 on dogs.   They are three in number, and prove that this
substance is a powerful local irritant, producing death, even when it has been applied
to the cellular  tissue of the thigh,  in consequence, as he supposes, of the nervous
system being sympathetically affected.  Moreover, he concludes, from his observa-
tions, that elaterium exerts a special action on the rectum.
  y.  On Man.—The acridity of elaterium in its local operation  is well shown by
various facts.   Pliny truly observes that the juice of the elaterium apple is danger-
ous when applied  to the eye; and Dr. Clutterbuck mentions that some of it "getting
accidentally into the eye in one  instance, it occasioned severe pain and inflammation,
with an erysipelatous swelling of the eyelids, that continued till the following day."
We have a farther proof of its irritant properties in the inflammation and ulceration
of the fingers of those employed in its preparation.   When swallowed, it irritates
the gastro-intestinal membrane, and occasions vomiting and violent purging; hence
it is called a drastic purgative.   Fine elaterium, in the dose of {th of a grain, seldom
fails to purge violently, and  sometimes  to vomit.   This was  long since noticed by
Dr. Clutterbuck; and I can verify his statement from repeated observations.  Even
-•-th of a grain will generally excite considerable purging.   The elaterium of the
shops, however, is  rarely so active as this; and I have known two grains given with
no more effect than  the pure elaterium would excite in the dose of  {th of a gram.
Elaterium powerfully excites the secreting and exhaling vessels of  the alimentary
canal,  and thereby occasions very watery stools; hence the term hydragogue applied
to it.  In some dropsical cases, I have known a single dose discharge several pints
of fluid by the bowels.  The gripings and the increased pumber of evacuations prove
that the irritation  is not confined to the mucous coat, but is extended  to the muscular

  1 Mtm. de la Soc. de Phys. de Genive, iv.    2 Wibmer,  Wirk. d. Arzneim. u. Gifte, Bd. iii. S. tfiO.
  » Tox. Gen. 
Wild Cucumber :—its Uses.
749
coat.   Under the influence of a full dose, the pulse is excited, the tongue becomes
dry, and sometimes furred, and great thirst is produced.   Occasionally, the skin be-
comes damp under the operation of elaterium.
  Elaterium has been supposed to exert a specific influence over the uterus.   Thus
Dioscorides and even later writers state that it  provokes the  menses, and is apt to
produce the death of the foetus in utero.   Its uterine influence, however, is probably
not greater, in proportion to its cathartic property, than that of other violent drastics,
which act powerfully on the large intestines.
  Does elaterium become absorbed ?  We  have no stronger evidence to offer in
favour of the affirmative of this question than that mentioned  by Hippocrates,1 that
the milk of women and goats who  have eaten elaterium, or the wild cucumber,
possesses purgative  properties.   Farthermore,  the  accident which occurred to Dr.
Robert Dickson, Lecturer on Botany at St. George's  Hospital, seems to prove that
absorption must have taken place by the skin.a   Dr. Dickson carried a specimen of
the plant in his hat  to his  lodgings, in Paris, from the Jardin-du-Roi.   In half an
hour  he experienced violent headache, which was followed by colicky pain,  violent
purging, vomiting, and fever.
  Considered with respect to other cathartics, we find it pre-eminently distinguished
by the violence of its purgative effect.   Croton oil alone  approximates to it.  Its
hydragogue  operation exceeds that of most, if not all  other, ordinarily used drastics.
  Uses.—The principal use of  elaterium is to excite watery evacuations in dropsy,
by which a twofold  effect  is to be hoped for; viz.  first, absorption of the  effused
fluid; secondlg, the stoppage of any farthur effusion in consequence of the metastasis
of vital action from the seat of the dropsy to the intestinal  membrane.  In dropsies
dependent on, or accompanied with, disease  of  the kidney, the evacuation of water
from  the bowels is much to be preferred to the employment of stimulating diuretics,
which may add to the  severity of the renal malady.  Of the violent hydragogue
purgatives, elaterium I believe to be  the  most useful  in dropsy.   It evacuates more
watery fluid than the others; while, if it be good,  its operation may be relied on.
It is  objectionable where there  is great debility, and where any inflammatory or
other disease of the  bowels  exists.  I have seen the fatal termination of  dropsy
apparently accelerated by the use of elaterium.   A  dropsical  patient, much debili-
tated, took,  by order of  his physician, a  dose of elaterium, which caused excessive
alvine evacuations,  great  exhaustion, sinking  of the pulse,  syncope,  and death.
Where no contra-indication to the use  of  elaterium exists, one or two doses of it
should be given every other day, for  a week or ten days.    If continued longer than
this,  it might perhaps  bring on an inflammatory condition  of the  bowels.   Dr.
Darwall8  mentions a case  in which hypercatharsis  and  maniacal delirium  were
produced by the prolonged use of elaterium; the  delirium, however, went off in a
few hours.  Some tonic  (usually gentian) is commonly conjoined with elaterium.
Thus, a pill composed of elaterium and  extract of gentian is frequently employed;
or, we may exhibit infusion of gentian on alternate days with the elaterium.   Where
there is a febrile condition of system, and also where there is an irritable or inflam-
matory condition  of the  alimentary canal,  elaterium is inadmissible.  It  is best
adapted for cold  phlegmatic constitutions.   Sydenham4 recommended elaterium in
dropsy; afterwards, Lister,5 Heberden,6 Ferriar,7 Clutterbuck,8 and other experienced
practitioners, bore testimony to  its exceeding great  efficacy.   But  judging by the
doses  recommended, all of them, except the last-mentioned  writer, seem  to  have
been  unaware of the great activity of the medicine when pure.
  2.  In cerebral affections, such  as  apoplexy,  or  a  tendency to  it (manifested by
sleepiness, stupor, or giddiness), mania, &c, elaterium, as a drastic purgative, some-
times proves serviceable on .the principle of counter-irritation or revulsion.

 1 \-Tiltifjuvi,  lib. vi. sect. 5.                      a Journ. de Chim. Mid. iv. 61.
 * Cyclop. Pract.  Mid. art. Anasarca, vol. i. p. 79.    ' Works, by Dr. Pechey, 4th edit. p. 393, 1705.
 * De hydrope.                               • Comment, art. Dropsy.
 ' Mtd. Hist, et Reflex,  vol. iv.                  8 Lectures in Lancet lor May 6, 1826, p. 170. 
750                VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Myrtace,e.

   3.  In obstinate constipation from sluggishness of the intestinal tube, elaterium is
occasionally useful.  But care must be taken to ascertain that the constipation does
not depend on  any mechanical impediment  (as  hernia, or intussusception)  to the
passage of the feces.
   4.  In gout.—A combination of elaterium and opium has been found serviceable
in gout.1
   Administration.—The dose of good elaterium is from one-sixteenth to one-half
of a grain.   I hear and read  of practitioners giving this substance to the extent of
one, two, or even three grains; but this  can only  be  from the bad quality  of the
drug.   I have  repeatedly employed,  and seen  others  exhibit elaterium, and have
always observed that a quarter of a grain of good elaterium acted very powerfully
sometimes bringing away several  pints of fluid; and half a grain usually occasion-
ing vomiting, as well as violent purging.  I  confess I should not venture to exhibit
a grain of the same preparation.   It is usually given in the form of pills.  The
basis of the pills may be extract of gentian.
   As elaterin (the active  principle of elaterium) is soluble in rectified spirit,  a tinc-
ture of elaterium (tinctura elaterii) may be employed.  It contains, besides elaterin,
a bitter principle and green resin.  Elaterin  has been given either in powder (mixed
with sixty-four times its  weight of bitartrate of potash), or in solution in  rectified
spirit  (solutio elaterinse), by Dr.  Golding Bird,2 in  doses of one-sixteenth to one-
eighth of a grain.
   Antidotes.—In  the  event of a case of poisoning  by elaterium, the  remedies
would be demulcent drinks and clysters, opium, the warm bath, and fomentations
to the abdomen ;  stimulants (such as  ammonia and  brandy) if the circulation fail;
bloodletting to subdue the inflammatory symptoms, should the state of the general
system not contraindicate it.
 OTHER  DEETETICAL, MEDICINAL,  OR POISONOUS CUCURBITACEiE.

   The fruits of several cucurbitaceous plants are employed as articles of food.   The Cucumber
 (Cucumis sativus), the Melon (Cucumis Melo), the Water Melon (Cucumis  Citrullus), the Vege-
 table Marrow (Cucurbita ovifera), the Pumpkin or  Pumpion (Cucurbita Pepo), and the Melon-
 Pumpkin  or Squash  (Cucurbita  Melopepo), are  those in most frequent use.   They contain a
 watery, sweet or acidulous cooling pulp, which is slightly nutritious when taken raw, and in
 some habits proves laxative.
   The fresh root of Bryonia dknea is sold by herbalists under the name of White Bryony and
 mandrake root.  Fashioned into a rude representation of the human figure, I  have  seen it ex-
 hibited at  an herb-shop as a sign.   Bryony root contains a  peculiar bitter matter called bryonia,
 The root operates as a violent emetie and purgative.  I have seen one case of poisoning by it.
 The symptoms were those of cholera.  As tbe accident occurred at the time when this disease
 was raging here, the  practitioner who was called  in concluded it was  a case of cholera, and
 mistook a  piece of bryony root, shown him as being part of what the patient had eaten, for a
 piece of turnip.  The patient (a woman) recovered.  Bryony root is employed  as a topical
 application to bruised  parts.



 Order  LVIII. MYRTACE^,  R.  Brown.—THE  MYRTLE

                                     TRIBE.

   Characters.—Sepals 4—6, generally 5, concreted into a tube, whichjs adnate to the ovary,
 sometimes distinct at the apex, and as far as the margin of the ovary, at other  times  concrete at
 the apex, and as far as the throat.  Petals inserted on the calyx, as many as the sepals  with
 which they alternate, and quincuncial in Eestivation, very rarely absent.  Stamens inserted with
the petals, often in many rows, double, or generally many times the number of the petals; fila-
ments either free or variously all  connected or polyadelphous, before flowering somewhat in-
curved • anthers ovate, bilocular, small, dehiscing by a double chink.  Carjiella 4—6, generally &,
----------_--.---------------------,--------—
   ' Sutton, Tracts on Gout, p. 201.                             2 Lond. Med. Gaz. xxv. 909. 
       The Lesser Melaleuca :—History;  Botany; Description.     751

by abortion often fewer, concrete into a many-celled ovary, which is adnate to the calyx.  Style,
composed of many partial styles  concreted, and, therefore, called single, with a simple stigma.
Fruit various, many celled, many seeded.   Seeds various; embryo exalbuminous. (De Cand.)—
Trees or shrubs.  Leaves generally opposite, rarely alternate, exstipulate, quite entire, dotted with
pellucid glands, and  usually with  a  vein  running  parallel with  their  margin.  Inflorescence
variable; usually axillary.  Flowers red, white, occasionally yellow, never blue.
  Properties.—Aromatic volatile oil and astringent matter (especially the former) are tbe
principles to which the  medicinal properties of Myrtaceae are referable.  The  pellucid dotting
of the leaves and other parts indicates the volatile oil.


    253. MELALEUCA MINOR,  Smith, L.E.; MELALEUCA
         CAJUPUTI, D.-THE  LESSER MELALEUCA.
                        Melaleuca Cajuputi, Maton, Roxburgh.
                          Sex. Syst. Polyadelphia, Icosandria.
                (Oleum e foliis destillatum, L.—Volatile oil of the leaves, E.)

  History.—This tree  was described by  Rumphius1 under the  names of Arbor
alba minor, Cajuputi, Daun kitsjil, and  Caju-kilan.  It has got its  name from its
colour kdyu-puti, which signifies white wood, and hence  its appellation, as given to
it by Rumphius, arbor alba.2
  Botany.   Gen. Char.—Tube of the calyx almost hemispherical; limb 5-partite.
Petals 5.   Bundles of stamens 5,  elongated, alternate with the petals ; anthers in-
cumbent.   Style filiform ; stigma  obtuse.    Capsule connate  with, and inclosed in,
the thickened  tube of the calyx, which is adnate at its base  to the branch; 3-celled,
many-seeded.   Seeds angular. (De Cand.)—Trees or shrubs.   Leaves alternate  or
opposite, quite entire, equal at the  base.   Flowers  sessile, or  somewhat  adnate,
spiked or capitate,  white, yellowish, or purplish.
  Sp.Char.—Leaves  alternate, elliptical-lanceolate, somewhat acute, slightly falcate,
3—5-nerved.  Flowers spiked, rather distant. Rachis, Calyx, and branchlets, villose.
(De Cand.)
  Trunk tolerably erect, but crooked; bark  thick, spongy,  whitish  ash-coloured,
the  exterior lamina peeling off in thin  flakes.   Branches scattered, often drooping.
Leaves short-stalked,  while young  silky, when full grown smooth, deep green, from
3 to 5 inches long, and from half to three-quarters of an inch broad,  very aromatic
when  bruised.   Spikes terminal.  Bracts  solitary, lanceolate.   Calyx urceolate.
Corolla white.   Filaments from  30  to 40,  united into  five  portions at the base;
anthers with a yellow gland at the apex.    Style rather  longer than  the stamina;
ttigma obscurely 3-lobed; ovary ovate,  united to the calyx.   Capsule 3-valved.3
  Hab.—Moluccas.
  Extraction  of the Oil.—Rumphius4  states that the leaves are gathered on a
warm  day, and  placed in a  sack, where they become hot and  damp.  They are
then macerated in water,  and  left to  ferment for a night, and  afterwards submitted
to distillation.   Two sackfuls of  the  leaves yield  scarcely three  drachms of oil,
which is limpid, pellucid, and volatile.   Lesson5 has  described the method of ob-
taining the oil at Bourou, one of the Molucca Islands.   The leaves, he  says, are
gathered in the  latter end of  September, and put  into the  cucurbit of a copper
alembic, surmounted  by a neck, terminated  by  a capital without a  refrigeratory,
and  a sufficient quantity of water is then added. By distillation, this liquid is made
to traverse a worm  immersed  in a hogshead  filled with water, and is  collected in a
vessel; the oil which  floats is  very light, and of an herbaceous green  colour, which
is owing to chlorophylle, or perhaps a somewhat different resinous  principle.  By
rectification it  becomes colourless.
  Duscription.— Cajuput or Kyapootie oil (oleum cajuputi) is  usually imported
1 Htrb. Amboin. lib. ii. p. 70.
* Mat. Indica. i. 201; ami Crawford, Hist. Ind. Arehip. vol. i. p. 513.
* Condensed from Roxburgh, Fl. Ind. iii. 395; und Trans. Mtd-Bot. Soc. .April 11, 1^J8.
' Herb. Amboin.                                * Journ. de Chim. Mid. iii. 2J7. 
752
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Myrtaceae.
in green  glass  bottles (in  appearance similar to long-necked beer bottles).   Its
colour is green,  the tint being that of a strong solution of chloride of copper.  It
is transparent, limpid, of a strong penetrating smell, resembling the combined odour
of camphor, rosemary, and cardamom, and of an aromatic  camphoraceous taste
succeeded by a sensation of coolness like that caused by oil of peppermint. In the
mass the odour is disagreeable, .but in small quantity, as when rubbed on the hand
is much more fragrant.  An apparently pure sample, which has been several years
in my museum, has a sp. gr. of  0.925. Dr. Thomson1 says the sp. gr. varies from
0.914 to 0.9274 ; while Mr. Brande2 states it to be  0.980.  Oil of cajuput is solu-
ble in alcohol.   Its  boiling point  is 343°.   When carefully distilled with water
the first portion of  oil which  passes over  is very light, and  quite colourless • but
towards the end of the process a heavier and greenish oil distils over.
  Composition.—According  to Blanchet3 the  composition of oil of cajuput (C)!1
H90) is as follows:—

                                             Atoms.      Eq. Wt.      Per Cent.
      Carbon..........................  10  ......60......77.92
      Hydrogen........................  9......   9......11.09
       Oxygen.........................  1 ......   8  ......10.39
                      Cajuputi Oil...........  1 ......77......100.00

  Adulteration.—M. Guibourt4 detected in  several samples of oil of  cajuputi,
oxide of copper in solution.   It  is, he says, easily  recognized by shaking the oil
with a solution  of ferrocyanide of  potassium, when a  red precipitate (ferrocyanide
of copper) is formed.   To this metal, derived as is supposed from the copper vessels
in which the oil has sojourned,  M. Guibourt-ascribes the green colour of the oil.
This conclusion, however, was somewhat premature ;  for all  the samples of the oil
which I  have  examined were,  though green,  quite  devoid of copper;  and Mr.
Brande observes, that none of the samples which he  has  examined have contained
even a trace of  copper.
  In 1831, oil  of cajuputi  was extolled as a remedy  for cholera.5   In consequence
of the great demand for it,  which  was thereby created, the price rose from 2 to  14
shillings per ounce;  and various imitations of  it soon made their appearance in the
market.   One of these consisted  of oil of rosemary flavoured  with  camphor and
oil  of cardamoms,  and coloured.   Except on  this  extraordinary occasion, the
oil of cajuputi  met  with in the shops of  this country I  believe to be pure as im-
ported.
  Physiological Effects.—Cajuput oil  is  a powerful antispasmodic diffusible
stimulant and sudorific. From the ordinary distilled oils (as those of the labiate
plants and umbelliferous fruits)  it  is distinguished  by its stronger influence over
the nervous system (evinced by its antispasmodic qualities) and by the greater diffu-
sibility of its stimulant operation.   It is allied to  valerian, between which and
camphor it ought to be placed, in a physiological classification; but in large doses
it does not disorder the mental faculties as these two medicines do.
   Uses.—Cajuput oil has  acquired considerable celebrity among the Malays; and
has been  more frequently employed in Germany than in any other European na-
tion.  By British  practitioners  its uses  have  hitherto  been very limited.  As a
diffusible stimulant  it  is useful where we  wish promptly to raise the energy of the
vital powers, especially when  at  the same  time any spasmodic movements are to be
allayed.   With these views it  has  been employed in low fevers, paralytic affections,
and  cholera.   In the  last-mentioned diseases  it acquired an ephemeral reputation,
in consequence of the favourable reports of Sir Matthew  Tierney, and others.8  A*
an antispasmodic, it is a very efficacious remedy, in  painful spasmodic affections of
the  stomach, and in flatulent colic; but  of its  uses in  epilepsy, chorea, hysteria,
1 Org. Chem. 476.                         a Diet, of Pharm.
3 Quoted by Thomson, op. cit.               * Journ. de Chim. Mid. vii. 612.
' Lond. Med. Gaz. viii.                    6 Lond. Med. Mag. vol. viii. pp. 628, 633, 730, tc. 
The Clove Tree :—History ;  Botany.
753
tetanus, spasmodic asthma, and some other spasmodic diseases, in which its efficacy
has been extolled by oriental and continental practitioners, I have  no experience.
As a stimulating sudorific, it proves  occasionally useful  in chronic rheumatism,
painful affections, and local paralysis.   As  an anthelmintic, it  was  used by Ru-
dolph i.
  Administration.—The dose of it is from 2  to 10, or even  more, drops.  It
may be taken on sugar, or in the form of an emulsion.
   254. CARYOPHYLLUS  AROMATICUS,  Linn. L. E. Z>.-THE
                              CLOVE TREE.
                           Sex. Syst. Icosandria, Monogynia.
 (Floi nondum explicatus; Oleum e flore nondum explicate destillatnm, I..—Dried undeveloped flower:
    Volatile oil of the undeveloped flowers, E.—Flores nondum explicati, et Oleum volatile, D.)

   History.—The garyophyllon of Pliny1 cannot have been our clove, since this
 naturalist describes it as being  like a peppercorn, but larger and more brittle.  In-
 deed, it  is not  certain who  first speaks of the clove.   Paulus iEgineta3  notices
 xopvotvUov, and, I think, probably refers  to  the clove; though Sprengel3 regards
 Simeon Seth as the first who mentions cloves.
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—Tube of the  calyx cylindrical;  limb 4-partite.   Petals
 4, adhering by  their points  in a sort of calyptra.   Stamens distinct, arranged in
 four parcels, inserted in a quadrangular fleshy hollow near  the  teeth  of  the calyx.
 Ovary 2-celled, each cell containing 20  ovules.   Berry, when ripe, 1- or 2-celled,
 1- or 2-seeded.   Seeds  cylindrical or semi-ovate ; cotyledons thick, fleshy, concave
 externally, sinuous in various ways internally; radicle arising  from  the centre of
 the cotyledons, straight, superiorly  hidden  by the cotyledons.— Trees.   Leaves op-
 posite, coriaceous,  dotted.   Cymes terminal  or in  the forking of the  branches;
 Bomewhat corymbose. (De Cand.)
   Sp. Char.—Leaves obovate-oblong, acuminate at  both ends.   Cymes many-flow-
 ered.  (De Cand.)
   Trunk from  15 to 30  feet  high.   Leaves about
 midrib and parallel lateral nerves; footstalks slender,
 aromatic; almost 2 inches  long.   Flowers, odorous.
 Calyx, at first green, afterwards  purplish-red.  Petals
 4, larger than  the calyx,  imbricated into a  globe
 in bud, at length spreading, roundish, concave, yel-
 lowish-red, very  soon  caducous.   In the centre of the
 calyx, and occupying the top of the ovary, is a quad-
 rangular  elevated line (or gland)  surrounding,  but
 not embracing,  the base of the shortish, obtusely
 subulate style.   Filaments much longer than the pe-
 tals, yellow; anthers ovate cordate>, yellow, two-celled.
 Ovary oblong, or almost cylindrical.  Berry purplish,
 elliptical, 1-seeded.   Seed with  a  thin,  soft integu-
 ment; embryo elliptical, greenish, dotted.  (Condensed
 from Bot. Mag. t. 2749.)
  Hab.—Molucca Islands; where, as well  as at Su-
 matra, Mauritius, Bourbon, Martinique, and St. Vin-
cent's, it  is now extensively cultivated.   The short-
sighted  and selfish  policy of  the Dutch,  to limit the
cultivation of the plant to the Molucca Islands, has, therefore, completely failed.
4 inches  long, with  a strong

           Fig. 354.
Caryophyllus aromaticus.
3 De re medica, lib. vii. cap. 3.
 ' Hist. .Var. lib. xii. cap. 15, ed. Valp.
 J Hist, rei herb. i. 217.
 j1™ Marsden, History of Sumatra, &[ edit. p. 146; Smith, in Rees's Cyclop, art. Caryophyllus ; Craw-
Urd, East. Atchip. iii. 388; Hooker, Bot. Mag. t. 271U.
      VOL. II.— 48 
754
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Myrtaceae.
   Collection.—Cloves are collected by the hand, or beaten with  reeds so as to
fall upon cloths placed under the tree, and dried by fire, or, what is better, in the sun
   Commerce.—They are imported in casks or bags.   Those produced in the Mo-
lucca Islands usually come by way of Rotterdam.   In  1839, duty (Qd per lb ) was
paid on 93,549 lbs.                                                          'J
   Description.—The clove of commerce (caryophyllus) is the unexpanded flower
the corolla forming a ball or sphere at the top, between the four teeth of the  calyx'
and thus, with the tapering, somewhat quadrangular tube of the calyx, giving the
appearance of  a nail (whence the word clove, from the French clou, a nail).  The
length  of the clove is from  five to ten lines;  its thickness  from 1 to 1 and a half
lines.   Its colour  is dark brown with a  yellowish-red tint; the corolla somewhat
deeper.   Good cloves should be dark  brown, and perfect in all parts, have a  strong
fragrant odour, and a hot acrid taste, and when slightly pressed  with the  nail, give
out oil.   They are distinguished in commerce  by their place of growth.   Those
from the  East Indies (Amboyna and  Bencoolen cloves) are  the  best;  they are tho
largest, plumpest, and  most  oily.   The  Bencoolen  clove  is  the most esteemed.
Cloves produced in the French possessions (Bourbon and Cayenne cloves), arc smaller
more shrivelled, contain less oil, and are of  inferior value.   The Cayenne clove is
the least esteemed.
   Under the name of Motheb Cloves (matrices caryophylli  seu anthophylli) are described, in
             several authors, the fruits of the olove (fructus caryophylli  aromatici) which have
 Fig. 355.    occasionally been  introduced as articles of commerce, and a sample of which has
             been preserved in the collection of the East India  House.   On the 8th of Feb-
             ruary,  1841, five bags of mother cloves were put up for sale in London.   They
             have the shape of an olive,  than which  they are smaller.   Superiorly, they are
             crowned with the four teeih of the calyx, with the remains of the style in the
             centre.   Their colour is similar  to that of the clove; their odour and flavour
             similar, but much weaker.  Internally, we find  the embryo with its two sinuoua
             cotyledons.
               The  broken peduncles of the clove (clove stalks; griffe de girofle) are  sometimes
             substituted by distillers for cloves (Guibourt).

   ..  ,          Composition.—Cloves  were analyzed by Trommsdorff,1 who  found
   Clove      them  to consist  of volatile oil 18, almost tasteless resin 6, peculiar kind
             of tannin 13, difficultly soluble extractive with tannin A, gum 13, woody
fibre 28, and water 18.
   1. Volatile Oil (see p. 755).
   2. Eugenin (Stearoptene of Oil of Cloves).—This was found in oil  of cloves by Bonastre.  It
is in thin, white, pearly scales, which become yellow by keeping.  It is very soluble in alcoliol
and ether; has  the odour and taste of cloves, but weaker, and is reddened by nitric  acid. Ac-
cording to Dumas, its composition is Carbon 72.25, Hydrogen 7.64, Oxygen 20.11 ; or  C^H^O4.
   3. Caryophyllin  (Clove sub-resin).—First described by Lodibert,2 and  afterwards examined
by Bonastre.3  It is extracted from cloves by alcohol.   The  Molucca cloves yield  the largest
quantity of it; those of Bourbon  contain less; and the Cayenne cloves none.  It is a satiny, crys-
talline, odourless, tasteless, fusible, and volatile  substance; insoluble in water, soluble in  alcohol
and ether;  slightly so in caustic alkalies. It is reddened by sulphuric acid.  According to Dumas4
it is composed of Carbon 79.5,  Hydrogen 10.5, Oxygen 10.0; hence its formula is C^tW;  so
that its composition is similar to that of camphor. [Dr. Sheridan Muspratt has lately examined
the constitution of caryophyllin, and has arrived at the same result as Dumas.  Dr. M. also be-
lieves cloves to contain a peculiar acid, which he has not yet sufficiently  investigated.—En]
   4. Clove-tankiu.—The tannin of cloves is less acerb than ordinary tannin, and its compound
with gelatine has less elasticity.
   Chemical Characteristics.—Nitric acid reddens infusion of cloves.  Tincture
of sesquichloride of iron renders it blue.   The oil of  cloves also undergoes similar
changes to the infusion.   These facts deserve  especial attention in relation to opium
and morphia (see  Opium),  on account  of the analogous  phenomena presented  by
morphia when acted on  by nitric acid and sesquichloride of iron.5  Infusion and  oil
of allspice are  similarly affected.

  1 Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. ii. 1272.                          » Journ. de Pharm. xi. 101.
  i ma. p. 103.                                           4 Ann.  de Chim. et. Phys. ha. »».
  • Journ. de Pharm. xi. 539 and 566.
 
               The Clove Tree:—Uses;  Administration.              755

  Physiological Effects.—Cloves have a very agreeable flavour and odour, and
are devoid of the fiery taste and acridity which distinguish pepper and ginger; in
other respects, their  effects agree with  those of other spices.  Though volatile oil is
by far the most important of their active principles, yet the tannin, extractive, and
resin, must contribute something to their operation.
  Uses.—Cloves  are principally used for culinary purposes,  as flavouring ingredi-
ents.  They are not employed  in sufficient quantity  to prove of much importance
as condimentary stimulants, yet they are applicable as gastric excitants, in  dyspeptic
cases connected with relaxation of the alimentary canal.   In medicine, cloves are
rarely employed alone, or as the basis or principal medicine, but usually  as an ad-
dition to other medicines, the flavour of which they improve, or whose  operation
they correct.   When, however, they are  given alone, it is merely as  a  stomachio
and carminative, to relieve nausea, vomiting, flatulence, or  some  allied stomach
disorder.  Distillers  prepare a  liqueur called cloves.
  Administration.—In substance, cloves may be taken in doses of 5 or 10 grains,
or ad libitum.

  1. INFUSUM CARTOPnYLLI, L. E. D. [U.S.];  Infusion of  Cloves;  Clove  Tea.
—(Cloves, bruised, 3iij [3ij, D.,  U. S.);  Boiling [distilled, L.~\ Water Oj [|ix, Z>.].
Macerate for  2 hours [1  hour,  D.~] in a vessel  covered lightly, and strain  [through
calico, E.~\.)—Aromatic, stimulant, and stomachic.   Employed in dyspepsia,  flatu-
lent colic, and gout; generally in  combination with other medicines.  Ammonia
increases its efficacy.—Dose, fjj  to fjij.

  2. OLEUM CARYOPHYLLI, L. E. [U. S.];  Oil of Cloves.—(Obtained by submitting
cloves, with water, to repeated  distillation.)—No directions  are given by  the  Lon-
don College for the preparation of oil of cloves,  which is placed among the articles
of the Materia Medica.   The Dublin College gives general directions for its prepa-
ration from the dried undeveloped flowers.
  To extract the whole of the  oil from cloves, they must be  subjected to repeated
cohobations.  On an average, they yield from  17 to 22 per cent, of volatile oil (in-
cluding the heavy  and light oils).  By distillation with water, cloves yield  two vola-
tile oils—one lighter, the other heavier, than water.  Mr. Whipple informs me that,
by  the ordinary modes  of distillation, the heavy  oil comes over first.  The  oil of
cloves of commerce is a mixture of these  two oils.  When carefully and recently
prepared it is colourless or light yellow, but by keeping becomes brownish-red.  It
has a hot, acrid taste, and the well-known odour of cloves, and is soluble in alcohol,
ether, concentrated acetic acid,  and the fixed oils.   Its sp. gr. is  probably variable,
though always greater than that of water.   Lewis found  it to  be 1.034.   Bonastre1
Bays that of  the unrectified oil is 1.055, but by rectification part of the light oil is
lost, and  the sp.  gr. is then  1.361.  Ettling9  says  its composition is, Carbon
74.6279, Hydrogen  8.1531, and  Oxygen 17.2189.  To separate it into the two
oils, he mixed it  with  potash-lye, and distilled; a  light oil passed over, while a
compound of the heavy oil (clove acid) and potash remained  in the retort, aud, by
distillation with phosphoric or  sulphuric acid, gives out the heavy oil.
  o. Light Oil of Cloves (Clove  Hydro-Carbon).—Colourless.  Sp.  gr. 0.918. In-
capable of combining with bases, but absorbing hydrochloric acid gas without yield-
ing a crystalline compound.  It  consists of C^H8;  hence it is isomeric with  oil of
turpentine.
  0. Heavy Oil of  Cloves (Clove Acid; Caryophyllic Acid;  Eugenic Acid).—It
w colourless  when recently prepared, but becomes coloured  by  age.   Its sp. gr.,
according to Bonastre, is 1.079.  It combines  with alkalies to form crystalline salts
(alkaline caryophyllates  or eugenates ; clove-oil alkalies).  If a salt of iron  be added
to one of these, it yields a blue,  violet, or reddish compound  (a ferruginous caryo-
1 Ann. de Chim. et Phys. xxxv.
s Poggendorffs Annal. xxxi. 526. 
756               VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Myrtaceae.

phyllate), varying  somewhat according to the nature of the ferruginous  salt used ■
thus, the protosulphate of iron yields a lilac, the persulphate a red, which becomes
violet and afterwards blue; while the sesquichloride gives a vinous tint, which turns
to red (Bonastre).    Nitric acid  reddens caryophyllic acid.
   The composition of  caryophyllic acid is as follows :—

                     Atoms.     Eq. Wt.     Per Cent.       Etiling.      Boeckmann.
     Carbon.........24.....144  .....  72.36.....72.6327.....72 006
     Hydrogen.......15.....   15.....  7.54.....   7.4374 .....  7 434
     Oxygen........  5.....  40.....20.10 .....19.9297.....lg^sro
          Clove Acid ...  1.....199.....100.00.....99.9998.....lOoTooo

   This statement does  not agree with that of Dumas, who from his first analysis1
gave the formula  C20!!13©5; and from  his second  one,3 C^ID'O5.   But  various
reasons, not necessary here to enumerate, lead me to believe that Ettling's formula
is the correct one,  supported as it is by Boeckmann's analysis, and by Dumas's state-
ment, that  the sp.  gr.  of the vapour of caryophyllic acid is G.4.8
   The oil of cloves is sometimes placed in the hollow of a carious tooth, to relieve
toothache;  but its more frequent medicinal use is  as an addition  to  purgatives
(e. g. Pilulse colocynthidis, E.)  to check  nausea and  griping.—The  dose of it is
from 2 to 6 drops.   Distillers and soap-makers extensively use oil of cloves.,

   I  TIXCTURA CARYOPHYLLI; Tincture of  Cloves.—(Cloves gj; Bectified  Spirit
§iv.   Macerate for seven days,  and then filter.)—Though not contained in any of
the British Pharmacopoeias, this is a very useful and elegant preparation, and  has
a place in the French  Codex.  A solution of the oil in spirit is less agreeable, and
becomes milky on  the addition  of water.—Dose, itlx to  f5J.   It may be usefully
employed as an addition to purgative, stomachic, and tonic mixtures.
    255.  EUGENIA PIMENTA, De Candolle, jE.-THE COMMON
                                 ALLSPICE.
                            (Myrtus Pimenta, Linn. L. D.)
                           Sex. Syst. Icosandria, Monogynia.
                      (Fructus immaturus, L.—Unripe berries, E. D.)

   History.—It is scarcely probable that the ancients should have been acquainted
with allspice, which is a native of  the West  Indies, and therefore could not have
been known to Europeans before the discovery of  America.  Yet Clusius4 thought
that it was the garyophyllon of Pliny f  an opinion,  however, which, for the above-
mentioned reason, can scarcely be correct.6
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—Tube of the calyx roundish ; limb divided as far as the
ovary, into four segments.   Petals  as many as the  lobes.   Stamens indefinite, free.
Ovary 2- or 3-celled; cells containing many ovules.   Berry nearly globose, crowned
by the calyx;  when ripe 1-, rarely  2-celled.   Seeds one or two, somewhat rounded,
large; embryo spuriously monocotyledonous ; cotyledons very thick, combined into
one mass; radicle scarcely distinct, very short.  (De Cand.)—Trees or shrubs.
   Sp.  Char.—Peduncles axillary and terminal, trichotomous-paniculate.   Flowers
4-cleft, in the forks of the peduncle,  nearly sessile, others paniculate.  Leaves oblong
or oval,  pellucid-dotted, somewhat  opake,  smooth.   Branches  terete;  branchlets
compressed; the younger ones, as well as the pedicels, pubescent.  (De Cand.)
   Trunk about 30 feet  high.   Leaves about  four inches long, on short footstalks.
Flowers   numerous.   Sepals roundish.   Petals reflected, greenish-white.  Berry
1 Ann. de Chim. et Phys. liii. 164.
3 Pharm. Central-Blatt, Oct. 13. 1S38; from Ann. de Pharm. xxvii. 151.
3 Ibid. ; also Thomson's Org. Chum. p. 1046.                       4 Erotr. lib. i. cap. 17.^
5 Hist. Nat. lib. xii. cap. 15, ed. Valp.                            • Sloane's Jamaica, ii- "<■ 
 The Common Allspice:—Collection;  Description;  Effects;  Uses.   757

succulent, black or dark-purple when ripe;  2-seeded.   Embryo roundish, with the
cotyledons consolidated.1
  Hab.—West Indies.   It  is cultivated in  Jamaica  in  regular  walks (Pimento
walks).
  Collection.—When the  fruit has attained the full size, but is yet green, it  is
gathered and sun-dried on platforms and sheets.  When nearly dry, it is frequently
winnowed.   It is afterwards put in bags of  1 cwt. each, for the European market.3
Some planters kiln-dry it.
  Description.—Pimento or  Jamaica pepper (pimenta seu piper jamaicense),
commonly called allspice  (because its flavour is considered to approach that of cin-
namon, cloves, and nutmegs), is about  the size of, or somewhat larger than, a  pep-
percorn.  It is round, brown,  dull, roughish but not wrinkled, crowned  with the
segments of the calyx, and occasionally, though rarely, has  a short pedicel.   It  con-
sists of an  external, somewhat hard but brittle  shell, which is paler within, and
incloses two dark brown cochleate seeds.   Allspice has an aromatic agreeable odour
(intermediate between pepper and cloves), and a strong aromatic clove-like taste.
  Ovate Pimento (Brasilianischer oder Kron-Piment, Dierbach ;3 Piment couronnS ou Poivre de
Thevet, Guibourt.4)—This is  the  fruit of Myrtus pimentoides, Nees v. Esenbeck,6 called by De
Candolle8 Myrcia pimentoides, a native of the West Indies.   Except in shape, it  strongly resem-
bles the common allspice.  It is ovate or oval, terminated superiorly by a large crown, formed
by the 5-toothed limb of the calyx.  It is usually 2-, more rarely 3-or 4-celled, each cell contain-
ing one seed.   Guibourt has  always found three, four, or six seeds in each fruit.  In the only
sample I have seen, and which came from St. Vincent's, there were in most of the fruits only
two seeds.

   Commerce.—Pimento is imported in bags, usually from  the West Indies (almost
entirely from Jamaica).   In  1839, duty (9c/.  per lb.)  was  paid on 277,185 lbs.
   Composition.—Pimento was analyzed by Braconnot/ and in 1825  by Bonastre.8
                 Bonustre's Analysis.
                                      Husks.    Kernels,
Volatile oil.................   10.0 ...   5.0
Greea oil...................   8.4 ...   2.5
Solid fat oil.................   0.9 .. .   1.2
Astringent extract..............   11.4 . . .   39.8
Gummy extract................   3.0 . . .   7.2
Colouring matter...............   4.0.....
Resinous matter...............   1.2.....
Uncrystallizable sugar............   3.0 .. .   8.0
Malic or gullic acid.............   0.6 .. .   1.6
Lisnin....................50.0.....
Saline ashes.................   2.8 .. .   1.9
Water....................   3.5 .. .   3.0
Loss.....................   1.6 .. .   1.8
Red matter, insoluble in water.............   8.8
Pellicular residue...................16.0
Brown flocculi.....................   3.2

                 Total.........100.0 .  . .  100.0
     Braconnot's Analysis.

Volatile oil.........1.9
Amylum........* .  .  9.0
Wax, with red colouring mat-
  ter ............0.9
Gum............6.0
Nitrogenous matter.....5.0
Citrate of Potash......6.0
Phosphate of  Potash and loss  3.4
Insoluble matter......67.8
Total......100.0
  1. Volatile Oil (see p. 758).
  2. Ghekn Oil (Resin/).—This substance, which has an acrid burning taste, contributes to the
activity of pimento.  Its odour is rancid, but somewhat clove-like.  It dissolves readily in alcohol
and ether, to which it communicates a green colour.
  3. Pimentotannin—Is soluble in alcohol,  strikes a green colour with the persalts of iron,
W»d precipitates emetic  tartar.

  Chemical Characteristics.—See Chemical Characteristics of cloves.
  Physiological Effects.—Allspice possesses the general properties of  the spe-
cies already noticed.   It holds an intermediate rank  between pepper and cloves.
  Usks.—Its  principal employment  is  by  the  cook, for flavouring.   It may be
taken with advantage by those troubled with relaxed or atonic conditions of stomach.
In medicine, its uses are similar to  those  of cloves; viz. to  relieve flatulency, to

 ' Condensed from Botanical Magazine, t. 1236.
 1 Wri?.llt' Med- Pla"ts °f Jamaica; Brown Nat. Hist, of Jamaica, 218.
  Berhn. Jahrbuch, Bd. xxxviii. S. 296.                         * Hist, des Drag. ii. 351
 ( Ieones Plant. Med.                                        « Prodr.  iii. 243.
  Duncan, Edinb. Dispens.                                    • Journ.  de Chim. Med. i. 210. 
758               VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Myrtaom.

cover the flavour of nauseous remedies, and to promote the operation of tonics and
stomachics, and to prevent the  griping  of purgatives.
   Administration.—In  substance, allspice  may be taken in  doses of from ten
grains to a drachm or more.

   1. OLECM PIMENTO, L. E. D. [U. S.];  Oil of Pimento;  Oil  of Allspice.—(Ob.
tained by submitting  allspice, bruised, with water, to distillation.)—Mr.  Whipple
informs  me  that  from 8  cwt.  of pimento he procured  41 lbs.  6 oz. of oil (heavy
and light).   This is nearly six per cent.   He  also informs  me  that the  light oil
comes over first, the reverse being the case  with oil of cloves.  The  oil of pimento
of the shops  is a mixture of these two oils.    Except in odour, its properties are
almost  identical with  those of  oil of cloves.   By distillation with  caustic potash
the light oil is separated;  the residue, mixed with  sulphuric acid and submitted to
distillation, gives  out  the heavy oil.
   a. Light Oil of Pimento (Pimento-Hydro-Carbon).—Has not, to my knowledge
been previously examined.   Its properties appear to be similar to those  of the light
oil of cloves.  It floats  on water and on liquor  potassaa,  and is slightly  red-
dened by  nitric acid.    Potassium sinks  in,  and is  scarcely  if at all  acted on
by it.
   0. Heavy  Oil of Pimento (Pimentic Acid).—Very similar to caryophyllic acid.
It forms with  the alkalies, crystalline  compounds (alkaline pimenfates), which be-
come blue or greenish on the addition of the tincture of chloride of iron (owing to
the formation of a ferruginous pimentate).   Nitric acid  acts violently on  and  red-
dens it.
   The  medicinal  uses of  the oil of pimento are  very limited.  It  is sometimes
employed to relieve toothache,  to correct the operation of other medicines, as pur-
gatives and tonics, and to  prepare the spiritus and aqua pimentse.   The dose of it
is from two to six drops.

   I SPIRITUS PIMEM, L. E.;  Spirit  of Pimento; Spirit of Allspice.—{Oil of
Pimento  5'j j Proof  Spirit  Cong,  j,  L.)—The  Dublin College has  not now  a
Spiritus Pimentae, but the  Essentia Pimentae is an analogous preparation, made by
mixing f|ix of the oil with f^ix  of rectified spirit.  The Edinburgh College directs
half a pound of bruised pimento  to be used, and to proceed as for spirit of caraway.
Carminative and  stomachic.  Used in  dyspepsia  and flatulent colic.   Dose, f3j to
f3iv.  In  the shops, a spirituous solution of the oil is  frequently substituted for
the pharmacopoeia! preparation.
   I AQUA PIMENTO, L. E.  D.;  Pimento Water;  Allspice Water.—(Pimento, bruised,
ibj  [Rectified Spirit  f^iij,  E.~\;  Water  Cong, ij, L.   Mix,  and let  a gallon
distil.   The Dublin  College  directs one fluidounce of Essence of Pimenta to be
mixed with a  half a  gallon of Distilled Water, and the mixture filtered  through
paper.)—Employed for its flavouring,  carminative, and  stomachic  properties, as a
vehicle for stimulant,  tonic, and  purgative medicines.  Dose, f^j to  f jij.  In the
shops it  is usually prepared  with the oil,  according to the formula of the Dublin
College.
                    OTHER MEDICINAL MYRTACEiE.

  The  substance  called Botany Bay Kino is the astringent inspissated juice of Eucalyptus
hesinifeha, or Iron Bark, a native of Australia and Van Diemens Land.  This tree, we are
told,1 sometimes yields on incision sixty gallons of juice. Botany Bay kino is imported in boxes.
That which I have met with came from Van Diemen's Island.  It occurs in irregular odour-
less masses, many of which are in the form of tears, somewhat resembling those of cherry-tree
gum in form, and as large as the tears of Senegal gum.  The purer pieces are vitreous, almost
black in  the mass, but transparent, and of a beautiful ruby-red in  small and thin fragments.
1 White, Journal of a Voyage to New South Wales, p. 231, 1790. 
    Nat. Ord.  Lythrace^:.—Spiked Purple Loosestrife :—Botany.   759

Some of the pieces, however, are opake and dull, from the  intermixture  of wood and other
impurities.  When chewed, it sticks to the teeth, and has an astringent taste. Digested in cold
water, it swells, becomes soft and  gelatinous (like red-currant jelly), and yields a red liquid
which reddens litmus, and yields precipitates with lime-water, gelatine, acetate of lead, sesqui-
chloride of iron, and, if caustic potash or ammonia  be  previously added, with ihe chloride of
calcium.  Alcohol and emetic tartar  occasion no precipitate.  Digested in rectified spirit, Botany
Bey kino  becomes  gelatinous, as with water, and yields a similar red  solution, from which
water precipitates nothing, but which  reddens  litmus, and deposits a copious precipitate when
potash, ammonia, or lime-water, is  dropped in.  From  these and  other experiments,  I infer
that Botany Bay kino consists principally of a peculiar substance (Eucalyptin) analogous some-
what to pectin and  tannic acid.  It  has been  used in diarrhoea.1  Ainslie2 says it  is the only
kind employed in India; but I suspect there is some error in this statement.
 Order  LXII. LYTHRACEiE, ZiVk%.—THE LOOSESTRIFE

                                    TRIBE.

                   Salicakije, Jussieu—Lythrarie.b, De Candolle.

   Characters.—Sepals definite in number, coherent beyond  the middle.  Calyx free, tubular
 or campanulate; lobes valvate, or distant in aestivation ; the sinuses being sometimes lengthened
 into conical lobes or external teeth.  Petals inserted on the upper part of the  tube of the calyx,
 between the lobes, various in number, sometimes none, generally very caducous.  Stamens in-
 serted into the tube of the calyx below the petals; equal, double, triple, or quadruple the num-
 ber of petals, sometimes  fewer.  Jlnthers  oval, bilocular, adnate.   Ovary  free; style filiform;
 stigma capitate.   Capsule membranous, covered or surrounded by tbe calyx of 2 to 4 carpels'
 while young,generally (always?) 2-celled, by the slender marginsof the carpels being inflexed;
 but when ripe, Icelled, by the disappearance of the dissepimenta, either dehiscing longitudinally,
 or more rarely and irregularly with  a circumscissile dehiscence.  Placenta  central, adnate to
 the dissepiment when present, or free, thick, either compressed-cylindrical or obscurely trigonal
 or tetragonal; the apex with some threads, conveyers of the seminal aura, continuous with the
 base of the style.   Seeds many, small, exalbuminous; embryo straight: radicle turned towards
 the hilum; cotyledons flat, foliaceous.  (De Cand )
  Properties.—Variable.  Except Ly'hrum Saliearia, whicli is astringent, the medical proper-
 ties of few species are well known.  Nesaea salicifolia is said to be diuretic, diaphoretic, and
 purgative.


     256. LYTHRUM SALICARIA,  Zm»,-SPIKED PURPLE
                              LOOSESTRIFE.
                          Sex. Syst. Dodecandria, Monogynia.
   History.—As this plant is a native of the  Grecian Archipelago, it must  have
 been known to  the  ancients;  but hitherto it has  not  been satisfactorily identified
 with any plant described by them.
  Botany.  ^ Gen. Char.— Calyx cylindrical, striated, toothed at the apex; teeth 8
 to 12, of^ which four to  six are broader than the rest, and  erect, and the remaining
 four to six  alternate ones, subulate, often  horn-shaped, sometimes  not  present,  or
 very small.  Petals 4 to 6, arising  from  the apex  of the tube, alternate  with the
 erect teeth.  Stamens arising from the middle or base of the calyx, double or equal
 the number of the petals,  or by abortion fewer.   Style filiform ;  stigma  capitate.
 Capsule oblong, covered by tbe calyx, 2-celled, many-seeded.   Placentse thick, ad-
 hering to the dissepiment.   Herbs, or  rarely undershrubs.   Leaves entire. Flowers
 Hilary, purple or white.  (De  Cand.)
  Sp. Char—Leaves  lanceolate, cordate at the base.    Flowers  spiked, almost ses-
 sile. (De  Cand.)
  • Stems 2 or 3 feet  high, 4-sided.   Spikes very  long.  Flowers purple.   Petals
oblong, cuneiform.   Stamens usually 12, of which  six  are long and  six short.
  Hab—Ditches and  watery places of this and other countries of Europe, west  of
Asia, New Holland, and North America.
1 White, op. cit.
3 Mat. Indica. 
760
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Granatin.
   Description.—The  herb (Herba Salicarise  seu Lysimachise purpurea?), when
dry, is inodorous, but has an herbaceous, somewhat astringent taste, and  by chew-
ing becomes very mucilaginous.  Its infusion is  darkened by the ferruginous salts.
   Composition.—I am unacquainted with any analysis of this plant.  Its obvious
constituents are tannic  acid, mucilage, chlorophylle, and woody fibre.
   Physiological Effects.—Demulcent and astringent.
   Uses.—Principally employed in diarrhoea and dysentery.  In the former of these
complaints it was  recommended  by Bang,1 De Haen,3 and others.  Iu dysentery
it was spoken favourably of by Gardane,3 and others.
   Administration.—Dose of the powdered herb 3j twice  or thrice a  day.  A
decoction of the root, prepared by boiling 5 j  of the root in Oj of boiling water, may
be taken in doses of f,sj or f^ij.
   [This herb formerly found a place in the Materia Medica of  the Dublin College.
It is omitted in the last edition of the Pharmacopoeia.—Ed.]


Order LXIII.  GRANATE^],  Don.—THE  POMEGRANATE
                                    TRIBE.

   Characters.—Tube of  the calyx turbinate; limb 5- or 7-cleft, coriaceous; lobes valvate by
aestivation.  Petals 5 or 7.  Stamens indefinite ; filaments free ; anthers  anteriorly 2-celled, de-
hiscing by a  double chink.  Style filiform; stigma capitate, pimpled.   Fruit  large,  spherical,
crowned with the somewhat tubular limb of the calyx, coated with the tube of. the calyx, inde-
hiscent, unequally divided into 2 chambers by a horizontal diaphragm ; the  upper one 5- or 9-
celled, the lower one smaller, 3-celled; the dissepiments of both membranous.  Placenta of the
upper chamber fleshy, spreading  from  the sides to the centre ; those of the  lower -chamber
irregular processes from its  base.  Seeds innumerable, mixed with a pellucid somewhat crystal-
line pulp, exalbuminous; embryo  oblong; radicle short, straight; cotyledons  foliaceous, spirally
convoluted.—Trees or shrubs.  Leaves deciduous, opposite, oblong, entire, without dots. Flowers
scarlet.  (De Cand.)
  Properties —See Punka Granatum.

   257.  PUNICA GRANATUM, Linn. L. E. D.-THE COMMON
                            POMEGRANATE.
                           Sea;. Syst. Icosandria, Monogynia.
        (Fructus cortex et radicis cortex, L. (IT. S.)— Root-bark, E.—Bark of the root, D.)

   History.—The pomegranate is  repeatedly referred to in the Bible.*  Homer5
                            also  mentions it.  The  leaves,  the flowers,  and the
         Fig. 356.            fruit, were employed in medicine by the ancients.8
                              Botany.   Gen. Char.—Only one genus.   (See the
                            characters of  the Order.)
                              Sp. Char.—Leaves  lanceolate.   Stem arborescent.
                            (De Cand.)
                              Small tree, with a  brownish bark.   Leaves on short
                            stalks,  smooth.   Flowers  terminal  on  the young
                            branches.    Calyx thick,  fleshy,  red.  Petals much
                            crumpled, membranous, rich scarlet.  Stamina numer-
                            ous,  inserted on the calyx; anthers  yellow.   Ovary
                            roundish ; style simple ; stigma globular.   Fruit larger
                            than  an orange, with  a  thick  coriaceous rind, and
                            crowned by  the teeth of  the  calyx;  cells  several,
                            arranged in  two strata, one upper, the other lower,
    Punka Granatum.        separated by a  transverse diaphragm; lower  stratum

  1 Act Reg. Soc. Med. Havn. vol. i. p. 100.
  3 Rat. Med. iii. 196;  and iv. 250 ; quoted by Murray, App. Med.
  * Gazette de Santi, 1773, p. 65: quoted by Murray.
  * Numbers, xiii. 23;  Deut. viii. 8, &c.                                   »  Odyss. vii. 120.
  * Dierbach, Atzn. d. Hippokr. 90; Dioscorides, lib. i. cap. 151-1; Pliny, Hist. Nat. xxiii. 57.
 
The Common Pomegranate:—Description; Composition.       761
Fig. 357.
of 3, upper one of from 5 to 9 cells.   Some difficulty having  been experienced in
comprehending the structure of this anomalous fruit, Dr. Lindley1 has explained it
thus: within  the calyx are two  rows  of carpella, a
lower and inner one, consisting of three  or four  car-
pella surrounding the axis, and placed in the  bottom
of the calyx; and an upper and  outer one, consisting
of from  five to ten  carpella,  surrounding the  lower,
but  adherent to the upper part  of the  tube of  the
calyx.   The two strata or tiers of cells in the  pome-
granate  are formed  by the two rows or tiers  of car-
pella ; the upper and outer row  being forced to  the
top of the fruit by the contraction of the tube of  the
calyx from which they  arise.   The transverse  dia-
phragm  is formed by the adhesiou of the upper to the
lower stratum of carpella; and the outer  part of  the
rind of  the pomegranate is formed by the calyx which
contains the carpella.
  Hab.—Northern  Africa, from whence  it has been
introduced into Europe, where it is  now naturalized.
Asia (Bengal, China, Persia).
  Description.—The flowers, called balaustine flowers (flores granati seu balaus-
tise), are odourless, of a  fine red colour,  and slightly styptic taste.   They communi-
cate a reddish colour to  the saliva.   The rind of the fruit (cortex granati:  malico-
rium), when dry, occurs in irregular arched, dry, brittle, odourless, very astringent,
and slightly bitter fragments,  which are brownish (more or less yellow or reddish),
and paler within.  The seeds (semina granati) are each surrounded  by a thin vesicle
filled with an  acidulous  styptic juice.   The root (radix granati) is woody, knotty,
hard, heavy, of a yellow colour and astringent taste.  Ds bark (cortex radicis granati)
occurs in small fragments,  of a yellowish or ash-gray colour externally, yellow within,
brittle, not fibrous ; of an  astringent, but not bitter taste.   By its want  of bitter-
ness  it may be distinguished  from the bark of the box-tree (Buxus  sempervirens),
which is said to be sometimes substituted for it.   Moistened with water, and rubbed
on paper, it leaves a yellow stain, which becomes  deep blue by the contact of sul-
phate of iron.2
  Composition.—Reuss3  examined  the watery extract of the rind of the fruit.
The bark of the root has been analyzed by Wackenroder;4 in  1824, by Mitouart;5
aud, in 1831, by Latour de Trie.8
  Section of the Fruit of the
Punka Granatum,  showing the
two strata of cells.
Watiry Extract of Pomegra-
       nate Rind.
     Reuss's Analysis.
Reiin..........   0.92
Tannin..........27.76
Oxidized tannin.....10.19
Extractive........21.76
Glim...........34.26
Low...........   9.50
Bark of the Pomegranate Root.
Extract of the Rind
100.00
     Wackenroder's Analysis.
 Rancid fat oil.......   2.46
 Tannin..........21.92
 Starch with some mucilage
|  of lime.........26.09
 Woody fibre with albumen  45.45
 Loss...........   4.08
Dried Bark......100.00
   Latour de Trie's Analysis.
Fatty matter.
Tannin.
Gallic acid
Granadin (Mannite).
Resin (copious).
Wax.
Chlorophylle.
[Insoluble matters].

      Bark of the Root.
  !• Mannite (Granadin).—The sweet substance which Latour de Trie considered to be pe-
culiar, and called granadin, has been satisfactorily shown7 to be mannite (see Manna).
  2. Tannic Acid.—On this the astringency of the fruit and root almost solely depends.  It is
ibis principle which enables the infusion, or decoction, of the rind and  bark to produce precipi-
tates (tannates) with a soluiion of gelatine, and with the ferruginous salts.
  3. Rkhin.—Latour de Trie describes this as  being without any remarkable odour and taste.
' A'n(. Syn. 2d edit, pit; and Introd. to Bot
' Gmelin, Handb. d. them. ii. 1272.
1 Journ. de Pharm. x. 352.
1 Ibid. xxi. 169.
2 Guibourt, Hist, des Drog
« Ibid.
« Ibid. xvii. 503—601.
i. 501. 
762                VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rosacea.
It is soluble in water, slightly so in cold alcohol, and more so in hot alcohol,and in small ouan
tity in ether.                                                                   '

   Physiological Effects.—All  parts of the plant (root-bark, rind of the fruit
juice surrounding the seeds, and  flowers) possess astringency, owing principally to
tannic  acid, and in some slight  degree to a minute quantity of gallic acid.  The
bark of the root, taken in small quantities, occasions no remarkable effects.   In full
doses, however, it causes nausea,  vomiting, and purging, and occasionally giddiness
and faintness.
   Uses.—Rarely employed in medicine.  The root-bark has been occasionally used
as a vermifuge.   Celsus, Dioscorides, Pliny, and other ancient writers, speak of its
anthelmintic qualities.   The  Indians, also, were acquainted with them at a very
early period.   Of late years, attention has been again drawn to this bark as a remedy
for tape-worm, by the recommendations  of  Dr. Fleming,1 Dr. Buchanan,9 Mr. Bre-
ton,3 Gomes,4 Deslandes, and others;5 but in this country it has  almost been entirely
superseded by oil of  turpentine and  kousso.   The  rind of the fruit  has been em-
ployed on account of its astringency, in the form of decoction, as a gargle, in relaxed
sore throat; as an injection, in leucorrhcea; and, internally, in diarrhoea, dysentery
and colliquative sweats.   The powder of the rind may  be administered as a tonic.
The flowers are mild  astringents,  but are not employed in this country.  The fruit
may  be eaten  to allay thirst, and as a refreshing refrigerant and astringent in fe-
brile disorders, especially those called bilious.   It contains an acidulous stypic juice,
which is  inclosed in a thin vesicle surrounding the  seeds.
   1.  DECOCTUM GRANATI RADICIS,  L;  Decoction of Pomegranate Foot—This is pre-
pared by boiling ^ij of the fresh bruised bark in  Oij  of water to Oj; the dose is
a wineglassful every  half hour till the whole is taken.   It  usually occasions slight
sickness,  but seldom fails  to destroy the tape-worm.   The patient should be pre-
pared for the remedy by the use of a dose of castor-oil and a strict regimen the day
previously.

   2.  DECOCTUM GRANATI, L; Decoction of the Fruit-bark of the Pomegranate.—(Oi
the Bark of the  Fruit Jij; Distilled  Water Ojss.   Boil  to Oj and strain.)
  Order LXIV.   ROSACEA, Ju*sieu.—THE ROSE  TRIBE.

  Characters.—Calyx generally of 5 sepals, cohering at  the base to form a tube;  therefore
5-lobed, generally persistent, usually free, sometimes adherent to the ovary.   Petals as many as
the sepals, rarely by abortion none, inserted on  the calyx, quincuncial in aestivation, generally
regular.  Stamens inserted with  the petals, almost indefinite; filaments incurved in aestivation;
anthers two celled, dehiscing by double chink. Carpels numerous, either solitary by abortion, or
having the appearance of a single ovary, from their union, either together or with the tube of
the calyx.   Ovaries  1-celled ; styles simple, dilated at the apex into stigmas of variable shape,
usually arising from the  side of the ovary, either distinct, or, more rarely, coherent.  Seeds in
each carpel usually one or two, seldom numerous; erect or inverse,  exalbuminous (Hirtella and
Neillia excepted).  Embryo straight;  cotyledons either loliaceous or fleshy.   Herbs, shrubs, and
trees.   Leaves alternate,  bistipulate at the base, simple or  compound.   Inflorescence various.
(De Cand.)
  Properties.—The  prevailing quality of Rosaceae  is astringency.   This is especially obvious
in the root. The tribe Amygdalese is distinguished from other rosaceous plants by the poisonous
properties  of the kernels  and leaves, which yield hydrocyanic acid  when distilled with water,
and by the gummy exudation from  the stems.
» Asiatic Researches, vol. xi.                a Ed. Med. and Surg. Journ. vol. iii. 22.
3 'Med.-Chir. Trans, vol. xi. p. 301.            4 Journ. Complim. des Sciences Mid. xvi. 24.
s Bayle, Bibl. de Therap. i. 313. 
The Common Almond:—History; Botany; Description.       763
                            Tribe I. Amygdalese.

 258. AMYGDALUS COMMUNIS,  Linn. L. E. D -THE COMMON
                                 ALMOND.
                          Sex. Syst. Icosandria, Monogynia.
 (Semen; Amygdala dulcis; Oleum ab alterutriusque nucleis expresgum,  L.— Var. et, Kernel:  Bitter
           almond.  Var. Q, and y, Kernel:  Sweet almond, £—Amygdalae dulces, D.)
                      [Amygdala Amara.  Amygdala dulcis, U.S]

   History.—Almonds were  well known  to  the ancients; they are mentioned in
 the earliest part of the Old Testament.1  Hippocrates employed both the sweet and
 bitter almonds, and their  expressed  oil, in medicine.3  Dioscorides3 describes the
 mode of expressing the oil.
   Botany.  Gen. Char.—Drupe pubescent,  velvety; with  a fibrous, juiceless cor-
 tex, which  falls off irregularly; puiamen (shell) pitted  or smooth.  Young leaves
 folded flat  (conduplicate).   Flowers somewhat sessile, solitary  or  in pairs,  earlier
 than than the leaves,  arising from scaly buds.   Fruit  woolly. (De  Cand.)
   Bp. Char.—Leaves oblong-lanceolate, serrulate.   Flowers solitary.   Calyx cam-
 panulate.   Fruit  ovoid-compressed, tomentose.  (De Cand.)
   A small  tree.   Leaves on glandular footstalks, acuminate.  Flowers moderately
 large, rose-red or  white, nearly  sessile, appearing before the leaves.  Calyx reddish,
 campanulate,  5-cleft;  the  segments blunt.   Petals 5, ovate, irregularly notched,
 rose-red.   Stamens numerous (about  30), shorter than the petals, inserted into the
 mouth of the calyx.   Ovarium woolly; style  simple ;  stigma round.  Drupe ovoid,
 compressed, leathery,  marked with a longitudinal furrow, where  it opens when ripe;
 epicarj) greenish-gray, tomentose; mesocarp  (or  sarcocarp)  fibrous, cracking  and
 dropping off;  endocarp (putamen) woody or almost osseous,  oblong or ovate, acute,
 marked with pits  or furrows.   Seed 1 (rarely 2) in each drupe.
   De Candolle* admits five varieties of this species :—
  a. amara.  Bitter Almond.—Styles  almost as long  as the stamens, tomentose  below.  Seeds
 bitter—Flowers larger; petals white, roseate at the base. It varies with  a hard and brittle putamen.
  8 dulcis.   Sweet Almond.—Leaves ash-green.  Flowers earlier.  Styles much longer than the
 stamens. Fruit ovate compressed, acuminate.  Seeds sweet.   Putamen hard.
  y fragilis.   Tender-shelled.   Flowers  coetaneous.  Petals broader,  quite emarginate.  Leaves
 ihorter; petioles thick.  Fruit acuminate, sweet.   Putamen soft.—Flowers somewhat roseate.
  i. macrocarpa. Large fruited.—Leaves broader, acuminate, scarcely ash-coloured.  Peduncles
 ihorter, turgid.   Fruit larger, umbilicated, acuminate at the apex.  Putamen hard.   Flowers
 while-roseate, large,appearing  before the leaves.   Petals broadly obcordate, undulate.  It varies
 —1st, with a lesser fruit  called the Sultana Almond; 2dly, with  a  very small fruit termed the
 Pistachio Almond.
  i. persicoides.  Peach  Almond.—Leaves like those of the peach. Fruit
 oval, obtuse.  Sarcocarji succulent.    Putamen yellowish-black.  Seeds          Fi". 358.
 iweet—On the same branch the fruit is sometimes ovate, obtuse, and
 •omewhat fleshy; and  dry, ovate-compressed, and acuminate.                  *j|
  Hab.—Barbary and Syria.   Cultivated  in   the  southern
 parts of Europe.
  Description.—Almonds in  the  shell (Amygdalse  cum
fnihimine) consist of  the seed,  or kernel  (amygdala),  in-
closed in  the  endocarp (putamen or  shell), which may  be
hard or soft.   The seed is of  an oval shape, compressed,
rounded at  one end,  and  somewhat pointed  at  the other.
•The outer covering of the seed (epidermis seminalis, Bischoff)     _   .    ,    „,    ,
is.glanduliferous,  bitter,  of a  reddish-brown  colour, and   /"^/{joofZlt
veined by tbe ramifications of the raphe\   At the pointed   6. RadYcie anVpiunmie!8'
' Genesis, xliii. 11.                      » Opera, ed. Foes. pp. 1S1, 069, and 113.
 Lib. i. cap. 39.                        ♦ Prodr. ii. 530. 
764
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Rosacea.
extremity of the seed is a small perforation (foramen), and on one side of this at
the edge, is the rugged line  (hilum), which constitutes, botanically, the base of the
seed.  The seed is connected, at  the hilum, with the shell by the umbilical cord.
The larger or round end of the almond is curiously enough termed its apex.  That
part of the internal seed-coat  (endopleura,  De Candolle) which corresponds to the
blunt or rounded end of the  almond, is dark-coloured, indicating tbe situation of the
chalaza.  By soaking almonds in warm  water, the seed-coats (pellicle or skin) are
easily removed.   Blanched  almonds (amygdalse  decorticatss) consist of tbe embryo
only, composed of the two  large fleshy  cotyledons, between which, at  the  pointed
extremity of the seed, we observe  the plumule,  with the radicle pointing  towards
the foramen (see Fig. 358).
   1.  Sweet Almonds  (Amygdalse dulces).—These are  odourless, and  have a
bland,  sweetish,  agreeable  taste.    Three  varieties are  known  in  commerce:
"1. Jordan almonds, which are the finest, come  from Malaga.1  Of these there arc
two kinds;  the one above an inch in length, flat, and with a  clear brown  cuticle
sweet, mucilaginous, and rather tough;  the other more plump and  pointed at one
end, brittle, but equally sweet with the former.—2.  Valentia almonds are about
three-eighths of an inch broad, not quite an inch long, round at one end and obtusely
pointed at the other;  flat, of a dingy-brown colour, and dusty cuticle.—3. Barbary
and Italian almonds  resemble the latter, but are generally smaller, and  less flat-
tened.   Rancid, worm-eaten, and  broken  almonds,  should be rejected."8   Sweet
almonds are rarely employed for pressing, on account of their greater cost, and the
less value of their residual  almond cake (placenta  amygdalse dulcis).   Almond
powder (farina amygdalse) is the  ground almond cake, and is employed as a soap
for washing the hands, and as a lute.
   2. Bitter Almonds (Amygdalse  amarse).—These are brought chiefly from Mo-
gadore.  In external appearance they resemble the sweet  almond,  but are somewhat
smaller.   They are distinguished by their bitter flavour, and, when rubbed with a
little water, remarkable odour.   They  are extensively  used  for  pressing.   Their
cake (placenta amygdalse ama.rse) is distilled with water to yield the volatile oil of
bitter almonds, and is afterwards employed to fatten pigs, and  for other purposes.
   Commerce.—The  following table shows the  quantity of almonds  (bitter and
sweet (on which duty was paid during 1838 and 1839:—3
                                  Duty per cwt.      Quantity on which duty was paid.
                                                    In 1839.          In 1838.
        Jordan..................40s.........1596........1098
        Not Jordan...............20s.........3576  ........2200
        Bitter.................. is.........2145  ........1870

   Almonds are imported in  barrels, serons, boxes, and bales.
   Composition.—Sweet almonds were analyzed by Proust;4 in 1817 by Boullay,5
and in 1825 by Payen and  Henry  fils.6—Bitter  almonds were analyzed by  Vogel.'
            Boullay's Analysis.
Fixed oil.....................54.0
Emulsin......................21.0
Liquid sugar................... 6.0
Gum........................ 3 0
Seed-coats.................... 5.0
Woody fibre  ................... 4.0 _
Water....................... 3.5 jSeed-coats .................... °*
Acetic acid and loss.............. 0.5 Woody fibre
             Vogel's Analysis.

Volatile oil and hydrocyanic acid \ ' jeriuined.
Fixed oil.....................260
Emulsin......................30.0
Liquid sugar................... $■•
Gum . ....................... 3.0
Sweet Almonds.........      . 100.0
[Loss :.....'. . .'...............I"
     Bitter Almond*..............100°
  1.  Fixed Oil of Almonds (See post, p. 768).
  2.  Emulsin  (Vegetable Albumen of Almonds).—This remarkable constituent of almonds H

  1 See Busby's Journal of a Recent Visit to the Principal Vineyards of Spain and France, p. 47, London,
1834.
  a Brande, Diet, of Pharm. 55.                            3 Trade List.
  4 Gmelin. Handb. d. Chem.                              s Ibid vi. 406.          ..
  6 Journ de Chim. Mid. i. 436.                            ' Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. u. !*»• 
The Common Almond:—Physiological Effects; Uses.        765
white, and soluble in cold water; hence it is a constituent of almond emulsion.  From its watery
solution it is precipitated in thick white flocks by alcohol;  these flocks dissolve in water, even
if they have been previously dried.   If the watery solution be heated to 212° F. the emulsin
coagulates, and the liquor becomes thick, like starch mucilage.   From ordinary vegetable albu-
men emulsin is distinguished by its producing the decomposition of amygdalin,  and yielding,
among other products, the volatile oil of bitter almonds, and  hydrocyanic acid.   When, however,
emulsin has been coagulated by heat, it loses its power of acting on amygdalin.1   The compo-
siiion of emulsin, according to Mr. Richardson,2 is as follows:—

                              Atoms
     Carbon..............  24
     Hydrogen............23
     Nitrogen.............   4
     Oxygen.............   9
Emulsin
Eq. Wt.	Per Cent.	Richardson
...... 144 . . ...... 23 . . . ...... 56 . .	. . . 48.81 . . . . . 7.79 . . . . . . 24.41 . .	. . . 48.835 . . . 7.732 . . . 24.722
......295	. . . 100.00 . .	. . . 100.200
Boiled with baryta, emulsin evolves ammonia, and yields a barytic salt containing a peculiar
acid, which has been termed emulsic acid.  It is probable, therefore, that emulsin is an amide of
emulsic acid (i. t. emulsate of ammonia, minus an atom of water).  Robiquet3 regards the emul-
sin of Wohler and Liebig as a very complex product.
  3. Amtgiialin.—A crystallizable substance found in the bitter, but not in the sweet almond.
From four lbs. of bitter almonds  Liebig obtained one ounce of pure amygdalin 4  It  is white,
odourless, has at first a sweet, then a bitter  taste, is very soluble in  boiling alcoliol and water,
but is insoluble in ether.  Crystallized out of an alcoholic solution it is in peariy scales, and is
anhydrous.   The crystals obtained  from a watery solution are colourless,  transparent, and
prismatic, and contain six atoms of water of crystallization.  The watery solution  has a feebly
bitter tasie.  Submitted  to distillation with  nitric acid, it yields hydrocyanic acid, oil of bitter
almonds, formic  acid, and some  benzoic acid. Heated  with  an alkaline  solution, it  evolves
ammonia, and yields  an alkaline salt, which  contains a peculiar acid called  amygdulic acid, com-
posed of C°H9B024-r-Aq.; hence, perhaps, amygdalin  is an  amide of amygdulic acid (i.  e. an
amygdalate of ammonia, minus an atom of  water).  By the action of a solution of emulsin on
a solution of amygdalin, we obtain, among other products, hydrocyanic  acid and a volatile oil of
bitter almonds (see Volatile  Oil of Bitter Almonds).  The  following is the composition of amyg-
dalin, according to Wohler and Liebig :—5
                                          Atoms.       Eq. Wt.        Per Cent.
         farbon....................40  ......240  ......52.516
         Hydrogen..................27  ......   27  ......  5.908
         Nitrogen...................  1  ......   14  ......  3.064
         Oxygen...................22......176......38.512

                Amygdalin............  1  ......457......100.000

In the crystallized state, it consists of 1 atom of Amygdalin = 457, and 6 atoms of  Water = 54.
  4. Volatile Oil of Bitter Almonds (see post, p. 768).
   Physiological Effects  and Uses. a.  Of Sweet  Almonds.—Sweet almonds
are nutritive and emollient;  but on account of the quantity of oil which they con-
tain, they are somewhat  difficult of  digestion, at least if taken  in large  quantities,
or by persons whose digestive powers are weak.   When rancid, they are still more
apt to disorder the stomach.    The husk or  pellicle of the almond has been  known
to occasion  nausea, uneasiness in the stomach  and bowels, increased  heat, cedema-
tous swelling of  the face, followed by urticaria.   Dr. Winterbottom" suffered twice
in this way  from  the use  of unblanched sweet almonds, but blanched almonds caused
no inconvenience.
   For dictftical purposes, almonds  are employed as a dessert, for puddings, cakes,
&c.  On account of the irritant qualities of  the husk, almonds for the  table should
always  be blanched.   Blanched and roasted they have been used as a substitute for
coffee.?   Medicinally they are used  in  the  preparation of the confection, emulsion,
and oil.
  &• Of Bitter Almonds.—Bitter almonds  are more or less  poisonous  to all classes
of animals.  As in  the cases of other  poisonous  vegetable substances,  the larger

 ' Wohler and Liebig, Journ. de Pharm. xxxiii. 391.          a Thomson, Organ. Chemistry, 683.
   Journ. de Pharm. xxiv. 196.                    .       4 Handwbrt. d. Chem. p. 330.
   Op. cit.; also Journ. de. Pharm.  xxiii.                   e Med. Fa:ts and Obserc. vol. v. p. 60.
   ■Hurray, App. Med. iii. 25. 
766
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rosacea.
herbivora are much  less powerfully  affected by them.   Thus, three-quarters of a
pound of bitter almonds, given to a horse, caused merely dulness and a small pulse.1
One drachm of  bitter almonds has killed some of the smaller animals, as pigeons."
Twenty seeds have killed a small robust dog.3  The symptoms which  they induce
in animals,  are, trembling, weakness,  palsy, convulsions (often of the tetanic kind)
and, finally, coma.   If vomiting occur early, the animal in that way may escape.
   In small doses bitter almonds sometimes act on  man as irritants to the digestive
organs, and occasion nausea, vomiting, and purging.   Owing to idiosyncrasy, some
individuals  are remarkably affected by them.  On the late Dr. Gregory they caused
" first, sickness, generally tremors, then  vomiting,  next a hot fit, with  an eruption
of urticaria, particularly on the upper part  of the body.   At the same time the face
and head swelled very much, and there was a general feeling like intoxication.  The
symptoms lasted only a few hours.   The rash did not alternately appear and disap-
pear, as in common nettle-rash," (Christison.)   In large doses, bitter almonds have
caused serious,  or even fatal consequences.  Pierer4 mentions that three children
having eaten some of these seeds, were attacked in a few minutes with nausea, vomit-
ing, loss of consciousness and of speech, and convulsions.   Mr. Kennedy5 has noticed
the case of  a stout labourer, who died  after the use of  a great quantity of bitter
almonds.   These, and other observations  referred to by Wibmer,6 Coullon,7 and
others, prove that the  poisonous effects of  the bitter  almond are similar to those of
hydrocyanic acid.
   The emulsion of bitter almonds partakes of the properties of the seeds.  Pouzaire
(quoted by Wibmer) states that a child of between four and five years of age suffered
colic, head  affection, grinding of the  teeth, trismus,  insensibility, and  death, from
the use of a strong dose of this liquid.
   The distilled water of bitter almonds (aqua amygdalse amarse) possesses poison-
ous  properties,  when  either swallowed or  applied  externally.8   Sommering states
that half an ounce of concentrated bitter almond-water killed a dog.B
   Macaroons and Ratafia cakes, as well as Noyau, which owe their peculiar flavour
to bitter almonds, act  injuriously .when  taken in large quantities.10  The principal
consumption of the bitter almond is for pressing, flavouring, and scenting.  For
flavouring, the seeds or their essential oil are used by the cook and confectioner.
   By medical  practitioners  in  this country, bitter almonds are  rarely prescribed.
They sometimes enter into the  composition of  the almond emulsion (see Mistura
Amygdalse, Ph. E.  D.), but usually as a flavouring ingredient only.  They are ap-
plicable, however, to all the uses of hydrocyanic acid; as pulmonary affections, gas-
trodynia,  and hooping-cough; but  the objection to their use is  their varying and
uncertain strength.  Bergius/1 and subsequently Frank, Hufeland,12 and others, have
successfully administered  them  against  intermittent fever.   They have  also been
used to expel tape-worm, and, it is said, with good effect.13  Pitschaft14  prescribed
bitter almond water to relieve painful menstruation.  The emulsion has been em-
ployed as a wash to relieve irritation  in various skin diseases; as  herpes, prurigo,
acne, impetigo, &c.
   Administration.—Bitter  almonds  may be taken  in  substance or emulsion.
Kranichfeld15 employed the powder of ihe bitter almond cake (farina amygdalse
amarse) in doses of 1  to 6 grs.   As  a substitute for the distilled water of bitter al-
monds (aqua amygdalse amarse), which is  of variable strength, Wohler and Liebig
recommend the following emulsion (emulsio amygdalse cum amygdalind) on account
i Viborg ; quoted by Wibmer,TVirfc d. Arzneim. u. Gifte, i. 157.
a Wepf'er, Hist. Cieut. aquat. p. 298, Lugd. 1733.              * Orfila, Toxicol. Gin.
* Quoted by Wibmer, op. supra, cit.; also Lond. Med. Review, vol. ii. p. 286, Lond. 1800.
» Lond. Med. and Phys. Journ. Ivii. 150.                    • Op. supra cit.
* Recherches, &c. sur I'Acide Hydrocyan. 1819.
B See Doltz's Experiments, in Wibmer, op. supra cit.          8 Buchner, Toxikolog.
10 See Virey, Journ. de Pharm. ii. 204, for the ill effects of tlie first of these.
n Mat. Med. i 433.                                   " Richter. Ausf. Arzneim. u. 511-
»» Hufeland'g Journ. Bd. xi. St. 4, S. 179.
" Dierbach, Neuest. Entd.in d. Mat.  Med. Bd. i. 3S7, 1837.    " Dierbach, op. supra cit.
" Journ. de Pharm. xxiii. 415. 
The Common Almond :—Almond Milk.
767
of its uniform strength:  Sweet Almonds 3>j',  Water and Sugar sufficient to make
f^j  of emulsion, in which, when  strained, dissolve Amygdalin  grs. xvij.   This
quantity of amygdalin, when acted upon by the emulsion, yields one grain of anhy-
drous hydrocyanic acid, and 8 grains of volatile oil.—The dose of this emulsion is
gtt.  x to f 3J-  Almond paste is sold in the shops for softening the skin  and pre-
venting chaps. Dr. Paris1 gives the following recipe for making it:  Bitter Almonds,
blanched, |iv; the White of an Egg, Rose Water,  and Bectified Spirit, p.  ae., as
much as may be sufficient.
  1, CONFECTIO AMYGDAM!, L;  Conserva Amygdalarum,  E; Almond Confection.—
(Sweet Almonds 3viij; Powder of Gum Arabic 3j J Sugar %iv. The almonds being
first macerated in cold water, and their pellicles removed, rub them through a fine
metallic sieve; then beat all the ingredients  until thoroughly incorporated.   The
process of the two Colleges is essentially the same.  The  London College adds, that
this confection can  be preserved unaltered for a longer time, if the almonds, gum
Arabic, and sugar, are separately powdered, and  afterwards mixed.   Then,  whenever
tbe confection is  to be used, beat all the ingredients together until they are tho-
roughly incorporated.)—Almond confection, prepared without water, is  not more
apt to spoil or become rancid than when  the ingredients are  separately powdered,
and subsequently mixed; but if, in order to soften the mass, a  little water  be added,
it then soon becomes mouldy or rancid, or both.8  The only use of almond confec-
tion is in the preparation of the emulsion.
  I MISTURA  AMYGDALA, L. E. D. [U. S.] Lac Amygdalse; Almond  Emulsion;
Almond  Milk.—(Almond Confection  ^iiss;  Distilled Water Oj.   Gradually add
the water  to the confection, while rubbing, until they are  mixed;  then  strain
through linen, L.  The Edinburgh College employs ^ij of the Confection  to Oij
of Water,  and strains  the mixture through linen or calico \ or they direct it to be
prepared by the following process :  " Sweet Almonds 3j  and 5ij J  Pure Sugar 3v;
Mucilage fjss; Water Oij.  Steep the almonds in hot water and peel  them, and
proceed as  for the Mistura Acaciss."—The Dublin  College prepares it as follows :
Sweet Almonds, blanched, 3v ;  Gum  Arabic, in powder, 3J  ;  Refined  Sugar 3*j j
Distilled Water ^viij. Rub the  almonds with the sugar and gum, adding gradually
the wtiter, then strain.)—Notwithstanding that the formulae of the three  Colleges
are different, none of them precisely agree with that which is  in common use.  No
one who wishes to procure good almond milk would prepare it with the  confection,
on account of the changes which this preparation suffers by being kept.  Powdered
gum Arabic is, for ordinary purposes, a more convenient  and  ready ingredient than
mucilage, and does not undergo any change by keeping.   The following  formula,
which is similar to that of  the  Dublin  College, yields a preparation identical with
that of the  London College : Sweet Almonds 3iv; Powdered Gum Arabic 3J; White
^ugar 3'j > Water fjviss. Having blanched the almonds, beat them with the  sugar
and gum, the  water being gradually added.   [This  is nearly  the formula of the
 I-  S. Pharm., which orders of  Gum Arabic 3*9 and Water ^viij.] Almond milk
agrees in many of its properties with  animal  milk.   Thus it is white; when ex-
amined  by the microscope, it is  seen to consist of myriads of oleaginous  globules,
suspended in water by the aid of an albuminous principle (emulsin) and sugar; and,
lastly, it agrees with  milk, in possessing  nutritive and emollient  qualities.  It is
used a.s a demulcent and  emollient in  pulmonary affections, to appease  cough and
'hay irritation; and in inflammatory affections of the alimentary canal or of the
unuary organs.   It is an excellent vehicle for other remedies; as for the saline re-
frigerants (nitre,  for  example)  in  febrile cases, for expectorants and  paregorics
(squills, ipecacuanha, opiates, &c.)  in pulmonary affections, for sudorifics (emetic
tartar, for example) in febrile and  inflammatory cases, for alkalies and their car-
bonates in affections of the urino-genital organs, and for hydrocyauic acid in gastro-
1 Pharmacologia.
a Brande, Diet, of Pharm. 56. 
768
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rosacea.
dynia and pulmonary disorders.   Acids and alcohol (hence tinctures) coagulate the
emulsin, and  cause almond mixture to separate into a kind  of  curd and whey;  a
change which also takes place spontaneously when the mixture has been kept, and
which  is accompanied with the  development of free acid.   In  cases where the hy-
drocyanic acid is admissible, the  bitter almond may be used.—The dose of almond
emulsion is f^j  or f^ij, or  ad libitum.
   %. OLEDI  AMYGDALE, L. [U.  S.]; Almond Oil;  Oil of Sweet Almonds.—(Oh-
tained by expression from  either bitter or sweet almonds; usually from the former,
on account of their cheapness, as  well as of the greater value of their residual cake.)
—The average produce is from 48 to 52  lbs. from 1  cwt. of almonds.  When re-
cently expressed  it is turbid, but by rest and filtration becomes quite transparent.
It usually possesses a slightly yellow tinge, which becomes somewhat paler  by ex-
posure to  solar  light.  It is inodorous  or  nearly so,  and  has a purely oleaginous
bland  taste.   It congeals less readily by cold than olive oil.   Braconnot states that
at 14° F. it deposits 24  per cent, of margarine (margarate of glycerine) which
fuses  at 43° F.   The residual  oleine (oleate of glycerine)  did not congeal at the
greatest degree of cold. The accuracy of these statements has, however, been called
in question.  Its  sp. gr. would  appear to  vary;  Brandis found it 0.911, Bri9son
0.917, Saussure 0.920, at  53° F.  Sulphuric ether dissolves it.  Six parts of boil-
ing, or twenty-five parts of cold  alcohol, are required to dissolve one part of this oil.
           Proximate Composition.            |             Ultimate Analysis.
                Braconnot.                 |                 Saussure.
Oleine....................76 Carbon..................77.403
Margarine (Stearine of Braconnot)......24 Hydrogen.................11.481
                                      --- Oxygen..................10.028
        Almond Oil.............100 Nitrogen [loss]..............  0.288
                                                  Almond oil...........100.000

   The nitrogen mentioned in Saussure's  analysis is probably an error.
   Almond oil is said to be adulterated with teel oil.
   It possesses the dietetical and medicinal properties of the other fixed oils.  Its
local action is emollient.    Swallowed  in  moderate doses it is nutritive, but difficult
of digestion.  In large doses it acts as a mild laxative.
   Almond oil may be employed for the  same purposes as olive oil.   Mixed with
an equal volume  of syrup  of violets, or  syrup of roses, it is given to new-born in-
fants  as a laxative.  It is sometimes used with gum (in the form of mucilage),
alkalies, or yolk of egg, to form an emulsion, which is used  in the same cases as
the mistura  amygdalse.   To assist in allaying troublesome cough, it is not unfre-
quently administered in the form of linctus, with confection of dog-rose, and syrup
of poppies.
   4. OLEUM AMGDAUE  DIARJ!;  Oleum Amygdalse  amarse destillatum;  Oil of
Bitter Almonds; Essential  Oil of Almonds.—(Obtained by submitting bitter almond
cake [left after  the expression of the  fixed  oil from bitter almonds] to distillation
with water, either alone, or  more usually  with salt.  To increase  the quantity of
volatile oil, Geiger recommended the cake to be macerated in the water for 24 hours
before distillation.)   The theory of this process is curious.   Chemists formerly sup-
posed that the volatile oil  resided  in the bitter almond, and that  by distillation it
was merely volatilized, and  subsequently  condensed.   But in opposition  to this
view may be urged the following facts:—
   1. Neither bitter almonds, nor their residuary cake, yield any volatile oil by pressure, yet we
know that the volatile oil is soluble  in the fixed oil, and, therefore, when  the latter was ex-
pressed it ought to contain traces of the volatile oil, if this existed in the bitter almonds.
   2. They yield no oil when  digested in alcohol or in ether, though the volatile oil is soluble in
both of these liquids.
   3. Alcohol  extracts from bitter almond cake, sugar, resin, and amygdalin.  When the latter
substance has been removed, the cake is no longer capable of furnishing the volatile oil by di»"
filiation. 
The Common Almond:—Essential Oil op Almonds.         769
  4. Ether extracts no amygdalin from bitter almond  cake; and the cake left after digestion in
ether yields the volatile oil by distillation with water.
  These facts, then, prove that the volatile oil does not reside in the bitter almond,
but is formed by the action of water on some of the constituents of these  seeds.
When bitter almonds are  deprived of amygdalin, they are incapable  of yielding the
volatile oil; so that it is this principle which enables them to yield it.   But amyg-
dalin, with water only, produces no oil; hence the presence of some other substance
is necessary.   Wohler and Liebig1 have shown that this other substance is emulsin
(albumen), and that, by the mutual reaction of amygdalin, emulsin, and water, we
obtain the volatile  oil of bitter almonds and hydrocyanic acid.  But it appears that
BUgar, and some other substance (probably a compound  of formic acid and altered
emulsin),  are  simultaneously  developed.   These  ingredients  are,  probably, all
yielded by the amygdalin, the operation of emulsin on which has been compared
to that of yeast on  sugar and water.  It will be seen by the following table (drawn
up by Wohler and Liebig), that  amygdalin  contains  the elements of hydrocyanic
acid, volatile oil of bitter  almonds, sugar, formic acid, and water :—
                                                          Atoms of
                                           Carbon.    Hydrogen. Nitrogen.   Oxygen.
    1 atom of hydrocyanic acid.............   2....   1  .... 1  ....  0
    2 atoms volatile oil of Wtter almonds........28 ....  12  .... 0  ....  4
    1 atom of sugar..................   6....   5  .... 0  ....  5
    2 atoms of formic acid..............   4....   2  .... 0  ....  6
    7 atoms of water.................   0....   7....0....T
    1 atom of Amygdalia...............40 ....  27  .... 1  .... 22

   The essential oil of bitter almonds of the shops, possesses the following proper-
ties.  It is  highly poisonous, has a golden-yellow colour (by rectification it may be
rendered  temporarily colourless), an  agreeable odour (usually compared to that of
hydrocyanic acid, but which, in fact, bears  but  little resemblance  to  it), and an
acrid, bitter taste.   It is  combustible, and burns with a white flame.   Its sp. gr.,
though always greater than that of  water, probably varies somewhat.   I  find that
a sample, which had  been  prepared for  about  eight months, had  the sp. gr. of
1.0830.  It is soluble in  alcohol and ether.  Oil of vitriol forms with it a magnifi-
cent crimson-red thick liquid, which,  on the  addition  of water, yields a yellow
emulsion.
   [Some  recent observations by  Mr. Redwood9 show that the sp.  gr.  of this oil
varies greatly according to  the temperature at which  it is obtained; he examined
specimens of sp. gr. 1052.4 to as high  as 1082.2.   This variation  has sometimes
been attributed to the presence of spirit added for adulteration; but  no spirit could
be detected.   The oils of lighter sp. gr.  appeared to contain the purest hydruret of
benzule;  while, from  the  reaction of strong sulphuric acid, it would appear that
benzoine is present in considerable proportion in  the heavier specimens.—Ed.]
  Oil of bitter almonds, as  found  in commerce,  is a mixture or  compound of hy-
druret of benzule, hydrocyanic acid, a little benzoic acid, benzoine, benzimide, and
probably other substances.
  ». HrnHCHBT of Bknzcle.—This is obtained by forming the oil into a thin paste with hydrate
of lime, chloride of iron, and water, and  redistilling.   It is a limpid colourless oil, whose sp.
"'■ is 1.043, and whose odour and taste are scarcely different from  those of  the ordinary oil.
Roliiquet found it innocuous, but Vogel, and more recently Liebig, declare that it still  retains its
Poisonous properties.  In some earlier experiments which I made on this subject, I found it to
I* highly poisonous, though I  could not detect  an atom of hydrocyanic acid in it.  After the
■ample had been kept a few months, however, I readily detected the acid in  it by the potash
sail iron test.  By a second and  third rectification I completely deprived it of  all traces of the
"eid; and I then found  that four drops of it, given to a small rabbit, had  no  more effect than
ihe same quantity of any other volatile oil; that is, the animal appeared dull for a lew minutf-s,
ind ih,.  respiration was quickened.  Hydruret  of benzule is composed of CuH602.  Certain
changes which it undergoes are  best explained by assuming that this oil is a compound of the
Journ de Pharm. xxiii.                                Q Pharm. Journ. vol. xi. p. 4S6.
   VOL.  II.---19 
770
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rosacea.
base of benzoic acid and hydrogen.   To this  base, whose composition is CMH502, the name of
Benzule or Benzoyl Bz, has been given; so that the oil is the hydruret of benzule, CMH5024-H or
BzH, and its proximate and ultimate composition is as follows :—
            Proximate Composition.
                            Atoms.    Eq. Wt
Benzule.............1   ....  105
Hydrogen............1   ....    1

Hydruret of Benzule......1   ....  106
Ultimate Composition,
              Atoms.
Carbon.....14  .
Hydrogen ....   6  .
Oxygen.....   2  .
 Eq. Wt.
.  .  84  .
.  .  6  .
  .  16  .

  . 106  .
Per Cent.
■  79 24
•   5.66
.  15.10

. 100.00
  By exposure to the air it absorbs 2 eq. oxygen, and is converted into hydrated benzoic acid
C'«H5034-Aq. or BzO.HO.
  B  Hydrocyanic  Acid.—The presence of hydrocyanic  acid  in  the essential  oil of bitter
almonds maybe detected by the usual tests, especially by potash  and a salt of iron.  The quan-
tity of this acid is differently stated by different authorities, and  is, probably, not uniform.
Schrader1 got, from an old sample, 8.5  per cent., and from a new sample, 10.75; but Goppert
obrtoined, from another specimen, so much as 14.33 percent.  Water in which the oil has been
washed gives evidence of  the presence  of hydrocyanic acid by the potash and iron test before
referred  to.
  y. Benzoic Acid, BzO.—This is formed by the action of the oxygen of the atmosphere on
hydruret of Benzule, as above mentioned.  It is more readily produced in the  pure hydruret
than in raw oil of bitter almonds.
  S\  Benzoin-; Camphor of Oil of Bitter Almonds—Liebig2 states that this  is a  constituent of
oil of bitter almonds.   It is a crystalline substance usually obtained by the action of alkalies on
the oil.  It cannot be procured from  hydruret of benzule (with which it  is isomeric) unless
hydrocyanic acid be  present.   It  is soluble in boiling alcohol.  Oil of vitriol also dissolves it
with a violet-blue colour; if the solution be heated it  becomes brown, green, and at  last black,
with disengagement of sulphurous acid.
  e. Bexzamide.—This separates from  oil of bitter almonds under certain circumstances.   Its
formula is CI4H7N02or BzAD.  It  is soluble in alcohol.  Nordhausen sulphuric acid dissolves
it, assuming a deep indigo  colour ; if moisture be  present  the colour is at first emerald green.
By the action of potash and a little alcohol it  evolves ammonia and forms benzoate  of potash.
   A crystalline matter is frequently  deposited by oil of bitter almonds, when it has
been kept for some  time.   Exposure to  the  air, by which  the  oil is enabled to
absorb  oxygen,  and  the  removal  of hydrocyanic acid from the oil, facilitate  the
deposition.   In  1822,  Grischow  and Bahlmann,3 and, in 1823, Stange,4 declared
the  crystals  to  be  those  of  benzoic acid ; a  statement which  was  confirmed, in
1830, by Robiquet and Boutron.5  I  have  met with  three kinds  of crystalline
deposit, differing essentially from each other and from benzoic acid.
   1st. One of these is characterized by the emerald green colour which it produces when dropped
into oil of vitriol.   In a  few minutes, however,  the green  changes  to red.  This  deposit is
orange yellow, soluble in boiling water, alcohol, and ether ; when the alcoholic or ethereal solu-
tions cool, numerous white, light, pearly crystalline plates (resembling crystalline boracic acid)
are deposited.  If these white crystals be dropped into oil of vitriol,  they also become emerald-
green, but  very slightly so; the mother  liquor is  rendered  much more intensely green by oil
of vitriol.  Boiled with caustic potash they give out ammonia.   By  keeping  for two  years  in a
stoppered bottle, both the raw  and purified crystals lost  the property of becoming green by oil
of vitriol;  they now became red on the addition  of this liquid ; and  the crystals, on bcin;' re-
dissolved in alcohol and recrystallized,  were scarcely coloured on the addition of oil of  vitriol.
  From  raw oil of bitter almonds washed with solution of potash I have obtained, at the end
of twenty-four hours, crystals which, like the above, became green  on  the addition of oil of
vitriol.
   2d.  A second crystalline deposit is characterized by  the cherry-red colour which it assumes
when dropped into oil of vitriol, and by its not evolving ammonia when boiled with caustic
potash.  Its appearance resembles solid  oil of anise.  When dissolved in boiling alcohol and
recrystallized, it yields silky prismatic crystals somewhat  similar to those of nitrate of  ammo-
nia.   At the  end of two years it had almost lost its quality of being reddened by oil of vitriol;
but when  boiled with this liquor it gave out a crystalline sublimate.   Heated with  solution of
potash it evolved faint traces  of ammonia.
  3d.  The third6  kind of  deposit I did not receive until after it had been digested  in alcohol.
1 Quoted by Dr. Christison, Treat, on Poisons.
3 Bert. Jakrb. d. Pharm. Ie32, p. 15S.
» Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. xl v. 364.
6 For specimens of this, as well as of the first kind of deposit, I am indebted to Mr. Whipple
2 Turner's Chemistry, 7th edit. p. '&>■
* Buchner's Repert. xiv. 3-29; xvi. el 
The Peach :—History.
771
A short notice of it  has  been given  by Dr. Letheby.1  The crystals are  small, acicular, and
lemon-yellow ; they  dissolve in oil of vitriol, forming a yellow or orange-coloured solution.  They
are insoluble in water and alcohol.  When heated they fuse, but, unlike the two preceding de-
posits, do not sublime.  They do not evolve ammonia when heated with  a solution of caustic
potash.  At the end  of two  years these crystals were unchanged.  In all  the cases in which
they are found the oil had been put aside contaminated with water.
  The Volatile Oil of Bitter Almonds is a most potent  poison, acting as rapidly as
the ordinary hydrocyanic acid of the shops, and giving rise to similar symptoms.  A
single drop has killed a cat in five minutes.3  Sir B.  Brodie, happening to touch  his
tongue with a probe which had been dipped  in the  oil,  suffered, almost instantane-
ously, an indescribable sensation at the pit of the stomach, feebleness of  the limbs,
and loss of power over the muscles.  These effects,  however, were quite transient.
Several cases of poisoning with it are recorded.  The best detailed  is that related
by Mertzdorff  (quoted by Dr. Christison) :  " A hypochondriacal gentleman,  48
years old, swallowed  two drachms of the essential oil.  A few minutes afterwards,
his servant, whom he sent for, found him lying in bed,  with bis features spasmodi-
cally contracted, his eyes fixed, staring, and turned  upward, and  his  chest  heaving
convulsively and hurriedly.   A physician, who entered the room twenty, minutes
after the draught had been taken, found him quite insensible, the pupils immovable,
the breathing stertorous and slow, the pulse feeble, and  only thirty in a minute, and
the breathing  exhaling strongly  the odour of bitter almonds.   Death ensued  ten
minutes afterwards."   Another case of poisoning with this oil occurred a few years
since in  Aldersgate  Street: a lady intending  to  take beech-nut oil, for  worms,
swallowed (by  mistake) oil of bitter  almonds, sold   to her by a druggist, who sup-
posed she inquired for  peach-nut oil.   Recovery  has  occurred, in  one  case, after
about half an ounce (?) of the oil had been swallowed.3
   [Mitscherlich4 has experimented on the effects of this oil on dogs and  rabbits;
he found  it poisonous even when quite free from hydrocyanic acid.   He found also,
as stated by Wohler  and Frerichs, that  it is oxidized in  the system when given
in small quantity, and is converted into hippuric acid in the  urine.  In large doses,
however,  it escapes unchanged  into the urine.—Ed]
   In this country, essential  oil of bitter almonds is  not employed in medicine.   It
is applicable iu the same cases that hydrocyanic acid is  employed in.   But  it must
not be forgotten that, though its strength is somewhat variable, it is in general four
times the strength of  officinal  hydrocyanic acid.   The  dose of it is  a quarter of  a
drop to a drop and a half in an emulsion.  It is extensively employed for flavouring
 by the cook and confectioner; and by the  perfumer for  scenting toilet-soap, and for
 other purposes.
   Essence of Bitter Almonds; Almond Flavour—This term  is sometimes applied to the
essential oil, and sometimes to a solution of the oil in rectified  spirit.  Two fluidrachms of the
oil and six fluidrachms of rectified spirit form a useful essence for  flavouring and  scenting.
[It is a dangerous preparation, as it still holds hydrocyanic acid dissolved.  Half an ounce of
it has been known to destroy the life of an adult.—En.]
        259. PERSICA  VULGARIS, Miller— THE PEACH.
                             Amygdalus Persica, Linn.
                          Sex. zyst. Icosandria, Monogynia.     '

  [Although no longer to be found  iu the British Pharmacopoeias, we have retained
the author's remarks upon this fruit.—Ed.]
  History.—Both Dioscorides5 and Pliny6 speak of the peach ;  the former terms
" nfpmxbv ur-fiov ; the latter malum persicum.

 'J-ond. Med. Gaz xxvi. 67.                      a Brodie, Phil. Trans. 1M1, p. 178.
  •!nnrn. Chim Mid. t. vi. 2de sur. p. 02.             * Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. x. p. 83.
  Lib. i. cap. 101.                               « Hist Nat. Mb. xv. cap. 11, et seq. ed. Valp. 
  "2                VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rosacea.

   Botany.   Gen. Char.—The same as amygdalus, except that the drupe is very
                                fleshy.   Epicarp either velvety or quite  smooth.
                                Putamen (stone)  extremely rugose, with  furrows
                                (De Cand.)
                                   Sp. Char.—Fruit tomentose. (De Cand.)
                                   A small tree.   Leaves lanceolate, serrate or cre-
                                nate,  with  or without  glands.   Flowers roseate
                                large  or  small.1   Both flowers  and kernels exhale
                                the bitter almond odour.
                                  Two varieties of the peach are usually made.  These
                                are admitted by De Candolle :—
                                  a. Metiers  or Free-stones.—Flesh separating  from the
                                stones.
                                  &. Clingstones or Pavies.—Flesh adherent to the stone.
          The Peach.               The Nectarine (Persica ia>vis, De Cand.) is distinguished
                                from the peach by its smooth fruit.  This trivial distinc-
tion leads many botanists to regard these two fruits as varieties of the same species.
   Hab.—Native of  Persia.   Cultivated in gardens.   Flowers in April or May.
   Description.—Peach leaves (folia persicse)  have the peculiar odour and taste
of the bitter  almond.  The kernels (semina persicse) closely resemble the latter,
both in appearanee and  properties, but are smaller.  The flowers (flores persicse)
lose the greater part of  their odour by drying.
   Composition.—The  leaves have not been analyzed.  They yield, by distillation,
a volatile oil (oleum foliipersicse), which is yellow, heavier than water, and  contains
hydrocyanic  acid.3  After eight years a  crystalline substance was found on the
water.3  The  non-ligneous extremities of the twigs of the peach-tree yielded Gau-'
thier4 1.92 per cent, of very volatile oil,  which was heavier  than water.   Berard'
analyzed the juice of  tbe  peaeh, both  in  the ripe  and unripe states;  the constitu-
ents were colouring matter, sugar, gum, vegetable fibre, albumen, malic acid, lime,
and water.
   Physiological Effects.—The highly palatable flesh of the peach is nutritious
(on account of its  sugar, gum, &c), and  slightly refrigerant (from the  malic acid
which  it contains).  Taken in moderate quantities it is wholesome, but if eaten too
freely, it is apt  to disorder the  bowels.  The  kernels, the blossoms, the leaves, and
the bark, possess  poisonous properties.   The flowers, as well  as the  leaves, in the
form of infusion, have been used to purge and destroy intestinal worms, especially
in children f  but their employment has sometimes been attended with fatal results.
Bertrand7 says  that a child,  eighteen  months  old, experienced  convulsions, vomit-
ing, and bloody diarrhoea, from the use of a strong decoction of the flowers; and
Coullon8 states  that an elderly gentleman, having partaken of a salad of the flowers,
was seized  with giddiness,  violent  purging, convulsions, and  stupor, and  died in
three days.  The irritation  of the alimentary  canal, manifested by vomiting and
purging, and  the slow death, distinguish the operation of peach-flowers from that
of hydrocyanic acid.  The same author9 also states that the peach-bark proved in-
jurious to a cock, and caused difficulty of breathing, and purging.
   Uses.—The fruit, both fresh and preserved, is employed as  a dessert.  Its use is
objectionable  in gouty  persons, and in those  whose bowels  are easily disordered.
When stewed with sugar, it  may be given as a mild laxative to convalescents.  Tbe
kernels may be used as  the bitter almond.   The blossoms are scarcely ever  adminis-
tered  in this country;  but  they have been recommended as  a vermifuge.  Ihe
leaves  are sometimes employed by the cook and liqueur-maker, for flavouring.  They

  1 See Loudon, Encycl. of Gardening.                 a Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. ii. 400.
  3 Brugnatelli, Ann. Chem. xcvi. 96.                    * Journ. de Pharm.
  5 Thomson, Org. Chem. 890.
  6 Costet et Willemet: quoted by Murray, App. Med. iii. 245.                            _«
  1 Wibmer, Wirk. d. Arzneim. u.  Gifte, Bd. iv. S. 190.      8 Chr.stison, Treatise on Poisons, p m
  s Wibmer, op supra cit. 
    The Plum Tree:—Description; Physiological Effects; Uses.    773

have also been used as a substitute for China-tea.1   They have been recommended
as a vermifuge, and more recently to allay irritation of the bladder and urethra.2
  Administration.—The dose of peach-blossoms is half an ounce of the fresh,
or a drachm of the dried flowers,  infused  in water.3  The dose of the infusion of
peach-haves (prepared by digesting ^ss of the dried leaves  in Oj of boiling: water)
is f^ss, three times a day.


  260. PRUNUS  DOMESTICA, Linn. L. E. D.-THE PLUM  TREE,
                         Sex. Syst. Icosandria, Monogynia.
              (Fructus praeparatus, I..—Dried fruit, £.—Fructus siccatus, D.)

  History.—Dioscorides4 calls this  tree the xoxxvytr^ia, while the fruit he terms
xoxxvprjlov.
  Botany.  Gen. Char.—Drupe ovate or  oblong, fleshy, quite smooth, covered
with a pruinose powder.  Putamen (stone) compressed, acute on both sides, some-
what furrowed at the edges, otherwise smooth.   Young leaves convolute.   Pedicels
umbellato-fasciculate, 1-flowered, evolved before or after the leaves.  (De Cand.)
  Sp. Char.—Flowers almost solitary. Leaves lanceolate-ovate, convolute. Branches
not spinous.  (De Cand.)—A small tree.   Flowers white.
  Gardeners cultivate  several hundred  varieties.5   De Candolle  admits the following va-
rieties :—
                 a. Armenioides, including the Mirabelle Plum.
                 6. Claudiana,  including the Green Gage.
                 y. Myrobalana, including the Myrobalan Plum.
                 £. Damascena, including the Damask Plum.
                 s  Turonensis, including the Orleans Plum.
                 £. Juliana, yields  the Officinal Prune.
                 rj. Catharinea, including the St. Catharine Plum.
                 d. Aubertiana, including the Magnum Bonum  or Mogul Plum.
                 i. Prunealina,  including the Damson.
  Hab.—South of Europe.   Cultivated in gardens and orchards.
  Description.—The  dried fruits of  the  Prunus domestica are called p>runes
(fructus siccatus pruni ; drupse siccatse pruni).  In warm  countries they are dried
on hurdles by solar heat; but  in colder  climates artificial  heat is employed.   In
France both methods are adopted; the fruit being exposed  to the heat  of an oven
and to  that of the sun, on alternate days.   Table prunes  are prepared from  the
larger kinds of plum—as the Saint Catharine and the Reine-CIaude (Green Gage);
Medicinal prunes from the Saint Julien (P. domestica, var. £ Juliana).  The  for-
mer have an agreeable, very  sweet taste;  the latter are somewhat austere.  They
are principally imported from Bourdeaux.   The part employed in medicine is the
pulp (pulpa pruni).
  Composition.—John8  analyzed the  Mirabelle Plum, and Berard  the  Reine-
Claude (Green Gage), both in the ripe and unripe states.7  The constituents of  the
ripe fruit, according  to the  last-mentioned chemist, are,  sugar 11.61, gum 4.85,
albumen  0.93, malic acid 1.10, vegetable fibre  1.21,  lime a trace,  water 80.24
[loss 0.06].—Pectin is also a constituent of  these fruits.
  Physiological Effects.—Fresh,  ripe plums, taken in moderate quantities, are
wholesome  and nutritive ; but in large quantities they readily disorder the bowels.
The immature fruit still more easily excites ill effects.   The medicinal prune  is a
mild laxative.
  Uses.—The finer kind of plums are employed at the table as a delicious dessert;
the inferior qualities are used in pies, tarts, conserves, and sweetmeats.   The larger
prunes are  employed at  the table as a dessert;  the medicinal  prunes are employed

 J Murray, App. Med.                    * See also Lond. Med. Rev. vol. iv. p. 81, Lond. 1S00.
 t Murray, op. supra cit.                  * Lib. i. cap. 174.
  Don iSyst. of Hard, ii 499) mentions 270 varieties.
 ' Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. ii. I2U9.           1 Thomson,  Org. Chem. 890. 
 774                VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rosacea.

 as an agreeable and mild laxative for children, and during convalescence from febrile
 and inflammatory disorders.  They are sometimes added  to cathartic decoctions or
 infusions (as infusion of senna), to improve the flavour, and promote the purgative
 effect.  They enter into the composition of the confection of senna.


 261.  CERASUS  LAURO-CERASUS, Loisei—THE COMMON OR
                             CHERRY LAUREL.
                            Prunus Lauro-cerasus, Linn.  D. E.
                             Sex.  Syst. Icosandria, Monogynia.
                                 (Leaves, E.—Folia, D.)

   History.—Belonius terms this plant the Cerasus  trapcznntina,1  It was intro-
 duced into Europe, from Trebizonde, in 1576.
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—Drupe globose  or  umbilicate  at the base,  fleshy, quite
 smooth, not covered with a pruinose powder.  Nucleus (stone) somewhat globose
 smooth.   Young leaves conduplicate.   Pedicels 1-flowered or ramose. (De Cand.) '
   Sp. Char.—Racemes  shorter than the leaves.  Leaves ovate-lanceolate, remotely
 serrate, with two or four glands  beneath.   Fruit ovate, acute. (De Cand.)
   An evergreen under shrub.'   Smooth in every part.   Leaves short-stalked, coria-
 ceous,  shining.    Petals roundish, spreading  white.  Fruit  black, the size of a
 small cherry.
   Hab.—Trebizonde.   Common in gardens everywhere.
   Description.—Cherry-laurel leaves (folia lauro-cerasi) have scarcely any odour
 until bruised,  when they give out tbe characteristic or bitter almond odour of the
 plant.   Their taste is  very bitter, aromatic, and  slightly astringent.   By drying
 they lose  their odour, but retain their flavour.   Their watery infusion  is rendered
 green by the sesquichloride of iron.
   Composition.—I am unacquainted with any complete analysis of cherry-laurel
 leaves.   They were imperfectly examined in 1797, by L. J. Spandaw du Celliee.3
 In 1802, Schrader3 discovered hydrocyanic acid in  the volatile  oil obtained from
 them.  The recent researches into the origin of the volatile oil of the bitter almond
 (see ante), render it probable that the volatile oil of the cherry-laurel does not pre-
 exist in  the leaves.   The  supposed constituents of cherry-laurel leaves are amyg-
 dalin (probably, according  to Wohler and Liebig, though they failed to procure it),
 resin (Spandaw), myricin (the shining  appearance of the  leaves  is, perhaps, owing
 to this), chlorophylle  or green  colouring matter, extractive, tannic acid, ligneous
fibre, and water.
  Volatile Oil of the Chehhy-Laurel (Oleum Laurocerasi).—By distillation  with water,
 cherry-laurel  leaves yield a volatile  oil and  a  distilled water (aqua lauro cerasi).  As the oil,
 like the volatile oil of bitter almonds, contains both hydrocyanic acid and hydruret of benzule,
 it is natural to suppose that the two oils are produced  in a similar  manner.   And though they
 did not succeed in procuring amygdalin, MM. Wohler and  Liebig4 think its presence in cherry-
 laurel leaves highly probable;  but what substance effects  its decomposition has  not yet been
 ascertained.
  Cherry-laurel oil is of a pale  yellow colour, and heavier than water.  It attracts oxygen from
 the air, and deposits  benzoic acid.  Oil of vitriol colours it red.  It contains hydrocyanic acid,
 which may be detected by an alkali and a ferruginous salt. The quantity, according to Schra-
 der, is 7.G6 per cent.; but Goppert declares it to be 2.75 per cent5   It appears, therefore, to be
a weaker poison than the oil of bitter almonds, with which, according to Robiquet,6 it agrees in
all its chemical properties.
   Physiological  Effects.—Most  parts  of the  plant, but more  especially the
leaves and seeds, possess poisonous properties.
  a.  On Vegetables.—The distilled water of the cherry-laurel destroys  plants, like
hydrocyanic acid.   Goppert asserts  that its  poisonous operation does not depend on

     1 Sprengel. Hist, rei herb. i. 377.                    a Pfaff, Mat. Med. Bd. v. S. 152.
     3 Ibid. 8. 151.                                   < Journ.de Pharm. xxiii. 411.
     8 Christison, On Poisons, p. 722.                    e Journ. de Pharm. viii. 304. 
Wild Cherry.
775
the small quantity of this  acid which it contains, but on  some  poisonous quality
peculiar to it; for its activity is  greater than that of water containing  the  same
quantity of hydrocyanic acid.1
  0. On Animals.—Tbe  effects  of cherry-laurel  water on animals have  been ex-
amined by a considerable number of observers.3   Of these it will be suflBcient to
mention the names of Madden,3  Brown Langrish,4 Fontana,5 and  Orfila.6  It  ap-
pears, says Dr. Christison,  that whether cherry-laurel water is introduced into the
stomach or into the  anus,  or into the  cellular tissue, or directly into the vein, it
occasions giddiness, palsy, insensibility, convulsions, coma,  and speedy death;  that
the tetanic state brought on by the pure acid is not always so distinctly caused by
cherry-luurel water; and that tetanus is most frequently induced by medium doses.7
Cherry-laurel oil acts on animals  as a powerful poison in the dose of a few drops ;
the symptoms which it excites being similar, if, indeed, they be not identical, with
those induced by the volatile oil of bitter almonds.
   y. On Man.—Liqueurs, sweetmeats, creams and puddings, flavoured  with  the
cherry-laurel, have  oftentimes acted  injuriously,  and even proved  fatal.   Where
death occurred, the  symptoms were  similar to those  caused by hydrocyanic acid;
viz. painful sensation at the stomach, sudden  insensibility, and death within a few
minutes.   Convulsions, however,  have not  been frequent.   In the case referred  to
by Dr. Madden,8 in  which brandy, mixed with a fourth part of cherry-laurel water,
proved fatal, there was no vomiting,  purging, or convulsions.   But in the  instances
mentioned by Fode>e,9 the individuals expired  in  convulsions.    The  effects  of
medicinal doses  of cherry-laurel water  are  stated to  be similar to those of small
doses of hydrocyanic acid.
   Uses.—Cherry-laurel leaves are  not unfrequently  employed by the  cook  for
flavouring.   Though the distilled water of the cherry-laurel is contained in the
Edinburgh and Dublin Pharmacopoeias, yet it is  rarely employed  in  medicine in
this country.  It is applicable to  all  the cases for  which hydrocyanic acid  has  been
used.  It has been used as a sedative  narcotic in tic douloureux, phthisis pulraonalis,
spasmodic cough, and palpitation  of  the heart.
   AQl'.l IAURO-CERASI, E. D.; Water of Cherry  Laurel;  Laurel Water.—(Fresh
Leaves of the Common Laurel Ibj;  Water Oiiss.   Upon the leaves, chopped, and
crushed in a mortar, macerate the water for  24 hours, and then draw over a pint of
liquid by distillation, using a Liebig's condenser, and chloride of zinc bath.  Filter
the product through paper,  and preserve it in a well stopped bottle,  D.   The  com-
pound spirit of lavender is  added as  a colouring ingredient, by the Edinburgh Col-
lege, to prevent the  preparation  being mistaken  for common water.  In other re-
spects the process is essentially the same as in the Dublin Pharmacopoeia.)—Dose,
fjjss  to f3j.   The  strength, and, therefore, the dose, are,  however, liable to  con-
siderable variation.   Fouquier10 has,  in  some cases, given twelve ounces during the
day,  without any evident effect.


     262. CERASUS  SEROTINA, De Cand.-WILD CHERRY.
                          Sex. Syst. Icosandria, ftlonojtynia.
                       (Prunus Virginiana, U. S. Wild Cherry Bark.)

  X"t a little confusion has existed  among  botanists with respect to the  name of
this tree, from its having been confounded with a  species closely allied to it, the C.
virginiana of De  Candolle, or Choke Cherry, which  latter was described by Lin-
naeus under the title of Prunus virginiana, but by which he was supposed to  have
designated the Wild  Cherry, and hence the adoption  of that designation for the
plant under consideration;  the  name P. serotina  being given  to  the other species.
' De Candolle, Phys. Vig. 135S—9.
 Phil. Trans, for 1731.
' Treatise on the Venom of the Viper, &c. 1787.
 Christison, op. cit. p. 7U3.
' Orfila, Toxicol. Gin.
3 See Wibmer. Wirk. d. Arzneim. Rd. ii. S. 81.
• Phys. Exp. upon Brutes, Sec. 1740.
e Toxicol. Gin.
» Phil. Trans, for 1731.
10 Richard, Elim. d'Hist. Nat. ii. 447. 
776
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Rosacea.
  The  transposition   of names originated with  Michaux,  who  mistook the  Wild
  Cherry for the P. virginiana, and called  it Cerasus  virginiana.   The error lias
  been fully explained and corrected from De Candolle  by Drs. Torrey and  Gray in
  the Flora of North America.   The authors of the last edition of the United States
  Pharmacopoeia, have not thought it expedient at present to change the officinal title
  for the bark of the tree, as it has been sanctioned by  custom for so long a period
  as to  render it almost an impossibility to introduce a new one.
     Botany.   Gen. Char.—As in Cerasus Lauro-Cerasus.
     Sp. Char.—Leaves (rather coriaceous) oval-oblong  or lanceolate-oblong, acumi-
  nate,  glabrous, or bearded  along the midrib beneath, smooth and  shining above,
  finely  serrate, with  adpressed  or incurved callous teeth; petioles (or  base  of the
  leaf)  mostly with two or more glands; racemes elongated, spreading; petals broadly
  obovate;  drupes globose, purplish blaek. (T. d> G. Flor. North Amer. p. 411.)
     Hab.—The Wild Cherry is an inhabitant of  the  United States,  where it is dis-
  seminated from Canada to Florida, and through  the Western States.
     It  varies in height from twenty-five to eighty  or more feet, attaining its  extreme
  proportions in the south-western portion  of the Union.   The leaves are 2—4 inches
  long ; racemes 2—5 inches in length, and nodding at their termination.  Flowers
  white and fragrant, appearing in May.   The bark of the tree is of a dark ashy hue
  on the trunk, where it  is  rough; smooth and dark upon  the branches.  The epi-
  dermis is readily separable, and peels off  when detached circularly, leaving the green
  cellular tissue beneath.   By this character it can  be detected in the forests.   The
  wood is hard, and valuable in the construction of furniture.  The fruit has  a sweet,
  somewhat prussic,  and slightly bitter taste.  It  is used for flavouring liquors.
     The bark of the branches  or of  the  root is employed for  medicinal purposes.
  The  latter is regarded as  best.   It is collected by  the herb-venders, and  brought
  into  the market in pieces or fragments several  inches long, and from  half an inch
'  to two in width.  From drying it becomes somewhat curved laterally.   It is desti-
  tute of the epidermis, of a reddish-brown colour, brittle and pulverizable;  fracture
  short, and presenting grayish surfaces.   When fresh the odour is prussic, which is
  in a measure lost  by drying,  but  regained by maceration.   The taste is aromatic,
  prussic, and bitter.
     Composition.—The  first  satisfactory analysis of  this bark was made by Mr.
  Stephen Procter (Journal of Philad. Col. of Pharmacy, vol. vi. p. 8), who found
  it  to  contain  starch, resin, gallic  acid,  tannin, fatty  matter, lignin, red colouring
  matter, salts of lime, potassa,'and iron.   By distilling the bark  with water, a vola-
  tile oil was obtained, associated with  hydrocyanic  acid.  More recently  (op. cit.
  vols.  ix. p. 300, and  x. p. 197), Mr. William Procter has shown that the volatile
  oil is composed of hydruret  of benzule and hydrocyanic acid, like  oil of bitter
  almonds, and that  they do  not pre-exist in the bark, but are products of tbe decom-
  position of amygdalin ; the same principle that exists in the bitter  almond, by the
  reaction of emulsin.
     Oil of Wild Cherry.—This oil has a  light straw-colour, a  pungent taste, and
  an odour strongly resembling that of bitter almonds.   When deprived of hydrocy-
  anic  acid by distillation with a mixture of proto-chloride of iron, potassa, and water,
  it is  without any poisonous properties.   Its sp.  gr. is  1.046.
     It is presumable that  bitter extractive  matter  exists in it, and it has been sug-
  gested that phloridzine is also  a constituent.   It yields its virtues  to water and
  alcohol.                                                        #
      Medical Properties.—Dr. B.  S. Barton informs us (Collections, p.  11) tnat
   the leaves of this  tree are poisonous to certain  animals, as calves, and even the
   berries intoxicate different  kinds of  birds.
     The bark is  tonic and  invigorating in  its impression upon  the stomach and the
  general system, but at  the same  time  is  regarded as exercising a sedative or de-
   pressing  influence upon the circulation  and nervous  apparatus, which last effect i=
   attributed to the action  of  the hydrocyanic acid. 
                     WiLDCnERRY:—Uses; Syrups.                    777

  From the experiments of Dr. Morris, who made it the subject of his inaugural
dissertation (1*02), it appears that the  primary impression upon the  pulse was an
increase of rapidity, but that when it had been continued for some time, the  pulse
fell below  the original standard, and at the same time it became fuller and stronger;
in cases where some  previous excitement existed, the rise of the pulse was steady,
and  in all his  experiments, the medicine was pushed until drowsiness came on.
Half-drachm doses  of powdered  bark were exhibited.  This  primary  stimulant
operation  is concurred  in by Dr. Eberle, who states, however, that when taken in
large quantities and repeated frequently, it weakens the digestive  powers, and pro-
duces an effect upon the action of  the heart and  arteries the reverse of stimulant;
that in his own person he several times reduced his  pulse from  seventy-five to fifty
Btrokes in  a minute, by copious draughts of the cold infusion, taken  several times
during the day, and continued for twelve or fourteen days.  (Treat, on Mat. Med.
vol.  i. p. 272.)   There must certainly be considerable difference of action between
the powdered bark, in which the astringent and bitter principle is concentrated, and
the hydrocyanic acid with difficulty eliminated, and the cold infusion, in which the
latter principle  has an opportunity of being fully generated.
  Uses.—From its little stimulating properties, but, on the contrary, its power of
allaying irritation, particularly of a nervous kind, it has been employed in a number
of diseases connected with  a debilitated  state of the system.  As a commencing
tonic in the convalescence from fever or inflammatory attacks, it may frequently be
ventured upon,  when other  roborants are  inadmissible.  This is especially the case
where the attack of the disease has been  pulmonary, and where any excitement of
the  circulatiou  cannot but be  prejudicial, as in Pneumonia, Bronchitis, &c.  To
Phthisis it is regarded as being peculiarly adapted, and by several eminent writers
is highly spoken of;  thus, we are informed by Dr. Eberle,  that "it lessens the fre-
quency, tension, and irritated state of the pulse; moderates the cough and profuse
nocturnal  perspirations ; checks the diarrhoea, and sustains the  general strength of  v
the system ;" the same also is the testimony of Dr. Chapman.  In hectic fever, from
whatever cause  proceeding,  analogous results may be expected.
  In dyspepsia, a quieting  and at the same time invigorating  impression is made
upon the stomach;  it should, in  this case, however,  be but moderately employed,
as large and  repeated doses are prone to diminish the power of the organ.    Pro-
fessor B.  S. Barton declares (Collections,  p. 11)  that the Wild Cherry Bark  has
been used with  success in Intermittent Fever;  this  is confirmed by the statements
of numerous physicians, who have  been  induced to fry it.   Dr. Eberle (op. cit. p.
272) employed  it while residing in the country, and in the majority of cases with
success.   No comparison, nevertheless, can be instituted between it and cinchona.
  If given in substance, the dose is from  5SS to £ij  of the powder.   A decoction
is decidedly objectionable, as the easily volatilized prussic acid  is driven on by the
heat.  For ordinary purposes the best form of exhibition is the infusion.
  1. INFUSUM PRUNI  VIRGINIANS, U. S.   Infusion of Wild  Cherry Bark.  To pre-
pare  it;  Take  of  Wild Cherry Bark,  bruised, half  an ounce;  Water,  a  pint.
Macerate for  twenty-four hours, and strain.   This infusion may also be made  by
percolation.   As cold water is in this preparation the vehicle, the  volatile principle
is not lost.  It  is a beautiful, clear, wine-coloured fluid, having  a  decided hydrocy-
anic flavour, and an aromatic,  pleasantly bitter taste.   The dose is £ij, or more, re-
peated accordiug to circumstances.

  I SYRITI'S PRINZE VIRGINIANS, U. S.   Syrup of Wild Cherry Bark.  Take of
W ild Cherry Bark, in coarse powder, ^v;  Sugar  lbij; Water, a sufficient quantity.
Moisten the Bark thoroughly with water, let it stand for twenty-four hours in a close
vessel, then transfer it to a percolator, and pour water upon it gradually until a pint of
filtered liquor is obtained.   To this add the sugar, in a bottle, and agitate occasion-
ally  until  it is dissolved.   This preparation was  introduced by Messrs. W. Procter,
wd J. C.  Turnpenny, Am. Journ.  Pharm. vol. xiii. p. 627, and has been employed 
778               VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord. Bosace.e.

by the  profession with advantage.  It is an agreeable preparation, pleasant  to the
taste, and highly active.   It is adapted to coughs and pulmonary affections.  Dose
f^ss, repeated.

  263.  ACIDUM  HYDROCYANICUM DILUTUM, L. E. D., u. s.-
         DILUTED HYDROCYANIC  OR  PRUSSIC  ACID.
                             (Acidum Hydrocyanicum, E.)

  [The  pharmaceutical history of this acid was placed by the author  in the first
volume of the former edition of this work.   The  alteration  of the  plan in  the
present edition, by which the Mineral Materia Medica has been entirely  confined to
the first volume,  has  led  to the omission of Hydrocyanic Acid.  We have selected
this place for the insertion of this article, as being more appropriate than any other
part of the volume which yet remains for completion.—Ed.]
  History.—The substance called Prussian or Berlin blue (Caruleum Borumcum.
seu Berolinense)  was accidentally discovered by Diesbach at  the commencement of
the 18th century, and various conjectures were soon offered regarding  its nature.
In  1746, Dr. Brown Langrish published some  experiments made with laurel  water,
in order to investigate its effects  on animals.1   In 1752, Macquer announced that
Prussian blue was a compound of oxide of iron, and some colouring principle which
he  could not isolate;  and in 1772, Guyton  Morveau concluded that this principle
was of  an acid nature.   Scheele, in 1782, removed  some of  the mystery connected
with Prussian blue, by obtaining hydrous prussic acid from it.  In 1787, Berthollet
ascertained this acid to be a compound of carbon, nitrogen, and hydrogen.   In 1*110
and 1S02, Bohn and  Schrader discovered  it in laurel-water.   Borda, Brugnatelli,
and Basori,  first employed the acid in medicine, from 1801 to 1806.  Iu  1815,
Gay-Lussac obtained the acid in  its pure anhydrous  state, and explained its compo-
sition.2
  Synonymes and  Etymology.—It has been  denominated Prussic (Acidum
Borussicum), Zootic (Acidum Zooticum),  or Hydrocyanic Acid; the  first  name
indicates the substance (Prussian blue)  from  which it was obtained, the second
refers to its animal origin, and the  third  indicates  its constituents, hydrogen and
cyanogen (so called from xvavoc, blue; and yiwdu, to produce; because  it  is  one of
the constituents of Prussian blue).
  Natural History.—Hydrocyanic acid is  a product  peculiar to the organized
kingdom.  It may be readily procured from many vegetables, more especially those
belonging  to the sub-orders Amygdalese  and   Pomese; as from  Bitter Almonds,
Apple-pips,  the  Kernels  of Peaches, Apricots, Cherries, Plums, and  Damsons;
the Flowers  of the Peach, Cherry-laurel, and Bird-cherry; the Bark of the  latter,
and the Boot of the Mountain Ash.   It  is  said  to have been also obtained from
plants of other families, as from Rhamnus Frangula and Ergot of Bye.   In some
of the  vegetables now referred to, hydrocyanic acid does not  exist ready formed,
but is a product of the process by which it is obtained.  This has  been fully proved
in the case of the bitter almond,  and is inferred in other instances.
  This acid is rarely,  if ever, found in animals. One of its constituents (cyanogen)
has, however, been detected, in combination wjth  iron (forming Prussian blue), in
the urine, the menstrual fluid, and the sweat; and with sulphur and potassium in the
saliva.   The greenish-blue discharge of some ulcers probably depends  on the pre-
sence of Prussian blue. In one case I detected the presence of iron in this discharge.

  1 Physical Experiments upon Brutes, Lond. 174(5.                                 .     .
  3 The chemical history of hydrocyanic acid is fully detailed in Thomson's System of Inorganic cJ''!m"'
try,  vol. ii. 7th edition. The medical history of it is contained in Dr. Granville's Hist, and Pract.  Treatise
on this acid, 2d ed. 1820.                                                           .
  3 Is the formation of cyanogen dependent on the oxidation of gelatine ?  Persoy states that, when gela-
tine is submitted to an oxidizing agent, it is susceptible of being transformed into hydrocyanic acid, a -
monia, and carbonic acid, and a small quantity of one of the fat, volatile, and odoriferous acids, me
existence of which was established by Chevreul (Brit, and For. Med. Rev. vol. x!i. p. 53*2).
• 
Prussic Acid :—Preparation.
779
During  the  decomposition of  animal  matters  by  heat,  cyanogen is  generated ;
as when blood and carbonate of potash are calcined in an iron pot.   It  has also been
stated that, when cheese is exposed to  the  action of water and the sun, it  disen-
gages ammonia,  and if treated, in this  state, by  alcohol,  yields  traces of hydro-
cyanic acid.
  Preparation.—The processes for procuring  this acid  are  very numerous.  I
pball only notice the  most important of those which  yield the dilute acid employed
for medicinal purposes.
  0. By the  action of  diluted Sulphuric Acid  on Ferrocyanide  of Potassium.—
This is the process directed by the London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Colleges :—
  The London College  orders  of " Ferrocyanide of Potassium ^ij;  Sulphuric Acid :jvij ;  Dis-
tilled Water Oiss.   Mix the acid  with four fluidounces of the water, and to these, when cooled
and put into a glass retort, add the ferrocyanide  of potassium, first dissolved in half a pint of
water.   Pour eight fluidounces  of the  water  into a cooled receiver;  then, having  adapted
the retort, let  six fluidounces of  acid, distilled  with a gentle heat in  a sand-bath,  pass into
.this water.   Lastly, add  six  more fluidounces  of distilled water,  or  as  much as  may be
sufficient, that  12.59 grains of nitrate of silver, dissolved  in distilled water, may be accurately
saturated by 100 grains of this acid."  The  resulting product should be  twenty ounces.
  The Edinburgh College orders  of "Ferrocyanide  of  Potassium  ^iij;  Sulphuric Acid f^vj;
 Water f^xvj.   Dissolve the salt  in eleven fluidounces of the water, and put the solution into
a matrass;  add the acid, previously diluted with  five fluidounces of the water, and  allowed
 to cool; connect the matrass with  a proper refrigeratory;  distil  with a gentle  heat, by means
 of a sand-bath or  naked  gas flame, till fourteen flouidounces  pass over, or till the residuum
 begins to froth  up.   Dilute  the  product with  distilled  water, till  it  measures sixteen fluid-
 ounces."
   [The  Dublin College  directs of "Ferrocyanide of  Potassium  ^ij; Oil  of Vitriol  of com-
 merce f^j;  and Water ^xij.   Dissolve the salt in eight ounces of the water, and dilute the oil
 of vitriol with the remaining  four ounces.    When both solutions are cold, introduce them suc-
 cessively into  a retort or matrass  containing several slips of platinum foil, and connected in the
 usual manner  with a Liebig's condenser; and with  the aid of a gentle heat let eight ounces be
 distilled over.   Finally, dilute the product with eight ounces of distilled water, or  so  that  the
 volume of the diluted acid shall be sixteen fluidounces.  The specific gravity of this acid is
 .997.']1
  [The  U. S. Pharm. directs Ferrocyanide  of  Potassium ^ij;  Sulphuric Acid  ^iss;  Distilled
 Water a sufiicient quantity.  Mix  the  acid  with four fluidounces  of Distilled Water, and pour
 the mixture when cool  into  a glass retort.   To this add the Ferrocyanide of Potassium, pre-
 viously dissolved in ten  fluidounces of Distilled Water. Pour eight fluidounces of Distilled Water
 into a cooled receiver; and having attached this to  the retort, distil,  by means of a sand-bath, with
 a moderate heat, six  fluidounces.  Lastly, add to the product  five fluidounces of Distilled Water,
 or, as much as may be  sufficient  to render  the  diluted  hydrocyanic acid of such a  strength,
 that  12.7 grains of Nitrate of Silver dissolved  in  distilled water may be accurately saturated
 by 100 grains  of the acid.
  Diluted Hydrocyanic Acid  may also be prepared, when wanted for  immediate use, in the
 following manner.   Take  Cyanuret of Silver fifty grains and  a  half; Muriatic Acid  forty-one
 grains; Distilled Water  a  fluidounce.   Mix the  Muriatic Acid with the Distilled Water, add
 ilie Cyanuret of Silver, and shake the whole  in a well-stopped phial.  When the insoluble mat-
 ter has suhsided, pour off the clear liquor and keep  it for use.]
   On the large scale, the distillation is conducted in  a stoneware still, with  a worm
refrigator of the  same  material.   If it be performed  in a  [tubulated]  retort, as
directed  in  the  London Pharmacopoeia, an adopter  should be  employed.   When

  1 (Fkbrocyanide  of Potassium, L. E. D., KQCfy  + 3HO  =185.47.—This salt is one of the articles of
Materia Medicu in the Pharmacopoeias of the three Colleges.  Its use is for the preparation of hydrocyanic
new according  to the  formula;  above given.  It crystallizes in quadrangular tables of a brighfyellow
colour.  It loses at 2123, 12.8 per cent, of water,  or three equivalents, becoming a white anhydrous snlt.
At a red heat, it is decomposed into the carburet of iron and cyanide of potassium, and if the incineration
w«e place under n free access of oxygen, the cyanide  becomes cyanate of potash.   The ferrocyanide of
potHBsium is soluble in four parts of  cold, and in  two parts of boiling water.  It is insoluble in alcohol,
■nd ii preripitated in crystalline flakes by this menstruum from its  concentrated aqueous solution.  Alco-
liol thus forms a convenient means of separating this  salt from the cyanide of potassium (KCy).
  1 lui gait is easily procured, and is  not subject to adulteration.  It is known by the yellow colour of ita
solution, by its giving, with a persalt of iron (provided the liquid  have no alkaline  reaction), a rich blue
precipitate (Prussian blue);  with a salt of copper a deep  reddish-brown  coloured precipitate, und with a
MU <>l lead a white precipitate.   If the powdered  crystals of ferrocyanide of potassium  be warmed with
Diluted sulphuric acid, hydrocyanic acid is evolved, known by its odour, and by the tests above mentioned.
  x>   8U.'''" an article of Materia Medica, and its descripton was not given by the author in the section
on lntaiiium nnd its compounds, in the first volume,  we have inserted this short notice  of it here.  It is
now the chief source from which hydrocyan c acid is  obtained.—Ed.] 
780
VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord. Rosacea.
small quantities are  to  be operated on, we may conveniently employ two Florence
flanks (one as the receiver, the other as the distilling vessel), connected by a glass
tube curved  twice at right angles.   The receiver should  be kept very cool, ice  or
snow being used if it can be procured; and the heat employed in distilling should
be very moderate.  The distilled liquor frequently contains a little sulphuric acid
and, by standing, deposits a small portion of Prussian blue.  A second distillation'
cautiously conducted, will often separate the sulphuric acid; but  I have seen Prus-
sian blue formed and deposited after the  hydrocyanic acid  has been carefully dis-
tilled three times.
  The theory of  the process, founded on the experiments of the  late Mr. Everitt'
is as follows: six equivalents or 294 parts of  oil of vitriol (S03-f Aq.)  react  on
two  equivalents or 426 parts of crystallised ferrocyanide of potassium (composed
of four equivalents of  cyanide of potassium, two of cyanide of iron, and six of
water), and  produce  three equivalents or 384  parts of the bisulphate of potash
three equivalents or 81 parts of hydrocyanic acid, one equivalent or 174 parts of
a new salt (which I shall term the biferrocyanide of potassium), and nine equiva-
lents or 81 parts of water.  The bisulphate and the new salt remain in the retort,
while the hydrocyanic acid with some water distil over.   In the London Pharma-
copoeia  an additional quantity of water is employed to assist  the condensation of
the acid.
MATERIALS.
2 eq. Cryst.
Ferrocyanide
Potassium 42C
6 eq. Oil of
   Vitriol 291

        720
         COMPOSITION.
(3 eg. Water..........27-
 3 eg. Water V,\\t(l Hydrogen*-
   *         (3 eq. Oxygen  24^__
 3 eq. Cyanide  < 3 eq.Cyanogen 78^
 Potassium 198 \ 3 eq. Potass  120..........V.v.3 eq.Potash 144
 1 eq. Cyanide Potassium  . .  661_____________________^
 2 eq. Cyanide Iron......108 5
 6 eq. Water..........54----------------------
 6 eq. Sulphuric Acid.....240----------------------
      PHODTJCTS.
-3 eq. Water......27
-3 eq. Hydrocyanic Acid 81
- (I eq. Biferrocyanide
 (  Potassium .... 171
-6 eq. Water......51
^3 eq. Bisulphate Potash 3»4
720
   The  salt  here called biferrocyanide of potassium is termed, by the  late Mr.
Everitt, the yellow salt.  I  have prepared it with the greatest care, but have always
found it  to be white.   Gay-Lussac also says  it  is white.3   By exposure to the air
it becomes blue.
   /3. By the action of Hydrochloric Acid on Cyanide of Silver.—This process, pro-
posed by  Mr. Everitt, yields an  acid of uniform strength, and may be followed
when the acid is required for immediate use.   The  proportions  directed by Mr.
Everitt  are  40  grs. of cyanide, 7 fluidrachms  and 20 minims of  water, and 40
minims  of dilute hydrochloric acid  (sp. gr.  1.129).   This gentleman says that
practitioners could  obtain  an ounce of the acid, prepared by this process, for one
shilling, while the manufacturer could obtain 50 per cent, profit by it.
   The theory of the process  is as follows :  by the mutual  reaction  of one equiva-
lent or  134 parts of cyanide of silver and one equivalent or 37 parts of hydrochloric
acid,  there are obtained one  equivalent or 144 parts of  chloride of silver, and one
equivalent or 27 parts of hydrocyanic acid.
MATERIALS.
COMPOSITION.
1 eq. Cyanide Silver 134 \ } £ g^?? / 1«

leq.Hydrochl.Acid37|}£a7fB7;  /
         PRODUCTS.
• 1 eq. Hydrocyanic Acid
171
171
■ 1 eq. Chloride Silver.......J^
                          171
Or, AgCy+HCl=HCy+AgCl.
  y. By tlie  action of Hydrochloric Acid on Bicyanide of Mercury.—At Apothe-
caries' Hall, hydrocyanic acid was formerly prepared from one part of bicyanide ot
1 Lond. and Edinb. Phil. Mag. Feb. 1835.
1 Ann. Chim. et Phys. t. xlvi. p- 77. 
Prussic Acid:—Properties;  Composition.
781
mercury, one part  hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1.15), and  six  parts  of water.  The
mixture was distilled until six parts had passed over.   The acid  thus obtained had
a sp. gr- 0.995, and  its standard strength was such that two fluidrachms of it dis-
solved 14  grains of the  red  oxide of mercury, thereby indicating  a strength of
about 2.9 per cent, of real acid.
  The most convenient method of procuring concentrated or anhydrous hydrocyanic
acid is by  the action of strong  liquid  by hydrochloric acid  on  bicyanide  of  mer-
cury.  The vapour should be passed over carbonate of lime,  to deprive it of hydro-
chloric acid; and  over  chloride  of calcium, to remove  the  water.   The  receiver
should be immersed in a freezing mixture, consisting of ice and chloride of  sodium.
The theory of the process is  as follows : two equivalents or  74  parts  of hydro-
chloric acid react on one equivalent or 254 parts of the bicyanide of mercury, and
form  one equivalent or 274 parts of the bichloride of  mercury, which  remain  in
the retort,  and two equivalents  or  51 parts of hydrocyanic  acid, which distil over
(HCl+HgCy=HCy+HgCl).
  J. By the action of Tartaric Acid on Cyanide of Potassium.—This process was
proposed by Dr. Clarke, and adopted  by Mr.  Laming.   The formula of the latter
is  the following:  22 grains of  the cyanide of potassium are to be dissolved  in 6
fluidrachms of distilled  water, and  to this solution are to be  added  50 grains of
crystallized tartaric acid,  dissolved in 3 fluidrachms of rectified spirit.  One fluid-
drachm of  the decanted liquor contains one grain of pure hydrocyanic acid.
  The objections  to this process (which, however, has several  advantages) are the
trouble and  expense of procuring  pure cyanide of potassium,  and the  liability of
the salt to  undergo spontaneous decomposition.
   Properties,  a. Of Anhydrous Hydrocyanic Acid.—[The acid may be obtained
anhydrous  by passing a  current of dry sulphuretted hydrogen  gas  over finely pow-
dered cyanide of mercury contained in a glass  tube.  The vapour of the acid should
be condensed by conducting it into  a Liebig's condenser charged with ice-cold water.
The decomposition is represented by the following equation,  HgCy+HS=HCy+
HgS.—Ed.] Anhydrous hydrocyanic acid is a solid at 0° F. (some state at 5° F.),
having then the appearance of  crystallized  nitrate of  ammonia; it readily melts,
forming a limpid colourless liquid,  with an intense and  peculiar odour ;  its taste is
at first cool, then  hot;  at 45° its sp. gr. is 0.7058, and at 64£ it  is  0.6969.   In
this state  it is exceedingly volatile;  a drop  placed  on paper freezes by  its  own
evaporation.  It unites with  water and  alcohol  in  every proportion.   At 79° or
 80° F. it boils, forming hydrocyanic acid vapour, which is combustible;  and when
 mixed with oxygen and ignited, it explodes.  Two volumes of  the vapour require
two and a  half volumes of oxygen gas for  their complete combustion.  The pro-
ducts  are  two volumes of carbonic acid gas, one volume  of  nitrogen, and one
 volume of  aqueous vapour, HCy + 05=HO+N-f 2C09.
   Anhydrous hydrocyanic acid  undergoes  speedy decomposition.1   Dr. Christison
says  he has kept  it unchanged for a  fortnight in ice-cold  water.   When diluted
with  water, or mixed with a diluted mineral acid, its tendency to decomposition is
diminished.
  0.  Of diluted Hydrocyanic  Acid.—Diluted  or  medicinal  hydrocyanic acid is a
colourless,  transparent liquid, having the taste and smell of  the strong acid, but in
a lesser degree.  Heated in a tube it gives off a combustible vapour.
  Composition.—The  ultimate constituents of pure hydrocyanic acid are  Carbon,
Nitrogen, and Hydrogen.
     Atoms.          Eq. Wt.  Theory.  Gay-Lussac
Carbon......2      12      44.4      44.45
Nitrogen.....1      14      51 9      51.b5
Hydrogen.....1       I       3.7       3.70

Hydrocyanic Acid  1      27      100.0     100.00
                      Vols.
Carbon vapour.....1 or 2
Nitrogen gas.......  1
Hydrogen gas.......  1

     Hydrocyanic Vapour  2
  [The change which ensues under the influence of light appears to be the formation of a brownish-black
•ubatance (not examined) and eesquicurboimte of ammonia. A small quantity of a mineral acid, diluted,
ii well known to prevent the change; but a concentrated mineral acid rapidly converts hydrocyanic acid
into ammonia and formic acid, if the elements of water be present: HCy+3HO=NH'+C:lH,0'.—Ed.J 
782
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rosacea.
But it is more usual to regard this acid as a compound of hydrogen  and cyanogen
the latter substance being a bicarburet of nitrogen.   On this view the composition
will be as follows : C2N,H or CyH.
             Atoms.            Eq. Wt.   Per Cent.                           Vols,
                                                 Cyanogen gas.........\
Cyanogen.....1        26        96.3
Hydrogen.....1         1         3.7

Hydrocyanic Acid  . 1        27       100.0
Hydrogen gas.........i

      Hydrocyanic Vapour . . 2
   Strength of the Diluted Acid.—In the London Pharmacopoeia, hydrocyanic
acid is directed to be prepared of such a strength that 100 grains of it will exactly
precipitate  12.59  grains of nitrate of silver dissolved  in water: the  precipitate
which is cyanide of silver, should weigh when quite dry 10 grains.   Imvc purts  of
this precipitate correspond to one of real acid.  Hence the diluted acid Ph. L. con-
sists of—
              Real hydrocyanic acid....................  2.0
              Water...........................98.0
                        Diluted Hydrocyanic Acid (Ph. L.)........100.0

   The  Acidum  Hydrocyanicum  Ph. Ed. consists  of " Hydrocyanic Acid diluted
with about thirty parts of water." Hence its percentage composition is as follows:—
              Real hydrocyanic acid...................3.226
              Water...........................96.774
                             Acidum Hydrocyanicum (Ph. Ed.) . . . .  100.000

   [This preparation has nearly twice the strength of the London acid.  According
to Mr. Squire, 100  minims, or 91 grains, should entirely precipitate 22 grains  of
nitrate of silver : it has therefore nearly a strength of  3.98 per cent.  Dr. Chris-
tison assigns 3.3 per cent, as its ordinary strength.—Ed.]
   The Edinburgh College gives the following directions for ascertaining the strength
of the acid :—
   " Fifty minims [of the acid] diluted with one fluidounce of distilled  water, agitated with
390 minims of solution of Nitrate of Silver [PA. Ed.~\, and allowed to  settle, will again give a
precipitate with 40 minims more of the test;  but a farther, addition of the test, after agitation
and rest, has no effect.   The precipitate entirely disappears in boiling nitric acid."
   [The  Acidum Hydrocyanicum Dilutum Ph. Dub., as now made, contains, ac-
cording to  Mr. Squire, rather more than 2 per cent, of real acid.1   Tbe strength
of the acid  has not been fixed  by this College.—Ed.]
   This discrepancy in the  strength of the acid ordered in the  British Pharmaco-
poeias is greatly to be regretted. Most of the acid met with"in  the shops of London
chemists  is stated by the label to be of  " Scheele's strength."  But as Scheele's
process2 gave an  acid of  variable  strength, this statement is by no  means definite.
A manufacturer of large quantities of the acid informs me he sells, under the name
of Scheele's acid, a diluted hydrocyanic acid, which contains 4 per cent, real acid.
   Purity.—Diluted hydrocyanic acid should be perfectly colourless.  Decomposed
acid is frequently, but not invariably, coloured.   It  should be vapourizable by heat;
this character  shows  the absence  of fixed impurities.   The  presence of metallic
matter is recognized  by hydrosulphuric acid, which has no effect on the pure acid.
If the acid strongly redden litmus, it must contain some other acid,  most probably
the  sulphuric or hydrochloric.   The presence of  any foreign acid  is easily deter-
mined by the hydrargyro-iodocyanide of potassium.  This salt is formed by adding
a concentrated solution of bicyanide of mercury to a solution of iodide of pota^iumj
a  precipitate of  white or pearly crystalline plates  of the salt is immediately pro-

  1 Dublin Pharmacopeia, 1850.
  2 Scheele prepared this acid by boiling together Prussian blue, peroxide of mercury, and water.  Biey-
anide of mercury was obtained in solution. Iron filings and sulphuric acid were then added, and the pro-
ducts of the reaction we^e hydrocyanic acid, metallic mercury, and sulphate of iron. The liquor was tben
submitted to distillation.—The strength of the acid product varied with the degree of purity of tne Prus-
sian blue. 
Prussic Acid :—Characteristics.
783
daced.  If a small portion of the crystals be placed in diluted hydrocyanic acid, no
change is observed unless some foreign acid be present; in the latter event, the red
biniodide of mercury immediately makes its  appearance.   For this test we are in-
debted to Dr. Geoghegan.1   Sulphuric acid may be detected by a solution of the
salts of barium.  "Solution of nitrate of baryta occasions  no precipitate" in the
pure acid (Ph.  Ed.); but if sulphuric acid be present, it occasions a white precipi-
tate (sulphate of baryta), insoluble in nitric acid.  Hydrochloric acid is recognized
by nitrate of silver, which  forms  therewith  white chloride of  silver insoluble in
boiling nitric acid, whereas the white cyanide of silver is soluble in nitric acid at a
boiling temperature.  I  would observe that the presence of either of  these acids is
no further objectionable  than that it creates a difficulty in the determination of the
strength of the  hydrocyanic acid ; while, on the other hand, it confers the advantage
of rendering the hydrocyanic acid much less  liable to decomposition.   The acid
prepared from  ferrocyanide  of potassium will  keep for  years (Dr.  Christison  has
had some unchanged for two years and a half, though it was exposed to daylight),
owing, it is  supposed, to the  presence of some  sulphuric acid.   Mr.  Barry adds a
little hydrochloric acid to all his medicinal hydrocyanic  acid, in  order to preserve
it.  As air  and light hasten, though  they are  not essential to,  the  decomposition
of the acid, they should  be carefully  excluded.
   Characteristics.—The  following are  the best tests for hydrocyanic acid :—
   1. The odmtr.—The peculiar odour of hydrocyanic acid is well known.  It must
not be confounded with the odour of  the volatile oil of bitter almonds.  Orfila says
that this is the most delicate characteristic of the acid, since it is very marked when
the liquid tests give  very slight indications only.   But I have not found this to be
invariably the case;  it depends much on the nature of the  mixture  containing  the
acid.
   2. Formation  of Prussian  blue (Ferrosesquicyanide  of iron).—Add  sufficient
caustic potash to the suspected acid to saturate it; then a solution  of some proto-
and sesqui-salt  of iron ;  the  common sulphate of iron  of the shops,  or the tincture
of the chloride, answers  very well, since  both these  preparations usually contain
the two (proto- and sesqui-) salts of iron.  A precipitate is  thus  obtained, which is
liable to considerable variation in its colour, depending  on the quantity of  potash
or of the ferruginous salt employed; it may be yellowish  brown, or greenish,  or
bluish.  Then  add dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, when Prussian blue (fer-
rosesquicyanide of iron)  will immediately make its appearance, if hydrocyanic acid
were present.
   The formation of  Prussian blue  is  thus accounted for.   When potash is added
to hydrocyanic  acid, water and cyanide of potassium are generated.   By the reac-
tion of this  salt on a proto-salt of iron the proto-cyanide of iron  is produced, while
with a ses(jui-salt of iron it forms sesquicyanide  of iron.   The two ferruginous cya-
nides,  by their union, constitute  the ferrosesquicyanide or Prussian blue.   The
acid added removes the surplus oxide of iron.
   [This test will detect  hydrocyanic  acid  when  it  is  mixed with common salt or
other chlorides  which interfere with the reaction of nitrate  of silver.   It is on the
whole a delicate test when properly employed;  but a  frequent cause  of  failure  in
its application is the addition of too much potash, or of the iron salt.  The Prussian
blue formed is decomposed by an excess of potash; and  if  the quantity of iron be
too large, the liquid, when  the surplus oxide of iron  is dissolved by an acid, will
acquire a yellow colour,  and  give a greenish tint  to a small quantity of Prussian
blue formed at the expense of the hydrocyanic acid.   This experiment may be per-
formed  in a white saucer.   Put a drop of solutian of potash in  the  centre of the
suueer, and  invert it  over another saucer of the same size containing the hydrocy-
anic acid.   After two or three minutes (or five minutes  if the acid be much di-
luted), remove the upper saucer, and drop on the  potash one drop of a solution of
' Dublin Journal, Nov. 1835. 
784
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rosacea.
green sulphate of iron.  Agitate and expose to the air for a few seconds.   Add one
or two drops of diluted sulphuric acid to dissolve the surplus oxide of iron, and if
prussic acid was present, a slight trace of Prussian blue will  remain in the liquid
—Ed.]                                                                   ^
   3.  Nitrate of Silver.—This is a delicate test of the  presence  of hydrocyanic
acid.   It causes a white precipitate of cyanide of silver, which is soluble in boilimi
concentrated nitric acid.   By  this latter character  cyanide  is distinguished from
chloride  of silver.   If carefully dried cyanide of silver be heated in a small  glass
tube, it evolves cyanogen  gas,  known  by its combustibility and  the colour (violet
or bluish-red) of its flame.
   [A watch-glass moistened with nitrate of silver, and inverted over a vessel con-
taining hydrocyanic acid,  will enable  us to detect the presence of a very minute
quantity of the acid.   The  spot of nitrate  of silver  becomes  speedily opake and
white, from the production of  cyanide by the action of the vapour of the acid.
   4.  The Sulphur Test.—A few  years since Liebig made the discovery that a mix-
ture of hydrocyanic acid and hydrosulphate  of ammonia, when warmed, underwent
decomposition, and sulphocyanate of ammonia resulted.   The application of a per-
salt of iron,  by producing a  deep blood-red colour in a liquid containing even a
minute trace of sulphocyanate, thus enables  us  to detect the  presence of prussic
acid indirectly.
   When  hydrocyanic  acid is procured  in a  free state as a liquid, the Prussian blue
and silver tests are sufficient to determine its presence unequivocally; but when the
acid is in small quantity, and mixed with solids or fluids partially decomposed, then
a modification of this  test  will  enable us to detect a quantity of the poison which,
from  its  minuteness,  and from  the absence of the usual odour, might  otherwise
escape notice.
   Place  the solid  or liquid,  suspected  to contain the poison, in a glass vessel, to
the top of which a large watch-glass can be pretty accurately adjusted.  The poi-
soned  liquid or solid should fill the glass vessel  to within half  an inch of the top.
If the quantity be small, then another watch-glass, of equal size  to  that taken,
may be employed.
   Place  two drops of  a solution of hydrosulphate of ammonia, containing an excess
of sulphur, in the centre of  the upper glass, and inverted accurately over the ves-
sel containing the poisoned liquid.   In  three or four minutes the upper glass may
be removed,  and the  moistened  spot  gently dried over a spirit-lamp or on a sand-
bath.  A white film is left when the quantity of acid is small; this may be a film
of  sulphur  resulting  from the evaporation  of the hydrosulphate of ammonia, or a
film of sulphocyanate  of ammonia formed by a reaction of the  vapour of hydrocy-
anic acid on  the hydrosulphate.  In  the latter case the film  has frequently a crys-
talline character.  The film  may be moistened with a drop of water, and a drop of
persulphate or perchloride of iron allowed to fall on it.   If  prussic acid was pre-
sent in the  suspected solid or liquid, a blood-red coloured liquid  appears (sulpho-
cyanate of iron), and  this red colour is  discharged by the addition of one or two
drops of a solution of corrosive sublimate.
   If there were no prussic acid present, the film will  be sulphur, and the solution
of per-salt of iron will  produce  no effect.   If  any undecomposed hydrosulphate
remain on the glass  (a fact generally known by the liquid having a yellow colour),
then the per-salt of iron will produce a  black precipitate (sulphuret of iron).  In
this case  the evaporation has not been carried far enough.
   Except in liquids or solids which have undergone decomposition, and from which
sulphuretted hydrogen is evolved, the nitrate of silver, applied as already described
above, to receive and absorb the vapour,  may be usefully employed as a preliminary
or trial test.
   [The sulphur test, as applied to the vapour of hydrocyanic acid, is the most deli-
cate test for this poison which  has been hitherto  discovered.—Ed.]
  Detection of  this Acid in Cases of Poisoning.—As  hydrocyanic acid is a 
Prussic Acid:—Physiological Effects.
785
substance which readily undergoes decomposition, it is not likely to be met with in
bodies which have been interred for many days.  It has, however, been recognized in
one case seven days after death, notwithstanding that the trunk had not been buried,
but had been lying  in a drain ;l and  in other cases for still longer periods.  In re-
cent cases the  acid is readily distinguished  by its odour, with which,  in  some in-
stances, the whole  body is impregnated.   The  liquid tests for this  acid, already
mentioned, will sometimes detect the  poison in the filtered contents of  the stomach;
but the foreign matters present may, occasionally, prevent their characteristic action.
The best mode of proceeding in that case, is, to introduce them  into a tubulated
retort, to  add  some sulphuric  acid  to neutralize any ammonia  which  might  be
generated by the process of putrefaction,  and to distil  to  one-half by means  of a
vapour or water-bath ;  then  apply the  tests already  mentioned to  the  distilled
liquid. The addition of sulphuric acid is not necessary unless the liquid be strongly
alkaline.
  It has been  suggested that hydrocyanic acid may be formed during the process
of distillation by the decomposition of animal matters; but, as Dr. Christison has
justly observed, the objection appears only to rest on  conjecture, or  presumption
at farthest.   [Farther, the objection is untenable when the poison can be detected
by its vapour prior to  distillation.—Ed.]  It is to be  recollected  that unsound
cheese has, under certain circumstances, been found to contain this acid, as already
mentioned.   It is not improbable that it  may be found in many animal substances
during their spontaneous decomposition.   It is said to have been detected in ergot
of rye.
  Physiological  Effects,   a.  On Vegetables.—Hydrocyanic acid is a  poison to
plants.  The stamina of Berberis vulgaris, and the leaves  of Mimosa  pudica, lose
their irritability when the stems bearing  them are immersed in  the diluted acid.9
Seeds lose the power of germination  by immersion in this acid.   In those parts of
latescent plants which are poisoned  by it, the milky juice does not flow  from  the
cells or vessels in which  it is contained.   By chemical means it has been shown
that the acid becomes absorbed.8  Ammonia has, in  some cases, appeared  to favour
the recovery of plants which had been exposed to the vapour of the acid.*
  (3. On Animals generally.—Hydrocyanic acid is an energetic poison to animal's.
Experiments have  been made  with  it on the following:  Mammalia, Aces, Rcp-
tiliu, Amphibia, Pisces, Gasteropoda, Annelida, Crustacea, Insecta, and Infusoria.5
The general effects  are very similar on all classes, and consist essentially of loss of
sensation and voluntary motion, with convulsive movements.   Mr. Gray,  however,
states that some of the larvae of the common Musca having been put into  hydro-
cyanic acid, remained uninjured after two  or three  days' exposure.6  The cold-
blooded  animals  are more slowly affected  by  hydrocyanic  acid than  the  hot-
blooded ones.  Dr. Christison states  that 25 grs. of the strong  acid, applied to the
mouth, killed a rabbit withiu  ten seconds. I once caused the almost instantaneous
death of a rabbit by applying its nose to a receiver  filled with the vapour of  the
pure acid ; the animal died without the least struggle.  If a drop of the pure acid
be placed  on  the throat  of  a dog, or applied to the eye, death takes place in a few
seconds.   Inhaling the vapour decidedly produces  death  more  quickly  than auy
other mode of using the acid.   If the pure acid  be applied  to the eye of a dog, it
causes opacity and whiteness of the cornea, and a copious flow of tears. In a very
short time it gives rise to constitutional symptoms.
  y-  (>n Man. aa.  In small or medicinal doses.—Small doses of hydrocyanic acid
sometimes relieve certain morbid conditions (as of the stomach), without producing
any remarkable alteration in  the condition of  the general system.  If the dose be
cautiously increased, and its operation  carefully watched, the  following effects are

  1 Chevallier, Ann. d'Hygii-ne Publiq. ix. 337.          '  Macaire, Biblioth. Universale, xxxi. v!44.
  Dr Candolle. Physiol. Vigit  p. 1357.               4  Macaire, op cit.
  Coullnn, quoted bv Wibmer, Wirkung d. Arzneim. 3 Bd. p. l!0.
  Athtnrrum for 1837, p 071.
      VOL. II. — i)0 
786
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rosacea.
usually observed :  a bitter but  peculiar taste;  increased secretion of saliva • irrita
tion m the throat; frequently nausea; disordered  and laborious respiration (some-
times quick, at others slow and deep) ; pain in the head, giddiness, obscured vision
and sleepiness.   The vascular  system is in some cases not obviously, but in others
much, affected, though  not  uniformly;  its action being sometimes quickened at
others reduced in  frequency.   In some  instances  faintness is experienced.  Drs
Macleod and Granville1 have  noticed salivation and ulceration of the mouth durinc
its medicinal use.                                                                 °
   pp. In poisonous doses: convulsions and insensibility (epilepsy?) : if death occur
it takes place  slowly.—Immediately after swallowing the acid, a remarkably bitter
taste, sometimes  described as hot, is experienced;  this is soon followed by a sensa-
tion of faintness and giddiness, with salivation, and is succeeded by  tetanic convul-
sions  and  insensibility;  the respiration  is difficult  and spasmodic; the  odour of
hydrocyanic acid may be recognized in the breath; the  pupils are usually dilated
though sometimes  contracted; the pulse is small or imperceptible. "When  recovery
takes place it is usually very rapid, and the whole period of suffering  seldom exceeds
half an hour.  However, exceptions to this exist, in which the symptoms have been
prolonged for several hours.
   The following case,related by  Dr.  Geoghegan,* is an interesting illustration of these effects:
A gentleman, aged 21, having been for some time subject to  an  uneasiness in  the stomach, not
actually amounting to gastrodynia, after having tried many remedies in vain, was  induced to
have recourse to hydrocyanic acid.   He commenced with one minim of the  Dublin Pharma-
copoeia, sp. gr. 0.998; this dose he repeated twelve times the first day, without any perceptible
effect.  On the following day he  took half a drachm, with the same result.  The third day his
dose was a drachm, which he repeated the fourth day.  On the fifth day he took a drachm and
a half; still, no effect of any kind.  On the sixth day  he increased his dose to  two drachms. In
about two minutes  after taking this  quantity, he  experienced a sensation of extreme bitterness
in the month, and  having  walked a few paces, was affected with great confusion, headache,
and loud ringing in his ears.  He now with difficulty retraced his steps, and leaning forward
on a table, became  insensible and fell backwards. In  this state he remained altogether between
three  and four minutes, during which time he was violently convulsed.  Two drachms of the
spiritus ammonise aromaticus were diluted with a little water, and applied as quickly as pos-
sible to the mouth, but as the teeth were clenched it could not be swallowed.  The solid sesqui-
carbonate of ammonia was then  applied assiduously to the nostrils ; its beneficial effects were
soon apparent, and he was shortly able to swallow a little fluid.  Sensibility  now speedily re-
turned, and vomiting supervened, from which he experienced great relief; and at the expira-
tion of half an hour he was quite well, with the exception of pain and a feeling of distension
in the head, which continued for the remainder of the day.  After he had become insensible,
and while leaning  on the  table, his  thighs became rigid, and  were drawn up on the abdomen;
and as he was about falling, he was caught and placed on the ground.   The upper extremities
were then observed to be also rigid, and on drawing them from the side they  forcibly reverted
to their former position; the eyes were shut, the teeth clenched, and the muscles of the face
violently convulsed.  It is deserving of notice  that the old complaint was  completely removed
by this extraordinary dose.

   yy.  In poisonous doses : death  rapid with or without convulsions.—In these cases
death is so rapid that, in the human subject, the symptoms have scarcely  been ob-
served.   They are probably similar  to those noticed  in  animals, viz. imperceptible
pulse, breathing  not obvious; or there may be two or  three deep, hurried inspira-
tions, insensibility, and death.   Convulsions may or  may not be present.
   The presence or absence of convulsions, as  connected with the time within which death
occurs in these cases, is sometimes a matter of great moment.  Some years ago the life of a
prisoner almost turned on this point.  The following is an  outline of the case:3  An apothe-
cary's maid-servant, at Leicester, was found one morning dead in bed.  The body lay in a com-
posed posture—the arms crossed over the trunk, and the bedclothes pulled smoothly up to the
chin.   At her right side lay a phial, from which about five drachms of the medicinal hydrocy-
anic acid had been  taken, and which was corked and wrapped in paper.  It was suspected that
she took the acid to occasion  miscarriage, and that  the apprentice was accessory to its adminis-
tration ; in consequence of which he was put on his trial.  The important question for the con-

  1 Lond. Med. and Phys. Journ. vol. xlvi. pp. 359 and 363.         a Dublin Med. Journ. Nov. 1935.
  3 Mo. e fully developed in Dr. Christison's Treatise on Poisons, and in the Medical Gazette, vol viii- PP-
577 and 797. 
Prussic Acid:—Modus Operandi.                   787
fideraiion of the medical witnesses was : Could the deceased, after having drunk the poison, have
had time to cork the phial, wrap it up, and adjust the bedclothes, before insensibility came on?  It
wa? supposed that if the death were of that slow description  to allow of these acts of volition,
convulsions would have occurred, and  the bedclothes would have been found disordered.  On
tbe other hand, those cases in which no convulsions occur, usually terminate too quickly to allow
of the above acts.  The medical witnesses in the above case were not agreed in opinion :  the
majority thought it was impossible that the deceased could have had the  power  of corking the
bottle.  Tbe jury, however,  very properly found the prisoner not guilty.
  There are two points  of inquiry connected with the  action  of this  acid, which
are interesting, more particularly in a medico-legal point of view—namely, the time
at which the poison begins to operate, and the period in which it proves fatal.   No
absolute  answer can be  given to  either of these questions, since the strength and
quantity of the  acid exhibited, and peculiarities (not  known or understood) affect
the result.  Very  strong acid, in  large  doses, begins to operate  very speedily, espe-
cially if  its vapour be inhaled.   The diluted  acid, on  the other hand, sometimes
does not produce any obvious effect for several minutes, and death may not occur
for nearly half  an  hour.   Of  seven epileptic patients killed in  one of the Parisian
hospitals by hydrocyanic acid, some did not die for forty-five minutes.3   But I have
not found the same quantity  of the  same  acid kill different animals  of the  same
species in the same period  of  time.
  Morbid Appearances.—The  post-mortem appearances in cases of poisoning by
this acid are the  following:  Glistening and  staring  expression of the eyes, but
which, however, is not a constant phenomenon, since it was not observed in the seven
Parisian epileptics;  nor  is it peculiar to this poison, for the same is observed after
death  by carbonic  acid, and  in other cases (Christison); the odour of the acid is
oftentimes very obvious in the blood, brain, chest, or stomach;  the venous system
is usually gorged with blood, while the arteries are empty; the blood is, in many
cases,  fluid, dark, or bluish-black, and  viscid or oily ;  the vessels of the brain and
spinal marrow are  frequently gorged  with  blood;  and  the cerebral ventricles some-
times  contain  a serous or  sanguineous  liquor; the lungs are,  in some instances,
natural—in others, turgid  with blood;  the internal lining of the stomach is some-
times  red.
  It has been stated by  Magendie, that, after death by the strong acid, the muscles
are not sensible to the galvanic influence.   But this condition is very rarely present;
indeed, I have never observed it in animals killed by this acid; though Dr. Christison
has  occasionally found it.  I have  examined a considerable  number of  animals
(principally rabbits) destroyed  by hydrocyanic  acid,  and have always found the
muscles to be  powerfully affected by the galvanic influence; nor  have I once met
with a single case  in which the heart had  ceased  to beat when  the chest had been
laid open immediately after death.
  Modus Operandi.—There are several  interesting subjects of inquiry connected
with the operation of hydrocyanic acid, which, as they are principally theoretical,
I shall briefly  notice under this head.
  o. Local action.—Dr. Christison says that Robiquet's fingers became  affected
with numbness,  which lasted  several days, in consequence  of their  exposure  for
some time to the vapour of this acid.a   This effect would appear to depend on the
local action of the poison on  the  nerves—a  mode of  operation  which  we are con-
strained  likewise to admit in  the case of some other narcotics.8  The alleviation of
gastrodynia by hydrocyanic acid depends probably on this benumbing effect.   Some
of the local effects produced by hydrocyanic acid are those of an irritant; such are
tbe acrid impression made  by the  vapour on the nose and mouth, the ptyalism, the
vomiting and purging, and the redness  of  the mucous membrane of the stomach.
  /J.  Absorption.—That hydrocyanic acid  becomes absorbed  is proved by its having
been detected by Krimer (quoted  by Dr. Christison, p. 15)  in the blood of animals
poisoned with it, and by the  odour of  it exhaled from various  parts of the body.

 ' Annates d'Hygiine  Pvbl. et de Mid. Leg. t. ii.
  Trtatitc on Poisons, 3d edit. p. 69d.              ' Mailer's Physiology, by Baly, vol. i. p. 630. 
788                VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Rosacea.

The exhalation by the breath of the odour of the acid may sometimes enable us tn
recognize the presence of the poison in the system.1
  y. Are the  remote effects of this acid causal by its absorption?—In  many cases
the operation of  hydrocyanic acid on the  system is so rapid, and death so speedily
follows the application of the poisonr.that doubt  has been entertained of its actiou
being dependent  on  its absorption.   The principal arguments which have  been ad-
duced  in favour  of  the  agency  of absorption  are the  following:   First,  that  the
acid produces no  remote effects when applied  either to the nerves or  brain ; second I u
that applied to the tongue or stomach it operates as an energetic poison, although
the nerves of these  parts were  previously divided ;  thirdly, that if the acid be an-
plied  to  a part where circulation is arrested, the operation of the poison is pre-
vented ; fourthly, the activity of  the acid  is  in proportion to the absorbing powers
of the part with which it is placed in contact; fifthly, a sufficient time always elapses
between  its application to thVbody and the first symptom of its action, to admit of
its operation by absorption.
   8.  Organs affected.—The parts specifically affected by this acid are the brain and
true spinal system.   The pain in the head, the insensibility, and the coma, are evi-
dence of the cerebral affection; while  the tetanic convulsions depend  on the dis-
order of the true spinal system.  Marx3 mentions  the following  experiment per-
formed by Wedemeyer,3 and which shows  the independent action of the acid on the
spinal  marrow:  The spinal  cord of a dog was divided between the last dorsal and
first lumbar vertebras, so that the hind legs were completely paralyzed and insensible
to mechanical irritants; hydrocyanic acid  was then introduced  into one of  the hind
legs; in one minute symptoms of poisoning commenced;  the hind as well as the
fore legs were  violently convulsed, and in twelve minutes  the  animal  was dead.
The affection of  the respiratory and circulatory system produced   by hydrocyanic
acid is probably only secondary;  that  is, the result of  the  influence of this agent
over those parts of the nervous system  from which the respiratory organs and heart
derive  their nervous power.  The insensibility caused by hydrocyanic acid occurs
too rapidly, in  many cases,  to be the result  of asphyxia caused by paralysis of the
muscles of respiration.
   ?. Condition of the brain  and spinal marrow induced by this acid.—The precise
pathological condition of the brain and  spinal cord of an animal under the influence
of hydrocyanic acid, cannot be positively determined, and it is, therefore, a matter
of conjecture.   Whatever it may be, it is  probably identical with that which occurs
during an epileptic  paroxysm, and with  that produced by loss of blood; for  the
essential symptoms  (insensibility and convulsions occurring suddenly) are the same
in all  three states—and ammonia has  been  found to relieve them.  Dr. Marshall
Hall4 has shown  that the convulsions from hemorrhage are spinal.   Dr. Hoist, Pro-
fessor  of Materia Medica in  the University of Christiana, Norway, told me of a
case of epilepsy  which had been under his care,  and in which it was observed that
the pulse in one  arm was always imperceptible during  the paroxysm.   On a post-
mortem examination, it  was discovered that  an anomalous distribution of the arte-
ries existed, so  that this  arm was  supplied  with blood by the vertebral arteries,
which derived it, through the basilar  artery, from  the  carotids.   The cessation of
the pulse during the paroxysm  proved that the circulation through these vessels
was temporarily  interrupted.  Does any similar  interruption occur in poisoning by
hydrocyanic acid?
   £.  Cause of death.—In  most cases  the immediate cause of death is obstruction
of  respiration.   In  some instances it is stoppage of the heart's action.   There are
cases,  however, in which the death is  too immediate to be produced by obstructed
respiration, while, on opening the chest, the heart is found still beating; this I have
observed in experiments on rabbits with strong hydrocyanic acid.
1 Dr. Lonsdale, in tlie Edinb. Mid. and Surg. Journ. for Jan. 1839.
3 Die Lehre von d. Giflen, ler Bd. 2te Abt. S. 151.  J Versuche Hber das Ntrvcnsystem, S. -Ml, Vera. i.
* Led. on the Nerv. Syst. p. 139. 
Prussic Acid :—Uses.
789
  tj. Cumulative effects.—Hydrocyanic acid is not usually regarded as a cumulative
poison;  but a case mentioned by Dr. Baumg'artner (quoted by Dr. Christison), as
well as some other circumstances, seem to favour the reverse opinion.1
  Uses.—We are  indebted to the Italians (Borda, Brugnatelli, and Rasori), for the
introduction of  hydrocyanic acid  into the  Materia Medica.   It was first employed
by them at the commencement of the present century; namely, from 1801 to 1806.a
  0. Internal.—By the founders  of the theory of contrastimulus, this acid  was
regarded  as a powerful asthenic or contrastiumlant, and,  therefore,  as peculiarly
useful in all diseases dependent  on, or connected with, excitement.   Hence it was
employed  in inflammatory affections.  But subsequent experience has fully shown
that in these cases it  possesses little or no remedial power.   In this country, the
reputation of hydrocyanic acid as a medicinal agent is chiefly founded on its effects
in alleviating certain painful (neuralgic)  and spasmodic  stomach complaints.   It
appears from Dr. Granville's statements,3 that laurel water (which contains  this
acid) was  used  in  these affections by  Hufeland, Haller, Tbuessen, Swediaur, and
Sprengel, between  the years  1780 aud 1796.   But  the first person who actually
recommends hydrocyanic acid for them is Sprengel,4 in 1814.   In 1819, Dr. A. T.
Thomson detailed a case which led him to infer  that  this acid would be an impor-
tant agent in the treatment of dyspeptic affections.   But the profession are princi-
pally indebted to Dr. Elliotson5 for a full investigation of  its powers in these com-
plaints.
  Every practitioner is familiar with a stomach complaint in which pain of a spas-
modic character is the leading symptom, but which is  not essentially accompanied
by pyrexia, as in gastritis—by tendency to faint, as in cardialgia—by indigestion,
as iu dyspepsia, nor  by loss  of appetite;  though one or more of  these conditions
may attend it.   By some nosologists (as Sauvages and Sagar) it has been regarded
as a distinct disease, and has  been termed gastrodynia.   It is not unfrequently ac-
companied by vomiting  and  praecordial tenderness, which, however, cannot be re-
garded as indicative  of inflammation,  for  various  reasons;  one of which is  the
alleviation of it  often obtained by the use of stimulants and antispasmodics.  What
may be the precise pathological condition of this malady I know  not.   Dr. Barlow6
thinks the primary disease to  be irritation or excitement of the mucous membrane
of the stomach, whereby  a  redundant, dense,  membranous,  and  opuke mucus is
secreted, which  accumulates and oppresses the stomach.  The pain he supposes to
arise from  a contractile effort of  the stomach  to detach and expel the offending
matter; but the immediate and permanent relief sometimes  obtained by the use of
hydrocyanic acid is, I conceive, almost fatal to this  hypothesis.   Some time since,
I prescribed the acid for a lady who had suffered for  months with gastrodynia,  and
who was  persuaded, from  her sensations, that she had some organic disease.   The
remedy acted in the most surprising  manner;  in a  few hours, to the  astonishment
of herself and friends, she was apparently quite well, and has since had no return
of her complaint.   It can hardly be  imagined that irritation of stomach can be
rapidly removed by a substance which  is itself an  irritant.   For  my own part, I
conceive the affection to  be, essentially, a disordered condition of  the nerves  sup-
plying the stomach, or of the  nervous centres from whence those nerves are derived;
in other words,  it is a gastric neuralgia.  It is frequently, but not invariably, ac-
companied  by the irritation  of stomach alluded to by Dr.  Barlow.   But be the
proximate cause of the disease what it may, the beueficial effects of  the hydrocy-
anic acid, in some  instances  of it, are most astonishing; while in others it totally
rails.  In all the cases in which I  have tried it, I have obtained  either  perfect  suc-
cess or complete failure;  I have met with no cases  of partial relief.   It not  only

 ', ?.ec D.r- Chriatison'g Treatise.          » Granville, Treatise on Hydrocyanic Acid, 2d edit. 1820.
  Op. cit.                           4 Pharmacologia.
  ^wrou* Casts illustrative of the Efficacy of the Hydrocyanic Acid in Affections of the Stomach,
 ' Cycloperdia of Practical Medicine, art. Gastrodynia. 
790
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rosacea.
 allays pain, but relieves vomiting; and in the  latter  cases, frequently, when all
 other remedies fail.  Dr. Elliotson mentions the following as the stomach affections
 relieved by it:  1st, those in which pain at  the stomach was the leading symptom •
 2dly, those in which the gastrodynia was accompauied by a discharge of fluid  con-
 stituting what is called  pyrosis, or  the water-brash; 3dly, when the excessive irri-
 tability  of  the  stomach  produces vomiting;  and  4thly,  those disorders of the
 stomach which, in some of their symptoms, resemble affections of the heart,   The
 late Dr. Prout found it useful in gastrodynia connected  with colica pictonum.
   I have also found it useful  in a painful affection of the bowels analogous to that
 of the stomach, and which, therefore, might with propriety be termed enterodynia.
 The most remarkable case of this kind which I have met with was that of a gentle-
 man, a relative  of one of my pupils.   He had suffered, for several  months, excru-
 ciating pain in the bowels, commencing daily about two o'clock, and  only ceasing
 at  night.   It was apparently a consequence of an ague.  He had been under the
 care of several country practitioners, and had tried a number of remedies (includ-
 ing opium and disulphate of quinia) without the least benefit.  I advised the em-
 ployment of the hydrocyanic acid, and accordingly five mimims were administered at
 the  commencement of a paroxysm.  The remedy acted like a charm; all the un-
 pleasant symptoms immediately disappeared.   Several doses of the acid were given
 before the period  of the succeeding paroxysm, but the disease never returned;  and
 after employing the acid for a few days longer, he went back to the country com-
 pletely cured.
   I have seen hydrocyanic acid used with great success to allay vomiting and purg-
 ing  in severe  forms of  the ordinary English cholera, when opium  has completely
 failed.   In Asiatic or malignant cholera  it has occasionally appeared to be service-
 able.  I  have found it successful  in checking  the diarrhoea of phthisical subjects,
 when  logwood,  chalk, and opium  had failed.   As  a  remedy for affections of the
 pulmonary organs, hydrocyanic acid was at one time in great repute.   It was said
 to be capable of curing  slight inflammation of the lungs, without the necessity of
 bloodletting; of suspending or curing incipient phthisis, while  in confirmed cases
 it smoothed the approach of death ;  of curing  hooping-cough, and of  removing all
 the symptoms of  spasmodic asthma.1   Experience has  shown the fallacy of most
 of these statements.  I  have employed hydrocyanic acid  in a considerable number
 of cases of phthisis, and have  occasionally  fancied that it relieved the cough  and
 night-sweats; but these  effects were only temporary.  Gases of  genuine spasmodic
 asthma are rare; but iu two instances in which  I have seen the acid employed no re-
 lief was obtained.  In allaying cough (especially the kind called spasmodic) I have,
 on several occasions, found it useful;  but it has so frequently disappointed my ex-
 pectations, that I now rarely employ it in any pulmonary diseases.   I have never
 observed any ill effects from its use in these cases, though others assert they have.
 Dr. Roe'2 ascribes  to this acid the power of curing simple hooping-cough; that is,
 convulsive cough unaccompanied by inflammatory symptoms.  He gives it in con-
 junction with ipecacuanha and tartarized antimony.  In  two or three days after the
 use of these remedies, the violence of the paroxysms, he says, is perceptibly dimi-
 nished, and  their duration shortened.  To  a  girl of ten years of age he gave  a
 minim and a half of the acid every quarter of  an hour, for twelve hours.  I have
 not found  this practice so successful as Dr. Roe's reports would lead us to expect.
  This acid has  been employed in  affections of the nervous  system.   Cases of
 hysteria, epilepsy, chorea, and tetanus, have been published, in which  this remedy
 has been found beneficial.  I have seen it employed in the first three of these affec-
 tions, but without any evident relief.  It has been repeatedly used in  hydrophobia,
 at the  London Hospital^ but without success. A most interesting case of its employ-
 ment in this malady has been published in the Lancet (for May 10,1839). Under

  1 See Dr. Granvillers Treatise, before referred to; and also Magendie'g Recherches sur VEmploi de
VAcide Prussique, 1810.
  8 A Treatise on the Nature and Treatment of Hooping-Cough, Lond. 1838. 
           Prussic Acid:—Administration;  Dose; Antidotes.         791

 its use the hydrophobic symptoms subsided, and typhus fever supervened, of which
 the patient,  after some days, died.  Dr. Hall1 proposes that, in addition to the use of
 this acid, tracheotomy, as suggested by Mr. Mayo, should be tried.  Hydrocyanic acid
 has been administered as an anodyne in several painful affections ; namely, cancer,
 tic douloureux, rheumatism, &c.;  but, with a few  exceptions, it has not been found
 serviceable.   As an anthelmintic it has been extolled by Brera ;  but the following
 fact, mentioned by Dr. Elliotson, will, I imagine, show its true value : " I have fre-
 quently employed  it  perseveringly without expelling  one worm, when a dose of
 calomel has instantly brought away hundreds."
  0.  External.—The local employment of the acid has  not been attended with very
 great success.   In chronic  skin diseases, especially impetigo, prurigo, and  psoriasis,
 the acid has been recommended  by Dr. A. T. Thomson to allay pain and irritation.
 Schneider, of Dusseldorf, has employed one drachm and a half of  hydrocyanic acid,
 six ounces  of spirit, and  as  much  rose water,  in scaly diseases attended with
 severe itching, especially in eruptions upon the genital organs.   On several occa-
 sions I have tried hydrocyanic washes in prurigo,  but without obtaining any. relief.
 Dr. Elliotson says he has found it efficacious in sores behind  the ears, and in scabs
 of the face; and adds, to an  irritable face, it is very soothing,  if employed before
 and after shaving.   In cancer of the  uterus, lotions containing this acid have been
 employed to allay the pain, by  Frisch, of  Nyborg.  Osiander  has also employed,
 in tbe same  disease, cherry-laurel water,  the active principle  of  which is this acid.
 In gonorrhoea, injections containing  hydrocyanic  acid  have  been  employed with
 benefit.  Schlegel has  tried  also  the cherry-laurel water with  the  same  result.
 Lastly, the diluted acid has been proposed as an effectual mode of destroying vermin.
   Administration.—The best mode of exhibiting this acid internally is  in the
 form of mixture.   I generally give from three to five minims of  the diluted acid,
 Ph. L., three or four times a day, in about an  ounce of some mild vehicle (simple
 water answers very well).   Gum  or  syrup,  and  some flavouring ingredients (as
 orange-flower water, which is used on the continent),  may be  added.   Some per-
 sons  give it in almond emulsion.   In some   cases of  irritable stomach this is ob-
 jectionable.
  As a wash, two fluidrachms of the diluted  acid of the  shops may be employed,
 mixed with  half a pint of distilled  (or rose) water, as a lotion, in skin diseases. Fre-
 quently, about half an ounce of rectified spirit is added;  and Dr. A. T. Thomson
 recommends, in addition to this, sixteen grains of acetate of lead.  The external
 use of this acid, in all cases (more especially if there be sores) requires great cau-
 tion.  Its effects on the nervous system and on  the pulse must be carefully watched.
 In some cases it causes  giddiness  and faintness ;  and Mr. Plumbe says, in two in-
 stances it produced intermission  of the pulse.
  [Dose.—This necessarily varies with  the kind  of acid employed.  The dose of
 the acid of the London College may be taken at from two to seven minims;  of the
 Edinburgh College, from one to  four minims; and of the  Dublin College, from
 one to five minims.  The dose of the Acidum Hydrocyanicum Dilutum, U.S.,  is
 one to six drops.   The smallest dose  should  be commenced with  always, and the
 maximum dose exhibited only in those cases where tolerance exists.—Ed.]
  Antidotes.—The most  important agents  in the treatment of poisoning by hy-
 drocyanic acid, as  well as by the  substances which  contain it (viz. the cherry-laurel,
 bitter almonds, the volatile oil  of these substances, &c), are chlorine, ammonia}
 cold affusion, and  artificial respiration.
  0.  Chlorine is  the most powerful of these.   It was first proposed by  Riauz
 m IS'2'2.   It has  been  subsequently strongly recommended by Buchner, Simeon,
 and Orfila.   It should be applied  both  internally and  externally, if possible.  If
chlorine water  be  at hand, this should be given in  doses of one or two teaspoonfuls
properly diluted with water.  In the absence of this, weak solutions of the chloride
1 Ltct. on the Nerv. Syst. p. 155. 
792            .    VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rosace.e.

[hypochlorite] of lime, or the chloride [hypochlorite] of soda, may be administered.
Nitro hydrochloric  acid, largely diluted, might  be given where none of the above
agents could be  procured.  The  patient should be allowed to inhale, very cautiously
air impregnated with chlorine gas (developed by the action of  dilute  hydrochloric
acid on chloride of lime).   Enemata containing  chlorine water, or a solution of
chloride of lime, should also be employed.
   j3. Ammonia.—The spirit of sal  ammoniac was proposed by Mead1 as  an anti-
dote for laurel-water.   In 1822, ammonia was recommended by Mr. J. Murray aa
an  antidote for  hydrocyanic acid; and  its value has been admitted  by Buchner
Orfila, Depuy, and Herbst; but it is ccrtaiuly  inferior  to chlorine, and, therefore
should be used only  in the absence of this.   If the  patient should be able to
swallow,  the liquor ammoniae, diluted with eight or  ten  parts of  water, should be
exhibited, and th^vapour of ammonia or its carbonate inhaled; the latter practice
is  most important, and should not be omitted.   Orfila says that ammonia is of no
use when introduced  into the  stomach, but that the inhalation of  the vapour will
sometimes preserve life.  Great caution  is  requisite  in the employment of it.   In
the absence of ammonia the inhalation of the vapour of burnt  feathers mi"ht be
employed.   Ammonia cannot be useful, as an antidote, by its chemical properties
merely, since hydrocyanate of ammonia is a powerful poison.
   y. Cold Affusion has been strongly recommended by Herbst,3 and is admitted by
Orfila  to  be a valuable remedy.  Herbst  says that its efficacy is almost certain
when it is employed before the convulsive stage of poisoning is over, and that it is
often successful  even in the stage of insensibility  and  paralysis.   [This statement
has been confirmed by the results of experiments on animals.—Ed.]
   6. Artificial Respiration ought never to  be omitted.  Of its efficacy I  am con-
vinced from repeated experiments on animals.   I once recovered a rabbit by this
means only, after the convulsions had ceased, and  the animal was apparently dead.
It is an operation easily effected, and will be found a powerful assistant to chlorine
or ammonia, by  enabling it  to get into the lungs when natural respiration is sus-
pended.   To produce respiration, make powerful  pressure with both hands on the
anterior surface of the chest, the diaphragm being  at the same time pushed upward
by an assistant.   Inspiration  is effected by the removal of the pressure,  and the
consequent resiliency of the ribs.
   Other  remedies  (as turpentine, and  the  mixed hydrated oxides of iron) have
been recommended,  but they will not bear comparison with those now mentioned.
Bloodletting has been advised,  in vigorous  subjects, when respiration has been
established, and the skin is  livid.3

                            [Tribe II—SPIR^^E.

      GILLENIA TRIFOLIATA,  Moemh.-INDIAN PHYSIC.
                           Sex. Syst. Icosandria, Pentagynia.
                             Gillenia, U. S.—The Root.

   Gen. Char.— Calyx, sub-campanulate, border five-toothed.   Corolla, partly un-
equal.   Petals five,  lanceolate, attenuated, coarctate at the claws.   Stamina fewer,
included.  Styles five, contiguous.  Stigmas capitate.   Capsule five-celled; cells
two-seeded. (Nuttall.)
   Sp. Char.—Leaves tennate,  upper  folioles  lanceolate, serrate, subequal;  lower
folioles obtuse, with an abrupt, acute termination.  Stipules linear, entire. Flowers,
terminate, loosely  paniculated,  five  gynous.    Petals  linear,  lanceolate,  obtuse.
 Calyx, tubulose, campanulate, ventricose.  Stamina, included.  Capsule five-celled,
many-seeded.
1 Mechan. Account of Poisons, 5th edit. p. 275, 1756.
3 Archivf. Anat. et Phys. 1828; quoted by Dr. Christison.
' Devergie, Mid. Llg. t. ii. p. 825 ; also Lonsdale, op. supra, cit. 
      Indian Physic:—Composition; Properties; Administration.   793

  This plant is the Spiraea trifoliata of Linnseus, but the generic name was al-
tered by Moench to the present one. The common names are Indian physic, Indian
hippo, Drop wort, and Bowman's Root.
  Hab.—This  species is  found scattered over the United  States from Canada to
Florida, on the  eastern side of the Alleghany Mountains, occurring  in open  hilly
woods, in  light gravelly soil.  The period of flowering  is  May, and the  fruit is
matured in August.  The flowers are  white, or of a rose tint.
  The root is perennial, composed of a great number of fibres, arising from a com-
mon rough and irregular dark-coloured tube or head.  These  fibres are about the
thickness of straws, many inches in length, irregular in thickness, with somewhat
of an undulated form.  When dried, the root is of a reddish-brown colour, wrinkled,
and composed of an easily separable cortical portion  and an internal ligneous  cord.
The external part is readily reduced to powder.   It has a feeble odour and a bitter
taste.
  Chemical Composition.—Some experiments upon the root of Gillenia trifoliata
have been made by Mr. Shreeve (Am. Journ. of Pharmacy, vol. vii. p. 28), who
found that it contained starch, gum, resin, wax, fatty matter, red colouring  matter,
volatile colouring matter, and a peculiar principle, soluble in alcohol and the dilute
acids, but  insoluble in water and ether.  It contains nothing  like emetina, according
to the statement of Dr. Staples.
  Medical Properties.—Gillenia is a safe emetic, operating without violence in
the appropriate dose.  In small doses it  is a stimulant and tonic to the stomach.
It is  stated that  a knowledge of its medicinal  operation  is derived from the
aborigines.
  Uses.—Although the testimony is  strong  in  favour of the decided medicinal
action of the root under consideration, its claims  to confidence have been  shaken
by the report of Dr.  Baum, who experimented with  it,  and  was led to the  conclu-
sion that too much power had been  attributed to it.  Dr. Griffith (American Journ.
of Pharm. vol. iv. p. 181) remarks, however, that he does not think Dr. Baum's
experiments are sufficient  to  induce us to reject an article which has  received the
united testimony of the members of the profession,  who speak of it in  the highest
terms, and recur to  its use with  as much confidence as to the true  Ipecacuanha.
The statements in  its support are by  Dr.  B. S. Barton (Collections, p. 27), who
Bays: "I can speak with more confidence of the Spiraea trifoliata. It is a safe and
efficacious emetic in doses of thirty  graius.   Along with its emetic it seems to pos-
sess a tonic power."  And Dr. W. P. C. Barton declares that country people  have
frequently used the plant so incautiously as  to be under the necessity of resorting
to medical aid.   (Veg. Mat. Med. U.  S. vol. i.  p.  69).   Dr. Eberle observes:
" From my own experience with this plant, which has not been inconsiderable, I
am led to  regard it as very little inferior to the officinal Ipecacuanha as an emetic."
To these may be added, Dr.  Zollickoffer and Professor Bigelow.
  The cases to which it is applicable are intermittent and remittent fevers, in the
commencing stages, and bowel affections, as diarrhoea and dysentery.   It may also
be beneficial in some forms of dyspepsia.
  Administration.—The  mode of administration  is  in  the form of powder or
strong infusion.  The dose of the powder is gr. xxx for its emetic effect; in doses
of grs. ij or grs. iv it acts as a tonic.
  The Gillenia stipulacea  replaces the G. trifoliata on the western side of the Alle-
ghany range.   It is readily distinguished by  the pinnatifid lower leaves, the upper
being trifoliate, incised, serrate; and the foliaceous, oblique, jagged, stipules.  The
root is analogous to the preceding, and may be used under the same circumstances. 
794
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rosacea.
                            Tribe III. DRIADE^E.

   264. GEUM  URBANUM,  Linn.—COMMON AVENS.  HERB
                                  BENNET.
                            Sex. Syst. Icosandria, Polygynia.

   History.—Pliny1 speaks of the medicinal properties of Geum.
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—Tube  of  the  calyx concave;  limb  5-cleft,  externally
5-bracteolate.  Petals 5.   Stamens numerous.   Carpels  juicefess, tailed, disposed
in a head.   Style,  after flowering, articulate or barbed.   Seed ascending.—Herbs.
Leaves variously pinnatisect.  (De Cand.)
   Sp. Char.—Stem erect, branched,  hairy.   Leaves  radical quinate-pinnatisect■
caulinar ones ternate-palmatisect,  with ovate, broadly-toothed, crenate lobes; upper
ones  1-lobed, ovate.   Stipules somewhat orbicular, large.   Petals obovate, as long
as the calyx.  Capillary head spherical.   Ovaries hairy, numerous. Styles smooth,
with  somewhat hairy appendices.  (De Cand.)
   Root of many brown fibres.   Stem 1 or 2 feet high.   Leaves grass-green, veiny,
hairy.  Flowers terminal, solitary.   Petals bright yellow.
   Hab.—Indigenous.  Growing  in woods, hedges, and dry shady places.
   Description.—The root (radix caryophyllalse, seu gei  urbani, vel sanamundm)
consists of a rootstalk of from one to three inches  long, from which issue a con-
siderable  number of cylindrical fibres.  Externally it is brownish ; internally red-
dish.   When recent, its odour is aromatic and clove-like; but this is greatly di-
minished by drying.   Its taste is  aromatic, astringent,  and bitterish.  It  should be
gathered in the spring.
   Composition.—The root has been the subject  of repeated chemical experiment.
Thus it was examined by Muehlenstedt,2 Anjou,8  Bouillon-Lagrange,4 Melandriand
Moretti,5 and Trommsdorff.8  The  latter chemist  found the constituents of  the
dried root to be as follows:  volatile oil 0.039, resin 4, tannin  soluble in  alcohol
and water 10, tannin insoluble in alcohol and  ether, with traces of chlorides,  31,
gum  15.8, bassorin 9.2, ligneous fibre 30 [excess  0.039].
   Physiological  Effects.—Aromatic, tonic, and astringent.
   Uses.—Scarcely employed as a medicine in this  country.  [The root was  for-
merly introduced into the Materia Medica of the  Dublin  College.   In the last edi-
tion of the Pharmacopoeia it is not mentioned.—Ed.]  It  has been used in chronic
diarrhoea and dysentery, leucorrhcea,  chronic hemorrhages,  and  intermittents.  It
is put into ale, to communicate an agreeable clove-like flavour, and to prevent  the
liquor turning sour.  Infused in wine, it has been used as a stomachic.
   Administration.—Dose, 3ss  to 3J> in powder or decoction, three or four times
a day.

  265. POTENTILLA  TORMENTILLA,  Sibthorp, z.-COMMON
                    TORMENTIL,  OR  SEPTFOIL.
                 Tormentilla officinalis, Smith, D.—Tormentilla erecta, Linn.
                           Sex. Syst. Icosandria, Polygynia.
                                   (Rhizoma, L.)

   History.—Sprengel7 considers this plant to be the  ttsvtd^vxkov of Hippocrates,
Theophrastus, and  Dioscorides.   But Sibthorp8 considers the latter plant to have
been  the Potentilla reptans.

                                                » Murray,  App. Med. iii. 123.     * PM-
                                                ' Bull.de  Pharm. ii. 308.
                                                ' Hist. Rei Herb. i. 43, 93,176.
Ul
1 Hist. Nat. xxvi. 21, ed. Valp.
4 Ann. de Chim. Ii v. 287
6 Pfaff, Mat. Med. vi. 255.
8 Prodr. Fl. Graces, i. 352. 
Common Dog-Rose :—History.
795
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—Tube of  the calyx concave; limb 4- or  5-cleft, ex-
 ternally 4- or 5-bracteolate.   Petals 4 or 5.   Stamens numerous.    Carpels nume-
 rous.   Style lateral.   Receptacle procumbent, persistent, juiceless, capitate.   Seed
 appended.—Herbs or under-shrubs.  Leaves  compound.   Stipules  adnate to the
 petioles.  Flowers white, yellow, rarely red. (De Cand.)
   Sp. Char.—Multiform, hairy.   Root  tuberous.   Stem ascending, dichotomous.
 Leaves ternate-palmatisect, the caulinar ones  sessile; lobes obovate-wedge-shaped'
 more or less deeply teethed.   Stipules 0- or 3-toothed.   Flowers axillary, solitary'
 with long peduncles.   Bracts palmate-incised.   Segments of the calux lanceolate-
 linear, as long-as the  corolla.   Carpels rugose.   Receptacles villose. (De Cand.)
   Stems weak, slender, often procumbent, branched.   Leaves  dark-green some-
 what hairy, especially the veins.   Flowers  bright yellow.
   Hab—Indigenous; growing on barren pastures, heaths, and bushy places.
   Description.—The root (radix  tormentillse) is large, compared with the size of
 the plant.   Its external form  is very irregular : sometimes it is more or less cylin-
 drical, at others tuberculated and knobby.  Its colour externally is  dark red-brown
 internally flesh-red or brownish.   Its taste is astringent.   Its watery infusion is
 coloured blackish-green (tannate  of iron) by the sesquichloride of iron.  A solution
 of gelatine causes a precipitate (tannate of gelatine) in it.  By iodine, starch is de-
 tected in the root.
   Composition.—Neumann1 and Pfaff submitted  tormentilla root to a chemical
 investigation.   Meissner3 made an analysis of  it, and found  the constituents to be
 as follows:  volatile oil a trace, tannin 17.4, colouring matter 18.05, ditto altered
 2.57, resin 0.42, cerin 0.51, myricin 0.20, gummy extractive 4.32, qum (pectin ?)
 28.20, extractive 7.70, woody fibre 15.0, and water 6.45  (excess 0.82).
   Physiological Effects.—Astringent and  tonic.
   Uses.—Employed  in chronic diarrhoea and dysentery, passive hemorrhages,  and
 intermittents.   The decoction is also used as an astringent wash and injection  ; as
 in flabby ulcers and leucorrhcea.   In  the dysenteries of  cattle it is reputed effica-
 cious.  In the Feroe and Orkney  Islands it is used to tan leather; in Lapland,  as a
 red dye.
  Administration.—Dose, 3ss  to  3j, in powder or decoction, three or four times
 a day.

  DECOCTUM TORMENTILLA, L.;  Decoction  of Tormentilla.—(Tormentil, bruised,
 l\y. Distilled  Water  Oiss.  Boil down  to a  pint, and  strain.)—Astringent  and
 tome.   Used internally in chronic diarrhoea.—Dose, fgj to fjij.   Sometimes  em-
 ployed as an injection in leucorrhcea.


                           Tribe IV. ROSE^.

    266.  ROSA CANINA, Linn. L. JS.-COMMON  DOG-ROSE.
                         Sex. Syst.  Icosandria, Pologynia.
  (Fructus recens, L.— Hip of R. canina, and of several allied species, deprived of the carpels, E.—
                                 Fructus, D.)

  History.--The  xwoaobov, or Dog-rose of  Hippocrates,4 is, perhaps, Rosa canina,
wnn., which, according to Sibthorp,*  is  a  native  of Greece.    Pliny8 speaks of
Km sylvestris, which  he says is called cynorrhodon (i. e.  Dog-rose); but as  he de-
scribes  the sponge  as  growing on it,  he  probably  referrred to  Rosa  rubiginosa
(toceetbricr,  or  Eglantine), on which  it  is more frequently  found than on  any

 Botany.   Gen.  Char.—Apex  of  the tube of the  calyx contracted, the limb

 | .70,*J> by Lew's, p. 302.                          a <\Iat Me,, :; qio
 • Pr7d'%Cdb- d^r- "' Vm~10-                ' oZra*pl:£i™: Foes.
 Prod. tt. Grac. ,. 349.                            . ^J|# A-'a,. lib. xxv. cap. 6, ed. Valp. 
796
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rosacea.
5-parted; segments during  aestivation  somewhat spirally imbricated at the  apex
often pinnatisect.   Petals 5.   Stamens numerous.   Carpels many, inserted on the
calyx, subsequently baccate, inclosed within  the calyx, dry, indehiscent, somewhat
crustaceous, bearing the style on the inner side.   Styles exserted from the narrowed
tube of the calyx, free or aggregated into a  columnar style.   Seed in an akenium
solitary, exalbuminous,  inverted;  embryo  straight;  cotyledons flat.   Shrubs or
small trees.   Leaves pinnate, with an odd one; leaflets serrate.   Stipules adnate to
the petiole.  (De Cand.)
   Sp. Char.—Prickles uniform,  hooked.  Leaves naked or slightly hairy;  their
disk eglandulose.    Calyx-segments fully pinnate, deciduous.   Styles not united.
Shoots assurgent (Hooker).
  The British roses answering to these characters  are subdivided by Hooker (British Flora) as
follows:—
  a. R. canina  Woods, Smith.  Leaflets carinate; serratures simple.
  B. R. sarmentacea Woods, Smith; R. canina, Curtis.  Leaflets naked, carinate ; serratures com-
pound.
  y. R. surculosa Woods ;  R. canina 8, Smith.  Leaflets naked, flat; serratures simple.
  i. R. dumetorum Woods, Smith.  Leaflets more or less hairy, flat.
  e.  R. Fosleri, Smith ; R. collina, Woods.  Leaflets more or less hairy, not flat.
   De Candolle1 admits no less than nineteen varieties of R. canina, Linn.
   Ramification variable in denseness.    Shoots  more or  less  arched or  erect, ac-
cording to the vigour of the plant.   Prickles not very numerous, hooked in various
degrees, and  compressed;  their base  considerably dilated.   Leaflets  variable in
width;  their serratures,  although  scarcely  compound,  except in j3,  are mostly
irregular in size.   Bracts variable in  size.    Peduncle  and calyx-tube commonly
naked; their setse, when present, feeble, and not  numerous; calyx-segments free
from glands,  or more  or less copiously fringed with them.   Styles hairy.   Fruit
coral-red, or more  scarlet [usually oblong, elliptical  or ovate,  rarely somewhat glo-
bose], soft and  pulpy when  ripe,  with a pleasant somewhat acid taste (Hooker).
   Hab.—Indigenous.   Thickets, hedges, &c. ; very common.   Flowers in  June
and July.   Perennial.
   Description.—The fruit used  in medicine under  the name of the hip or hep
(fructus rosse can-in se seu/. cynosbati), is oval, composed externally of  the persist-
ent calyx, whose sides have become thick, fleshy, beautifully red,  shining; and in-
ternally, of numerous, hard, hairy akenia  (commonly called seeds,  but which, in
fact, are the carpels, or  real fruits), containing. each an  exalbuminous  seed.   The
pulp or fleshy matter  of  the persistent calyx is sweet, acidulous, and pleasant to
the taste, especially when mellowed by the frost.   The hairs surrounding the akenia
act as mechanical   irritants, like the hairs of the  pods  of the cowhage, and when
swallowed,  are  apt to  occasion gastric uneasiness, vomiting, and pruritus about the
anus.
   Composition.—According to  Bilz,a 100  parts of the dried  ripe fruit, deprived
of akenia and  hairs, consist of the following substances:  volatile oil & trace, fatty
oil  0.065,  muricin of the scale  0.05,  soft  resin of the  pulp  1.419, reddish-yellow
hard resin 0.463, tannin 0.260, uncrystallizable sugar 30.6, gum 25.0, epidermis
4.552,  medullary fibre 14.0, citric acid 2.95,  malic acid 7.776, citrates, malads,
mineral salts, water (and loss) 12.865.
   Physiological Effects and Uses.—The pulp is nutritive, and slightly re-
frigerant and astringent.   It is only employed in medicine in the preparation of  a
conserve.
   CONFECTIO ROSE CANLN1, L.;  Conserva Rosse Fructus, E.; Conserva Cynosbati;
 Conserve of Dog-Rose ; Conserve of Hips.—(Dog-Rose ib. j ; Sugar, powdered, ?xx
Beat up the rose with the sugar added by degrees until  they become one mass, u-
Take any  convenient  quantity of Hips, carefully  deprived of  their carpels; beat
them to a fine pulp, adding, gradually, thrice their weight of  white sugar, E.)   in
1 Prodr. ii. 613.
* Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. ii. 1270. 
      Red Rose:—History; Botany;  Description;  Composition.    797

the preparation of this  conserve, the  akenia or  carpels (commonly termed seeds),
with their hairs, must be carefully separated, on account of the irritation  they are
upt to occasion (see above).  It is probable that  the fruit of several varieties (or
species?) are employed  indiscriminately in the  preparation  of this conserve.   The
ob.-ervation of Sir J. E. Smith deserves notice, that the fruits, casually  gathered
late in autumn, present a great diversity of flavour.1  This  conserve, being saccha-
rine and  acidulous, is nutritive and refrigerant.   It is usually  employed  as a con-
venient and agreeable vehicle for other remedies; as for a pill-basis, or for  the mak-
ing of electuaries or linctuses.   A very agreeable pectoral linctus containing almond
oil, and, sometimes, syrup  of poppies, is made with this conserve, acidulated with
dilute  sulphuric acid.  A drawback to the  use of this conserve is its tendency to
candy or concrete by keeping.


  267.  ROSA GALLIC A, Linn. L. E. D. {U. sj-FRENCH OR  RED
                                  ROSE.
                          Sex. Syst. lcosandria,Pologynia.
           (Petalum nondum explicatum recens et exsiccatum, L. D.—Petals, E.)

  History.—Perhaps our red rose may be  the Rosa Milesia  of Pliny3, the colour
of which, he says, was very warm [ardentissimus], and whose  petals did not exceed
twelve in number.   The Rosa  Trachinia, he adds, stands  next to this, but is less
red.
  Botany.   Gen. Char.—See Rosa canina.
  Sp. Char.—Prickles unequal.   Stipules narrow, straggling  at the point.  Leaf-
lets 5  to 7,  coriaceous, rigid, ovate or  lanceolate, deflexed.   Flower-bud ovate-
globose.   Sepals spreading during  flowering.  Fruit somewhat globose, very cori-
aceous.  Calyxes and peduncles more or less very finely glandulose-hispid, somewhat
viscous. (De Cand.)
  A small shrub.   Very variable in form.—De Candolle8 admits  twelve distinct
varieties.  Mr. G-. Don4 enumerates more  than two hundred sorts cultivated by
gardeners.  Aud we  are told5 that the Dutch cultivators have more than  five hun-
dred varieties.  The  variety cultivated at Mitcham, where it is called the  Damask
Rose, appears to me to  be  R. gallica. var. S officinalis,  De Candolle.
  Hab.—South of Europe.  Common in  gardens.   For medicinal  purposes culti-
vated at  Mitcham.
  Description.—The dried petals of the  unexpanded flowers, deprived  of their
white claws or heels  (ungues), constitute the red-rose leaves (flores rosse rubrse) of
the shops.  The flower-buds are brought to  market when about the size of a large
nutmeg.   The calyx  and  claws being  cut  off, the  petals are speedily dried.   At
Mitcham, this  is effected in a stove.  Slow desiccation impairs both  their astringency
and colour.  The petals of the buds are much more astringent than of the full-blown
fWers; hence they are  preferred for medicinal use.    When dried, they are sifted to
remove the stamens,  and insects.   2,000 flowers yield about  100 lbs. of  fresh, or
10 lbs. of dried petals.   The dried petals have a velvety appearance; their colour
n purplish-red;  their odour, which is principally developed during desiccation, is
agreeable; their taste is bitterish and  astringent.    As they  lose  their fine colour
when exposed to light and  air,  and are apt to become mouldy or worm-eaten, they
should be carefully preserved in bottles or canisters.
  Composition.—The  petals were  analyzed by Cartier,6 who found the following
substances: volatile oil, colouring matter, tannin,  gallic acid, fatty matter, albu-
"xn, soluble potash salts, calcareous insoluble salts, silica, and oxide of iron.
  '• AsTni.vr.KNT Matter (tannic and gallic acids).—Tlie presence  of astringent  matter is

  ' £«?. Fl. ii. 305.
   Prodr. ii. 603.
  'Journ.de Pharm xii 113
4 Hist. Nat. lib. xxi. cap. 10, ed. Valp.
4 System of Gardening.
* Ibid. vii. 
798
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rosacea.
shown by the very dark colour (tannate and gallate of iron) produced in an infusion of red rosea
by the ferruginous salts, and by the slight precipitate (tannate of gelatine) caused on the addition
of a solution of gelatine.
  2. Colouring Matter.—Has not yet been isolated.   A watery infusiou of red rose leaves
has  a pale yellowish-red colour; the alcoholic tincture is also pale-coloured.  On the addition of
sulphuric acid, an intense bright red colour is produced (sulphate of the colouring matter).  Alka-
lies  communicate a greenish tint to the watery infusion (probably by neutralizing the free acid
to which, with the colouring matter, the red tint is owing ,i.  Sulphurous acid destroys the colour
of the infusion of roses (sulphite of colouring matter?) ; but on  the addition of sulphuric acid the
intense bright red  (sulphate of ditto) is  produced  with an evolution of sulphurous  acid gns.
Dr.  Clarke and others had supposed that the red  colour was owing to iron; but both  Gay-Lus-
sac  and Cartier found more iron in white than in red roses.  Thus  1000 grains of the white
rose yielded the latter chemist 99 grains of ashes containing 12.4 of iron; while the like quan-
tity  of the red rose yielded 50 grains of ashes, in which were only four grains of oxide of iron.
  Physiological Effects and Uses.—Red rose leaves are mild astringents and
tonics; but their power is exceedingly slight, and scarcely  deserves notice.  By the
Arabian physicians, Avicenna and Mesue, as well  as by more recent writers, Itive-
rius, Kruger, and others, conserve of roses was esteemed a valuable remedy in
phthisis.1   At the present time, red rose leaves are principally used for their colour
and flavour.  They yield several officinal preparations, which are valuable  as form- •
ing elegant vehicles for the exhibition of other more  active  medicines.  The full-
blown flowers are said to be as laxative as those of R. centifolia.   " Poterius relates,
that he found a  drachm of powdered red roses occasion three or four stools, and this
not in a few instances,  but  constantly, in an extensive practice for several years."8
  1. INFUSUM MM C0MP0SITOI,  L. [U. S.];  Infusum Rosse, E.; Infusum Row
acidum, D.;  Infusion  of Roses.—(Petals  of the  Red or  Gallic  Rose, dried, 5iij
[5ij. D.~\; Diluted Sulphuric Acid fjiss; Sugar [pure, E. 3j.] 5vj;  Boiling Water
[distilled,  L.~]  Oiss.   Pour  the  Water  upon  the Rose  petals  previously pulled
asunder; then mix in the Acid.  Macerate  for two hours [one hour. D.~], and strain
the liquor; lastly, add  the sugar to it, L.   Infuse the petals for one hour in the
water, in a covered vessel, strain,  and add  the acid.   The product should  measure
about eight ounces, D.   The  Edinburgh College infuses the petals in the water for
four hours in a  vessel of glass or porcelain, not glazed with lead;  then  adds the
acid, strains through linen or calico, and dissolves the sugar in the strained liquor.)—
The lengthened  maceration of six, or even four hours,  is unnecessary.  An hour, as
recommended by the  Dublin  College, or perhaps even half  an  hour, is quite suffi-
cient.   [The U.  S. Pharm. directs of  Red Roses ^ss;  Boiling Water Oiiss; Di-
luted Sulphuric Acid fjiij ; Sugar giss.   Pour the Water upon the Roses in a glass
vessel; then add the  acid, and macerate for half an hour; lastly, strain the liquor
and add the sugar.]   Infusion of roses is a mild, but very agreeable refrigerant and
astringent, and is a very pleasant drink in  febrile disorders, hemorrhages, diarrhea,
and colliquative sweats.  It forms a very elegant vehicle for other medicines; as for
saline purgatives (especially sulphate of  magnesia, the unpleasant taste of which it
serves greatly to cover), for disulphate of quinia (which is  dissolved in the water by
the free sulphuric acid, which also serves to prevent  the tannic acid of the roses
precipitating the quina),3 the mineral acids, bitter tinctures, and infusions, alum, &c.
It  serves as a very useful gargle; for which purpose acids, nitre, alum, or tincture
of  capsicum are usually conjoined.   Of course, the alkalies and the earths, as well
as  their carbonates, are incompatible with it; they neutralize the acid, and change
the colour of the preparation to  green or  brownish green.   Sulphate of iron com-
municates a deep olive  colour, and after some hours causes a precipitate.   The sul-
phuric acid of the infusion of roses decomposes  and destroys  the  activity of the
acetate of  lead, by forming sulphate of lead.   It is  a common  practice, however,
though of  course among ignorant practitioners only, to administer, in hemorrhages,
a  pill composed of acetate of lead  and  opium, and at the  same time infusion of

  1  Murray, App. Med. iii. 168.                                       " Lewis, Mat. Med.
  3  Mr. Squire says that sulphuric acid does not dissolve the tannate of quinia, but that nitric acid does. 
Red Rose :—Conserve ;  Honey ; Syrup.
799
roses (?)1  The dose of infusion of roses  is f£j to fgij.   Each fgj contains m^wss.
of dilute sulphuric acid, which are nearly equivalent to  three-sevenths of a minim
of strong sulphuric acid.

  2, CONFECTIO ROSvE, L. D. [U. S.];  Conserva Rosse, E. ; Conserve of Red Roses.
(Petals of the  Red Rose lb. j ;  Sugar,  lb. iij.   Beat the rose  petals in a stone mor-
tar; then, the  sugar being added, beat them again  until they are thoroughly incor-
porated, L.—Beat the petals of the Rosa gallica to a pulp, gradually adding thrice
their weight of white sugar, E.—Dried petals of the Gallic Rose §j;  Rose Water
fjij; Refined Sugar ^iij.   Macerate the petals in the rose water for two hours, add
the sugar  gradually, and beat them into a uniform  mass.  Or, take of fresh  petals
of the Gallic Rose, three ounces; Refined Sugar eight ounces; rub the petals in a
mortar, then add  the sugar gradually,  and beat them together until they are inti-
mately mixed, D.—The  Dublin confection  contains the largest quantity of rose
leaves, and the London  the least.)—[The U.  S. Pharmacopoeia  directs Red  Roses
in  powder, four ounces;  Sugar  in  powder, thirty ounces;   Clarified  Honey six
ounces;  Rose Water  eight fluidounces.   Rub  the Roses with the Rose Water at a
boiling heat, then add gradually the Sugar and Honey, and beat them together
until thoroughly mixed.]   This preparation is slightly astringent.  It was formerly
much esteemed in phthisis.  Its principal use now is as a vehicle for the exhibition
of other medicines. Thus it is a common pill-basis for calomel, disulphate of quinia,
&c.  Pilulse hydrargyri are  prepared  with it.   Alone, or conjoined with the con-
fection of dog-rose, it forms the basis of some elegant pectoral linctuses or electuaries,
containing almond oil, diluted sulphuric acid, or syrup of poppies.   Over the con-
fection of dog-rose it has the advantage of having no tendency to candy.   Further-
more, it does not ferment  or become mouldy.—Dose, 3j to 3ij, or more.

  I MEL R0S1,L. E. [U.S.]; Honey of Roses.—(Dried Red Rose |iv;  Boiling Dis-
tilled Water Jxxiv;  Honey lb. v.  Macerate the rose petals, first separated, in Jxvj of
the water, for  two hours;  then lightly press with  the hand, and strain;  what re-
mains macerate again for a little time  in the  rest of the water, and pour off the
liquor;  to this add the half of the first infusion, and set aside the other half; then
to the honey add  the  mixed liquors, and  evaporate in a water-bath, so that  the so-
lution which was set aside  being added, it may become of a proper consistency, L.
—The Edinburgh College directs the same weight of  the  petals of the rose  and
of honey.  The petals are to be infused in the water for six hours, then strained
and squeezed,  mixed with the honey, and the  liquid evaporated.) Ed.]—[The U.
S. Pharm. directs of Red Roses in coarse powder ^ij ; Clarified honey £xxij ', Boil-
ing water f|xij.   Macerate the Roses in f|vij of Boiling Water for four hours, in
a glass or earthen vessel;  then with strong pressure remove as much as possible of
the infusion and set it aside.  Macerate the residuum in four fluidounces of boil-
ing water for half an hour, and again express.  Reserving four fluidounces of the
first infusion,  mix the remainder with the infusion last obtained, add the  honey,
and by means of a water-bath, evaporate to a pint.   Lastly, add  the  reserved in-
fusion, and strain.]—A mildly astringent and  very agreeable preparation, princi-
pally employed in the diseases of children.   It is  used  sometimes alone as  a mild
detergent in slight  aphthous  affections, or inflammatory conditions of the mouth
and throat;  or as an  agreeable vehicle for the exhibition of other more  powerful
medicines.   It is  occasionally added to  detergent or astringent gargles.—Dose, for
children, 3j.

 J. SYRUPUS  ROSjE GALLKLE, E. D.;  Syrup of Roses.—(Dried Red Rose  petals
3JJ J Boiling Water  Oj; Pure Sugar  £xx. Proceed  as for the  syrup of damask rose,
£•—Take of petals of the Gallic Rose, dried, 3ij; Boiling Distilled Water Oj ; Re-
fined Sugar, in powder, as much as is suflBcient.  Boil the petals in the water in a

  [Kxperience shows, however, that the alternation of doses of such  pills and mixture every few hours
nan effective mode of treating many forms of hemorrhage, especially hemoptysis.—Ed.] 
800
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rosacea.
 glass or porcelain  vessel, until their colour is completely extracted; strain by , \.
 pression, and let the decoction stand until the sediment subsides; then, having de-
 canted the supernatant liquor, add to it twice its weight of sugar, and dissolve with
 the aid of steam or water heat, D.J]—This syrup, though very slightly astringent,
 is principally valuable for its  red colour, on account of which it is sometimes addel
 to mixtures  and electuaries, (as the Electuarium Catechu, E.)


 268.  ROSA CENTIFOLIA, Linn. L. E. D. [U. S]-THE  HUNDRED-
                    LEAVED  OR  CABBAGE ROSE.
                              Sex. Syst. Icosandria, Polygynia.
               (Petalum recens; Petala, L.—Petals; Volatile oil of the petals, E.)

   History.—Theophrastus1  speaks of a  Rosa  centifolia CVohov  txo.tovd$v\\n)
 which grew abundantly about Philippi.  Herodotus3 mentions a rose growing natu-
 rally in Macedonia, and  which had sixty leaves, and more than ordinary fragrance.
 This perhaps was R. centifolia.   Pliny3 also notices the R. centifolia.
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—See Rosa canina.
   Sp. Char.—Prickles nearly straight, scarcely dilated at  the base.  Leaflets 5 to 7,
 ovate, glandular and flaccid at the margin,  hairy beneath.  Florccr-bud ovate, short.
 Sepals, during flowering, spreading, not deflexed.   Fruit ovate, somewhat pulpy.
 Calyxes and peduncles glandulose-hispid, rigid, fragrant.  (De Cand.)
   De  Candolle admits  seventeen distinct  varieties.   In  gardens are found above
 eighty sorts.   One of the best known of them is the Moss Rose (R. Mustma).  At
 Mitcham, the sort  cultivated for medicinal purposes, under the name of the Provim
 or Cabbage  Rose,  appears  to  me to agree with the var. o vulgaris foliacat of De
 Candolle.  Its leaflets are oval or rounded-oval.  The larger prickles slightly falcate.
   Hab.—Asia.   Cultivated at Mitcham, and other places, for  medicinal purposes.
   Description.—The petals of the hundred-leaved rose (flores rosse centifoliieaen
pallidse)  are commonly termed in  the shops l3rovins  or  Cabbage-rose leaves.  They
 should be gathered when tbe flowers are full blown, and before the petals begin to
 fall.  Their odour is strongest when they are of a fine pale red, and before they begin
 to fade.   When freed from  the calyx cups and stamens, they are to be dried in the
 air.  Unlike the petals of R. gallica, desiccation diminishes their fragrance. Their
 odour is said to be singularly exalted by iodine.4  Their taste is sweetish, though some-
 what acidulous and  bitter.   To preserve rose leaves, they are frequently pickled
 or salted (flores rosse saliti) like elder flowers.
   Composition.—I am  unacquainted with any analysis of the petals of the Rosa
 centifolia.  The following,  however, may be regarded  as the  ascertained  consti-
 tuents :  volatile oil, gallic (and tannic?) acid, colouring  matter, a saccharine mat-
 ter (sweet extractive of Pfaff), woody fibre, mineral salts, and oxide of iron.
  1. Volatile Oil (see page 801).
  2. Laxative Principle (Sweet Extractive of Pfaff).—The nature of  the laxative principle
 of the  hundred-leaved rose  has scarcely been examined.  Pfaff5 declares it to  be sweet ex-
 tractive.
   Physiological Effects and Uses.—The  petals are  mildly laxative, and are
 employed, on this account, in  the form  of syrup (see  Syrupus  Rosse).
   On  account of its  delightful fragrancy, this rose is in common use for nosegays
 and  scent-bags, and  is  employed for  the  distillation of rose water.   Its  odorous
 emanations, however, are not always innocuous ; but on some persons have acted
 as a poison,8 causing symptoms which, for the most part, are those indicating a dis-
 ordered  condition  of the cerebro-spinal  system—such  as headache, fainting, and
1 Hist. Plant, vi. 6.                               2 Urania, exxxviii.
3 Hist. Nat. lib. xxi. cap. 10, ed. Valp.                * Chereau, Journ. de Pharm. xii 112.
5 Mat. Med. Bd. iv. S.-277.
6 See Murray. App. Med. iii. 160: Orfila. Toxicol. Gin. 
             Cabbage Rose :—Syrup of Rose; Otto or Roses.           801

 hysterical symptoms; and occasionally giving rise to local irritation, manifested by
 sneezing and inflammation of the eyes.
   1. SYRUPUS ROS.E. L.;  Syrupus Rosse centifolise, E.; Syrup of Roses ;  Syrup of
 Damask  L'o.«:—(Hose  Petals,  dried,  gvij  [ib.  j,  E.~\; Sugar  [pure, E.] lb. vj
  11b. iij, E.~\;  Boiling  Water Oiij; [Rectified Spirit ^vss, L.J  Macerate the Rose
  'etals in the Water for twelve  hours,  and strain.  Evaporate  the strained liquor,
 in a water-bath, to Oij.   Then add  the sugar  [dissolve with the aid of  heat, E.~]
 and strain; lastly, mix in the spirit, L.)—Gently laxative.   Used only for young
 children.  Dose, fjij to f£j.  Its red colour is heightened by acids ;  alkalies change
 it to green or yellow.
   I AQUA ROSiE,  L. E. D. [U. S.];  Rose  Water.—(Petals  of Rosa  centifolia  lb.
 x [Rectified Spirit f^iij, -£".]; Water Cong. ij.  Let a  gallon distil.—"The petals
 should be preferred when  fresh ; but  it also answers well  to use those which have
 been preserved, by beating them with twice their weight of chloride of sodium,"E.)
 The Dublin  College directs  the  Rose Water  to be prepared by agitating n^xx of
 essential oil of Roses with Cong, ss  of distilled water, and filtering through paper.
 —[The U. S. Pharm. directs fresh  Hundred-leaved Roses  eight pounds; Water
 two gallons.  Mix, and distil a  gallon.]—Rose water is prepared both from fresh
 and pickled rose leaves, but of course the former  are preferable.   During its distil-
 lation, a solid volatile oil comes over with it, and floats on the water in the receiver.
 To prevent the water becoming sour, it should  be preserved  in  well-corked bottles,
 kept  in cool  places.  Spirit of  wine ought not to be mixed with it,  for if a suffi-
 cient quantity be added to preserve the water, it renders it unfit for some medicinal
 purposes.   Eose water is employed,  on account of its odour only, as an addition to
 lotions and collyria.
   I. OLEUM  ROSJS, E.; Attar or  Otto of Roses.—Obtained in the East, by distilling
 roses with water.   The attar concretes and floats on the distilled water when cold.1
 In Northern  India, rose water and  attar  are distilled from  It.  damascena*  The
 precise species of rose used at Ghazepoor, in Hindostan, where  the  attar  is exten-
 sively distilled, as well as  at  Shiras, in Persia, has  not been  satisfactorily ascer-
 tained.  At the latter place a rose with white flowers is said  to be used.3  Is it R.
 nioschata? In  the  manufacture  of  rose water in  England, from R. centifolia, a
 crystalline volatile oil with the odour of the attar is  frequently obtained  (English
 attar of roses).   Polier says that, to  procure something less  than three  drachms of
 attar from  100 lbs.  of rose  leaves, in India, the season must be very  favourable,
 and the operation carefully performed.  Jackson states that from one lac of roses
 it is generally calculated  that 180  grains, or one tolah of attar, can  be procured.
 Heber4 says, 20,000 roses yield attar equal  in weight to that of  a rupee.  Accord-
 ing to Donald Monro,5 the  attar  is procured without distillation, merely by mace-
 rating the petals in water.   But  Trommsdorff6 tried the method, and failed to pro-
 cure any oil.   [It is, however, certain that, in India, attar is occasionally  obtained
 by exposing the rose-leaves iu water  to the sun, when the oil floats out.   Landerer
 states also that he has been informed by a person who was some years engaged  in
 the manufacture, that attar is obtained at Damascus, and other parts of Asia Minor,
 by dry distillation of the rose at  the  temperature of a salt-water bath.7—Ed.]
  Attar of roses is imported from Constantinople  and Smyrna.   The duty on it is
 !*■ -id. per lb.  In 1838, 973 lbs.;  in  1839, 745 lbs. paid duty.8
  At temperature below 80° F. attar of roses is a crystalline solid.  It  is usually
almost colourless;  but Polier says,  colour is no criterion of  its goodness, quality,
or country.  Undiluted, its odour is  somewhat too powerful to be agreeable; but

 ! P"licr, Asiat. Research, i. 332; Jackson, Ed. New Phil. Journ. xxviii. 326.
 , R"5'le, Illustr. 203.                               * Fee, Hist. Nat. Pharm. ii. 127.
 % narrative, i. 260.                                » Treat, on Med.  and Pharm. Chym. ii. 311.
  Martius, Pharmacogn.                           ' Pharm. Journ. xi. 105.
  Trade List.
      VOL.  II.—51 
802
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rosacea.
when properly diffused through  the air or some liquid, it is most delicious.  It is
combustible, and its vapour with oxygen  forms an explosive mixture.  It fuses at
between 84° F.  and 86° F.   Its sp. gr. at 90° F. is 0.832 ; water at G0° R being
1.0.*   At 57° F. 1000  parts of alcohol  (sp.  gr. 0.806) dissolve 7  parts, and at
72° F. 33 parts of attar.
   Attar of roses has been analyzed by Saussure and Blanchet, but their results do
not accord.
Blanchet's Analysis.
             Atoms.
Carbon.....23  .
Hydrogen ...  23
Oxygen  ....  3

  Attar of Roses  1
Eq. Wt.   PerCent.
138
 23
 24
.  74.59
.  12.43
.  12.99

. 100.00
   Saussure's Analysis.
                Per Cent.
Carbon......82.053
Hydrogen.....13.121
Oxygen......  3.94a
Nitrogen......  O.S74

                 100.000
   Sandal-wood oil, oil of rhodium, some of the  fixed oils, and spermaceti, have
been said to be occasionally employed for adulterating attar of roses; but as far as
my observation extends, the attar found in the shops of London is very pure.
   Attar of roses consists of two volatile oils;  one solid, the other liquid, at ordi-
nary temperatures, in the proportion of about one part of  the  first to two parts of
the second.   To  separate  them, the attar is to be frozen and compressed between
folds of blotting-paper, which absorbs the liquid and leaves the solid oil; or they
may be separated  by alcohol (of sp. gr. 0.8), which dissolves the liquid, but takes
up scarcely anything of the solid oil.
   a.  Solid Oil of Roses (Rose Camphor; Stearoptene of Oil of Roses).—Occurs in crystalline plates
fusible at about 95° F.   It is composed, according to Saussure, of carbon 86.743,  and hydrogen
14.889; or an equal number of atoms of carbon and hydrogen.  Blanchet states its composition
to be, carbon 85.86, hydrogen 14.46.   [The solid portion is insoluble in alcohol, but  may be puri-
fied by solution in ether. In constitution it is isomeric with oil of turpentine, being represented
by CH or some multiple of it.—Ed.]
  8-  Liquid Oil of Roses (Eleoptene of Oil of Roses).—This oil has not been accurately examined.
From Saussure's analysis of the ordinary attar and of its stearoptene, it would appear to contain
oxygen and nitrogen, in  addition to carbon and hydrogen.  By calculation, the proportions appear
to be, carbon 80.56, hydrogen 12.42, oxygen 3.92, nitrogen  1.3.2  The presence of  nitrogen  ha«
not been confirmed by the researches of other chemists.
   Attar of roses is employed for scenting only.   In the shops, various perfumes are
sold which owe their odour to the attar. Thus oil for the hair, sold  as huile antique
rouge  & la rose, is merely olive oil coloured by alkanet, and scented with  the attar.
Milk of roses also contains  the  attar.   Several  compound  scents owe a portion of
their fragrance to this oil;  as lavender  water.   The Edinburgh  College has very
properly, as I conceive, introduced  this oil into the  Pharmacopoeia; for, as medi-
cines frequently require to be perfumed, I cannot conceive why the most delicious
perfume should be excluded from the Materia Medica.   It may be employed as an
addition to unguents and  spirit  washes.


                             Tribe  V. POMACE.E.

    269.  CYDONIA VULGARIS,  Persoon, L. E.-THE COMMON

                                    QUINCE.

                                  Pyrus Cydonia, Linn.
                            Sex. Syst. Icosandria, Pentagynia.
                                     (Semen, L.)

   History.—Hippocrates3 employed  the  quince-apple (xuiwvca)  as an  astringent
in diarrhoea.  The Romans called this fruit malum cotoneum.*
   Botany.   Gen. Char.— Calyx  5-cleft.   Petals  somewhat  orbicular.   Stamen-
1 Saussure, Ann. Chim. et Phys. xiii. 337.
8 Opera, 497, ed. Foes.
a Dumas, Traiti de Chim. i. 494.
4 Pliny, Hist. Nat. lib. xv. cap. 11, ed. \ aip 
The Common  Quince:—Description;  Composition;  Effects;  Uses.    803

erect.   Styles 5.   Pome closed, 5-celled; cells many-seeded, cartilaginous.   Seeds
enveloped with mucilaginous pulp.—Small trees.   Leaves undivided, quite  entire
or serrate.   Flowers large, solitary or few, somewhat umbellate.  (De  Cand.)
  Sp. Char.—Leaves  ovate, obtuse  at the base, quite  entire;  their lower surface,
as  well as the calyx,  tomentose.  (De  Cand.)—A small,  much-branched, usually
crooked tree.   Petals  pale rose-colour  or white.   Pome varying in shape, yellow,
covered with  a thin cottony down, very austere, but having a peculiar fragrance.
  De Candolle admits three varieties:—
  «. Maliformis.  Apple Quince.—Pome almost globose.  Cultivated.
  B Lvtitanica.  Portugal Quince.—Leaves broader.  Pome larger.   Cultivated.
  y. Oblonga.  Oblong or Pear Quince.  Leaves oval or oblong.   Cultivated and wild.
  Hab.—South of Europe.  Cultivated in gardens.   Flowers in  May and June.
  Description.—Quince seeds (semina cydonise) are ovate-acute,  flat on one side,
convex  on the other, and of  a  reddish-brown colour.   The most  external coat (epi-
dermis  seminalis, Bischoff)  is composed  of very fine  cells, in  which is lodged a
large quantity of mucilage.   When, therefore, these seeds are thrown into  water,
the mucilage  swells up, distends, and ultimately bursts the tender cells.1
  Composition.—No analysis of either fruit or seeds has been made.  The fleshy
pulp of the  fruit contains an astringent matter, malic  acid, sugar, pectine, or vege-
table jelly, a nitrogenous matter, probably volatile oil, water, and vegetable fibre.
The  SEEDS contain  colouring matter, tannic  acid, a large quantity  of ^.peculiar
gummy matter in  their outer coat, probably amygdalin (as Stockman obtained  hy?
drocyanic acid  from  the  seeds  by distillation), emulsin, starch, fixed oil, and  woody
fibre.
  CiDoyts (Peculiar Gum of Quince Seed; Bassorin ; Mucus ; Quince  Mucilage).—One  part of
quince seed forms, with forty parts of water, a thick mucilage, which produces, with the fol-
lowing salts, gelatinous coagula or precipitates; acetate and diacetate of lead,  protochloride of
lin, nitrate of mercury, and sesquichloride of iron.  Rectified  spirit produces at first scarcely
any effect; after some time  partial coagulation is effected.   Oil of vitriol communicates a pink-
ish tint, and causes the separation of a frothy coagulurn, which floats on the  mixture.   Silicate
of potash, infusion of nutgalls, and oxalate  of  ammonia, produce  no change in the mucilage.
Quince  mucilage, usually termed bassorin, appears to me to be a  peculiar substance: hence I
propose  to call it cydonin.   It is distinguished from arabine (see Gum Arabic)  by the effect on
it of alcohol, silicate of potash, sulphuric acid, and oxalate of ammonia;  from bassorin  and
ceraiin (see below)  by its solubility in water, both hot and cold j from tragacanthin (see Gum
Tragacanth) by the effect  of sulphate of iron, oxalate of ammonia, and alcohol; from carrageenin
by tlie effect of silicate of potash and acetate of lead.2
  Physiological Effects.—The fruit is not eatable in  its raw state.   Stewed in
pies or  tarts,  along with  apples, it  is much esteemed.   The expressed juice (succus
cydonise) is said  to  be  cooling and astringent.  An excellent  marmalade  (miva
cydonise) and syrup are  prepared from  the quince by the confectioner.  The muci-
lage of quince  seed  is nutritive, demulcent, and  emollient.  The whole  seeds, if
taken in sufficient quantity, and  well masticated, would,  perhaps, act like  bitter
almonds, as they are said to  yield hydrocyanic acid.
  Uses.—Quince seeds  are employed in medicine only on  account  of the mucilage
which they yield.
  DECOCTUM  CTD0N1I, L.;  Mucilage  of Quince Seed.—(Quince Seeds 3ij ; Distilled
Water Oj.   Boil  with a gentle heat for ten minutes, and  strain.)—Never used in-
ternally. Employed  externally as an emollient and sheathing application to cracked
lips and nipples;  to the inflamed conjunctiva; to the skin when affected with ery-
sipelas; and to painful hemorrhoidal  tumours.  Hair-dressers use  it, as a cement, for
dressing the hair in braids.
1 >>'-e Bischoff. Handb. d. bot. Tirmin. tab. xiii. fig. lso9.
* 1 >>r some experiments on mucilage of quince seed, see Bostock, in Nicholson's Journal, vol. xviii. 
804
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Rosacea.
                         OTHER MEDICINAL ROSACEiE.

             1.  The Kosso,  Kotjsso, or  Brayera  anthelmintica.1

  History.—Kosso has been used in Abyssinia as an anthelmintic for more than two centuries'
for  Leutholf (Ludolfi, Historia  JEthiopica, lib. i. cap. ix. sect. 31, 1681) says that "N. Godingu^
praises another tree as being very efficacious against lumbrici, which are produced by the use of
raw meat.  But the Abyssinians purge themselves every month with the fruit of this tree  and
thus," he  says, " destroy these worms."  Now there can be little doubt, I conceive, but that this
passage refers to the kosso.
  Bruce, in his Travels to discover the Source of the Nile, from 1768 to 1773 (vol. v. p. 73), pub-
lished  at London in 1790, mentions this medicine, which he calls cusso, and  proposes to name
the tree Banksia Abyssinica, after Sir Joseph Banks, the then  President of the Royal Society
But the younger Linnaeus, in the Supplementum Plantarum, published at Brunswick in 1781  had
already appropriated the  name of Banksia to a New Holland genus of  proteaceous  plants', and
he  has been  followed by all succeeding botanists; so that it is obvious  that Bruce's proposed
botanical  name  for the kosso cannot be adopted.
  Bruce gave a very good popular account of kosso, accompanied by what he  justly terms "a
true and exact" figure of the plant.  I have compared his figures with a specimen of the plant
collected  in  Abyssinia by Schimper, and  contained  in  the  herbarium of my friend Mr. N. B.
Ward, and with the commercial flowers, and  find that they are  fair representations of the plant.
  Bruce states that the Abyssinians evacuate once a  month "a  large quantity of worms; these
are not the  tapeworm, or those  that trouble children, but they are the sort of worm called
ascarides."   This statement agrees with that of Godingus,  just quoted; but  it  does not accord
with the observations of other travellers, who tell us that  the  worms with  which  the Abyssi-
nians are troubled, and for which they employ the kosso, is  the tapeworm.  The accuracy of
this latter statement lias been  proved by Dr.  Hodgkin (Medical Times, October 26, 1844, p. 74),
who gave oil of turpentine to an Abyssinian in the service of Dr. Beke, and thereby expelled a
Taenia solium—the same kind  of tape-worm  which prevails in England, and which is under-
stood to prevail  at the Gape of Good Hope.
  In the Encyclopedic Methodique (Botanique, Supplem. torn. ii. p. 423, 1811), Lamarck has de-
scribed the Cusso dAbyssinie, which he named after Dr. C. G. Hagen,a professor at Konigsberg,
the  Hagenia Abyssinica.  He says the tree  was discovered  by Brown—but I presume that  this
i* a typographical error, and that for " Brown"  should be read '• Bruce ;" for the figures of the plant
given by Lamarck (pi. 311) are obviously copied from those of Bruce, though he does not refe
to this  distinguished traveller as his authority.
  It is remarkable that Lamarck's proposed  generic name (Hagenia) has been applied by the
late Professor Eschweiler (Systema Lichenum, 1824) to a proposed  genus of lichens  usually in-
cluded in  that of Parmelia;  and by Monch (Methodus, 1794) to a caryophyllaceous plant now
regarded as a species of Gypsophila.  Willdenow (Species Plantarum) and Sprengel (Syst. Veget.
ii. 220, 1825) have each adopted Lamarck's  name (Hagenia Abyssinica) for kosso.
  Dr. Brayer, a French physician, who resided for a  considerable  time  at Constantinople, and
who had witnessed  the valuable-anthelmintic properties of kosso, and had himself successfully
employed this remedy, sent, on his return to Paris, in 1623, some fragments of the male flowers
to the late celebrated Prussian  Botanist, Kunth, who ascertained that the plant wliich yielded
them formed a new genus, near to, but distinct from, that of Agrimonia.3 To this genus Kunth
gave the name of Brayera, after  the  physician who sent  him  the flowers, and the  species he
celled  B.  anthelmintica.   This generic name has been adopted in the systematic works both of
De  Candolle (Prodromus, vol. ii. p. 588) and Endlicher (Genera Plantarum, 6395). Kunth does
not appear to have been aware either of Bruce's notice of kosso, or that Lamarck had previously
given to this genus the name  of Hagenia ; otherwise, doubtless, he would have referred to them,
and have  adopted this designation.  Dr. Brayer published a  little pamphlet (Noticesur une Nov-
vellePlante de la Famille des Rosacees, Paris, 1823, 8  pages) on this medicine, but  which I have
not been able to get a sight of; the reply to my inquiries for it at Paris being that it  was out of
print.   According to the information furnished by Dr. Brayer, it appears that  kosso is carried by
the caravans to Egypt, and from thence finds  its way to Constantinople.4
  i [From a paper by Dr. Pereira, published in the Pharmaceutical Journal, July 1850, vol. x. p. 15.—Er.]
  2 " De Abyssinorum rebus, lib.i. cap. 2, 8vo. Lyon, 1615."
  3 In the first volume, p. 470, of the Mimoires de VAcadimie Royale de Medicine, it is erroneously stated
that kosso is the Agrimonia orientalis of Tournefort, who saw it in Abyssinia.  Now, in the first place,
Tournefort never was in Abyssinia;  and secondly, the A. orientalis 'A. repens, Linn.) is a creeping berb,
whereas the kosso is a large tree !
  4 In the Journ. de Pharmacie, t. ix. p. 160, 1823, is an Extrait du Bulletin de la Sociitl Philomathique,
1822, containing a notice of Dr. Bayer's observations respecting kosso, and of Kunth's determination of tbe
plant. 
Kosso:—Native Names;  Botany.
805
  The identity of the genera Hagenia and Brayera was first recognized by Fresenius  (Museum
Senkenbergianum, vol. ii. p. 162, 1837).
  In 1 s39, Buchner (Repertorium, 2te Reihe, Bd. xviii. S. 367) gave a notice of three Abyssinian
remedies which  he had received from Engelmann.  One of these was  the kosso (called koso),
which was stated to be the flowers of the Bracer a  [Brayera] anthelmintica.  In 1840, Wittstein
(Buchner's Repertorium, 2te Reihe,  Bd. xxi. p. 24^ published an analysis of kosso, which he calls
Bracera anthelmintica.
  Riecke's Die neuern Arzneimittel,  published in 1840, contains a  notice of the Brayera anthel-
mintica by Dr. Plieninger, who obtained  his information  respecting  it from some missionaries,
returned from  Abyssinia; and  the same  notice includes some  botanical and pharmacological
account of this medicine by Dr. Kurr.
  In 1841, Dr. Aubert, who had spent some time in Abyssinia, read a Me'moire sur Its Substances
Anthelmintiques usitc'es en Abyssinie,  before the Academie Royale de Medecine, Pari9, and which
was published in the Memoirs of the Academy for that year.  His account of the anthelmintic
virtues of the kosso confirms the statements of preceding writers.   A  very  interesting Report on
his memoir was drawn up by Merat, and published in the Bulletin de I Academie Royale de Mede-
cinr, torn. vi. p. 492, 1840-11.
  M. Rochet dHericourt, in his Second Voyage sur les Deux Rives de la Mer Rouge dans le Pays
detMlset le Royaume de  Choa, published at Paris in  1846, gives  a very brief notice  of the
kouo, with a lithograph of the flowers and leaves.   This traveller is the present  holder of the
entire European stock (about 1400 lbs.) of kosso.
  Drs. R. Quartin-Dillon and  A. Petit, the naturalists of the French Expedition to Abyssinia in
the years 1838-43, collected the kosso; of which a botanical description has been published by
A.Richard, in the Tentamen Flora  Abyssinica?, which forms the fourth volume of  the Voyage en
Abyssinie,  edited by  M. Th.  Lefebvre.   The  forty-eighth  plate  of the  "Botanique" of  this
"Voyage" contains an excellent figure of the plant, with dissections of the flower.
  Native  Names.—My friend  Dr. Beke, the well-known  Abyssinian traveller, has given the
following  note respecting the native names for  this  remedy:  "The tree,  of the flowers of
which you have a sample, is called in the Amharic  language kosso,1 and in that of Tigre, hhdbbe.2
In the Gafat language it is styled kossish,  and in the Gonga, kosbo;» in the Agau of Waag, sika;
in that of Agau-mider, shinei; and  in  Falasha,  sakikana ; whilst in Galla, its name is  beti.  In
the countries farther to the south, it has other names,4 which, however, I have not collected in
my vocabularies  of the  languages  of  those countries.   But it is  best known  in Abyssinia and
Europe by its Amharic designation, kosso."   Dr. Beke farther observes that " the tape-worm, for
which the kosso flowers are  a  remedy, is known  in   the languages of Amhara and Tigre by
the same names  respectively  as the medicine itself, viz. kosso and hhdbbe.   So. too, in the Gafat
and Ginga, in which  respectively both are called k6ssish and  kosbo.   In  the  Waag-Agau,  like-
wise, tbe name sika is the same for both; but in the dialect of Agau-mider, the worm  is called
two, and, in the Falasha, saka ;  whilst in the Galla, it is minuiP
  Botany.—The first accurate botanical description of the flowers of kosso was given by Kunth,
whose account has been adopted in De Candolle's Prodromus.   Kunth. however, was acquainted
with the male  flowers only.   The  most recent  systematic notice of the genus  Brayera is  that of
Endlicher, which I shall adopt.


                                   Braveka, Kunth.

  Bhateiia, Kunth, in Brayer Notice, in Svo. 1824, Paris; Did.  Class. Hist. Nat.  vol. ii. p. 501,
cum icone.  DC. Prodr. ii. SSS.  Meisner, Gen. 103 (73).  Fresenius in Mus. Senkerb. ii. 162 ;
Endlicher, Gen. Plant, p. 1248, 6395;  Hagenia, Lamarck, Eticycl. M'lh. Bot. Suppl. t. ii. p. 423;
U'illdenow, Sp. PI. ii.  331.  Cusso, Bankesia,  Bruce's  Travels, vol. v. p. 73.
  Calyx, with  the  tube  bitracteolate  at  tlie base,  turbinate; throat  constricted internally by a
membranous ring; limb  10-partite ; the segments in two series, the five outer ones much  larger,
ublong-lanceolate, obtuse, reticulate-veined, stellately  patent, the  five inner  ones  alternate,
smaller, spathulate.  Petals 5, inserted in the throat of  the  calyx, small, linear.   Stamens from
15 to 20, inserted along with  the petals.  Filaments free, unequal in  length.   Anthers bilocular,
dehiscing  longitudinally.   Carpella 2, placed at the bottom of the calyx, free, unilocular, con-
taining one or two pendulous ovules.  Styles terminal, exserted from  the throat of the  calyx,
tai'kened upwards.   Stigmas  subpeltate-dilated, crenato oblong.
  Nat. Ohd.—Rosace.k, Jussieu.  De Candolle places it in Tribe v. Dryadea.   Endlicher, in
his suborder, Spiraacea.
 1 This word is variously spelt  by different writers, cusso, cosso, cousso, coso, koso, kosso, and kousso.
Dr. Aubert says it should be pronounctd (in French) cousso.
   According to Dr. Plieninger, who obtained his information from the Abyssinian missionaries, the Tigre
namei« hepah. Wittstein writes it habi.
   Written cobso by some persons.
   " Dr. Brayer gives cotz or cabotz, as vernacular names ;  according to Dr. Aubert (Bullet, de  I'Acad.
Royale) these names are erroneous." 
806
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rosacea.
  Brateba  anthelmintica, Kunth, 1. c; DC. I.e.; A. Richard,Tentamen Florce  Abyssinia
Hagenia, Abyssinica, Lamarck, 1. c.;  Cusso, Bankesia Abyssinica, Bruce, I. c.
Fig. 360.
                               Brayera anthelmintica, Kunth.
        a. Flowering branch.                 I     c. Flower seen laterally.
        B. Bunch of female flowers.            |     d. Female flower.
                       a, b, c, d, e, the five outer segments of the calyx.

  The only species.
  An Abyssinian tree, twenty  feet  high.  Branches round, rusty, tomentose villose, marked by
the annular cicatrices of the fallen  leaves.  Leaves crowded, alternate, interruptedly imparipin-
nate and sheathing at the base.  Leaflets oblong,  or elliptical  lanceolate, acute, serrate, villose
at the margin and en the nerves  of the under surface.  Stipules adnate to the petiole, which is
dilated at the base and amplexicaul.  Flowers dioecious, small, greenish, and becoming purple;
repeatedly  dichotomous; the pedicels with an ovate bract at the base.
  The so-called male  flowers may be regarded  as  hermaphrodite  flowers, inasmuch as the
carpels are well developed.   The  female flowers are somewhat  different in their  structure.
The outer segments of the calyx are much more developed than in the female flowers, and are
four or five times larger than those  of the inner row,  and are  placed somewhat below them;
the  petals are entirely wanting;  the stamina are rudimentary and  sterile.
  The ripe fruits are unknown.
  The tree grows in Tigre, Agame, and Shoa; it is cultivated everywhere.
  Dr. Beke writes that  the tree  is "found throughout  the entire table-land of North-eastern
Abyssinia, but appears to require an elevation of upwards of six  thousand (perhaps of seven
thousand)  feet for its growth.  Where I  found it most luxuriant was in  the  vicinity of the
source of the River Abai (Bruce's Nile), at an elevation of close upon nine thousand feet. Tigre, 
gosso:—Preparation; Pharm acography; Adulteration;  Chemistry.  807
ihe northern portion of Abyssinia, being, on the whole, of lower elevation than the rest of that
Mantry, the tree is only found there in a few places."
 Bfoce^ describes the flowers as being of a greenish colour, tinged with purple; and, when
folly blown, of a deep red or purple.  The petals, he says, are white.
 Preparation.—Mr. Johnston states that the kosso is gathered for medicinal purposes before
[be seeds are  quite ripe, whilst still a number of florets remain unchanged.   The bunches are
suspended in  the sun to dry, and if not required for  immediate use, are deposited in a jar.
 Phabmacographt.—I have seen only one package of kosso (flores  brayera anthelmintica) •
ihis was kindly opened in my presence by M. Simond, of the firm of Caylits, Simond, and Co,
ibe agents of M. Rochet d'Hericourt.  It was a deal-box, containing  about 30 lbs. of the dried
flowers, wrapped up in a large skin of red leather.  On removing the  lid of the box and unty-
ing the leather package, the fragment or balsamic odour of the dried flowers was very power-
ful. It appeared to me to be somewhat similar to the combined odour of tea, hops, and  senna-
leaves.  The flowers had  apparently undergone  no  preparation beyond that of desiccation.
The bunches of  flowers were perfect and unbroken, though  of course compressed.   The
general colour of the dried mass was greenish-yellow; but when the flowers  were more closely
examined, the edges of the petals were seen to have a reddish or purplish colour.
 The taste of the dried  flowers  is at first  not very marked, but after a few minutes a feeble
senna-like, acrid, unpleasant taste  becomes perceptible.  By soaking  the dried flowers in water
they may be  unfolded sufficiently  to determine their botanical  characters, which have been
already described.  When submitted to microscopic  examination the hairs are perceived to be
simple lymphatic hairs, tapering at the distal extremity.
 In  Abyssinia, two sorts of kosso are distinguished, viz., 1st, the red,kosso produced  by the
female flowers;  2dly, the male flowers, known as  kosso-esels.  In commerce, the two sorts are
always mixed together.
  Adulteration.—Considering the enormous price (about £1 15s. per ounce) at which kosso
hashiiherto been sold in  Paris, and the very limited quantity originally supplied by M. Rochet
d'Hericourt, it cannot be surprising that the  article should  be extensively adulterated.  Indeed,
I have been assured on credible authority, that the powder now selling as "  kousso" is, in  fact,
the powder of pomegranate bark ; and  that legal proceedings have been commenced in Paris
to put a stop to the fraud, which is well calculated to injure the reputation of  the genuine Abys-
sinian remedy.
 I have no doubt that the  microscope would readily detect the substitution;  but the surest  way
of obtaining the genuine article is to purchase the dried flowers in  the entire state, not  in the
form of powder.
 Chexistrt.—The flowers of the Brayera (i. e. kosso) have  been analyzed  by Wittstein (ante
at) and by Martin (Journ. de Chimie Med. t. vi. 2nde ser. p. 579, 1840).   The following are
the results obtained :—
        Martin's Analysis.    ^
Starch.
Saccharine matter.
Vegetable extractive matter.
Green very odorous resin.
Crystalline substance calledkwoseine.
             Wittstein's Analysis.
      Fatty oil .  . )                          , ,.
      Chlorophylle J............   14*
      Wax.................   2.02
      Bitter acrid resin...........   6.25
      Tasteless resin............   0.77
      Sugar.................   1.08
      Gum.................   7.22
      Tnnnin striking a green colour with iron   8.94
      Tannin striking a blue colour with iron .  15.46
      Vegetable fibre............40.97
      Ashes.................15.71

                                          99.86
      [Loss.................00.14]

                                         100.00

  The ashes consist of potash, magnesia, lime, oxide of iron, sulphuric and  phosphoric acids,
 chlorine, and silica.
  With regard  to the two kinds of tannin, Wittstein observes that, as far as he knows, this is
 UP first instance recorded of a plant containing  simultaneously two kinds of tannin, striking,
 the one a blue,  the other a green colour with the salts of iron.
  Although it is not improbable that the  anthelmintic property of kosso may  in part depend on
 •winin (since the  pomegranate bark, which contains this principle in  abundance, is, like kosso,
 »l«o an anthelmintic), yet what may be  termed the  peculiar property of the kosso probably
 resides chiefly  in  the  bitter acrid  resin.  This is soluble in alcohol and in ether, and appears
 to be a neutral  body, manifesting neither distinct alkaline nor acid  properties.
  The crystalline principle to which Martin has  given the barbarous name  of kwoseine (from
 *•"•■ tbe supposed name for kosso), is described as consisting of white silky crystals, having a
 !<yptic taste, and as being soluble  in alcohol and sulphuric ether.  They are said to redden
 'i'mus paper, and to dissolve, without undergoing decomposition, in sulphuric, nitric, and muri-
atic acids. 
808
VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord.  Rosacea.
  By boiling the dried plant  in water a fragrant odour  is evolved.  No doubt this as well as
the odour of the dried plant itself depends on the presence of a volatile oil, of which, however
no mention is made in Wittstein's analysis, the oil being present in too small a quantity to ad-
mit of its collection when small quantities of the flowers are operated on.
  It is not improbable that  the anthelmintic  properties may in part depend on this oil for
Schimper states that, in Abyssinia, the plant is considered to have lost its anthelmintic powers
in the  third year after its collection.   In Europe, however, it retains its  powers for  a longer
period (on account of the  cooler climate?) ; for the flowers which have been used % all the
recent experiments have been collected more than four years, and we are told, in the  shop-bill
of a Parisian pharmacien,  that they may be kept for  an indefinite period.
  An infusion of a decoction of kosso strikes a dark-green olive  tint with a solution of the ses-
quichloride of iron.
  Medicinal Properties.—Neither botanical characters, sensible qualities, nor chemical  com-
position, would  have  induced us to suspect that kosso possesses the valuable anthelmintic pro-
perties which experience has shown  that it does.
  The general and prevailing quality of the.Rosacea? is astringency, dependent on the  presence
of tannic and gallic  acids.  This is observed in the  flowers (e. g. rose petals), as well  as in
other parts of the plants.  In this quality kosso agrees with its congeners.  But it can scarcely
be on  this that  its vermifuge property  solely depends; otherwise  rose petals, or any other
equally powerful  astringent, would  be  as effective  in  expelling worms as these Abyssinian
flowers.   But in Rosaceae,  as in many other families of the vegetable  kingdom, anomalies  exist
—and to this head we must for the present be content to refer kosso.
  Our confidence in the anthelmintic properties of kosso, rests, then, on experience only; and
the  evidence on  this point  is very  strong.   AH modern travellers in Abyssinia are agreed on
the  great  success of the remedy on the natives of that  country; and the experience of  phy-
sicians in France, England, Germany, and Switzerland, confirms the  favourable reports made
by those who have seen the kosso used  in its native country.
  In Paris, it has been employed with great success  by Cliomel and Sandras (Ann. de Thirap.
pour 1847), as well as by numerous other distinguished physicians.  In London, our experience
of it is much more limited;  but the successful results of its  use  in  King's College Hospital, in
the hands of Drs. Budd  and Todd  (Lancet, March 16, April  20,  and  May 25, ] K.r>0), and
of Dr. Gull (Lancet,  May  25), in Guy's Hospital, confirm the favourable reports of its efficacy
which had reached this country from abroad.
  The physiological effects of kosso are not in general very great. Sometimes it excites a slight
sensation of heat, nausea,  or even vomiting, creates thirst, and  frequently, perhaps usually, a
gentle action on the bowels.   But the latter is commonly so slight that, in a considerable num-
ber of cases, it is necessary to  follow its administration  by a mild purgative.   It is  obvious,
therefore, that  the  efficacy of kosso as  an anthelmintic  does not depend on its  purgative or
evacuant influence, but on its poisonous  or toxic  action on the worm ;  in  fact, it is a true vermi-
cide.  In one case, that of a woman in France, it brought away ten worms, of which one  only
manifested evidences of vitality, and that for a few minutes only.
  Kosso appears to be an effective  anthelmintic in both kinds of tape-worm, viz. the Tama
solium, and Bothriocephalus latus.  In most of the reported  successful cases, the Tarda solium
was the  parasite expelled; but in one of Chomel's cases, the worm which was evacuated was
the Bothriocephalus  latus, and I am  informed that kosso has proved most effectual in  Switzer-
land, where, as is well known, the Bothriocephalus is the prevailing tape-worm.
  The dealers in kosso assert that one dose  will, in every case, effect the radical cure  of tape<
worm.  But this must be  obviously  an  error.   Even supposing that it invariably destroys all
the worms in the alimentary canal at the time of its exhibition, it can in  no way prevent  their
recurrence, provided  the patient retains  his predisposition (which there is no reason to suppose
is affected by the kosso), and is subjected to the same influence.   It certainly does not  radically
cure  the Abyssinians, since, as  several  writers tell us, they resort  to  this remedy  monthly.
Schimper, the Governor of Adoa, says it does not completely expel the taenia, or at least rarely
does so.   But, he  adds, that  possibly in  Europeans, in whom the verminous disposition is not
so pronounced as in the Abyssinians. it may perhaps act in a more complete manner.   In the
Abyssinians this verminous disposition is innate, and is dependent, he adds, on the  regimen
which they adopt.
  Hitherto, the  great  drawback to  the  use of kosso has been  the difficulty of procuring the
remedy, and its enormous cost.   At the time when it could be purchased  in Paris, its  price
was £l  15s. per. oz., or 17s. Qd. per dose. M. Rochet d'Hericourt, the sole holder of the medi-
cine at the present time, refuses to sell any quantity less than his entire stock, at the rate of one
guinea per ounce!  His nephew tells me that his uncle  possesses 1400 lbs. of it, which, at one
guinea per ounce, will cost 22,400  guineas !!!  The impossibility of effecting a sale  on  such
terms  will, I doubt not, ultimately compel the holder to  reduce  his demands to something ap-
proaching to reason.  It does  not appear  that the remedy  is very costly in Abyssinia.  Schimper,
writing  from  Adoa, in Abyssinia, says  that it is found  in commerce at a very low price. At
Yangaroo  (commonly called  Zingaro), the sovereign has the exclusive  use of it, his subjects
being prohibited from employing it;  but in other pa^ts free  trade in kosso is permitted,  ton- 
Kosso:—Cherry-Tree Gum.
809
siderin-: tbe frequency and rapidity of our communications with Egypt (to which place, accord-
ing to Dr. Brayer, kosso is conveyed by caravans), no difficulty, I apprehend, will be experienced
jn obtaining an abundant supply of it.  Its present price is a virtual prohibition of its use.
  The  flavour, though not very strong, is by no means agreeable ;  and is sufficiently powerful
in some patients to create disgust and excite vomiting.  In one case, under M.  Chomel  (Ann.
it The nip. pour 1847), the whole of the remedy was rejected by vomiting.
  No ill effects have  resulted from  its use in this  country;  nor have I met with  any statement
of its injurious action, except in  Mr. Johnston's  Travels in Southern Abyssinia (vol. ii.  p. 272,
1844),  where it is stated that its "operation is speedy and effectual; and to judge by the pros-
tration  of strength it occasioned in my servants when they  employed this medicine, it must be
dreadfully severe.  I  can answer for this, that it occasions  frequent miscarriages, often  fatal to
the mother; and  even men  have been  known, after a large dose, to have died the same  day
from its consequences.   I am, therefore, surprised at the noise  this remedy has occasioned the
last few years in Europe, as if it promised to be a valuable  addition to our Materia Medica.
This, I conceive, can  never be, for no civilized stomach could bear the bulk of the drug  neces-
sary to produce its effects. Even in  Abyssinia it is but barely tolerated, and let another remedy
equally efficacious for dislodging tape-worm  be  introduced into that country, and the  use of
cosso will be soon abandoned.   In  fact, several other vegetable productions are  now employed
to escape tbe punishment of a dose of this  violent cathartic."
  Administration.—Both Bruce  (op. ante cit.) and Schimper (Bourchardat, Annnaire de The-
rapeut.pour 1849, p. 257) tell us that the Abyssinians take a handful of the dried flowers as a
dose.  In  Paris, the dose has varied  from four to six drachms.  In general, however, half an
ounce (troy weight) is considered a dose for an adult.
  For  different ages the doses are thus adjusted :—
         Adults...................1 dose = 240 grs. (half an ounce.)
         Children of  from 7 to 12 years......| of a dose = 160 grs.
            "          3 to  7    "......| of a dose = 120 grs.
            "  not  exceeding 3    "......i of a dose =  SO grs.

  The kosso should be taken in the morning, fasting.   The only preparation necessary  is, that
the last meal of the previous evening should  be slight.   The evacuation of the bowels by a
mild purgative or a lavement is also desirable.
  The mode  of administering the  remedy is as  follows:   The powdered flowers are to  be
mixed  wiih lukewarm water (for  an adult about ten ounces), and allowed   to infuse for a
quarter of an hour. A little lemon-juice is then to  be swallowed, and, the infusion being stirred
up, the whole is taken, liquid  and  powder, at two or three draughts, at short intervals, being
washed down  by cold water and lemon-juice.  To promote the operation, tea (without sugar
or milk)  may be taken.  In three or four hours, if  the  remedy has not  operated, a dose of
castor-oil or a saline purgative  should be administered.
3G1.
  2. Cheriiy-Tkee Gi/m.—From  the stems of the Cherry (Cerasus  avium), Plum (Prunus do-
 mestica), and some other rosaceous trees, there exudes a mucilaginous liquor, which concretes
 into tears, forming the gummi nostras,  cherry-tree gum  (gummi cerasi), plum-tree  gum  (gummi
 pruni).  It may be employed in  medicine  as a substitute for  tragacanth gum.  It consists of
 two gummy principles :  one called arabine (see gum Arabic), soluble in cold water ; the  other
 termed prunin or cerasin, insoluble in  cold, but soluble in hot water.
  3. Alchemiu.a auvknsis, Field  Ladies' Mantle, or
 Parsley  Piert, is  a small, indigenous, herbaceous plant,
 with green  flowers.  It  belongs to  Tetrandria Mono-
 fi/nia, in the sexual system.   It is  astringent (owing
 to tannic acid), and, perhaps, slightly mucilaginous.   It
 was formerly eaten raw or pickled, and  thought service-
 able in  cases of gravel  or stone;  hence  it  was called
 ortalc-stone.   Prout1 tegards it as a diuretic,  and a3 pro-
 ducing,  in particular states of■ the system, a  large secre-
 'ion of  lithic acid.  A strong infusion  of it, taken fre-
 quently, sometimes  gives  great  relief,  he says,-in the
 less severe cases of the  phosphatic  or earthy  deposit,
 where the source of irritation is chiefly confined to the
 urinary organs, and where the constitution is sound, and
 ihe strength not  remarkably reduced.
  4. Redkgitar.—On  various species of Rosa, perhaps
most  frequently  on  R. rubiginosa,  the  Street brier or
F.glantiw, is  found a remarkable gull, called the Sweet-
 rvr  's/'°»£e (Vedeguar  seu Fungus Rosarum).   Pliny      Bedeguar or Sweetbrier Sponge.
1 Inq. into the Nat. and Treat, of Diabetes, &c. 2d ed. pp. 149 and 1S5 
810
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Leguminosie.
terms it, in oneplace^a little ball (pilula), in another,2 a sponglet (spongiola). It is produced by the
punctureof several insect species, viz. Cynips Rosa and Brandttii (both of which are elaborately de-
scribed by Ratzeburg3) and a species of Mesoleptus.  Other species (as those of Diplolepis and hero.
malus) are  also found in these galls; but they are probably parasites, and not the true inhabitants
The Bedeguar is usually rounded, but of variable size, sometimes being an inch, or an inch and a
half or more in diameter. Externally, it looks shaggy, or like a ball of moss, being covered with
moss-like branching fibres, which are at first green, but become afterwards purple and red. The
nucleus is composed principally of cellular tissue, with woody fibre;  and where  the fibres are
attached, bundles of spiral vessels are observed.   Internally, there are numerous shells, in each
of which is the larva of an insect;  if opened about August or September, maggots (larvce) are
usually found.   It is inodorous, or  nearly so; its tastS is  slightly  astringent, and it colours the
saliva.brownish.  It has not been analyzed, but is suspected to contain tannic and gallic acids.
Dried and  powdered, it was formerly given in doses of  from ten to  forty grains, as a diuretic
and lithontriptic.  More recently it has been recommended as an anthelmintic, and as a remedy
against  toothache.  Pliny says the  ashes, mixed with honey, were used as a liniment for bald-
ness.  In another place, he speaks of the fungus being mixed with bear's grease, for the same
purpose.
362.
     Order  LXV.  LEGUMINOS^,  Jussieu.—THE  BEAN
                                        TRIBE.

                                     Fabacese, Lindley.

  Characters.—Calyx of 5  (rarely of 4) sepals, more or less united at the  base, and, there-
                               fore,  5-toothed, 5-cleft, or 5-partite; sepals  unequal, in some
                               cases almost equally coherent, in  others concreted into 2 lips;
                               the upper consisting of 2 sepals, which are either free at  the
                               apex, or united;  the lower of 3 sepals generally distinct at the
                               apex.   Petals 5, or, by abortion, 4, 3, 2, 1, or  none ;  generally
                               unequal, inserted usually into the base of the calyx, rarely on
                              , the torus ; in general, variously imbricated, rarely valved, almost
                               always free, sometimes united into a gamopetalous corolla.  [In
                               the sub-order Papilionacea, the petals form a butterfly -shaped or
                               papilionaceous corolla, composed of a large  upper  petal, called
                               vexillum or standard, two lateral ones, termed aim or wings, and
                               an  inferior keel-shaped one   denominated  carina  or keel, and
                               which  is, in fact, composed  of two petals  adherent by their
                               margin.]   Stamens  inserted with  the  petals, generally double
                               the number of the  latter, rarely triple or quadruple, or fewer;
                               altogether free,  or  the filaments  variously connected, being
                               monadelphous, with the tube entire or  cleft  above, or diadel-
                               phous  9 and  1, or  5 and  5,  very rarely triadelphous;  anlheri
                               two-celled.  Carpel generally 1, the others  being  abortive; or
                               2 to 5.   Ovary oblong or ovate, sessile or stipitate, free, or very
                               rarely adnate by the stipe to  the calyx.  Style 1, filiform, aris-
ing from the upper suture; stigma terminal or lateral.   Legumes 2-valved, membranous, coria-
Papilionaceous Flowers.
Fig. 363.
Fig. 364.
Legumes of Ceratonia Siliqua.
          Common Garden Bean.
a. Plumule.    ft. Cotyledons or seed lobes.
c. Radicle bent on the cotyledons tcurvembruz.)
1 Hist. Nat. lib. xxi. cap. 73, ed. Valp.
3 Mediz. Zoolog. Bd ii. S. 146, et seq.
2 Ibid. lib. xxv. cap. 6. 
Quinquino:—History; Botany;  Collection.             811
r-rnus rarely fleshy or drupaceous, dehiscent or indehiscent, 1-celled; or by the folding in of one
of the sutures, longitudinally 2 celled; or by isthmi or articulations, transversely many-celled.
Seeds 2, or many, or by abortion (?) solitary, affixed to the upper suture, inserted alternately into
each valve, frequently oval or reniform ; funiculus various, rarely expanded into an arillus ; testa
smooth, frequently very much so, and  stony; endopleura often  tumid, simulating albumen.
Embryo sometimes straight [rectembria~\, or curved [curvembria], the radicle being inflexed on
the commissure of the lobes (homotropal or pleurorhizous) ; in either case the radicle directed
towards the hilum; cotyledons foliaceous or fleshy; the first exsert, the latter germinating within
the spermoderm, under ground.—Trees, shrubs, or herbs with alternate, bistipulate, simple or
variously-compounded leaves.—(Condensed from De Candolle, with additions within the  square
brackets.)
  Phopertiks.—Exceedingly variable.  Similar organs of different, though often closely-allied
Bpecies are frequently found  to elaborate  most dissimilar principles; and, of course, the diete-
tical, medicinal, or poisonous properties vary in a corresponding manner.—For details,  consult
Dierbach, Abhandl. iib. d. Arzneikrafle der Pflanzen ; and De Candolle, Essai sur les Propr. Med.


                     Sub-order  I.  PapilionaceyE.

270. MYROSPERMUM (Myroxylon), Species incerta  (Peruiferum), De Cand., £.—
                           THE QUINQUINO.
                            Myroxylon peruiferum, Linn.
                          Sex. Syst. Decandria, Monogynia.
      (Balsamum ex inciso trunco fusum, L.—Fluid balsamic exudation, E.—Balsamum, D.)
                           (Balsamum Peruvianura, IT. S.)

  History.—The balsam of Peru was first mentioned by Nicholas Monardes,  under
the name of balsamum.1   No accurate  notions of  the tree  yielding  it were  enter-
tained until 1781, when  Mutis sent some branches of it to the younger Linnaeus.3
Ruizs afterwards described it.
  Botany.  Gen. Char.— Calyx campanulate,  5-toothed,  persistent.   Petals 5,
the upper one largest.   Stamens 10, free.    Ovary stipitate, oblong, membranous,
with  2 to 6 ovules ;  style towards the apex, filiform, lateral.   Legume, with stalk
naked at the base  but winged superiorly, samaroiidal [legumen samaro'ideum, De
Cand.], indehiscent,  1-celled, 1- or  2-seeded,  laterally pointletted by  the  style.
Seed besmeared with balsamic juice ; cotyledons thick, plane. (De Cand.)
  Sp. Char.—Leaves coriaceous, persistent,  smooth as well as the branches.   Wing
of the legume very thick, not veined.   Style, deciduous. (De Cand.)
  A  branching, elegant tree.   Bark thick, very  resinous.   Leaves pinnated, alter-
nate ; leaflets 2 to 5  pairs,  alternate  ovate-lanceolate.   Racemes axillary.   Petals
white. Legume somewhat coriaceous, straw-coloured, about four inches long includ-
ing the stalk.   Seeds reniform.
  Hab.—Peru, New Granada, Columbia, and Mexico.  Grows  in low, warm, and
sunny situations.—Flowers from  August to  October.
  Collection.—Monardes4 says  that there are two modes of  procuring the  bal-
sam;  viz. incision into the bark of the tree,  and coction of the branches and  trunk
in water.  The first method yields a white liquid balsam, the second a blackish-red
liquid.  Ruiz5 states that the white liquid balsam is preserved for years in bottles,
in the fluid state ; but when  deposited  in mats or calabashes, which is  commonly
done  in Carthagena, and  in the mountains of Tolu, it after some  time  condenses
and hardens  into resin, and  is  then denominated dry white balsam,  or balsam of
T»k; while  the extract  made by boiling the bark in water is  blackish, remains
"quid, and is known  by the name of black Peruvian  balsam.   There is, however,
obviously some confusion in this  statement;  and several  reasons have led pharma-
cologists  to  doubt whether  the  black  balsam  of the shops is obtained by coction.
Huiz does not speak from his own observation, but on the authority of Valniont de

  j Clusius, Exot. 303.                                       a Murray, App. Med. vi. 111.
   Lambert, Illustr. of the Genus Cinchona, p. 92.                * Op. cit. p. 302.
   Op. cit. p. 95. 
812
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Leguminosie.
Bomare.   Lastly, Hernandez1 says the balsam obtained by incision is yellowish-
black (efulvo in nigrum).   Professor Guibourt  has received, from  M.  Bazire bal-
sam of Peru, which he  obtained  in  great  abundance on the coa.st of Son Sonate
called the  Balsam Coast, in the state of San-Salvador (the republic of Guatimala)
by incisions in the stem  of  a Myrospermum, whose fruit is very different to that of
M. Toluiferum.3  Th. Martius3 suggests that the black balsam of Peru is procured
by a kind of destillatio per descensum;  but  the absence of pyrogenous  products  in
the balsam seems to me to  be opposed  to this opinion.
   [M. Victor le Nouvel, who has been engaged in collecting this balsam since 1S:j6
gives the following as  the process used  by  the Indians to obtain it: An incision is
made  into the tree, of about  two or three inches  broad, and three to four inches
long.  They raise the bark from the wood, and apply cotton rags to  it;  a fire beiug
lighted round the tree to liquefy the  balsam.   Fresh incisions are made higher and
higher up  the tree, till  the cotton rags are quite saturated.  It takes  from ten to
twelve days to effect this.   The rags are next boiled; and when the liquor is cold,
the balsam collects below.   Peruvian balsam always contains a good deal of water,
sometimes  as much as 60 per cent.4—Ed.]
   Commerce.—Balsam of Peru  is imported in pear-shaped  earthenware pots and
in tin canisters, from Valparaiso, Islay, Lima, Truxillo, Callao, Iquique, and  Uelize.
The duty (Is. per lb.) paid on it during six years was as follows:—s
              In 1834.......1893 lbs. I  In 1837...... .  1331 lbs.
                1835.......  243         1838.......1798
                1836.......18b0     I    1839.......  825

   Description.—Balsam  of Peru (balsamum peruvianum), called also black  or
liquid balsam of Peru (balsamum peruvianum nigrum), is a transparent deep red-
dish-brown or black  liquid, which has the consistence of treacle,  a powerful but
agreeable odour, somewhat similar to  that of vanilla  and benzoin, and which  is
increased by dropping the balsam  on a redhot coal, and  a warm, acrid,  bitter taste.
It is inflammable, and burns with a fuliginous flame.  It is soluble  in alcohol; the
solution, however, is not clear, but lets fall after some time a deposit.  To  boiling
water  it yields its acid, usually stated to be the benzoic, but, according to Fr£my
and others, it appears to be the cinnamonic acid.  Its sp. gr. is 1.150 to 1.160.
   I  have received from Professor Guibourt another balsamic substance, under the
name of balsam of Peru, in cocoa-nut shells (baume du Pirou en cocos). The thell
has the size and shape of a  small lemon.  The contained balsam is of a deep brown
colour, and has an odour very similar to that of balsam of Tolu.  Guibourt says:
" It appears  to be formed  of two kinds of matter; one  more fluid, another more
solid, grumous, and as it were crystalline.   Its taste is mild and sweetish.   It has
a  strong agreeable odour, between that of  Tolu and soft  liquidambar, but distinct
from both."
   The white balsam of Peru (balsamum peruvianum album) ot Martius, and other
pharmacologists, is  said, by Guibourt,0 to be  the  solid balsam of liquidambar
already described.
   Adulteration.—Balsam of Peru is said to be subject to adulteration ;  and the
formulae given by Gray7 for making as well as for reducing (i.  e. adulterating)  it,
lend support to this opinion.   The demand for ^ie balsam being small, the supply
quite equal to or even exceeding  the demand, and  the  price  being moderate, are
circumstances which appear to remove all  motive for adulteration, which I do not
think is at present practised in this  country.   The characters to be attended to m
judging of its genuineness  are, the  purity of its odour,  its  complete solubility in,
or miseibility with, alcohol  (by which the  absence of fixed oil is shown), and  its
undergoing no diminution of volume  when mixed with water (by which the absence

  1 Rep. Med. Nov. Hisp. Thes. p. 51, 1651.               2 Hist, des Drog. ii. 3me ed. 590.
  3 Pharmakogn.                                   * Pharm. Journ. vol.  xi. p. 260.
  * Trade List.                                     ' Op. cit.
  ' Suppl. to the Pharm. 
Quinquino:—Composition;  Physiological Effects.          813
of alcohol is  proved).   A sign of its purity is, that  1000 parts of it should  satu-
rate To parts  of pure crystallized carbonate of potash.1
  Composition.—Balsam of  Peru  has been  elaborately  investigated  by several
chemists, and the results obtained are somewhat curious.  In  1806 it was examined
by Lichtenberg.9  Stolze,3 in 1825,  published an analysis of it.   Bichter,4 Planta-
mour,5 and Fremy,6 have since examined the nature of its constituents.
            Stolze's Analysis.
Brown slightly soluble resin........  2.4
Brown resin................20.7
Oil of balsam of Peru [cinnamiine].....69.0
Benzoic [cinnamonic] acid.........  6.4
Extractive.................  0.6
Lou and moisture.............  0.9

       Balsam of Peru..........100.0
              Frlmy's Analysis.
1. An oily matter [cinnamiine], frequently contain-
     ing, in solution, a crystalline substance (mtta-
     cinnamiine ; hydruret of cinnamyle).
2. Cinnamonic acid.
3. One or more resins (hydiates of cinnamiine).
Balsam of Peru,
  1. Oil of Balsam of  Peru ;  Cinnamiine of Fremy.—If an alcoholic solution of potash be
adder! to an alcoholic solution of balsam of Peru, a compound of resin and potash  (resinate of
potash) is precipitated, while cinnamonate  of potash and  cinnameine are left in solution.  On
the addition of water the latter  separates, and floats on  the  surface.   It is to be purified by
solution in petroleum.   Cinnameine is a  reddish-brown, acrid,  odourless, oily fluid,  heavier
than water, soluble in alcohol and ether, insoluble in  water, and inflammable. Its composition,
according to Fremy, is (taking  the average of five  experiments), carbon  79.0, hydrogen 6.26,
oxygen 14.74.   His formula for it, which, however, scarcely accords with  this statement, is
C^H^O8 [C144H65020, Liebig].  Caustic potash effects  a change on it analogous to saponification,
and converts it into two  equivalents of cinnamonic acid  (equal  to C3^H1406) and a light oily
fluid, which Fremy calls peruvine, whose  composition is, carbon 79.6, hydrogen 9.3, oxygen 11.1,
or C'rl^O2 [C^H^CM, Liebig].  Cinnameine frequently (but not  invariably)  contains in solu-
tion a crystalline substance, termed  metacinnameine, whose composition is, carbon 81.9, hydrogen
6.0, oxygen 12.1; its formula being C18H902,  so  that it is  isomeric with hydruret of cinnamyle.
Richter asserts that oil of balsam of Peru is composed  of two distinct oils—one, called myrosper-
mine, which is  soluble  in alcohol;  the other, termed myroxiline, insoluble in alcohol.   What
relation  these oils bear to cinnameine and peruvine has not yet been made out.
  2. Cinnamonic Acin; Cinnamic Acid.—This constituent has usually been mistaken for ben-
zoic acid.  It is obviously formed in the balsam by the oxidation of the hydruret of cinnamyle,
just as hydruret of benzule is transformed into benzoic acid.  In those  balsams of Peru which
contain no metacinnameine, this principle has been entirely converted into cinnamonic acid.
  3. Rksi v of Balsam of Pkru ;  Hydrate of Cinnamiine. The quantity of resin in balsam of
Peru augments daily.   It is formed by the union of cinnameine with the elements of  water-
for its composition is carbon 71.82, hydrogen 6.78, oxygen 21.40 ; or CS4H30Oll!.  So that this resin
consists of one equivalent of cinnameine and four equivalents of water.   It is not, however
formed at once, but it gradually undergoes  different degrees of viscosity.  Soft resin differs from
[lie hard only in its elements of water.  Sulphuric acid converts cinnamdine into resin.
  Nich are the general results of Fremy's  analysis; but the correctness of  some of them may
be fairly called in question.  His  formula; do not always agree with his experimental  results
(>ee cinnameine).  Plantamour denies the accuracy of several of Fremy's statements.

  Physiological  Effects.—Stimulant, slightly tonic, expectorant,  detergent
and epulotic.   Its  action is  similar  to other  balsamic  substances, and is closely
allied to that of storax and benzoin.  Topically, it operates as a stimulant and mild
acrid; and when applied to foul indolent ulcers, often cleanses them, and promotes
their cicatrization.   Taken  internally, in full doses, it creates thirst, and quickens
the pulse.   Its stimulant influence is directed to the secreting organs, especially the
uronchial mucous membrane.   It is  devoid of the powerful influence over the
urinary organs  possessed by copaiva and  the turpentines, and its tonic powers are
not equal to those of myrrh.
  Uses.—Its  supposed efficacy in curing  external  ulcers and  healing wounds  has
Jed to its use in internal diseases, formerly apprehended to depend on ulceration, as
m pulmonary affections supposed  to  be, or which  really  were, phthisis.   But  the
J Th. Martius, Pharmakogn.                             2 Berlin. Jahrb. 1806, S. 22.
 Journ. de Chim. Mid. i. 139.                           * Pharm. Cent.-Blatt fur 1838, S 346
J Ibid. S.h25, and/fir 1839. S.601,                                          .       '
 Comptes-Rendus, 1S38, Sec. Sem. No. 20; and Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. t. lxx. p. 180. 
814
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Leguminosie.
observations of Dr. Fothergill,1 in part, led to the discontinuance of the indiserimi-
nate use  of balsams and  other heating substances in these  cases.  Yet it proves
serviceable in some old asthmatic cases, chronic pulmonary catarrhs, winter coughs
&c.  It seems  to be  principally adapted to  old-standiny chronic affections  of the
mucous membranes  (especially  the  bronchial mucous membrane), particularly in
persons of a cold and torpid habit.  Its stimulant influence is calculated only to
aggravate acute cases.
   Many other uses of balsam of Peru are now obsolete : as its employment in lead
colic, as recommended by Sydenham ; in gonorrhoea and leucorrhcea, by Hoffman •*
in convulsions from  repressed  perspiration,  by Kirkland ;3  and  externally and in-
ternally in traumatic tetanus, by Dr. Kollock.4  It is said to be now and then used
in chronic rheumatism.   The  beneficial effects ascribed  by Trousseau and Pidoux
to the balsams in chronic laryngitis have been before referred to.
   As a topical  remedy,  balsam of  Peru  is  occasionally employed.  It is applied '
either alone, or in the form of ointment, to indolent, ill-conditioned ulcers; it cleanses
them,  promotes  healthy granulation, and assists cicatrization.   I have used it in
some obstinate ulcerations about the nose.   Dr.  Ainslie5 speaks very highly of its
powers of arresting the progress of sphacelous and phagedenic affections, so common
and destructive in India.  He recommends lint, soaked in the balsam, to be applied
night  and  morning.  In  offensive  discharges from the ear, it  is now and then
dropped in after syringing.   It is a constituent of some lip-salves. It was formerly
esteemed as a vulnerary  against wounds of the tendons and  nerves.  It is used by
perfumers for scenting, and in the manufacture oi fumigating pastiles.
   Administration.—Dose, fjss to f3J-   It may be taken on sugar, or made into
pills with some  absorbent powder,  or diffused through  water  by means of sugar,
honey, gum, or yolk of egg.

     271. MYROSPERMUM TOLUIFERUM, Richard, E.-THE
                       BALSAM OF  TOLU-TREE.
                             Toluifera Balsamum, Miller, D.
                            Sex. Syst. Decandria, Monogynia.
        (Concrete balsamic exudation, L.—Balsamum ex inciso trunco fusum concretum, D.)       ^
                             (Balsamum Tolutanum,  V. S.)
   History.—The earliest notice  of balsam of Tolu is that  of Monardes.8  He
tells us that the balsam had been recently imported.
   BOTANY.   Gen. Char.—See Myrospermum peruiferum.
   Sp. Char.—Branches and leaves smooth.   Leaflets oblong, acuminate, equilateral,
rounded at the base. (De Cand.)
   The tree which yields the balsam of Tolu was formerly called  Toluifera Balsamum.  But
Richard having carefully investigated the characters of the genus Toluifera, found that, with tha
exception  of those  of  the fruit, which  Miller had imperfectly described, they were identical
with those of the genus now called Myrospermum ; and as Ruiz states that the balsams of Peru
and Tolu are  both obtained  from one tree, the Myrospermum peruiferum has been  adopted by "[
several writers, and by the London  College, as the  source of both balsams.
   Richard7 found specimens of the trees yielding these balsams  in Humboldt's herbarium; and
though he at first mistook them for  tbe same species, he has subsequently recognized them to
be different.   He therefore made a distinct species of the tree yielding the balsam of Tolu,and .,
it is now called Myrospermum  toluiferum.  It differs from M. peruiferum in its having thin,»
membranous, obovate leaflets, which are lengthened and acuminated at their summits.  More-
over, the terminal leaflet is larger than the lateral ones.
   Hab.—Mountains of  Tolu,  Turbaco, and  on  the banks  of the Magdalena, be-
tween Garapatas and Monpox.
   Production.—Balsam of Tolu is procured by making incisions into the bark of
the tree, and  receiving  the  liquid balsam in vessels made of a black wax.  It »

  1 Med. Obs. and Inq. vol. iv. p. 231.                    3 Opera omn. Suppl. p. 736. Genev. 1754.
  3 Treat, on Childbed Fever, p. 31, 1771.                 * Thacher's Dispensatory.
  * Mat. Ind. i. 65 and 406.                            « Clusius, Exot. 304.
  ' Ann. Scien. Nat. t. ii. p. 168. 
      Balsam op Tolu-Tkee:—Commerce; Description; Effects.     815

afterwards transferred into proper vessels.  It only exudes from the tree during the
heat of the day.1
  Commerce.—Balsam of  Tolu is  sometimes  brought direct from  Carthagena,
ganta Martha, and  Savanilla;  more commonly, however, it comes by way of New
York  or Jamaica.   It is  usually  imported in cylindrical  tin  canisters; now and
then in earthen pots or jars;  still more rarely in small calabashes.
  Description.—Balsam of Tolu (balsamum tolutanum vel de Tolu), when first
brought over, is generally soft and tenacious, but by age becomes hard and brittle,
pomewhat similar to resin, and has a granular or somewhat crystalline appearance.
Formerly, it was imported in this hardened state, but is  now usually met with in
the soft state.   It is transparent, has a reddish or yellowish-brown colour, a most
fragrant odour, though less  powerful than that of storax or Peruvian balsam, and
a pleasant sweetish taste.   It  softens  under the  teeth;  when  heated, it readily
melts, takes  fire, and burns with an agreeable odour.  It is very  soluble in alcohol
and ether, and gives out its  acid to water.  The soft balsam contains more oil but
less acid  than  the dry balsam, the acid  and the resin  being formed at the expense
of the oil.   Balsam  of Tolu hardens  or  resinifies with much more facility than
balsam of Peru.
  Balsam of Tolu in calabashes (balsamum tolutanum in cucurbitis parvis, Dale)
occurs in calabashes (the truit of Crescentia Cujete, according to Sloane8) about the
size of an orange;  the large aperture  by which  the  balsam has been introduced
being closed with the rachis of  the fruit of Zea Mays.
  Composition.—According to Fremy3 the composition of balsam of Tolu is simi-
lar to that of balsam of Peru, its constituents  being cinnameine, cinnamonic acid,
and resin.   They differ, according to the same chemist, from  those of balsam of
Peru by the greater facility  with which they become resinified.
  Rr.si\ of Balsam of Tolc.—Is  essentially the same as that of balsam  of Peru, and, like it
also forms a fine red colour with sulphuric acid; but it is less fusible than  the resin of the last-
 mentioned balsam.  It consists of carbon 70.8, hydrogen 6.1, and oxygen 23.1;  so that it contains
a larger proportion of the elements  of water.
   Physiological Effects and Uses.—The effects  of balsam of Tolu are similar
 to those of balsam of Peru, and the other balsamic substances.   It is employed as
 a stimulating  expectorant in chronic bronchial affections, unaccompanied with  in-
 flammatory action.  It is, however, more frequently used as an agreeable flavouring
 adjunct to pectoral  mixtures.   The  vapour of the ethereal solution of the balsam
 has been inhaled in chronic affections  with benefit.   Tolu lozenges form a popular
 and  pleasant remedy for appeasing troublesome cough.   The  balsam is sometimes
 employed by confectioners to flavour siceetmeats, as marmalade.   It is also used in
 perfumery;  and is a constituent of some fumigating pastiles already described.
   Administration.—The  dose of the balsam is from grs. x. to 3ss.   It may be
 taken in the form of an emulsion, made with  gum or  sugar.  It  is a constituent of
 the compound tincture of benzoin, L. D., before described.
 J. TINCTURA TOLITANA, L. E. D. [U. S.]; Tincture of  Tolu.—(Balsam of Tolu
 3'j [3iiiss,  in coarse  powder, #] (|iij,  U.  S.);  Rectified Spirit Oij [Oj  Z).];
 (Alcohol Oij,  U. S.)   Digest [with a gentle  heat, E. D.~\ until  the balsam is dis-
 solved, and  filter, L.   [Let it  stand  until the sediment subsides, then decant the
 dear tincture, D.J)—A stimulating  expectorant, principally used as a flavouring
 adjunct to  other pectorals.   Its use is, of course, objectionable in inflammatory
 tases.  Dose, fjss to f^ij.   When mixed with water the resin is precipitated; hence
 it should be rubbed with mucilage, or some viscid liquor,  before  adding the water,
 to keep the  resinous precipitate in suspension.

   I SYRl'PI'S  TOLITAMS, L. E. D.  [U. S.];  Syrup of Tolu; Balsamic Syrup.—
 (Balsam of Tolu 3x;  Boiling Distilled Water Oj ; Sugar rbiiss.   Boil the balsam
J Monardes, op. cit. 304.
 Ann. dt Chim. et de Phys. t. Ixx. p. 201
2 Hist. Nat. Jamaica, ii. 174. 
816
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Leouminos^e.
 in  the water for half an  hour, in a vessel lightly covered, frequently stirring, and
 strain the cooled liquor;  then add the Sugar, and  dissolve it, L.—Simple Syrup
 lbs. ij;  Tincture  of Tolu |j.  When the syrup has been recently prepared, and
 has not altogether cooled, add the tincture of Tolu by degrees, agitating briskly, E.
 Balsam of Tolu ^j  ; Distilled Water Oj; Refined Sugar, in powder, as much as is
 sufficient.   Boil the balsam in the water  for half an hour, in a lightly covered ves-
 sel, occasionally stirring, and strain the liquor when cold;  then, having added to it
 twice its weight of sugar, dissolve with  the aid of a steam or water heat, /A)—
 [The  U. S. Pharm. directs, Tincture of Tolu f§iss;  "Water  Oj ;  Su^ar lbii,«s.
 Mix the tincture with the sugar in coarse powder; expose  the mixture in a shallow
 dish to a gentle heat, until  the alcohol has evaporated;  then pour the water upon
 it in a covered vessel; heat  gradually till  the Sugar is dissolved, and strain ]   Km-
 ployed as an agreeable flavouring adjunct  to pectoral mixtures.   Dose, f3j. to fXiv.


   272. CYTISUS SCOPARIUS, Decand. l. e—COMMON BROOM.
                             Spartium scoparium, Linn. D.
                            Sex. Syst. Diadelphia, Decandria.
                 Cacumen recens et exsiccatum, L.—Tops. E.—Cacumina, D.

   History.—It  is uncertain  who  first  mentioned this  plant.   The ortdptiop of
 Dioscorides1 is Spartium junccum or  Spanish  Broom*   The  (/en is/a of Pliny'
 was probably  the same  plant, though  the Roman   historian was himself doubtful
 whether this plant was identical with  that of the Greeks.   Sprengel4 considers that
 Theophrastus was undoubtedly acquainted with Common Broom.
   Botany.  Gen. Char.— Calyx 2-lipped; the upper lip generally entire, the lower
 one somewhat 3-toothed.   Vexillum  ovate, large;  keel very obtuse, inclosing the
 stamens and pistils.  Stamens  monadelphous.   Legume piano-compressed, many-
 seeded, without glands.—Shrubs.  Leaves trifoliate. (De Cand.)
   Sp. Char.—Branches  angular,  smoothish.   Leaves  trifoliate,  stalked.   Tops
 simple.  Leaflets oblong.   Flowers axillary, stalked, solitary.   Legumes hairy at
 the margin.  (De Cand.)
  A shrub, 3 to 6 feet high.  Branches long, straight, and green.  Leaves decid-
 uous ;  upper ones  generally simple,.   Flowers  large, bright yellow; keel broad;
 vexillum and aide much spreading.   Legumes large, dark-brown, containing 15 or
 16  seeds.
   Hab.__Indigenous; growing on dry hills and bushy places.   Flowers in JuDe.
  Description.—Broom-tops (scoparium;  cacumina scoparii) have a bitter, Dau-
 seous taste, and, if  fresh, a remarkable odour when  bruised.
  Composition.—The flowers of broom contain, according to Cadet de Gassicourt,s
 concrete volatile oil, fatty  matter, wax, chlorophylle, yellow colouring matter, tannin,
 a sweet  substance,  mucilage, osmazome,  albumen,  and  woody fibre.   The  oslm
 amounted  to 5.75  per cent., and contained 29  per cent, of carbonate of potash,
 besides chloride of potassium, sulphate of  potash, chloride of calcium, nitrate, phos-
 phate, and sulphate of lime, carbonates of lime,  magnesia, and iron, and  silica.—
 Salt of broom, or sal genistse, is obtained  by burning the whole plant.  It contains
 a large portion of carbonate of potash.  Hill6 says that a pound of the green twigs,
 with the leaves and  flowers,  yields a drachm and  a half of this salt.
  [Dr. Stenhouse has separated, as he believes, the  diuretic principle of the broom,
and has  tried its effects upon  dogs  and rabbits.   When  quite pure it is a yellow
substance, and  crystallizes in needles.   This chemist found that the narcotic princi-
ple  of broom is a volatile  base, represented by the formula C15H1:iN.   It is not quite
so poisonous as conia or nicotine, but it produced  in  small doses a species of violent
intoxication, followed by  a  profound  slumber, from which  the animal cannot be

 1 Lib. iv. cap. 158.                                 3  Smith, Prodr. Fl. Grate, ii- 53.
 3 Hist. Nat. lib.  xxiv. cap. 40, ed. Valp.                 4  Hist. Rei Herb. i. 80.
 ' Journ. de Pharm. x. 448.                            "  Hist, of the Mat. Med. 397. 
  Common Broom:—Physiological Effects; Uses; Administration.  817

roused for a long time without great difficulty.  To this base he gives the name of
Spart iin e.
  The term Scoparine is  applied  by Dr. Stenhouse  to a green gelatinous matter,
which is formed in a concentrated watery extract of  broom, after it has stood for
one or two days in a cold place.   Scoparine has no taste, and does not appear to be
at all poisonous or injurious.   The dose of scoparine required to produce a decid-
edly diuretic effect is five grains, repeated three times at intervals of three  hours.
Sparteine and its  salts have an  intensely bitter  taste.   The carbazotate cannot be
distinguished from carbazotate of potash.—Ed.]
  Physiological Effects,   a.  On Animals generally.—In some parts of Europe
broom is employed as winter food for sheep; and Withering says that it prevents
the disease called rot, and  is salutary in dropsy, to which sheep are liable.  Accord-
ing to Loudon, it is apt to produce disease of  the urinary organs, to prevent which
a plentiful use of water is recommended.
  ,3. On Man.—In large doses, broom-tops are an emetic and purgative.  In small
dote* they are diuretic and mildly laxative. As a diuretic they have been celebrated
by  Mead and Cullen.—"Though very little in  use," says Dr. Cullen,1 "I have
inserted this in  my catalogue from my own experience of it.  I found it  first in  use
among our common people; but I have since prescribed it to some of my patients
in the manner following: I order half an ounce of fresh broom-tops to be boiled in
a pound of water till one-half of this  is consumed; and  of this decoction  I give
two table-spoonfuls every hour, till  it operates by stool and urine;  and by repeat-
ing this  exhibition every day,  some dropsies have been cured."  Having very  fre-
quently employed broom in dropsies, I can add my testimony to its powerful  effects
as a diuretic.   I cannot call to mind a single case in which it has failed to act on
the kidneys.  In some cases it produced a most marked and beneficial effect  on  the
dropsical effusion.   According to my experience, it is more certain than any other
diuretic in dropsies.  Dr. Pearson3 terms broom a tonico-diuretic; and says  it  im-
proves the appetite, and invigorates the whole system.
  Uses.—It  has been principally or solely employed in dropsies, and, as already
mentioned, sometimes with great benefit.  Of course, its chance of cure depends on
the nature of  the cause of the  dropsical  effusion.  In acute  inflammatory cases, as
well as in diseased kidney, its use might be objectionable.   It is said also  not to
be adapted to thoracic dropsy, especially when combined with pulmonary conges-
tion, or any degree of inflammatory affection of the chest.
  Administration.—Broom-tops are usually given in  the form of infusion or  de-
coction. ,  The seeds, which keep  much better  than the tops, and  on that account
have an advantage over the latter, may be used in the form of powder, in doses of
grs. x to  grs. xv in mint water or cold  ginger  tea; or in the form of tincture (see
Spartium junceum).   To promote the operation of broom, diluents should be freely
used.

  DECOCTUM SCOPARII COMPOSITUM, L.; Decoctum Scoparii,K D.; Decoction of
Broom.—(Broom-tops,  Juniper Berries,  Dandelion  Root,  of each fss; Distilled
"aterOiss.  Boil  down to a pint, and  strain, L.—Broom-tops and Juniper-tops,
of each sss; Bitartrate of Potash  3"ss; Water Oiss.  Boil  them down together to
a  pint, and then strain, E.—Broom-tops dried  Jss; Water Oss.   Boil for ten
minuU's in a covered vessel, and strain.   The  product should measure about ^viij,
■^•)—Diuretic an(j  laxative.—Dose, f£j to fjij.
1 Mat. Med.                                   2 Observ. on Broom-seed, 1835.
VOL. 11.—52 
818               VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Lehuminosje.
     273. GLYCYRRHIZA GLABRA, Linn. l. E. D-COMMON
                                LIQUORICE.
                            Sex. Syst. Diadelphia, Decandria.
            (Radix recens et exsiccata, Z..—Root; Extract of the root, E.—Radix, JD.)

   History.—The ywxii^a of Hippocrates,  and that of Dioscorides,1 are doubt-
less identical; the latter is supposed by Sprengel2 and others to be our Glycyrrhka
glabra; by Diebach3 to be  G. glandulifera, but by Dr. Sibthorp4 it is said to be
the G.  echinata, which is  now termed in Greece y%vx6?^o..    Glycyrrhiza glabra
is called, in the Pharmacopoeia Grseca, ykvxvp'^a.
   Botany.   Gen. Char.— Calyx naked, tubular, 5-cleft, 2-lipped; with the two
upper lobes united more than the others.    Vexillum ovate-lanceolate, straight • keel
2-parted or 2-petalous, straight, acute.  Stamens diadelphous.   Style filiform.' Le-
gume ovate or oblong, compressed, 1-celled, 1- to 4-seeded.—Perennial herbs with
extremely sweet roots.  Leaves unequally pinnated.  Racemes axillary.  Flowert
blue, violet, or white.  (De Cand.)
   Sp. Char.—Leaflets ovate, slightly retuse, viscid beneath.   Stipules 0.   Spika
pedunculated  [i. e. racemes'], shorter than the leaves.   Flowers distant.   Legumet
smooth, 3- or 4-seeded. (De Cand.)
   Stem erect, smooth, 4 or 5 feet  high.   Leaflets yellowish-green.   Flowers  pa-
pilionaceous, bluish or purplish.
   Hab.—South of Europe.   Cultivated at Mitcham in Surrey, and at other places,
for medicinal  use.
   Description.—The underground stem is denominated liquorice-root (radix gly-
cyrrhizae seu liquiritine vel liquoricse) or stick  liquorice.   It is in long cylindrical
pieces,  about the thickness of the finger.  Externally it  is grayish  brown, internally
yellow.    Its odour is rather sickly  and earthy; its taste remarkably sweet.
   Commerce.—Liquorice-root (G. glabra) was  analyzed by Robiquet  in  1809.5
Trommsdorff6 analyzed the root of  G. echinata.   The constituents of the fresh root
of  G. glabra are, according to Robiquet, glycyrrhizin, starch, asparagin, resinout
oil, albumen, woody fibre, and salts (phosphate and malate of lime and magnesia).
   1. Glycyrrhizin (Glycionor Liquorice Sugar).—Belongs to the uncrystallizable sugars which
are not susceptible of vinous fermentation.  It is characterized by its affinity for acids, with
which it unites to form  compounds which are very slightly soluble only in water.  It is yellow
and transparent, and has the sweet taste of the root.  It is soluble in both water and alcohol.
Acids precipitate it  from its solution.  It combines also with bases, as well as with,salts.  It
causes precipitates with many metallic solutions.
   2. Resinous Oil.—To this constituent, liquorice root owes the slight degree of acridity which
it possesses.
   Physiological Effects.—Liquorice root and its extract are  emollient,  demul-
cent, and nutritive.
   Uses.—Employed as an emollient and demulcent in catarrhal affections of the
mueous membranes.   It is also used as  a flavouring adjunct  to  other medicines.
Its powder is employed in the preparation of pills, either to give them a proper
consistence, or to  prevent their adhesion.
   Administration.—For medicinal use the root should  be decorticated, as  the
epidermis possesses a slight degree of acridity.
   1. EXTRACTUM  GLYCYRRHIZE, L. E. D. [U. S.]; Extract of  Liquorice.-(Oi re
cent liquorice-root, bruised, Ibiss;  Boiling Distilled Water, Cong, ij; macerate 24
hours,  then boil to a  gallon, and strain the liquor while hot; lastly, evaporate to a
proper  consistence, L.   [Liquorice-root in thin slices, dried  and  reduced to coarse
powder, Ibj; Distilled Water Oiij; proceed  as for extract of  Gentian, Z>.]  [Cut
1 Lib. iii. cap. 7.                             2 Hist. Rei Herb. i.
3 Arzneim. d. Hippokrates.                     * Prodr. Fl. Groica, ii. 77.
' Ann. de Chim. lxxii. 143.                      * Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. ii. 1261. 
                     Milk Vetch:—History;  Botany.                  819

 liquorice-root into small chips, dry it thoroughly with a  gentle heat, reduce it to a
 moderately fine  powder, and  proceed as for  extract of Gentian, E.})—Extract of
 liquorice is extensively imported under the name of liquorice juice, or, according to
 the countries from where it is brought, Spanish or Italian juice.   Solazzi juice is
 most esteemed.   The  Spanish extract is prepared in Catalonia from  G. glabra;
 while the Italian extract is obtained in Calabria from G. echinata.1 In 1839, there
 were imported 4,059 cwt. of foreign extract  of  liquorice, the duty on which is £3
 l;k per cwt.  It comes in cylindrical or flattened rolls  of five or six inches long,
 and about one inch in diameter, and enveloped in bay leaves.   When pure, it is
 black and dry, with a glossy fracture and a sweetish taste ;  and is completely solu-
 ble in water.  As met with in commerce, however, it is rarely pure.   Neumann2
 obtained 460 parts of  watery extract from 480 of Spanish liquorice.   It contains
 the soluble principles of the root, with  some copper scraped off the boiler by the
 spatula employed to stir  the extract during its  preparation.   F6e says that four
 ounces of this extract yield two drachms and a half of metallic copper; but there
 must be some great mistake in this statement.   If  the foreign extract be dissolved
 in water, and the solution filtered and inspissated, we obtain refined liquorice.  But
 I am informed that  the pipe refined liquorice of the shops is a very adulterated
 article.  The Pontefract lozenges are made of  refined liquorice, and are much es-
 teemed.   Another preparation  has been recently  introduced  under the  name  of
 quintessence of liquorice.  Extract of liquorice is dissolved slowly in  the mouth, to
 appease tickling  cough.   It is a very agreeable  flavouring  adjunct to other medi-
 cines.  As it easily becomes soft by warmth it does not answer well as a pill-basis.
   2.  TROCHISCI  GLYCYRRHIZSE, E.;  Liquorice  Lozenges.—(Extract of  Liquorice
 Gum Arabic, of each  Jvj;  Pure  Sugar lb. i.   Dissolve them in a sufficiency  of
 boiling water; and then concentrate  the solution over  the vapour-bath to  a proper
 consistence for making lozenges.)—Employed  in tickling cough  and irritation of
 the fauces.

   (1. TROCHISCI GLYCYRRIIIZE ET OPII, U.  S. Troches of Liquorice and Opium.—
 (Take of Opium in powder, half an ounce; Liquorice in powder, Sugar  in powder
 Gum Arabic in powder, each ten ounces ; Oil of Anise two fluidrachms.   Mix the
 powders intimately; then add the Oil of Anise, and with water form them into a
 mass, to be divided into troches, each weighing six  grains.)—Employed in coughs
 and catarrhs, under the name of Wistar's Cough Lozenges.  Two or three are the
 dose.)


         274.  ASTRAGALUS,  De Candolle.—MILK VETCH.
   A. verus, Olivier, L.—A. Gummifer, and probably A. verus, and other species, E.—A. gummifer
                                (Labilladierc), D.
                          Sex. Syst. Diadelphia, Decandria.
          (Succus e eortice exudatus aere induratus, L.—Gummy exudation, E. D.)
                              [Tragacauthus,  U.S.]

  IIistory.—Dr. Sibthorp3 states that the *payaxav0a of Dioscorides4 is the Astra-
galus^ aristatus, which  in  the  Peloponnesus is still called rpaydxavOa, and whose
gum is annually  sent to Italy.
  Botany.   Gen. Char.— Calyx 5-toothed.   Corolla with an obtuse keel.   Sta-
mens diadelphous.  Legume 2-celled, or half 2-celled, by the lower [dorsal] suture
being turned inwards.—Herbs or shrubs. (De Cand.)
  Species 1. A. verus,  L. E.—Flowers axillary, in  clusters of  2  to 5 sessile.
Calyx tomentose, obtusely 5-toothed.  Leaflets  8  to 9  pairs,  linear, hispid. (De
Una.)—A small shrub.   Branches covered with imbricated scales and  spines, the
remains of former petioles.   Flowers yellow, papilionaceous.  iVr.-ia.   According
-  Works, by Lewis, p. 425.
'  Lib. iii. cap. 23.
1 Ffee, Cours d'Hist. Nat. ii. \li.
1 Prodr. Fl. Grcec. ii. 90. 
820
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Leguminosie.
to Olivier, the Tragacanth of Asia Minor, Armenia, and Northern Persia, forming
the greater part of that of Europe, is yielded by this species.
   2. A. Gummifer, D.—Flowers 3 to 5 axillary, sessile.  Calyx 5-cleft, together
with the legumes woolly.   Leaflets 4  to 6 pairs, oblong-linear, smooth. (De Cand.)
—Lebanon.  According to Labillardiere this species yields Tragacanth. (De Cand.)
Dr. Lindley1 received this plant from Mr. Brant, English  Consul at Erzeroum  as
the tragacanth  plant of Koordistan, which yields the white or best kind of traga-
canth.
   3. A. creticus.—Flowers axillary, sessile, clustered.    Calyx 5-partite with
                               feathery, setaceous lobes rather longer than the
           F'g- 365-             corolla.  Leaflets  5 to 8  pairs, oblong, acute, to-
                               mentose. (De Cand.)—Mount Ida, in Crete, where
                               it yields Tragacanth, according to Tournefort.
                                  4.  A. strobiliferus, Lindley.—Flowers capi-
                               tate in an  ovate, sessile, axillary strobile.—Bracts
                               imbricated, pointletted, tomentose. Calyx feathery,
                               5-cleft.  Segments of the  Corolla equal.  Leaflets
                               3-paired, woolly, oval, awned at the apex, narrow
                               at the base  (Lindley).—Koordistan.—This  plant
                               was sent by Mr. Brant as the "shrub from which
                               the red or inferior species of  gum tragacanth is
       Astragalus creticus.         produced."9
                                  Production.—Tragacanth  is a natural exuda-
tion from the stem of the before-mentioned plants.  The cause of the exudation of
this as of other gums is thus explained by De  Candolle.8  The gummy matter re-
sides in the bark and albumen ; it is the nutritive juice of the plant; and its escape,
therefore, is analogous to hemorrhage in animals :  hence plants in which it spon-
taneously occurs are  always in a sickly state.   The  mechanical cause of the expul-
sion of this juice is dependent on the unequal hygrometric properties of the different
parts of  the  stem.   The wood absorbs  more moisture from the air than the  bark,
and hence it swells more.   In consequence of its enlargement, it distends the bark,
which, by the internal  pressure of the wood,  gives way, and the gummy matter
escapes.   This explanation is quite in conformity with facts  mentioned by Labil-
lardiere—that  tragacanth  flows only in abundance during  the night, and a little
after sunrise.  A cloudy night, or a heavy dew, is, he thinks,  necessary for its pro-
duction ; for the shepherds of Lebanon only go in search of this substance when the
mountain has been covered during the night with thick clouds.
   Description.—Tragacanth (gummi tragacantha)  is  frequently called in the
shops gum dragon.  It is  white, yellowish, or yellowish-brown, hard, tough, odour-
less, tasteless, swelling considerably in water, and forming a thick, tenacious muci-
lage.  Two kinds of it are known.
   1. Flaky Tragacanth:  Smyrna Tragacanth (Martius) : Tragacanth of the As-
tragalus verus ?—This is the tragacanth usually found  in  English commerce.  It
occurs in moderately large, broad, thin  pieces,  marked with arched or concentric
elevations.
   2. Vermiform Tragacanth:  Morea Tragacanth (Martius);  Tragacanth of the
Astragalus creticus ?—This variety  is rarely met with in this country, but is com-
mon on the continent.  It  occurs in small, twisted, filiform, spiral pieces.  There
is more starch in it  than in the first variety.
   Commerce.—Tragacanth is imported in cases and chests from Smyrna and other
ports of the Levant.  In 1836, duty (6s. per cwt.) was paid on 87 cwt.
   Composition.—The ultimate analysis of tragacanth  has been made by Hermann
and by Guerin-Varry.4
i Botanical Register, May 1840
» Phys. Vig. t. i.
2 Ibid. Miscellaneous Notices, p. 38.
4 Journ. de Chim. Mid. vii. 742. 
Milk Vetch:—Physiological Effects; Uses;  Administration.   821
      Guerin- Varry's Analysis.
Soluble part.           Insoluble ditto.
42.01
 6.42
54.47
          Hermann's Analysis.
               Atoms.   Eq. Wt.   Per Cent.
Carbon........ 10  ...  60  ...  40.50
Hydrogen......10  ...  10  ...  6.61
Oxygen........ 10  ...  80  ...  52.89

 Tragacanth gum  .   1  .  . . 150 . .  .  100.00

  In 1805, Vauquelin1 made an examination  of the proximate constituents  of
tragacanth.   In 1815,  Bucholz3, and in 1831 Guerin-Varry,3 published  proximate
analyses of this gum.
 35.79
  7.11
 57.10

100.00
      Bucholz's Analysis.
Common gum............  57
Bassorin...............  43

    Gum Tragacanth......100
       Guerin-Varry's Analysis.
Arabin  ..............53.30
Bassorin and starch  .......  33.10
Water...............11.10
Ashes...............   2.50
Gum Tragacanth......100.00
  1. Tragacakthtw.—Adragantin; Soluble gum or Arabin of Tragacanth.—The soluble gum of
tragacanth is usually regarded as similar to  gum Arabic, and hence it is called arabine;  but is
distinguished by silicate of potash and perchloride of iron producing no change in it, and by a
peculiar appearance of the precipitate produced with alcohol (the precipitate is flocculent, and
collects in a simple opake and  mucous mass).—In common  with arabine, it produces precipi-
tates with diacetate of lead, protochloride of tin, and  protonitrate of mercury.  Oxalate of am-
monia detects in it a calcareous  salt,
  2. BASsomy. Insoluble gum of Tragacanth.—The insoluble part of gum tragacanth is similar
to that of gum Bassora, and hence it is called Bassorin.  It swells up in water.
  3. Starch.—Starch globules  may be detected in the bassorin (when swollen up by water)
both by the microscope and by iodine.
  According to Guibourt,* tragacanth contains  neither  arabin  nor bassorin, but is essentially
formed by an organized gelatiniform matter, very different to gum Arabic, both in its physical
and its chemical properties, and which swells and divides in water, so as in part to pass through
a filter.  The insoluble part  of tragacanth  is, according to the  same authority, a  mixture  of
starch and lignin, which has nothing  in common with bassorin.  De Candolle suggests that the
insolubility and swelling of tragacanth in water, may arise from the  gummy matter being con-
tained in cells.
  Physiological Effects.—Like other gums, tragacanth is emollient, demulcent,
and nutritive ;  but difficult of digestion.
  Uses.—Tragacanth, in  powder, is used rather as a vehicle for active and heavy
medicines (as calomel) than on  account of its own proper effects.   It is occasion-
ally, however, taken as a sheathing or demulcent agent in irritation of the mucous
membranes.
  Administration.—Dose of  the powder, Jss to 3ij.

  1. PULVIS TRAGACANTH^ COMPOSITUS, L. E.;  Compound Powder of Tragacanth.
—(Tragacanth  bruised; Gum Arabic bruised; Starch, of each ^iss; Pure Sugar
l'\\}.  Kub the Starch and Sugar together to powder, then  having added the Traga-
canth and Gum Arabic, mix  them together.)—Employed as a vehicle for the  exhibi-
tion of active and heavy powders to children.—Dose  for an adult, 3ss to 3J-

  I MUCILAGO TRAGACANTHJ1, E.—(Tragacanth 51J; Boiling Water f£ix.  " Mace-
rate for twenty-four hours, then triturate to dissolve the gum,  and express through
linen or  calico," E.)—Employed in making pills  and lozenges ; also  to suspend
heavy powders, as the metallic  oxides, in water.   It has also been recommended as
id application to burns.

  ' Ann. de Chim. liv. 312.                              ' Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. ii. 779.
   Op. supra cit.                                      * Hist, des Dros. ii.  477. 
822
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Leguminosje.
  275.  MUCUNA  PRURIENS, De Candolle, L. E.-COMMON COW-
                           HAGE, OR COW-ITCH.
                  Dolichos pruriens, Linn. D.—Ptizolobium pruriens. Persoon.
                            Sex. Syst. Diadelphia, Decandria.
           (Fructus pubes. L.—Hairs from the pod, E.—The hairy down of the pod, D.)

   History.—One of the earliest writers who  mention this plant is Ray.1   It wag
long confounded with the M. prurila, Hooker.
   Botany.   Gen. Char.— Calyx campanulate, 2-lipped ; the lower lip trifid, with
acute segments, the middle one the longest; the upper lip broader, entire  obtuse.
 Vexillum ascending, shorter  than  the alae  and keel; alee  oblong,  as  long  as the
keel;  keel oblong, straight, acute.   Stamens diadelphous ;  anthers  10, of which 5
are  oblong-linear, and 5  ovate, hirsute.   Legume oblong, knotted, 2-valved with
cellular  partitions.   Seeds roundish, surrounded by  a  circularly linear hilum.—
Twining herbs or shrubs.   Leaves pinnately trifoliate.   Racemes axillary.  Legumes
usually  hispid  and stinging,  by the innumerable very brittle hairs which  readily
penetrate the skin. (De Cand.)
   Sp. Char.—Flowers  in racemes.   Legumes stinging,  with somewhat  keeled
valves.  Leaflets hairy beneath, acuminate; the middle one rhomboidal, the lateral
ones dilated externally. (De Cand.)—Boot perennial.   Stem  herbaceous.  Fhm-m
with a disagreeable alliaceous odour; vexillum  flesh-coloured; alae purple or violet;
keel greenish-white.
   Hab.—West Indies.
  Mucuva prurita, Hooker.2—A native of the East Indies;  has been usually confounded
with the  American  M. pruriens ;  but is distinguished by its smaller leaves, its more obtuse (not
acuminated)  leaflets, the middle one being more  truly  rhomboidal; its flowers more constantly in
threes,  and by its legumes being greatly broader, compressed, free from any raised line on the
back of the valve; whilst in the American  M.pruriens, the  pods are much narrower, terete,
and keeled on the valves.
   Description.— Cowhage or Cow-itch (siliqua hirsuta) is the legume of the Mu-
cuna pruriens  (legumen mucunse,  stizolobii, vel dolichos prurientis).   It is of a

brownish colour, is shaped like the letter  I, about four or five inches long, contains

from four to six seeds, and is clothed with strong,  brown, bristly, stinging hairs
(pubes leguminis; setae siliquee hirsutse), which, examined by the microscope, appear
like porcupines' quills, but are slightly notched or serrated towards  the point.
   Composition.—The hairs contain tannic acid.3
   Physiological Effects.—A decoction of the root or of the legumes is said to
be diuretic, and was formerly used  in dropsy.4   The setae applied to the skin pro-
duce intolerable itching, and, in some persons,  pain, redness,  swelling, and even an
eruption.  These effects, which are increased  by rubbing, but diminished  by the
application  of oil, are referable to the mechanical properties of the  setae.
   Uses.—The setas have been celebrated  for their anthelmintic properties.   Their
action is supposed to  be mechanical; that is, they are supposed to  pierce and tor-
ment intestinal worms, and thereby to oblige them to let go their hold.   In support
of this explanation, Mr.  Chamberlaine5 tells us he sprinkled some of the hairs in a
calabash full of very large round worms (Ascaris lumbricoides), and that in a little
time the animals began to writhe and twist about, evincing thereby extreme torture.
On examining  them with a magnifying-glass, the hairs were found sticking loosely
in various parts of their  bodies.  Their  usual want of action on the intestines is
ascribed td the mucous secretion which defends the subjacent membrance from in-
jury.  In one case diarrhoea followed the use of a very large dose of the electuary,

  1 Hist. Plant, i. 887.                                       a Bot. Miscell. ii. 348.
  3 Martius, Pharmakogn.                                     * Browne, Jamaica, p. 291.
  * Pract.  Treat, on Stizolobium, or Cowhage, p. 57,9th edit. 1804. 
    Thkee-leaved Pterocarptjs.—History;  Botany;  Composition.     823

and in another instance enteritis came on, after taking this preparation once; but it
is not certain that these were the consequences of the operation of the  hairs.1
  Cowhage  has been  principally celebrated  for  expelling  the large round worm
(Atcaris lumbricoides), and the small thread-worm (A. vermicularis).   It  has not
proved equally serviceable against the tape-worm  (Taenia solium).
  Administration.—The best  mode of exhibiting the setae  is in treacle, syrup,
or honey.  The quantity of hairs should be sufficient to give the syrup, or treacle,
the  consistence  of honey, or of an electuary; and of this  mixture  a  teaspoonful
maybe given to children, and a tablespoonful  to  adults ; this dose should be taken
twice a day—namely, at going  to bed, and in  the  morning an hour before breakfast.
Chamberlaine says it usually operates  more effectually where a gentle emetic has been
premised.  After continuing the electuary for three or four days, a brisk purgative
of jalap, or senna, should be taken, which will in general bring away the worms.


    276. PTEROCARPUS  SANTALINUS, Linn. L. .E.-THREE-
                     LEAVED  PTEROCARPUS.
                         Sex. Syst. Diudelphia, Decandria.
                             (Lignum, L.—Wood, E.)

  History.—Avicenna3 mentions red  sandal wood  (sandalus rubens).  Garcias3
thinks the term  sandal is a corruption of chandama, the name by which the wood
is known in Timor.
  Botany.   Gen. Char.—Sepals 5, cohering to form  a  5-toothed calyx.   Petals
5, forming a  papilionaceous corolla.   Stamens  10;  the filaments variously  com-
bined.   Legume indehiscent, irregular, somewhat orbicular, surrounded by a wing,
often varicose, 1-seeded.   Cotyledons thick, curved; radicle somewhat  inflexed at
the base of  the embryo.—Unarmed  trees or  shrubs.   Leaves  unequally pinnated.
(De Cand.)
  Sp. Char.—Arboreous.   Leaflets 3 (rarely 4 or 5 ?), roundish, retuse, glabrous.
Racemes  axillary, simple or branched.   Petals long-clawed, all waved or curled  on
the margins.  Stamens combined  into  a sheath, split, down  to the base on the
upper side,  and  half-way down on the  lower.   Legume long-stalked, surrounded
by a broad, membranous wing, obtuse  at the base, 1- or rarely 2-seeded. (Wight
and Arnott.)
  A lofty tree.  Flowers yellow, with red veins.
  Hab.—Mountains of Coromandel  and Ceylon.
  Description.—Red Sandal or  red Sander's wood (lignum santali rubri;  lig-
num santalinum rubrum)  is imported  in roundish or somewhat angular billets,
which are blackish externally, but of a blood-red  internally.  It is compact, heavy,
of a fibrous  texture, but is capable of taking a fine polish; almost  tasteless, and
inodorous, except when rubbed, when it emits a feeble smell.  It scarcely commu-
nicates colour to water.  Alcohol, as well as alkaline  solutions, readily extract the
colouring matter.  The alkaline solution is violet-red, and forms  a precipitate (san-
talin) on the addition of acids.   The alcoholic solution produces precipitates  with
several metallic solutions; thus, violet with solutions of lead, scarlet with corrosive
sublimate, and deep  violet with sulphate of iron.
  Composition.—Red Sandal wood  was analyzed by Pelletier,4  who found in it a
peculiar colouring matter, which he called santalin (about 16.75 per cent.),  extract-
u e, gallic acid, and woody fibre.
  Santalin is dark-red, with a resinous appearance; almost insoluble in water, but soluble in
alcohol, alkaline solutions, ether, acetic acid, and slightly so in some  of the volatile oils (as the
oils of lavender and rosemary).  The effects produced on its alcoholic and alkaline solutions
by salts, &c. are similar to those above mentioned on the tincture of  the wood.  The composi-
tion of santalin is, carbon 75.03, hydrogen 6.37, oxygen 18.6; or Cl6Hs03.
' Chamberlaine, op. cit. p. 05.                           2 Canon, lib. ii. tract ii. cap. 656.
• Clu»iu«, Exot. 173.                                 4 Journ. Phys. lxxix. 268. 
 824              VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Leguminosie.

   Uses.—It is employed in medicine as a colouring agent.  (See Tinctura Lavan-
 dulae composita.)


 277. PTEROCARPUS (Marsupium,L. Roxb), ERINACEUS, Lamarck, D.E-
                      THE  INDIAN  KINO-TREE.
                            Sex. Syst. Diadelphia, Decandria.
 (Succus ex inciso cortice fusus, sole induratus, L.—Kino-Indicum ; Concrete exudation of this and other
            undetermined genera and species, E.—Kino [plant yielding it unnamed], D.

   History.—In 1757, Dr. Fothergill1 described an astringent gum, which he sup-
 posed (though on very loose evidence) to have been brought from the River Gambia •
 and hence he termed it  Gummi rubrum astringens gambiense.   In 1774, it was in-
 troduced into the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia as  Gummi kino; and in 1787, into the
 London Pharmacopoeia as Resina kino.   It was described under this designation in
 the 3d  edition of Lewis's Exp. Hist, of the Mat.  Med., by  Dr. Aikin, in 1784.  In
 1794, Schenck3 published an inaugural  dissertation on it.   I have not been able to
 ascertain why it was called kino;  nor eau the  precise nature of the  substance re-
 ferred to be now ascertained.  Several years since I accidentally found, in the ware-
 house of an old drug firm in London, a substance  marked Gummi rubrum astn'n-
 gens, which I was told had formerly fetched a very high price.   It has subsequently
 proved  to be Butea gum.   I was  at first inclined to believe that it was the original
 astringent gum of Fothergill,  and it has  been  described by Professor Guibourt3 as
 gomme astringente de Gambie.  But a more attentive perusal  of Dr. Fothergill's
 paper has led me to doubt their identity (see Butea gum).   It is somewhat remark-
 able, however, that the Hindu name for Butea  gum is kueni or kuenee, from which
 the European term kino may probably be derived.
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—See Pterocarpus santalinus.
   Sp. Char.—Stamens monadelphous.   Leaflets 5-7, alternate,  elliptical, rather
 emarginate, leathery, smooth.   Branches  and  calyxes smooth.   Panicle terminal.
 Pod half-circular, oblique, smooth.—A  tree.
   Hab.—Malabar.
   Extraction of the Juice of Pterocarpus erinaceus.—" When an incision
 is made" in the trunk and branches of the tree, " the juice flows out, at first of an
 extremely pale-red colour, and in a very liquid state;  but it soon coagulates, be-
 coming of a deep blood-red hue, and so remarkably brittle, that its collection is
 attended with some difficulty."4
   Commerce of Kino.—Two substances are met with in English commerce under
 the name of kino—one  called  Botany Bay Kino, which is  the inspissated juice of
 the Eucalyptus resinifera (before  described), the other, apparently an extract, im-
 ported from Bombay and Tellicherry, and which may be termed East Indian Kino.
 The latter is presumed to be the substance referred to in the British pharmacopoeias,
 as it is always regarded in commerce as genuine gum kino.   It is imported in boxes,
 chiefly from Bombay or  Tellicherry.
  In my museum, I have several other substances, apparently extracts, which I have received
 as kino, mostly from Professor Guibourt, who has described several of them in his Hist, des Drag.
 ii. 428.  One of these is, perhaps,  Jamaica kino.   A second I received as Colombian kino. A
 third I believe to be foreign extract of rhatany.  I have never met with them in English com-
 merce, and therefore think it needless  to describe them.
   Description.—East  Indian kino (kino indicum  seu  ostindicum), sometimes
 called Amboyna kino (kino amboinense), and usually known in the shops as gum
 kino (kino, Ph. L. E. D.), occurs in  small, angular, glistening fragments, the larger
 of which appears almost black, the  smaller  being reddish.  When entire they are
opake, but  in thin laminae are transparent and ruby-red.  They are brittle between
1 Med. Obs. and Inq. i. 358, 4th edit. 1776.                   2 Coll. Diss. med. Marburg, t. V.
* Hist, des Drog. ii. 428, 3me edit.
* Gray, Trav. in Western Africa, in Stevenson and Churchill's Med. Bot. 
  Ui ian Kino-Tree:—Composition;  Physiological Effects; Uses.   825

the fingers, soften in the mouth, stick to the teeth, and colour the saliva red.  They
are inodorous, but have a very astringent taste.   Both water and  alcohol  acquire,
by digestion on kino, a deep red colour.  The aqueous decoction becomes turbid on
coolinfr-  The mineral acids and solutions of gelatine, emetic tartar, acetate of lead,
H-ouichloride of  iron, and nitrate  of  silver, produce  precipitates  with the watery
infusion.
  In tbe former edition of  this work, the tree yielding East Indian kino was said
to be unascertained; but that it was probably a native of the Malabar coast, for all
the  importations  of East  Indian kino which  I  had traced,  were from Bombay or
Tellicherry.  An  experienced East  India broker had assured me it was the  produce
of the Malabar coast.   As pterocarpus erinaceus is not  known to grow in India,
there is no ground for ascribing  East Indian kino to that species.   The  London
College have now made kino the produce of Pterocarpus marsupium, which, Dr.
Roxburgh1 says, yields an astringent inspissated juice exceedingly like Butea gum.
I am indebted to  Mr. Edward Solly for a sample of extract  of Pterocarpus marsu-
pium, which he received from  Dr.  Gibson.   It  is a dark red, tenacious,  acidulous,
moderately astringent substance.  It differs, therefore, from the gummy resin which
Dr.  Roxburgh describes as  being the product of  this tree.  This accurate naturalist
describes it as being very brittle, and having a strong, but simply astringent taste;
characters which apply to East  Indian  kino.
  Composition.—East Indian kino was analyzed by Vauquelin,3 who  found its
constituents to  be as follows: tannin  and peculiar extractive 75,  red gum 24, in-
soluble matter 1.  A. W. Buchner3  has subsequently shown that catechine is a con-
stituent of kino.  To this substance, which has  been  before noticed, kino owes its
power of communicating a  green colour to the salts of iron.
  Physiological  Effects.—Astringent.   Less  effective,   and  less  readily dis-
solved in the alimentary juices than catechu, to which, in its  operation, it is closely
allied.
  Uses.—Employed in medicine as  an  astringent only; principally in obstinate
chronic diarrhoea.'  In this disease it  is usually given in combination with chalk,
and frequently with opium.   In pyrosis,  the compound powder of kino (i. e. opium
and kino) has been found serviceable.  Dr.  Pemberton4 ascribes to kino a power of
restraining the discharge of the mucous glands of the intestinal  canal when they
are secreting too much, and of  contracting vessels already too much relaxed, with-
out  exerting any such power over the glands  and vessels  when  they are acting
naturally.  It has been administered as an astringent in leucorrhcea  and sanguineous
exhalations, and as a tonic  in intermittents.   As a topical astringent it has been ap-
plied to flabby ulcers, and used as a gargle,  injection, and wash.
  Administration.—The dose of the powder is grs. x.
  1. TINCTURA KINO, L.  E.  [U. S.];  Tincture of Kino.—(Kino,  bruised, fiiiss;
Rectified Spirit Oij.   Digest for seven days, and  strain.   "This tincture cannot
be conveniently prepared by the process of percolation,"  E.)—[The U. S.  Pharm.
directs kino in powder 3vj; Diluted Alcohol q. s.  Mix the kino with an equal bulk
of sand, and having introduced it into a percolator, pour Diluted Alcohol gradually
upon it until eight fluidounces of filtered liquor are obtained.]—Astringent.  Used
in diarrhoea and hemorrhages, generally as an adjunct to  the chalk mixture.  Dose,
f3j to f3ij.  It is said that  by  keeping this tincture has in some instances become
fHatinous, and lost its astringency.  Where this occurred, probably  the Botany Bay
kino (inspissated juice of the Eucalyptus resinifera) had been employed.
  I PULVIS KINO  COMPOSITUS, L.;  Compound Poxoder of Kino.—(Kino 3xv; Cin-
namon s.ss; Dried Opium  5j.   llub them  separately to a very fine powder; then
mix them.)—Twenty grains of this powder  contain  one grain of opium.  This
powder is employed as an  astringent in chronic diarrhoea and  pyrosis.  The dose
of it is grs. v to §j.
 ' Fl. Ind. iii. 235.                                      a Ann.  de Chim. xlvi. 321.
 ' Pharm. Central-Blatt. fur 1833, S. 029 und 652.               * Diseases of the Abdom.  Viscera. 
82(5             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Leguminos.e.
Sub-order II.   Mimose.e.
    278.  ACACIA, De Candolle.—VARIOUS SPECIES  YIELDING
                                   GUM, E.
                   Acaciae species varise, L. —Acacia varek et A. vera, D.
                           Sex. Syst. Polygamia, Monoecia.
                              (Gummi, L. D.—Gum, E.)

   History.—The Shittah tree,1 whose wood is mentioned in  several parts of the
Old Testament,3 is supposed to have been an Acacia. By some  it has been thought
to have been the A. vera,3 by others the A. horrida*
   Hippocrates speaks of  the  Acacia,5 which  he sometimes calls the Egyptian
Acacia,6 at other  times the White Acacia.7  He is usually supposed to refer to
Acacia vera ; but Dierbach3 is of opinion that A. Senegal is meant; which, he ob-
serves, is distinguished by its white bark, white wood, and white flowers, and there-
fore the term white could apply to it only.   Furthermore, the white fragrant oint-
ment9 was probably prepared from the flowers of the A. Senegal, and not of A.  vera,
whose  flowers would yield a yellow  ointment,  and  have  not such an agreeable
odour as  those of the former species.   Hippocrates10 also  mentions gum  (xo^t),
which  he used in medicine.  Delile11 considers the "Axa^a St^ac (Thirsty Thorn)
of Theophrastus12 to be Acacia Seyal, which Pliny13 calls Spina sitiens.
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—Flowers polygamous. Calyx 4- to 5-toothed.  Petals 4 to
5, either free or cohering to form a 4- to 5-cleft corolla.   Stamens varying in number,
10 to 200. Legume continuous, juiceless, 2-valved.—Shrubs or trees.  Thorns stipular,
scattered, or none.  Flowers yellow, white, or rarely red, capitate or spiked. (De Cand.)
   Species. 1. A.  vera, Willdenow, L. D.;  Mimosa  nilotica, Linn.; Egyptian
Thorn.—Spines in pairs.  Branches and Leaves smooth.   Pinnae  2 pairs ; leaflets
8 to 10 pairs, oblong-linear; with a gland between the pinnae.   Flowers in globose
heads ; heads about two together, stalked, axillary. Legume moniliform.  (De Cand.)
—Middling-sized tree.   Flower-heads bright yellow.—A native of Arabia, and of
Africa  from  Senegal to Egypt.   Its  fruit, termed Egyptian and  Senegal bablah
(bablah d'Egypte  et du  Senigal,  Guibourt), has  been employed  in tanning and
dyeing.   The succus acacias veras is the inspissated juice of the unripe fruit, and
was formerly used as an astringent.  Acacia vera yields gum Arabic, and also a
portion of the gum Senegal.
   2. A.  arabica, Willd. D.;  Acacia  nilotica, Delile;  Mimosa aralica, Rox-
                           burgh.—Spines in pairs.  Branches and petioles pubes-
          Fig. 366.          cent.   Pinnae 4 to 6 pairs; leaflets  10 to 20 pairs,
                            oblong-linear, with  a  gland beneath the inferior and
                            often between  the last  pinnae.  Flowers  in  globose,
                            stalked, axillary, subternate heads.   Legume monili-
                           form. (De Cand.)—A small tree.  Flower-heads yel-
                           low.—Considered by Ehrenberg to be a variety of the
                           preceding  species.—A   native  of  Senegal, Egypt,
                           Arabia, and India.—Its fruit, termed Indian bablah
                           (bablah de I'Inde, Guibourt), is used  for tanning and
                           dyeing.   Probably yields  part of the gum Arabic and
                           East Indian gum.
                              3.  A. Karoo, Hayne, Nees and Ebermaier.—Cape
                           of Good Hope.   Said to yield Cape gum.
         A. arabka.             4. A. Gummifera, Willdenow.—Arabia; Africa,
 l Isaiah, xii. 19.
 3 Carpenter, Script. Nat. Hist.
 s ."AicayS'a, or Thorn, p. 568, ed. Fees.
 » "A. AtVitii, p. 632.
 9 M.-JWI/ AEuacv cttyuwncv, p. 265.
ii Flore d'Egypte, p. 286, fol.
is Hist.  Nat. lib. xiii. cap. 1, ed. Valp.
2 As F.xod. xxv. 5.
* Picture Bible.
s "A. u-tyuTm, p.671.
8 Arzneim. d. Hippok.
■o pages 007 and 606.
12 Hist. Plant, lib. iv. cap. 8. 
             Acacia:—Production; Commerce;  Description.          827

 near Mogadore.   Said by Forskal1 to yield a gum, which is collected by the Arabs.
 Probably furnishes, in part at least, Barbary gum.
  5. A. Seyal, Delile.—Egypt and Senegambia.  Yields a gum which forms part
 of tfum Senegal.   The tears are white, hard, vitreous, and vermiform.
  6. A. tortilis, Forskiil, Nees, and  Ebermaier.—Arabia.   Its  gum is collected
 by the Bedouins of the desert.
  7. A. Ehrenbergii,  Hayne, Nees, and  Ebermaier.—Arabia.   Its gum is col-
 lected by the Bedouins of the desert.
  8. A. Senegal,  Willdenow;  A.  Verek, Adanson.—Arabia  and  Africa, from
 Senegal  to the Cape of Good Hope.   Abundant in the forest  of Sahel, near Sene-
 gal.   Yields gum Senegal  in  vermiform, ovoidal, or spheroidal  tears, which  are
 wrinkled externally, but are transparent internally.
  Production of Gum.—The gum of the Acacia trees flows, in the liquid state,
 from the trunk and  branches, and  hardens by exposure to the air.   It usually ex-
 udes spontaneously (see some remarks on the cause of the exudation of gum, ante,
 p. 820).   In some  instances,  however, the discharge is facilitated  by incisions.
 In  Barbary, the largest quantity of gum is procured during the  hot and parching
 months of  July and  August.   " The more sickly the tree appears,  the more gum it
 yields; and the hotter the weather, the  more prolific it is.   A wet winter and a
 cool or mild summer are unfavourable to the production of gum."a In Senegal, the
 gum begins to flow when the tree first opens  its flowers ;3 and it continues during
 the rainy season till the month of December, when it is collected for the first time.
 Another collection of the gum  is  made in the month of March, from incisions in
 the bark, which the extreme dryness of the air at that time is said  to  render ne-
 cessary.4
  Commerce.—Acacia gum is the produce of Africa principally, and of Asia.  It
 is imported from the Levant and other parts of  the Mediterranean, from Barbary,
 Senegal, the  East  Indies, and  the  Cape.   It comes  over in  chests, casks, skins,
 serons, and bags.   The duty on it is 6s. per cwt.   The following are the quantities
 on which duty was paid in 1839:—5
                                                         Cwt.
               Gum from the East Indies................  7,869
               Senegal gum.......................24.698
               Other sorts of gum....................  7,759
                           Total..................40,326

  Description.—Acacia gufn (gummi acacias) occurs in variable-sized tears, which
 are  inodorous, more or less  coloured, have a slightly sweetish taste, and a greater
 or less degree of transparency.   Ehrenberg asserts that  the characters of gum of
 the  same species of plant are liable to considerable variation.   Thus  the same tree
 may yield a transparent or an opake, a light or a dark  coloured, gum.  The fol-
 lowing are the most important varieties of Acacia gum:—
  1. Turkey or Arabic Gum (Gummi turcicum seu  arabicum ;  Gummi Mimosse
 verum, Martius; Gomme arabique vraie, Guibourt).—This is  imported from Leg-
 horn, Malta, Trieste, Gibraltar, Smyrna, Alexandria, Beyrout, Constantinople, &c.
 It is the produce of Acacia vera, and probably of other species, especially A. ara-
 oicu.  It occurs in rounded tears, or amorphous  or angular pieces, varying  in size
 from a pea  to that  of a walnut, or even larger than this;  some of the pieces being
 transparent, others more or less opake, from  innumerable  cracks extending through
 them.  It has a glassy lustre, is white, yellow, or wine-yellow, and has no odour,
or, if any, an acid one.  Its specific gravity varies from  1.316 to 1.4S2.   It may
be readily broken into small fragments.   It is entirely soluble in  water, the solu-

 J Fl. Egypt. Arab, cxxiv.
 1 Jackson, Account of the Empire of Morocco, p. 137, 3d edit.
 t Adanson, Mtm. de I'Acad, des Sc. de Paris, p. 8, 1773.
lRBDe,"antt' ^°"1'- Hist, de VAfrique Framboise, t. i. p. 56; quoted by Woodville, Med. Bot. vol. ii. p.
 1 Trade List. 
828             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Leguminosie.

tion having  the  property of reddening litmus, and being feebly opalescent.   The
latter property is said, by Guerin, to be owing to a small quantity of insoluble ni-
trogenous matter present.   The white pieces constitute the gummi electum of our
druggists.  On the  continent, they are called gum  Turk (gomme  Turiquc), from
Tor, the name of a  seaport of Arabia, near  the  isthmus of Suez;  while  the red
pieces are sometimes said to constitute the gum Gedda (gomme Jedda, or Gedda)
so called after another port.   Gum Gedda is occasionally imported  into this coun-
try unmixed  with other kinds of gum.  In all the entries of it which I have been
able to trace, it came from  Alexandria, in barrels.
   2. Barbary or  Morocco  Gum (Gummi Barbaricum).—This is  imported  from
Mogadore and Mazagau.  In 1830, there were imported from Tripoli, Barbary, and
Morocco, 2,063 cwt.  of gum.1  Barbary gum is  probably the produce of Acacia
gummifera.  Jackson says it is  obtained from a high thorny tree,  called Attalch.
The best kind is procured from the  trees of Morocco, Ras-el-wed, in the province of
Suse, and Bled-hummer, in the province of Abda; the second qualities are the pro-
duce of Shedma,  Duguella, and other provinces.   I have two varieties of Barbary
gum; one  (the Gomme de  Barbarie of Guibourt) is  in roundish or  irregular tears,
mixed with  many impurities,  imperfectly transparent,  and of a   dull yellowish
colour, with a faint tint of  green.—It is imperfectly soluble in water and has some
analogy to Senegal  gum.   The  other kind  (called  Mogadore gum) is in small,
angular, broken,  mostly yellow pieces, which resemble fragments of Turkey gum.
   3. Gum Senegal (Gummi Senegalense).—This gum is imported from St. Louis,
St. Mary's, the River Gambia, Senegal, and Bathurst. In 1839, duty (6s. per cwt.)
was paid on 24,698 cwt.   Gum Senegal  is probably obtained from  several species
of Acacia; but especially  A.  Senegal, A. vera,  A. Seyal, and A.  Adansonii, are
said to produce it in part.   It occurs  in larger tears  than those of Turkey or Ara-
bic gum.  On breaking them, we frequently find  large air-cavities  in their centres.
Occasionally, we  meet with whitish pieces, but  for the most  part they are yellow,
reddish-yellow, or brownish-red.   More difficulty is experienced in breaking or pul-
verizing this  gum than gum Arabic, and its fracture is more conchoidal.  The taste
of this gum is similar to that of the last.
   Guibourt distinguishes two varieties of this gum, one of which he terms  Gomme
du Bas du Fleuve, or gum Senegal, properly so called;  the other, the Gomme du
Uaut du Fleuve,  or Gomme de Galam. The first  is probably the produce of Acacia
Senegal, while the second  is procured from A. vera.   There is but  little difference
between them; yet gum Galam has a greater resemblance  to Turkey gum than Sene-
gal gum has; the pieces are more broken, and therefore more brilliant, than those
of gum Senegal, properly so called.  Those pieces of gum which have on some part
of them a yellowish opake skin or pellicle, constitute  the  Gomme pelliculie  of Gui-
bourt.   The  Marrons de Gomme, or Gomme lignirode, of the same pharmacologist,
is also found  in the  Senegal gum of  commerce; it  consists of yellowish or dark-
brownish pieces, which are  difficult to break, opake, and rough.  Treated with water
it is partially dissolved, leaving, says Guibourt, a residue of gnawed wood (bow
ronge).   Guibourt states that, in most of the marrons, he has found a large ovoid
cell, which had been the habitation of the larvae of some insect;  whence he concludes
that this substance is the work of an insect.
   4. East  India Gum (Gummi indicum oslindicum).—This  variety is imported
principally from Bombay.  In 1839,  duty (6s. per cwt.) was  paid  on 7,869 cwt.
It is probably the produce of various species.   Many pieces agree in their physical
and chemical characters with  Turkey and Arabic gum, and are probably the  pro-
duce of Acacia arabica, or some allied species (yellow E. I. Gum).   Others, how-
ever, are larger, red or brown, and more difficult to pulverize than Turkey or Arabic
gum (Brown E. I. gum).   Are these the produce of  Feronia  Elephantum ?
   I have received from  Bombay three varieties of gum;  one marked Manilla best
' Parliimentary Return. 
                  Acacia:—Adulteration;  Composition.                829

gum Arabic, very similar to gum Galam ;  a  second, marked Mocha and Barbary
gum, in large reddish-coloured, rough  tears; and a third, denominated Surat in-
ferior gum Arabic, in smaller dark-coloured tears.
  5. Cape Gum (Gummi Capense).—This  is imported from the Cape of Good
Hope.  In 1829, there was exported from  the Cape 16,943  lbs. and  two cases of
gum.1  In 1830, the quantity imported into  the United Kingdom was only 1  cwt.
3 qrs. 14 lbs. ;s but since then the importation has  greatly increased.  Mr. Burchell3
says Cape gum is obtained from a species of Acacia (which  he  has figured in vol.
i. pp. 189 and 325) closely resembling A. vera,  and which he calls A. capensis (A.
Karoo, Hayne ?).   It is  most abundant on the  banks of the Gariep, and between
the Cape and the Gariep.   Notwithstanding that he asserts the quality of Cape
gum  is in no way inferior to that of A. vera, it is considered by our dealers  as a
very inferior kind.   It is pale yellow;  and its appearance resembles Mogadore  gum
(sue ante, p. 828), or small fragments of Turkey gum.   It is collected by the Caffres.
frum has also been  imported  from  Australia and South  America.   A sample of
South Australian  gum, which  the author  examined,  had more the appearance of
Cherry-tree gum  (cerasin) than of Gum Acacia.
  Besides the preceding gums, there  are several others described by continental  pharmacolo-
gists, but which are almost unknown in English commerce.  Such are the following:__
  a. Gum Bassora; Gummi  Toridonnense.—This gum occurs in variable sized pieces, which are
whitish or yellowish, and opake.  When  put into water it swells up,  but dissolves only in
part.  The insoluble  portion has  been called bassorin.  Its origin is unknown.   Virey thinks
that it is produced by a Mesembryanlhemum ; Desvaux and Damart, by a Cactus.
  B. Gum Kutteeha.—Considered by Guibourt as identical with the preceding; but the sample
given me  by Professor Royle  is very distinct.   It  has considerable resemblance  to the  flaky
tragacanth (ante, p. 820), for  which  it has been attempted to be substituted.4  It is, probably, the
produce of Slerculia urens, a plant belonging to the family  Byttneriacea.b
  y. Under the name of Hog Gcm, 1 have  met with, in  commerce, an unsalable gum. which
greatly resembles a sample sent  me by Professor Guibourt, as gomme  pseudo-adraganthe, or
 Gomme de Sassa.*  It is in reddish yellow, somewhat transparent masses, many of which are
twisted like a snail's shell or  an ammonite.  Some of these are eight or nine inches in diameter.
It is yielded by the Maronchea Coccinea, a guttiferous plant.
  Adulteration.—The inferior and  cheaper kinds of gum (as  the Barbary, East
Indian, and Senegal  gums) are not unfrequently substituted for  the  Turkey or
Arabic  gum, especially in  the form of powder.   Flour (or  starch) is  sometimes
mixed with powdered gum; the adulteration  is  readily  recognized  by the  blue
colour produced on the addition of a solution of iodine to the cold mucilage of  sus-
pected gum.
  Composition.—Several ultimate  analyses  of  gum have been  made.   The most
important are those of Berzelius,7 Prout,8 Guerin,9 and Mulder.10
	Gum Arabic.		Gum Guerin. 43.59 6.23 50.07 0.11	Senegal. Mulder. 44.92 6.09 48.99 0.00	Soluble part of Gum Bassora.
Berzelius Carbon . . . 41.906 Hydrogen . 6.789 Oxygen . . 51.306 Nitrogen . .a trace	Prout. 41.4 6.5 52.1 0.0	Mulder. 45.10 6 10 48.80 0.0			Guerin. 43.46 6.26 50.28 0.0
           Total  100.000     100.0      100.00      100.00      100.00      100.00

The formula C13H,3Oia agrees with the analyses of Berzelius and Prout.   Mulder
gives, as the formula for gum Arabic, C12H10010.   Liebig gives CiaH"0".  Accord-
ing to the  first formula the atomic weight will be = 186; according to the second =
162; and  the  third =171.
  The proximate analysis of gum has been made by Guerin :—"

 J M'Cullooh. Did. of Com.                      2 Parliamentary Return.
 i d u  V the  InUrior °f ^ut\ Africa, 1822-24.     A Nicholson's Journal, vii. 301.
 t Kojbnrph. Fl. Indica, iii. 146.                  « See his Hist, des Drog. ii. 447, 3me edit.
 t Ann. deClnm. xcv. 77.                         » Phil.  Trans, for 1S27.
  Journ. de Chim. Mid. vii. 742.                  «o pharm. Central-Blatt fur 1839, S. 137.
 " Op. supra cu. 
 830              VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord. Leguminos*:.

                                     Gum Arabic.  Gum Senegal.   Gum Bassora.
              Soluble gum (Arabin)......79.40         81.10         11.20
              Insoluble gum (Bassorin) ....   0.00          0.00         6131
              Water...............17.60         16.10         21.M)
              Ashes...............   3.00          2.80          5.60
                    Total...........100.00         100.00        100.00
   1. Soluble Gum or  Arabist.—Is a colourless, inodorous, insipid, uncrystallizable solid
 soluble in both hot and cold water, but insoluble in alcohol, ether, and oils.  It combines with
 alkalies.   Sulphuric acid converts it into a saccharine substance.  100 parts of arabin  treated
 with 40Q parts of nitric  acid  yielded Guerin 16.88 of mucic acid, with a little oxalic ncid
 From cerasin or prunin, it is distinguished by its solubility in  cold water.  The characters by
 which it is distinguished from  tragacanthin, carrageenin, and cydonin, have been already pointed
 out.  According to Guerin, arabin consists of carbon 43.81, hydrogen 6.20, oxygen 4'J.85  and ni-
 trogen  0.14.
   2. Insoluble Guar  or Bassorix.—Is distinguished by its insolubility in water, both hot and
 cold.  It absorbs water,  and swells up.  It is insoluble  in alcohol.  100 parts treated by 1000
 of nitric  acid furnished 22.61 of mucic acid, with a  little oxalic acid.  It consists, accordin" to
 Guerin, of carbon 37.28, hydrogen 55.87, oxygen 6.85.
   3. Salts.—The ashes of gums Arabic and  Senegal consist of carbonates of potash and lime
 with minute portions of  chloride of potassium, oxide of iron,  aluminum, silica, and magnesia!
 The carbonate of lime is formed by the decomposition of the  malate of lime contained  in the
 gum, while the carbonate of potash results from the decomposition of acetate of potash.
   Chemical Characteristics.— Gum Arabic  is soluble both  in hot and cold
 water, forming  mucilage.    Its fresh solution  has an acid reaction, probably from
 some vegetable, and alcohol added in  excess precipitates the gum from it.  Diace-
 tate of lead  causes  a white precipitate (gummate  of lead) with the solution,  but a
 solution of pure Acacia gum is not precipitated by neutral acetate of lead.  A solu-
 tion of  silicate of potash (prepared by  fusing  three parts of carbonate of potash
 with one  part of silver sand) causes a white flaky precipitate.   Oxalate of ammo-
 nia gives a white precipitate (oxalate of lime).   When  a concentrated solution of
 neutral  sesquichloride of iron is dropped into a  strong solution of gum,  and the
 mixture  stirred, the whole becomes, in  a  few  minutes, a brown  semitransparent
 jelly.   Nitrate of mercury produces a precipitate  with  a solution of gum.
   Physiological Effects.   <*.  On Animals generally.—The effects of injecting
 solutions of gum into  the veins of animals (horses and dogs) have  been examined
 by Viborg, Scheele,  and Hertwich.1   From  their experiments it appears  that small
 quantities only can  be thrown  into the circulation with impunity.  From half a
 drachm  to one  or two drachms of gum, dissolved in  one or  two ounces of water,
 disorder the respiration and circulation of horses;  while five or six drachms of gum
 give rise to an affection of the nervous system, manifested by stupor and paralysis,
 or convulsions.   Some of these effects (namely, those on the pulmonary and vascu-
 lar system) may arise  from  the  non-miscibility of  mucilage with the blood, and its
 consequent mechanical influence in obstructing the capillary circulation of the lungs.
   |3.  On  Man.—Regnandot2 injected  three drachms  of gum, dissolved in three
 ounces of water, into the veins of a man aged twenty years.   In half an hour the
 patient was very chilly; his pulse was small and quick, and he had  three liquid
 stools.   The  chilliness was  succeeded by great heat, and after fifteen hours an erup-
 tion appeared on the skin.
   The local action of a solution of gum is that of an emollient, and (by its sheathing
 properties) demulcent.  It  is not known to possess any action  over remote  parts,
 though some  have supposed it to have  the  power of diminishing irritation in the
 urinary organs.
   Uses.—Gum is employed in  medicine as an emollient and demulcent, but  more
frequently as  a vehicle for the  exhibition  of other medicines.  It  is sometimes
slowly dissolved  in the mouth, to allay  troublesome cough, and to diminish irrita-
tion of the fauces, by diluting the acid secretions,  and sheathing the parts from the
action  of the atmosphere.   In  inflammatory affections of the  intestinal  tube,  as
i Wibmer, Wirk. d. Arzneim. u. Gift. Bd. i. S. 3.
2 Ibid. op. supra cit. S. 6. 
Acacia :—Administration.
831
well as of the respiratory and urinary organs, gum is used as an emollient and de-
mulcent.   As a sheathing substance, a solution of gum may be employed in acrid
poisoning; but of course its efficacy is mechanical  merely.   Powdered gum is occa-
sionally applied to check hemorrhage from leech-bites.   As  a vehicle for the exhi-
bition of other medicines, it is employed in the form either of powder or mucilage.
The former is used  to  give bulk to active and heavy powders ; as calomel, emetic
tartar, &c., and in the preparation of lozenges.  The latter is employed to suspend
insoluble powders (as oxide of zinc and musk) in water, or to diffuse oily and resin-
ous substances  through aqueous fluids,1 and  to give form  and tenacity to pills.
Farthermore, the adhesive qualities  of mucilage  render  it  exceedingly useful for
various other pharmaceutical purposes, although it is now generally superseded by
dextrine.
  Administration.—The dose of powdered gum is from 3ss to 5j, or ad libitum.
  1, MI CILAGO, E.; Mucilago  Acaciae, D.;  Mucilage.—(Acacia,  powdered, |ix ;
Cold  Water Oj.  The gum to be dissolved without heat, but with occasional  stir-
ring,  and the solution to be strained through  linen or calico.)—The Dublin College
employs Jiv of coarsely powdered gum to f^vj. of Water.   Dissolve the gum in
the water with occasional stirring; then strain through flannel.   By keeping, muci-
lage,  or solution of gum, readily becomes sour by the development of acetic acid.
The pharmaceutical uses of mucilage have been above referred to.   To render differ-
ent substances miscible with aqueous vehicles, different proportions of mucilage are
required.  " Oils will  require about three-fourths of  their weight,  balsams and
spermaceti equal  parts,  resins two parts, and musk five times its weight."2
  !.  MISTURA ACACLE,  L. E.;  Acacia  Mixture.—{The  mixture  of  acacia  of the
London College is similar to the  mucilage of the other two Colleges.   The formula
is as follows:  Acacia, powdered,  £x:  Distilled  Water, boiling, Oj.  Rub  the
acacia with the water, gradually  poured in until it is dissolved.   Hot water is not
necessary for  this preparation;  and in the author's opinion it has a tendency to
acidify the gum,  and render the  solution somewhat acrid.   The Edinburgh College
gives the following formula for the acacia mixture, which is a  compound prepara-
tion,  and not  merely a  solution of gum in water :  Mucilage f J iij ;  Sweet Almonds
Jx; Pure Sugar  3v; Water Oij.  Steep the almonds in hot water, and  peel them;
beat them to a smooth pulp in an earthenware or marble mortar, first with the sugar,
and then with the mucilage ;  add  the water gradually, stirring constantly;  then
strain through linen or calico.)—Demulcent and emollient.  Applicable to the same
purposes as Mistura Amygdalae,  already mentioned.  Dose,  fjj to f^ij.

  I TROCHISCI ACACLE, E.; Gum Lozenges.—(Gum Arabic £iv; Starch Ij; Pure
Sugar lb. j.   Mix  and pulverize them, and  make them into  a proper mass  with
rose water for forming lozenges.)—An  agreeable pectoral.   Employed to allay the
tickling in the throat which provokes coughing.

  [4. SYRUPUS ACACLE,  U. S. ; Syrup of Gum Arabic—(Take of Gum Arabic gij;
^ugar 3 xv ;  Water f^viij.   Dissolve first the gum in the water without heat,  then
tlie sugar with a gentle heat, and strain.)—This is  a convenient pharmaceutical pre-
paration in the formation of  pills, &c.  It is also convenient  for the expeditious
preparation of cough mixtures.]
  S'-e Experiments on Mixing Oils. Resinous and Pinguious Substances, with Water, by M^ans of a
'tit-table Mucilage, in the Medic. Observ. and Inq. vol. i. p. 41'J, 4th edit. 1776.
 s Montgomery, Observ. on the Dubl. Pharm. 
832
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Leguminosie.
   279.  ACACIA CATECHU,  Willdenow, L. E. D.-THE  CATECHU
                                  ACACIA.
                               Mimosa Catechu, Linn.
                            Sex. Syst. Polygamia, MonoEcia.
        (Ligni exterioris extractum, L.—Extract of tlie Wood, E.—Extractum ex ligno  D.)
                                  [Catechu, U.S.]
   History.—It is somewhat  uncertain  who first described  Catechu.   Garcias ab
Orto1 was of opinion that it was the Avxiov lv8t,xbv of Dioscorides ;a but Dr. Royle'
in a very elaborate and  learned paper on this  subject, has  apparently proved that
the preparation referred to by the latter author is the produce of Berberis Lycium
Royle.
   Botany.—Gen. Char.—See Acacia (ante, p. 826).
   Sp. Char.—Arboreous.   Branches  armed  with  stipulary thorns, or occasionally
unarmed.   Young shoots, petioles, and peduncles, more or less pubescent.  Leava
bipinnated ; pinnae 10 to 30 pairs; leaflets 30 to 50 pairs ;petiole sometimes armed
on the under side with a row of prickles,  with one large  gland  below the lowest
pair of pinnae, and between the extreme 1 to 6 pairs.   Spikes axillary, 1 to 4 to-
gether, shorter  than the  leaves.  Flowers  numerous.  Petals united.   Stamens
distinct,  numerous.   Legumes flat, thin, straight, linear, glabrous, 4- to 8-seeded
(Wight and  Arnott).   Tree from 15  to 20 feet high.  Bark  brown and scabrous.
 Wood hard and heavy ; the interior (duramen) brown, dark red, or blackish •  the
exterior  (alburnum) white, one or two inches thick.  Flowers whitish or pale
yellow.
   Hab.—Various parts of the East Indies ; now common in Jamaica.
   Manufacture of  Catechu.—The manufacture of  Catechu  from  the Acacia
 Catechu, as practised in Canara and  Behar, has been  described by Mr. Kerr4 and
Dr. F. Buchanan Hamilton,5 while Dr. Royle8 has  explained the process  followed in
Northern India.   According to the last-mentioned gentleman, " the Kutt manufac-
turers move to different parts of the  country in different seasons, erect temporary
huts  in the  jungles, and,  selecting trees fit for their  purpose, cut the inner wood
into small chips.   These they put into small earthen pots, which  are arranged in a
double row along a fireplace built  of  mud -(choola) ;  water  is then poured in until
the whole are covered;  after a considerable  portion has boiled away, the clear liquor
is strained into one of the neighbouring pots, and a fresh supply of material is put
into the  first, and the operation repeated until the extract in the general receiver
is of sufficient consistence to be poured into clay moulds, which, in the Kheree Pass
and  Doon, where I have seen the  process, are generally of a quadrangular form.
This Catechu is generally of a pale-red colour, and is considered there to be of the
best quality.   By the manufacturers it is conveyed to Saharunpore and Moradabad,
whence it follows  the course of commerce down the Ganges, and meets that from
Nepaul, so that both may be exported from Calcutta."
   Description.—The  term Catechu  (from cate a tree, and  chu juice) is applied to
various astringent extracts (sixteen  of which  I have in my collection) imported
from India and the neighbouring  countries.   A few years ago the terms  Catechu,
Terra Japonica, and Cutch, were employed synonymously; they are now, however,
for the most  part,  used  in  trade somewhat distinctively, though  not uniformly in
the same sense.   In the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, catechu is correctly stated to
be the "  extract of the wood of Acacia Catechu, of tbe kernels of Areca  Catechu,
and of the leaves of Uncaria Gambir ;" probably,  too, from other  plants.   The fol-
lowing may be taken as a classification of  the  varieties of catechu  commonly met
with :—
i Clussi Exot. lib. i. cap. 10, p. 163.                    2 j/b. i. cap. 132.
3 Linn. Trans, vol. xvii. p. b3.                        * Med. Obs. and Inq. vol. v. p. 151.
1 Journey from Madras through Mysdre, Canara, and Malabar, vol. iii. p. 177, 1S..7.
• Illustr. p. 1~2. 
Catechu Acacia :—Classification.
833
   1.  Gambir  Catechu ;  Catechu from Uncaria Gambir.—The method of pre-
 paring Gambir, and the properties of  the different commercial varieties of this ex-
 tract, have been already  described (see p.  696).   I may farther observe, however,
 that the origin of these varieties of catechu I consider to be satisfactorily made out.'
 They are  imported under the name of Gambir from Singapore (where the  Uncaria
 Gambir is cultivated, and an extract  prepared from it; they agree with  the  pub-
 lished descriptions of  gambir;  and  lastly, I find them  to be  identical  with  the
 gambir brought by Mr. Bennet from  Singapore, and deposited  in the Museum of
 the Medico-Botanical Society.  [In the London Pharmacopoeia, the Gambir catechu
 is described as an extract  of the leaf of Uncaria Gambir.—Ed.]
   2.  Betel-nut Catechu ;  Catechu of die Areca Catechu.—The  mode of preparing
 Betel-nut Catechu, as described by  Heyne, has been already stated.   Two kinds of
 astringent extract are said  by him to be prepared from these seeds : one called Kassu,
 which is black, and mixed  with  paddy-husks; the  other termed  Coury,  which is
 yellowish-brown, has an earthy fracture, and is free from the admixture of foreign
 bodies.   I have been able to identify Kassu among the  extracts  of commerce • but
 have not satisfactorily made  out Coury.
   Kassu; Dark-brown Catechu in circular flat cakes; Colombo or Ceylon Catechu or Cutch (Cachou
 brun, orbiculaire et plat, Guibourt).  Imported from Ceylon.  Cakes round, flat, covered on one
 side with paddy,husks (glumes of rice), from two to three inches in diameter, scarcely one inch
 thick, and weighing from two to three ounces.  Internally, they are dark, blackish-brown and
 ihiny, exactly re>embling Pegu Catechu.  Examined  by the microscope it is found  to contain
 numerous large crystals.   Common.   Quality excellent.—A decoction of  this catechu becomes
 turbid on cooling, and frequently produces a blue colour with a solution of iodine, owing to the
 presence of the rice starch.
   That this extract is  Kassu,  and is obtained from Areca Catechu, is proved by two facts:__
      a. It  agrees with  the  Kassu of Heyne  in  its dark colour, and  being intermixed with
    paddy busks.                                                          %
      8. It is imported  from  Ceylon, in which island catechu is obtained from Areca Catechu.
    For this information I am indebted  to a letter (in my possession) addressed  by  Mr. Lear,
    acting  superintendent of  the Botanic Garden in  Ceylon, to my late  friend  Mr.  F. Saner,'
    asMstant-surgeon in Her Majesty's 61st regiment, then stationed at Colombo.  The letter is
    dated November 17, 1838, and contains  the  following passage:  "Of kino and Gambir I
    am quite unacquainted, and  also of the trees which produce them.  I should be glad [of]
    any information on  the subject.   An extract  from Areca Catechu  (specimens of  which I
    will procure you) has been supposed to be the Terra Japonica of the shops;  but it is gene-
    rally supposed to be produced from Acacia Catechu, a plant not in Ceylon."
   3.  Cutch;  Catechu of the  Acacia  Catechu.—It is probable  that a  considerable
 number of  the astringent  extracts brought from India as  catechu are the  produce
 of the Acacia Catechu.   Hitherto, however, a small  number only have been posi-
 tively identified.

  • Pile, dull Catechu in Sq.uaiie Cakes ; Cachou terne et parallelipipede, Guibourt; Cachou
 m manieie d icorce d'arbre, A. Jussieu.   This perhaps is the Bengal Catechu of D.ivy.
  It occurs in square cakes, usually about two inches long, two inches broad, and one  in thick-
 ness.  Usually, these cakes are  irregularly broken, so that it is difficult to trace their angular
 character.  They are heavier  than water.   Externally their colour is dark brown or blackish ;
 internally, we observe  darker  and lighter layers, disposed  in a schistose manner, like  the bark
 w a tree.  The darker layers  are brown and somewhat shiny, the lighter ones are dull-reddish
 White.  Examined by the microscope it is found to consist principally of small crystals.  A
 decoction of one part of this catechu and twelve parts of water lets fall, on cooling, a copious
 whitish precipitate of catechine.  I find this kind of catechu to be identical with the specimens
 brought by Dr. Royle from India, and which he saw prepared from Acacia  Catechu. Moreover,
 "probably is the kind, the manufacture of which Mr. Kerr described  ; for he says it is in square
 Pieces, the  finest being whitish.   So that it  is manufactured in Bahar, as well as in  the more
 northern parts of India.
 » Dark shint Peou massive Catechu ; Peu Catechu; Cutch ; Cachou en masse, Carhou lu-
 ™<! Cachuu du Butea frondosa,  Guibourt.  It  is imported from Pegu in large masses, weighing
 •omeiimes a cwt. each.  These masses are made up of layers composed of prismatic  pieces,
 each from six to ten inches long, and two or three inches  broad and deep.  Each piece  is en-
*eloped in the leaves of Naurlea Brunonis, a  native of Tavoy, Wallich. Cat. (not of Butea fron-
•M,as formerly supposed )  When fractured, these pieces present a  dark blackish-brown shiny
wrfacc, free from all impurities;  some of  the pieces, however, having a more  reddish  tint than
      VOL. II.—53 
834                VEGETABLES.—Nat.  Ord. Le.iuminosje.

the others.  Their taste is bitter and astringent.  Fee states, though I know not on wlint autho
rity, that this  variety contains 57 per cent, of tannic acid.  Pegu catechu  is largely employed.
1  am  informed, for dyeing.   The  greater part of that brought to this country i> exported ft i
continental use.  According to Herbert de Jaeger' the catechu of Pegu  is obtained from the
Acacia Catechu;  and, he adds, that it is celebrated throughout India.
   y. Dark Catechu  in balls.—I  have two varieties of dark-coloured catechu in balls:__
   aa  Enveloped in leaves.—This agrees in its  appearance with the Pegu Catechu above men
tioned,and like the  latter is enveloped in leaves, apparently of the Nauclea Brunonis. Tin- ball-
are round and about the  size of small oranges  (Pegu Cutch in balls /).
   SB.  Covered with Paddy Husks—Balls more or less flattened, not exceeding the size of a small
orange, and covered with paddy busks (glumes of rice).  In other respects identical with the
preceding.  It agrees with  the kind referred  to  by Dr. B. Hamilton, as being procured from
Acacia Catechu.  When the extract, he says, has acquired the  thickness of tar, it is allowed to
harden for two days, so that  it will not run.  "Some  husks of rice are  then spread  on  the
ground, and  the  inspissated juice  is  formed  into balls about the size of oranges, which  are
placed on the husks or on leaves.''
   4.  Catechu of unknown origin.—The  origin of  the  larger  proportion of the  ca-
techus which I  have met with,  I have not been able to  ascertain.
   a. Brown Catechu in conical  masses from  Siam.—This  variety has recently been im-
ported from Siam in bags.  It is in  triasscs shaped like a betel-nut, or rather that of a mullar or
truncated olive, each  weighing about a  pound  and a half.  The flattened  base is marked with
the impression of the leaf of Nauclea Brunonis.   Internally, this catechu  is  shiny and liver-
coloured, strongly resembling hepatic aloes.  In its other qualities it agrees with Pegu Catechu.
   8. Catechu in flat cakes—Under  the name of Cutch I have  received a catechu in flat
cakes  like the Colombo Catechu, but unmixed  with  rice glumes.  The cakes have a rusty ap-
pearance externally.
   y Black mucilaginous Catechu;  Cachou  voir et mucilagineux,  Guibourt.—In  parallelopi-
peds of eighteen lines on the side, and an inch high.  Internally black and shiny, somewhat
similar to extract of liquorice.   Quality bad.
   J. Dark-brown  siliceous Catechu in flattened, circular, or quadrangular cakes;
Cachou brum siliccux, Guibourt. Formerly called by druggists Terra Japonica.  Perhaps the Bombay
Catechu of Sir H.Davy.  It  is in  round or  flattened  masses,  varying in weight from  two or
three ounces to several pounds;  externally it is of a dull dark-brown or rusty colour,internally
being shiny and blackish-brown.  It is very heavy, and contains a large quantity of fine sand.
Guibourt says, 100 parts of this catechu  yielded  26 parts of earthy matter.   But some of the
specimens contain a much smaller proportion of earthy matter.  Quality bad.
   i. Dull reddish Catechu  in balls ; Cachou en boules, terne et  rougealre  Guilwurt.—In tbe
collection of the Medico Botanical Society of London, it is marked American Catechu.  Balls flat-
tened, weighing three or four ounces, covered on  one side with glumes of rice.  Its fracture is
dull, reddish, wavy, and often marbled.  Quality  good.
   f. Pale or Whitish Catechu ix  irregular lumps ; Cachou  blane, Guibourt.—I  received
this from Bombay, under the  name  of Katha suffaid (i. e. pale or white catechu).  It is in lumps,
which vary in size from that of a walnut to that of a small apple. The general form is rounded
or oval, and  somewhat flattened, the  surface  being very uneven, and of a dark or  blackish-
brown colour.  Internally this variety is dull, and  of a very pale colour.   Guibourt says, it is
almost white ; but it  has a  pale-yellowish or brownish-red tint.   Its taste is bitter, astringent,
and sweetish, with a smoky  flavour.  Hence, perhaps, the dark  colour externally is derived
from the masses being dried, or exposed to the smoke of a fire.
   Composition.—Two  kinds  of Catechu  were  analyzed  by Sir  H.  Davy.'   In
1833, Buchner discovered in catechu  a  peculiar  substance which  has been denomi-
nated Catechine.3
                                    Davy's Analyses.
                                                        Bombay.        Bengal.
              Tannic acid.......................54.5          48.5
              Peculiar extractive  ..................34.0          36 5
              Mucilage........................   6.5          8 0
              Insoluble matter (chiefly sand and lime)......   5 0          7 0

                             Catechu  ..............100.0         100.0

   1. Catechine.—This has been already  noticed  (see Uncaria Gambir).
   2. Tannic Acid.—The general properties of this acid have also been before described.  It is
this substance which renders catechu so valuable to the tanner.   The peculiarities of the tannic
acid of catechu have been studied by* Berzelius,4 but in consequence of the subsequent discovery

  l Miscellanea curiosa, Deo. ii. Ann. iii. p. 9.                      * Phil. Trans, for 1803, p. '233.
  » Pliarm. Central-Blatt fur 1833, 629.                           * Traiti de Chim. t. v. 5fca, 
   Catechu Acacia :—Chemical Characteristics;  Administration.   835

of catechuic acid they require re-examination.  The tannic acid of catechu is easily soluble in
water and alcohol, but very slightly so in ether.  The aqueous solution becomes coloured by ex-
posure to the air.  Its combinations with acids are very soluble.   Alkalies do not precipitate it.
  Chemical Characteristics.—The brown, filtered decoction of catechu reddens
litmu.s, yields a blackish-green colour and  precipitate (catechuate and tannate of iron)
with the ferruginous salts, and a brownish-white one with acetate  of lead.   A solu-
tion of gelatine renders the cooled decoction turbid (tannate of gelatine).  Alkalies
deepen the colour of  the decoction, but cause no precipitate.  Sulphuric acid  ren-
ders the decoction slightly turbid.  The filtered decoction of several kinds of catechu
(especially pale catechu in broken square cakes) deposits, on cooling, catechiue.   The
decoction of dark-brown catechu, in circular flat  cakes,  when cold  becomes blue
(iodide of starch) on the addition of a solution of iodine.
  Purity.—The Edinburgh  College  states that " the finest qualities [of catechu]
yield to sulphuric ether 53, and the lowest qualities 28 per cent, of tannic  acid
dried at 280°."   This proceeding, however, is not to be  relied on as a test of  the
astringency of catechu, which can only be determined  in the usual way by gelatine.
This College errs in supposing that the ethereal extract is necessarily either wholly
or in great part tannic acid ; for catechuic acid, which constitutes a large portion of
some kinds of catechu, is soluble in ether.
  Physiological Effects.—Catechu  produces the  local and  general effects of
the astringents already described.   When of good quality, it  is more  powerful than
kino.  In its operation, it is closely allied to rhatany  root (Krameria triandra).
  Uses.—Employed as an astringent in  the following cases :—
  1. In affections of tlie mouth and throat.—In various affections of tbe mouth  and
throat I have frequently employed catechu, and found it a convenient and efficacious
astringent.   Thus, in  relaxed uvula, and in that slight  chronic inflammatory affec-
tion of the  throat usually denominated the relaxed sore throat, and  which is espe-
cially observed in delicate  females, catechu, chewed  or sucked, is a most useful
remedy.  The pure kinds  of  catechu  should be  selected,  especially avoiding those
that are gritty.  Catechu in the form of lozenges may be also employed.  The pale
kinds of catechu (as gambir, before described) are  usually sweeter and more agree-
able than the dark varieties.   To public  speakers  or  singers it is supposed to be
useful j it prevents or diminishes hoarseness consequent on a too frequent use of the
vocal organs.   In slight ulcerations of the mouth also it is useful.
  2. As a stomachic in dyspeptic complaints.—I have known catechu chewed with
advantage in dyspeptic complaints.   It should be used just before taking food; it
promotes the appetite, and  assists digestion.
  3. As an  alvine astringent  it may be  employed in old-standing diarrhoeas  and
dyaenteries, when there are no  inflammatory symptoms present.   It is often con-
joined with  the chalk mixture, and not unusually with opiates.
  4. As an astringent in hemorrhages of an atonic character.  A scruple of catechu,
with grs. xij of confection of  opium, and a  sufiicient quantity of aromatic confec-
tion to make a bolus, was  a favourite prescription of Dr. Babington, sen. in  im-
moderate flow of the menses.1
  5. In lead colic it was recommended by Grashius.3
  6. In mucous discharges, as gleets,  fluor  albus,  or chronic old-standing  cystir-
rhoea.
  '• Asa topical application to ulcers.—" An ointment composed of 5iv of catechu,
3'iof alum, Jiv of white  resin,  and f^x of olive  oil, with a sufficient quantity of
ffator? is in great repute in  India as an application  to  ulcers."3
  Administration.—Dose, grs. x to 3j-  It may be administered  in the form of
bolus, or of mixture with sugar and  gum  Arabic.   For  gradual solution  in  the
mouth,  I have  found a lump of the  purer kinds of  commercial catechu more agree-
able than catechu lozenges.

J Ainslie, Mat. Ind. i. 590.                            a De Colica Pictonum, Ainsterd. 1752,
  Tkumioii, London Dispens. 
 836              VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Leguminosie.

   1. INFUSni CATECHU COMPOSITE)!, L. D.; Infusum Catechu, V, ; Inftsion of Cate-
 chu.—(Catechu, powdered, 3vj [in coarse powder, 5iij, Z>.] ; Cinnamon, bruised, 3J
 [3ss, Z>.] ; [Syrup f^iij, E.~\ ; Boiling [distilled, L.] Water Oj [fjxvij, K; ^ix, D.~\.
 Macerate the Catechu and Cinnamon in the Water, in a lightly covered vessel, for
 an hour [half an hour, D. Two hours, E.~], then  strain [through linen or calico, and
 add the syrup, E.].)—Astringent.  Adapted to  diarrhoea. ^ Dose, fsj or f^ij three
 or four times a day.  Frequently given  in conjunction with opiates.   Sometimes
 used in the form of enema.
   I TIXCTURA CATECHU COMPOSITA, L.;  Tinctura Catechu, E. D. [U. S.]j  Tine-
 ture of Catechu.—(Powdered Catechu  [in  coarse powder, E. D.~\ %iiiss [giv, D.~\
 [giij,  U. £.]; Cinnamon, bruised [in fine  powder, E], giiss [3ij, D. If. S.] ; Proof
 Spirit Oij. Macerate for [seven, L. E., fourteen, D.~] days, and strain [and strongly
 express the residuum ; filter the liquors, E.~\.  " This tincture may be also prepared
 by the process of percolation, the mixed powders  being put into the percolator
 without being previously moistened with the spirit," E.)—Astringent.  Usually
 employed as  an adjunct to chalk  mixture in chronic diarrhoeas and dysentery;  or
 occasionally to Port wine, with some  aromatic (nutmeg or cinnamon).—Dose, f3J
 tof3ij.
   %.  ELECTUARIDI CATECIIU,  E. ; Confectio  Catechu Compositum, D.—(Catechu
 §iv;  Kino ^iv; Cinnamon 3j ; Nutmeg 3j, E. ; Opium, diffused in a little Sherry,
 3iss; Syrup  of Red Roses, boiled to the consistence of honey,  Oiss.  Pulverize the
 solids;  mix the Opium and Syrup, then  the  powders, and  beat them  thoroughly
 into a  uniform mass.)—Astringent.  P]mployed  in  chronic diarrhoea, dysentery,
 and hemorrhages.  Dose, 9j to  3'j-   The Dublin  College orders the Electuary,
 now called Confection, to be made by adding five fluidounces  of  simple syrup to
 five ounces of compound powder of Catechu.  The syrup is gradually added to the
 powder, and  the ingredients are well mixed.
   4, PULVIS CATECHU COMPOSITUS, D.—(Take  of  Catechu, Kino, of each sij;  Cin-
 namon, Nutmeg, of each Jss.  Reduce each to powder, mix and pass through a fine
 sieve.   When  prepared, the powder should be kept in well-stopped bottles.)—The
 chief use of this compound is for  the preparation of the confection above described.


 280. ANDIRA INERMIS, Kunth.-THE  CABBAGE-BARK TREE.
                             Geoffroya inermis, Swartz.
                           Sex. Syst. Diadelphia, Decandria.

   History.—The medicinal properties of the bark of this tree were first pointed
 out by  Mr. Duguid.1  The first botanical  description of the tree was published by
 Dr. Wright.2
   Botany.   Gen. Char.— Calyx turbinate-campanulate, 5-toothed;  teeth  almost
 equal, acute,  erect.   Corolla papilionaceous;  the vexillum roundish, emarginate,
 larger than the keel.   Stamens diadelphous (9 and 1).  Ovary containing 3 ovules.
 Legume stalked, somewhat orbicular, rather hard, 1-celled, 1-seeded;  when ripe,
 divisible into two valves, according to Swartz. (De Cand.)
   Sp. Char—Leaflets 13  to  15, ovate-lanceolate, acute,  smooth  on  both  sides.
 Flowers paniculate, with very short pedicels.   Calyx urceolate, ferruginous-pubes-
 cent.  (De Cand.)
   Tree of considerable height.  Leaves  pinnate.   Flowers reddish-lilac.
   Hab.—West Indies.
   Description.— Cabbage bark or  Worm bark (cortex andiras inermis, seu geof-
froyae jamaicensis) occurs in long, thick,  fibrous pieces, having  a  brownish-ash
 colour,  a  resinous fracture, a  disagreeable smell, and a sweetish, mucilaginous,
 bitter taste.
1 Edinb. Phys. and Lit. Essays, vol. ii.
1 Phil. Trans, vol. lxvii. part 2, p. 507. 
            Common Logwood:—History; Botany; Commerce.          837

  ScniNAM baiik (cortex geaffroya Surinamensis) is the bark of Andira retusa, var. 0. Surinam-
ensis. De Candolle.  Huttensclimidt1 found in it a white crystalline substance, which he  called
Surinamin.  Surinam  bark has been  used as a  vermifuge, but  I am totally unacquainted
with it.2
  Composition.—Cabbage-bark was analyzed in 1824 by Huttenschmidt,3 who found
in it the following  substances : Jamaicina, yellow  colouring  matter, gum, much
starch, wax, brown resin, a small quantity of mouldy  matter, a nitrogenous substance
soluble in carbonate of soda, oxalate of lime, and woody fibre.—The ashes contained
carbonate, phosphate, and  sulphate of potash, chloride of potassium, carbonate and
phosphate of lime, with magnesia, silica, and oxide of iron.
  Jamaicina is a  brownish yellow, crystalline, fusible, very  bitter  substance, composed  of
carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. It is soluble in water  and alcohol, and possesses alkaline
properties.  Its  watery solution forms, with tincture of nutgalls, a yellow precipitate.  Two
grains of the acetate of jamaicina given to pigeons and sparrows, caused restlessness and trem-
bling, and in half an hour violent purging.
   Physiological  Effects.—Cathartic, emetic, and narcotic.   In doses  of thirty
or forty grains, the  powder of this bark purges briskly, like jalap.  In larger quan-
tities it causes vomiting, fever,  and delirium.  Fatal accidents are said to have re-
sulted from its imprudent  use.
   Uses.—Formerly employed as an anthelmintic, especially against the large round
worm (Ascaris lumbricoides), but its use is now obsolete.4
   [A formula for a  decoction of this bark was given  in the old Dublin Pharmaco-
poeia, under the  name  of  Decoctum Geoffroyae.  It is now, however, erased both
from the Materia Medica and the pharmaceutical preparations.  According to the
plan which we have hitherto pursued, we have allowed the author's description  of
the Cabbage-bark tree to remain.—Ed.]
   Administration.—Dose of the powder, 9j  to  3ss-   As an anthelmintic, the
bark has been given in  the form of decoction.


   281.  HiEMATOXYLON CAMPECHIANUM,  L. E. D -THE
                         COMMON LOGWOOD.
                           Sex. Syst. Decandria, Monogynia.
                    (Lignum, L. D.—Wood, E.) [Haematoxylon, U. S.]
   History.—Monardes5 calls the wood of this plant lignum ad renum affecliones
et urinvc  incommoda.  Hernandez8 terms  the wood lignum nephriticum ; and de-
scribes the plant under the name of coatli.
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—Sepals 5, united at the base into a  somewhat persistent
tube; the lobes deciduous, oblong-obtuse.  Petals 5, scarcely longer  than the sepals.
Stamens 10 ; filaments  hairy at the base ; anthers without glands.   Style capillary.
Legume compressed, flat, lanceolate, acuminate at both ends, 1-celled, 2-seeded ; the
sutures indehiscent; the valves bursting in the middle longitudinally.  Seeds trans-
versely oblong; cotyledons 2-lobed.— Tree, with branches unarmed or spinous below
the leaves.   Flowers racemose, hermaphrodite. (De  Cand.)
   Sp. Char.—The only species.
   Tree 40 or 50 feet high.  Leaves pinnate  or somewhat bipinnate by the conver-
sion of the lowest pair of leaflets into two pairs of pinnae;  leaflets obovate or obcor-
date.  Flowers yellow.
   Hab.__Campeachy.   Introduced into Jamaica,  where  it now  grows  in  great
abundance, wild.
   Commerce.—The stems of the Logwood-trees are cut into logs or junks of about
three feet long, the bark  and white  sap (alburnum) of which are  chipped off, and
l Qp infra, cit.                  " Goebel, Pharm. Waarenl-. i. 201 ; Murray, App. Med. ii. 492.
» (tineliii, Hanilb. d Chem. ii. 1204.
« For .artlier particulars respec'ing the uses of Cab'.age-fcark, consult Dr. Wright's paper, above re
• rred to.
» Clusii Exot. cap. xxvii. p. 324.     • Rev. Med. Nova Hisp. Thes. 119. 
838
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Leguminosie.
the red part or heart (duramen) sent to England.1   It is imported from Campeachy,
Honduras, and Jamaica.  In  1839, duty (3s. if from British possessions, 4.s. Qd.
if from other  places) was paid on 15,807 tons.J
   Description.—Logwood (lignum haematoxyli seu campechianum), as imported,
consists only  of the  heartwood or duramen.   The logs are externally of a dark
colour; internally they are red.  The wood is dense, has a sp. gr. of 1.057; admits
of a fine polish,  has a sweetish taste and a pleasant odour.  Large crystals  of
haematin are sometimes found in the wood.3
   Composition.—Logwood  was analyzed  in  1811 by Chevreul,4 who found  its
constituents to be volatile oil,  haematin, fatty or resinous matter, brown  substance
containing tannin, glutinous matter, acetic acid, woody fibre, various salts (phosphate,
sulphate, and  acetate of lime, acetate of potash, and  chloride of  potassium)  and
the oxides of aluminum, silicon, manganese, and iron.
  H^matin or Hematoxylin is a red crystalline substance, of a slightly bitter, acrid, and astrin-
gent taste.  It is soluble in alcohol and  ether, and slightly so in water.  Acids render the solu-
tion yellowish or red; alkalies give it a purple or violet colour.  Alum causes a violet precipitate,
and several metallic solutions (as of tin  and lead) a blue one.  Gelatine produces a flocculent
reddish precipitate.
   Chemical Characteristics.—The decoction of logwood  is deep  red.   Acids
render it paler and brighter coloured.   The alkalies give  it a purplish or violet-blue
colour.  Acetate of lead causes a blue, alum a violet, precipitate.  The salts of iron
make it dark violet-blue.  Gelatine forms a reddish precipitate with it.
   Physiological Effects.—Logwood  is a mild  astringent (see the effects  of
Astringents).   It does not constipate  nor so readily disorder the digestive organs  as
some  other astringents, and  hence its use  may be continued for a longer period.
Its colouring matter becomes  absorbed, and may be  detected  in the urine.  Dr. Per-
cival5 states, that  under  the use of extract  of logwood  the  urine of a female sud-
denly acquired a  purplish-red colour, which was deepened by  the sulphate of iron.
After some  hours, the secretion returned to its natural colour.  The stools some-
times acquire a purplish-red colour from the use of  logwood.
   [Dr. J. M.  Barry, of Totnes, Devon, has communicated to the author the  par-
ticulars of a case, which shows that the use  of logwood in chronic diarrhoea may be
attended with the unpleasant effect of inducing phlebitis.   In this case, the diar-
rhoea was of several years' standing;  it  had resisted  all the usual  remedies, but
yielded to the exhibition of a few  doses of a decoction of logwood.   The arrest  of
the diarrhoea  was almost immediately followed by phlebitis, affecting in a very
marked manner the veins of  one of the lower extremities.  It was removed  by ac-
tive antiphlogistic treatment.   The diarrhoea recurred, and  the  logwood was again
prescribed, and the same effects ensued;  the diarrhoea was checked, and the venous
inflammation  reappeared.  In Dr. Copland's Dictionary, under the head of "Neu-
ralgic Affections/' p.  885, another case is mentioned in  the  following terms: "A
gentleman from the country very recently came under my care for chronic diarrhoea
of seven years' continuance.  He had experienced  two  attacks of  phlebitis of the
femoral veins, consequent upon having taken the extract of logwood, this medicine
having restrained  but not arrested  the diarrhoea."   These facts will show that some
caution must be used in the medicinal employment of  logwood.—Ed.]
   Uses.—In  medicine, logwood is employed as an astringent in old diarrhoeas and
dysenteries, in hemorrhages (from the uterus, lungs, and bowels),  and leucorrhcea.
It is  well adapted to the diarrhoeas of children.   Dr. Percival employed it to  re-
strain profuse sweating in phthisis.

   1. DEC0CTU3I H.EMATOXTLI, L.  E.  D. [U.  S.];  Decoction of Loe/wood.—(Logwood,
in  chips, 3x  [|j, D. E.  U. £.];  Water Oiss [Oj, E.; Oss, £>.]; [Oij,  U.  £.];
Cinnamon, in powder, 3J> E.  Boil down to a pint and strain, L.  Boil the logwood

     1 Wright, Med. Plants of Jamaica.                       2 Trade List.
     * Thomson, Org. Chem. 407.                             * Ann. de Chim. lxxxi. 128.
     1 Works, vol. iv. p. 3b6. 
               Common Tamarind Tree :—History;  Botany.            839

in the water down to ten fluidounces, adding  the cinnamon towards the end, and
strain, E.   Boil  for  ten minutes in a covered vessel, and strain.  The  product
should measure about eight ounces, D.)—[The U. S. Pharm. leaves out the cinna-
mon and boils to a pint, or half of the fluid away.]—Employed as an astringent in
diarrhoea.—Dose, for adults,  fgj to f^ij; for children, f3ij to fi§ss.
  2. EXTRACTUM HSEMATOXYLI, L. E.; Extract of Logwood.—(Cut Logwood [in chips,
£".]  tbiiss [ibj,  E.~\;  Boiling [distilled,  L.) Water Cong,  ij [a gallon, E\—
Macerate for twenty-four  hours, then  boil down to a gallon  [Oiv, E.~\, and strain
the liquor while hot; lastly, evaporate, in  the vapour-bath,  to a proper consistence,
E.)—The London College  directs that the  extract should be prepared  in the same
manner in which it  has been ordered concerning extract of liquorice.   " For pre-
paring this extract, the logwood should not be powdered, but rasped, and it should
be so far evaporated as  to  become brittle and  pulverulent when cold.   One cwt. of
the wood yields  about twenty lbs. of  extract."1—Astringent.  Employed in  old
diarrhoeas, dysenteries,  &c.   Dose,  grs. x to 3ss.  By keeping, extract of logwood
becomes exceedingly hard,  and pills made of  it are said to have passed  through the
bowels undissolved.   It is  employed, I  am informed, to colour snuff.


  282.  TAMARINDUS INDICA, Linn. L.  E. fl.-THE COMMON
                          TAMARIND  TREE.
                          Sex. Syst. Monadelphia, Triandria.
                       (Fructus pufpa, L. D.—Pulp of the pods, E.)
  History.—The  tamarind does  not  appear to  have  been known to the ancient
Greeks; at least no mention is made of it in  their writings.   We are indebted for
its introduction to the Arabians, who probably derived  their  knowledge of it from
the Hindus.   Mesue, Avicenna, and Serapion, are the earliest writers who mention
it.   It is said  to have derived its name from Tamar (which, in  Arabic, signifies
dates), and Indus, in reference to its Indian origin.
  Botany.  Gen. Char.— Calyx  tubular at the base;  limb bilabiate, reflexed;
upper lip 3-partite;  lower broad,  2-toothed.   Petals 3, alternating with  the  seg-
ments of the upper lip of  the calyx; two of them ovate, the  middle one cucullate.
Stamens  9 or  10; seven  very short and  sterile, the others (two or three) longer,
monadelphous, bearing anthers.   Style subulate.  Legume stalked, liuear, more or
less curved, slightly compressed, 1-celled, 3-to 12-seeded, the sarcocarp pulpy. Seeds
compressed,  bluntly 4-angled, obliquely truncated at the hilum.   Trees.   Leaves
abruptly pinnated ; leaflets many pairs.  Flowers racemose (Wight and Arnott).
  Sp. Char.—The only species.    Tree, 30 to 40 feet high.   Branches spreading.
Leaves  alternate; leaflets  12 to 15 pairs, small, oblong,  obtuse, entire, smooth.
Petals deciduous, yellow, veined with red.
  There are two varieties, which are considered by Gaertner, Roxburgh, and De Candolle, as
distinct species.  The only difference between thein is in the pod.
  a.  Orientalis; T.  indica,  De Candolle; East Indian Tamarind.—Legume elongated, six or more
times longer than broad, 6- to 12-seeded.
  0.  Occident alls; T. Occident alis, De Candolle;  West Indian Tamarind.—Legume abbreviated,
scarcely three times longer than broad, 1- to 4-seeded.
  Hab.—East and West Indies.
  Prkservation of the  Fruit.—The usual mode of preserving tamarinds in the
West Indies, is  to remove the shell or epicarp from the  ripe fruit, and to  place
layers of the shelled fruit  in  a cask, and pour boiling water  over them.   But  Dr.
Wright3  says a better method is  to put alternate layers of tamarinds and powdered
su"ar in  a stone jar.,  The drier and dark-coloured  East  Indian tamarinds are said
to be preserved without sugar.
i Urande, Man. of Pharm.
a Med. Plants of Jamaica. 
                    /
840             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Leguminosie.

   Description.—Tamarinds  are imported  both raw and preserved.   Tamarind
poth are from three  to six inches long, more or less curved.   Composed of a dry,
brittle, brown, external shell (epicarp), within which is the acidulous, sweet, reddish-
brown pulp (sarcocarp) penetrated  by strong  fibres.  Still more internal is a thin
membranous coat (endocarp) inclosing the oval brown seeds.   Preserved tamarinds
(tamarindi conditi) consist of the same  parts, the  shell (epicarp) excepted.   The
pulp (pulpa tamarindi) is the officinal part.
   Composition.—Tamarind pulp was analyzed, in 1790, by Vauquelin,1 who ob-
tained the  following products:  Citric acid 9.40, tartaric acid  1.55, malic  acid
0.45, bitartrate of potash 3.25, sugar 12.5, gum 4.7, vegetable jelly (pectin)  6.25,
parenchyma 34.35, and water 27.55.
   Physiological  Effects.—Tamarind  pulp allays thirst, is  nutritive and re-
frigerant, and, in full doses, laxative.  From  this combination of refrigerant and
laxative  properties it is commonly denominated a cooling laxative.
   Uses.—Tamarinds are adapted for febrile and inflammatory cases ; in the former,
it is often taken with the double purpose of operating as a refrigerant, and  acting
gently on the bowels.   An infusion of  tamarinds  forms  a very pleasant, cooling
drink, as does also tamarind whey.   Tamarinds are a constituent of  several mild
purgative preparations.  They are frequently given in conjunction with  senna (as
in the confection of senna, Ph. D.)   It is said, though I know not with what truth,
that the  addition of  tamarinds to senna and resinous cathartics diminishes the ope-
ration of the latter.
   Administration.—The dose of tamarinds is from 3'j  to  3j  or more.  Tama-
rind  whey (serum lactis tamarindatum) is  prepared by  boiling §ij  of tamarind
pulp with Oij of milk.
   TAMARIMJUS PR.EPARATUS, L.—(Tamarind Ibj; Water, as much as may be neces-
sary to cover the  tamarind.   Macerate by gentle heat for four hours, and express
the pulp first through a coarse, then through  a fine sieve; lastly, evaporate to the
consistence of a confection.)


283. CASSIA  OFFICINALIS, Linn. L. (Senna officinalis, Roxb.)-SENNA.
         Cassia lanceolata j C obovata, De Cand.—Cassia acutifolia ; C elongata, D. E.
                          Sex. Syst. Decandria, Monogynia.
                            (Folium, L.—Leaves, D. E.)
   History.—The early history of this purgative is somewhat obscure,  but it was
probably in use some centuries  before any mention of it  is  made in  the works of
pharmacological writers.   Among the Arabians I may quote  Mesue, Serapion, and
Avicenna, who notice  senna (sene), but  they refer to the  fruit, and not  to the
leaves.   Mesue, in speaking of the decoction of senna, quotes Galen, and from this,
as well as from other circumstances, it has been imagined that Dioscorides and Ga-
len, and probably even Theophrastus, were acquainted with senna; but their known
writings do not warrant  this  opinion, and hence the quotation is presumed  to be
erroneous.  The earliest Greek writer in whose works senna  is mentioned, is Actu-
arius ; but he, like the Arabians, referred to the fruit.
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—Sepals  5, scarcely united at the base, more or less une-
qual.  Petals 5, unequal.   Stamens  10, free, unequal;  the three lower ones longer,
the four middle ones short and straight, the three upper ones  with abortive anthers.
 Anthers dehiscing at the apex.   Ovary stalked, frqeuently arched.   Legvm<e vari-
ous.— Trees, shrubs, or herbs.   Leaves simply and abruptly pinnate.  Petioles fre-
quently  glanduliferous.  Leaflets opposite.
   Species.—Some confusion still exists as to the species yielding the senna  leaves
of commerce.  Linnaeus  made  but one  species, which  he  termed Cassia Senna,
and considered the  acute and obtuse-leaved plants as mere varieties.   The usually-
1 Ann. de Chim. v. 82. 
Senna:—Species.
811
accurate Woodville1 has  published a  plate representing the leaflets of  the  acute-
leaved Cassia, and  the fruit of the blunt-leaved  species.  The following perhaps
are distinct species, but their specific characters are not in all cases accurately ascer-
tained.   The London College has adopted  the specific name officinalis in conjunc-
tion with obovata,  and distinguishes the Alexandrian  from  the  Indian senna, by
the acute ovate or mucronate obovate leaves of the former, and the lanceolate leaves
of the latter.
   1.  C. obovata, Colladon;3  C. Senna var. £., Linn.;  C.  obtusa, Roxb.)5 Sena
belledy (Wild Senna), Egyptians and Nubians; Sene" de la Thdbaide, Cassia Sena,
Nectoux.*—Leaflets 6 to  7 pairs, obovate, obtuse;  petiole glandless.   Legumes
piano-compressed, curved, tumid by the crests on  the middle of each  valve (De
('and.)—Perennial herb, 1 or  2 feet  high.   Leaves smooth; leaflets mucronate,
unequal at the  base.   Stipules lanceolate, linear, spreading.  Flowers yellow in
racemes.   Legumes oblong, falcate, smooth, rounded  at  each end,  with  an equally
interrupted ridge along the middle of each valve.—Egypt (Bassa-Tine at  the en-
trance of the valley of Egaremont, two leagues from Cairo ;  Karnak ; Thebes; on
the eastern bank of the Nile opposite  Hermonthis; Esneh ;  Edfou ; Daraou ; As-
souan); Nubia;  Desert of Suez; Syria; India.   Cultivated in Italy, Spain, Jamaica,
&c.—Its leaflets form Aleppo, Senegal, and Italic Senna, and one of  the  consti-
tuents of Alexandrian Senna.
   Nees and Ebermaier5 follow Hayne in admitting two species of blunt senna, viz. C. obovata,
Hayne, with oliovate, very shortly pointed  leaflets, anil C. obtusata, Hayne, with more  remote,
obovate, truncated-emarginaie leaflets.  I think,  with Th. Martius,6 that the latter are merely
older leaflets than the former.
   2.  C. acutifolia, D.,  Delile.7—Stem  suffruticose.   Leaves pinnate;  petiole
glandless;  leaflets  5  to 7  pairs, lanceolate, acute.   Legumes flat,  elliptical, naked
on both sides, somewhat bent on the upper margin (Delile).—An  undershrub, about
two feet high.   Leaves when young slightly silky or  pubescent.   Flowers yellow,
in axillary racemes, at the top of the branches.  Petals obovate.  Legumes some-
what swollen by the seeds.  Seeds 6 or 7 in each legume.—Egypt, in the valleys of
the desert  to the south and east of Assouan.—Collected by the Arabs, and sold by
them to merchants who convey it to Cairo.
   3. C. ELONGATA, D., Lemuire-Lisancourt;s Fee;0  C. lanceolata, Royle.10  Per-
haps identical with the preceding species.  Dr. Royle's specimens were raised from
seeds  picked  out of  Mecca Senna.  Dr. Lindley thus  describes  the  plant.   "An
annual, but, with care, it may  be  made to live through  the  year, and to assume a
suffruticose habit.   Stem  erect, smooth.  Leaves narrow, equal  pinnated;  leaflets
4  to 8 pairs, lanceolate,  nearly sessile, slightly mucronulate, smooth above, rather
downy  beneath, with the veins  turning inwards, and forming  a  flexuose intramar-
ginal line ; petioles without glands ; stipules softly  spinescent, semihastate, spread-
ing, minute.  Racemes axillary and terminal, erect, stalked,  rather longer than the
leaves; pedicels without bracts.   Sepals linear, obtuse.   Petals bright yellow.  Of
the  stamens the five  lowest sterile  and small, the two next large, curved, and per-
fect, the three  uppermost  minute and gland-like.   Ovary  linear, downy, falcate,
with a smooth  recurved style.    Legumes pendulous oblong, membranous, about an
inch and a half long, and five-eighths  broad, quite straight, tapering abruptly to the
base, and  rounded at the apex, deep-brown, many-seeded."—Grows in India, but
probably only naturalized.—Yields Tinnevelly and Mecca Senna.
   4. C. yETHiOPiCA,  Guibourt;11 C. ovata, MeYat ;18 Sene de Nubie, C.  lanceolata,
N'ctoux;™ C. Senna,  Stevenson and Churchill.14—Leaves of 3 to 5 pair  of leaflets ;
petioles with a gland at their base, and another between each pair  of leaflets ;  leaflets

  ' Med  Bot. iii. 446.                                     2 Hist, des Cawej, 92.
  • Fl. Ind. ii. 344.                                        * PI. i.
  » ll'tudb. d. med.-pharm. Bot. ii. 207.                        • Pharmalcogn.
  1 Fl. .F-zypt. Fl. 27, fig. 1.                                * Journ. de Pharm.  vii. 345.
  • Jnura. de Chun. M d. vi. 234.                            ,0 Illustr. t. 37.
 " Hist, des Drag. 3d edit. ii. 319.                            ,a Diet, de Mat. Mid. vi. 311.
 '» Yuy. dans la Haute  Egypte, t. ii.                           " Med. Bot. i. fig. 30. 
842
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Leguminosje.
oval lanceolate, pubescent.   Legumes flat,  smooth, not  reniform,  rounded, naked
on both sides, containing from 3 to 5  seeds.—About 18 inches high.  Leaflets from
7 to 9  lines long, and from  3  to 4  broad, consequently less  elongated and less
acute than those of the two preceding species.   Legumes  from 11 to 15  lines long,
of a pale or fawn colour.—Nubia, Fezzan, to the south of Tripoli, and probably to
Ethiopia.   Yields Tripoli Senna.  I think I have detected the leaflets in Alexan-
drian Senna.
  5.  C. lanceolata, Forskdl,1 Lindley.2—Dr. Lindley, who met with this species  in a collec-
tion of Arabian plants made  by Dr. S. Fischer, says, " the leaflets are in four or five  pairs, never
more; oblong, and either acute or obtuse, not at all ovate or lanceolate, and perfectly free from
downiness even when young; the petioles have constantly a small round brown gland, a little
above the base.  The pods are erect, oblong, tapering to the base, obtuse, rigid, mucronate, rather
falcate, especially when young, at which time they are sparingly covered with coarse scattered
hairs."   This species is  therefore distinct from both  C. aculifolia, Delile, and C. elongata, Le-
maire.   Forska.1 says it grows about Surdud, Mor, and Abuarish; and that it is the true Mecca
Senna.
  6.  C. marilaxdica, Linn.—Leaflets 8 to 9 pairs, ovate oblong, mucronate, equal, with an
ovate gland at the base of the petiole.  Racemes axillary, many-flowered, shorter than the leaves.
Legumes compressed, linear,  hispid, subsequently  smoothish  (De  Cand.)—From three to six
feet high.  Flowers golden yellow.—United States; common in all parts  south of New York.—
Yields the American Senna.
   Commerce.—Senna is imported from the Mediterranean (either directly from
Egypt,  or at second hand from  Italy), and from the East Indies (Madras and Bom-
bay), usually in  bales.  The duty is 6d. per lb.   The quantities on  which duty was
paid during two years were as follows:—
                                               In 1838.             In 1839.
          From the East Indies..............72,576 lbs.          110,409 lbs.
          From other places................69,538 l:            63,766 "

                        Total imported.......142,114 "

   Description.—Senna (folia  sennas) has  a  peculiar,  agreeable, tea-like odour,
and  a nauseous bitter taste.   Its colour should be bright  and fresh.  If largely
mixed with extraneous matter,  if it be much broken or very dusty,  it should be re-
jected.   Boiling water extracts about a third of  its weight.  Proof spirit yields a
brown—alcohol  or ether a green tincture.
   1. Alexandrian Senna; Senna Alexandrina; FoliaSennaeAlexandrinse.—Called
by the  French  Sene de la Palthe (i. e.  Tribute Senna), because it is obliged  to  be
sold to  the  Egyptian  government, who  resell it to Europeans.   It is imported in
bales from  Alexandria and other Mediterranean  ports.   It consists of  the leaflets
of two or more species of Cassia (C. acutifolia, C. obovata, and, I think, sometimes
 C. aethiopica), mixed  always with the  leaves of  Cynanchum Argel, and sometimes
with those  of Tephrosia  Apollinea.  The  flowers and fruits of these  plants are
usually  present  in greater or  less quantity.  Alexandrian  senna  is collected in
Nubia and Upper  Egypt, and  is conveyed  down the Nile to the great depot at
Boulak.
   For the following  particulars I am indebted to the writings of Delile,3 Rouillure,4 Nectoux,5
and Burckhardt.6   Senna is collected by the Arabs of the tribe of Abaddeh.   They make two
crops annually—the most productive one is  that after the rains in August and September;  the
second takes place about the middle of March.  When cut, the plants  are spread out on the
rocks, and dried in the sun (Nectoux).
  Assouan is the first entrepot for senna.  It receives all that is gathered in the neighbourhood.
Esneh is another entrepot.   It receives the acute-leaved senna from Abyssinia, Nubia, and ^en-
naar, from whence it arrives by the caravans which convey negroes to Egypt, and blunt-leaved
senna, gathered in Upper Egypt (Rouillure).  Daraou, between Assouan and Esneh, is also an
entrepot; but the  great depot is at Boulak, the port  of Cairo.   Here the monopoly  of senna was
farmed out by Mahommed Ali to Rosetti, an Italian, for about £3,500 per annum (Burckhardt).
- 1 Fl. Egypt. Arab. 85.                                           2 Fl. Med. 259.
 3 Mi?n. sur I'Egypte, iii. 315, 1799; and Fl. JEgypt.                    * Jinn, de Chim. lvi. 161.
 6 Phil. Mag. xv. 55; and Voyage dans .« Haute Egypte, lb08.
 6 Travels in Nubia, 2d edit. pp. 22 and 49.
174,175 
Senna :—Description.
843
The senna arrives at Boulak from Assouan, not only by the Nile, but also by the way of Cosseir,
the Red Sea, aud Suez.  As, however, the latter is a more expensive route, it is not so frequently
followed (Nectoux).  Lastly, some senna is carried to Boulak by the caravans from Mount Sinai.
The following are said by Rouillure to be the quantities brought from these places :—
                                   Quintals.
                       Acute-leaved Senna.  Obovate ditto.  Ethiopic ditto.
From Assouan.........7000 to 8000  ...  500 to 600  ........
From Ksneh  ..........     ...     ...     800     ...  2000    . ,
From Suez and Mount Sinai.......1200 to 1500........
Argel leaves.
 2000 to 2400
Total of each kind
7000 to 8000
2500 to 2900
So that the total amount of all kinds is, according to this statement, 13.500 to 15,300 quintals.
  The mixture of the different leaves takes place at the entrepots.  Nectoux mentions those of
Keneli, Esneh, Daraou, Assouan, where it is effected.  Rouillure  says that at Boulak, 500 parts
of acute leaves are mixed with 300 of obtuse leaves, and 200 of Argel leaves.
  From Boulak the senna is sent to Alexandria, and from thence is shipped to  Europe.

   Alexandrian senna has a grayish-green colour, an odour which somewhat resembles
that of tea, and a viscid taste.   It presents a broken appearance, and on examina-
Fig.  367.
Alexandrian Senna.
a. Leaf of Cassia acutifolia.
g. Pod of ditto.
b. Leaf of C obtusata.
c. Leaf of C obovata.
A. Pod of ditto.
«. Leaf of Cynanchium olcefolium.
k. Pod of ditto.
d. Leaf of Tephrosia apollinea.
t. Pod of ditto.
/. Leaf of Coriaria myrtifolia.
tion is found to consist of the leaves, flowers, and fruits  of the above-mentioned
plants mixed with various  extraneous matters (as  seeds, date-stones, rabbit-dung,
stones, &c.)   The  latter are in great part separated by hand-picking, sifting, &c,
before the senna is fitted for use.   It then  constitutes picked Alexandrian senna
(folia sennas Alexandrines electee). 
8U              VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Leguminosie.

  a. Cassia lf.afi.ets, flowers, and Legumes.—The leaflets of cassia are readily distinguished
from tho^e of other genera found in senna, by being unequal-sided ; that is, by two sides of the
leaflet being unequal in size, shape,or length, and by tbe veins or nerves of their under surface
being very conspicuous. The acute-leaved are very readily distinguished from the blunt-leaved
species, by their shape.  The dried flowers of Cassia may be easily detected ; they are dull yel-'
low.  I have not been able to make out their species.  The legumes of the obovate and acute-
leaved Cassia  are also found; they are distinguished by the  botanical characters before de-
scribed.
  8. Argf.l leaves, flowers, and fruit (Cynanchum).—The Argel plants are collected by
the Arabs, in the valleys of  the Desert to the east and south of Assouan (Delile).  The leaves
found in  Alexandrian senna are  distinguished from the senna leaflets by their being equal-
sided—by the absence, or imperfect development of their lateral nerves—by their paler colour,
thicker and more coriaceous texture—by a  yellowish exudation frequently found on  them—
and generally, though not invariably, by their greater length.  Under the name of heavy senna
I have met with argel leaves which were sold at a higher price than  ordinary senna.   These
leaves were left in the fanning process, by which the real senna leaves were separated.  By
careful picking, the  flowers may be detected; they are white, and in small corymbs.   In some
recently-imported bales, argel flowers constituted nearly a fourth part.  The fruit, as found in
Alexandrian senna,  seldom exceeds in size that of a good-sized  orange-pip.  It is an ovoid fol-
licle, tapering superiorly, brown, shrivelled, and contains several seeds.
  y. Tephrosia leaflets  and  legumes.—The Tephrosia Apollinea (Galega Apollinea, Delile,
pi. 53) grows in cultivated fields near the Nile, at Hermonthis, at Rdfou, and in the Elephantine
Islands opposite Assouan.  The leaflets have a  silky or silvery aspect; they are obovate-oblong,
somewhat cuneiform, emarginate,equal-sided, tapering towards the base; lateral veins parallel,
regular, and oblique to the midrib.  These leaflets are usually found loaded longitudinally, and
are very apt to be overlooked.  The legume is  from an inch  to  an inch and a half long, not ex-
ceeding two lines broad, linear, slightly  ensiform, and contains six or seven brownish  seeds.
   2. Tripoli Senna; Senna Tripolitana ; Folia  Sennas Tripolitanas.—-It is carried
to Tripoli in caravans, which go from Fezzan.  In  general appearance it resembles
Alexandrian senna; but the leaflets are  more  broken, smaller, less  acute  than the
acute-leaved Alexandrian !*enna, thinner, greener, and  of a less herbaceous odour.
They are the  produce of C. jEthiopica, usually unmixed  with any other  species.
But I have a sample which contains also  the leaflets of C. obovata and argel leaves.
   Tunis senna agrees  with that of Tripoli.
   3. Aleppo Senna.—Consists of the leaflets of C. obovata.
   4. Senegal Senna;  Senna Senegalensis.—Is a  blunt-leaved senna,  having  a
rougher and more glaucous appearance than the leaflets of  C.  obovata.  Some years
since, a small bale of it was sent by the French Ministre de la Marine to M. Henry
for examination.1  I am indebted to the kindness of Professor Guibourt for a sample
of it.
   5. Smyrna Senna.—Very similar to Tripoli senna,  but some of  the leaflets re-
semble the acute-leaved Alexandrian senna.
   6. Mecca Senna;   Senna  Meccensis;  Inferior or  Second East Indian  Senna;
Sene" Moku, Guibourt;  Send de la Pique, or Pike Senna ; Suna Alukkee, Boyle.
—Imported into  England  from India.   It is  the produce  of  Arabia, and  finds its
way into the interior of  India by the ports of Surat  and Bombay.   Dr. Boyle was
informed that it  was grown somewhere  in  the Agra and  Muttra district, but was
never able to prove the fact.3  It occurs in long  narrow leaflets, of from an inch to
an inch  and a half long, narrower  than those  of Tinnevelly senna, and of a yellow-
ish colour ;  some of the  leaflets being brownish,  or even blackish.   This change of
colour is probably the result of the action  of a moist  atmosphere.   Legumes  are
occasionally intermixed; they are  from 1 $ to 3 inches  long, and from 7 to 8 lines
broad;   slightly curved,  greenish  in their circumference, blackish  in their centre,
with a smooth' surface.  Becently this senna in  good condition has been  imported
from Turkey in casks.   It  appears to be fresh and fine, and  approximates to Tin-
nevelly  senna in  colour; but contains stalks and dust with a few stones.
   7. Tinnevelly  Senna; Finest East Indian  Senna;  Seni de V hide,  Guibourt.—
Cultivated  at Tinnevelly, in the southern part of India, by Mr. G.  Hughes.   It  is
1 Journ. de Pharm. xiv. 70.
2 Illustr. 187. 
Senna:—Adulteration; Composition.                845
a. Legume of Tinnevelly Senna
        (C. elongata).
b. Leaflet of ditto (Royle).
 a very fine unmixed  senna,  which is  extensively em-           Fig. 368.
 ployed, and fetches a good price.  It consists of large,
 thin, unbroken leaflets, of a fine green colour, from 1
 to 2 inches, or  more, long, and sometimes  half an
 inch broad at their widest part.  When exposed  to a
 damp atmosphere, they are  apt to change colour, and
 to become  yellow or  even blackish.
   8. American Senna; Senna Americana.—Is the
 produce of Cassia Marilandica, but never  reaches
 this country as an article of commerce.  That which
 I have received was  prepared by the Shakers of the
 United States, and has been compressed into an ob-
 long cake.   The  leaflets are oblong, lanceolate, from
 IJ to 2 inches long,  and from  \ to £ an inch broad,
 thin, pliable, and of a pale green colour.  They have
 a feeble odour and a nauseous taste, like the  other
 Ben n as.
   Adulteration.—Senna  is not,  to the best of my
 belief, adulterated in  this country.   The  leaflets of
 Colu/ea arborescens or Bladder Senna have, on  the
 continent, been occasionally intermixed.  They  are
 elliptical,  regular,  and obtuse.   Their  regularity at the base would at  once dis-
 tinguish them from the leaflets  of Cassia obovata.
   Argel leaves, mixed with  a few leaflets of  C. acutifolia, I have known to be re-
 cently sold as picked or heavy  senna at a higher price.   It was done rather from
 ignorance than fraud.
   A serious adulteration has been sometimes practised on the continent,   Fig. 369.
 by the substitution of the leaves of  Coriaria  myrtifolia  for  those of
 senna.1  They are ovate-lanceolate, grayish-green with a bluish tinge,
 3-nerved, with a  strongly-marked midrib;  the two  lateral nerves dis-
 appear towards the summit of the leaves.  Chemically, these leaves are
 distinguished  by their infusion yielding, with  gelatine, a whitish pre-
 cipitate (tannate of gelatine) ; and,  with sulphate of iron, a very abund-
 ant blue precipitate (tannate of iron).   Farthermore, it forms precipi-
 tates with  bichloride  of mercury, emetic tartar, aud chloride of barium.
 [The true   Senna leaf is unsymmetrical on the two  sides,  while  iu the
 leaf of Coriaria the two sides are equal and symmetrical.—Ed.]
   Composition.—Three analyses of senna have been made;  viz. one in
 1797, by Bouillon La Grange;2 a second by Braconnot;3 and a third, in
 1£*21, by Lassaigne and Fenuelle:—*
        Senna Leaves.
         Braconnot.
Bitter matter  of senna . .  .
Reildish-brown gum  ....
Matter similar  to animal
   mucus, precipitable  by
   acids...........
Acetate of lime....... 8.7
Malate ior some other vege-
  table salt) of lime.....  3.7
Acetate of potash . .)    traces
              n .$ " '
 Leaf of
 Coriaria
myrtifolia.
53.7
31.9
6.2
Chloride of sodium

Watery extract of Alex-
  andrian Senna .....
104.2
    Lassaigne and Fenuelle.
Cathartin.
Yellow colouring matter.
Volatile oil.
Fixed oil.
Albumen.
Mucus.
Malic ac;d.
Malate and tartrate of lime.
Acetate of potash.
Mineral salts.
[Insoluble matter (lignin, &c.)]
Alexandrian Senna.
        Senna Pods.
          Fenuelle.
Cathartin.
Yellow colouring matter.
Volatile oil.
Fixed oil.
Albumen.
Gum.
Malic acid.
Malates of potash and lime.
Mineral salts.
Silicic acid.
Lignin.
  1. Ononous  principle;  Volatile Oil of Senna.—Obtained
water, to distillation.  It has a nauseous odour and  taste.  Th
contains some oil in solution, acts as a mild purgative only.
    Legumes of Cassia acutifolia.

 by submitting the leaves,  with
e distilled water of senna, which
1 Journ. de Chim. Mid. i. 284.                      » Ann. de Chim. xxiv.3.
* Journ. dt Phys. Ixxxiv. 281.                       ' Ann. de Chim. etde Phys. xvi. 16. 
846
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Leguminosie.
  2. Cathartinf. ; Purgative Principle of Senna.—Yellowish-red, uncrystallizable, with a pecu-
liar odour, and a bitter, nauseous taste;  very soluble both in water and alcohol, but insoluble in
ether; it attracts water  from the air.  Its aqueous solution is precipitated  by infusion of galls
and diacetate of lead. The sesquisulphate of iron and alkalies deepen the colour of the infusion :
chlorine decolorizes it: iodine, acetate of lead, gelatine, and emetic tartar, cause no precipitates
with it.  It appears to consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygenon\y. Three grains caused nausea,
griping, and purging.
   Chemical Characteristics.—By boiling senna in  water—by the exposure of
infusion of  senna to the air, as well as by the  action of the mineral acids and of
chlorine on  the infusion—a precipitate is procured.  Bouillon La  Grange  regarded
this as  a species of resin, formed by  the union  of oxygen with a peculiar kind of
extractive found in senna.   This  extractive, he says, is iuert, but becomes  active
when converted into resin ; and hence, the cold  infusion, according to this chemist,
causes colic, but  rarely  purges.   The carbonated alkalies,  lime-water, nitrate of
silver, the acetates of lead, sulphate of iron, &c, form precipitates  with  the infusion
of senna.
   Physiological Effects, a. On Animals.—In  doses of five  or  six  ounces it
purges  horses.   Courten1 threw an  infusion into the veins of a dog;  it quickened
the respiration,  and caused vomiting.   The animal appeared weak,  was  dull, and
had no  inclination  to eat.
   |3.  On Man.—Begnandot3 injected half a spoonful  of weak lukewarm infusion
of senna into the left median vein of a young man affected with an  herpetic erup-
tion.   The  only effect produced was a slight temporary headache.  Some days after-
wards a spoonful was injected ; in half an hour violent shivering and vomiting came
on, which were followed by heat and purging.  The febrile symptoms continued  for
several  hours.   Taken  by the stomach, senna acts as a sure and safe purgative.   Its
ill effects are nausea, griping, flatulence, and, at first, depression, afterwards excite-
ment of the pulse.  It appears to stimulate the abdominal  and  pelvic vessels, thereby
having a tendency  to promote  the  hemorrhoidal  and menstrual discharges.   It is
one of the mildest of the drastic purgatives.  Unlike scammony, gamboge, jalap,
and most other drastics, it does not  rank among  poisons, even when given in large
doses.   It is distinguished from the saline purgatives by its stronger  and  more irri-
tant operation, by  the  heat, gripings, and  increased frequency of pulse,  which  at-
tend its purgative  action.  From  rhubarb it differs in  being  more  powerful and
irritant in its operation, in being nearly or  quite devoid of any tonic operation.   It
acts more speedily  and  powerfully  than aloes, and in a less marked manner on the
large intestines.  In  its operation it appears to  rank between jalap and aloes. The
petioles and stalks possess similar properties to the leaflets.   Formerly the griping
quality  of senna was  ascribed to the stalks, but both Bergius3 and Schwilgue* have
proved the error of this notion.  The legumes are much milder in their  operation
than the leaflets.
   Good  East Indian senna is almost, if not quite, as active as  the Alexandrian.
Mr. Twining,5 after extensively trying it, declared it equal to the  best  he had ever
seen.   The  obovate senna appears to be milder than the  acute-leaved.  The Senegal
senna, before referred to, was  found to possess  less activity than ordinary senna.
Part of the acrid and griping  qualities of Alexandrian  senna  are referable to the
ar^el leaves, which, according  to the observations of Bouillure,  Delile,  Nectoux
and Pugnet (quoted by Delile), possess greater activity than  the true senna leaves.
Bouillure says  they purge and gripe,  and  are used by the Arabs  of  Upper Egypt
without the addition  of senna.   These effects might be  expected  from the known
properties of Asclepiadaceas (before  referred to).    "American senna  is an efficient
and safe cathartic, closely resembling the imported senna in its action, and  capable
of being substituted for it in all cases  in which the latter is employed."8
   If infusion of senna be given to the nurse, the suckling infant  becomes purged

  l Wibmer, Wirk. Arzneim. u. Gifte,  ii.67.                       a Ibid. op. supra cit.
  » Mat. Med. i. 354                                         * Traiti de Mat. Mid. ii 410.
  > Trans. Med. and Phys. Soc. of Calcutta, j. 433.                  « United  States Dispensatory. 
Senna :—Its Infusion.                        847
 a satisfactory proof  that the cathartic principle of senna becomes absorbed, and is
 thrown out of the system by the excretories.   Farthermore, as purging results from
 the  injection of infusion of senna into the veins, this  cathartic would  appear to
 exercise a specific influence over the bowels, independent of its local action on these
 when it is swallowed.
   Uses.—Senna is well adapted for those cases which require an active and certain
 purgative, with a moderate stimulus to the abdominal and  pelvic viscera.   Thus,
 in constipation and  inactivity of the alimentary canal, requiring the continued  or
 frequent use of purgatives; in  worms; in determination of blood  to the  head, and
 many other cases which readily suggest themselves, senna answers very well.  The
 circumstances contraindicating its use are, an inflammatory condition of  the aliment-
 ary  canal, a tendency to hemorrhoids  or menorrhagia, threatening  abortion, and
 prolapsus of the uterus and rectum.  The objections. to its use are,  the  large dose
 required, the nauseous and disgusting flavour, the tendency  to gripe, and the irri-
 tant and stimulant operation.    Thus, in inflammation of  the mucous membrane of
 the bowels, the irritant action of  senna makes it an objectionable purgative;  while
 its tendency to increase the frequency of  the pulse renders it less fit for exhibition
 in febrile disorder than the saline purgatives.   It is a very safe purgative, and may
 be given to children, females, and elderly persons, with great security.   Though it
 is not the  most appropriate purgative to be employed after delivery, and operations
 about the  abdomen  or pelvis (as hernia and lithotomy), yet I have repeatedly seen
 it used,  and rarely with any unpleasant consequences.
   Administration.—Powder of senna  may be given in doses of from  3ss to 3ij
 for adults.   There are two objections to  its use, the  great  bulk of  the  necessary
 dose, and the uncertainty of its  operation, arising from its  liability to decompose by
 keeping.   To cover the unpleasant flavour of senna, Dr. Paris1 recommends  the
 addition of Bohea (black) tea; coffee  has been advised by others.   Aromatics
 (especially coriander and  ginger) are frequently added  to prevent griping, and  to
 improve the flavour.

   1. INFUSIl SENM, E. [U. S.]; Infusum Sennas Compositum, L.  D.;  Infusion of
 Senna; Senna  Tea.—(Senna Leaves 3xv [giss, E.; |ss, />.]; Ginger, bruised,9iv
 [3ss, />.]; Boiling [distilled,  L.~] Water Oj.—Macerate for  an  hour in a vessel
 lightly covered, and strain [through  linen or calico, E.].)—[The U.  S. Pharm.
 directs Senna sj ; Coriander,  bruised, 3j ;  Boiling Water Oj.]   An ordinarily used
 purgative, employed frequently in the maladies of children as well as of  adults.
 A saline purgative (sulphate of magnesia or of soda, or potash-tartrate of soda, or
 tartrate  of potash)  is usually  given in conjunction with it; manna and tincture of
 senna being frequently added.  A compound of  this kind is called the black draught.
 —The dose of infusion of senna is from fjij to fjiv for adults.  [In order to pre-
 serve this infusion  in warm weather, Mr. Squire recommends  the  addition of one
 grain of nitrate of  potash to each ounce.—Ed.]

   2. INFUSIl SENXIl COMPOSITUM, E.; Compound Infusion of Senna.—(Senna 3j ;
 Tamarinds 3J; Coriander, bruised, 5j ; Muscovado Brown  Sugar ^ss; Boiling Wa-
 ter {3 viijj.   Infuse for four hours, with occasional stirring, in a covered vessel, not
 glazed with lead; and then strain through linen or calico.  This infusion  may be
 likewise  made with  twice or  thrice  the  prescribed  quantity of senna.)—A vessel
 not glazed with lead is directed, lest  the  acid of the tamarinds should dissolve the
 metal of the glazing, and  thereby give a  noxious  impregnation.  This  cathartic
 somewhat resembles Sydenham's potio cathartica lenitioa.   The unpleasant flavour
 of the senna is agreeably covered by the tamarinds and sugar.  This preparation is
cathartic and refrigerant.   It  is employed as a cathartic in febrile disorders.—Dose
f^ij to fjiv.
  3. ENEMA CATIIARTICUM,  E.  D.; Cathartic Enema.—(Olive Oilgj; Sulphate of
1 Pharmacilogia. 
 848              VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord. Leguminosie

 Magnesia gss; Sugar gj;  Senna gss ; Boiling Water fgxvj.   Infuse the  senna
 for an  hour in  the water, then dissolve  the salt and sugar; add the oil, and mix
 them by  agitation, E.—The Dublin College employs of Olive Oil fgj ;  Sulphate
 of  Magnesia gj ; Mucilage of Barley fgxvj.   Dissolve  the sulphate  of  magnesia
 in the mucilage ; add the oil, and mix.)—Employed as a laxative.   It is a consti-
 tuent of the fetid  clyster.
   4. TINCTURA SEME  COMPOSITA, L. E. D. ; Tincture of Senna ;  Elixir Salutis
 \_Tinctura Sennas et Jalapse, U. S.].—(Senna Leaves giiiss; Caraway Seeds, bruised,
 3iiiss;  Cardamoms,  bruised, 3j; Ilaisins [stoned]  gv;  Proof Spirit  Oij.   Mace-
 rate for seven days, and then press and strain, L.—Senna giv ;  Caraway Seeds,
 bruised; Cardamom Seeds, bruised, of each ass;  Proof Spirit Oij.  Macerate for
 fourteen days, strain, express, and filter, D.—Sugar  o'iss> Coriander,  bruised, gj;
 Jalap, in  moderately fine powder, 3vj ; Senna giv;  Caraway, bruised; Cardamom
 seeds, bruised, of  each  3vj Baisins,  bruised, giv ;  Proof  Spirit Oij.   Digest for
 seven days, strain the  liquor, express strongly the  liquor, and filter  the liquids.
 This tincture may be more conveniently and expeditiously  prepared by percolation,
 as  directed for the compound tincture of  cardamom.  If Alexandrian Senna  be
 used for  this preparation, it  must be freed from Cynanchum  [Argel] leaves by
 picking, E.)—[The following is  the formula of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia:  Take of
 Sennagij ; Jalap,  in powder, gj  ; Coriander,bruised; Caraway, bruised, of  each half
 an  ounce;  Cardamom,  bruised, 3VJ j Sugar giv;  Diluted  Alcohol  Oij.   Mace-
 rate for fourteen  days, express, and filter  through paper.   This tincture  may
 also be prepared  by beating well together the senna, jalap, sugar, and aromatics,
 moistening  them  thoroughly  with  Diluted Alcohol,  allowing them  to  stand  forty-
 eight hours, then  transferring them to a percolator, and  gradually pouring upon
 them Diluted Alcohol until three pints of filtered liquor are obtained.]—Carminative,
 cordial, stomachic, and  purgative.  Usually employed as  an adjunct  to  the infu-
 sion of  senna.   If given alone as a purgative, the dose should be fgss to f3j.   It
 is useful in costiveness attended with flatulence.

   5. SYRUPUS SENXdE, L. E. [U.S.]; Syrup of Senna.—(Senna  giijss; Fennel
 (seed),  bruised,  3x;  Manna  giij ; Treacle, ibiij;   Boiling  Distilled  Water  Oj.
 Macerate  the senna and fennel in the water, with  a gentle heat, for  six hours. Mix
 the manna  and  treacle  witli the strained liquor;  then boil down  to a proper con-
 sistence, L.—Senna giv;  Boiling Water Oj  and fgiv;  Treacle gxlviij.  Infuse the
 senna in the water for  twelve hours; strain, and express  strongly  through calico,
 so as to obtain a pint and two fluidounces at least of  liquid.  Concentrate the trea-
 cle in the vapour-bath  as far as possible, or  till a little taken out  upon a rod be-
 comes nearly concrete on cooling; and, while the liquor is still  hot, add  the infu-
 sion, stirring carefully, and removing the vessel from  the  vapour-bath  as soon  as
 the mixture is complete.   If Alexandrian  Senna be used for this preparation, it
 must be carefully freed of Cynanchum [Argel] leaves by picking it, E.)—[Take of
 Senna gij;  Fennel Seed, bruised, gj ; Boiling Water Oj;  Sugar gxv.   Digest the
 Senna and Fennel Seed  in  the water with a gentle  heat, for an hour,  then strain,
 add the sugar, and evaporate to the proper consistence.]—Cathartic.   Given  to
 children in doses of f3j to f3iij.
  6. CONFECTIO SENM, L. D. [U. S.]; Electuarium Sennas, E.; Electuarium Lai-
 tivum ;  Confection of Senna;  Lenitive Electuary.—(Senna gviij ;   Figs Ibj ;  Pre-
 pared Tamarinds; Prepared Cassia;  Prepared Prunes, of each ibss; Coriander
 giv;  Fresh Liquorice, bruised, giij;  Sugar ibiiss ;  Distilled Water Oiij.   [Water
 Oiv, U. S.~\  Bub the senna with the coriander, and  by a sieve separate ten ounces
 of the mixed powder; then boil  down the water, with the figs and  liquorice added,
 to half, then express and strain.   Evaporate  the  strained liquor in a water-bath,
until, of the whole, twenty-four fluidounces remain; then, the sugar being added, let
a syrup be  made.  Lastly, gradually rub the pulps with  the syrup,  and having 
Purging Cassia :—History ; Botany.
849
thrown in the sifted powder, mix them all, L.—The Edinburgh College omits the
Tamarind and Cassia  pulps, but employs Ibj of  Prune pulp, and OiijJ of Water.
—The Dublin College directs Senna Leaves, in  a  very fine powder, gij; Coriander,
in fine powder, gj; Oil of Caraway 3ss;  Pulp of Prunes gv;  Pulp of Tamarinds
gij ; Brown Sugar gviij; Water fgij.  Dissolve the sugar in the water, and beat
the pulps with the syrup to a uniform consistence ;  having stirred in the powders
and oil of caraway, mix all well together, and heat the mass thoroughly in a water-
bath for ten minutes.)—The preparation of this compound being  troublesome and
expensive, and sophistications of it not being readily detectable, it is rarely prepared,
in commerce, as directed  by the  London  and Edinburgh Colleges.   Jalap is fre-
quently substituted, partially or wholly, for the senna and  cassia pulp.   Dr. Paris
mentions  walnut liquor as  a colouring ingredient in use ; and adds, that  a con-
siderable quantity of this confection is made in  Staffordshire, in  which unsound and
spoilt  apples  enter  as  a  principal  ingredient.   When  properly prepared, it is a
pleasant,  mild, and very  effectual purgative, and is  frequently employed by preg-
nant women, persons afflicted with hemorrhoids or diseases of the rectum.   When
given alone in a full dose  it is apt to gripe.   Dose, 3j to 3vj.   It is frequently em-
ployed as a vehicle for the  exhibition of other cathartics; for  example, bitartrate
of potash.
  [7.  EXTRACTUM  SEMjE FLUIDUM, U. S.;  Fluid  Extract  of Senna.—(Take of
Senna, in coarse powder, ibijss ;  Sugar gxx ; Oil of Fennel f^i;  Compound Spirit
of Ether f3ij; Diluted  Alcohol Oiv.   Mix the senna with the diluted alcohol, and
having allowed the mixture to stand for twenty-four hours, introduce it into a per-
colator, and gradually  pour in water mixed with one-third of its  bulk of alcohol,
until a gallon and  a half of liquid shall  have passed.   Evaporate the  liquid by
means of  a water-bath to twenty fluidounces, filter, then add the sugar, and, when
it is dissolved, the compound spirit of  ether holding the oil of fennel in solution.)
This is a concentrated preparation of senna, convenient in consequence of the small-
ness of the dose, which is f3J—ij-  It  may be given by itself or in combination, as
the infusion.]


  284.  CASSIA FISTULA, Linn. L. E. D.—THE PUDDING-PIPE
                    TREE, OR  PURGING CASSIA.
                           Cathartocarpus Fistula, Persoon.
                          S>:x. Syst. Decandria, Monogynia.
                           (Fructus, L.—Pulp of the pods, E.)

   History.—The earliest writers,  in whose  works we find the fruit of Cassia Fis-
tula mentioned, are the Arabians, Mesue, Serapion, and Avicenna.  The first Greek
writer who notices it is Actuarius, who terms it xa<j<yia p.t*.a<,va,  or black cassia.1
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—See Cassia (p. 844).
   Sp. Char.—Leaflets  4  to  6  pairs, ovate, somewhat acuminate,  smooth ;  petioles
glandless.   Racemes lax, without bracts.  Legumes terete, straight, somewhat ob-
tuse, smooth.  (De Cand.)
   Tree from 20 to 30  feet high.   Leaves alternate,  pinnate, from 12 to 18 inches
long;  leaflets from 2 to 6 inches long, and from 1  and a half to 3 inches broad.
Stipules minute.   Racemes 1  to 2 feet  long.   Flowers large, bright-yellow, fra-
grant, on  long foot-stalks. Legume cylindrical, ligneous, 1 or 2 feet long, externally
blackish-brown ; with three longitudinal bands or seanis extending the whole length,
two  of which, by their contiguity, appear to  form a  single  one, the third being on
the opposite  side of the  legume;  internally divided into  numerous  cells  by thin
transverse partitions or phragmata, formed by the distension of the placenta, and
therefore called spurious dissepiments.   Seed 1 in each cell, surrounded by a soft
vol. n.—54
i Lib. v 
850
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Leguminosie.
blackish pulp, which appears to be a secretion of the endocarp or inner coat of the
pod.
   Hab.—East Indies,  Egypt.   Introduced into the West Indies.
   Description.—The pods of Cassia Fistula (cassia fistula; legumen cassias fis-
tulas) are imported from the East  Indies (Madras  and Ceylon), from the West In-
dies (Barbadoes), and  from  South America  (Carthagena  and  Savanilla).  Their
botanical description has been above given.  Their pulp (pulpa cassias fistulas;
pulpa leguminis cassias fistulas)  is reddish-black,  with  a sweetish taste.   By ex-
posure  to the  air it becomes acid,  in  consequence of undergoing the  acetous  fer-
mentation.   Those  pods yield  the most pulp which are heavy, and  do not rattle
when shaken.
  Small American Cassia Fistula;  Petite  Casse oVAmerique,  Guibourt.—Pods twelve to
eighteen  inches  long, and six lines in diameter,  pointed at the  extremities.  Pericarp thinner
than the ordinary  Cassia  fistula.   Pulp reddish-brown, acerb, astringent, sweet.  Is this pod
the fruit of Calhartocarpus bacillaris, a native of the Caribaean  Islands, depicted in Jacqnin's
Fragm. Bot. Tab. 85 ?
  The pulp of Cassia Brasiliana has been employed  in America.  The pods are from  18 to
24 inches long, ligneous, and rough, with very prominent sutures.
   Composition.—Vauquelin1  and N. E. Henry2 have analyzed Cassia pulp.
     Vauquelin's Analysis.
Pericarp .  .'........35.IS
Phragmata.........  7.03
Seeds............ 13.28
     f Sugar.......14 85
                       1.56
                       0.51
                       0.13
                       0.79
                       2.05
       Water.......21.35
N. E. Henry's Analysis.
Pulp
  Gum.....   .
|  Extractive . .  . .
\  Vegetable jelly
|  Glutinous matter
  Woody fibre
Cassia pods
Sugar .................
Gum..................
Matter possessing many properties
  of tanning substances......
Do. having some properties of gluten
Colouring matter soluble in ether  .
Loss, principally owing to water  .

   Watery extract of Cassia pulp
Common or	
African.	American.
61.00	69.25
6.75	2.60
13.25	3.90
traces	traces
small quantity	none
19.00	24.25
100.00	100.00
   Physiological  Effects.—Cassia pulp in  small doses  is a  mild laxative;  in
large doses a  purgative; but it is apt  to occasion nausea, flatulence,  and griping.
Manna is said singularly to exalt the purgative effect of Cassia pulp.3  Thus Valis-
nieri states, that  twelve drachm3 of  this pulp are  about equivalent  in  purgative
strength to four ounces of manna; but that if we  give eight drachms  of Cassia
pulp, in combination with four  drachms  of manna, we  obtain  double the  effect!
But the correctness of such a statement is  not supported by any evidence yet ad-
duced.
   Uses.—It  is  rarely or never  given alone;  but the  cases for which it  is well
adapted  are febrile and  inflammatory affections.   On account of its pleasant taste
it  would be  a  convenient purgative for children.
   Administration.—Dose, for  an adult,  of the pulp, as  a mild laxative, 3j  to
3ij; as a purgative, gj to gij.
   1, CASSIA PREPARATA, L.—(Cassia, broken lengthwise, Ibj; Distilled Water suffi-
cient to cover the Cassia.  Macerate for six hours, occasionally stirring;  strain the
softened pulp  through a hair sieve, and evaporate to the consistence of a confection
by a water-bath.—Ed.)

   2. CONFECTIO CASSLE, L.; Confection of Cassia.—(Prepared Cassia  Ibss; Manna
gij;  Prepared Tamarind Pulp |j; Syrup of Bose f.fviij.  Bruise the  Manna, then
dissolve  it in  the  Syrup; afterwards mix in the  Cassia and Tamarind pulps, and
evaporate the moisture until a  proper consistence is attained.)—Laxative.  Occa-
sionally used  for children, as a vehicle for some more active  substance.—Dose 3ij.
to 3j. for adults.
i Ann. de Chim. vi. 275.
3 Sec Paris, Pharm. 6th edit. i. 271.
2 Journ. de Chim. Mid. ii. 370. 
Copaiva :—History;  Botany;  Species.                851
      285.  COPAIFERA MULTIJUGA, Hayne, L -VARIOUS
                               SPECIES, D. E.
            Copaifera multijuga et alioe species, De Cand.—Copaifera officinalis, Linn.
                           Sex. Syst. Decandria, Monogynia.
              (Oleo-resina, L. D.—Fluid resinous exudation, E.—Copaiba, V. S.)

  History.—The first notice of Copaiva balsam, as well as of the tree yielding it,
was given by Piso.1  Hayne9 is of opinion  that the Copaifera bijuga is the species
observed by Piso.
  Botany.  Gen. Char.— Calyx  ebracteolate, of 4  spreading, small, equal sepals
united at the base.  Petals 0.  Stamens 10, distinct, nearly equal; anthers oblong.
Style filiform.   Legume stalked,  obliquely elliptical,  coriaceous,  somewhat com-
pressed,  2-valved, with 2  ovules, 1-seeded..  Seed elliptical, inclosed in a baccate
aril.  Embryo straight;  radicle somewhat  lateral.— Trees.  Leaves abruptly pin-
nate.    Leaflets coriaceous,  somewhat  unequal,  ovate.   Floicers  paniculate.  (De
Cand.)
  Species.—1. C. multijuga, Hayne, L.—Leaflets 6 to 10 pairs, ovate-lanceolate,
acuminate, mucronate, with pellucid dots.   Petiole slightly hairy.   In the province
of Para  the greatest quantity of the balsam is furnished  by this species (Hayne).
  2.  C  Langsdorfii, Desf. L.—Leaflets 3 to 5 pairs, ovate or oval, blunt,  equal-
sided, with pellucid dots.   Petioles and peduncles slightly  downy.—This and the
following species furnish  the  balsam collected by  the natives of Santa Paulo.
  3.  C.  coriacea, Mart.—Leaflets 2 to 3 pairs, elliptical, equal-sided, emarginate,
coriaceous, not dotted, reticulated, smooth on both sides, somewhat glaucous beneath.
Petioles  and peduncles almost  smooth.—Bahia.   It yields balsam of  copaiva in
Santa Paulo.
  4.  C.  officinalis,  Linn. D.;  C. Jacquini, Desf.—Leaflets 2  to 5 pairs, in-
curved, ovate, unequal-sided, obtusely  acuminate, with pellucid  dots.   Venezuela,
near  Calaboso, West Indies.  An inferior kind of balsam is said to be obtained
from  this species.
  The following are species of Copaifera described by Hayne :—
      5.  C Bethicuii, Hayne.—Mandiocca, in the Brazils.
      6.  C. guianensis, Desf.—Guiana, near Rio Negro.
      7.  ('. Martii, Hayne.— Para.
      8. C. bijuga, Willd.—Brazils.
      9  C. Jussikdi, Hayne.—Brazils.
      10. C. nitida. Mart.— Brazils (Minas  Geraes).
      11. C. laxa, Hayne.— Brazils.
      12. C  cordifolia, Hayne.—Brazils.
      13. C. ISkllowii, Hayne.—Brazils.
      14.  C. oblongifolia, Mart.—Brazils (Minas Geraes).
  Extraction of the Balsam.—The balsam is  obtained by making incision83
into the  stems of  the  trees.  It exudes so abundantly that, at the  proper  season?
twelve pounds are sometimes obtained  in the space of three  hours.3  If, however,
no balsam should flow, the wound is  immediately closed with wax  or clay, and re-
opened in  a fortnight, when an abundant discharge takes place.   Old trees some-
times furnish balsam two or  three times in the year.  Langsdorff,4 in  his account
of Santa Catherina, observes that " the  tree which yields copaiva balsam, or balsam
of Tolu, Copaifera officinalis, is here called oleo  breto, or black olive.  It abounds
in the forests, but  very little use is made of it.  I was  assured, that when  the in-
cision is made in the tree to procure the balsam, which is done only in the very hot
summer  months, a strong sound is heard, and the sap or balsam  rushes out in a
stream, as when a vein is opened in the human arm."
i Med. Bras. lib. iv. cap. 4 ; in Hist. Nat. Brns. Lugd. 1648.
» Duncan, Suppl to the Edinb. New Disp. p. 45.                     • Piso, op. supra cit. p 56
• Voyages and Travels in Various Parts of the World, during the Years 1803—1S07, pp. 43, Lind. 1813 
852
VEGETABLES.—Xat. Ord. Leguminosie.
   Commerce.—Balsam of Copaiva is principally obtained from  Para and Maran-
 ham.   This probably is yielded, for the  most  part,  by  C.  multijuga,  the tree
 assigned in the London  Pharmacopoeia.  Carthagena, Maracaibo, and Savanilla also
 furnish some.   Is this from  C. officinalis?  Occasionally it is  brought  from Bio
 Janeiro, and is there  probably procured from &  Langsdorfii and coriacea.   Some
 is imported from  the West Indies;  and a considerable quantity, at second hand,
 from New York.   It is usually brought over in casks holding one cwt. or one and
 a half cwts.  In  1839, duty (4s. per cwt.) was paid on 613 cwts.
   Description.—Balsam of  Copaiva (Balsam  Copaives, seu Copaibas)  is a clear
 transparent liquid, having for  the most part the  consistence of olive oil.   It  has a
 pale  yellowish  colour, a peculiar, not disagreeable odour,  and a bitter, somewhat
 acrid and  nauseous taste.  Its  sp. gr. is less than that of water, but is not constant.
 It is 0.95 according to Schonberg, while Stoltze says it is  0.966.  By keeping, it
 becomes considerably denser, owing  to the loss of volatile oil.  Balsam of copaiva
 is insoluble in water, but is completely soluble in alcohol, ether, and the  oils, both
 fixed and volatile.  When acted  on by alkalies it yields  a kind of soap, which  is
 insoluble  in water.
   Considerable variation exists in the colour, consistence, and sp. gr. of, as well as in the rela-
 tive quantities of volatile oil and  resin  yielded  by, balsam of copaiva.  Even the odour and
 taste vary somewhat.  The differences doubtless depend in great part upon the balsam being
 procured from different species.  The smaller species, which grow in the interior of the Bra-
 zils, as in Babia and Minas, yield, as we are told, less balsam, but it is more resinous and sharper.
 Brazilian Copaiva is thin, clear, and  pale-coloured.  West Indian Copaiva (produced probably •
 by C.  officinalis) is thick, golden-yellow, not transparent,  and  has a less agreeable smell, which
 is somewhat like that of turpentine.  [It is to be regretted that the  term balsam is still errone-
 ously  applied to this liquid.  The London College has more correctly described it as an oleo-
 resin; it is in fact resin dissolved in essential or volatile oil, like ordinary turpentine.  It con-
 tains no benzoic acid, which has generally been regarded by pharmacologists as a necessary
 constituent of a substance to which the term balsam is applied.—Ed.]
   Adulteration.—There is  no reason to suppose that  balsam of copaiva is  adul-
 terated in  this country now;   though the following fact, mentioned  by Dr. Paris,1
 proves that formerly it was.  "A curious trial took  place some time since, between the
 owners of  certain premises that were burnt down, and  the Governors of the Sun
 Fire-Office, in consequence of the latter refusing to indemnify the proprietor for his
 loss, because the  fire  had  been occasioned  by his making Balsam of Copaiba."—
 Gray8 has  published formulae for making a balsamum copaibas reductum, as well as
 copaiba factitia.—The Edinburgh College  gives  the following characters of the
 purity of  the Balsam:—
  "Transparent; free of turpentine odour when heated; soluble in two  parts of alcohol •  it
 dissolves a  fourth of its weight of carbonate of magnesia, with the aid of a gentle  heat and
 continues translucent."
   The turpentine odour may be recognized  by dropping the suspected balsam on a
 heated iron (as a  spatula). The mixture of magnesia and copaiva here referred to
 acquires, in several hours, the translucency, aspect, and consistency of very  thick
 mucilage of gum  Arabic.  This  test was proposed by Blondeau.3   If one  or two
drops of suspected balsam be placed  on unsized  paper, and carefully heated over a
lamp  to expel the volatile oil, an homogeneous translucid spot is left, if  the balsam
be pure;  but if it have been mixed with castor-oil, the spot of resin is surrounded
by an oily areola.* Planche5 has recommended ammonia as a test.   If pure balsam
be shaken  with liquor ammoniae (sp. gr. 0.965), it becomes clear and transparent in
a few instants; not so when castor-oil is present.  Ebullition with water (to expel the *
volatile oil and obtain the hard resin), and  the action of potash, and of sulphuric
acid, have  also been proposed as tests.
1 Pharmacolcgia, 6th edit. ii. 183.                  2 Suppl. to the Pharm
* Journ. de Chim. Mid. i. 560; and 11. 41.            * Chevallier, Journ. de Chim. Mid  iv 619
8 Journ. de Pharm  xi. 228. 
Species of Copaifera.
     Figs. 370—381.
     i.'js ottongi- ^
853
 
854               VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Leguminosie.
   Composition.—F. Hoffmann1  submitted  copaiva  to a  chemical  examination.
Afterwards Schbuberga analyzed it.  In 182G, Stoltze,3 and, in 1829, Gerber,4 sub-
mitted it to analysis.
            Stoltze's Analysis.

Volatile oil.................   38.00
Yellow dark resin {copaivic acid) ....   52.75
Brown soft resin..............    1.66
Water and loss...............    7 59
Balsam of Copaiva........100.00
       Berber's Analysis.
Fresh Balsam.      Old Balsam.
    41    .......   31 70
    51.38.......   53.68
    2.18.......   11.15
    5.44 .......   4.10
100.00           100.63
  1. Volatile Oil (see post).
  2. Rksi.v of Copaiva (Resina Copaiba).—After the balsam has been deprived of its volatile
oil by distillation, a brownish resinous mass is left behind.  This, when gently heated to expel
the residual water, is  sold as resin of copaiva.  It consists of two  resins—one called copaivic and,
the other the viscid resin of copaiva.  They are separated by rectified spirit, which dissolves the
acid resin, but leaves  the viscid one.
  a. Copaivic Acid; Yellow Brittle Resin of Copaiva.—One hundred parts of balsam yield, on an
average, fifty parts of this acid.  Copaivic acid is an amber coloured, brittle, crystallizable resin,
soluble in alcoliol, rectified spirit, ether, and the volatile and fixed oils.   It is decomposed by
sulphuric and nitric acids.  Its acid properties are proved by its alcoholic solution  reddening
litmus, and by the definite compounds (copaivates) which  it forms with bases.  Thus, if an
alcoholic solution of nitrate of silver be dropped into the alcoholic solution of this resin, we
obtain, on the  addition of a little ammonia, a white crystalline  precipitate (copaivate of silver)
slightly soluble in  alcohol, and composed of one  atom copaivic acid, and  one  atom oxide of
silver.   In  the same way we may form  the analogous copaivates of lead and lime.  The copai-
vates of potash and soda are soluble, and have a bitter  taste and a disagreeable odour; they are
easily decomposed  by acids.  The copaivate of ammonia is soluble in ether and alcoliol, but not
in water.  The copaivate of magnesia is prepared by adding copaivate of  potash to sulphate of
magnesia.
  Copaivic acid is isomeric with pinic acid; that is, its composition is C40H82O4 (Rose).
  Q. I'isrid Resin of Copaiva;  Brown Soft Resin of Copaiva.—When a hot  alcoholic solution of
copaiva cools, it retains in solution the acid  resin already described, but deposits a brown viscid
substance, which  is termed the viscid resin  of copaiva.  As it is  more abundant in old than in
recent balsam, Gerber regards it as produced by some alteration of the acid resin.  It is soluble
in anhydrous alcohol and ether, and in  the volatile and fixed oils. It has very little affinity for
basic  substances.   One hundred  parts of balsam contain from  1.65 to 2.13  per cent,  of  this
resin.
   Physiological  Effects.—Copaiva produces the general and topical stimulant
effects of the oleo-resins, already described.   Taken in moderate doses, it  creates a
sensation of warmth in the stomach,  gives rise  to eructations  having  the odour of
the balsam, and  not  unfrequently  occasions  nausea, or even actual vomiting.   The
continued use of  it often impairs the appetite, and disorders the digestive functions.
These may be regarded as  the local  effects on  the  stomach.   The constitutional
effects, or  those which  result  from the absorption of the  balsam, or  of its  active
constituent, the  oil, are those of  a stimulant whose influence is principally directed
to the secreting organs, more especially to the mucous membranes and  to the  urino-
genital apparatus.  The oil passes out  of the system  in part by the lungs, and  the
odour of its vapour is readily detectable in the  breath of persons taking  it.   The
urine is increased in  quantity and  altered in quality;  thus its colour is heightened,
its odour becomes  balsamic, and  its taste bitter; moreover, not unfrequently it is
turbid, as if containing mucus.
   [It  has been  proved that the oleo-resinous matter  of copaiva enters the  urine,
and causes the secretion to  stimulate an albuminous  condition, inasmuch as  it  be-
comes precipitable  by nitric acid.   It  is  important to remember this in  a patho-
logical point of view.   The precipitate may be  distinguished from that of albumen
by  the fact of its not subsiding as albumen does after the fluid  has been set  aside
for a few hours.5—Ed.]
1 Obs. Phys. Chym. lib. i. obs. 6; Op. omn. iv. 454, Gen. 1748.    2 Pfaff, Mat. M?d. iv. 12.
3 Berl. Jahrb. xxvii. 2,170.                                « Journ. de Pharm. xvi. 79 and 367.
s llees On the Analysis and Treatment of Urinary Diseases, p. 204. 
Copaiva :—Effects ; Uses.
855
  The influence of copaiva over the mucous membrane lining the urethra, is shown,
even  in  the healthy state,  by the  warmth and  tickling sometimes experienced in
this part, both before and after evacuating the urine, as observed  by Kbnig, a medi-
cal student,1 in his experiments with  this medicine; and also by the marked influ-
ence which the balsam has in mucous discharges from this membrane—an influence
familiar to  every  tyro  in medicine.   Farthermore, it  is  said occasionally to have
produced unpleasant irritation of the testicles, though  I have never observed this.
It also acts  as a  stimulant, but in a less marked manner, to other mucous mem-
branes ; namely, the bronchial and gastro-intestinal membranes.  The greater influ-
ence of copaiva over the urethral  than over other mucous membranes is by some
explained thus : besides the influence which this receives in common with the other
membranes  of  the same class, by the general circulation, it is exposed  to the local
action of copaiva contained  in tbe  urine as this fluid is expelled from the badder.
If this hypothesis were correct, the influence of copaiva over  the mucous lining of
the bladder would be greater  than that  over the urethral membrane.  Not unfre-
quently it gives rise to an eruption, usually of a scarlet colour, referable to either
urticaria or  erythema, though some describe  it as being miliary.  Vesicular erup-
tions are also spoken of, but I have never seen them.   Mr. Judda has depicted two
eruptions caused by the balsam : one he calls small puniceouspatch eruptions; the
other was a papular eruption.   Bheumatism  has  also  been  ascribed to the use of
the balsam.3
  Large doses of  copaiva irritate the gastro-intestinal canal, and occasion  a sensa-
tion of heat at  the pit of the stomach, nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite,  and
purging, with,  not unfrequently, griping  pains of the bowels.  The whole system
becomes powerfully  stimulated; the pulse is fuller and  more  frequent, the skin
hotter, and thirst and headache are  produced.  Occasionally, haematuria and danger-
ous ischuria are  brought on.   "I saw," says Kraus,4 "a very daugerous case, of
thirty-six hours' standing, almost instantaneously relieved by the application of a
warm  poultice (made  of four ounces of  the hyoscyamus  plant) over  the  genital
organs."  The same author also says that the repeated use of  large doses occasions,
" in young marriageable subjects, a measle-like eruption over the  whole body, which
I have many times seen treated by pretended great diagnosticians (Diagnostikem)
as true measles."
  In one case5 pain at the stomach, general uneasiness, and  epileptic convulsions,
followed, and were ascribed to the use of copaiva.   But the correctness of ascribing
the convulsions to the use of the copaiva appears very doubtful.
  Wheu we compare the operation  of copaiva with that of other agents  possessing
powers of a somewhat similar kind, we observe that both in local and constitutional
effects it is more powerful than the balsams properly so called (that is, the native
oleo-resins which contain benzoic  acid),  while  its operation  on the urino-genital
organs is much more marked.   It forms an intermediate substance between the
balsams and the turpentines, being less powerful, but more aromatic, than the lat-
ter; yet, observes  Bibes,8 the  turpentines are less successful in  gonorrhoea.   The
same author considers it  to be less  powerful  than balsam of Mecca, but more so
than balsam of Canada.
  Uses.—The principal  employment of  copaiva is in mucous discharges from the
urino-genital organs, more  especially in  gonorrhoea.   There are two  methods of
treating this disease by copaiva; one is, not to exhibit the balsam until the inflam-
matory symptoms have subsided—the other is to give it at the very outset, in order
to cut short or  suppress the disease.
  The first method is that followed by the best English and German surgeons.  It
consists in employing, during the violence of the inflammatory stage, antiphlogistic

  1 Wibmer, Wirk. d. Arzneim. u. Gifte, i. 484. - Pract. Treat, on Urethritis and Syphilis, Lond. 1836.
  » Brit, and For. Med. Rev. viii. 280; and Lancet, vol. ii. for 1837—S, p. 826.
  4 Heilmittellehre, 621, Gdtt. 1831.           • Brit, and For. Med. Rev. ix. 270.
  • Quoted by Bayle, Bibl. Thirap. i. 363. 
856
VEGETABLES.—Xat. Ord. Leguminosie.
and soothing measures ; and when  the inflammation  has quite or nearly subsided,
or is of a very mild character, giving copaiva with the view of diminishing or stop-
ping the discharge.   This is the plan recommended by Hunter,1 and the same prac-
tice is recommended in the published lectures of  Sir Astley Cooper2 and Mr. Law-
rence.3  It is undoubtedly the safest method of treatment;  for although copaiva
may sometimes, or even frequently, be exhibited  during  the acute or  inflammatory
stage of gonorrhoea, not only with impunity, but even with advantage, there is no
denying the fact that it has, occasionally at least, aggravated the symptoms.   This,
indeed, is  admitted  by Ausiaux,4 one of the principal supporters of the other plan
of treatment.  Many practitioners judge of the propriety of exhibiting the  balsam
by the quality of the discharge only, and refrain from administering  this medicine
until the discbarge  has acquired what is called a  gleety character.  I believe most
prudent surgeons consider  the existence  of much pain or scalding in passing the
water, an  irritable condition of  bladder, or violent chordee,  as  contraindicating the
use of copaiva; while the absence of these symptoms may be regarded  as permitting
or indicating it.
   The second method of treating gonorrhoea by copaiva, consists in exhibiting  this
medicine iu large doses at the  commencement of the disease; that is, in its acute
stage, usually without adopting any preliminary antiphlogistic or soothing measures.
In America, the  practice is not new;  but in Europe, it  has been recommended or
adopted to any extent only since the commencement of the  present century,  and
principally by the recommendations of Ansiaux,  Bibes,  and Delpech.5
   Ansiaux candidly admits that, in some cases, the practice has been injurious; in
one instance  he saw it produce acute pain, irritable bladder, and discharge of blood
by the urethra.   The second of these writers seems to regard  copaiva as a  specific
for gonorrhoea and  all its consequences, including swelled testicle, dysury, ischury,
cystitis, nephritis, &c.!  Delpech speaks of its use in a much more guarded manner;
he em ploys leeches,  and the usual antiphlogistic  measures,  when the inflammatory
symptoms  are very severe; but when  the inflammation is not excessive, he com-
mences at once with the  balsam.   In fact, his practice approximates  very much to
that usually followed in this country and Germany.  The partisans of this second
method of treating  gonorrhoea say, that  both copaiva and cubebs cure more easily
and  promptly, and  with less chance of relapse,'the sooner they are exhibited after
the commencement  of the disease;  in other words,  old claps are  less readily cured
by them than recent ones.
   It has been stated by Delpech and Bicord—and I believe the experience of most
practitioners  bears out their statement—that copaiva is less  successful in the gonor-
rhoea of females than in that of males.   Trousseau and  Pidoux6 have endeavoured
to account for this by saying that, in the female, gonorrhoea is not confined to the
mucous lining of the urethra (on which the influence of copaiva is principally exer-
cised), but extends  to that of the vagina.
   Velpeau7 employs lavements  of the balsam in  gonorrhoea.  By this mode of ex-
hibition, the  nausea and vomiting which  copaiva is apt to occasion, when taken by
the mouth, are entirely obviated.   Velpeau asserts, that by this  mode of adminis-
tration, blennorrhagic discharges of both males and females are  almost  always di-
minished,  and frequently completely stopped.  He  found the  same practice useful
in non-venereal  puriform discharges from  other  mucous membranes.  Indeed, he
asserts that copaiva lavements may in all cases be substituted for  the administration
of this liquid by  the mouth.
   In chronic inflammation of the bladder (commonly termed cystirrhosa or catar-
rhus vesicae), copaiva has at times been found beneficial.8  Delpech relates a case of
acute vesical  catarrh cured by it.   But catarrhus vesicae is for  the most part accom-
1 Treat, on the Vener. Dis.                2 Lancet, iii. 199.        * Lond. Med. Gaz. v. 813.
4 Mem. sur le Traitem. de la Blenorrh.; quoted by Bayle, op. supra cit. 348.
' Bayle, op. supra cit.                                        * Trait' de Th'rap. i. 494.
* Rech. sur I'Emploi du Baume de Copahu.   * La Roche, Amer. Journ. of the Med. Sciences, xiv. 13. 
Copaiva:—Uses; Administration.
857
panied with considerable irritation, which is in general greatly increased by stimu-
lants like copaiva.
   In leucorrhcea, copaiva  has been employed with some advantage.  Favourable
reports of  this practice have been published by Cuttet and Lacombe,1 Armstrong,3
and others.
   In chronic  pulmonary catarrh, its employment has been spoken of favourably.
Armstrong,3 Halle, Bretonneau, and La Boche (quoted by Bayle), have borne testi-
mony to its good effects.   It is only adapted for chronic, or old-standing cases, and
for torpid  habits.  Its stimulant influence is calculated to be  very injurious where
there is inflammation or febrile disorder.    Dr. Fothergill4 has  very properly repro-
bated the  practice of administering it in  pulmonary consumption, as recommended
by Fuller  and others.
   In chronic  inflammation of the mucous membrane of the bowels, especially of the
colon and  rectum, copaiva has been used.5  Dr. Cullen6 spoke  favourably of its use
in hemorrhoids.   " I have learned from an empirical practitioner," he says, " that
it gives relief in hemorrhoidal affections; and I have frequently employed it with
success.  For this purpose, it is to be given in doses of from 20 to  40 drops, properly
mixed with powdered sugar, once or twice a day."
   It was formerly employed as a topical application to wounds and ulcers.
   Administration.—Dose, from gtt. xx to f3j, or even more.  It is sometimes
taken on  sugar, and this is said to be  the  most efficacious method of giving it,  in
affections of the urinary organs; but its  nauseous taste is a great objection  to its
employment in this way.   Some take it swimming on half a wineglassful of water,
to which a few drops of some bitter tincture have been added.    Many persons em-
ploy it in the form of emulsion (made with mucilage, yelk of egg, or alkalies).   If
mucilage be employed,  it should not be very thick, otherwise it will not  mix well.
Spirit of nitric ether is frequently added to cover the unpleasant flavour.   Opium
is sometimes  conjoined to counteract purging, and acids (especially the sulphuric)
to check nausea.   Syrup of copaiva (prepared by rubbing £iv of balsam with 32
grs. of calcined magnesia,  and then adding 64 drops of oil of peppermint and 62
ozs. of simple syrup) has  been recommended.7   Balsam of copaiva  has also been
taken in the form of pills; various powders (starch, gum, rhubarb, magnesia, &c.)
being employed to give it a proper consistence.   If magnesia be employed (as re-
commended by Mialhe), the copaivic acid unites with it, and thereby forms copaivate
of magnesia, which has considerable consistence, and  absorbs  the volatile oil.   In
some cases the balsam acquires, by magnesia, a pilular consistence;  but frequently
it does not become  thicker than honey.    Bordeaux turpentine  also possesses the
property of solidifying  with magnesia. The following is a formula  for copaiva pills:*
Balsam of Copaiva £j ; Calcined Magnesia 3vj or 3vij  (or common Carbonate  of
Magnesia 3j).  Several hours are frequently required  to effect the solidification  of
the  balsam.—Velpeau's copaiva lavement is thus prepared:  Balsam  of Copaiva
3ij; Yelk  of one Egg; Distilled Water fjviij.   Make an emulsion,  and to which
add Tincture of Opium gtt. xx or gtt. xxx.
   The resin of copaiva, which was much  extolled a few years since,9 is the least
active part of the  balsam.

  1. OLEUM COPAIBiE,  E. [U.  S.]; Essential Oil of Copaiva.—(Copaiva £j; Water
Oiss.  Distil,  preserving the water; when most of the water has passed over, heat
it, return it into the still, and resume the distillation ; repeat this process so long  as
a sensible quantity of oil passes over with the water.)—The directions of the Edin-
burgh  College  make the process of obtaining the oil  a more  operose one than it
really is.   Mr. Whipple informs me, that from 249 lbs. of balsam he obtained 128
i Bayle, op. supra cit.                        - Pract. Illustr. of the Scarlet Fever, &c. 1818.
» Op. supra cit.                              * Med. Obs. and Inq. iv. 231.
» La Roche. Lond. Med. Gaz. ii. 31, new series.     • Mat. Med.
' L nd. Med. Gaz. il  864 new series.             • Soubeiran, Traiti de Pharm. i. 523.
» Ihorn, Observ. on the Treat, of Gonorrhoea by a New Prepar.from the Bals. of Copaiba, 1827. 
858
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Leguminosie. ■
lbs. of volatile oil and  120 lbs. of resin.   Ader1 has  published a method  for pro-
curing the oil without distillation ; but the process is more expensive, while the oil
obtained by it is impure, owing to the presence of a  little resinous soap.
   When  oil of  copaiva  has been rectified, and afterwards freed from water by  di-
gesting it on chloride of calcium, it has a specific gravity of 0.878.  It is colour-
less, aud has an acrid taste, and an aromatic, peculiar odour.  Sulphuret of carbon
and  sulphuric ether dissolve it in all proportions; absolute  alcohol  dissolves two-
fifths its  weight of it; ordinary rectified spirit takes up less  than this.  Potassium
may be preserved in it  unchanged, showing the  absence of  oxygen.  It  dissolves
sulphur,  phosphorus, and iodine (by the latter it is coloured), and absorbs  chlorine,
with which it becomes turbid and viscid.   When dropped on iodine, heat  and hy-
driodic acid are  suddenly produced.
   Sulphuric and  nitric  acids convert it into a resinous  substance.   When hydro-
chloric acid gas is passed into this oil, crystals of the hydrochlorate  of the oil of
copaiva (or artificial camphor of tlie oil of  copaiva) are deposited, while a fuming
oily product, saturated  with acid, remains.   Hence, therefore,  it is  probable that
oil of copaiva, like the oil of turpentine, consists of at  least two isomeric oils; one,
which forms the crystallizable  compound with hydrochloric acid; the other, which
does not  form this crystalline matter.
   Oil of copaiva is isomeric with oil of turpentine—that is, it consists of C10H8.
   For medicinal use, I prefer the oil of copaiva to any other  preparation of the bal-
sam.   The  usual  dose is from ten to twenty drops,  which may be  gradually  in-
creased ;   but I have known f£ij  taken  at one dose without any  ill effects.   It may
be taken on a lump of sugar.
   [2. PILULE COPAIB/E, U.  S.; Copaiba Pills.—(Take of Copaiba £ij ;  Magnesia,
recently  prepared, 3J-   Mix them and set aside till it concretes  into a pilular mass,
which is  to be divided into two hundred  pills.)—This preparation affords a conve-
nient mode of giving copaiba.   Dose, two to six.]
   I GELATINE CAPSULES OF COPAIVA; Baccas Copaiferas factitias, Pharm. Castrensis
Buthenica.—(Prepared  by dipping the  bulbous extremity of a metallic rod into a
concentrated solution of gelatine.   When the rod is withdrawn, it is to be rotated
in order  to diffuse the gelatine equally over the bulb.    As soon  as the gelatinous
film has  hardened, it is to be removed from the bulb and placed  on pins furnished
with heads, and fixed on a cork table.   When dried, the capsules are placed in little
cells in the cork table;  the balsam  is introduced into them by  means of  a glass
tube, and they are then closed by dropping some concentrated  solution  of  gelatine
on the orifices.2)—Desfontenelle3 has described another method  of making the cap-
sules.   Gelatine capsules are the invention of a Frenchman of the name of Mothe;
they have been  introduced with the view of avoiding the nauseous odour and taste
of various medicines (as balsam or oil  of  copaiva, oil  of cubebs,  creasote, Dippel's
oil, &c).  When swallowed, the gelatinous capsule dissolves  in  the gastro-intestinal
juices, and the liquid medicine escapes.  The capsules  found in  the shops are olive-
shaped, and contain about ten grains of balsam.   Batier* has proposed to introduce
them into the rectum.   For this purpose they are to be  conveniently greased.
                   OTHER MEDICINAL LEGUMINOS^!.

  1. Spahtium juncevm, or Spanish broom,the a-vafriov of Dioscorides, is occasionally employed
in medicine.  The seeds, in large closes, are emetic and purgative; in small quantities, diuretic.
They have been employed by Dr. Eccles5 in dropsical affections.  Their advantage over other

  i Journ. de Pharm. xv. 95.
  2 For farther details, consult Sir James Wylie's Pharmacopoeia Castrensis Ruthenica, p. 681. PetroDoli
1840.                                                                            '
  2 Journ. de Chim. Mid. vi. 103, 2d ser.; and Lancet, March 7, 1840.    4 Diet. Prat, de Mid. xv. 288.
  » Pearson, Observ. on Broomseed, Lond. 1835. 
Spanish Broom.—Butea Gum.                       859
Fig. 382.
Spartium junceum.
Fig. 383.
 diuretics  is their tonic operation, in consequence of which they may be persisted in for an in-
 definite length of time (Pearson).   They may be taken, in
 the form  of powder, in doses of from grs. x to grs. xv. three
 times a day, in cold ginger-tea or mint-water; but the tincture
 (prepared by digesting ^ij of the bruised seeds  in f^viij of
 proof spirit) is  the best form of  exhibition.   Its dose is f^j
 to fgnj.
   2. The Butea fhondosa is a middling-sized tree, common
 in  Bengal and  in  the mountainous parts of  India.  "From
 natural fissures  and wounds made in  the bark of this tree,
 during  the hot season, there issues a most beautiful red  juice,
 which  soon hardens into a ruby-coloured, brittle, astringent
 gum.1  This is gum butea; it has been recently brought over
 by Mr. Beckett, by whom samples  were given to Dr. Royle.2
 On examination,  I found this gum  to be identical with a sub-
 stance  which I  had previously  met with  in an old drug firm
 of this  city, marked gummi rubrum  astringens,  and samples of
 which  I had sent to Professor Guibourt, who has described it
 under the name of gomme astringente de Gambie,3 believing it
 to be the kind described by Fothergill.4  But 1 have already
 expressed my opinion that it is not Fothergill's gum.  Buiea
 gum  (called Kuenee in Northern  India, and Kinsuka in San-
 scrit) is in small elongated  tears,  which  are blackish exter-
 nally, and  have  pieces  of bark  adhering to them.   Small
 fragments,  examined by transmitted light, are observed  to be  ruby-red.  Its  taste is astrin-
 gent.   It contains from 15 to 25 per cent, of impurities (wood, bark, small pebbles, and sand).
 According to Mr. E. Solly, the gum, when purified by simple
 solution of water, so as to separate  the  impurities, consists of
 tannin  73.26, difficultly soluble extractive  5.05. gum (with gallic
 acid  and other soluble substances) 21.67.   It  is used by the
 natives of North-western India for  precipitating  their indigo,
 and in  tanning.   English  tanners,  however, object to its use
 on account  of  the  colour which  it communicates to  the
 leather.5
   3. Indigo (pigmenlum indicum; ivJikot, Dioscorides;  indicum,
 Pliny)  is a  blue pigment, obtainable from various plants  by
 fermentation.  The  ancients also applied the term ivJotov, or
 indicum, to some other substances.6   The indigo of commerce
 is procured  from the genus Indigofera.   In India, /  tinctoria
 is commonly cultivated for this  purpose.  During the  fermen-
 tation, the indigo is deposited  as a feculent matter.   Lime-
 water promotes its separation.  Blue indigo does not exist in
 the plants previous to fermentation;  it is, therefore, a product,
 not an  educt of them.   Commercial  indigo is  principally
 brought from the East Indies, but a considerable quantity is
 imported  from Guatemala, and  other places.   It usually occurs in cubical cakes of an intense
 blue  colour.  Rubbed with a smooth hard body  (as  the nail), it assumes a coppery or bronze
 hue.  It is insoluble in water, cold alcohol, ether, diluted sul-
 phuric  or hydrochloric acids, weak alkaline  solutions, and
 cold oils (both fixed and volatile).   When heated  to about
 550°  F. it evolves a reddish, violet  vapour (vapour of indigo-
 tin), which condenses in  minute crystals.   This distinguishes
 it from  Prussian  blue.  Deoxidizing agents (as protosulphate
 of iron, sesquisulphuret of arsenic,  the  process  of fermenta-
 tion, &c.)  destroy  its  blue colour  by abstracting  oxygen from
 the indigotin, and converting it  into indigogen, or white indigo ;
 which,  by exposure  to the air, attracts  oxygen, and becomes
 blue.   Chlorine and the hypochlorites destroy  the blue colour
 of indigo.  Rubbed with oil of  vitriol  it  yields a deep blue
 liquid,  commonly termed  sulphate  of indigo,  Saxon  blue,  or
 liquid blue.  Commercial  indigo consists of indigo blue (indi-
gotin), indigo brown, indigo red, and a glutinous  substance.   In-        Indigofera  tinctoria.
Butea frondosa.
Fis. 384.
  1 Roxburgh, Fl. Indica, iii. 215.
  2 Proceedings of the Committee of Commerce and Agriculture of the Royal Asiatic Society, p. 50, Lond.
1836.
  > Hist, drs Drag. 3me edit. ii. 428.                4 Med. Obs. am! Inq. 4th edir. i. 358.
  » Proceedings  of the  Committee of Commerce and Agriculture of the  Royal Jsiatic Society, p. 114
Lond. 1841.                                     ' Beckmann, Hist, of Inven. and Discov. iv. 118. 
860             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Terebinthace^e.
digotin consists, according to Dumas, of CWN'O2.  Indigo  has, of late years, been employed
as a medicine.  Its physiological effects, according to Dr. Roth,1 are as follows: shortly after
taking  it tlie patient experiences a  sense of constriction at the fauces, and the impression of a
metallic taste on the tongue.  These are followed by nausea, and frequently by actual vojniting.
The intensity of these symptoms varies in different cases.  In some, the vomiting is so violent
as to preclude the farther use of the remedy.  The. matter vomited presents no peculiarity ex-
cept in its blue colour.  When the  vomiting has subsided, diarrhoea usually occurs ;  the stools
are more frequent, liquid, and of a bine or blackish colour.   The vomiting and diarrhoea are fre-
quently accompanied bycardialgia and colic. Occasionally these symptoms increase, and the  use
of the remedy is in consequence obliged to be omitted.  Dyspepsia and giddiness sometimes suc-
ceed.   The urine  has  a  brown, dark, violet colour; but Dr. Roth never found the respiratory
matter tinged with  it.   After the  use of indigo for a few weeks, twitchings of the muscles
sometimes were observed, as after the use of strychnia.   It has  been employed principally in
spasmodic affections—viz. epilepsy, convulsions of children, chorea, and hysteria.   In epilepsy,
it  has  been  tried  by Von Stahly, Lenhossek, Grossheim, Ideler, Wolf, Leineweber, Daspp2 and
Noble," with good effect.  Some of the  successful  cases were  of very long  standing.  Roth
says, that at  the commencement of  the treatment the frequency of  the  paroxysms was invari-
ably increased.  Idiopathic epilepsy is said  to have been more benefited by it than the symp-
tomatic epilepsy.  I have tried  it in a considerable number of epileptic cases at the London
Hospital, but without deriving the least benefit from it.  The dose of indigo should be as large
as the stomach can bear. At the beginning it may be a few grains;  afterwards this quantity
should  be increased  to drachms, or even an ounce or more in  the day.  Some of the patients
above referred to took from gss to §j, daily, for three or more months.  The best mode of exhibiting
it is in the form of an electuary, composed of one part of indigo and two parts of syrup, with
a small portion  of water.  The powder is apt to cause spasm of the fauces.  Aromatics, mild
tonics, astringents, and opiates (as  the compound powder of ipecacuanha),  may  be conjoined,
according to  circumstances.



Order  LXVI.  TEREBINTHACE.E,  Jussieu.—THE  TERE-

                               BINTH  TRIBE.

 Burseracejb, Xanthoxylace^, Cannaracejj, Amyridaceje, and Anacarhiaceje, Lindley.

   Characters.—Flowers hermaphrodite, polygamous, or dioecious.   Sepals 3 to 5, more or  less
united  at the base, imbricated in aestivation, very rarely adherent to the ovary.  Petals rarely 0,
generally distinct, as many as, and  alternate with, the sepals, very seldom  united at the base;
imbricated in gestivation.  Stamens, as well as the petals, arising from the lower part of the
calyx, or from the calycine  disk, rarely from the  torus surrounding the ovary; either equal in
number to, and alternate with, the petals, or double (very rarely quadruple) the number of the
petals,  and then placed alternately before and between the petals.  Carpels, in some, numerous,
distinct, with one style, in others many, united by the ovaries ; in either case some of them are
frequently abortive,  and  hence  the carpels in many appear solitary, 1-celled, but the number of
the styles and  stigmas  then usually indicates abortion.   Fruit capsular or drupaceous.  Seeds
few, usually solitary,  commonly exalbuminous.   Embryo straight,  curved, arched,  or folded
back;  cotyledons various; radicle usually superior.  (De Cand.)
   Properties.—The  principles common to all  the Terebinthaceae, are:  1st, Fixed oil in the
seeds ;  2dly, Volatile oil combined with resin in the  turpentine of the pistacias; 3dly, Resin which
flows either  naturally or  from artificial openings in the stems of many of the species; 4thly, Gum
usually combined with resin—as in olibanum, myrrh, tacamahaca, &c.4


  286. PISTACIA TEREBINTHUS, Linn. L.E. D— THE TURPEN-
                               TINE  PISTACIA.

                               Sex. Syst. Dioecia, Pentandria.
                       (Oleo-resina, L.—Liquid resinous exudation, E.)

   History.—This tree is the  TiPfUV9o< or Ttai^vOoc of  the Greeks.  Hippocrates
employed the fruits, the buds,  and the resin, medicinally.
   Botany.   Gen.  Char.—Flowers  dioecious, apetalous.    Males : Racemes ament-

  i Dis. Inaug. de Indico,  Berol. 1834 ; and Brit, and For. Med. Rev. ii. 244.
  2 R->th, op.  cit.; Dierbach, Neuest. Entd. in d.  Mat. Med. i. 222, 1837.    * Lond. Med Gaz xvii  1038
  « Fee, Cows d'Hist. Nat. i. 619.                                                "  VM- 1"°°' 
Mastic Tree :—History; Botany.
861
aceous,  with  1-flowered  scales [bracts].   Calyx 5-cleft.    Stamens  5;  anthers
almost  sessile, 4-cornered.   Females:  Racemes more lax.   Calyx 3- or 4-cleft.
 Ovary  1- to 3-celled.   Stigmas 3, rather thick.  Drupe dry, ovate, with a some-
what osseous nut, usually 1-celled, 1-seeded, sometimes bearing  two abortive cells
at the side.  Seeds  solitary in the cells, affixed to the  side of  the cell, exalbumi-
nous.   Cotyledons thick, fleshy, oily, with a superior  lateral radicle.— Trees with
pinnate leaves. (De  Cand.)
   Sp. Char.—Leaves pinnate, with an odd one; leaflets  about  7, ovate-lanceolate,
rounded at the base, acute, mucronate.  (De Cand.)
   A tree of 30  or 35 feet in height.   Young leaves red-
dish, old ones dark-green.  Racemes compound.  Fruit
almost round, purplish.
   Hab.—Syria and the Greek Archipelago.
   Extraction.—Tournefort1  says, that "the  turpentine
harvest  iu  Scio is made, from  the end of July to Octo-
ber, by cutting  crosswise with a  hatchet  the  trunks  of
the largest  turpentine trees.   The turpentine ruus down
on flat stones placed under the trees, where it  hardens.
The quantity  yielded  by each tree is small, not exceed-
ing eight or ten ounces.
   Properties.—Chian or  Cyprus turpentine (Terebin-
thina Chia seu  Cypria) has  the general  properties  of
the  coniferous turpentines  already described.   Its con-
sistency is  that of honey, but more glutinous.   Its colour   Plstacia  Terebinthus  (the
is greenish-yellow.  It has an agreeable turpentine-like        female  plant).
odour, combined with  the odour of fennel, or,  according
to some, of citron and jasmine.   Its taste is very mild.   By keeping,  it  resinifies,
and acquires a somewhat less agreeable odour.   Genuine Chian turpentine  is scarce;
the coniferous turpentines being usually sold for it.
   Composition.—I am unacquainted with any analysis of it;  but its  composition
is doubtless similar to the coniferous turpentines.
   Physiological Effects, Uses, and Administration.—Exactly similar to
the other coniferous turpentines.


  287.  PISTACIA LENTISCUS, Linn. L. E. D.—THE  MASTIC OR
                            LENTISK TREE.
                            Sex. Syst. Dioecia, Pentandria.
             (Resina ex inciso cortice fusa, L.—Concrete resinous exudation,  E. D.)

   History.—This  tree is the S^ivos of the  Greeks.   Hippocrates employed the
leaves, resin (mastic),  and the oil  prepared from the fruit, in medicine.
   Botany.  Gen. Char.—See Pistacia Terebinthus.
   Sp. Char.—Leaves abruptly pinnate; leaflets about 8, lanceolate.  Petiole winged.
(De Cand.)
   A mere  bush.   Leaves evergreen.  Flowers very small.  In  var. ji angustifolia
the leaflets are somewhat linear;  in var. y Chia they are ovate.
   Hab.—South of Europe, North of Africa, Levant.
   Extraction.—Tournefort9 says, that in Scio  the  extraction  of mastic com-
mences  on  the first of August.  The bark is cut  crosswise with huge knives.  The
mastic exudes and hardens partly  on the stem, partly on  the ground.  The same
incisions furnish mastic towards  the end  of September, but in lesser quantities.
The mastic which concretes  on the stem is called mastic in the tear, while that
which falls to the earth constitutes common mastic.
Fig. 385.
i Voyage into the Levant, ii. 62, Lond. 1741.
» Ibid. 60 
862             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Terebinthace^e.
                              Properties.—Mastic  (mastiche)  occurs in  small
                           spherical,  flattened,  or  irregular, pale-yellow  tears,
                           which are  externally farinaceous, owing to their mu-
                           tual attrition.  Their fracture is vitreous.   They have
                           a mild, agreeable odour, and an aromatic taste.
                              Composition.—Mastic consists of a minute portion
                           of volatile oil, about 90 per cent, of resin soluble in
                           alcohol, and 10 per cent, of  a resinous  substance
                           (masticine) insoluble in alcohol.
                              1. Soluble Ac id Mastic Resin; Resina,; Mastichic Acid.—
                           This resin is soluble in alcohol. It possesses the properties of
                           an acid, and combines with bases  to form four series of salts.
                           Its formula, according to Johnstone, is C40!!31©4.
                             2. Insoluble non-acid Mastic Resin; Resin B; Masticine.
                           —This resin is insoluble in alcohol.   It is white, elastic, tena-
                           cious, soluble  in an alcoholie solution of  resin a, as well as in
                           ether and oil  of turpentine.  Its formula, according  to John-
                           stone, is  C^H^O2.  To this resin mastic owes its toughness.
                              Physiological Effects.—Analogous to common
resin and the turpentines.
  Uses.—Mastic is rarely employed as a medicine.   It  has been used to check
excessive discharges from the mucous membranes, as leucorrhcea, gleet, chronic pul-
monary catarrh, and old diarrhoeas.  Dentists occasionally employ it for filling  up
the cavities of carious teeth.   The Turkish ladies  chew it to sweeten the breath,
and preserve the teeth  and gums.  Dissolved  in alcohol, it forms a very useful
cement and varnish.   A solution of  it in oil  of turpentine is a common  varnish.
   Administration.—It is exhibited as an adjunct only to other medicines.   It is
a constituent of  the dinner pills (composed  of aloes 3vj ;  mastic and red  roses,
aa 3ij  ;  syrup of wormwood q. s.), in which  it serves to divide the particles  of the
aloes.   It  is a constituent of the tinctura ammonias composita, Ph. L.;  formerly
called eau de luce, or spiritus ammonias succinatus, which has been already described.
Pistacia Lentiscus.
a. The male plant.
b. The female plant.
   288. RHUS TOXICODENDRON, Linn.-TRAILING POISON
                           OAK, OR  SUMACH.
                            Sex. Si/st. Pentandria, Trigynia.

   History.—The attention of medical practitioners of this country was first drawn
 to the medicinal properties of this  plant in  1793, by Dr. Alderson, of Hull.1   It
 was first described by Cornutus, in  his Plant. Canad. Hist.  Paris, 1635.2
   Botany.   Gen. Char.— Calyx  small,  5-partite,  persistent.   Petals 5,  ovate,
 spreading.   Stamens 5, all fertile in the male aud hermaphrodite flowers.    Ovary
 1, somewhat globose, 1-celled.   Styles short, 3, or stigmas 3  sessile.  Drupe  almost
 juiceless, 1-celled; nut bony, perhaps by abortion 1-seeded,  and sometimes 2- or 3-
 seeded.   Seed exalbuminous, invested by the funiculus arising from the base of the
 nut; cotyledons foliaceous; radicle  incumbent on the upper edge of the cotyledons.
 (De Cand.)
   Sp.  Char.—Leaves pinnate  with an odd leaflet, trifoliate; leaflets angularly in-
 cised, pubescent. (De Cand.)
   Shrub, 1 to 3 feet high.   Stems many, branching, covered  with a  brown bark.
'Flowers  greenish-white.   Fruit  a  round  drupe, about as  large  as a pea.—Juice
 acrid, milky, becoming black by exposure  to the  air,  and forming an indelible ink
 when applied to cotton or linen.
   Rhus Toxicodendron is considered by  some  botanists as a variety only of Rhus radicans.  I
 have followed Nuttall and De Candolle  in considering it  a distinct species.
i Essay on Rhus Toxicodendron, 3d edit. 1804.
2 Busse, Diss. Inaug. de Rhoe Toxicod. p. 10, Berol. 1811. 
Olibanum Tree :—History ;  Botany.                863
  Hab.—United States of America.
  Composition.—I  am not  acquainted with  any detailed analysis  of this plant.
There  are at  least two substances in it worthy of investigation, viz  : a volatile,
acrid (narcoticoaerid ?) principle, and the substance which blackens by exposure to the
air.    Tannic and gallic acids are said to be constituents of it.
  Physiological Effects,   l. Of the Emanations.—When not exposed to the
Bun's  rays, as when  it grows in  shady places, and during  the night, this  plant
evolves a hydrocarburetted gas, mixed with an acrid  vapour, which acts  most power-
fully on  certain individuals exposed to its influence, and  produces violent itching,
redness,  and erysipelatous swelling of the face, hands, or other parts which have
been subjected to its operation; these effects  are followed by vesications, and des-
quamation of  the cuticle.   In some cases, the swelling of the face has been so great
as to have almost obliterated  the features; but all  persons are not equally suscep-
tible of  this poisonous operation ; so that  some peculiar condition of  the cutaneous
organ  seems necessary for the effect to be  produced.1
  2. Of the Plant,   o.  On Animals.—Orfila  made several  experiments with the
watery extract of the Rhus radicans (whose operation is probably quite similar to
that of R. Toxicodendron), and concludes  that " internally administered, or applied
to the cellular texture, it  produces a local irritation, followed" by an inflammation
more or  less intense,  and that it exerts a stupefying action on the nervous system
after being absorbed."   Lavina gave a few drops of the milky juice of Bhus Toxi-
codendron to  guinea-pigs and  birds, which were at first stupefied by it, but  gradu-
ally recovered without any other noxious effect.
  (3.  On Man.—In the human subject, small doses  of the leaves increase the secre-
tions of  the skin and  kidneys, act slightly  on the bowels, and, in paralyzed persons,
are said  to have  produced a return of sensibility and of mobility, with a feeling of
burning  and pricking, with twitchings, in the  paralyzed  parts.   Large doses occa-
sion pain in the stomach, nausea, vomiting,  giddiness, stupefaction, and  an inflam-
matory swelling of the paralyzed  parts.   These effects show that the poison  oak
possesses the  twofold operation of an acrid and a narcotic.
  Uses.—It  has been employed in old  paralytic cases depending  on a torpid con-
dition of the  nerves.  It has also been  given  in  chronic rheumatism, obstinate
eruptive disorders, in some cases of amaurosis, and  other  nervous affections of the
eyes.
  Administration.—The powder of the leaves is given in doses of  from half a
grain  to  a grain, gradually increased until some obvious effect is produced.
   [It  has been excluded from the Materia Medica in the last editions of the London
and Dublin Pharmacopoeias.—Ed.]

  289, BOSWELLIA  THURIFERA,  Colebrooke.-THE  OLIBANUM
                                    TREE.
                       Boswellia serrata of former Pharmacopoeias.
                           Sex. Syst. Decandria, Monogynia.

  History.—Olibanum was  the frankincense used  by the ancients in their religious
ceremonies.   It  is the Lebonahoi the  Hebrews, the Lubdn of the Arabs; from
either of  which terms  the Greeks, probably, derived their  names for it, Ai^avoc,
At,3avuTi)<3  The earliest notice of it is by Moses.3  Dioscorides4 calls  it Al$aio<.
  Botany.   Gen. Char.—Flowers bisexual.   Calyx  small, 5-toothed, persistent.
Petals 5, obovate-oblong, very patent, acute at  the base, inserted under the margin
of the  disk ; aestivation very slightly imbricative.    Stamens 10, inserted under the
disk, alternately shorter; filaments subulate, persistent; anthers caducous.  Torus
a cup-shaped  disk, fleshy, larger than the calyx, crenulated on the margin.  Ovary

     i  Orfila, Toxicol. Gin.                        s Colebrooke, Asiat. Research, ix. 377.
     '  Exodus, xxx. 34.                            * Lib. i. cap. 81. 
864            VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Terebinth^ce^.

oblong, sessile; style 1, the length of the stamens, caducous; stigma capitate, 3-lobed.
Fruit  capsular, 3-angled, 3-celled,  3-valved, septicidal; valves hard.   Seeds  soli-
tary in each cell, surrounded by a broad membranaceous wing.  Cotyledons intricately
folded,  multifid.— Trees producing  balsam and  re^in.   Leaves deciduous, alternate
towards the top of the  branches, unequally pinnated;  leaflets opposite, serrated.
Stipules 0.   Racemes  terminal or axillary.    Flowers on  short pedicels, white
(Wight and Arnott).
  Sp. Char.—Leaflets oblong, obtuse, serrated, pubescent. Racemes axillary, single,
shorter than the leaves (Wight and Arnott).
  Hab.—Mountainous parts of Coromandel.
  Description.— Olibanum, Indian  Olibanum,  or  Olibanum of the Boswellia
serrata (gummi-resina  Olibanum; gummi Olibanum; Olibanum indicum seu ost-
indicum), is imported from India in chests.   It consists of round, oblong, or ovate
pale-yellowish, semi-opake, fragile tears, having a balsamic resinous odour.
  Mr. Johnstone states that it is a mixture  of at least two gum-resins :—
  1. One variety of gum-resin consists of opake,  dull, hard, and  brittle  pieces, which, when
introduced into alcohol, become almost  immediately white and opake, from a white powdery
coating or crust left on their surface as the soluble portion is taken up.  This variety constitutes
the  larger portion of  the olibanum of commerce,  and is the more  fragrant when burned.  It
contains an acid resin and a volatile oil.
  2. The second variety is in clearer,  yellower, less brittle and opake pieces, generally in  long
tears (stalactitic'?), as they have flowed from the  tree. When introduced into alcohol, they be-
come clear and transparent.   They contain less gum.  Their resin resembles colophony.
  On  the above statement I may remark, that all  the tears  of  olibanum which I
have  tried  became opake when immersed in alcohol.
  The substance called on the continent African or Arabian Olibanum (Olibanum arabicum)
is rarely met with in this country.  It consists of smaller tears than those of the Indian variety.
They are yellowish or reddish, and intermixed with crystals  of carbonate of lime.  Some  have
supposed it to be the produce of Juniperus—some of an Amyris—others of Boswellia glabra, which
Roxburgh says yields a substance used as an incense and a pitch in India.
  Composition.—Olibanum  (Indian ?)  was analyzed by  Braconnot,1 who found
the constituents to be as follows : volatile oil 8, resin 56, gum 30, matter like gum,
insoluble in water and alcohol, 5.2; loss 0.8.
  1. Volatile Oil.—By distillation with water, olibanum yielded Stenhouse,2 colourless  vola-
tile  oil, similar to oil of turpentine, but smelling more agreeably. Its formula is C35!!2^, which
is identical with that for oil of spearmint.
  2. Resin.—According to Johnston,3 olibanum contains two kinds of resin.
  a. Acid Resin. —This is found in the rounded, opake,dull, hard, and more brittle pieces, which
become covered with a white crust.  Its formula is C40H32O6.
  /?. Resin resembling Colophony.—This is found in the clearer, yellower, less brittle and opake
long tears (stalactitic?). Its formula is C40H22O4.
  Physiological Effects.—Olibanum is regarded  as a stimulant of the same
kind as the resins or oleo-resins.
  Uses.—It is rarely employed internally.   Formerly it was used to restrain ex-
cessive  discharges from the mucous  membranes.   Thus it was  given  in  chronic
diarrhoea, old catarrhs, but more especially  in leucorrhcea and gleet.   It was  also
administered in affections of the chest; as hemoptysis.  It has been used as an in-
gredient of stimulating plasters.   As a fumigating agent it is employed to  over-
power unpleasant odours, and  to destroy noxious vapours.
  Administration.—Dose, Jss to 5j, formed into an emulsion by the aid of the
yelk of an  egg.
1 Ann. de Chim. lxviii. 60.
• Phil. Trans, for 1839, p. 304-5.
2 Pharm. Central-Blatt fur 1840, p. 828. 
Myrrh Tree:—History; Botany.
865
    290. BALSAMODENDRON MYRRHA, Nees, L. E. D.-THE
                             MYRRH TREE.
                           Sex. Syst. Octandria, Monogynia.
            (Gummi-resina e cortice exudata, L.—Gummy-resinous exudation, E. D.)
                                  [.Myrrha, U. S.]

  History.—The earliest notice of myrrh occurs in the Old Testament,1 from
which it appears that this gum-resin was an object of trade with the Eastern nations
more than 3,500 years ago.  In  the  Hebrew language it is termed Mur, in allu-
sion to its  bitterness.   The  Greeks,  who were well  acquainted with it,  called it
X/ivpva; or, in the iEolic dialect, Mifca.  Hippocrates2 employed it in medicine in
several  diseases; and  Dioscorides8 describes several kinds of it, the most esteemed
being the Troglodytica.  Some of the ancient poets tell us  that  the name of this
gum resin was derived from Myrrha, the daughter of Cinyras, King of Cyprus, who
fell in love with her own father, and after having had criminal intercourse with him,
fled to Arabia, where she was changed into a tree which still bears her name.
   Notwithstanding the early  knowledge of, and acquaintance with, the  uses of
myrrh,  we had no accurate  account of the tree which yields it until  the return of
Ehrenberg from  his travels with Hemprich, during 1820—25, in various  parts of
Africa and  Asia.   He  brought with  him a  specimen of the tree, which has been
described and figured  by Nees von Eseubeck* under the name of Balsamodendron
Myrrha.  The first notice  of the discovery  of these travellers  which  I have met
with, is in Alex. Humboldt's  "Bericht iiber die nalurhistorischen Reisen der Herren
Ehrenberg und Hemprich" &c. published at Berlin in 1826.
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—Flowers irregular.   Calyx 4-toothed, persistent.  Petals
4, linear-oblong; aestivation induplicate-valvate.   Stamens 8, inserted  under  the
annular  disk; elevated warts between  the  stamens.   Ovary 1.   Style 1, short,
obtuse.    Berry  or drupe ovate, acute, with four sutures, 1- to 2-celled; cells 1-
seeded.—Oriental trees giving out balsam.   Leaves pinnated;  leaflets 3 to 5, ses-
sile, without dots. (De Cand.)
   Sp. Char.—Stem shrubby, arborescent; branches squarrose, spinescent.   Leaves
ternate; leaflets obovate, obtuse, obtusely tooth-letted at the apex, the lateral smooth.
Fruit acuminate. (Nees.)
   Bark pale, ash-gray, approaching white.  Wood yellowish-
white;  both it and the bark have a peculiar  odour.  Leaves          Fig. 3S7.
on short stalks.   Flowers unknown.   Fruit ovate, smooth,
brown,  somewhat larger than a  pea; surrounded  at the
base by a four-toothed  calyx, and supported-on a  very short
stalk.
   Hab.—Gison,  on the borders of Arabia Felix.
  This specit'S  is considered by  Lindley5  to be identical with the
Amyris Kataf of Forskiil,6 the Balsamodendron Kataf, Nees;  Protium
Kataf, Lindley.  But the identity  of the two plants is by no means
satisfactorily  demonstrated.  A. Kataf, is distinguished, 1st, by the
absence of thorns; 2dly, by the leaves being four times larger, and
the lateral leaflets agreeing both in form and size with the terminal
ones;  3dly, the fruit (according to Forskiil) is round, with a de-
pressed umbilicus at the point.
  Exudation of Myrrh.—Myrrh,  according  to  Ehren-
berg, exudes,  like cherry-tree  gum, from the bark of the
tree.  It  is  at first soft, oily, and of a pale yellow-colour;    Balsamodendron Myrrha.
but, by  drying, becomes darker and redder.                 a A leaf.     6. Tne fruit
  Description.—Myrrh (gummi-resina myrrha ; gummi-
myrrha) is  imported from  the East Indies  in chests, each containing from 1 to 2

  1 Gtn xxxvii.25.                             5 See Dierbach, Arzneim. des Hippok. p. -J^l.
  J Lib. i cap. 77.                              * Beschr. Offic  Pftanz.
  1 Fl. Med. 170.                               • Fl. Egypt. Arab. 60.
       vol. n.—55
 
866             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Terebinthace^e.
 hundred weight.   Formerly the  finest  kind was  brought from  Turkey  (Turkey
 myrrh), and an inferior one from the East Indies (East India myrrh);  but at the
 present time nearly the whole is brought from India.  In 1839, duty ((Ss. per cwt.)
 was paid on 216 cwt.   Sometimes the  same chest contains myrrh of all qualities,
 which is then termed myrrh in sorts (myrrha naturalis seu myrrha in sortis); but
 commonly it is brought over more or less sorted.
   Myrrh  is only partially soluble in water, alcohol, or  ether;  the first  of those
 liquids takes up the gum principally, the two latter the resin and oil.  Water takes
 up more of the myrrh than alcohol does.   Alkaline solutions are  good solvents for
 myrrh.  A few drops of nitric acid dropped on a small fragment of myrrh, or on
 a concentrated tincture, develop a red colour.
   1. Myrrh of first quality;  Turkey myrrh (Myrrha turcica; 31.  vera seu rubra
 vel pinguis).—It occurs in  pieces of irregular forms, and of variable sizes, consist-
 ing  of tears (either distinct or agglomerated), usually covered with a fine powder
 or dust.  In a chest of this kind a few pieces of fine quality may sometimes be met
 with, nearly as large as a man's fist.  The colour varies, being pale  reddish-yellow,
 red, or reddish-brown.    The pieces are fragile, semi-transparent, with a dull, in part
 splintery,  fatty kind of fracture.   In  consequence of  imperfect desiccation, the
 largest and finest pieces  often  present internally, opake, whitish or yellow  striae, or
 veins which have been  compared by Dioscorides,  Pliny, and many others, to the
 white marks on the nails.   The odour of myrrh is aromatic and balsamic,  peculiar,
 but  to most persons pleasant; the taste is bitter, acrid, and aromatic.  The purest,
 palest, and most odorous pieces are sold  as picked myrrh (myrrha electa seu selecta).
   2. Myrrh of second  quality;  Myrrh in distinct small tears or grains.—Imported
 from the East Indies in chests.   It consists of distinct  tears or grains, which are
 rounded or irregular, and vary in  size from  that of a pin's head to  a pepper-corn,
 none of them in my specimens being so large as a  small pea.   They are somewhat
 shiny, more or less transparent,  and vary in colour from  pale  or  whitish-yellow to
 reddish-brown.   It consists of tears of myrrh intermixed with fragments of gum-
 Arabic, and of some resin very like mastic, or juniper.   Many druggists in this
 country regard it as merely the siftings  of the finest kind; but I cannot agree with
 them in this opinion.
   3. Myrrh of third quality; East  India Myrrh [Myrrha indica seu ostindica).—
 Formerly this was  the  only kind imported  from  the East Indies.   It occurs in
 pieces, which are darker coloured than  those of the so-called  Turkey myrrh, and
 whose average size  does not exceed that of a walnut.  It is often mixed with other
 substances, particularly  with  Indian Bdellium (the produce of  Amyris  Commi-
phora), and with a substance  of similar appearance to dark  red-coloured Senegal
 gum (Opocalpasumf).
   Composition.—Myrrh  was analyzed, in  1816, by Pelletier/  and in  1819 by
 Braconnot3 and by  Brandes.3
                                                Brandes.   Braconnot. Pelletier.
         Volatile oil.......................   2.60  . . . .  2 5)
         »•"{££■:::::::.■::::::::::::::  IS}----  ^■■■-  *
         °™ i—r"e?).::::::::::::::  IS  ::::  SS}- ■ ■ •  «
         Salts (benzoates, malates, phosphates, sulphates,)   . „„
           and acetates of potash and lime).........\       ............
         Impurities........................   1.60............
         Loss...........................   2.94  ....  16.5 . . . .  . '.
                                                100.00       100.0       100

   1. Volatile Oil.—Colourless, though by  age  it becomes yellowish.   It  is a  thin  fluid,
 heavier than water, having  the odour and taste of myrrh, and being soluble in alcohol, ether,
 and  the fixed oils.  It partially evaporates in the air, the residue being a glutinous varnish-like
1 Ann. de Chim. lxxx. 45.                             i ibid, lxvii.5'2.
3 Berl. Jahrb. xxii. 275. 
                Myrrh Tree:—Physiological Effects; Uses.            867

substance.   It readily distils over  with water, but not with spirit.  With sulphuric, nitric, and
hydrochloric acids, it forms red solutions.
  2. Rksin.—According to Brandes, this is of two kinds, both of which are soluble in alcohol.
  a. Soft resin.—Odorous, soft at ordinary temperatures, and insoluble in ether.   Unverdorben
regards it as a mixture of hard resin and volatile oil.
  B. Hard resin (Myrrhic acid?).—Inodorous, hard, insoluble in ether, soluble in caustic alkalies,
forming resinates  (myrrhates?).  The resinate of baryta is soluble in water, but not in alcohol.
  3. Gum—Is also of two kinds; a.  Soluble in water; the solution forming precipitates with
alcohol and the salts of lead, silver, the protosalts of tin, and of mercury.  /■?.  Insoluble in water.
   Physiological Effects.—In small or moderate doses, myrrh promotes the
appetite, creates an agreeable warmth in  the stomach, and occasions slight consti-
pation.  Its continued employment  in these quantities assists the assimilative func-
tions, increases  the muscular activity, gives greater firmness to the solids, and di-
minishes excessive secretion from the mucous membranes.
   In large, doses (as from half a  drachm to a drachm) it  excites a disagreeable sen-
sation of  heat  in the stomach, and  in irritable conditions  of this viscus may even
bring on a slight inflammatory state; it accelerates the frequency and increases the
fulness of the  pulse,  gives rise to  a febrile condition of the  body, and creates a
feeling of  warmth  in the mucous membrane (especially in the membrane lining the
air-passages).   It  has been supposed  to have a specific stimulant operation on the
uterus, and has, in consequence, been termed emmenagogue; but it does not appear
to have any title to this appellation.
   The local operation of myrrh is that of  a mild  astringent and a moderate stimu-
lant.  Kraus1 says it is very similar  to that  of cinchona.   In  its  remote effects,
myrrh partakes of both the  tonic and  stimulant characters, and hence  some  have
denominated it a tonico-stimulant;  and as its stimulant powers  are analogous  to
those of the balsams, it has also been called a tonico-balsamic.
   Myrrh  differs from  the fetid gum-resins   (assafcetida, galbanum, &c.)  in not  pos-
sessing that influence  over the nervous system which has  led to the use of the latter
in various  spasmodic diseases,  and to their  denomination of  antispasmodics.   From
the balsamic substances it is distinguished  by its tonic influence.   It has some re-
lation to cascarilla, but is more stimulant.
   Uses.—The  employment of  myrrh is   indicated in  diseases  characterized by
feebleness of the vascular action, by weakness of  the muscular  fibre,  and by ex-
cessive secretion from the mucous membrane.  Belaxed and leucophlegmatic con-
stitutions  best admit of its use.  It is frequently associated with tonics, especially
the chalybeates, or with aloes.   Indeed, it  is rarely used alone.  It  is contraindi-
cated in  inflammatory diseases, and  in  plethoric  individuals.   It is used in the
following cases:—
   1.  In disordered conditions  of the  digestive organs arising from or connected with
an atonic  condition of the alimentary canal, as  in some forms of dyspepsia,  apepsia,
flatulence, &c.
   2.  In disordered states of the menstrual functions characterized by a  lax and de-
bilitated state of the system, as iu many cases of  amenorrhcea and chlorosis.
   3.  In excessive secretion from the mucous membranes unconnected with inflamma-
tory symptoms,  and  accompanied by marks  of debility.  In chronic  pulmonary
catarrh, for example, it is  sometimes admissible and useful.  It has also been used
to check  puriform expectoration in phthisis  pulmonalis, though  it is  now rarely
employed  for this  purpose, as in most  cases it proves either useless or injurious.
In mucous discharges from the urino-genital organs, as well as from the alimentary
canal, it has also been administered.
   4. As an external  application, myrrh is employed  for various  purposes.  Thus
it is used as a dtntifrice, either alone or mixed  with other substances; and in  caries
of the teeth, and in a spongy or ulcerated condition  of the  gums, is very serviceable.
As a gargle in  ulcerations of  the  throat, tincture of myrrh, diluted with water,  is
1 Heilmittellehre. 
868             VEGETABLES.—Nat.  Ord. Terebinthaceje.

frequently employed.  In foul ulcers, myrrh has been used to  destroy unpleasant
odour, to promote granulations, and to improve the  quality and diminish the  quan-
tity of the secreted matters ; for these purposes, it has been applied  in a pulverulent
form, as an ointment, or as a wash.
   Administration.—Dose, gr. x to ^ss.    It is given iu the form of powder, pill,
or emulsion.   The  aqueous  infusion and  extract, which have been  recommended
for their mildness, are seldom employed, and very rightly so, as I conceive. Myrrh
is a constituent of several pharmacopceial preparations ; as Mistura  fern composita,
Pilulse ferri compositse,  Pilulse  aloe* cum  myrrha, Decoctum  aloes compositum,
Pilulse rhei composites, and Pilules galbani composites (see these preparations).
   TINCTURA  MYRRHS, L.  E. D. [U.  S.].—(Myrrh,  powdered,  3iij; Bectified Spirit
Oij.  Macerate for seven days, then press out and strain, L.—The  Edinburgh Col-
lege orders three ounces  and a half  of  Myrrh,  in  moderately fine powder, to the
same quantity of Spirit.   " Pack  the myrrh very gently, without any spirit, in a
percolator; then pour on  the spirit;  and when thirty-three fluidounces have passed
through, agitate well, to  dissolve the oleo-resinous  matter which  first  passes, and
which lies at the bottom.   This tincture is much less conveniently obtained by the
process of digestion for seven days," E.)—The  Dublin College directs four ounces
of Myrrh  in  coarse  powder to two pints of Spirit.   The  maceration to continue for
fourteen days, and the liquid to be then strained..   [The U.  S. Pharm. directs four
ounces of Myrrh to three pints of Alcohol.]—Tonic and stimulant.   Seldom em-
ployed internally, and then usually  as an  adjunct.   Dose, 3ss to 3J.  It is applied
as a stimulant  to foul and indolent  ulcers.   Diluted with water (which renders it
slightly milky by the separation of the resin, without any precipitate being  formed),
it is used  as a wash for the  mouth in ulceration and sponginess of the gums, and
as a gargle in affections of the throat.
                 OTHER MEDICINAL  TEREBINTHACE^I.

  1.  Elemi.—The history and origin of Elemi are involved in great obscurity.  It appears that
the resinous products of various  terebinthaceous trees have been described under this name.
The  Edinburgh  College, correctly, as I conceive, declare  elemi to be the " concrete resinous exu-
dation from one or more unascertained plants."1  The London and Dublin Colleges formerly called
it the resin of Amyris ekmifera of Linnaeus.1  But this distinguished  botanist has confounded,
under one name, two distinct plants; viz. Idea  Idcariba, De Candolle (Iricariba,  Pison), a Bra-
zilian tree (yielding,  according to Pison, a resin similar to the so-called gum elemi), and Amyris
Plumieri, De Candolle, a native of the Antilles, which  also yields a resin.  The London College,
in their new Pharmacopoeia, no longer speak of elemi  as the product of an Amyris, but describe
it as  a concrete turpentine  derived  from an  unknown plant.   To assist  in determining the
origin of elemi, I have taken much pains to ascertain its commercial  route ; and I find that all
the importations of it, which I  can trace, were  from  Amsterdam or  Hamburgh. Pomet also
states, that true elemi was brought from Holland.; whence I conclude  that it is the produce of a
Dutch settlement.  But one  of the importers expressed to me his belief (in which I do not co-
incide), that the elemi brought from Holland was spurious, being  made of common frankin-
cense (p. 290).   It would appear that formerly it came from Ethiopia  by  way of the Levant.
It is  possible  that it may be the produce of the  Canarium Zephyrinum sive sylvestre primum  Ca-
nari  Barat of Rumphius,2 which he says yields a resin so like elemi that it  may be taken for it,
and  he puts a query, whether this tree may not  be the source of  it.   I have received from Dr.
Christison a specimen of the resin of Canarium balsamiferum of Ceylon, which in  odour and
general  appearance  strongly resembles elemi.   I have  met with  three  kinds  of elemi:  1st.
Elemi in flag leaves ; Resine elemi en pains, Guibourt;  Resina Elemi  orientalis, Martius.  This  is
imported from  Holland  in  triangular masses,  weighing from  one  to  two pounds  each, en-
veloped in a palm-leaf.  It agrees  in most of its properties with the next variety.   Martius
ascribes it  to Amyris zeylanica (Balsamodendron zcylanicum, Kunth).  But if this  were  cor-
rect, it would doubtless  be imported direct  from Ceylon  to England, which  it is  not.   2d.
Elemi in the lump.   This differs  from the following kind only in its much  paler yellow colour.
3d.  Brazilian Elemi; Resine elemi du Bresil, Guibourt. This variety I received from  Prof.
Oiiibnnrt.   If it be really brought Irom the  Brazils, it is doubtless obtained  from Lira Idcariba
1 See his Mat. Med.
2 Herb. Amb. lib. iii. cap. ii. p. 153. 
Balm of Gilead.—Bdellium.
869
(De Candolle) by incisions into the stem, and is gathered twenty-four hours afterwards.  " It
is imported in cases containing two or three hundred pounds each.  It is soft and unctuous, but
becomes hard and brittle by cold and age.   It is semi-transparent, of a yellowish  white, mixed
with greenish points; its odour is strong, agreeable, analogous to that of fennel, and owing to a
volatile oil, which may be obtained from it by distillation.   As  it  owes its properties to this
oil, it should  be selected recent, not too dry, and strongly  odorous" (Guibourt).  It is soluble in
alcohol, with  the exception of its impurities, and  a white, opaque, insipid, inodorous, crystal-
lizable substance, called elemine, which is soluble in boiling alcohol.   Martius describes African
Elemi (the genuine elemi of the ancients) as being in small  pieces like scammony, and having
an acrid taste.  Bonastre analyzed elemi, and found its constituents to be, volatile oil  12.5, resin
soluble in both hot and cold alcohol GO.O, resin  soluble in hot  but not  in cold alcohol (elemine) 24.0,
bitter extractive 2.0, impurities  1.5.  The resin a (readily  soluble  in cold alcohol) consists, ac-
cording to Johnston, of C^H^O4; while the resin 0 (sparingly soluble in cold  alcohol} is com-
posed of C«>H330.
   The physiological effects of elemi are similar to those of the terebinthinates.   It is, however,
never employed internally. Its principal or sole use is as  a constituent of the Unguentum Elemi,
^- D., which is composed, according to  the London College, of Elemi Jiij ; Common Turpentine
(^iiss; Suet §vj; Olive Oil gss.  The Elemi and Suet are melted together and then removed
from the fire, and the turpentine  and oil  immediately added; the mixture is  then  expressed
through linen.  The  Dublin College employs |iv of Elemi; and  Ibj of White Wax Ointment.—
Elemi ointment is stimulative  and digestive.   It is applied as a stimulant to old  and indolent
ulcers, and to promote the discharge from  issues and setons.  It is an imitation of the ointment
recommended by Arczeus, in 1574.'
   2. Balm  of  Gilead (Balsamum  gileadense;  B. de Mecca;  Opobal-
samum;  Balm of the Old Testament;  HiXra/xov of Theophrastus and      Fig.  388.
Dioscorides) is procured  from Balsamodendron gileadense, a middling-
sized tree growing in Arabia.   Mr.  Bruce says it is obtained by cutting
the  bark of the  tree with an  axe, and receiving the juice  in  a  small
earthen bottle.   The  quantity obtained in this  way is, however, very
small; and none of it, it is said, reaches this  country, that  which  oc-
casionally  comes here  being obtained  by boiling the  branches and
leaves in water. It is a  whitish, turbid, thick, very  odorous liquid,
which resinifies, and  becomes  yellow by keeping.  Trommsdorff2 ana-
lyzed it, and  found it to consist of volatile oil 30.0, soft resin  insoluble in
alcohol 4.0, hard resin  soluble in alcohol 64.0, extractive 0.4,  loss 1.6.  Bo-
nastre8 also analyzed it.   Its physiological effects are  believed to  be
similar  to balsam of copaiva  and  the  liquid turpentines.   The  most
wonderful properties were formerly ascribed to  it. It is rarely or never
employed by Europeans, but is adapted to  the same cases as the tere-     Balsamodendron
binthinates.   The Asiatics use it for its odoriferous as well  as it3 me-       gileadense.
dicinal qualities.
   3. The term Bdellium  is applied to two gummy-resinous substances. One of these is Indian
Bdellium or false myrrh  (the Bdellium of  Scripture), which  is  obtained from  Amyris (Balsamo-
dendron?) Commiphora.  Dr. Roxburgh4 says that the trunk of this tree is covered  with a  light-
colourad pellicle, as in the common birch, which peels off from time to time, exposing to  view
a smooth green coat, which in  succession supplies other similar exfoliations.   This tree diffuses
a grateful fragrance, like that of the finest rnyrrh, to a considerable distance around. Dr. Royle5
was informed  that this species yielded bdellium; and in  confirmation of his statement I may
add, that many of the pieces of this bdellium in  my museum have a yellow pellicle adhering
to them precisely like that  procured from the common birch, and  some of the  pieces are  per-
forated  by spiny branches—another  character serving to recognize the origin of this bdellium.
Indian bdellium has considerable resemblance  to  myrrh.  Many of the  pieces have hairs (of
the goat?) adhering  to them.   The  other  kind  of bdellium  is called African Bdellium, and  is
obtained from Heudolatia, africana*  It is a native of Senegal, and  is called by the  natives, who
make toothpicks of its  spines,  Niottout.  It consists of rounded or oval tears, from one to two
inches in diameter, of a dull and waxy fracture.  By age they become opake, and covered ex-
ternally by a white or yellowish dust.   It  has  a feeble but  peculiar  odour, and a bitter  taste.
Pelletier7 found it to consist of resin 59.0, soluble gum 9.2, bassorin 30.6, volatile oil and loss 1.2.
Resin of bdellium [African bdellium?] consists, according  to Johnston, of  C^HS'O5.

  1 De recta curand. vulner. rationt, Amst. 165S,        - Thomson, Org. Chem. 5'23.
  * Journ. de Pharm. xviii. 95.                        4 Fl. Ind. ii. "245.
  » Illustr. 176.                                     *flichard, nnd Guillemin, Fl. dt Sinigambie.
  ' Ann. de Chim. lxxx. 39i
 
870
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Rhamnace^e.
Order LXVII.  RIIAMNACE.E, Lindley.-
                         THORN  TRIBE.

                  Rhamni, Jussieu.—Rhamne.v., De Candolle.
-THE  BUCK-
  Charactebs.—Tube of the calyx adherent to the ovary, lobes valvate in aestivation, definite
in number, 4 or 5.   Petals as many as (rarely none), and alternate with the lobes of the calyx;
often squamiform with a concave limb.  Stamens as many as the petals, and opposite to thern ;
anthers 2-celled.  Ovary either adnate to the whole of  the calyx, or adherent at the lower part
or  middle, 2 or  4-celled : cells with  1 ovule each.  Style 1  ; stigmas 2 to 4.   Pericarp usually
indehiscent, baccate, drupaceous, or  samaroideous. rarely capsular.   Seeds erect, destitute of
aril ; albumen  none, or u.-ually fleshy; embryo straight  in the axis of the seed, with an inferior
radicle, and  somewhat  foliaceous cotyledons.—Shrubs or trees.  Leaves simple,  alternate, rarely
opposite, often with stipules.   Flowers small, often greenish.  (De  C;ind.)
  Properties.—Require farther examination.  The fruit of Rhamnus contains purgative and
colouring  matters;  that of Zizyphus is acidulous, saccharine, and alimentary.
      291. RHAMNUS CATHARTICUS, Linn. L. ^-COMMON
                               BUCKTHORN.
                            Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Monogynia.
                             (Fructus succus, L.—Fruit, E.)

   History.—According to Dr.  Sibthorp,1  the f>o.p.voc of Dioscorides  is  Lycium
europesum.  The earliest notice of Bhamnus catharticus is in Tragus.3
   Botany.   Gen. Char.— Calyx 4- to 5-cleft,  often  circumscissile in  the middle
after flowering;  the  base  persistent under,  and adherent with, the fruit.   Petals
alternate with the lobes of the  calyx,  or none.   Stamens  inserted opposite  the
petals.   Style 2- to 4-cleft.  Fruit almost juiceless, or baccate, 2-  to 4-celled ; cells
in the juiceless fruit, separable, 1-seeded  (rarely 2-seeded), dehiscing inwards by a
longitudinal chink.    Seeds oblong, marked  at  the external side by a deep groove,
which is broader towards the base. (De Cand.)
   Sp. Char.—Erect.   Leaves  ovate, toothed.   Flowers fascicled,  polygamous-dioe
cious.  Berries 4-seeded, somewhat globose.  (De Cand.)
   A spreading shrub with terminal xpines.   Leaves with 4 or 6 strong lateral nerves
paralleLwith  the margin or rib.   Stipules linear.   Flowers yellowish-green;  the
males with broader petals, 4 stamens  and  1 short style, without either ovary or
stigma; the females smaller, with 4 stigmas  projecting beyond the calyx, and rudi-
mentary stamens.   Fruit black, 4-celled.
   Hab.—Indigenous  ; in  hedges, groves, and  thickets.—Flowers in  May.  The
fruit  is ripe in September.
   Composition.—The expressed juice of buckthorn  berries  has been examined,
chemically, by Vogel,3 and by Hubert.4
    VogeVs Analysis.
Peculiar colouring matter.
Acetic acid.
Mucilage.
Sugar.
Nitrogenous matter.

   Buckthorn Juice.
   Hubert's Analysis.
Green colouring matter.
Acetic and malic acids.
Brown gummy matter.
Sugar.
Bitter substance 'cathartine ?).

   Buckthorn Juice.
  1. Purgative principle.—The nature of the purgative principle of buckthorn requires far-
ther elucidation.  Hubert asserts that it possesses the properties of cathartine before described
(see Senna) ;  but  his experiments are not conclusive.   As from 25 to 30 berries are sufficient
to purge, while an ounce of the juice is required to produce the same effect, it is probable that
the greater part of the purgative principle resides  in  the marc left after the expression of the
1 Prodr. Fl. Grcrece, i. 155.                       2 See Sprengel, Hist. Rei Herb. ii. Praif. xi.
» Bull, de Pharm. iv. 64.                         4 Journ. de Chim. Mid. vi. 193. 
                Nat. Ord. SiMARUBACEiE.—The Quassia Tribe.            871

juice.   [Winckler1 has examined the substance called rhamicine, which Fleury obtained from
the unripe berries.  He considers that as the berries ripen, this principle becomes changed into
cathartine and grape sugar.—Ed ]
  2. Colouring  matter.—It is soluble in water, less so in alcohol, and insoluble in ether and
oils.  Acids redden it; whereas alkalies render it green.  Vogel thinks its proper colour is
green, and that it only becomes purple by the action of the acetic acid, which is developed in
the ripe fruit.   When the juice  is evaporated  to dryness  with lime, it constitutes sap-green, or
the vert de vessie of the French.
  3. Mucilage.—The mucilage of buckthorn is of a peculiar nature.  It disappears by ferment-
ation.  It is abundant in the recent juice, to which it gives  consistence.
   Physiological  Effects.—The berries, as well as their  expressed juice, are
powerful hydragogue cathartics ; usually griping and causing great thirst, and some-
times  operating with considerable violence.   " Syrup of buckthorn," says  Syden-
ham,3 " purges  in a manner only water,  and evacuates a great quantity of it, and
does not disturb the blood, nor render the urine  high-coloured, as other purgatives
usually do; and this syrup has but one ill property, viz. : that  whilst it is working,
it makes  the sick very thirsty.   But  if you  give the  greatest dose of it to those
that are difficultly purged, it will not give many stools, nor bring  away so  much
water  from them  as it  ought."
   Uses.—Buckthorn  berries were formerly employed  as cathartics, but their vio-
lent operation, and  the sickness, griping, and thirst  occasioned by them, have led to
their disuse.  " They be not meete to be ministered," says Dodoens,3 " but to young
and lustie people of the countrie, which  doe set more store of  their money than
their lives."  The syrup is the only preparation now in use.
   Administration.—Dose  of the recent berries  9j; of the dried ones 3j > °f
the expressed juice f^ss to fjj.
   SYRUPUS  RHAMM, L. E.;   Syrup  of Buckthorn.—(Fresh  Juice of  Buckthorn
Berries Oiv;  Ginger, sliced,  Allspice, bruised, of each 5?j ; Sugar rbvj;  Rectified
Spirit ^vj.   Set by the juice for  three days, that the dregs may subside, and strain.
To a  pint of  the clear juice  add the  Ginger and Allspice ; then macerate for four
hours  with a  gentle heat, and strain;  boil down the residue to a pint and a half;
mix the liquors ;  add  the sugar, and dissolve; lastly,  mix in the spirit.)—Cathar-
tic.   It  is employed as an adjunct to  purgative, and  occasionally to diuretic mix-
tures.   Sydenham found it, in one case, most  beneficial in dropsy;  and "with the
juvenile confidence  of  an inexperienced man,  verily believed," as he  tells us, that
he  " had got a medicine  that would cure any manner of dropsy;" but he found his
" mistake in a few weeks."—Dose, ^ss to 3j.


Order LXVIII. SIMARUBACE^E, Lindley.—THE QUASSIA

                                   TRIBE.

                               Simarubejb, Richard.
  Characters.—Flowers  hermaphrodite, or rarely by abortion unisexual.  Calyx 4- or 5-partite,
persistent.   Petals 4 or 5,  hypogynous, erect, deciduous.  Stamens equal  in number, or twice as
many as the petals, inserted on an hypogynous disk, free.   Ovary with lobes as numerous as
the petals; style 1, filiform, enlarged at the base.  Carpels as many as the petals, articulated on
the axis, capsular, bivalved, dehiscing inwardly, monospermons.  Seeds exalbuminous, pendu-
lous ; cotyledons 2, thick;  radicle  short, superior.—Trees  or  shrubs, with a very bitter bark and
milky juice.  Leaves alternate, pinnate, without stipules (De Cand.)
  Properties.—Bitterness is the prevailing quality of the  order (see Quassia).
t Jahrb. fUr prakt. Pharm. Oct. 1849.
5 Ntw Herbal, by Lyte, p. 501, Lond. 1619.
2  Works, by Dr. Pechey, p. 391, 4th edit. 
872             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Simarubace^e.
 292.  SIMARUBA AMARA, Aublet, E. Z)-BITTER SIMARUBA,
                     OR MOUNTAIN  DAMSON.
                  Simaruba officinalis, De Cand.—Quassia simaruba, Linn.
                          Sex. Syst. Decandria, Monogynia.
                    (Root, E.—Cortex radicis, D.) [Simaruba, U. S.]

  History.—Simaruba bark was first known  to Europeans in  1713, when some of
it was sent to  Paris from Guiana, as the bark of a tree called by the natives  Sima-
rouba,  which they employed with great success  in dysentery.  The first  authentic
botanical  account of the tree was given by Dr. Wright.1
  Botany.  Gen. Char.—Flowers unisexual.   Calyx small, cup-shaped,  5-toothed
or parted.  Petals 5, longer, spreading.   Males: stamens nearly equal to the  petals,
arranged around  a receptacle bearing at its apex 5 very minute lobes (rudiments
of ovaries), or sometimes  none.   Females:  ovaries 5,  placed on an even  disk, sur-
rounded  at the base by 10 short hairy scales (rudiments of stamens).    Styles the
same number, short, distinct at the base; there united into 1, crowned by a broader
5-lobed stigma.   Fruit 5  drupes (Lindley).
  Sp. Char.—Male flowers decandrous.   Stigma 5-partite.   Leaves abruptly pin-
nate ; leaflets alternate, somewhat stalked, pubescent beneath. (De Cand.)
  A very tall tree.   Roots long  and creeping.   Stem thick;  bark bitter,  internally
white, fibrous  and tough, externally  blackish and  furrowed in the  old  trees, but
smooth and gray, with yellow spots, in the young ones.   Leaves alternate ;  leaflets
alternate, 2 to 9  on  each side, oval, firm,  mucronate.  Flowers small,  yellowish-
white,  some male, others  female, mixed,  in  panicles.  Fruit of 5 ovate,  black,
smooth capsules, placed on a  fleshy disk.
  Hab.—Guayana, Cayenne, Jamaica.
  Description.—The simaruba bark  (cortex simarubes) of the  shops is the  bark
of the root (cortex radicis simarubes), and is brought from Jamaica in bales.  It is
odourless, but bitter,'and occurs in  broad, folded, very fibrous pieces, several feet
long, which are externally rough, warty, and  marked with transverse ridges.  The
epidermis is of a grayish  or whitish-yellow colour;  beneath it, the bark is darker,
and yellowish-brown.  On the inner  surface, the bark is pale yellowish-white.
  Composition.—Simaruba bark was analyzed by Morin,3 who found in it the
following' substances :  Quassite, a brittle resin, an  aromatic volatile oil having the
odour  of benzoin, woody fibre, ulmin, an  ammoniacal salt, malic  acid, traces of
gallic  acid, malate and oxalate of lime, oxide  of iron, and silica.   No notice is
taken of the mucilage, which, according to Pfaff,3 constitutes nearly one-fourth part
of the bark.
  Physiological Effects.—In small doses, simaruba acts like the simple bitter
tonics, whose  effects have been already described.   In full doses, however, it causes
vomiting and  purging, and is said also to promote  perspiration and urine.   Dr.
Wright states that negroes are less affected by it than whites.
   Desbois de Rochefort* classed it among emetics; and Bichat proposed it as a sub-
stitute for ipecacuanha.   It is, however, usually arranged with the tonics.
  Uses.—Simaruba may be  employed in the same cases as other vegetable  bitters.
It has been principally celebrated in  dysentery (whence the Germans call it Ruhr-
rinde,  or dysentery-bark)  by  Dr. Wright5 and others.   It is, of course, only appli-
cable in tbe latter stages  of  the acute and the asthenic and  chronic forms of the
disease.   More recently, Dr.  O'Brien6 has borne testimony to its good effects, when
given in conjunction with opium, in epidemic dysentery.  It has also  been employed
in the advanced stages of diarrhoea.   Like other vegetable tonics, it may  be ad-

  1 Trans. Royal Soc. of Edinb. vol. ii. part2, p. 73.          3 Journ. de Pharm. viii. 57.
  » Syst. d. Mat. Med. ii. 74.                            * Cours Eliment. de Mat. Mid. i.  357.
  « Account of Quassia Simaruba.
  ' Trans, of the King and Queen's College of Physicians, v. 237, Dublin. 
       Lofty Bitter-wood Tree:—History; Botany;  Composition.    873

ministered in  dyspepsia, anorexia,  and intermittents.  It is a  remedy,  however,
which is seldom used.

  INFl'Sni  SIMARUBjE, E.  D.;  Infusion  of Simaruba Bark.—(Simaruba  Bark,
bruised,  3iij [5ij, D.~]; Boiling Water Oj [f^ix, D.~\.   Macerate  for two hours in
a lightly-covered vessel, and strain [through linen or calico, E.~\.)—Tonic; in'large
doses emetic.—Dose, as a tonic, f 3j to f|ij.


293. PICR-ffiNA  (Quassia) EXCELSA; Lindley, L. E.  D—THE LOFTY
                        BITTER-WOOD TREE.
         Quassia excelsa, Swartz.—Picraena amara, Wright.—Quassia polygama, Lindsay.
                            Sex. Syst. Decandria, Monogynia.
                      (Lignum, L. D— The Wood, E.)  [Quassia, IT. S.]

   History.—The  wood of this tree has been introduced as a substitute for that of
Quassia  amara, with which it  has often been confounded.
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—Flowers  polygamous..    Sepals 5, minute.    Petals 5,
longer than the  sepals.   Stamens 5, about as long  as the  petals, rather shaggy;
anthers roundish.   Ovaries 3, seated on a round, tumid receptacle.  Style 3-cornered,
bifid; stigmas simple, spreading. Fruit 3, globose, 1-celled, bivalved drupes, which
are  distant  from each other, and  placed on  a broad hemispherical  receptacle
(Lindley).
   Sp. Char.—The  only species.
   A tall, beautiful  timber tree, sometimes 100 feet high.  Leaves  pinnate, with an
odd one; leaflets 4  to 8 pairs, opposite,  stalked, oblong, acuminate, unequal at the
base.    Racemes towards the  ends  of  the branchlets, axillary,  very  compound.
Flowers small, pale yellowish-green.   Drupe size of a  pea, black,  shining, round.1
   Hab.—Jamaica.
   Description.—Quassia  wood  (lignum  quassias)—sometimes  called Jamaica
quassia wood (lignum quassias jamaicensis), in order to  distinguish  it from the wood
of  Quassia amara—is imported from Jamaica in billets  of  various  sizes  (sometimes
a foot in diameter,  and several feet in length), covered externally with a smooth
brittle bark.   The  wood is white, but by exposure to the air becomes yellowish; it
has no odour, but  a  most  intensely bitter taste.   Floors made of quassia wood
retain for  many years their bitterness.   An efflorescence  of  nitrate of .potash is
frequently  observed on it.8
   Adulteration.—Quassia  wood has recently been somewhat scarce, and, in con-
sequence, its chips  have  been  adulterated with  the chips of other woods;  but the
intense  bitterness of the  genuine wood readily distinguishes it.
   Composition.—Though quassia wood has been the  subject of repeated chemical
investigation, I am unacquainted with  any complete analysis of it.  But from the
experiments  of Pfaff3 and  others, the following appear to  me  to  be the principal
constituents of it:  volatile oil a minute trace, a bitter principle (quassite), gummy
extractive, pectin, woody fibre, and various  salts (as  oxalate, tartrate, and sulphate
of lime, chlorides of calcium and sodium, an ammoniacal salt, and nitrate of potash).
   Quassite; Bilter Principle of Quassia; Quassin.—Obtainedjby adding lime-water to a con-
centrated aqueous decoction of quassia (to separate the pectin and  other substances), evapo-
rating and treating the residue with alcohol, which takes up  the quassite, a brown colouring mat-
 ter, and some salts.   By repeated solution and evaporation in alcohol, with a little ether, the
quassite is obtained pure.  Quassite occurs in small, white, prismatic crystals, which are fusible,
odourless, intensely bitter, readily soluble in alcohol, but very slightly so in water or ethrr.  Its
solubility in water is  increased by several salts and vegetable principles.  Its watery solution
is precipitated (white) by tannin, but not by iodine, chlorine, corrosive sublimate, salts of  iron,
acetate or diacetate of lead.   It is a neutral body, though soluble in sulphuric and nitric acids.
It consists of carbon 66.012, hydrogen 6.827, and oxygen 26.261; or C10HbO3.4
—i————-----------------------------------------------
  1 Lindsay, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. iii. 205.              - Planche, Journ. de Pharm. xxiii. 542.
  1 Syst. d. Mat. Med. ii. 21.
  * Wiggers, Ann. d. Pharm xxi. 40; Brit. Ann. of Med. for 1837, p. 561. 
874             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Simarubaceje.

  Physiological Effects,   o.  On Animals.—From  recent  experiments it ap-
pears that quassia wood acts on animals as a narcotic poison.  Dr. Wright1 tells us
that  no insect will live near cabinet-work made of it.  It has been long known that
an aqueous infusion of this substance was an excellent fly-poison;  but  Hartl, one
of Buchner's pupils, has lately shown that it also  possesses poisonous  properties
with respect to the larger animals.3   Thus he found that a rabbit, into a wound of
whose  thigh a grain of the alcoholic extract of quassia had been introduced, lost his
strength and liveliness, and died on the third day.  A second experiment, made on
an older and stronger animal, was attended with the same  results.   No pain ap-
peared to be experienced, nor were  there any marks of irritation or  inflammation
observable after death.   Kurtz3 mentions that complete paralysis of the hind ex-
tremities of a dog affected with the  mange (Fcttraude) was brought on by washing
the ulcers with decoction of quassia; in seven hours, however, it disappeared.
  These  experiments seem to show that  the  bitter  principle of quassia possesses
poisonous properties, somewhat like those of the  Amer of Welther.
  /3. On Man.—In the usual medicinal doses, quassia operates as astomachic and
tonic—that is, it is bitter to the taste, promotes the appetite, and assists the digest-
ive functions.   It  is  devoid  of all irritant, stimulant,  and astringent  properties;
and has been, therefore, sometimes  taken as a type of the simple or pure bitters.
It is more powerful than, but  in other respects analogous to, gentian in its operation.
"We can find nothing in this wood," says Dr. Cullen,4 "but a pure and simple bit-
ter;"—and he goes on to observe that he believes it to be an excellent substance,
capable of doing all that  any  pure and simple bitter can do, but no more.
  Does it act as a narcotic on man,  as on other animals?   I  have employed, and
seen others administer quassia most extensively, but never had grounds for suspect-
ing any effect of the kind  alluded  to.  Yet some have observed effects  which cer-
tainly  seem to  favour  the notion that quassia possesses a  specific influence  over
the cerebro-spinal system.  In females endowed with extreme susceptibility, I have
seen, says Barbier,5 involuntary movements of the arms and legs produced by the
aqueous infusion of quassia.   Kraus8 says that the continued use of quassia brings
on amblyopia (dimness of sight); and Kurtz asserts that the long-continued use of
quassia has brought on amaurosis.
  Like many other  substances, quassia,  mixed  with  dead animal  matter, checks
putrefaction, and hence it is termed  antiseptic. Ebeling,7 many years ago, performed
some experiments to  determine its power in this respect, compared with other bit-
ters, and found it much superior to several of them.
  Uses.—Quassia is employed in the same cases as several other simple bitters;
some of which  have been  already  noticed.  Though I  am  not disposed  to  place
much confidence in the above-quoted statements of  Barbier, Kraus, and  Kurtz, yet
a cautious practitioner would avoid employing it in amaurosis and cerebral affections.
Quassia is principally employed in dyspepsia, anorexia, and other  stomach disor-
ders  of a functional kind of an atonic character, more especially when occurring in
a gouty subject.  Though it  has been beneficially employed in intermittents, few
practitioners will,  I  suspect,  use it, when  they  can procure cinchona, quina, or
arsenic.
   Kraus suggests that it may be useful in intolerance of light, and other diseases of
the eye, accompanied with great sensibility without  fever or congestion; yet  only
(he adds) as an adjuvant to hyoscyamus  and belladonna.
   An  infusion of quassia has been proposed as a wash  in  compound fractures,
wounds, and  ulcers,  to keep  off insects.   "In its use, however, we should bear in
mind the  effect which Kurtz  states  was produced on a dog by a wash of this  kind.
   1.  INFUSUM QUASSLE, L. E. D. [U. S.] ; Infusion of Quassia.—(Quassia Wood,

  1 Med. Plants of Jamaica.                                   2 Buchner, Toxicol. S. 260.
  » (j. A. Richter,  Ausf. Arzneimittell. Suppl. Bd.  S. 42, 1832.         * Mat. Med.
  * Traiti Elim. de Mat. Mid. 2de edit. i. 250.                     « Heilmitlel. S. 412, 1831.
  1 Schlegel. Thes. Mat. Mid. t. ii. 
Nat. Ord. Butace^.—The Bue Tribe.                 8.5
in chips, 9ij [3j, E. D.~\ ; Boiling [distilled, Z.] Water Oj [fgviiiss, D."].  Macerate
for two hours  in a lightly covered vessel, and  strain [through linen or calico, E.~].
[Infuse one hour, D.\)   [Quassia, rasped, 3'j ',  Water Oj.   Macerate for  twelve
hours, and strain.]—Tonic.   Generally employed  in dyspeptic and other stomach
affections.   It  has an  advantage  over some other vegetable bitter infusions, that
chalybeates can be combined with it, without  changing  its  colour.—Dose,  f Jj to
f3iij-   It is in common use as a fly-poison.

   2. TINCTURA QlASSIvE,  E.  [U. S.] ;  Tincture of Quassia.—(Quassia, in chips, 3x
[rasped, ^ij]; Proof Spirit Oij  [Alcohol Oij].  Digest for seven [fourteen] days, and
filter.)—Dose, fjss to  f3ij.   This tincture possesses  all the bitterness of  the wood.

   I TIXCTURA QUASSLE  COMPOSITA, E.;  Compound Tincture of  Quassia.—(Car-
damom Seeds, bruised,  Cochineal, bruised, of each^ss; Cinnamon, in moderately fine
powder;  Quassia, in  chips,  of  each 3vj;  Baisins Jvij;  Proof Spirit Oij.   Digest
for seven days, strain  the liquor, express  strongly the residuum,  and filter.   This
tincture may also be obtained by percolation, as directed for the Compound Tincture
of Cardamom,  provided the  quassia  be rasped or in powder.)—An aromatic tonic.—
Dose, f3j to f3ij.

                    OTHER MEDICINAL  SIMARUBACE^!.

   The wood of  Quassia  amaha (Linn.  E.) has been employed  in medicine under the name of
Surinam quassia wood (lignum quassia surinamense). Fermin mentions that, about the year 1714,
the flowers of this shrub were highly valued at Surinam, on account of their stomachic proper-
ties.  In 1730, the root is said to have been found in the collection of Seba, a celebrated spice-
dealer of Amsterdam.  Haller  tells us that a relative of his took quassia for an epidemic fever
in 1742, and that it was then a  well-known medicine.  In 1763, Linnaeus published a disserta-
tion on this medicine, in which  he  states that he received specimens of the tree from one of his
pupils, C. D. Dahlbergh, a  military officer and counsellor at Surinam, who had become acquainted
with the medical properties  of the  root through a black slave named Quassia, who employed it
as a secret  remedy in the  cure of endemic malignant fevers of that place.   From this circum-
stance, Linnaeus named the  tree in honour of the slave,  Quassia.   Rolander, who returned  from
Surinam in 1756, tells us he saw and conversed with this black, who was  almost worshipped
by some, and suspected of magic  by others.  Rolander found him to be a simple man, better
skilled in old women's tales than in magic.1   All parts of the plant are intensely bitter.  The
wood, as I have received it,js in cylindrical pieces (covered by a thin, grayish-white, and bitter
bark) not exceeding two inches in diameter, very light, without odour, but having an extremely
bitter taste. The chemical and medical  properties are similar to the wood of Simaruba amara.
Order LXIX.  RUTACE^E, De  Candolle.—THE RUE TRIBE.

  Characters —Sepals 3, 4, or 5; more or less adherent at the base, so that the calyx is den-
tate, cleft, or partite.  Petals very rarely 0, usually as many as the sepals, frequently unguiculate,
distinct.  Disk fleshy-glandular, surrounding the ovary, arising from  the receptacle external to
the petals, and bearing the stamens on the upper part.  Stamens usually twice as many as the
petals,  and  then either all fertile or  the alternate ones barren.   Carpels as many as the sepals,
sometimes fewer by abortion, either distinct or  united at the base, or perfectly connate.   Style
arising from the centre of the ovary, single, divided  into as many stigmas  as there are ovaries.
Carpels, when ripe, generally distinct, one-celled, dehiscent, bivalved, cocculose within.   Seeds
affixed  to the  inner angle, inverse:  embryo straight, compressed; radicle  superior.—Herbs <Jr
shrubs,  with opposite or alternate stipulate leaves (Condensed from De Candolle).
  Pkopehtiks.—Volatile oil and bitter matter are the predominating constituents of this order.
These confer stimulant, tonic, and, in some cases, narcotic qualities.


294.  RUTA GRAVEOLENS, Zi»«. L £ -COMMON  OR GARDEN
                                       RUE.

                            Sex. Syst. Decandria, Monogynia.
                          (Folium, L.—Leaves and unripe fruit, E.)

  History.—This  plant was  highly esteemed by the  ancients ; and is frequently
i Murray, App. Med. iii. 433. 
876
VEGETABLES.—Xat. Ord. Rutace^e.
mentioned by Hippocrates  under the  name of n^yavov.  I'liny1 says that Pytha-
goras (who died in the year 489 before Christ) fancied that rue was hurtful to the
eyes; but, adds Pliny, he  was in  error, since  engravers  and  painters eat it with
bread or cresses to benefit their eyes.   The ancients had a curious idea that stolen
rue flourished the best; just  as, says  Pliny,  it is said  that stolen bees  thrive the
worst.
   Botany.   Gen. Char.— Calyx persistent, 4-, rarely  3- to 5-partite.  Petals as
many as the  segments of  the calyx, unguiculate, somewhat cochleate.   Stamens
twice as many as the petals.   Nectariferous pores at the base of the ovary, as many
as the stamina.   Ovary on a short, thick stalk.   Style 1.   Capsule somewhat glo-
bose, divided into as many cells as there are petals.   Seeds affixed by the  internal
angle;  albumen fleshy ; embryo curved; radicle long; cotyledons linear.—Peren-
nial  or  suffruticose, fetid herbs, of a sea-green  colour.  Leaves  alternate.   Flowers
corymbose, yellow, central, often 5-cleft. (De Cand.)
   Sp. Char.—Leaves  supradecompound; lobes oblong,  the terminal one obovata,
Petals entire or somewhat toothed. (De Cand.)
   A  small, branching, hairless undershrub, with the lower part only of the stem
woody.   Leaves dotted, glaucous or bluish-green.   Flowers in umbellate racemes.
Petals 4 or  5, unguiculate, concave, yellow.   The first flower has usually  ten  sta-
mina, the others eight.  It is remarkable that the anthers  move in turns to the
pistillum, and, after  having shed their pollen, retire.   Fruit roundish,  warted, 4-
lobed, each lobe opening into two valves.
   Hab.—South of Europe.   Commonly cultivated in gardens.
   Description.—The herb (herba rutse ; herba  rules hortensis) is  readily recog-
nized by its strong disagreeable odour, which  it owes to volatile  oil.  Its  taste is
bitter and  nauseous.   100 lbs. yield by drying about 22  lbs.   The dried  herb is
grayish-green, and has a less powerful odour.   The unripe fruit  (fructus immaturus
rutes) is also officinal in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia.
   Collection.—Rue was  analyzed, in 1811, by Mahl,3 who found in it the follow-
ing constituents: Volatile oil, bitter extractive, chlorophylle,peculiar vegetoanimal
matter  precipitable  by tincture of nutgalls, malic acid, gum, albumen, starch, and
woody fibre.
   1.  Volatilk Oil—(See p. 877.)
  2.  Bitter Extractive.—Very bitter,insoluble in alcohol and ether.
   Physiological  Effects.   a.  On  Animals generally.—Orfila3 found that
eighteen grains of oil of rue,  injected  into the veins of a dog,  acted  as a narcotic,
and  caused staggering and feebleness  of the  posterior  extremities;  but in a few
hours the animal had recovered.   Six  ounces  of the juice of rue, introduced into
the stomach of a dog, killed it within twenty-four hours.  The mucous membrane
of the stomach was found inflamed.
   r3.  On  Man.—The  topical  action of rue  is that of  an acrid.   When much
handled, it is apt to cause  redness, swelling, and vesication of  the skin.   The fol-
lowing  is an  illustrative case of Buchner :* After  some very hot days in  June,
1823, Roth, an apothecary at Aschaffenburg,  cut down  a considerable quantity of
r;ue while in full bloom, and separated the leaves from the stalks.  The next morn-
ing both  his hands were very red. and hot, and, on the third  day, appeared as if
they had been exposed to hot aqueous vapour.   They were besmeared with oil.
Towards evening, vesication commenced, and was most copious  at the points of the
fingers.   On the fourth day, the  parts were still much  swollen; and, between the
blisters, the skin  had assumed a dark red or purplish hue.  On the fifth and sixth
days, the  swelling extended  up the  back part of the  arms as far  as the elbow.
Poultices  (of  chamomile and  elder  flowers) were  applied, and the  blisters  cut.
Within  four weeks the skin  had gradually  peeled off.   His children, who  had
played with the rue,  suffered from swelling of  the face and hands.
1 Hist. Nat. lib. xx. cap. 51, ed. Valp.                   2 pfaff, Mat. Med. iv. 339.
* Toxicol. Gin.                                    * Toxikologie, 265. 
    Garden Rue:—Physiological Effects; Uses; Administration.    877

  The constitutional effects of rue are those of a stimulant and narcotic.  It has
long been celebrated as an antispasmodic in  epilepsy, hysteria, and flatulent colic.
It is a very popular emmenagogue, especially in hysterical cases; and is sometimes
resorted to for the purpose of procuring abortion.   Its narcotic and reputed uterine
influence seems to be proved by three cases of poisoning with it, taken for the pur-
pose of causing miscarriage, published by  Helie.1  In these cases, the rue produced
the effects  of  an acro-narcotic poison—viz.,  epigastric pain, violent and continued
vomiting, inflammation and  swelling of the  tongue, salivation, colic, fever, thirst,
disorder of the muscular  system (manifested by tottering gait, and irregular and
convulsive movements of the body and limbs), giddiness, confused vision, contracted
pupil, delirium,  or  rather reverie,  somnolency, and, after  some days, miscarriage.
During the stupor, the pulse was feeble, very small, and slow (in  one case beating
only thirty times in the minute); there were great debility, faintness, and coldness
of the skin.   The  general appearance was that of  an intoxicated  person.  The ill
effects lasted several days.   In one case, a decoction of fresh sliced roots, as big as
the finger, had been taken ; in the second, a decoction of the leaves; in the third, a
large dose of the expressed juice of the fresh leaves.
  Uses.—Rue is comparatively but little employed  by the  medical  practitioner.
It formerly enjoyed great celebrity as an antispasmodic and emmenagogue ;  a cele-
brity which it still  retains among the public.   The observations above made on the
effects of rue prove that it is a much more active agent than is commonly supposed,
and its remedial powers  deserve to be more  carefully examined  than they have
hitherto  been.   In  the flatulent colic, especially of children, it is  an exceedingly
valuable remedy, and may  be  administered  either by the  stomach, or, in infants,
by  the rectum, in  the form of  clyster.   It  may also be employed with  benefit in
some cases of infantile convulsions.  It has been employed in hysteria, amenorrhoea,
and epilepsy.  Iu the first two  of these  maladies, it will probably at times prove
serviceable, and  in  them it deserves farther trials.   It has likewise been used as an
anthelmintic.  In former  times  it was eaten  as a condiment, and was regarded as a
universal antidote to poisons.   It has  been  employed topically as an antiseptic in
gangrene and foul  ulcers, and  likewise as a local stimulant, rubefacient, and dis-
cutient, in cold swellings,  contusions, &c.
  Administration.—Dose of the powder, from  9j to 3ss; but this is not an eligi-
ble  mode of preparation,  as rue loses part of  its activity (by the  volatilization of
its  essential oil) by drying.   An  infusion (prepared  by digesting  an ounce of the
fresh herb in Oj  of boiling water), called  rue tea, is a popular remedy.  It is given
in doses  of f^j to f^ij.  Rue water (aqua rutes) may be prepared with the oil, as
mint,water; its  dose is f|j  to f^ij.
  1.  CONFECTIO  RUTJ1, L.;  Confection of Rue.—(Fresh Rue, Caraway, Bay Berries,
of  each  Jiss; Sagapenum, powdered, £ss;  Black  Pepper 3'j j Prepared  Honey
^xvj; Distilled Water as  much  as may be sufficient.   Rub the dry ingredients into
a very fine powder; then add the powder by degrees to the  sagapenum, melted in
the honey and water by a slow fire.)—Carminative and antispasmodic.   Employed
in flatulent colic and infantile convulsions.   Objectionable in  inflammation of the
intestinal mucous membrane.   Dose, 9j to 3J-   Sometimes employed in  the mala-
dies of children  in  the form of enema,  composed* of gruel and a scruple of the con-
fection.
   2.  OLEUM RUTjE, E.; Oil of Rue.—(Obtained by submitting the herb, with water,
to distillation.)—From' 12 lbs. of the leaves,  gathered before tbe plant had flowered,
Lewis8 obtained  only about  3iij of oil;  but the  same  quantity of herb, with the
seeds almost ripe, yielded above 3j.   It is pale yellow, has a bitterish acrid taste,
and a sp. gr. of  0.911.   It is somewhat more soluble in water than the other vola-
tile  oils.   It is  stimulant, antispasmodic, and emmenagogue.   Used  in  spasmodic
1 Lond. Med. Gaz. xxiv. 171.
- Mat. Med. 
878               VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rutace^e.

and convulsive diseases, and in amenorrhcea.—Dose, gtt. ij to vj rubbed down with
sugar and water.
   I STRUTS RULE ;  Syrup of Rue— Though  syrup of rue is not contained in any
of the British pharmacopoeias, it is a useful preparation, and  is always kept in the
shops.  It is usually  prepared extemporaneously by adding eight or ten drops of
the oil to  a pint of simple syrup.   It is used by nurses to relieve the flatulent colic
of children.—Dose, one or two teaspoonfuls.

       295. BAROSMA,  Willdenow.—VARIOUS SPECIES, L. E.
      Barosma serratifolia ; B. crenulata, Willd.—Barosma crenata, De Cand. Willd. Eckl. D.
                           Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Monogynia.
                   (Folium,  L.—Leaves, E.—Folia, D.)  [Buchu, U. S.]

   History.—The  natives of the  Cape of  Good  Hope  employ several  species of
Barosma,  on account of their odoriferous  and medicinal properties. The Hottentots
employ a  powder, composed of the leaves of /various odoriferous plants (principally
Barosmas), under  the name of Bookoo or  Buku, for anointing their bodies.1  Ba-
rosma crenata was introduced  into the botanical gardens of this country in 1774,
but it was not employed in medicine till  1823.
   Botany.  Gen. Char.— Calyx  5-cleft or parted; dotted.   Disk lining the bot-
tom of the calyx  generally with a short, scarcely prominent rim.  Petals 5, with
short claws.   Filaments 10;  the  five opposite the petals  sterile, petaloid, sessile,
ciliated, obscurely glandular at the apex;  the  other five longer, smooth or hispid,
subulate,  with the  anthers  usually furnished  with a  minute  gland at  the  apex.
Style as long as  the petals.    Stigma  minute, 5-lobed;  ovaries auriculate  at the
apex, usually glandular  and  tuberculated.   Emit composed  of 5 cocci covered with
glandular dots at  the back (Lindley).—Shrubs.   Leaves opposite, flat, smooth,
dotted.   Flowers stalked, axillary.
   Species.—The leaves of several species of Barosma constitute Buchu or Bucku.
   1.  Barosma  crenulata, Willd.;  Diosma crenulata, Linn.;  D. odorata (De
Cand.);   D.  latifolia, Loddiges;  D. serratifolia, Burchell.—Leaves ovate-oblong,
crenate, smooth, glandular.   Pedicels  solitary,  with two bracts immediately under
the flower. (De Cand.)—Upright shrub, between 2 and 3 feet in height; branches
brownish-purple.  Leaves about an  inch long, oval-lanceolate, on very short petioles,
very obtuse, delicately and minutely crenated,  quite glabrous, rigid, darkish-green,
and quite smooth  above, with a few very obscure, oblique  nerves; beneath paler,
dotted with glands which are scarcely  pellucid, while at every crenature is  a .con-
spicuous pellucid gland; there is  also a narrow pellucid margin round the whole
leaf.  Peduncles about as long as the leaf.  Calyx of 5 ovate-acuminate  leaflets,
green, tinged with purple.   Corolla of 5 ovate  petals, purple  in  bud, bluish-
coloured when fully expanded (Condensed from Hooker2).—Cape of Good Hope.
   2.  Barosma  crenata,  Ecklon and  Zeyher;3 Diosma crenata,  De Candolle,
Loddiges, L.  D.—Leaves ovate [or obovate] acute, dotted, glandulose-serrate at the
margin.   Pedicels solitary, somewhat leafy.  (De Cand.)—Flowers pink, terminal,
on short leafy branches.—Cape of Good Hope.
   3.  Barosma  serratifolia,  Willd.,  De Candolle,  Loddiges.—Leaves  linear-
lanceolate, serrulate,  smooth,  glandular.  Pedicels solitary, bearing  two  leaflets
above the middle.  (De Cand.)   Leaves  acuminate, 3-nerved.   Flowers  lateral
white.—Cape of Good Hope.
   Description.—The leaves of several species of Barosma are known  in the shops
as Buchu  (Bucku, E.; Folia Barosmas seu Diosmes).   They are  intermixed with
stalks and fruit.   They are smooth, somewhat  shining, sharply or bluntlv serrated
or crenated, and beset both on the  edges, especially between the teeth,  and on the

  1 Burcliell, Travels in Southern Africa, i. 479; and ii. 59.
  a Bot. Mag. t. 3413.                                  » Enum. PI. Afr. austr. i. 102, 1S05. 
          Barosma:—Composition;  Physiological Effects;  Uses.       879

under surface, with glands filled with essential oil.  Their consistence is coriaceous;
their colour pale or yellowish-green; their odour strong and rue-like (though some
compare  it to rosemary, others  to cumin, or cat's urine),  and their taste is warm
and  mint-like.   They present considerable variety in shape.   The most  common
are the following :—
  a.  Ovate or obovate Buchu. Leaves of Barosma crenata, Eckl. and Zeyher.—Leaves ovate, oval,
oblong, or  obovate.
  b.  Ovate-oblong Buchu.  Leaves of Barosma crenulata, Willd.—Leaves ovate-oblong, or obovate-
oblong, or  oval lanceolate, obtuse.
  c.  Linear lancedtate Buchu.  Leaves of Barosma serratifolia, Willd.—Leaves linear-lanceolate,
acuminate.
   Composition.—Two  analyses  of buchu  have  been  made: one, in  1827, by
Brandes;1 the  other, in the same year, by Cadet de Gassicourt.3
            Brandes's Analysis.             I               Cadet's Analysis.
Pale  yellow volatile oil............  0.88 Volatile oil..................   0.665
Resin......................  2.34 I Gum......................21.170
Bitter extractive (Diosmin)  .........  3.78 | Extractive  ..................   5.170
Chlorophylle..................  4.77 , Chlorophylle  .................   1.100
Gum.......................12.71 I Resin  .....................   2.151
Lisrnin......................45 00 I [Lignin, &c..................69.744]
Brown substance extracted by potash ....  1.56 ,                                    ______
Nitrogenous matter extracted  by potash . .  .  2.42      Leaves of Diosma crenata......100.000
Albumen.....................  0 58
Malic acid, and matter precipitable by tannin  1.56 i
Bassorin, with oxalate and phosphate of lime  4.53 j
Various salts of potash and lime.......  3.07
Water......................12.94 i
Acetic acid and loss..............  3 86 j
          Leaves of Diosma crenata .... 100.00 |

   1. Volatile Oil of Buchu (Oleum Barosma. seu  Diosma).—Yellowish-brown, lighter  than
water; odour that of the leaves.
   2. Bitter  Extractive; Diosmin.—Brownish-yellow,  bitter, and somewhat  pungent.  So-
luble in water; but neither in alcohol or ether.
   Physiological Effects.—Buchu is an aromatic  stimulant and tonic.  Taken
in moderate doses it promotes the appetite, relieves nausea and flatulence, and acts
as a diuretic  and diaphoretic.   Its constitutional effects appear referable—first, to
its action on  the stomach; and, secondly, to the absorption of the volatile oil, which
is subsequently thrown out  of  the system  by  the  secreting  organs,  on which it
appears to act topically in its passage through them.  Buchu seems to have a specific
influence over the urinary organs.
   Uses.—The natives of the Cape of Good Hope  prepare a spirit of buchu (which
they term buchu  brandy), by distilling the leaves with the dregs  of  wine,  which
they employ in chronic  diseases of the  stomach and bladder.
   In this country, buchu has been principally employed in chronic maladies of the
urinogenital organs.  Dr. Reece3 first drew the attention of practitioners and the
public in this country to it in these cases; and in 1823, Dr. M'Dowell4 gave a most
favourable account of its good effects.   It has since been employed by a consider-
able number of practitioners, and  its remedial powers fairly tried.  It seems to be
principally adapted to chronic cases attended with  copious secretion.   In chronic
inflammation of the mucous membrane of the bladder,  attended with a copious dis-
charge of mucus, it  frequently checks the secretion, and diminishes  the irritable
condition of the bladder, thereby enabling  the patient to retain his urine for a longer
period;  but  I  have  several  times seen it  fail to  give the least relief,  and in some
cases it appeared rather to add to the patient's sufferings.  In irritable conditions
of ihe urethra, as spasmodic stricture, and in gleet,  it has occasionally proved ser-
viceable.   In lithiasis, attended with increased secretion of uric  acid, it  has  been
given with considerable benefit  by Dr. Carter5 and others,  and has  appeared to

  i Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. ii. 1258.                           3 Journ. de Chim. Mid iii. 44.
  » Gazette of Health, for 1S21, 1822, 1823, and 1S>4.
  4 Trans,  of th* King and Queen's College of Physicians, iv. 131, Dubl:n,  1824.
   • Lond. Med. Rep. April, 1826, p. 348. 
880
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Rutaceje.
check the formation of this  acid.  For the most part, it should be given in these
cases in combination with alkalies (as liquor  potassre).   In prostatic  affections, in
rheumatism, and  even in skin diseases, it has also been employed, and, it is said,
with good effect.   In dyspepsia, Dr. Hulton has found it serviceable.1   _
  Administration.—The dose of buchu, in powder, is 9j or 3ss.   It is usually
taken in wine.  But the infusion and tincture are more eligible  preparations.
  1. INFUSUM BUCHU, L.  D. [U. S.];  Infusum  Bucku E. -Infusion of Buchu.—
(Buchu gj [gss,  D.}; Boiling [distilled, L.~] Water Oj  [Oss, /).].   Macerate for
four [two, E.;  one hour, Z>.] hours in a lightly-covered vessej, and Strain [through
calico, E.~].)—Tonic, sudorific, and  diuretic—Dose, fgj to fgij.
  2. TINCTURA BUCHU, D.;  Tinctura Bucku, E.; Tincture of Buchu.—(Buchu |v;
Proof  Spirit Oij.    Digest for seven days, pour off the clear liquor, and filter.  This
tincture may be conveniently and quickly made also  by  the process of  percolation,
E.—The proportions used by the Dublin College are essentially the  same, and the
tincture is directed to be prepared by maceration.)—Dose, f3J to f3iv.

      296. GALIPEA OFFICINALIS, Hancock, E.; and GALIPEA
                         CUSPARIA, De  Candolle, L.
                            Sex. Syst. Diandria, Monogyn'a.
                               (Cortex, I,.—Bark, E.)
                                [Angustura, U.  S.]

   History.—Mutis is said  to have employed Angostura bark  in 1759; but it did
not come  to England until 1788, and was first publicly noticed in the  London Medi-
cal Journal for 1789.   Mr. A. E. Brande9 says that, in 1791, 40,000 lbs. or up-
wards had been imported.   It was called Cortex Angustures,  from  Angostura,  a
place in South America, whence the Spaniards first  brought it.
   Botany.  Gen. Char.— Calyx short,  5-toothed.    Petals 5, united into a salver-
shaped corolla, or closely approximating; tube short, pentagonal; lobes spreading,
acute.  Stamens 4  to 7, hypogynous, somewhat adherent  to the petals, unequal,
sometimes all fertile, commonly two antheriferous, two to five shorter, sterile.  Nec-
tary cupuliform.   Styles 5, afterwards  combined into  1, and  forming a 4- or  5-
grooved stigma.   Carpella  5, or by abortion fewer, containing  two ovules, obtuse,
cocculiform, sessile, with a  separable endocarp.  Seeds solitary by abortion;  cotyle-
dons large, corrugated, biauriculate.—Smooth  shrubs.  Leaves alternate, simple, or
 plurifoliate; leaflets oblong, acuminate.  Peduncles axillary, many  flowered. (De
 Cand.)
    Species.—Humboldt and Bonpland3'  state  that   Galipea Cusparia,  De  Cand.
 yields Angostura bark;  whereas Dr. Hancock4 asserts that it is a species which he
 calls Galipea officinalis.  But it  appears to me not improbable that both species
 may yield a febrifuge bark.
    1. Galipea Cusparia, De Cand. L.; Bonplandia trifoliata, Willd. D.;  Cuspa-
 ria febrifuga,  Hunib. and Bonpl.—Leaves trifoliate.   Racemes stalked, almost ter-
 minal.   Calyx 5-toothed.   Sterile stamens 3. (De Cand.)—A  majestic forest tree,
 60 or 80 feet  high.  Leaves 2 feet long, gratefully  fragrant; petioles 1 foot long,
 or nearly so; leaflets sessile, unequal, ovate-lanceolate, acute.   Flowers white, with
 fascicles of hairs seated on  glandular bodies  on  the outside.   Stamens monadel-
 phous (Kunth);  fertile ones, 2 ; sterile ones,  3, according to Roemer—4 aecording
 to Kunth ; anthers with two short appendages. Stigmas 5.  Seed solitary.—Forests
 of tropical America.   Yields  Angostura bark (Humboldt and  Bonpland).
    2.  Galipea  officinalis,  Hancock,  E.—Leaves trifoliate.  Racemes stalked,
 axillary, terminal.   Stamens  2.   Nectaries  (sterile stamens?) 5 (Hancock).—A
 free, usually 12  or 15  feet high, never exceeding'20  feet.   Leaves, when fresh,

   i M'Dowell, op. cit.                  ' Exp. and Observ. on the Angustura Bark, Lond. 1793.
   » PI. JEquinoct. ii. 59, t. 57.              * Trans. Med. Bot. Soc. 1629, p. 16. 
Angostura Bark:—Description; Substitution; Composition.   881
having the odour of  tobacco; leaflets oblong, pointed at both  extremities, from 6
to 10 inches  long,  on very short stalks;  petioles as long as  the leaflets.   Flowers
white, hairy.   Stamens  distinct; fertile ones, 2 :  sterile ones,  5; anthers without
appendages.   Stigma simple, capitate.   Seeds  2 in each capsule ;  1 usually abor-
tive.   Neighbourhood of the  Orinoko (Carony, Alta Gracia, &c.)   Yields Angos-
tura or Carony bark  (Hancock).
   Description.—Angostura or Cusparia bark  (cortex angostures seu cusparise) is
imported directly or  indirectly from  South  America.  " The most of what I have
seen," says Mr. A. E. Brande,  "has been put into casks in the West Indies;  but
where the original  package  remains it is very curious, and formed carefully of  the
large  leaves of a  species  of palm, surrounded by  a kind of network  made of
flexible sticks."  It occurs  in flat pieces and quills, of various sizes, the longest
pieces being from six to  ten inches in  length, covered with  a yellowish-gray or
grayish-white spongy epidermis, easily scraped off  by the nail.   The internal  sur-
face is brownish, not quite smooth, somewhat fibrous or splintery, easily separable
into laminae; the fracture is short and resinous  ; the odour strong but peculiar, and
somewhat animal;  the taste bitter, aromatic, and slightly acrid.
   Substitution.—I have already noticed the serious accidents which have resulted
in consequence of  the bark of the nux-vomica tree being  substituted, either from
ignorance or  commercial cupidity, for  angostura  bark.   Hence arose the distinction
into true  or  West  India  angostura, and false, spurious,  or  East India angostura.
Though the characters of the latter have been fully described, it may be as well to
place them in contrast with those of the genuine  angostura.   In drawing up  the
following table of characteristics, I have been greatly  assisted by the tables of Gui-
bourt1 and F6e.a
Form .
Odour
Taste .
Hardness and Density
Fracture.....
Epidermoid crust
Inner surface
(
■Z "■£ «
td v cb n

£ t-.° o

S J> ftea
oSHo,
'oo D.  **

e a.2.S  I
Tinct. of Litmus
Sesquichl. Iron

Ferrocyanide of
  Potassium
Nitric Acid  . .
Angostura Bark.
Quills or flat pieces, straight or
  slightly bent.

Disagreeable.
Bitter, afterwards somewhat acrid,
  persistent.
Bark fragile when dry, easily cut;
  light, tissue not very dense.
Dull and blackish.
Whitish or yellowish, insipid, un-
  changed, or rendered slightly
  orange-red by nitric acid.
Separable into lamince ; deepened by
  nitric acid.

Blue colour destroyed.
Flocculent  dark  grayish-brown
  precipitate.
No  change;   hydrochloric acid
  caused a yellow precipitate.
A small quantity makes the liquor
  cloudy; a large quantity renders
  it transparent deep red.
Nux Vomica [False Angostura) Bark.
Quills or flat pieces, short, often very
  much twisted, like dried horn, arched
  backwards.
None, or very slight.
Intensely bitter, very persistent.

Broken or cut with difficulty, heavy,
  tissue compact.
Resinous.
Variable; sometimes a spongy rust-
  coloured layer ; at other times whit
  ish, prominent spots, more  or less
  scattered or approximated.  Nitric
  acid makes it intensely dark green or
  blackish.
Not separable into laminae;  rendered
  blood-red by nitric acid.

Slightly reddened.
Clear yellowish-green liquor.

Slight turbidness not augmented by hy-
  drochloric acid ;  liquor greenish.
A small quantity makes the liquor clear
  and paler; a large quantity trans-
  parent red.
   Composition.—Angostura bark has been the subject of repeated chemical in-
vestigation.   Notices of the earlier attempts  to analyze it are  given by Meyer3 and
Pfaff.4   The analyses which deserve quoting are those of Pfaff5 and Fischer.8
1 Hist, des Drog. 3me edit. ii. 0.
* Dim. Inaug. de fort. Angust. Gotting. 1790.
• Ibid.
-  Cours d'Hist. Nat. Pharm. i. 588.
4  Syst. der Mat. Med. ii. 58.
•  Gmelin, Hand. d. Chem. ii. 1258.
vol.  ii.—56 
832                 VEGETABLES.—Nat.  Ord. Rutace^e

             PfaJPs Analysis.
Volatile oil.
Bitter extractive.
Bitter resin.
Acrid oily resin.
Tartaric acid (free).
Salts (sulphate and tartrate of potash, chloride of
 potassium, and sulphate of lime).
Lignin.

             Angostura bark.
             Fischer's Analysis.
Volatile oil....................   °3
Peculiar bitter principle............   3.7
Bitter hard resin.................   I-'
Balsamic soft resin...............   1 •»
Elastic resin..................   ".2
Gum........................   5.7
Lignin......................89.1

Angostura bark.................102.6
   1. Volatile Oil;  Odorous Prindple of Angostura.—Obtained by submitting the bark to dis-
 tillation with water.  It is  yellowish-while, lighter than water, has the peculiar odour of the
 bark, and  an acrid taste.   To this, as well  as to the resin, the  bark  owes its acrid, aromatic
 taste.1
   2. Angosturiu; Cusparin,  Saladin;  Bitter Extractive, Pfaff;  Peculiar  Bitter Prindple.—A
 neutral principle obtained  by Saladin2 in the form of tetrahedral crystals, by submitting the al-
 coholic tincture of the bark (prepared without heat) to spontaneous evaporation. When heated
 it  (uses, loses 23.09 per cent, of its weight, and subsequently inflames, without giving any evi-
 dence of its being volatile or nitrogenous.   It is insoluble in the volatile  oils and ih ether; but
 dissolves slightly in water, more so in alcohol.  Alkaline solutions also dissolve it.   Nitric acid
 renders it greenish-yellow; sulphuric acid reddish-brown.  Tincture of nutgalls precipitates it
 from its aqueous and alcoholic solutions.
   3. Resin.—The hard resin is brown, bitter, soluble in potash, alcohol, and acetic ether; but
insoluble in sulphuric ether and oil of turpentine.   The soft resin  is acrid,  greenish-yellow, so-
 luble in alcohol, ether, oil of turpentine, and almond oil ; but  insoluble in a solution of potash.
 It  is coloured red by nitric acid.3
   Physiological Effects.—A powerful aromatic or stimulant tonic (see  the  ef-
fects of the  aromatic bitters).   Its aromatic or stimulant  properties depend  on the
volatile oil and resin ; its tonic operation, on  the bitter principle.   In its tonic and
febrifuge  powers it approximates  to cinchona bark,  but is  devoid of astringency.  It
is  less likely to  irritate the  stomach  or to  cause constipation than cinchona; but
usually keeps  the bowels gently open.  In  full doses,  it is capable of nauseating
and purging.   Dr. Hancock says the warm infusion causes sweating and  diuresis.
In its  combination of tonic and aromatic properties, it is  most allied to cascarilla.
 In its  stomachic qualities it  approaches calumba.
   Uses.—Angostura bark is  but little employed by practitioners of  this country.
 We may fairly ascribe this in  part to the serious consequences which have resulted
 from the use of  the false angostura, and in part to the  belief that we have other
 remedies  of equal, if not of superior,  efficacy  to it.  In  some  of the  continental
 States, its  employment has been prohibited.   It may be administered as a febrifuge
 in intermittents and remittent?,, especially in the  worst forms of the  bilious remittents
 of tropical  climates.   Drs.  Williams,4 Wilkinson,5 Winterbottom,8 and,  more re-
cently, Dr. Hancock, have spoken in the highest terms of its efficacy.   In some of
 these cases,  it  is said to have  proved  greatly superior to  cinchona.   It sits  more
readily on the stomach, and does not cause  constipation  like  the  latter, but keeps
 the bowels gently open.  In adynamic continued fever, especially when complicated
with great disorder of  the digestive organs (manifested by vomiting or purging), it
 has been  used with good effect.7   As an aromatic  tonic and stomachic, in gmeral
relaxation and muscular debility, and  in atonic conditions  of the stomach and in-
testinal, tube (as  some forms  of dyspepsia, anorexia, &c), it has been employed with
great success.   It has also been  administered to check profuse mucous discharges,
as  in the latter stages and chronic forms of  dysentery and diarrhoea, and in chronic
bronchial affections attended with excessive secretion of mucus.  In fine, ano-oatura
is  applicable to any of  the purposes  for which other vegetable tonics (especially
cascarilla, calumba, and cinchona) are commonly employed.
   Administration.—It may be given in powder,  in doses of from  grs.  x to 5ss.
Bat the infusion and tincture are better preparations.
I  TSdi' °p- Supra "*■ B.d,,U; 6l and 69; and Bd- vi- m-           2 Journ. de Chim. Mid ix  388
  PfarT, op. supra cit. vi. 191.                « Lond. Med. and Phys. Journ. 1798, part ii d  158 '
■  Ibid. 1790, part iv. p. 331.                  « Med. Facts and Obsv. vii. 41.    ' P     P'
  Winterbottom; also Lettsom, Mem. of the Med. Soc. of Lond. iv. 191. 
Officinal Guaiacum:—History.
883
  1. INFUSHI CUSPARIjE, L. E.;  Infusion of Cusparia  [Infusum Angusfurx,  TT.
S.]. — (Cusparia,  bruised, 5v [|ss,  V. S.~);  Boiling  [distilled, L.~]  Water Oj.
Macerate for two hours  in a lightly covered vessel, and strain  [through linen or
calico, El).—Tonic, stomachic, and stimulant.  Used in low fever, bilious diarrhoeas
and dysenteries, muscular debility, dyspepsia, &c.—Dose, from f^j to f^ij.   Tinc-
ture of cinnamon is an agreeable  addition to it.

  2, TINCTURA CUSPARLE, E.; Tincture  of Cusparia.—(Cusparia, in  moderately
fine powder,  |ivss;  Proof Spirit  Oij.  This tincture is to be made like the tincture
of cinchona,  and most expeditiously by the  process of percolation,  E.)—Tonic,
stimulant, and stomachic.  Generally employed as an adjunct  to bitter infusions.
—Dose, f 3j to f3ij.
                       OTHER MEDICINAL RUTACE^J.

  The root of Dictamntjs Fkaxiwella, or Bastard Dittany, was formerly employed in medi-
cine, but of late years has fallen into almost total disuse.  There are two varieties of this plant:
a purpurea with purple flowers; and  B. alba with white  flowers.  It is a native of the South
of Europe.  The root contains volatile oil, resin, bitter extractive, and probably gum.  It is an aro-
matic tonic, and is reputed to possess antispasmodic, diuretic, and emmenagogue  properties.
It was  formerly  employed  in intermittents,  epilepsy, hysteria,  amenorrhcea, chlorosis, and
worms. The dose of it is from ^j to^j.  Attention has been recently drawn  to it by Dr. Aldis,1
who states that it lias been employed, during forty years, with great success, in the cure of epi-
lepsy, by Biimn A. Sloet von Oldruitenborgh and lamily.2   I am acquainted with  one patient
(a young lady) who took it for six  months without receiving any ultimate benefit from it.



 Order  LXX.  ZYGOPHYLLACE^E,  Lindley.—THE  BEAN

                              CAPER  TRIBE.

                              Zygophtlle^,  R. Brown.

  Characters—Sepals 5, distinct,  or scarcely coherent at the base. Petals 5, alternate with the
sepals, inserted on the receptacle.   Stamens 10, distinct, hypogynous, 5 oppo;-ite to  the sepals,
and 5 to the petals.  Ovary distinct, 5 celled ; styles 5, united into one, sometimes rather distinct
at the apex.  Capsule of five carpels, which are  more or less adnate to each other, and to the
central axis; cells dehiscent at the superior angle, usually many seeded, or  1-seeded, neither
cocculiferotis nor arilliferous.  Seeds albuminous, or commonly exalbuminous;  embryo straight;
radicle superior; cotyledons foliaceous.—Herbs, shrubs, or  trees.  Leaves with stipules at the base,
usually compound.  (De Cand.)
  Phopkrtiks.—The Guaiacums are resinous, and possess  stimulant properties.


   297.  GUAIACUM OFFICINALE, Linn. L. E. J9.-OFFICINAL
                                GUAIACUM.

                            Sex. Syst. Decandria, Monogynia.
   (Lignum ; Resina e ligno igne comparata, L.—Resin obtained by heat from the wood,JJ.—Wood
                                    and resin, D.)
                        [Guaiaci Lignum, Guaiaci Resina, U. S.J

  History.—The  Spaniards  derived their  knowledge of the  medicinal uses  of
Guaiacum from the natives of  St. Domingo, aud  introduced this remedy into Eu-
rope in the early part  of  the sixteenth century (about 1508).   The first importer
of it was Gonsalvo Ferrand, who,  being infected with the venereal disease, and not
obtaining any cure for it in Europe, went to the  West Indies, to ascertain how the
natives in  that part of the world treated  themselves, as the disease was as common
with them as smallpox with Europeans.   Having  ascertained that  Guaiacum was
< Lond. Med. Gaz. xix. 142.
* See Lond. Med. end Phys. Journ. xlvi. 605. 
884             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Zygophyllace.e.
employed, he returned to Spain, and commenced practitioner himself.  "I suppose,"
says Freind,1 "he might  make a monopoly of it;  for it appears that some time
after, it was sold for seven gold crowns a pound."
   Botany.  Gen. Char-— Calyx 5-partite, obtuse.  Petals 5.  Stamens 10;  fila-
ments naked, or somewhat appendiculate.  Style and stigma 1.   Capsule somewhat
stalked, 5-celled, 5-angled, or by abortion 2- or 3-celled.  Seeds solitary in the cells,
affixed to the axis, pendulous;  albumen cartilaginous, with small chinks; cotyledons
somewhat thick.—Trees with a hard wood.  Leaves abruptly pinnate.  Peduncles
axillary, 1-flowered.   (De Cand.)
   Sp. Char.—Leaves bijugate; leaflets obovate or oval, obtuse. (De Cand.)
   A tree rising  30  or 40 feet  high.   Stem  commonly crooked ;   bark  furrowed;
wood very hard and heavy.   Leaves evergreen.   Flowers 6 to 10 in  the axillae of
the upper leaves.  Peduncles an inch and a half long, unifloral.   Sepals 5, oval.
Petals b, oblong or somewhat wedge-shaped, pale-blue.  Stamens somewhat shorter
than the  petals.  Ovary  compressed, 2-celled; style short, pointed.  Capsule obo-
vate, coriaceous, yellow.
   Hab.—St. Domingo and Jamaica.
   Description and Composition.—In this country, the wood and the resin only
are officinal;  but on  the continent, the bark also is used.  They are imported from
St. Domingo.
   1. Guaiacum Wood (Lignum Guaiaci).  This is commonly termed lignum vitas.
—It is imported  in large logs or billets, and is extensively used for making pestles,
rulers, skittle-balls, and various other articles of  turnery  ware.   On examining the
transverse sections of these stems, hardly any traces of medulla or pith are observ-
able, while the annual or concentric layers or zones are extremely indistinct.  The
wood is remarkable,  says Dr. Lindley,a " for the direction of its fibres, each layer of
which crosses the preceding diagonally;  a circumstance first pointed out to me by
Professor Voigt." This fact, however, was noticed by Brown3 above fifty years ago.
The distinction  between the young and old wood is remarkable.   The young  wood
(called  alburnum or sapwood) is of a  pale-yellow colour; while the  old  wood
(called duramen or heartwood), which forms the central  and principal part of the
stem, is of a greenish-brown colour, in  consequence of the deposition of resinous
matter,  first in the ducts and subsequently in all parts of the tissue.   By boiling a
thin shaving  of the wood in nitric acid, the whole of the deposited matter  is de-
stroyed, and the tissue restored to its original colourless character.
   Shavings,  turnings, or raspings of guaiacum (lignum guaiaci raspatum seu ra-
sum ; rasura vel scobs guaiaci) are prepared by turners for the use of druggists and
apothecaries.    They are distinguished from the  raspings of other woods by nitric
acid, which communicates to them a temporary bluish-green  colour.   A decoction
of the shavings is yellowish, and does not change colour in the air, and  very little
even by nitric acid, though after some time it  becomes turbid.   Neither a solution
of emetic tartar, nor the tincture of nutgalls, causes any precipitate.   The ferru-
ginous salts deepen its  colour.
   Trommsdorff* analyzed the wood,  and found it to consist of resin 26.0, bitter, pi-
quant extractive 0.8, mucous extractive with a vegetable salt of lime 2.8, colouring
matter (?) similar to that of the bark  1.0, and woody fibre 69.4.
   Guaiacum bark (Cortex Guaiad) is gray, compact, very hard, heavy, and resinous.  Its in-
ternal surface sometimes presents numerous small, brilliant,apparently crystalline points, which
Guibourt supposes to be benzoic acid. Trommsdorff5 analyzed this bark, and found it to consist
of the following substances: peculiar resin, different from that of the wood, 2.2, peculiar, bitter,
piquant extractive, precipitable by acid, 48, gum 0.8, brownish-yellow colouring matter 4.1, mucout
extractive with sulphate of lime 12.0, and lignin 76.0.
   2. Guaiacum Resin (Resina Guaiaci).—This  is commonly,  though very erro-

  i Hist, of Physick, 2d edit, part ii. p. 365.               2 jfat. Syst. of Botany. 2d edit p 134
  1 Nat. Hist, of Jamaica, p. 226.                        4 jovrn. cU Chim. Mid. vi. 430.
  » Ibid. vii. 429. 
Officinal Guaiacum :—Description; Composition.          885
neously, denominated gum guaiacum.  It is obtained from the stem of the tree by
the following methods :—
   a.  By natural exudation.—It exudes naturally from the stem, and may be seen
on it at all seasons of the year.1   £. By jagging.—If the tree be wounded in differ-
ent parts,  a copious  exudation takes  place from the wounds, which hardens by ex-
posure to the sun.   This operation is performed in May.
   y.  By heat.—Another method of obtaining it is the following :  "The trunk and
larger limbs being sawn into billets of about three feet long, an auger-hole is bored
lengthwise in each,  and one  end of the billet  so  placed on a  fire that a calabash
may  receive the  melted  resin which runs through  the hole as the wood burns."3
8. By boiling.—It is also obtained in small quantities by boiling  chips or sawings
of the wood in water with common salt.   The resin  swims at the top, and may be
skimmed off.8   The salt is used  to raise the boiling point of the water.
   Guaiacum occurs  in tears and in masses.   Guaiacum in tears (Guaiacum in lach-
rymis) occurs in rounded or oval tears, of  varying size,  some  being larger  than a
walnut.    Externally they are covered by a grayish dust.   They are said to  be pro-
duced by  Guaiacum sanctum.*   Lump Guaiacum (Guaiacum in massis) is the
ordinary kind met with in the shops.   These masses are of considerable  size, and
are ordinarily mixed with pieces of bark, wood, and other impurities; they are of a
brownish  or greenish-brown  colour, and have  a  brilliant, shiny, resinous fracture.
Thin laminae are nearly  transparent, and have a yellowish-green colour.  The odour
is balsamic, but very slight, though becoming more sensible by pulverization.  When
chewed, guaiacum softens under the  teeth,  but has  scarcely any  taste, though it
leaves a burning sensation in the throat.   Its specific gravity is  1.2289.   When
heated, guaiacum  melts and evolves a  fragrant  odour.  The products of the de-
structive  distillation of  guaiacum  have been examined  both by Mr. Brande  and
Unverdorben.   Among the new substances obtained  by the latter, are two empyreu-
matic oils  of guaiacum (one volatile, the other fixed) and pyroguaiacic acid.
  The characters of guaiacum  resin, according to the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, are as follows:
"Fresh fracture  red, slowly  passing to  green—the tincture  slowly strikes a lively blue colour
on the inner surface of a thin paring of a raw potato."
   In 1805, Mr. Brande5 analyzed  guaiacum.   In 1806, it  was examined by Bu-
cholz,6 and in  1828  by Buchner.7  Dr. Ure8 has  made an ultimate  analysis of it.

      Brande's Analysis.
Substance sui generis (guaia-
  cum properly bo called)  . .  91
Extractive...........   9
Guaiacum...........100
   1. Guaiacic Acid; Guaiadn.—Is insoluble in water, but is readily dissolved by alcohol, and is
precipitated from its alcoholic solution by water, sulphuric and nitric acids, and chlorine. Ether
dissolves the resin, but not so readily as alcohol. Solutions of the caustic alkalies (potash and soda)
dissolve it, forming alkaline guaiacates (guaiacum soaps; sapones guaiacini).  The mineral acids
precipitate it from its alkaline solution.  Various salts (as acetate of baryta, acetate of lime,acetate
of lead, nitrate ofsilver,and chloride of gold) occasion precipitates (guaiacates) with the alkaline
solution.  Guaiacic acid is remarkable for the changes of colour it undergoes by the influence of
various agents. Thus, its powder, and paper moistened with its tincture,become green in air or
oxygen gas, but not in carbonic acid gas.   This change,  which  seems connected with  the ab-
sorption of oxygen, is influenced by the intensity and colour of  the light.  Various substances
give a  blue tint to guaiacum when in contact witn air; thus gluten, but not starch.  Hence pow-
dered guaiacum has been proposed as a test for the goodness of wheaten flour (which contains
gluten), and of the purity of starch.  Gum  Arabic, dissolved in cold water, has the same effect
as gluten, but  tntgacanth gum has not.  Milk, and various fresh  roots and  underground stems
(for example those of the horseradish, potato, carrot,  colchicum, &c.) also possess this property.
Certain agents change the colour of guaiacu-n successively to green, blue, and brown; thus, nitric
 • Brown, op. supra cit. p. 226.           2 Wright, Med. Plants of Jamaica.
 * Wright, op. supra eit.                * Journ. de Pharm. xx. 520.
• » Phil. Trans, for 1806, p. *9.           6 Quoted by Schwartze, Pharm. Tabell. 2te Ausg. p. 293.
 ' Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. ii. 571.        • Diet, of Chem.
Pure resin..........79.8
„  .  ( Woody fibre.....16.5
 on i  < Tasteless gum  ...  1.5
 <!U'1 ^Extractive.....  2.1

Guaiacum..........99.9
Carbon...........67.88
Hydrogen..........  7.05
Oxygen...........25.07

Guaiacum  .........100.00 
886            VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Zygophyllacejs.

acid and chlorine. Nitric acid colours the tincture of guaiacum green, then blue, and aAerwards
brown.  If a piece of paper moistened with the tincture be exposed to the fumes of the acid, its
colour is immediately changed to blue.  Spirit of nitric ether usually gives a blue  colour  to
tincture of guaiacum.  Mr. Brande has conjectured, and I think with  great  probability, that
these different coloured compounds are combinations of oxygen with guaiacum—the green com-
pound containing the least, the brown the most, while the blue is intermediate.  Mr.  Johnson1
says guaiacum resin consists of C^H^O10; its equivalent, therefore, is 343. According to Un-
verdorben, the resin of guaiacum  is of two kinds; one readily soluble in a solution of ammonin—
and another which forms with ammonia a tarry compouud.  Pagenstecher has shown  that
tinctuieof guaiacum with hydrocyanic acid and sulphate of copper produces an intense blue
colour.
  2. Extractive—This is extracted from guaiacum by the agency  of water. The quantity ob-
tained is liable to  variation.  It is a brown acrid substance.
  These observations, then,  show  that  guaiacum  is  essentially a peculiar resin,
mechanically  mixed  with variable  but small quantities of  extractive and other
impurities.
  Adulteration.—Various adulterations   are  described  as  being practised on
guaiacum.   Though I have found  this substance  in  the shops  of this country of
unequal degrees of impurity, I have never had reason to suspect that sophistication
had been practised on it.  The presence of turpentine resin might be detected by
the peculiar odour evolved when the suspected  resin is  heated.   Another  mode of
detecting this  fraud is to  add water to the alcoholic solution of the suspected guaia-
cum, and to the milky liquid thus formed, a solution of caustic potash is to be added
until the liquor becomes clear.  If now an excess of potash  cause no  precipitate, no
resin is present; for while guaiacafe of potash is soluble in water, the salt produced
by the union of potash and resin is not completely so.
  Physiological Effects.   1. Of the Resin.—Guaiacum resin is an acrid stimu-
lant.   Its  acridity depends in a great  measure on  the extractive with which the
resin is mixed, or which resides in the  fragments of bark contained in  the  resin.
  Under the  use of small and repeated doses  of  guaiacum, various  constitutional
diseases sometimes gradually subside, and a  healthy condition of system is  brought
about with no other sensible effect of the remedy, than  perhaps the production of
some dyspeptic  symptoms, and a slight tendency to increased secretion.   We desig-
nate this inexplicable, though not less certain, influence over the  system, by the
term alterative.   When we give guaiacum in moderately large doses, or to plethoric
easily excited  individuals, we observe the combined operation of an acrid and stimu-
lant.   The local symptoms are, the dryness  of  the mouth, the sensation of heat at
the stomach, nausea, loss of  appetite, and a  relaxed condition  of the  bowels.  The
stimulant operation is observed partly in the vascular system,  but principally in the
exhaling and secreting  organs, especially the skin  and kidneys.  Dr. Cullen justly
observes that it  seems to stimulate the exhalants  more  in  proportion  than it does
the heart and  great  arteries.  If diluents be exhibited, and  the skin  kept warm,
guaiacum acts as a powerful  sudorific;  whereas, when the surface is kept cool,  per-
spiration is checked, and diuresis  promoted.   By continued use, it has caused a mild
salivation.3  The stimulant influence of guaiacum  is extended to the  pelvic vessels,
and thus the hemorrhoidal and menstrual discharges are somewhat promoted by it.
But there is no  reason for supposing  that the pelvic organs are specifically affected
by it.   In very  large doses, guaiacum  causes heat and  burning in the throat  and
stomach, vomiting, purging, pyrexia, and headache.
  In  its operation on the system, guaiacum is allied to the balsams.   Dr. Cullen
considered its  resinous part to be very analogous to the balsams and turpentines.
  2. Of the Wood.—The operation of the  wood is similar to, though milder than,
that of the resin.   Any activity which  the wood communicates to boiling water
must depend on the extractive, as the resin is not  soluble in this fluid.
  Pearson3  says, that the decoction excites a sensation of warmth in the stomach,
produces dryness of the mouth, with thirst, increases the natural temperature of the

 • Proceed, of the Royal Soc. June 18, 1840.            2 Burdich, Syst. d. Arzneim. Bd ii S 283
 ' fJbserv. on the Effects of Various Articles of the Mat. Med. p. S, Lond. 1600. 
Officinal Guaiacum :—Uses.
887
skin, renders the pulse more frequent, and, if the patient lie in bed and take the
decoction warm, it  proves moderately sudorific;  but if he be exposed freely to the
air, it acts as a diuretic.   Continued use occasions heartburn, flatulence, and costive-
ness.   Kraus1 mentions a measle-like eruption over the whole  body, as being pro-
duced by large doses of the wood.
   3. Of the Bark.—The bark acts in a similar way to the wood.   Regnandot3 in-
jected, at eight in the morning, three ounces of  an aqueous infusion of it into the
veins of a  young man twenty years of age.  In half an hour a shivering fit  came
on, with colicky pains, followed  by two stools; this shivering  remained till five
o'clock  in the evening.
   Uses.—In the employment of guaiacum, the acrid and  stimulant properties of
this resin are to  be remembered.  The first  unfits it for use in cases of impaired
digestion, where  there is  irritation or great susceptibility of, or inflammatory  tend-
ency in, the alimentary canal; the second  renders  it improper in plethoric  indi-
viduals, in  all  states of excitement  or acute inflammation, and in  persons whose
vascular system is easily excited, and who are disposed to hemorrhages.  It is ad-
missible and useful,  on the other hand, iu atonic or chronic forms of disease,  with
retained secretions, especially in  relaxed and phlegmatic constitutions.
   The following are  some of the diseases iu which it has been employed :—
   1. In chronic rheumatism, especially when occurring in scrofulous subjects,  or in
persons affected with venereal disease, guaiacum may be administered with consider-
able advantage under the conditions  before mentioned.  In cases of  great debility,
with coldness of  surface,  and in  old persons, the ammoniated tincture may be em-
ployed.
   2. In gout.—As a  preventive of gout it was  introduced by Mr. Emerigon, of
Martinico.3  His remedy (the specificum antipodagricum Emerigonis, as our  Ger-
man brethren term it) consisted of two ounces of guaiacum digested for eight  days
in  three pints  avoirdupois  of rum.  The dose  was a tablespoonful, taken every
morning, fasting, for a twelvemonth.  Its stimulant qualities render it inadmissible
during a paroxysm of gout; and with regard  to  its use in the interval, it  is, of
course,  adapted for chronic atonic conditions only.
   3. In chronic skin diseases, where sudorifics and stimulants are indicated, guaia-
cum may be serviceable, especially in scrofulous and syphilitic subjects.
   4. In obstructed and painful menstruation, not arising from any plethoric, in-
flammatory, or congested state of system, the volatile tincture of guaiacum has been
employed with advantage.  Dr. Dewees4 states that he has long been  in  the  habit
of employing it in painful menstruation with good effect.  Drs. Macleod and Jewell
have also borne testimony to its  emmenagogue qualities.
   5. As a remedy for venereal  diseases, guaiacum wood was at  one time in the
greatest repute.  Nicholas Poll5 tells us that, within nine years from the time of its
introduction into Europe, more than three thousand persons had derived permanent
benefit from its  use.   Experience, however, has taught us the true value of this
remedy, and we now know that it  has no specific powers of curing or alleviating
syphilis.  It is applicable, as an alterative and sudorific, for the relief of secondary
symptoms, especially venereal rheumatism and cutaneous eruptions,  more particu-
larly of scrofulous subjects.  Mr. Pearson found it serviceable after the patient had
been subjected  to a mercurial course.  Under its use, thickening of the ligaments
and periosteum subsided, and foul, indolent sores healed.   During its administra-
tion, the patient should adhere to a sudorific regimen.
   6. In scrofula, especially that form called cutaneous, guaiacum is used  with
occasional advantage.
   7. In chronic pulmonary catarrh, especially of gouty subjects, it has  also  been
used.
l Heilmittellehre, 612.                '- Wibmer, Wirk  d. Arzn. u. Gifte, Bd. ii. S. 411.
' Journ. de Mid xlvii. 424             4 Treatise on the Diseases of Females, 2d edit. p. 81, 1828.
1 Quoted by Pearson, op. supra cit. 
888
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Oxalidaoe*:.
   Administration.—The powder of guaiacum  resin may be given  in  doses of
from grs. x to 3«s.  It may be administered in the form of pill, bolus, or mixture
(see Mistura Guaiaci).   The resin is a constituent of  the Pilulse  hydrargyri
chloridi composites, Ph. L., commonly termed Phimmers Pills, and of the  Pulvis
aloes compositus.   The resin  is also given in the form of alcoholic and ammoniatcd
tincture.   The wood is  exhibited  in  decoction only.  It is  a constituent  of the
Decoctum sarzes compositum, L.
   1. MISTURA GUAIACI, L. E.;  Guaiacum Mixture.—(Guaiacum 5iij ;  Sugar jfss;
Acacia Powder 5U ;  Cinnamon Water Oj [f^xixss, E.~].   Rub the guaiacum  with
the sugar and acacia, and to  these, while rubbing,  add  gradually the cinnamon
water.)—Dose, f^ss  to f Jij twice or thrice  a-day.
   S. TIVCTURA GUAIAfI,  E. D.  (U. S.);  Tincture of Guaiacum.—(Guaiacum, in
coarse powder, Jvij [£viij, D.~\ [Ibss, If. S}; Rectified Spirit Oij.  Digest for seven
days, E. [fourteen days, Z>.] [  tf. S.~], and then filter [strain, express and filter, D.~\.)—
Stimulant, sudorific, and laxative.  Dose, f5J tof5iv.   As it is decomposed by water,
it should be administered in  mucilage, sweetened with water  or  milk, to hold  the
precipitated resin in  suspension.

   i. TIOTRA GUAIACI COMPOSITA, L.; Compound Tincture of Guaiacum; Tinc-
tura Guaiaci Ammoniata, E. [U. S.] ;  Volatile Tincture  of  Guaiacum.—(Guaia-
cum, in coarse powder, ^vij,  giv;  Aromatic Spirit of Ammonia Oij [Oiss, U.  S.~\
[Spirit of Ammonia Oij, E.~].  Digest  for seven  days [in a well-closed vessel,  E.~\,
and  then filter.)—A powerfully  stimulating sudorific and emmenagogue.—Dose,
f3ss to f3ij.  May be taken as the preceding.

   4. DECOCTUM  GUAIACI, E. ; Decoction of Guaiacum.—(Guaiacum turnings ^iij;
Raisins  gij; Sassafras, rasped, 3j ;  Liquorice Root, bruised, gj; Water  Oviij.
Boil the  guaiacum  and raisins with the water gently down to  Ov, adding  the
liquorice and sassafras towards the end.   Strain  the  decoction.)—This is the  old
Decoction of the Woods.   The  resin of guaiacum being insoluble in water, the ex-
tractive alone is dissolved by  this menstruum.  The sassafras can confer but little
activity on the preparation.  Taken  in doses  of fgiv, four times daily, and con-
tinued with a sudorific regimen, it  acts on the skin,  and  has been thought to be
useful as an alterative in old  venereal,  rheumatic, and cutaneous diseases.


   Order  LXXI.   OXALIDACE^E, Lindley.—THE  WOOD-
                            SORREL  TRIBE.

                             Oxalide.e, De Candolle.

  Characters.—Sepals 5, sometimes slightly cohering at the base, persistent, equal  Petals 5
hypogynous, equal, unguiculate, with a spirally-twisted aestivation.   Stamens 10, usually more or
less monadelphous, those opposite the petals forming an inner series, and longer than the others •
anthers 2-ce led  innate   Ovary with 5  angles and 5 cells; 5 styles  filiform ; stigmas capitate or
somewhat bifid.  FruU capsular, membranous, with  5 cells, and from 5 to 10 valves   Seeds
few, fixed to the axis, inclosed within a fleshy integument, which curls back at the maturity of
the fruit and expels the seeds  with  elasticity.  Albumen between cartilaginous and fleshy.
£m6rj,0 the length of the albumer,, with a-long radicle pointing to the hilum, and foliaceous
ootyledons.-fferia«oi« plants, under-shrubs,  or trees.  Leaves alternate, compound, sometimes
simple by abortion, very seldom opposite or somewhat whorled (Lindley).
  Properties.—Acidulous and refrigerant. 
Nat. Ord. Vitace^::—Characters; Properties.          889
      29a  OXALIS  ACETOSELLA,  Lm«.-COMMON WOOD-

                                    SORREL.

                            Sex.Syst. Decandria, Pentagynia.

   History.—Mr. Bicheno1 declares this to be the genuine shamrock.
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—Sepals 5, free  or united  at the base.   Petals 5; Sta-
 mens 10; filaments slightly monadelphous at the base, the five external alternate
 ones shorter.   Styles 5, pencilled at the apex or capitate.   Capsule pentagonal, ob-
 long, or cylindrical. (De Cand.)—Perennial herbs.  Leaves never  abruptly pinnate.
   Sp. Char.—Leaves  all radical,  ternate; leaflets  inversely heart-shaped, hairy.
 Scape single-flowered.   Root [rhizome] scaly (Hooker).  •
   An elegant little plant.  Leaflets delicate bright green, often purplish at the
 back, drooping at night.   Footstalks  slender, purplish.   Bracts 2, scaly.   Flowers
 drooping, white, with purplish  veins.
   Hab.—Indigenous; woody and shady places.   Flowers in May.
   Description.—Woodsorrel  (herba acetoselles) is odourless. Its taste is agreeably
 acidulous.
   Composition.—I am unacquainted with any analysis of this plant.  Its expressed
 juice yields by evaporation binoxalate of potash.  Payen3 analyzed  Oxalis crenata.
 From its stems he obtained wafer, lignin, oxalate of potash, albumen, soluble nitro-
 genous matter, chlorophylle, oxalate of ammonia, free oxalic acid, oxides, salts, gum,
 an aromatic substance, and sugar. The quantity of oxalate of potash was from  1.06
 to 1.23 per cent.
  Binoxalate of  Potash ; Salt of Woodsorrel.—In  Switzerland and some parts of Germany,
 this salt is obtained on the large scale from woodsorrel, by evaporating the expressed juice, re-
 dissolving  the residue, and crystallizing.  500 parts of the plant yield four  parts of the crystal-
 lized  salt.   It crystallizes in while rhombic prisms.   It consists of—

                                               Atoms.        Eq.Wt.
                   Oxalic acid  ............2......72
                   Potash...............1......48
                   Water...............2......18

                   Crystallized binoxalate potash ...  1......138

  In commerce  the quadroxalate of potash is substituted for it (see p. 512).
   Physiological Effects  and Uses.—Woodsorrel is refrigerant.  Taken as a
 salad, it is considered a good  antiscorbutic.   Infused in milk, to form whey, or in
 water, it furnishes a grateful drink in fevers. A solution of the binoxalate of potash
 has been  employed as  a substitute for lemonade.



 Order  LXXII.  VITACE^E, Lindley.—THE   VINE  TRIBE.

                            Ampelide2k, Kunth, De Candolle.

  Characters.—Calyx small, nearly entire at the edge.  Petals 4 or 5, inserted on the outside
 of the disk surrounding the ovary; in aestivation turned inwards at the  edge, in a valvate man-
 ner, and often inflected at the point.  Stamens equal in number to the petals, and opposite them,
 inserted upon the disk, sometimes sterile by abortion ; filaments distinct, or  slightly cohering at
 the base; anthers ovate, ver.-atile.  Ovary superior, 2-celled ; style 1, very short; stigma simple;
ovules  erect, definite.   Berry round, often by abortion 1-celled, pulpy.  Seeds 4 or 5, or fewer by
 abortion, bony, erect; albumen hard ; embryo erect, about one-half the length of the  albumen-
radicle taper; cotyledons lanceolate, plano-convex.—Scrambling, climbing shrubs, with tumid se-
 parable joints.  Leaves with stipules  at the base, the lower opposite, the upper alternate, simple
or compound.  Peduncles  racemose,  sometimes by abortion changing to tendrils  often opposite
the leaves.   Flowers small, green (Lindley).
  Properties.—Acid leaves, and a  fruit like that of the common grape, is the usual character
of the order (Lindley).
i Phil. Mag. new series, vii. 2S8.                    2 Journ. de Chim. Mid. new series, i. 260. 
890
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Vitacble.
389.
  299. VITIS  VINIFERA, Unn. L. E. fl.-COMMON GRAPE-VINE.
                            Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Monogynia.
            (Fructus prseparatus, L.—Dried fruit, E— The fresh and the dried fruit, D.)

    History.—The grape-vine has been  known and  cultivated from the most re-
                                       mote  periods  of antiquity.    Among the
                                       most ancient of the profane writers, Homer,1
                                       Hippocrates,  and Herodotus,9  may be re-
                                       ferred to as speaking of the vine.
                                         Botany.  Gen. Char.—Calyx somewhat
                                       5-toothed.   Petals 5, cohering  at the point,
                                       separating  at the base, and dropping off like
                                       a calyptra.  Stamens  5.    Style  0.  Berry
                                       2-celled, 4-seeded;  the cells  or seeds  often
                                       abortive. (De Cand.)
                                           Sp.   Char.—Leaves   lobed,   sinuated,
                                       toothed, smooth or downy. (De Cand.)
                                         A  hardy,  exceedingly  variable  shrub.
                                       Leaves  more  or  less lobed, smooth, pubes-
                                       cent or downy, flat or crisp, pale or intensely
                                       green.  [Tendrils opposite to each footstalk,
                                       solitary, spiral.]  Branches prostrate, climb-
                                       ing or erect, tender or hard. Racemes  loose
                                       or compact, ovate or cylindrical.    Fruit red,
                                       pale, or white,  watery or fleshy, globose,
                                       ovate or oblong, sweet, musky, or austere.
                                       Seeds variable in number,  or sometimes the
                                       whole of them  abortive.   (De Cand.)—No
                                       less than  1,400  varieties  are cultivated at
                                       the  Luxembourg gardens.
   Description.—Grapes (Eves) considered with respect to their  shape and colour,
 may be thus arranged :3—
   1. Round, dark-red, purple, or black grapes.—The most remarkable variety of this division is
 the black Corinthian grape, which, when dried, constitutes the currant of the grocer
   2. Oval, dark-red, purple, or black grapes.—To this division  belongs the favourite' black Ham-
 burg grape.
   3. Round and white grapes.
   4. Oval and white grapes.-The  Portugal grape comes  under this division.  It is imported
 packed in saw-dust, and contained in earthen jars, from Portugal and Spain   The berries are'
 arge fleshy, sweet, and slightly acidulous.  They keep a long time after  they have ripened.
 In 1S22, the ad valorem duty of 20 per cent, on these grapes produced £1720.4  The white Cor-
 nichon grape is remarkable for its elongated elliptical berry.
   5. Red, rose-coloured, grayish, or striped grapes.
   Various parts of  the vine, some of which were formerly  employed in  medicine,
 are distinguished by peculiar  names;  thus, the leaves  are termed pampini; the
 cirrhi or tendrils, capreoh ; the tender shoots, palmites ; the juice or sap, lachryma;
 and the juice of unripe grapes omphacium, or commonly agresta.*  The  twts or
 cuttings of the vine are used for  flavouring vinegar                          °
   CoMPOSiTiON.~The juice of unripe and ripe  grapes has been examined by seve-
ral chemists.   I he following are the most important results:8__
Vitis vinifera.
1 Od. vii. 121;  and xxiv. 342.
3 Thompson, in Loudon's Encycl. of Gardening.
B Murray, App. Med. i. 444.
2 Euterpe, lxxvii.
4 M'Culloch, Diet, of Commerce.
6 Gmelin, Handb. d. Chevt. ii. 1255. 
Common Grape-vine:—Physiological Effects; Uses.         891
Juice of the Unripe Grape.
Juice of the Ripe Grape.
     Proust.
Extractive.
Malic acid, a little.
Citric acid, much.
Bitartrate of potash
Sulphate of potash.
Sulphate of lime.
Unripe Grape juice.
1. Deposit
 from the
 juice.
 Geiger.
Wax.
(Wax.
Chlorophylle.
Tannin.
Glutinous mat
2. Filtered
 juice.
     nous matter.
f Tannin.
 Extractive.
 Sugar (uncrystallizable).
 Gallic acid.
 Tartaric ucid (free) about
   1.12 per cent.
 Malic acid  (free) about
   2.19 per cent.
 Bitartrate of potash.
 Mu late, phosphate,  sul-
   phate, and muriate of
   lime.
Proust.	Birard.
Extractive.	Odorous matter.
i Sugar (granular and	Sutrar.
uncrystallizable).	Gum.
Gum.	Glutinous matter.
Glutinous matter.	Mnlic acid.
Malic acid, a little.	Malate of lime.
Citric acid, a little	Bitartrate of pot-
(tartaric, Bracon-	ash.
not).	Supertartrate of
Bitartrate of potash	lime.
Ripe Grape juice.	Ripe Grape juice.
                   Juice of White Grape of good quality. |

   1. Graph Sugaii.—This is one variety of the granular or crumbling sugars (Kriimelzuckers)
of the  Germans.   It agrees  with common  sugar  in its  essential  properties  (see p.  180),
but is less soluble in water and in alcohol than the latter, and does not sweeten so effectually.
From its boiling alcoholic solution it is deposited, on cooling, in the form of an irregularly crys-
talline mass.   Its formula is C12Hl4014.
   2. Bitartratk of  Potash.—The impure  bitartrate of potash, called crude tartar or argol,
which is deposited  during  the fermentation of grape wine, and  the purified  bitartrate, have
been already described.—(See vol. i. page 508).
   Dried Grapes  or  Raisins.—Grapes, when properly dried, are denominated
Raisins (icespasses).   Of these there are two principal kinds :—
   1. Raisins commonly so called  (Uvcp. passaz majores;  Passula mnjores).  In Granada, the
finest kinds of rai»ins (viz. the Muscatels and  the Blooms) are sun-dried;  while the Lexias (so
called from the liquor  in which they are immersed) are dipped in a mixture of water, ashes,
and oil, and afterwards sun-dried.1  By this treatment, the juice exudes and candies on the fruit.
Dillon2  states that the sun-dried raisins have  their stalk half cut  through while the bunch re-
mains on the vine.  The raisins of Valentia  are prepared  by steeping them in boiling water,
to which a lye of vine stems has  been added.3  Some raisins are said to be dried by the heat
of an oven.   Raisins are imported in  casks, barrels, boxes, and jars.  The best come in jars and
quarter boxes weighing twenty-five lbs.  The varieties known in  the market are distinguished
partly from their place of growth, as Valentias and Smyrnas; partly from the variety of grape
from which they are  prepared, as Sultanas, Blooms,  and Muscatels; and partly from the mode
of curing them, as Raisins of the Sun.  Muscatels are the finest.   Sultanas are stoneless.  The
raisins of Malaga are  of three kinds •* 1st, Muscatels;  2d, Sun or Bloom Raisins (obtained from a
long grape called Uva larga) ; and the  Lexia Raisins.
   2. Corinthiax  Raisins or Currants (Uva passula minores; Passula minores;  Passula
Corinthiacee).  These  are obtained from a  remarkably small variety of grape called the Black
Corinth. They  were formerly produced at Corinth  (whence they received  their  name),  but
are now grown in Zante, Cephalonia, Patras,  &c.  At Zante, they are gathered in August, dis-
posed in couches on the ground to dry, cleaned and  laid up in   magazines (called seraglios),
where they eventually adhere so  firmly as to require digging out.5  They  require eight, ten,
or fourteen days for drying.6  For exportation they are trodden in  barrels.
   Physiological Effects.—Fresh grapes, when ripe, are wholesome, nutritious,
refrigerant, and, when taken freely, diuretic and laxative.   The skin and the seeds
are indigestible, and should be rejected.   " I think we may assert," says Dr. Cul-
len,7  " that grapes  which  contain a  large quantity  of sugar are,  if taken without
their husks,  the safest aud most nutritive  of  summer fruits."  Raisins are some-
what more nutritive and less  refrigerant; for they abound more in sugar, and con-
tain less acid than the fresh grape; but,  if eaten too freely, they are apt to disorder
the digestive organs, and cause flatulence.   They possess  demulcent and emollient
qualities.
   Uses.—Both grapes and raisins are employed at  the table as a dessert.   They
' Inglis, Spain in 1830, ii. 193.                                2 Travels through Spain, p. 376.
1 Laborde, A View of Spain, iv. 99.
4 Busby's Journal of a recent Visit to the principal Vineyards of Spain and France, p. 44, Lond. 1834.
» Spon and W'heler, Voyage d'ltalie, &c. t. i. p. S5—&7.
8 Holland,  Travels in the Ionian Isles, p. 21 ; and Williams, Travels in Italy, tec. ii. 182.
1 Mat. Med. i. 253. 
 892                VEGETABLES .—Nat. Ord. Vitace*.

 are apt to disagree with dyspeptics and children.   Raisins are also used in various
 articles of pastry.   Considered medicinally, fresh grapes prove valuable in febrile
 and  inflammatory complaints; they allay thirst and  diminish febrile heat; they
 bxve been found serviceable in  dysentery1 and  in phthisical  complaints.3   " The
 subjects of pulmonary affections, who pass the summer in  Switzerland," observes
 Sir J. Clark,3 " may try the effects of a course of grapes, * cure de raisins,' a remedy
 in high estimation in  several parts of the continent.
   Raisins are employed in medicine principally as flavouring agents;  they enter
 into  several  officinal   preparations  (as  Decoctum Hordei  compositum, Decoctum
 Guaiaci,  Tinctura Cardamomi composita, Tinctura  Sennas  composita, Tinctura
 Quassias  composita), the flavour of  which they  improve, though  they  contribute
 nothing to the efficacy of these compounds.
   1. POTASS^ BITARTRAS.—See page 508.

   2. ACIDUM TARTARICUM.
   I TROCHISCI ACIDI  TARTARICI, E.;  Acidulated Lemon  Lozenges, or Acidulated
 Drops.—(Tartaric Acid 3ij )  Pure Sugar  ^viij ;  Volatile Oil  Lemons n^x.   Pul-
 verize the sugar and  acid, add  the oil,  mix  them thoroughly, and with mucilage
 beat them into a proper mass for making lozenges.)—Employed for coughs and
 sore-throats.   More commonly taken, on account of their agreeable flavour, as arti-
 cles of confectionery.

   4. VINUM;  Wine.—The necessarily confined limits of this  work compel me to de-
 vote a smaller space to the  consideration of wine than its interest and importance
 otherwise demand.
   In the British  pharmacopoeias, the only officinal wine directed to be used is Sherry
 ( Vinum Xericum, L.;  Vinum Album; Sherry, E.; Vinum album Hispanicum, D.).
 For medicinal purposes, however, other wines are also used; so that it is necessary
 to take a general view of the properties  of wines.
   The manufacture of wine deserves a passing notice.   Grape juice does  not fer-
 ment in the grape itself.  This  is owing,  not, as Fabroni* supposed, to  the gluten
 being contained in distinct cells to those in which the saccharine juice is lodged, but
 to the exclusion of atmospheric oxygen,  the contact  of which,  Gay-Lussac5 has
 shown, is necessary to  effect some change in  the  gluten, whereby it is enabled  to
 set up the  process of fermentation.   The expressed juice of the grape, called must
 (mustum), whose composition has been already stated, readily undergoes the vinous
 fermentation when  subjected to a temperature of  between 60° and 80° F.   It be-
 comes thick, muddy, and warm, and evolves carbonic acid gas.   After a few days
 this process ceases; the thick part subsides, the liquid becomes clear,  and  is  then
 found to have lost its sweet taste, and to have become vinous.   I  have already ex-
 plained the theory  of  the process, and also made  some remarks  respecting yeast.
 The wine is now drawn off into casks, where  it undergoes farther changes.  It  is
 then racked off into other casks, where it  is subjected to the operation of sulphuring
 (i. e. exposed  to  sulphurous acid, either by burning sulphur matches  in the cask,
 or by the  addition of  wine  impregnated with this acid), to render the  glutinous
matter incapable of re-exciting fermentation.  After this, the wine is usually clari-
fied,  or fined (i. e. deprived of  those matters which render the wine turbid, and dis-
pose it to undergo deteriorating changes).   Isinglass or white of egg (i. e. gelatine
or albumen) is commonly employed for  this  purpose.   The first  forms with the
tannic acid—the  second with  the alcohol,  reticulated coagula, which envelop and
carry down the solid particles that endanger the safety of the wine.8

  1 Zimmerman, Treat, on Dysent. 2d edit. p. 87, Lond. 1774.
  a Moore, View of Society,  frc. in Italy, ii. 254.
  » The Sanative Influence of Climate, 3d  edit. p. 256, 1341.      « De I Art defaire le Tin. Paris, 1801
  * Ann. de Chim. lxxvi. 245.                                                    '
  « For farther details, consult Fabroni, De V Art defaire le Vin, traduit de l'ltalien par F.  R  Baud
 Pans. 1801; Chapta!, L'Art  defaire le Vtn. 2e edit. Paris, 1819; also Ann. de Chim. t. xxxv  xxxvi'
xxxvu. ; Dr. Macculloch, Remarks on the  Art of Making Wine, 1816; and Busby's Journal, before quoted' 
Common Grape:—Manufacture of "Wine.
893
   The peculiar qualities of the different kinds of wine depend  on  several circum-
 stances;  such as the variety and place of growth of the vine from which the wine
 is prepared, the time of year when  the vintage is collected, the preparation  of the
 grapes previously to their being trodden and pressed, and the various manipulations
 and processes adopted in their fermentation.
   The wines of different countries are distinguished  in commerce by various names.
 The following  is  a list of the wines most commonly met with, arranged according
 to the countries producing them :—
   1. French Wines.—Champagne (of which we have the still, creaming, or slightly sparkling,ihe
full frothing, the white, and thepink) ; Burgundy (redand white) ; Hermitage; Cole Rolie ; Rousillon;
 Frontignac; Claret (the most esteemed  being  the produce of Lafilte, Latour, Chateau Margaux,
 and Haut-Brion);  Vin de Grave; Sauterne; and Barsac.
   2. Spanish Winks— Sherry (Xeres) ;  Tent (Rota); Mountain (Malaga);  Benicarlo (Alicant).
   3. Portugal Wines.—Port, red and  white (^ Oporto); Bucellas, Lisbon, Calcavella, and Colares
 (Lisbon).  An inferior description of red Port Wine is shipped at Figuera  and Aveiro.
   4. German Wines.—Rhine and Moselle Wines.   The term Hork (a corruption of Hochheimer)
 is usually applied to  the first growths of the Rhine.  The term Rhenish commonly indicates an
 inferior Rhine wine.
   5. Hungarian Wines.—Tokay.
   6. Italian and Sicilian Wines.—Lachryma Christi;  Marsala; Syracuse; Lissa.
   7. Grecian and Ionian Wines.—Candian and Cyprus wines.
   8. Wines of Madeira and the Canary Islands.—Madeira and Canary (Teneriffe).
   9. Wines of the Cape  of Good Hope.— Cape Maddra, Pontac, Constantia red and white (a
 sweet, luscious wine, much esteemed).
   10. Persian Wines.—Shiraz.
   11. English Wines.—Grape, Raisin, Currant, Gooseberry, Sec.
   Wines are also designated, according  to their colour, red or white ;  according to
 their taste and other properties, sweet, acidulous, dry, strong or generous, light, rough,
 sparkling, &c.
   The constituents of wine are, according to Gmelin, as follows : Alcohol, an odor-
 ous principle (volatile  oil?) blue colouring of the husk (in red wine), tannin, bitter
 extractive, grape sugar (especially in the sweet wines), gum, yeast,  acetic acid (from
 the commencement of the acetous  fermentation),  malic acid, tartaric acid,  bitar-
 trate  of potash,  bitartrate of lime, sulphates  and chlorides, pliosphate of lime, carbo-
nic acid (especially in the  effervescing wines), and  water.   To these  may be added,
 in some of the Rhine wines, paratartaric or racemic acid.
   1. BocauET of Wine:  Odoriferous Principle of Wine.—Every wine has a peculiar  odour,
 which depends, doubtless, on a small quantity of volatile oil.  The oil obtained from corn and
potato spirit has been already noticed.  Liebig and Pelouze2 have  examined tbe oily liquid pro-
cured in the distillation of wine as well as by submitting wine lees to distillation, and found it
to be mnanthic ether (C180,803) mixed with mnanthic acid (Cl4H1302).   From 22,000 lbs.  (about
 2200 imperial gallons) only two lbs. and one fifth  of oily  liquid were procured.
  2. Alcohol.—Mr. Brandt3 has shown  that  alcohol exists ready formed  in wine.  He  also
ascertained the quantity of this substance which  exists  in  different wines.  The latter point
has also been examined by several other chemists; as Geiger,4 Julia-Fontenelle,5 Prout, and Ziz,6
and more recently by Dr. Christison.7  Buris8 has ascertained the alcoholic strength of the wines
of the Pyrenees-Orientales.  Wines which contain a comparatively small quantity of spirit are
denominated  light wines;  while  those which have a much larger quantity are denominated
strong or generous wines?
  i Handb. d. Chem. ii. 1255.                         2 jnn de Chim. et de Phys. Ixii. 438.
  » Phil. Trans, for 1811, p. 337; and for 1613, p. 82.       « Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. ii. 1256.
  » Journ. de Chim. Mid. iii. 332.                     « Henderson, op. cit. p. 363.
  ' Jameson's Journal.                              • Journ. de Chim. Mid. 2e ser. t. v. p. 502.
  ■ For farther details respecting wines, the reader is referred to the works of Barry and Henderson, already
quoted, and to The Topography of all the known Vineyards, English  translation, 1824 j Reddm^'s History
of Modern Wines, 1833; and Busby's Visit to the Vineyards of Spain and France, London, 1S34. 
894
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Vitaceje.
Table of the proportion of Alcohol (sp.
                          (A. means
                           Brande.
 1. Lissa ......
 2. Raisin.....
 3. Marsala.....
 4. Port......
 5. Madeira.....
 6. Currant.....
 7. Sherry.....
 8. Tenenffe  ....
 9. Colares......
10. Lachryma Christi
11. Conslantia, white
12. Constantia, red  .
13. Lisbon.....
14. Malaga.....
15. Bucellas  ....
16. Red Madera   .  .
17. Cape Mnschat .  .
18. Cape Madeira  .  .
19. Grape Wine .  .  .
20. Calcavella  .  .  .
21. Vidonia.....
22. Alba Flore  .  .  .
23. Malaga.....
A. 25.41
A. 25.12
A. 25.09
A. 22.96
4. 22 27
   20.55
4.19.17
   19.79
   19.75
   19.70
   19.75;
   1S.921
   18 91'
   18.94
   1849
A. 20.35
   18.25
4.20.51
   18.11
4. 18.65
   19.25
   17.26
   17.26
gr. 0.825
average;
  Others.
  15.90 P
at 603 F.). by measure, contained in 100 parts of Wine.
F. Fontenelle;  P. Prout.)
18.40 P.
20.04 P.
21.20 P.
14.50 P.
24. White Hermitage . . .
25. Rousillon......
26. Claret  ........
27. Zante........
28. Malmsey-Maderia . .
29. Lunel........
30. Sheraaz.......
31. Syracuse.......
32. Sauterne.......
33. Burgundy......
34. Hock........
35. Nice.........
36. Barsac........
37. Tent.........
38. Champagne......
39. Red Hermitage ....
40. Vin de Grave.....
41. Frontignal (Rivesalte)
42. Cote Rotie......
43. Gooseberry......
44. Orange........
45. Tokav........
■16. Elder.......<  .
 Brande.
   17.43
A. 18.13
4. 15.10
   17.05
   16.40
   15 52
   15.52
   15 28
   14.22
4. 14.57
4. 12.08
   14.63
   13.66
   13.30
4. 12.61
   12.32
   13 94
   12.79
   12.32
   11.64
 4. 11 26
    9.88
    8.79
Others.
18.01 F.

30.00 P.

12 16 P.



12.20 F.
Port
   According to the more recent experiments of Dr. Christison, the quantityof alcohol in wines
has been somewhat oveirated.  The following are his results:—

                                                        Alcohol (0.7999)   Proof Spirit per
                                                      per cent, by weight,  cent, by volume.
                        Weakest...............14.97           30.56
                        Mean of 7 wines...........16.20           33.91
                        Strongest..............17.10           37.27
                        White................14.97           31.31
                        Weakest...............13.98           30.84
                        Mean of 13 wines, excluding those very
                          long kept in cask..........15 37           33.59
               Sherry { Strongest...............16.17           35.12
                        Mean of 9 wines very long kept in cask
                          in the East Indies..........14.72           32 30
                        MadredaXeres............16.90           37.0G
               Madeira—All long in cask in East ( Strongest  .  16.90           36.81
                           Indies........( Weakest   .  14.09           30.86
               Teneriffe, long iu cask at Calcutta.......13.84           30.21
               Cercial....................15.45           33 65
               Dry Lisbon...................16.14           34 71
               Shiraz.....................12.95           28.30
               Amontillado..................12.63           27.60
               Claret, a first growth of  1811..........7.72           16'95
               Chateau-Latour, first growth 1825........7.78           17.00
               Rosan, second growth 1825...........7.61           16.74
               Ordinary Claret, a superior " vin ordinaire" . .  .  8.99           18^96
               Rivesaltes...................9.31           22 35
               Malmsey....................V2.86           28.37
               Riidesheimer, superior quality.........8.40           IS.44
                  Ditto      inferior quality..........6.90           15.19
               Hambacher, superior quality..........7.35           16.15
  Dr. Christison states that by keeping wines, as Sherry and Madeira, in casks, for a moderate
term of years, the quantity of alcohol increases; but after a certain time it decreases ■ and it is
probable that at the period when wines begin to lose alcohol, they cease to improve in flavour.
  3. Free Acids.—All wines are more or less acidulous, as determined  by litmus.  They owe
this property principally to malic acid,but in part also to citric and tartaric acids.  The Rhenish
and Moselle wines and claret  are  termed  acid wines.   The  brisk, frothing, sparkling, or effer-
vescent wines (as Champagne), which are bottled before  fermentation  is complete, owe their
peculiar properties to the retention, and subsequent escape when the confining force is removed,
of the developed carbonic acid gas.   They are apt to become ropy, a change which is prevented
by pure tannic acid or powdered nutgalls.  The tannic acid of some wines,  especially the red
wines (as Port), is derived, in great part, from the husk of the grape, but partly, perhaps, from
the seeds.   It gives to these wines their astringency, and power of becoming dark-coloured with
the ferruginous salts.
  4. Sugar.—This constituent varies considerably in  quantity  in different  wines.  Those  in
which it is abundant are denominated sweet wines, as  Tokay, Tent, and Frontignac
  5. Extractive.—Exists in  all wines, but diminishes (by deposition) with their a«e
  C. Colouring matter—All wines contain more or less colouring matter.  Whon grape juice
without  the husk of the fruit, is fermented, the wine  is pale, and is  denominated while wine ■
but if the husk be present during fermentation, the wine is deep-coloured, and is usually called
red  wine.  Except in  the tintilla or teinturier  grape, the purple colouring matter re-ide* in the 
           Common Grape:—Adulteration and Effects of "Wine.       895

 husk, and is dissolved in the newly formed alcohol, and is reddened by the free acid.  In the
 exception just mentioned, the colouring matter is diffused through the pulp.  According to Nees
 von Esenbeck, the purple colouring matter of the grape resides on the inner side of the husk
 (epicarp).  By exposure to the sun, as well as by age, the colour of wines is diminished ; the
 colouring matter being precipitated. It may be artificially removed by milk, lime-water, char-
 coal, or subacetate of lead.
   7. Tartar (Bitartrate of Potash).—The most important saline constituent of wine is tartar.
 It is deposited, along with colouring and extractive matters, both  in the cask and bottle, consti-
 tuting argol (see Vol. I. p. 50») and the crust.  The deposition increases with the formation of
 alcohol.  Red wines (especially the youngest, roughest, and most coloured) contain more than
 white wines.
   Adulteration.—Various impositions are said to be practised by dealers on the
 consumers of wines.   These are almost entirely confined to the mixing of wines of
 various qualities.  In  some cases,  however, the finest wines have been prepared by
 mixture.  "From the gradual mixture  of wines of various ages," observes Mr.
 Busby,1 " no wine can be farther from what  may be  called a natural wine than
 sherry."   In some cases, inferior kinds of wine are substituted by fraudulent dealers
 for finer ones.
   To augment the strength of wine, brandy is frequently added.  This is done  to
 sherry before it is shipped from Spain.   To good wines, however, it is never added
 in greater quantities than four or five  per cent.8  By recent regulations,  ten per
 cent, of brandy may be added to wines after their arrival in this country, and while
 in the bonded vaults;  the  increased quantity only paying the wine duty.
   Colouring matters are also employed  to deepen or change the  tint of wine.  In
 Spain, boiled must (of  the cousistence of treacle, and having a similar flavour, but
 with a strong empyreumatic taste) is employed to deepen the colour of sherry.   It
 is  prepared by boiling down  must to a fifth part of its  original bulk.3   In this
 country, caramel is said to be  used for a similar purpose.  In Portugal, the juice  of
 the elder-berry has been employed to augment the colour of Port-wine, the produce
 of poor vintages.  To such an extent was this, at one time, practised, that  the Wine
 Company of Portugal rooted out the trees, and prohibited  their growth in the wine
 district.
   Flavouring substances  are also occasionally added  to  wines.   Thus, in Spain,
 Amontillado or Monlillado (a very dry kind of sherry) is added  to sherries which
 are deficient in the nutty flavour.  Being very light in colour, it is also used to re-
 duce the colour of sherries which  are too high.   Kino and logwood  are said to be
 used in  this country to augment the astringent flavour and deepen  the  colour of
 Port-wine.
   Lead, formerly used to sweeten wine,*  may be occasionally detected, in very mi-
 nute quantity, in wine  (by sulphuretted hydrogen).   It is usually to be  traced to
 shot in the bottle, and  rarely to fraud.5
   Effects.—The physiological effects of wine  next deserve out attention.   Taken
 in  moderate quantities, wine operates  as  a stimulant to the nervous and vascular
 systems, and the secreting organs.   It quickens the action of the heart and arteries,
 diffuses an agreeable warmth over  the body,  promotes the  different secretions, com-
 municates a feeling  of increased  muscular  force, excites  the mental  powers, and
 banishes unpleasant ideas.   In a state of perfect health, its use can be in  no way
 beneficial, but, on the  contrary, its habitual employment in many cases proves in-
jurious, by exhausting  the vital powers, and inducing disease.   The actual amount
 of injury  it may inflict will of course  vary with the quantity and quality of the
 wine taken, and according to the greater or less predisposition to disease which may
 exist in  the system.   Maladies of the digestive organs, and of the  cerebro-spinal
 system, gout and dropsy, are  those most  likely to be induced or aggravated by it.
 Intoxication in its varied forms is  the effect of excessive quantities of wine.  It  is
 remarkable, however, that though  the effects of wine mainly depend on the alcohol
i Op. supra cit. p. 3.                                2 Ibid. p. 4.
» Ibid pp. 4 and 11.                                 4 See Beckmann, Hist, of Invent, i 396.
» S<e a case iu the Phil. Mag. liv. 229. 
896
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Vitactlss.
 contained in this liquor, yet they differ in several circumstances from those of the
 latter.   In the first place, wine  possesses a tonic influence  not observed after the
 use of  ardent spirit.   Common  experience  proves to every one, that the stimulant
 influence communicated by wine is  slower in  its production and subsidence than
 that developed by spirit.   In the second place, the intoxicating  influence of wine is
 not equal to that of mixtures of ardent spirit and water of corresponding strengths,
 nor proportionate, in different wines,  to  the  relative quantities  of alcohol which
 they contain.  This will be obvious  from the following  table, drawn  up from Mr.
 Brande's results, before quoted:—
       Average quantities of Ardent Spirit and  of Wine, containing four fluidounces of Alcohol
                               (sp.gr. 0.825 at 60° F.).
                  Brandy, about...............  8  fluidounces.
                  Port Wine.................18^   ditto.
                  Claret...................26*   ditto.
                  Champagne................32    ditto.
   Now it is obvious from this  table,  that if the intoxicating power of vinous liquids
 was in  proportion to the  spirit contained in them, that a pint of Port-wine would
 be almost equal to half a pint  of brandy, and that Claret would  exceed Champagne
 in its influence over the nervous system ;  all of which we know not to be the case.
 It is therefore  obvious, that the other  constituents of the wine  possess  the  power
 of modifying the influence of  the alcohol.  Farthermore, it is  probable that they
 are enabled  to do this by being in chemical combination with  the spirit; for it is
 asserted by connoisseurs, that a brandied wine (i. e. wine to which brandy has been
 added)  is more  intoxicating than a  non-brandied wine equally strong in alcohol.
 Hence dealers  endeavour to obviate this by the operation oi fretting in, and which,
 in a scientific point of view, may be regarded as effecting the chemical combination
 of the foreign spirit with the constituents of the wine, by a second or renewed fer-
 mentation.   A third distinction  between the operation of wine  and ardent spirit is
 the greater tendency of the latter to induce disease of the liver.  " It is well known,"
 observes  Dr.  Macculloch,1  "  that diseases of the  liver  are the most common,
 and the most  formidable, of those produced  by the use  of ardent  spirits; it  is
 equally certain  that  no such  disorders follow  the intemperate use of  pure wine,
 however long indulged in.   To the concealed and unwitting consumption of  spirit,
 therefore, as contained  in the wines  commonly drunk in  this country, is to  be at-
 tributed the excessive prevalence of those hepatic affections which are comparatively
 little known  to our continental neighbours."
   Uses.—The uses of wines are threefold—dietetical, medicinal, and pharmaceuti-
 cal.   To persons in health, the dietetical  employment of wine is either useless or
 pernicious.   The least injurious  are the light wines, especially Claret.
   As a medicinal agent, wine  is employed principally as  a cordial, stimulant, and
 tonic;  but some of the wines possess  astringent and acid properties, for which they
 are occasionally resorted to.  In the latter stages of fever, when  languor  and torpor
 have succeeded to a previous state of violent  action, and in  the low forms of this
 disease, wine is at times undoubtedly  useful.  It supports the vital powers, and often
 relieves delirium and subsultustendinum, and promotes sleep.  But it is much less
 frequently and  copiously employed than formerly.  As a stimulating tonic and invi-
 gorating agent, it is given in the state of convalescence from fever,  and  from various
 chronic  non-febrile diseases.  In extensive  ulceration, copious  suppuration, gangrene
 of the  extremities, and  after  extensive injuries  or severe  operations,  or profuse
 hemorrhages, when the powers of life  appear  to be failing, wine is administered
 often with the best effects.   It has been liberally employed in tetanus, and at times
 with apparent alleviation of the disease. If in  any of the preceding cases it causes
 dryness  of the tongue, thirst,  quick  pulse,  restlessness, or delirium,  it  should of
course be immediately laid  aside.  And it is obvious that in acute inflammation,
especially of the brain or thoracic organs, in tendency to sanguineous apoplexy, and
1 Op. cit. 
Organic Substances :—Alcohol.
897
in the first or  acute stage  of fever, the employment of wine is objectionable, and
calculated to prove highly injurious.
  1. Port wink (Vinum Lusitanicum seu Portugallicum [Vinum Rubrum, U.S.]) is applied  to
most of the purposes above mentioned, for which a stimulant and tonic are required, and is the
wine ordinarily  employed in  the public hospitals of this metropolis.—On account of its astrin-
gency, it is particularly useful  in those cases which are attended with a relaxed condition of the
bowels; but it is apt to disagree with weak stomachs.  A mixture of two thirds Port-wine and
one-third water  is used as an  injection for the radical cure of hydrocele.
  2. Burgundy (Vinum Burgundicum) is a stimulant, and somewhat astringent wine; but  is
rarely used in this country for medicinal purposes.
  3. Sherry (Vinum Xeiicum, Ph. L.; Vinum Album, Ph. Ed. [U. S.] ; Vinum album Hispanicum,
Ph. D.) is  peculiarly valuable, on account of the small quantity of  free acid which it contains;
and it is, therefore, the wine best adapted for patients troubled with gout, or having acidity  of
stomach, or a deposition of lithic acid in the urine.
  4. Madeira (Vinum Maderaicum) is a more stimulating wine than Sherry, and is, therefore,
better adapted for old persons and debilitated broken-down constitutions, where its slight acidity
is not objectionable.   It is an  excellent wine for invalids.
   5. Champagne (Vinum Campanicum) is a diuretic and a speedy intoxicator.  It excites lively
and agreeable feelings, and, in consequence, is adapted for hypochondriacal cases.  On account
of the evolution of carbonic acid, it may be occasionally employed to allay vomiting.
   6. The Rhine wines (Vinum Rhenanum), of which Hock (Vinum Hochheimense) is the most
familiar example, and the Moselle wine ( Vinum Mosellanum), are  refrigerant and  light wines.
They prove diuretic and slightly aperient. Their acidity adapts tbem for use where phosphatic
sediments  are observed in the urine.  They are used also in low fever, with at  least less like-
lihood of doing  harm than the stronger wines.
   7. Claret  ( Vinum rubellum) has  been  already mentioned as one of the least injurious  of
wines. It is adapted for the same cases as the Rhine and Moselle wines.  Both are, of course,
objectionable in  gouty cases and lithic acid deposits, on account of their acidity.
   As  a pharmaceutical agent, wine is employed for the preparation of the medi-
cated wines (vina medicala). Sherry is the kind employed by the  British  colleges;
but, for economy,  druggists often use Cape wine.   Its efficacy resides essentially  in
the alcohol which it contains.   In some cases, however, its  acidity may increase its
solvent power.  But as the quantity of alcohol which it contains is variable, and  as
it is more liable to undergo decomposition than a tincture containing the same pro-
portion of spirit, the medicated  wines are objectionable preparations.

   §.  SPIRITUS VINI GALLICI, L.—See post.

   6.  MISTURA  SPIRITUS VINI GALLICI, L.—See post.
                300. ALCOHOL, L. E. D. [U. s.]-ALCOHOL.

   History.—Fermented liquors were known in the most remote ages of antiquity.
The Sacred historian tells  us1 that, after the flood (which is supposed to have oc-
curred 2,348 years before Christ), " Noah planted a vineyard: and he  drank of the
wine, and was  drunken."    Homer,3 the most ancient  of  all the  profane writers
whose works  have reached us, and who lived more than 900 years.before the Chris-
tian era, also frequently mentions wine, and notices its effects on  the  body and
mind.    Herodotus,3 who wrote 445 years before Christ,  tells us that the Egyptians
drank a  liquor fermented from barley.
   It is uncertain at what period vinous  liquors were first submitted to distillation.
Morewood* considers the Chinese  to have been  acquainted with this  process  long
before the rest of Asia, Africa, and  Europe.   It  is  usually stated, that Albucasis,
who is supposed to have lived in the twelfth century, taught the mode  of  procuring
spirit from wine.5  But as the process  of distillation was certainly  known  long

  1 Genesis, ix.                              i Odyssey ix. and xvi.
  ' Euterpe, Ixxvii.                          ' Essay on Inebriating Liquors, p. 107, Lond. 1824.
  1 Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. ii. 274.
     VOL.  II.—57 
  898                ORGANIC SUBSTANCES —Alcohol.

  before his time,1 it is highly probable that his predecessors had submitted fermented
  liquors to this  operation.  Raymond  Lully,fl  in  the  thirteenth century, was  ac-
  quainted with spirit of wine (which  he called  aqua ardens), as well as with the
  mode of depriving it of water by means of carbonate of potash.
    Preparation.—The preparation of alcohol may be divided into three stages; the
  production of a fermented vinous liquor; the  preparation  from this of an ardent
  spirit by distillation; and, lastly, rectification or purification.
    Stage 1.  Production op a Vinous Liquor.—When vegetable substances are
  placed in contact with air and  moisture, they undergo  that kind of decomposition
  which  is denominated fermentation.   The products of this  process vary at different
  periods or stages;  and on this depends the distinction into kinds or varieties of fer-
  mentation.   Thus  starchy liquids, under some  circumstances, become saccharine;
  the process being  termed  the saccharine fermentation.   Sugar dissolved  in water,
  and mixed with nitrogenous matter (ferment),  is converted into carbonic acid and
 alcohol; and  to this process the name of vinous fermentation is applied.  Under
 some circumstances, mannite, lactic acid, and a syrupy mucilage, are formed by the
 action  of the  nitrogenous or albuminous principles of vegetable juices on the sugar;
 this change has been denominated the viscous or mucilaginous fermentation.3 Vinous
 liquids are capable  of generating acetic acid, and the process is denominated acetous
 fermentation.   Lastly, most vegetable substances are  slowly converted into gases,
 and a  substance called vegetable mould (humus),  constituting  the  process termed
 the putrefactive fermentation.
   To produce a vinous liquid, it is  necessary  that there be present  sugar (or some
 substance capable of forming sugar, as  starch), a certain quantity of water, and  a
 ferment (usually yeast).   Moreover, a certain temperature (the best  is between 70°
 and 80° F.) is requisite.
   Both grape and  cane sugar yield alcohol by fermentation.   It is highly probable,
 however, " that cane sugar, before it undergoes vinous fermentation, is  converted
 into grape sugar by contact with the  ferment;  and that, consequently, it is grape
 sugar alone which yields alcohol and carbonic acid."4  On this view,  the one equiva-
 lent or 171 parts of crystallized cane  sugar unite with one equivalent or 9 parts of
 water, to form one  equivalent or 180 parts of  grape sugar, which, in the process of
 fermentation,  are converted into four equivalents or 88  parts of carbonic acid, and
 two equivalents or 92 parts of alcohol.

              MATERIALS.          COMPOSITION.                          PRODUCTS.
 1 eq. Crystallized  .               , 4 eq. Carbon  24---------------—-===^- 4eq. Carb. Acid 88
    Cane Sugar 171 lx  eq Grape     8 eq. Carbon  48 ^-^__—-—----~~
 1 en water      q)     ' Sugar 180 I 8 eq. Oxygen 64 --^^Cr
 leq. water . . .  . 9'       *        4 e«. Ozyff«» 32-____J^">^_
                            ^  I 12 eq. Hydrogen        —~^^,   eq Alcoho,   g2
              180           180             ISO                          .     ~

   Vinous fermentation, then, is  the metamorphosis of  sugar  into alcohol and  car-
bonic acid.   But as the elements of the yeast  or  other ferment  take no part in
the transformation (that is, do not enter into combination with the elements of the
sugar),  some difficulty has been  experienced in accounting for its agency in exciting
fermentation.   Two opinions are entertained  respecting it;  by some it is regarded
as a putrefying substance, whose atoms are in continual motion,  which they com-
municate  to the constituents of the sugar, and thereby destroy its equilibrium;5

  1 Dr. Royle's Essay on the Antiquity of Hindoo Medicine, p. 46, London 1837
  2 Thomson's History of Chemistry, i. 41, Lond. 1830; Testamentum Novlss
                                                                              de

winch he denominates catalytic force (from KiTO-hite, I loosen or dissolve).             '      ">"»u 
era
      P)
      >

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      as

to    2



      Q
      O
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Improved Apparatus for the Distillation of Spirit.
oo
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900                ORGANIC SUBSTANCES—Alcohol.

by others, yeast1 is considered  to  consist  essentially of seeds  or  sporules, whose
vegetation is the immediate cause of the metamorphosis of the sugar.   The liquid
obtained by the vinous fermentation  has received different  names, according to the
substance from which it is obtained.   When procured from the  expressed juices of
fruits, as  grapes, currants, gooseberries, &c, it  is  denominated Wine (Vinum)',
from  a decoction of malt and hops, Ale or Beer (Cerecisiaff and from a mixture of
honey and water Mead (Hydromeli).   Fermented  infusions  of barley (raw grain
and  malt), prepared by the distillers of  this country for the  production of ardent
spirit, are technically denominated Washes.
  The liquid obtained by vinous fermentation consists of water, alcohol, colouring
and extractive matters, oenanthic ether, volatile oil (e. g. oil of potatoes, oil of grain,
&c), various acids and salts.
  Stage 2.   Production  of Ardent  Spirits.—By the distillation of a vinous
liquid, we obtain Ardent Spirit (Spiritus Ardens).  When grape wine is employed,
the spirit is called  Brandy (Spiritus Vini Gallici, Ph.  L.) ; when the vinous liquid
is obtained by the fermentation of molasses or  treacle, the spirit is termed Rum
(Spiritus Sacchari); when the liquid is a  fermented infusion of grain ( Wash), the
spirit is denominated  Corn Spirit (Spiritus Frumenti) ; and when the vinous liquid
is either a fermented  infusion  of rice or toddy (Palm Wine), the  spirit is named
Arrack (if from  the  former, it is termed  Spiritus Oryzes).   The well-known liquors
called Gin, Hollands or Geneva, and  Whiskey, are  corn spirits flavoured.
  Ardent spirit, from whatever source  obtained, consists oi water, alcohol, volatile
oil, and, frequently, colouring matter.  The following are, according to Mr. Brande,8
the average quantities of  alcohol (sp. gr. 0.825 at 60° F.)  in  some kinds of ardent
spirit:—
                       Alcohol
100parts (by measure) of  (by measure).
     Brandy contain.....55.39
     Rum...........  53.68
     Gin............51.60
                        Alcohol
100 parts (by measure) of    (by measure).
  Whiskey (Scotch) contain . .  54.32
  Whiskey (Irish).......53.20
   Each variety of ardent spirit has an aroma peculiar to itself, which is character-
 istic of  the substance from which it is produced.   This depends on volatile oil.
   When wash is distilled, the fluid  that comes over is called  Singlings, or Low
 Wines.   It is concentrated or doubled by a second distillation, by which Raw Corn
 Spirit is obtained. Towards the end of the distillation, the distilled  product acquires
 an unpleasant odour and taste from the presence of volatile oil, and  is called Faints.
 Raw corn spirit is  sold  by the distiller  to the rectifier  at 11 or 25 per cent, over
proof, in the language of Sikes's hydrometer.
   Stage 3. Rectification.—The object of the rectifier is to deprive ardent spirit
 of its volatile oil and water.   This is effected by repeated distillations, and by the
 use of pearlash (carbonate of potash), which, by its  powerful  affinity for water,
 checks the rise of this fluid in  distillation.  In this way is procured  the liquid called
 Rectified Spirit (Spiritus Rectificatus, L. E. L\), which is sold by the rectifier to
 the chemist or apothecary.
   1. Corn Spirit Oil; Oil of Grain; Potato Spirit Oil; Fuselol;  Hydrate of Amy le; Amylic
 Alcohol;  Bihydrate of Amyline.—All ardent spirits contain a volatile  oil, which the  Germans4
 call Fuselol. In 1825, Pelletan5 described that obtained from Potato Spirit, and which has been
 subsequently examined in  1838, by Dumas,6 and  in 1839  by Cahours.7  The oil from corn
 spirit was described several years ago by Buchner.8   It has been long known to Messrs. Bower-
  1 The Yeast Plant has been already described and figured in a former part of this work  to which the
reader is referred (See Fermentum Cerevisise, p. 80, ante).  For farther details, consult the Memoirs of
Schwann {PoggendoiCs Annalen der Physilc, Bd. xii. p. 184; Pharmaceutisches Central-Blatt /ur 1S37
S. 547; and Meyen's Report on the Progress of Vegetable Physiology during the year  1837, Lond 1839)'
Cagniard- Latour and Turpin (Biblioth. Univ.de Geneve, Nov. 1838 ; and Jameson's  Edinb. New Phil
Journ volI. xxv,), Keitzing  (Repertoire de Chimie, t.  iii. Paris. 1838),  Quevenne (Journ. de Pharm. t
xxiv.), and rurpin (Memoires de I'Academie Royale des Sciences de I'lnstitul, t. xvii Paris  1840)

  •' tiTlil; Handb. de Chemie, Bd. ii. S. 367.                  * PWI" ^^ 18" and '»*■
  5 Ann.de Chim. et de Physiq. t. xxx. p. 221 ; and Journ. de Chim. Mid. t. i. p. 76
   Ann. de Chim et de Physiq. t. lvi. p K14.                    i Ibid.X.. l\x  p  81
  8 Repertorium, xxiv. 270. 
Rectified Spirit;  Proof Spirit.
901
bank, rectifiers, of London, who obtain it in the rectification of corn spirit  From them I pro-
cured it several years ago, under the name of Oil of grain ; and, in 1836, noticed it in my lec-
tures.1  In 1839, I gave a short description  of its properties in the first edition of this work.  It
has since been more completely examined by Dr. Apjohn.2  Under the name of Oleum siticum,
Mulder3 has described a peculiar oil, which  he obtained from corn spirit.
  Oil of grain, as I received it from Messrs. Bowerbank, is a limpid, transparent liquid, of a
pale yellow colour, and having a very nauseous odour and an acid taste.  The inhalation of its
vapour  produces  an  unpleasant and persistent  sensation in the throat.   When  washed with
water (to remove the alcohol), and  subsequently distilled from chloride of calcium (to deprive
it of water), it is quite colourless, and had, according to my experiments, a sp. gr. of 0.833  at
56° F. [0.813 at 60°, Apjohn]. It boils at about 268° F. Dr. Apjohn failed to congeal it at — 6° F.;
but Cahours congealed the oil from potato spirit at — 4° F.  It burns in the atmosphere with a
flame like  that of light  carburetted hydrogen  gas  [with a bluish-white flame, Cahours].   It
dissolves iodine; and, according to  Dr.  Apjohn, is a good solvent for fats, resins,  and camphor.
It is not miscible with water, which, however, sparingly dissolves it.  Neither  is it miscible
with  liquor ammonia?, nor with liquor potassa?. It dissolves in nitric acid, but acquires a slightly
yellowish-red  tinge; and, when the mixture is heated, violent reaction  takes place; nitrous
fumes mixed with nitric ether are so rapidly evolved, that, if the experiment be  performed  in
a tubulated retort, the stopper is sometimes driven  out  with  considerable violence.   When
mixed with oil of vitriol, a violet- or blood red-coloured thick liquid, with the evolution of a
mint-like odour, is produced, and, according to Cahours. sulphoamylic acid (bisulphate of oxide  of
amyle C,0H"4-O-t-2SO3-f-Aq. is formed.  When distilled with  dry phosphoric acid, it yields,
according to the same authority, a carbo-hydrogen called  amilene (C10H10). Potassium readily
decomposes it with the evolution of hydrogen.  If it be heated with fused potash, hydrogen is
disengaged, and a compound of potash and valerianic acid (C10H9O3-|-Aq.) is formed.
  This  oil is composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.  Cahours  regards it as the hydrated
oxide of a  hypothetical base,called amule or amyle (U10H11), and Liebig has adopted his views.
          Atoms. Eq.Wt. PerCt.
Carbon ...  10     60     68.18
Hydrogen  .  12     12     13 64
Oxygen  . .   2     16     18.18
Corn Spirit
  Oil
irit >
100.00
Apjohn.	Dumas.	Cahours
68.13	68.6	68.90
13.33	136	13.58
18.54	17.8	17.52
100.00
100.0
100.00
     Or,       Atoms. Eq. Wt.
Amule........1     71
Oxvgen.......1      8
Water........1      9

Hydrate of Oxide .  .) ,     OQ
  of Amule.....\l     8a
  I am informed by Messrs. Bowerbank, that they obtain from 500 gallons of corn spirit about
one gallon of oil, which they employ as a substitute for lamp oil.
  [This preparation, under the name of Alcohol Amylicum, or Fusel Oil, has been introduced
into the Supplement of the last Dublin Pharmacopaia.
  Take of the light liquid which may be obtained at any large distillery by continuing the dis-
tillation for some time after the pure spirit has been all drawn off", any convenient quantity.
  Introduce it into a small still or retort connected  with a condenser, and apply heat so as to
cause distillation.   As soon  as the oil begins  to come over unmixed  with water, the  receiver
should be changed, and the  distillation being resumed, and  carried nearly to dryness, the de-
sired product will be obtained.  The liquid drawn  over during the  first part of the distillation
will consist of an aqueous fluid, surmounted by a stratum of the fusel oil.  This latter, though
impregnated with a minute quantity of water, should  be separated and preserved as being suf-
ficiently pure for use.—En.J
  2. (Enanthic Acid and tEvANTHic  Ether.—The only liquid obtained in the distillation of
wine is a  mixture of CEnanthic acid and (Enanthic ether.  (See  Vinum, ante, p. 892).
   Properties  of Rectified  Spirit.—The liquid  sold by  rectifiers as  rectified
spirit (Alcohol Dilutum,  L.; Spiritus Rectificatus, E. D.) varies from 54 to 60, or
even  64 per cent, over proof, in the language of Sikes's  hydrometer.   Hatters em-
ploy that at 54 or 56; varnish-makers that at  58 per cent, over proof.   The  Lon-
don College fixes the sp.  gr. at 0.838 at 62°  F.; the Edinburgh College at 0.838,
or under, at 60° F.; the Dublin College at 0.840;  [the U.  S.  Pharmacopozia at
0.835.]
   Parity.   Rectified  spirit, besides having the  specific  gravity above mentioned,
should  be colourless, transparent, and not rendered turbid on  the addition of water.
"In taste and smell  it resembles  wine." (Ph.  L.)   Its  freedom from other  sub-
stances than alcohol  and water is  to be determined  partly   by the  purity of its
1  London Medical Gazette, vol. xviii. p. 963.
*  Lond. Edin. and Dubl. Phil. Mag. vol. xvii. p. 86, 1840.
»  Pharmaccutisches Central-Blatt fur 1837, S. 807 — Siticus, from o-mn.de, of or pertaining to corn. 
902
ORGANIC SUBSTANCES.—Alcohol.
 odour, by the absence of any acid or alkaline  reaction, and by  its easy and com-
 plete volatility.   It is frequently contaminated with the oil of corn spirit; of the
 presence of which  there are two tests, sulphuric acid and nitrate  of silver.  If
 colourless oil  of vitriol be added to rectified spirit, it causes a red tinge if the oil
 be present.   According  to Vogel, nitrate of silver is a more delicate  test  for the
 oil;  if it  be mixed with spirit, and exposed to solar light, it  becomes red  if any
 oil be present, but undergoes no change of colour if the  spirit be pure.  The fol-
 lowing are the directions of the Edinburgh College for the application of this test:—
   "Four fluidounces [of rectified spirit] treated with 25  minims of solution of nitrate of silver
 \Ph. Ed.], exposed to bright light for twenty-four hours, and then passed through a filter puri-
 fied by weak nitric acid, so as to separate the black powder which is formed, undergo no farther
 change when exposed to light with more of the test.
   The peculiar odour which spirit obtained from  brandy or  whiskey possesses, de-
 pends on a volatile oil, which " is best removed, on the small scale, by rectification
 with  a little caustic potash (Gbbel, Liebig), or by digesting the spirits with freshly-
 ignited pine charcoal."1
   Proof Spirit (Spiritus  tenuior, L. E. D.)—The sp. gr. of proof  spirit is  fixed
 by law at 0.920.  [The  London  College directs that it should be made by  adding
 to every  five pints of Rectified  Spirit (Spiritus Rectificatus, or Alcohol Dilutum,
 sp. gr. 0.838) three  pints  of distilled  water at  a  temperature of  62°   The Edin-
 burgh College orders of rectified Spirit (sp. gr.  0.838) J xxi, and of  Distilled Wa-
 ter 3xij, or  a sufficiency.  The Dublin  College orders of Rectified Spirit (sp. gr.
 0.840) seven pints,  Distilled Water, four pints.  Mix.  The specific gravity is 0.920.
 This  College  prepares a stronger spirit, called Spiritus Fortior, by agitating eight
 ounces of carbonate of potash, dried at a low red heat, with half a gallon  of recti-
 fied spirit, separating the upper  stratum by decantation, and distilling the liquid
 thus separated in a chloride of zinc bath, with a Liebig's condenser,  until the pro-
 duct amounts to seventy-two ounces.   The specific gravity of the Spiritus Fortior
 is  0.818.   It  is an intermediate compound between Alcohol and Rectified Spi-
 rit.—Ed.]   The tests of the purity of Proof Spirit  are the same as for Rectified
 Spirit.]
   [The Alcohol Dilutum, U.  S. is made with  a pint of Alcohol, U. S. and a *
 pint of Distilled Water;  sp. gr.  0.935.]
   Preparation of Alcohol.—Alcohol (E. D.)  is prepared by the chemist from
 the rectified spirit purchased of the rectifier.   It is obtained  by adding chloride of
 calcium, carbonate of potash, or well-burnt  lime, to  the  spirit, which is then  sub-
 mitted to distillation.   The  salts or lime retain  the water, while the alcohol distils
 over.   The Pharmacopoeia of the London  College contains no  process  for the pre-
 paration of alcohol.
  The Edinburgh College directs " Rectified Spirit Oj ;  Lime  well  burnt gxviij.  Break down
 the lime into small fragments; expose  the spirit and lime together to a gentle heat  in a  glass
 matrass till the lime begins to slake; withdraw the heat till the slaking is finished, preserving
 the upper part of the matrass cool with damp cloths.   Then attach a proper refrigeratory, and
 with a gradually-increasing heat, distil off seventeen fluidounces.  The density of this alcohol
 should not exceed 0.796; if  higher, the distillation must have been begun before the slaking of
 the lime was finished.
  The Dublin College takes of Spirit rectified by Carbonate  of Potash (Spiritus Fortior), of a
 sp. gr. 0.818, Oj; Pulverized fresh-burnt Lime |x.  This mixture is to be distilled by means
of a chloride of zinc bath until a product of nearly £xvj,  of a sp. gr. 0.795, is procured.  The
first two ounces are to be rejected.
   Properties of Alcohol—Alcohol is a limpid, colourless, inflammable liquid,
having a peculiar and penetrating odour, and a burning taste.   Its sp.  gr. at 60° F
is  0.7947 ; at 68° F. it is 0.792—0.791.  It is  obvious, therefore, that  the Alcohol
of the Edinburgh and Dublin colleges is a mixture of alcohol, properly so called,
and water.  No means of solidifying it are  at present known.   [It  has been ex-
posed by Faraday to  a cold of 166°, by means of a bath of solid carbonic acid and
1 Turner's Elements of Chemistry, p. 829, 7th edit. Lond. 1840. 
Properties of Alcohol; Characteristics;  Composition.
903
ether.   It acquired  the  consistency  of castor-oil, but did not solidify.—Ed.]  It
boils at 172° F.; every volume of the boiling liquid gives  488.3 volumes of vapour,
calculated at 212° F.   It is very combustible.   In atmospheric air it burns with a
pale blue flame, giving out a very intense heat, and generating carbonic acid and
water, but depositing  no carbon, unless the  supply of oxygen be deficient.   The
colour of the flame may be variously  tinted—as  yellow by  chloride of sodium,
whitish-violet by chloride  of potassium, green by boracic acid or a cupreous salt,
carmine red by chloride of lithium, crimson by chloride of strontium, and greenish-
yellow by chloride of  barium.
   Alcohol has a strong affinity for water;  hence  it abstracts this fluid from the at-
mosphere, and precipitates from  their watery solution those salts (e. g. sulphate of
potash) which are not soluble  in spirit;  while, on the other hand, water precipi-
tates  from their alcoholic solution those substances (e. g.  resin and oil) not soluble
in water.  By the mixture  of  alcohol and water,  heat  is evolved, while air-bubbles
are so  copiously developed, that for a few moments  the liquid  appears turbid.
When cold, the resulting compound  is found to possess a greater density than the
mean of its constituents; but as the condensation varies with the proportions of
alcohol and water employed, the sp. gr.  of the resulting  compound  can be ascer-
tained by experiment only.  Tbe  maximum condensation is  obtained  by mixing
54 vols, of  alcohol  with 49.77  vols,  of water; the resulting compound measures
100 vols., so that the  condensation is 3.77.  If we regard this as a definite com-
pound of alcohol and  water, its composition may thus  be stated :—
                                                            Rudberg.
                              Eq.    Eq. Wt.  Per Cent. Wt.     Vols.   Weight.
          Alcohol..........  1      23       46          54.00   42.91
          Water..........3      27        54          49.77   49.77
          Terhydrate of Alcohol .  1       50       100         100.00   92.63
                                                [condensation 3.77]

   Alcohol  combines with certain salts (as the  chlorides and nitrates) to form  defi-
nite compounds, which have been termed alcohates,  in which the alcohol appears to
act as a substitute for  the water of crystallization.   Alcohol  is a solvent of many
organic substances, as  volatile oil, fixed oil, resin, extractive, most varieties of sugar,
many  nitrogenous  organic   acids,  the vegetable  alkalies, urea, caseine, gliadine,
leucine, and osmazome.   It  prevents the putrefaction of animal substances, and is,
in consequence, extensively  employed in the preservation ofvanatomical preparations.
It acts, in  part at least, by excluding air (oxygen) and  water, the two powerful
promoters of putrefaction ;  for when  animal substances are immersed  in  spirit, this
fluid  abstracts water from the tissue, which,  in consequence, shrivels up, and thus
prevents putrefaction,  by removing one of the essential conditions to its production,
namely, the presence of water.  Its attraction for water, and its power of coagulating
albuminous  substances, are  properties which probably assist in rendering  it an anti-
septic.   Alcohol and rectified spirit of wine give greater firmness to and whiten the
animal tissues.  The latter  property  is objectionable  in  the preservation  of some
morbid specimens, as gelatiniform  cancer  (cancer gilatiniforme or ariolaire of
Cruveilhier—the matiere collo'ide of Laennec).  A mixture of one part rectified spirit
and three water will, however,  preserve specimens of the last-mentioned  disease in
a transparent condition.
   Characteristics.—Alcohol and ardent spirits  are  recognized  by their inflam-
mability, odour, taste, aud miscibility with  water.  They dissolve camphor and resin.
In order to detect alcohol in liquids supposed to contain it, let the suspected liquor
be submitted to distillation  with  a gentle  heat (as from  a vapour or water-bath),
and to the distilled liquid add dry carbonate of  potash, to  abstract the water.   The
alcohol floats on the  surface of the alkaline solution, and may be recognized by the
characters above mentioned  [especially by  its power of dissolving camphor].
   Composition.—The elementary constituents of alcohol are carbon, hydrogen, and 
904
ORGANIC SUBSTANCES.—Alcohol.
Fig. 391.
oxygen; [and, according to the views of modern chemists, the formula for this com-
pound is C4H6Oa=46, or Ae O + HO; i. e. alcohol is regarded as a hydrated oxide
of ethyle, a compound radical, which has recently been procured  in a separate state
by Dr.  Frankland.—Ed.]
  Alcoholometry. — The  value  of  ardent spirit is,  of course, proportionate
                      to the  quantity  of  alcohol  contained therein,  and,  there-
                      fore, a ready mode of estimating this is most desirable.  The
                      alcoholometrical method usually adopted consists in determin-
                      ing  the sp.  gr. of  the liquid by an  instrument called the
                      hydrometer (from iiSwp, water, and p-itpov,  a measure). That
                      employed in this country, in the  collection of the  duties  on
                      spirits, is called Sikes's hydrometer (Fig. 391). Spirit having
                      the  sp.  gr. 0.920,  at 60° F., is called proof spirit; that
                      which is heavier is  said to be under proof, while that which
                      is lighter is called over proof.  The origin of these terms is
                      as follows:  Formerly, a very rude mode of ascertaining the
                      strength of spirits was practised, called the proof; the spirit
                      was poured upon gunpowder, in a dish, and inflamed.  If at
                      the end of the combustion the gunpowder  took fire, the spirit
                      was said to be above or  over proof;  but if the spirit con-
                      tained much water,  the powder was rendered so moist that it
                      did not take fire; in this  case, the spirit was declared to  be
                      below, or under proof.  As spirit of different strengths will
                      or will not inflame gunpowder, according to the  quantity of
                      spirit employed, it  became  necessary to  fix  the legal value
                      of proof spirit.  Spiritus tenuior, Ph. L., is defined by act
Hydrometer, with one of its °f parliament to be such,  that at the temperature of 51° F.,
   ballast weights (a).    thirteen volumes  of it weigh exactly as much as  twelve
   b. Another weight.     volumes of water.   According to this definition, the  sp. gr.
                      at 60° F. is 0.920, and spirit of this strength consists of—
Alcohol ,
Water .
 By Weight.            Sp. Gr.
■ .   49..........  0.791
. •   51 ..........  1.000
Proof spirit
100
0.920
  Spirit which is of the strength of 43 per cent, over proof at the least, is recognized by the
legislature1 as spirits of wine.  All spirit under this strength is known in trade as plain spirit.
Distillers  are not permitted2 to send  out spirits at any other strengths than 25  or  11 per cent.
above, or  10 per cent, below proof.  Raw corn spirit, therefore, is sold at 25 or 11  per cent, above
proof.  Compounded spirits (as Gin) are not allowed3 to be kept or sent out stronger than  17 per
cent, under proof; but Gin, as sold by the rectifier, is usually 22 per cent, underproof.  Foreign or
Colonial spirits (not being compounded  colonial spirits) must not be kept or sent out of less
strength than 17 per cent, under proof*  Rum and Brandy, as  commonly sold, are  10 per cent.
under proof.
  A series of carefully drawn-up tables, showing the relation which exists between
the sp. gr.  of spirit  of  different strengths,  and  the indications of Sikes's hydro-
meter, is a  great  desideratum.   Mr. Gutteridge5 has  published some  tables; but
several of his statements do not coincide with experiments which I have made on
the subject.   The following are extracts from his work :__
1 6 Geo. IV. cap. 80, Sects. 101 & 114.
' Ibid. Sect. 124.
Ibid. Sect. 81.
Ibid Sect. 130.
d* Sr'n" PlwZ Ultr,a "•£ Asia^e' WeiShing, Measuring, and Valuing of Spirituous Liquors, vol.'ii.
By w. Gnttendge.  London, 1828.                                                 ' 
Specific Gravity of Spirit.
905
    sikes's hydrometer.
                  Sp. Gr. at
                     60OF.
70  per centum ....  0.8095
64   .........0.8221
63.1.........0.8238
62   .........0.8259
61.1  .........0.8277
60   .........0.8299
59.1.........0.8315
58   .........0.8336
57.1.........0.8354
56   .........0.8376
55.9.........0.8.J79
55.7.........0.8383
55.0.........0.8396
54.1  .........0.8413
50.1.........0.8482
43.1.........0.8597
25   .........0.8869
U.l  .........0.9060
"*
  sikes's hydrometer.
                  Sp. Gr. at
                     OO^F.
Proof.........0 9200
 5 per centum  ....  0.9259
10   .........0.9318
11   .........0.9329
15.3.........0.9376
17.1.........0.9396
20   .........0.9426
22.3.........0.9448
23.1.........0.9456
25.1.........0.9476
30.1.........0.9522
40.1  .........0.9603
50.3.........0.9673
60.4.........0.9734
70.1.........0.9790
80.4.........0.9854
90.2.........0.9922
100 (water)......1.0000
   The sp. gr. of spirit may be readily ascertained  by Lovi's beads, or  by the  spe-
cific gravity bottle.
Table of the Specific Gravities
         Temperature 60° F.
Spirit 100 -f-
  "  100 -J-
  "  100 +
  "  100 --
  "  100 --
  "  100--
  "  100 +
  "  100 --
  »  100 --
  '•■  100--
  "  10.) --
  "  100--
  "  100 --
  "  100 --
  »  100 +
  "  100 --
  "  1(10 --
  '■  100 --
  "  100 --
  "  100 --
  "  ioo 4-
Water 0
  "   5
  '<  10
  "  15
  »  20
  "  25
  "  30
  «  35
  "  40
  "  45
  "  50
  "  55
  "  60
  "  65
  "  70
  »  75
  "  80
  "  85
  "  90
  "  95
  " 100
of Mixtures of
    Sp. gr.
 . . 0.82500
 . . 0 83599
 . . 0.84568
 . . 0.85430
 . . 0.86208
 . . 0 86918
 . . 0.87568
 . . 0.88169
 . . 0.68720
 . . 0.89232
 . . 0.89707
 . . 0.90144
 . .  0.90549
 . .  0.90927
 . .  0.91287
 . .  0.91622
 . . 0.91933
 . .  0.82225
 . .  0.92499
 . . 0.92758
 . . 0.93002
Spirit (0.825 at 603 F.) and Water at 60=> F.i
      Temperature 603 f.
Water 100 4- Spirit 95
   100
"  100 --
"  100--
"  100 --
"  100--
"  100 --
"  100 -h
"  100--
"  100--
"  100 -4-
"  100 --
"  100 --
"  ioo +
"  100 +
"  ioo -f
"  100 4-
"  ioo 4-
«  ioo 4-
«  ioo 4.
   90
"  85
"  80
"  75
"  70
"  65
"  60
"  55
"  50
"  45
"  40
"  35
"  30
"  25
«  20
"  15
"  10
"   5
"   0
Sp. gr.
0.93247
0.93493
0 93749
0.94018
0.94296
0.94579
0.94876
0 95181
0.95493
0.95804
0.06122
0.96437
0.96752
0.97074
0.97409
0.97771
0.98176
0.98654
0.99244
1.00000
   Another mode of judging of  the strength of spirits is the phial test, technically
called the bead;  thepreuve d'Hollande of the French.   It consists in shaking the
spirit  in a phial, and observing  the size, number, and bursting of the bubbles (or
beads  as they are termed); the  larger and more numerous the beads, as well as the
more quickly they break, the stronger  the  spirit.   Hitherto chemical analysis has
been of little avail in  determining  the strength of  spirit, at least for commercial
purposes; for, on  the  one hand, we are  yet in want of  an accurate  method of de-
termining the relative quantities of alcohol and water in mixtures of these fluids;
while, on the other, the combustion of  spirit by the black oxide of copper, and the
estimation of the quantity of alcohol by the carbonic acid produced, is impracticable
for ordinary  purposes.
   [The strength of alcoholic liquids may be, in general, determined  by the follow-
ing process.   Place four ounces  of the liquid in a retort, and distil two ounces at a
very low temperature.   Make up the distilled  liquid  in  the receiver to four ounces
with distilled water, and agitate the mixture until the liquids are thoroughly  incor-
porated.   When the mixture is  quite cold,  its  specific gravity may be taken by the
bottle,  and the temperature being noted, its strength  may be read off by the aid of
the above table.—Ed.]
   Physiological Effects,   o. On Vegetables.—Alcohol acts on plants as a rapid
and fatal poison.   Its effects are analogous  to those of hydrocyanic acid.
   |3. On Animals.—Leeches immersed  in spirit die in two or  three minutes. Their
 t Drawn up from Gilpin's Tables in the Philosophical Transactions for 1702—The spirit, which Mr.
Gilpin ea lied alcohol, was composed of 89 alcohol (sp. gr. 0.796 at 60^ F.) and 11 water. 
906                ORGANIC  SUBSTANCES.—Alcohol.

bodies are shrivelled or contracted, and before death they make but few movements;
the head and tail of the animal are drawn  together.   Fontana1 found, that when
half the body of a leech was plunged in spirit, this part lost all motion, whilst the
other half  continued in action.   The  same experimentalist observed, that spirit
killed  frogs, when administered  by  the stomach (in doses of  40 drops), injected
beneath the skin, or when applied to the brain or spinal  marrow.   Plunging the
heart of this animal into spirit caused its motion to cease in twenty seconds.  Ap-
plied to the right crural nerve of a frog, it destroyed  the  power of moving in the
right foot, on  the application of stimulus.   Monro2 observed  that  alcohol applied
to the  hind  legs of a frog  rendered the pulsations of the heart less frequent, and
diminished  sensibility and mobility.   Fontana3  states, that turtles were killed by
spirit administered by the stomach or by the  anus, or injected beneath the skin; be-
fore death,  the  animal  became motionless; applied to the heart of these animals, it
destroyed the contractility of this viscus.  Some very interesting experiments were
made with spirit on  birds by Flourens.4  This distinguished  physiologist adminis-
tered six drops  of alcohol to a  sparrow, whose skull he had laid bare.   In a few
minutes the animal began to be unsteady both in walking and flying.  After some
time a dark-red  spot appeared on the skull, in 'the  region of the cerebellum, and
became larger  and deeper-coloured in  proportion  as the alcohol more  powerfully
affected the animal.   I have given alcohol to birds, but have hitherto been unable
to discover the  physical changes here stated.   In some other experiments, Flourens
observed that alcohol produced  the same effects  on the  movements  of birds as the
removal of the cerebellum occasioned, but that, when alcohol was administered, the
animal lost the use of  his senses and  intellectual faculties;  whereas, when the cere-
bellum was removed, no alcohol being given, he  preserved them.  From these and
other observations, Flourens  is of opinion that alcohol, in a certain dose, acts spe-
cifically on  the  cerebellum, and that in larger doses it affects other parts also.  Far-
thermore, he thinks  the physical action of alcohol  on the cerebellum to be abso-
lutely  the same as a mechanical lesion.
   The effect of alcohol on  fishes is analogous to that on other animals.   If  a little
spirit be added to water, in which are contained some minnows (Cyprinus phoxinus,
Linn.), the little animals make a few (spasmodic?) leaps, and  become incapable of
retaining their proper  position  in the water, but float on  their sides or back.  If
removed into pure water, they soon recover.
   The mammals, on which the  effects  of alcohol have  been tried, are dogs, cats,
horses, rabbits, and guinea-pigs.  The principal  experimentalists are, Courten,3
Fontana,6 Viborg,7 Brodie,8 and Orfila.9  The results of their experiments may be
thus briefly expressed:  Four drachms of alcohol, injected  into the  jugular  vein of
a dog, coagulated the  blood, and caused instant death  (Orfila).  Introduced into
the  stomach of cats, dogs, or  rabbits, it produces  an apoplectic  condition (Brodie
and Orfila); this, state is preceded, according to Orfila, by a strong excitement of
the brain.   The same experimentalist found that  alcohol acts with less energy when
injected  into the cellular  texture, than when  introduced into the  stomach;  from
which  he infers that its first effects are the  result of the action which it exerts on
the extremities of the nerves; though  he admits that ultimately it becomes absorbed.
On examining the bodies of animals killed by introducing alcohol into the stomach,
this viscus has  been  found in a state of inflammation.
   y. ^ On Man.—The effects of alcoholic  liquors on man vary with  the  strength of
the liquid,  the  substances with which the alcohol is combined, the quantity taken,
and the constitution  of the patient.
1 Treatise on the Venom of the Viper, translated by J. Skinner, vol. ii. p. 371, et seq
2 Essays and Observ. Physic, and Literary, vol. iii. p. 340.              * Op. cit. p 365 et seq
'Recherches sur les fonctions et les proprietis du systeme nerveux dans les animaux vertibris.  Paris,

5 Philosophical Transactions for 1712.                              s Qp supra cit
1 Abhandl.f&r T ierarzte, Theil II. quoted by Wibmer, Die Wirkung, Sec.
■ Philosophical Transactions for 1611.                              s Toxicologic Ginirale 
Physiological Effects.
907
   aa.  The local effects of alcohol or rectified spirit are those of a powerfully irritant
 and caustic  poison.   To whatever part of  the body this agent is applied, it causes
 contraction and conden.sation of the tissue,  and gives rise to pain, heat, redness, and
 other symptoms of inflammation.   These effects depend partially or wholly on the
 chemical influence of alcohol  over the constituents of  the tissues; for the affinity
 of this liquid for water causes it to abstract the latter from  soft living  parts with
 which alcohol is placed in contact;  and  when these are of an albuminous or fibri-
 nous  nature, it coagulates  the  liquid albumen or fibrin, and increases  the density
 and firmness of the solid  albumen  or fibrin.   The  irritation and inflammation set
 up in  parts to which alcohol is applied, depend  (in part) on  the resistance which
 the living tissue makes to the  chemical  influence of the poison;  in other words,  it
 is the reaction of  the vital powers brought  about by the chemical action of alcohol.
 But, besides the  local  influence of this  liquid,  dependent on its affinity, we  can
 hardly refuse to admit a dynamical action,  in virtue of  which it sets up local irrita-
 tion and inflammation, independent  of  its  chemical agency.   The coagulation of
 the blood contained  in  the vessels of the  part to  which this  liquid is applied (an
 effect which Orfila observed when he  killed an  animal by injecting alcohol into the
 cellular  tissue of  the thigh of a dog), depends  on  the chemical influence  of the
 poison.
   3/3.  The remote effects of ardent spirits on  man  may be conveniently considered
 in the order of their intensity; and for this purpose we  may divide them into three
 degrees or stages.1
   1.  First or  mildest degree.  Excitement.—This is characterized by excitement of the
 vascular and nervous systems.   The pulse is increased in  frequency, the face flushed, the eyes
 animated and perhaps red, the intellectual functions are  powerfully excited, the individual  is
 more disposed to joy and pleasure ; cares disappear; the  ideas flow more easily and are more bril-
 liant.   At this period, the most violent protestations of love  and  friendship are frequently made ;
 there is a strong disposition to talk, and various indiscretions are oftentimes committed (In vino
 Veritas).  This degree of effect I presume to  be  the  condition  to which all persons aspire in
 drinking; the unfortunate drinks to drown his cares; the coward to give him courage ; the bon-
 vivant for the sake of enjoying the society of his friends ; the  drunkard for mere sensuality. None,
 perhaps, would wish to go beyond this; yet many, when  they have  got thus far, exceed their
 intended limit.
   2. Second degree.  Intoxication, or Drunkenness.—The essential character of this stage
 is a disordered  condition of the intellectual functions  and volition ; manifested by delirium,
 varying iu its characters in different individuals, and by an  incapability of governing the action
 of the voluntary muscles.   This state is accompanied with excitement of the vascular system,
 and frequently with nausea and vomiting; it is followed  by an almost irresistible desire for sleep,
 which usually continues for several hours, and is  attended with copious perspiration.  When
 the patient awakes, he complains of headache, loathing  of  food, great thirst, and lassitude; the
 tongue is furred and  the mouth clammy.
   During  a paroxysm of drunkenness, certain peculiarities are observed in  the character of the
 delirium in different  individuals.  These appear to depend on what is commonly denominated
 temperament.   Mr. Macnish2 has offered a classification of drunkards, founded on these  pecu-
 liarities.   He describes the sanguineous drunkard, the melancholy drunkard, the surly drunkard, the
phlegmatic drunkard, the nervous drunkard, and the choleric drunkard.
   3. Third degree.  Coma, oh True  Apoplexy.—This condition is usually observed when
 excessive  quantities of spirit have been swallowed in a short time.  According to Dr. Ogston,
 the patient is sometimes capable of being roused; the pulse is  generally slow, the pupils are
usually contracted, but more commonly dilated, and the breathing  is for the most part slow;
but exceptions exist to all these statements.  Convulsions are rare; when they occur, the patients
are usually young. In some cases, actual apoplexy (with or without sanguineous extravasation)
is brought on.   The immediate cause of death appears to be either paralysis of the muscles of
respiration, or closure of the glottis.
  1 The newspaper reports of the proceedings at the Metropolitan Police Offices furnish examples of the
employment, by the lower classes, of certain terms to designate the different degrees of  the effects of fer-
mented and spirituous liquors. When an individual is merely excited, he is described ns fresh; but neither
tipsy nor drunk.  When the disordered intellect is just commencing, he is said to be half seas over.  When
he is beginning to be unsteady in his gait, he is described as being tipsy.  When he reels, falls about, is
incapable of standing, but is  yet sensible, he is said to«be drunk.  And, lastly, when he is insensible, or
nearly bo, he is described as dead drunk.—Sir Walter Scoa (Waverley) distinf,o.is,he% fuddled or half seas
over (ebriolus) from drunken (ebrius).
  a The Anatomy of Drunkenness, 2d ed. p. 43, Glasgow, 1826. 
908
ORGANIC SUBSTANCES—Alcohol.
  Consequences of Habitual Drunkenness.—The continued use of spirituous
liquors gives rise to various morbid conditions of system, a few only of the most re-
markable of which can be here referred to.   One  of these is the disease known by
the various names of delirium tremens, d. potatorum, oinomania, &c, and which is
characterized by delirium,  tremor of  the  extremities, watchfulness, and  great  fre-
quency of pulse.  The delirium is of a peculiar  kind.   It usually consists in the
imagined presence of objects which the  patient is anxious to seize or avoid.  Its
pathology is not understood.  It is sometimes, but not constantly, connected with,
or dependent on, an inflammatory condition of the brain or its membranes.   Some-
times it is more allied  to nervous fever.  Opium has been  found an important agent
in relieving it.
  Insanity is another disease  produced  by the immoderate and  habitual  use of
spirituous liquors. In 110 cases of this disease, occurring  in male patients admitted
into the Hanwell Asylum in 1840, no less than 31 were ascribed to intemperance,
while 34 were referred to combined causes, of which intemperance was stated to be
one.  It is remarkable,  however, that of 70 female  patients, admitted  during the
same year, only four cases were ascribed to intemperance.1
   Disease of the liver is  frequently met with in drunkards who use ardent  spirits.
It is generally of the  kind termed, by Baillie, common tubercle of the liver ;  by Dr.
Elliotson,3 the gin liver ; by others, granulated, lobulated, mamellated, or scirrhous
liver.  Laennec calls it cirrhosis  (from xippbc, yellowish), in  reference to its usual
tawny, yellow colour.  A beautiful representation of it  is given  by Cruveilhier.8
Dr. Carswell4 has described it as consisting in  atrophy of the lobular structure of
the liver, produced by the presence of a contractile fibrous tissue.  It is not, there-
fore, a disease depending on the formation of a new tissue.   The ascites, which so
frequently accompanies it, arises from the compression to which the portal  vessels
are subjected by the fibrous tissue; and the jaiTndice, another frequent effect of it,
doubtless  depends on compression of the gall ducts.   Some  excellent remarks on
this disease have been made by the late Dr. Hope.5
   Stomach affections are common results of dram-drinking.   Persons addicted to
the use  of ardent spirits  suffer from loss of appetite, and are usually dyspeptic ;  and
chronic  inflammation of the stomach, or even a scirrhous  state of the pylorus, has
been said to be occasionally produced by hard drinking.
   Dram-drinkers are  sometimes affected with granular disease of the kidneys, which
is generally attended  by albuminous urine.   Dr. Hope regards  this state as corre-
sponding to the granular liver just described.8
   Peculiarities of Intoxication from  Spirit.—Different kinds  of  ardent
spirits present  some  peculiarities in  their operation  on the system, which  will be
noticed hereafter (see Brandy, Rum, Gin, Whiskey and Arrack).
  The effects of spirit agree, in a considerable number of circumstances, with those
of wine, but present  some peculiarities.  Spirit more speedily induces excitement,
which, however, is of shorter duration, being more rapidly followed  by collapse, re-
laxation, or debility.  Death is  by no means  an  infrequent  consequence of deep
intoxication from spirit.  Dram-drinkers suffer usually from loss of appetite, espe-
cially in  the morning, when they are troubled with vomiting;  moreover, they are
usually thin, wasted,  and emaciated.  Wine-bibbers, on the other hand, often enjoy
an unimpaired appetite, and are frequently plump or corpulent, plethoric individuals.
Liver disease, from intemperance, is said to be peculiar  to those who take ardent
spirits.  Organic disease of the stomach is also a consequence of spirit-drinking.
  A somewhat similar distinction holds good between the effects of spirit and those
of malt liquors.   The  latter  possess nutritive properties in addition to narcotic
 1 Report of the Resident Physician [Dr. Conolly] of the Hanuiell Lunatic Asylum, presented to the Court
of Quarter-Sessions at the Middlesex Sessions, 1840.
 2 London Medical Gazette, vol. xii. p. 484.                   * Anatom. Patholog. l,v. 12  nl. 1
 ' Pathological Anatomy, art. Atrophy.                                         '
 1 Principles an<1 Illustrations of Morbid Anatomy.  Lond. 1834.
 6 See also Dr. Christison On Granular Degeneration of the Kidneys, p. 110.  Edinb. 1839. 
Modus Operandi; Morbid Appearances.
909
powers ;  hence we frequently observe that the beer toper is a  plethoric, corpulent
individual.1
  The effects of opium are readily distinguished from those of  spirit when insensi-
bility has not come on.  The sleep which both these agents commonly induce is not
usually preceded, in the case of opium, by delirium, thickness of voice, and peculiar
difficulty of  articulation.   When delirium is produced by this drug  (opium),  it is
rather of the ecstatic kind.   " There is more  poetry in  its visions—more  mental
aggrandizement—more range of imagination."8   But when insensibility is present,
the diagnosis is not always easy.  The odour  of the breath is in  these cases an
important diagnostic.  Moreover, the pupil is usually (though not invariably) dilated
by spirit, whereas it is contracted by opium.
   Modus Operandi.—That  alcohol becomes absorbed, is proved by the fact  that
it has been found in the blood, in the  urine, the breath, the bile, the fluid of the
serous membranes, the brain, and the liver.
   Tiedemann  and Gmelin3 recognized  the odour of it in the  blood of the  splenic
vein, though they were unable to detect it in the chyle.   A similar  observation is
reported by  Magendie.4   Dr. Percy5 also found  it in the blood of animals to which
he administered it.   He likewise detected it in  the urine and the bile.   Moreover,
the recognition of the odour of alcoholic liquors in the breath of individuals  who
have swallowed them, as well  as  their detection  by the smell in the fluid contained
in the ventricles of the brain  and in the pericardium, prove indisputably that alco-
hol is absorbed.  Dr. Cooke6  states, on the authority of Sir A.  Carlisle, that in one
case tbe fluid of the ventricles of  the brain had the smell, taste,  and inflammability
of gin.   Dr. Christison7 has questioned the  correctness of this observation, on the
ground that gin of sufficient strength to take fire could not enter the bloodvessels
without  coagulating the blood.  But the objection appears to me to be groundless;
for I find that a small quantity of undiluted commercial gin may be added to white
of egg without causing either coagulation or the  slightest  opacity.  Dr. Ogston8 has
confirmed the testimony of Carlisle, and states that in one case  he found about  four
ounces of fluid in the ventricles,  having all  the  physical  qualities of alcohol.   Dr.
Percy9 has recently set the question at  rest, and satisfactorily proved  the accuracy
of the above statements, by his experiments on animals.  He appears to think  that
some peculiar affinity exists between the substance of the brain and the spirit; more
especially as, after analyzing a much larger quantity of  blood than can possibly
exist in the cranium, he could  generally  obtain much more alcohol from the brain
than  from this quantity of blood.   He was unable to determine whether or not the
fluid  of the ventricles contained  any alcohol.  Dr. Percy also  detected  alcohol in
the liver, and has endeavoured to connect this fact with the frequent occurrence of
hepatic disease in drunkards.
  Morbid Appearances.—On  examining  the  bodies of  individuals  who  have
been  poisoned by ardent spirits, redness and inflammation of the stomach are some-
times, but not invariably, found.   In confirmed  drunkards, the mucous  membrane
of the stomach is often injected and  thickened.   Congestion of  tbe cerebral vessels,
with or without  extravasation  of  blood  or effusion of serum, is  not unfrequently
observed.  Traces of spirit may or  may not be  found in  the  stomach,  according
to the  rapidity with  which death has  been  produced.   The odour of spirit may
perhaps be recognized in various  parts of  the body, especially in the  brain and the
serous cavities.
  1 Hogarth, in his Beer Alley and Gin Lane, has well represented the differences between drunkards de-
voted to malt liquors, and those given to the use of spirit. The first are plump, rubicund, and bloated j
the latter are pale, tottering, emaciated, and miserable.
  2 The Anatomy of Drunkenness, by Robert Macnish ;  p. 63, 2d ed. Glasgow, 1S28.
  * Uberdie Wege auf welchen Substanzen aus dem Magen ins Blut gelangen, Heidelberg, 1920.
  * Element. Compend. of Physiol, gy, by Dr. Milligan, p. 24S, 1S23.
  * An Experimental Inquiry concerning the prestnee of Alcohol in the Ventricles of the Brain, after Poi-
soning with that  liquid, together With Experiments illustrative of the Physiologieal Action of Alcohol,
Lond. 1839.
  8 Treatise on Xrrvous Diseases, i. 222, Lond. 1620.            ' Treatise on Poisons, 3d ed. p. S53
  1 Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, vol. xl.           * Op.supra cit. 
910                ORGANIC SUBSTANCES.—Alcohol.

   Uses.—Spirit of wine is employed  both for medicinal and pharmaceutical pur-
poses.
   1.  Medicinal Uses.—Spirit is used both internally and externally :—
   a. Internally.—Spirit  of wine is rarely administered internally ; for when ardent
spirit is indicated, Brandy, Gin, or Whiskey, is generally employed.   The separate
uses of each of these will be noticed presently; at present, therefore, I  shall con-
fine myself to some general remarks on the internal employment of spirit.  I may
observe, however, that Brandy is the ardent spirit  usually administered  for medi'-
cinal  purposes; and, unless otherwise stated,  is the spirit referred  to in the follow-
ing observations.
   As a stomachic stimulant,  spirit is employed to relieve spasmodic pains and flatu-
lency, to  check vomiting (especially sea-sickness), and to  give  temporary relief in
some  cases of indigestion, attended with pain after taking food.  As a  stimulant
and restorative, it is given with considerable advantage in  the latter stages of fever.
As & powerful excitant,  it is used  to support the vital powers, to prevent fainting
during a tedious operation, to relieve syncope  and languor, and to assist the restora-
tion of patients from a  state of suspended animation.  In delirium tremens, it is
not always advisable  to leave off the employment of spirituous  liquors at once,
since  the sudden withdrawal  of the long-accustomed stimulus may be attended with
fatal consequences.   In  such cases, it is  advisable to  allow, temporarily,  to  the
patient the moderate use of the particular kind of  spirit which he has been in the
habit  of  employing.  In poisoning by foxglove  and  tobacco,  spirit and  ammonia
are used  to  rouse  the action of the heart.   In mild cases of diarrhoea, attended
with  griping  pain,  but unaccompanied  by any  inflammatory symptoms, a  small
quantity of spirit and water, taken warm, with  nutmeg, is often a most  efficacious
remedy.
   j3. Externally.—Spirit of wine  is used externally for several purposes,  of which
tlie following  are the  principal: As a styptic, to  restrain hemorrhage from weak
and relaxed parts.  It proves efficacious in two ways;  it coagulates the blood by its
chemical influence on the liquid, albumen, and fibrin,  and it causes the contraction
of the mouths of the  bleeding vessels by  its stimulant and  astringent  qualities.
Sponge or soft linen, soaked  in spirit  and water, has  been applied to the  mouth of
the uterus  in  uterine hemorrhage.1   Spirit is employed to harden the cuticle over
tender and delicate parts.    Thus, brandy is sometimes applied to the nipples,
several weeks  before delivery, in order  to  prevent the production of sore nipples
from suckling  in individuals predisposed to it.  Spirit is also  applied to the feet,
when  the skin is readily  blistered by walking.  The efficacy of  spirit, in hardening
the cuticle, depends, in part,  on its chemical  influence.   Spirit gargles have been
found  serviceable in checking the tendency to inflammation and swelling of the
tonsils.   As  a  stimulant application, warm  rectified spirit has  been applied to
burned or scalded parts, on  the  principles laid down for the treatment of these
cases  by Dr. Kentish.3  Properly diluted, spirit has  been employed as a wash in
various skin  diseases,  and in ulcers of bed-ridden persons, and  as a collyrium in
chronic ophthalmia.   Frictions with rectified spirits have been used in the abdomi-
nal region, to  promote  labour  pains; on the chest, to excite the action of  the heart,
in fainting or  suspended animation;  on the hypogastric region,  to stimulate  the
bladder, when retention of urine  depends  on inertia, or  a paralytic  condition of
this viscus; on various parts of the body, to relieve the pain arising from bruises,
or to  stimulate paralyzed parts.
   The inhalation of the  vapour of rectified spirit has  been recommended to  relieve
the irritation produced by the inspiration of chlorine;   but I have tried the practice
on myself  without benefit.   The readiest mode of effecting it is to drop some spirit
on a lump of  sugar, and hold this in the mouth during inspiration.
1 Richter, Ausfuhrlichc Arzneimittellehre, 3 Bd. S. 256, Berlin, 1828.
% An Essay on Burns, Lond. 1798.—A Second Essay on Burn*, Newcastle, 1800. 
Brandy.                               911
   Diluted spirit has been used as an injection for the radical cure of hydrocele.  A
 mixture of wine and water, however, is commonly employed in this country.
   Spirit has  been used to form cold lotions.   As the efficacy of it depends on its
 evaporation, it should be applied by means of a single layer of linen, and not by a
 compress.   Evaporating lotions are applied to the head in cephalalgia, in phrenitis,
 in  fever, in poisoning  by opium, &c.; to  fractures of the extremities; to  parts
 affected with erysipelatous inflammations,  &c.
   Antidotes.—The first object in the treatment of poisoning by spirituous liquors
 is to evacuate the contents of the stomach.   This is best effected by the  stomach-
 pump;  emetics being frequently unsuccessful.   Stimulants are then  to be  em-
 ployed : the most effectual  are the injection of cold water into the ears, cold affu-
 sion to the head and neck, warmth to the  extremities, when these are cold, and the
 internal use either of  ammonia or of the solution of the acetate  of ammonia, both
 of  which agents have  been found useful in relieving stupor.   The cerebral conges-
 tion often  requires the cautious employment of local bloodletting and the  applica-
 tion of cold to the head.  If the patient appear to be dying from paralysis of the
 respiratory muscles, artificial respiration should be effected; if from closure of the
 larynx, tracheotomy may be performed.

   1. SPIRITUS VINI GALLICI [U. S.]; Brandy? Eau-de-vie.— This is an ardent spirit,
 obtained by the distillation of  wine.   Its  properties are subject to some variation,
 arising from different  growths  of the vine : " the brandies of  Languedoc, Bordeaux,
 Armagnac, Cognac, Aunis, Saintonge, Rochelle, Orleans,  Barcelona, Naples, &c,
 being  each recognizable by an  experienced dealer."3   The most celebrated of the
 French  brandies  are  those of Cognac  and Armagnac.   Genuine brandy has  an
 agreeable,  vinous, aromatic odour.   Both  its flavour and odour, however, are pecu-
 liar.   Pale brandy has a very slight brownish-yellow tint, derived from the cask in
 which it has been kept.   The high-coloured brandy usually found in  the shops of
 this country, is artificially coloured (before its arrival in  this  country) by burnt
 sugar  (caramel);  which is said to render the spirit  mallow and  more  palatable.3
 Saunders-wood  is  also stated, by the  same  authority, to  be frequently used as a
 colouring ingredient.   The constituents of brandy are alcohol, water,  volatile oil,
 a minute portion of acetic acid, a little acetic ether, oenanthic ether, colouring  mat-
 ter,  and tannin.  The latter is said to be  derived from the cask in which the spirit
 has been preserved; but I find that the high-coloured  brandies  react more power-
 fully on the salts of iron than pale brandy; whence I conclude that some astringent
 matter has been added to them.
   Brandy, when just imported, is usually above proof. I found a sample of pale brandy,
 in bond, supplied to me by my friend, Mr. Gassiot, to be 1.5 over proof'; and a coloured
 brandy 2.2 over proof, as indicated by Sikes's hydrometer.  By keeping in the cask, its
 alcoholic strength is diminished.  I am informed that brandy, as usually sold, is 10
per cent, under proof.   This would give,  according to Gutteridge's table, a sp. gr.
 of 0.9318.   But  Soubeiran* states that the sp. gr. of eau-de-vie varies from about
 0.902  to 0.941.   Now, according to Gilpin's tables, a spirit having  the sp. gr. of
 0.93002 is composed of equal parts of alcohol (sp. gr. 0.825) and water.   But Mr.
 Brande states that 100 parts by measure of brandy contain 53.39  parts  of alcohol,
 sp. gr. 0.825.   The relative  quantities of  spirit contained in  this and other ardent
spirits, in wine, and in beer,'have been already mentioned.
  British Brandy is extensively manufactured, and sold as  foreign brandy.  Dr.
Ure5 gives the following formula for it: " Dilute the pure alcohol to the proof pitch;
add to  every hundred pounds weight of  it, from half a pound to a pound of argol
(crude wiuestone) dissolved in water, a little acetic ether  and French-wine  vinegar,
 1 Brandy is a contraction for Brandy-wine (Branntwein, Germ.), which literally signifies Burnt-wine
(Vinum adustum).
 " Ure's Die ionary of Arts and Manufactures, p. 164, Lond. 1839
 * M'Culliich's Dictionary of Commerce.      ' Nouveau Traiti de Pharmacie, t. i. p. 142, 2nde ed.
 » Dictionary of Arts and Manufactures, p. 165. 
912                ORGANIC  SUBSTANCES.—Alcohol.

some bruised French plums, and flavour-stuff from Cognac; then distil the mixture,
with a  gentle fire, in  an alembic furnished with  an agitator.  The spirit which
comes  over may be coloured with  nicely burned sugar (caramel) to  the desired
tint, and  roughened  in taste with  a few  drops  of  tincture of catechu  or  oak-
bark."
  Acrid matters (as Grains of Paradise) are sometimes added to brandy to give it
an artificial strength;  they may be  readily detected by evaporation.   Sugar,  also,
may be discovered in the  same way.   The residue of the evaporation  of  genuine
brandy yields a green colour with the salts of iron, indicating the presence of tan-
nin ; and  imitation of brandy may be readily made to produce the same effect by
the addition of catechu, or some  other astringent.
  The general effects and  uses  of brandy are those of alcohol, already described.
From the  ardent spirits in ordinary use, it is distinguished by its cordial and stoma-
chic  properties, and it  is,  in consequence, the stimulant usually preferred for medi-
cinal purposes.
  Burnt Brandy is a popular remedy for diarrhoea.

  2. MISTURA SPIRITUS VINI GALLICI, L.—(Brandy, Cinnamon Water, of each fgiv;
the yelks of two Eggs; Purified  Sugar ^ss;  Oil of Cinnamon n\,ij.   Mix.)—This
mixture is  an imitation of a well-known  compound termed Egg-flip.1   It is an ex-
ceedingly valuable stimulant and restorative, and is employed in  the latter stages
of low fever, and in extreme exhaustion from uterine and other hemorrhages.  The
dose of it is from f^ss to fjiss.

  3. SPIRITUS SACCHARI;  Rum.— This is an ardent spirit obtained both in the West
and East Indies, by distillation from the fermented skimmings of the sugar boilers,
the drainings (called molasses) of the pots and hogsheads of sugar,  the  washings of
the boilers,3 and the lees or spent wash of former distillations, called dunder.3  It
is imported into  this  country in puncheons.  In  some  parts  of  the  West India
Islands, it is customary to put slices of pine apples in the puncheons of rum; hence
the designation, pine-apple  rum.
  The term Tafia, or  Taffia, is applied to a spirit obtained by distillation from the fermented
juice of the sugar cane.4  It is, therefore,  Cane Spirit (Spiritus Sued Sacchari).
  Good rum is transparent  and of a brownish tint.  Its  depth of  colour, however,
varies  considerably.  The peculiar flavour of rum depends  on volatile oil.  The
quantity of alcohol (sp. gr. 0.825) in 100 vols, of rum is, according to Mr. Brande,
about 53.68 vols.   As sent out, its strength is 10 per cent, under proof, in the lan-
guage  of  Sikes's hydrometer.   Jamaica rum is more highly esteemed than the
Leeward Islands rum.
  The general effects and uses of rum are  similar to those of alcohol, already de-
scribed.5   It is considered  more heating  and sudorific than  the other kinds of
ardent spirit, to which it has been popularly thought preferable in coughs, catarrhs,
and rheumatism.

  4. SPIRITUS FRUMENTI  COMPOSITUS; Compound  Corn Spirit.—The spirit manu-
factured in the British Islands is usually obtained by  distillation from fermented
infusions of  corn.  The  ardent  spirits known as Gin, Whiskey,  and the various
Compounds,6 are  corn  spirit differently flavoured.
 i The terms Egg-flip, Egg-hot, or simply Flip,an applied to a preparation of ale with egg and ardent
spirit (see Dr. Kitchener's Cook's Oracle).                                      bb
 ■> The Civil and Natural History of Jamaica, by P. Browne, M. D , p 132  Lond  1789
 3 Dunder, from the Spanish redundar, to overflow.
   Merat and De Lens, Diet, de Mat. Mid. t. vi. p. 150.
sp
! By spirit dealers. British compounded spirits are QtnominateA Compounds, wh le foreign commanded
irits are called Liquors. Both classes of liquors are sweetened spirits. 
Pharmaceutical Uses of Alcohol;  Arrack;  Tinctures.      913
    Gin owes  its peculiar  flavour to the  Juniper, whence it is  frequently denomi-
 nated Spiritus Juniperi.   It is  not allowed to be sent out stronger than 17 per
 cent, uraler proof; but it is usually sold to the trade at 22 per cent, under proof.
 The retail dealer always reduces its strength, and flavours it with sugar.  Frequently,
 also, other additions are made to it.  Gin possesses the general properties of alcohol.
 On account of the oil of juniper which it  holds in solution, it  is more  powerfully
 diuretic than brandy  and rum; and hence it is a popular remedy in dropsical and
 other affections, in which an augmentation of the renal  secretion is considered de-
 sirable.   Moreover, it is frequently  used to promote menstruation.  It is the ordi-
 nary intoxicating  spirit  of the lower  classes in this  metropolis.  At the London
 Hospital, gin is frequently administered medicinally,  as a substitute for  brandy, to
 patients who have been accustomed to its use.
    Whiskey agrees in most of its  properties with gin, from which it differs in its
 peculiar smoky flavour and odour; these it acquires from the malt, which is dried
 by turf fires.   It is the national  spirit of Ireland and  Scotland.

   5.  ARRACK, or RACK,—This is a spirit obtained in various  parts of the  East.   In
 Batavia it is  procured by  distillation  from fermented infusions of rice, whence it
 has been termed Rice Spirit (Spiritus Oryzee).  In Ceylon,1 it is obtained by dis-
 tillation from fermented cocoa-nut toddy (by some some called Palm wine).
   " Pine apples, steeped in  it, impart a most  exquisite flavour to the spirit; and,
 by age, it becomes a delicious liqueur, which is unrivalled in the world for making
 nectarial punch."  In England,  arrack is never employed  for medicinal purposes.
 In its general properties it agrees with the other ardent spirits;  but is said to be
 distinguished by its stimulating and narcotic properties.   It is  sometimes used in
 this country to impart an agreeable  flavour to punch.  A mock arrack is made by
 dissolving twenty grains of  benzoic acid in  two  pounds of rum.
   2.  Pharmaceutical  Uses of Alcohol.—Alcohol is not employed in the pre-
 paration of any officinal substances,  but it is a valuable agent in chemical analysis,
 and is used in determining  the purity  of certain medicinal substances;  as iodine,
 iodide of potassium,  the vegetable alkalies, castor-oil, &c.   Rectified  and proof
 spirits are most extensively  employed in officinal pharmacy : as in the formation of
 Tinctures, Spirits, Ethers, Ethereal  Oil, and Resinous Extracts,  and in  the manu-
 facture of  the Vegetable Alkalies.  Lastly, spirit is added to various preparations to
 assist in preserving them.

   1. TINCTURE, L. D. [U.  S.];  Tinctures,  E.;  Alcoolis.—These  are  solutions of
 vegetable, animal, or mineral, substances, in  proof or rectified spirit.   They are pre-
 parations of  substances whose active principles are imperfectly or not at all soluble
 in water, or whose aqueous solutions readily undergo decomposition.
   Some  are  prepared by  solution  merely;  as the  Tinctura.  Iodinii composita,
 Ph. L.;  Tinctura  Camphorse, Ph. Ed.; and Tinctura Ferri Sesquichloridi.
   Some of the vegetable  tinctures are prepared  by adding rectified spirit  to the ex-
pressed juices of plants.   These preparations are frequently  denominated preserved
 vegetable juices.  They have been long  in  use  on  the continent.   In 1*35,  Mr.

 The following list of Compounds, usually kept at the gin-shops of this metropolis, has been supplied to
me by the proprietor of one of these establishments :—
  Compounds.    Under Proof.
Gin..........17
Gin..........22
Mint (Peppermint)  .  . 64
Cloves........"
Bitters........"
  Compounds.      Under Proof.
Tent..........64
Aniseed........."
Caraway........>'
Lovage........."
Usquebaugh (X)
              Raspberry......"          Rum Shrub......."
              N'oyeau   ......."          Orange Cordial (X)  ..."
              Cinnamon......"      I    Citron    do.  (X)  ..."

" The above are permitted to us at the strengths named ; but, in pointof fact, are much nearer approaching
60 U. P.—Those miirked thus (X) are seldom asked for.;>
  1 The Coco-Mitt Palm, its Uses and Cultivation, by J. W. Bennett, Esq. Lond. 1636.
       VOL.  II.—58 
914                 ORGANIC  SUBSTANCES.—Alcohol.

Squire1 commenced their manufacture.   More  recently, Mr. Bentley3  has directed
the attention of the profession to them.
  Mr. Squire states that, on an  average, the juice of the young plant just coming into flower
will yield only two thirds of the amount of extract which is obtained  from the same  quantity
of juice from the matured plant ("when more than  half the flowers are fully blown ), and
the strength of the product is also inferior.  He also asserts3 that the leaves only should be used ;
and in the case  of  biennial plants, those  of the second year's growth should  exclusively be
employed.4
  The mode of obtaining these preparations is as follows:   The leaves being bruised in a mar-
ble mortar, are placed in a powerful press. The expressed juice is allowed to stand for twenty.
four hours, by which a considerable quantity of feculent matter is  deposited.  Rectified spirit
[56 over proof] is then added, in the proportion of four fluidounces to every sixteen fluidounces
of the juice, which is quite sufficient to render the preservation complete, and throw  down any
mucilage which may be mechanically suspended.   After standing twenty-four hours, the liquor
is to be filtered.5
  Mr. Squire employs one measure of spirit to two measures of juice.
   These  preserved expressed juices are  superior preparations to the tinctures pre-
pared by  digestion from the same parts of either fresh or dried plants.   In  some
cases (e. g. Aconite), tinctures prepared with  rectified  spirit from  the dried roots,
by  digestion, are greatly superior in  activity to the preserved juices of the leaves.
   The ordinary method of preparing tinctures is by maceration or digestion.
  " Tinctures  are usually made by reducing the  solid  ingredients to small fragments, coarse
powder, or fine powder, macerating them for seven days or upwards in proof spirit or rectified
spirit, straining the  solution through linen  or calico, and finally expressing the residuum strongly
to obtain what fluid is still retained in the mass."—PA. E.
  " All Tinctures should be prepared in stoppered glass vessels, and frequently  shaken during
maceration."—Ph. Lond.
   The tinctures which are made with resinous substances cannot in general be well
prepared in any other way than by digestion.   This remark applies to Tinctura Aloes,
Tinctura Assafotidtv, Tinctura Benzoini composita, Tinctura Guaiaci, and  Tinc-
tura Balsami Tolutani.   Another and more expeditious method of preparing tinc-
tures is by percolation or  lixiviation (procidi ou  mithode de emplacement);  and
which  is also applicable to the preparation of ethereal, as well as alcoholic, tinctures,
and of infusions.  The principle of this  method has been adopted by the Scotch
brewers;  the  process being  called by them  sparging.   It has also been used in the
preparation of coffee.   It was first employed for pharmaceutical purposes by Boul-
lay.6   In the  preparation of tinctures, its professed advantages are  expedition,  eco-
nomy, and uniformity of strength.   But it is more  troublesome, requires more skill
and attention, and is not equally applicable to all substances.  It answers best for
those  tinctures made with woody and fibrous  parts, as roots, barks, woods, leaves,
fruits, seeds, and  insects.    The Tinctures of Catechu and Myrrh may also be  pre-
pared  in this way.   The Edinburgh College offers  the following remarks on  this
mode of preparation :—
   "A  much superior  method, however,  has been lately introduced, which  answers well for
most tinctures;  namely, the method of displacement  by percolation.  According  to this process,
the solid materials, usually in coarse or moderately fine powder, are moistened with a sufficiency
of the solvent to form a thick pulp.  In twelve hours,or frequently without any delay, the mass
is put into a cylinder of glass, porcelain, or tinned iron, open at both ends, but obstructed at the
lower end by a piece of calico or linen, tied tightly over it as a filter; and the pulp being packed
by pressure, varying as to degree with various  articles,  the remainder of the solvent is poured
into the upper part of the cylinder, and allowed gradually to percolate.  In order to obtain the
portion  of the fluid which is kept in the residuum, an additional quantity of  the  solvent is
poured  into the cylinder, until  the tincture, which has  passed through, equals  in amount the
spirit originally prescribed;  and the spirit employed for this purpose is then recovered for the
most part by pouring over the residuum as much water  as there is of spirit retained in it, which

  l Pharmaceutical Transactions,  No. iii. p. 94) Sept. 1841.
  ^ On the Best Method of obtaining the more powerful  Vegetable Preparations for Medicinal Use
  * Up. supra cit.
  * *ee the article Hyoscyamus for an account of the  relative quantities of juice and extract yielded bv
the leaves and stalks.                                                           7.wUCU UJ,
  * Bentley, op. supra cit.                                t Journal de Pharmacie, t. xix. p. 393. 
Tinctures.                               915
may be easily known  by an obvious calculation in  each case.  The method by percolation,
where applicable, will be found much more convenient and expeditious than the mode hitherto
commonly followed, and it exhausts the solid materials in general much more completely.  As
considerable practice, however, is required for  managing the  details in different cases, more
especially in regard to the degree of firmness with which they are to be packed in the cylinder,
we have thought it right to direct that the method of maceration may be followed as an alter-
native.   But the method of percolation is now preferred by all who have made sufficient trial
of it to apply it correctly."
  The percolator is best made of  tin plate or  zinc.  A simple tube (of glass, por-
celain, or tinned iron), as stated by  the Edinburgh College, answers for an extem-
poraneous percolator.  It  is fitted  into  the  mouth of  a wide-mouthed bottle by
means of a cork (Fig. 392), in which is a small aperture to allow the escape of air.
One of the most convenient percolators is  that  proposed  by Boullay.   It is a simple
cylinder of equal diameter, and terminating inferiorly in  a  cone  or funnel.   Mr.
Deane's percolator1 (Fig. 393) is  a  modification of this; its lower end, c D, has a
smaller  circumference than its  upper one, A  B; is flat, and  communicates with a
tube,  to which a  stopcock is fitted.   Soubeiran3 has adapted to Boullay's percolator
a tin receiver, to which is fitted, at the most depending  part, a stopcock by which
the tincture  may be drawn off (Fig.  394).

     Fig. 392.             Fig. 393.                            Fig.  394.
Tincture Percolators.
   The size of the percolator must, of course, vary according to circumstances.   The
 smallest may be half an  inch in diameter, and four inches long.  Large ones are
 six inches in diameter, and  eighteen inches long.   They should bo furnished  with
 two diaphragms (perforated metallic disks, Fig. 393, E, f), between which the in-
 gredients are placed.   When small percolators are used, a little cotton-wool, or  even
 tow, may be substituted for the lower diaphragm—or a piece of calico or linen  may
 be tied over the end of the tube, as directed by the Edinburgh College.   The lower
 extremity of the percolator should be furnished with a stopcock (see Figs. 393 and
 394),  for regulating the discharge of the fluid.
   Considerable skill and experience are required  in packing the ingredients.   In-
 deed, the principal art of percolating  has reference to this part of the  process. Sub-
 stances, as Rhubarb and  Gentian, which yield  a large quantity of mucilage, and are
 to be acted on by water, must be employed in the form of a very coarse powder, and
 should be placed loosely  in the percolator, in order to allow them to  swell.  "With
 alcohol or ether, however, the  tissues swell less, the mucilaginous matter is not dis-
 solved, and the percolation is  readily effected  even with a finer powder and closer
packing.
' Pharmaceutical Transactions, part ii.        * Nouveau Traiti de Pharmacie, t. i. p. iii. 2nde ed. 
916            ORGANIC  SUBSTANCES.—Sulphuric Ether.

   Boullay imagined  that one  liquid  may be employed to displace another liquid,
without the two liquids becoming mixed;  hence he called the process the displace-
ment method.   The Edinburgh College, I presume, has adopted  his opinion, since
it directs the tincture to be displaced by spirit, and the spirit by water.   But Guil-
liermond1 has shown  that  this  displacement  cannot  be effected without a certain
degree  of mixture.3

   2. SPIRITUS, L. [U.  S.];  Spirits, E.; Essentia, D.—These are alcoholic solutions
of volatile substances  (usually of a vegetable nature) sometimes  obtained  by distil-
lation.   Some of them are prepared with rectified spirit (e. g.  Spiritus Rosmarini),
some with  alcohol, as Essentia Faniculi, D.   The spirits which owe their peculiar
flavour and odour to  volatile  oil are now prepared according to the directions of the
London College, by dissolving tbe oil in  spirit, without the aid of distillation ; and,
for all therapeutical purposes, they are equally effective.


  301.  iETHER SULPHURICUS, E. D.-SULPHURIC  ETHER.

                                   [iEther, L. U. S.]

   History and  Synonymes.—This liquid  is said to  have been known to Ray-
mond Lully,3 who lived in the  13th century ; and to  Basil Valentine,4 in the 15th
century.   In  1540,  Valerius Cordus5 described  the  method of  making  it.   He
termed  it  Oleum Vitrioli dulce.   The Germans call it  Vitriolic Naphtha (Naphtha
Vitriol i).
   Natural History.—It is always an artificial product.
   Preparation.—The Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges give  directions for  the
preparation of sulphuric ether.  In the Pharmacopoeia  of the London College, Ether
is placed among the articles of the Materia Medica.
  The London College formerly ordered of Rectified Spirit Ibiij ; Sulphuric Acid ftij ; Carbonate
of Potash, previously ignited, gj; pour two pounds of the  spirit into a  glass retort, add the acid
to it, and mix.   Afterwards place it on sand, and raise the heat so that the  liquor may quickly
boil, and the Ether pass into a receiving vessel cooled with ice or water.   Let the liquor distil
until some heavier portion begins to pass  over.  To the liquor which  remains in  the retort,
after the heat has subsided, pour  the remainder of the spirit, that ether may distil in the same
manner.  Mix the distilled liquors, then pour off the supernatant portion, and add to it the Car-
bonate of Potash, shaking them frequently during an hour.   Lastly, let the ether distil from a
large retort, and be kept in a stoppered vessel.
  The directions of the Edinburgh College are as  follows:   " Take of Rectified Spirit fgi.; Sul-
phuric Acid f^x.  Pour twelve  fluidounces of the  spirit gently over the acid contained in an
open vessel, and then stir them together briskly and thoroughly.  Transfer  the mixture imme-
diately into a glass matrass connected with a refrigeratory, and raise the heat quickly to about
280°.  As  soon as the ethereal fluid begins to distil over, supply fresh  spirit  through a  tube
into the matrass in a continuous  stream, and in such quantity as to equal that of the  fluid
which distils over.  This is best  accomplished by connecting  one end of the tube with a gradu-
ated vessel  containing the  spirit, passing  the other end  through a cork fitted in the  matrass,
and having a stopcock on  the  tube to regulate the  discharge.  When forty-two ounces have
distilled over, and the whole spirit has been  added, the process may be stopped.  Agitate the
impure  ether with sixteen fluidounces of a saturated solution  of muriate  of lime, containing
about half an ounce of  lime recently slaked.   When all odour of sulphuric acid has been thus
removed, pour off the supernatant  liquor, and distil it with a very gentle heat,  so long as the
liquid which passed over has a density not above 0.735.  More ether of the same  strength is
then to be obtained from the solution of muriate of lime.  From the  residuum of both distilla-
tions, a weaker ether may  be obtained in small quantity,  which must  be rectified by distilling
it gently again."
  The Dublin College directs Sulphuric Ether to be thus prepared :  » Take of Rectified Spirit
three pints; Oil of Vitriol of commerce eight fluidounces ;  Fresh burned Lime, in fine powder,
one ounce; mix the acid and ten ounces of the spirit in a glass matrass, capable of holding a
 1 Journal de Pharmacie, t. xxi. p. 349.
 2 For farther details respecting percolation, consult, besides the memoirs already quoted, Dausse. Mi-
none sur la priparattondetous lesextrattspharmaceutiquespar la mithode de displacement, Paris, 1836
 » Dulk, Dxe Preusstsche Pharmakopde ubers. und erlu&tert, 2 Th. S. 201, 2 Aufl. Leipz. 1*30
 ' Ihld-                           * Thomson, System of Chemistry, vol. ii. p. 296, 7th ed. 1831. 
Theory of Etherification.
917
quart at least, and, without allowing the mixture to cool, connect  the matrass with a Liebig's
condenser, and, applying a sufficient heat to maintain the liquid in a brisk ebullition, commence
the distillation.  As it proceeds,admit gradually, through a glass tube traversing the cork of the
matrass, the remainder of the spirit, regulating its influx so that the boiling liquid shall main-
tain a constant level;  and, when the entire of it has been  introduced, continue the application
of the heat until the contents of the matrass become black, and show a tendency to froth over.
(The tube through which the spirit enters should dip by its lower extremity, where its diameter
is contracted, at least half an inch  beneath the surface of  the liquid in the matrass ; and  the
eduction pipe of the reservoir for the spirit, with which the exterior extremity of the glass tube
is connected, should be  furnished with a stopcock, to regulate the  descent of  the spirit.  This
reservoir also  should be placed at least three  feet above  the level of the boiling liquid.)
The crude ether thus obtained is to be agitated  with  the  pulverized quicklime, and  then rec-
tified, the distillation being continued as long as  the product, on being well shaken, continues
to have a specific gravity lower than 750.  The resulting  liquid should be preserved in a cool
place in accurately stopped bottles.  A fresh reservoir being attached to the farther end of the
condenser, and the distillation resumed, a product will be obtained which may be substituted
for rectified spirit in a subsequent ether process."
   Theory  of Etherification.—In order  to convert one  equivalent or 46 parts
of alcohol into one equivalent or 37 parts of ether, we must abstract one equivalent
or 9 parts of water.
                                               Carbon.  Hydrogen.   Oxygen.
             1 equivalent Alcohol is composed of ...  4 eq.       6 eq.       2 eq.
             Abstract 1 equivalent Water composed of  Oeq.       1 eq.      .1 eq.
                                1 equivalent Ether  4 eq.       5 eq.       1 eq.

[Or,  the change may be thus represented:   C4H603=HO+C4H50.   Assuming
that ethyle is represented by C4H5, then ether is an oxide  of this compound radical
AeO,  and alcohol is  a hydrated  oxide, containing in addition the elements of one
equivalent of water.—Ed.]
   But, though the change thus  far appears  very simple,  there  are  some accessory
reactions which  make the  theory  of etherification exceedingly complicated,  and
about the precise nature  of  which chemists are not quite agreed.
   That the sole or efficient cause of the conversion of alcohol into ether is not the mere ab-
straction of water, by the affinity of the sulphuric  acid for that  liquid,  is proved by various
circumstances, of which the following are some:—'
    a.. Water may be abstracted from alcohol  by alkalies and chloride of calcium, yet nothing
       like ether is the result.
    0. Water passes over, during the whole process, along with the ether, with which the acid
       ought to combine in preference to dehydrating the alcohol.
    y. Ether is not produced by the action of anhydrous sulphuric acid on alcohol.
    i. Ether is never produced except by the aid of heat.
    i. When the oil of vitriol is  mixed with rectified spirit, the saturating power of the acid
       is diminished.
   When oil of vitriol is added to rectified  spirit, a  new compound is formed, which
contains, besides the  elements of sulphuric  acid,  carbon, hydrogen, and  oxygen.
As this new compound  reddens litmus, and forms salts with bases, it  has  been re-
garded as an acid (Sulpho-vinic acid;3  Ether eo-sulphuric  acid)?   But as  the sul-
phuric acid, by its union with the  elements of the alcohol, has  lost half its saturating
power, the new compound is rather to be regarded  as a supersalt (bisulphate of the
oxide  of ethyle),* combined with water; or as a double  salt  composed of sulphate
of the oxide of  ethyle and sulphate of water.  Carbo-hydrogen  is the basic consti-
tuent  of  this  salt,  which, by the action  of heat, is  resolved  into ether, sulphuric
acid,  and water.   On the ethyle hypothesis,  so ably advocated  by Liebig, the fol-
lowing is an explanation of the changes  attending the formation of ether:—
   Alcohol  is regarded as a  hydrate of the  oxide  of ethyle, and its  equivalent is
assumed to be 46.  On the addition of oil  of  vitriol, two equivalents or 80 parts of
anhydrous  sulphuric  acid combine  with  one  equivalent  or 37 parts of  oxide of

  1 Brande, Manual of Chemistry, 5th edit. p. 12^4, 1641.        » Hennel, Phil. Trans. 1826 and 1S03.
  * Liebig, in the Handwurterbuch der reinen und  angewandten  Chemie, von Or  J. Liebig und Dr. T. C.
Poggeiidorf, Bd  i. S. 114, Braunschweig, 1837.
  4 Liebig, in Turner's Elements of Chemistry, 7th edit. p. 837 et seq. 1840. 
918            ORGANIC SUBSTANCES.—Sulphuric Ether.

ethyle (ether), contained in  the alcohol, and  form one equivalent or 117 parts of
bisulphate of oxide of ethyle (bisulphate of ether).   The water of the alcohol and
of the oil of vitriol unites with the bisulphate.  By the heat which is subsequently
applied to  the mixture, the hydrated bisulphate is resolved  into ether, water, and
sulphuric acid.
  "If we consider each particle of the [hydrated] bisulphate of oxide of ethyle  as composed
of ether [oxide of ethyle], anhydrous sulphuric acid, and water, it is clear that the anhydrous
acid, at the moment of its separation from the ether, must seize on all water, free or combined,
in the vicinity of the ether. Thus, at the moment the ether becomes free, the anhydrous acid,
also set free, prevents it from uniting with water to form alcohol.  But when the gaseous ether
passes through the undecomposed hydrated bisulphate of oxide of ethyle, a certain proportion
of the water of that compound must evaporate in the dry gas;  and in these circumstances the
ether and water do not combine together.  The surface of the effervescing  liquid  has the tem-
perature at which [hydrated] bisulphate of oxide of  ethyle is decomposed ;  but at this tempera-
ture, 284°, the water of that compound is gaseous.  There are thus  produced, simultaneously,
water in the gaseous form by evaporation, and  ether, also gaseous, by decomposition;  which,
as both are in the nascent state, unite to form alcohol.  Thus  the alcohol, always observed to
distil over with the ether, is derived from the surface ;  and the ether and water, which distil over,
proceed from the decomposition in the interior of the liquid.   This  explains why no ether is
obtained when the liquid  is not in brisk ebullition, no matter how high the temperature may
be; it explains farther, why more alcohol is obtained when a current  of dry air passes through
the liquid, since in  that case the same decomposition goes on in the interior of the liquid as
generally occurs at the surface.''1
   During the  distillation of  ether, the relative proportions of the ingredients  are
constantly varying; for the absolute quantity of hydrated bisulphate of ethyle is
continually diminishing, and  thereby the  relative quantity of oil of vitriol  is  in-
creasing.   In consequence of this, the  boiling point of the  liquid gradually rises.
When  it  arrives  at about 320°, new reactions  take  place  between the oxide  of
ethyle and the sulphuric acid.   The principal products of these  reactions are sul-
phurous acid, defiant  gas, water, and carbon; but these are  not the  only products.
In certain proportions of the ingredients, acetic acid  [C4H303] is  formed.  " With
a great excess  of [sulphuric]  acid, traces of formic  acid [C^ffO3] and carbonic
oxide are produced.  As long  as  olefiant  gas comes  off, carbonic acid  cannot be
detected.   During this decomposition, sulphurous acid  and  olefiant  gas are given
off in equal volumes."   " Carbon  and water  are the  elements of acetic acid, the
formation of which must diminish  the quantity of carbon  in the  residue.   By the
action of the sulphuric acid  in excess  on  acetic acid,  formic acid and sulphurous
acid are formed; and  by tbe action of  the sulphuric acid in excess on formic acid,
carbonic oxide gas is produced."3   "It  is probable that, in this decomposition, the
elements of sulphuric  acid and of ether  first  arrange  themselves  so  as to form
ethionic [4S03,C4H50] or isethionic [S205,C4H503+aq.] acids."  A small quantity
of Light Oil of Wine  is  also produced.   In  the directions for the preparation of
ether given by the London College, the process is directed to  be  stopped when some
" heavier portion" begins to pass over.   This heavier liquid  is an aqueous solution
of sulphurous acid.   On the small scale, ether may be readily made  in a tubulated
glass retort, connected by Liebig's condensing  tube with  a  cooled glass receiver.
At Apothecaries' Hall, London, it is  made in a leaden  still, having  a pewter head
connected by about six feet of tin pipe with a very spacious condensing worm, duly
cooled by a current of  water;  the  receivers are of pewter with glass lids, and have
a side tube to connect them with the delivering  end of the worm-pipe.  The still
is heated by high-pressure steam carried through  it in a contorted leaden pipe.   A
tube enters the upper  part of the still for the  purpose of suffering alcohol gradually
to run into the acid.3
   Mitscherlich4 has shown how a given quantity of oil of vitriol may be made to
convert  an  unlimited  quantity  of alcohol into ether;  the whole of the  alcohol
* Liebig, in Turner's Elements of Chemistry,7th edit, p.841.              a Liebig, op. supra cit.
* Brande's Manual of Chemistry, 5th edit. p. 1275, 1841.                             ° «•/"<* «.".
* Lehrbuch der Chemie, Band. i. S. 98, 2te Aufl. Berlin, 1933. 
Properties;  Characteristics.
919
which  enters  the retort  passing off as ether  and water.  As,  however, ether is
usually prepared from hydrated alcohol  (rectified  spirit), the  superfluous  water
gradually dilutes the acid until ultimately it  becomes too dilute to effect the con-
version of alcohol into ether.  The process of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia is an
imitation  of Mitscherlich's principle. [According to this chemist, ether is produced
only so long as the liquid has a temperature between 284° and 302°.]  The recti-
fication of ether is  intended  to free it from alcohol, water, sulphurous acid, and oil
of wine.  It may be affected by the addition of carbonate of potash and redistil-
lation.  In order to separate  alcohol from  ether, the readiest method is to shake the
ether with twice its bulk of water;  then pour it off, and remove the water, which the
washed ether has dissolved, by adding some fresh burned lime, or fused chloride of
calcium, and distilling the ether a second time.
   Properties.—At ordinary temperatures, ether is a colourless, very limpid liquid,
having a penetrating, peculiar, though  somewhat  fragrant odour; a hot,  pungent
taste;  and a high refractive  power.   It is a bad conductor of electricity.  Accord-
ing to Liebig,  it may be frozen at 46° below zero.   The sp. gr. of pure ether at 68°
F. is, according to Dumas and Boullay, 0.713.  The ether of  the shops contains a
little alcohol, and its sp. gr.  varies  from 0.733 to 0.765; in  the London Pharma-
copoeia, its sp. gr. at 62° F. is fixed at 0.750.  Ether is extremely volatile:  when
of sp. gr. 0.720, its  boiling  point  (the mercury in the barometer  standing at 30
inches) is about 98° F.   In  a vacuum, it boils at 40° F. below zero.  The evapo-
ration of  ether causes intense cold; [and the greatest degree of cold yet produced
= —166°, has resulted  from the admixture of ether with solid carbonic acid.—
Ed.]  The sp. gr. of ether-vapour  was found, by Gay-Lussac, to be 2.586.   Pure
and  recently prepared ether possesses neither acid nor alkaline properties); but, by
exposure to air and light, it absorbs oxygen, by which  acetic acid  and water  are
produced.  The acetic acid is not immediately observed, because it  combines with
some undecomposed ether to  form acetic ether.  Ether is very combustible; it burns
in atmospheric air with a yellowish-white  flame, and forms carbonic acid and water.
Its vapour, mixed with  oxygen or atmospheric air, forms a violently explosive mix-
ture.  One volume  of  ether-vapour consumes,  in burning, six volumes of oxygen
gas; the products are, four volumes of carbonic acid, and five volumes of aqueous
vapour.   By the slow combustion of ether vapour, by means of a coil of platinum
wire, acetic, formic, and lampic  [aldehydic] acids are produced.
   Ether is  sparingly soluble in water; nine volumes  of the  latter  dissolve one of
the former.   Ether which has been washed with water contains a small  portion of
this  liquid.  Alcohol dissolves ether in all proportions.   Ether abstracts bichloride
of mercury, terchloride  of gold, bichloride of platina, and the sesquichloride of iron,
from their watery solutions.  It readily dissolves bromine and iodine; but the solu-
tions,  by keeping,  undergo decomposition.   It sparingly dissolves sulphur  and
phosphorus; the ethereal  solution  of phosphorus  is  luminous in the  dark when
poured on hot water.   It dissolves the volatile oils, most of the fatty and resinous
substances,  some of the vegetable  alkalies, urea,  osmazome,  gun-cotton (forming
collodion), and caoutchouc.
  Characteristics.—Sulphuric ether may be recognized by its combustibility, its
yellowish-white flame, its volatility, its peculiar odour  and  taste, its  complete  solu-
bility in alcohol, aud its sparing solubility in water; in consequence of which, when
mixed  with water and agitated in a phial, the mixture speedily separates, on stand-
ing,  into two  layers.   It dissolves most  resins; the  solutions, evaporated on  the
surface of water, leave  a resinous film.
  Composition.—The following is the elementary composition of ether:—
                            Atoms. Eq. Wt.   Per Cent.  Dumas If Boullay.
                  Carbon .... 4      24       64.87         65.05
                  Hydrogen . . 5       5       13.51         13.65
                  Oxygen ... 1       8       21.62         21.24
                     Ether . .  1      37      100.00        100.14 
920
ORGANIC SUBSTANCES—Sulphuric Ether.
  Chemists are not agreed as to the  manner in which these elements are associated.
Ether  has  been considered, at different times, as  a dihydrate of olefiant gas; at
hydrate of etherine, or as the oxide of ethyle (ethereum).
2 eq. olefiant gas.......28
1 eq water..........  9

1 eq. Dihydrate of Olefiant Gas 37
1 eq. etherine......28
1 eq. water.......   9

leq. Hydrate of Etherine  37
1 eq. ethyle......29
1 eq. oxygen.....  8

1 eq. Oxide of Ethyle  . 37
  In this table, olefiant gas is  regarded as § carbo-hydrogen, etherine as a f carbo hydrogen,
and ethyle as f carbo-hydrogen.
   [Dr. Frankland has succeeded in isolating the  compound radical  ethyle.   He
procured it by the action of zinc at high temperatures upon iodide of  ethyle.   He
describes it as a colourless and inflammable gas,  of a specific gravity = 2.0039,
incondensable  to the liquid state at zero, but capable  of  being converted under a
pressure  of 2.25 atmospheres, at 37.5°, into a colourless transparent liquid.1—Ed.]
   Purity.—The  ether of commerce is usually contaminated with small quantities
of either spirit  or water, or both.  These augment its  sp. gr., but  do not much
affect its medicinal  properties.  The London College states that its sp. gr. should
not exceed  0.750; but this is  too high.  The Edinburgh  College  fixes it at 0.735,
or under.   I  think 0.740  would  be  sufficiently low.  Ether which contains no
alcohol does not coagulate the serum of the blood.   Pure  ether  does not redden
litmus;  but the ether of the  shops usually does so slightly, either  from being im-
perfectly prepared, or from having been  too long kept.   Ten fluidounces of water
should not dissolve more than one fluidounce of ether, and the solution should be quite
transparent.   It should  speedily and  totally evaporate in the air.  It should not
become  milky when mixed with water.   " When  agitated  in  a  minim measure,
with half its volume of concentrated solution of muriate of lime,  its volume is not
lessened," Ph. Ed.
   Physiological Effkcts. a. On Vegetables.—Ether, like alcohol, acts as a power-
ful and rapid poison to plants.
   )3. On Animals.—The effects of it on dogs have been determined  by Orfila,3 who
found that half an  ounce  introduced  into  the  stomach,  and the oesophagus  tied,
caused attempts to vomit, diminished muscular  power, insensibility, and death in
three hours.  Three drachms  and a half, injected into  the cellular  tissue of the
thigh, caused death  on  the  fourth day.  Jiiger3 found that half an  ounce of  ether
acted as  a fatal poison to a crane;  at the end of forty-eight hours, its  odour could
be  readily  detected  in the  body.   He made similar experiments  with pigeons and
ducks.   One of the last-mentioned animals took altogether an ounce  of ether, yet
was not dead at the  end of twenty-four hours.
   y.  On Man.—The operation of ether is analogous to that of alcohol, but is much
more rapid  and transient.   Swallowed in  moderate doses, it makes  a  powerful im-
pression  on  the mouth, throat and stomach; allays spasm, and relieves flatulence;
but, according to some observers, it augments neither the heat of  the  body nor the
frequency of the pulse.4  Its  first effects on the cerebral functions are those of an
excitant, but the subsequent ones  are  those of a depressing agent.   In somewhat
larger doses, it produces intoxication like that caused by alcohol.- In excessive doses,
it occasions nausea, a copious flow  of saliva, giddiness, and  stupefaction.
   The long and habitual use of ether diminishes  the effect of this substance over
the system, and, therefore, the  dose must be proportionately increased.  Dr.  Chris-
tison  mentions the case  of an  old  gentleman who consumed sixteen  ounces every
eight or ten days, and had been in the  habit of doing so for many years.   Yet, with
the exception  of an asthma, for which he took  the  ether,  he enjoyed tolerable
health.   The chemist, Bucquet, who died of scirrhus of the colon,  with inflamma-
' See Journal of Chemical Society, vol. ii.                                 3 Toxicol Qi
* Y\ bmer, in Die Wirkung, &c.
* Schwilgue, Traiti de Mat. Mid. 181S; also Trousseau and Pidoux, Traiti de Thirap. 1836. 
Modus Operandi; Medicinal Uses.
921
tion of the stomach and of the  intestines generally, took, before his death, a pint
of ether daily, to alleviate his excruciating pains.1
   When the vapour of ether, sufficiently diluted with atmospheric  air, is inhaled,
it causes irritation about the epiglottis, a sensation of fulness in the head, and effects
analogous to those caused by the protoxide of nitrogen ; moreover, persons  pecu-
liarly susceptible of the action of the one, are also powerfully affected by the other.9
If the air be too strongly impregnated with ether, stupefaction ensues.   In one case,
this state continued, with occasional  periods of intermission, for more  than thirty
hours;  for many days  the  pulse was so  much lowered that considerable fears were
entertained for the safety of the patient  (op.  cit.).  In  another case, an apoplectic
condition, which continued for some hours, was produced.   [The anesthetic proper-
ties of this vapour are  well known.   In surgical  operations, it has been much used
for the purpose of destroying sensibility ; but preference is now given to the vapour
of chloroform.—Ed]
   Modus Operandi.—When  ether is swallowed,  it is rapidly absorbed, and sub-
sequently thrown out of the system by the pulmonary exhalants.  Magendie3 says,
that ether introduced into the cavity of  the peritoneum is discoverable in  the ex-
pired air  by its odour.   Thrown into the cavity  of the pleura, it produces speedy
death, and  its odour is very obvious when we approach the mouth of the animal.4
In the case of a  man poisoned by laudanum, and  to whom, before  death,  half an
ounce of  spirit of  sulphuric ether was  given, the ether was detected by its  odour
in the brain.*
   Uses.—Ether is employed both medicinally and for pharmaceutical  purposes.
   1.  Medicinal  Uses.   o. Internal.—Ether is principally valuable  as a speedy
and powerful agent in  spasmodic and painful affections not dependent on local vas-
cular excitement, and which are accompanied by a pale cold skin, and a  small feeble
pulse.  If administered during a paroxysm of spasmodic  asthma, it  generally gives
relief, but has no tendency to prevent the recurrence  of attacks.  In cramp of  the
stomach, singultus, and flatulent colic, its happy effects are well established.6   It is
sometimes highly advantageous in a paroxysm of angina pectoris.   During  the pas-
sage of urinary or biliary calculi, it may be  used as  a substitute for, or in combi-
nation with, opium, to  overcome the spasm of the ducts or tubes through which the
calculus is passing.  In the latter stages of continued fever, ether is sometimes ad-
missible.   It is employed to relieve the subsultus tendinum and hiccup.   Desboia
de Rochefort7 administered it  iu  intermittent fevers.   He  gave it about  half an
hour before the expected paroxysm;  it acted as a  mild diaphoretic, and prevented
the recurrence of the attack.    Headache of the kind  popularly called nervous, that
is, unconnected with vascular excitement, is  sometimes  speedily relieved by ether.
I  have found it beneficial principally in females of delicate habits.   In  such it occa-
sionally gives immediate relief, even when the throbbing of the temporal vessels and
suffusion of the eyes (symptoms which usually contraindicate the employment of
ether) would seem to show the existence of excitement of the cerebral vessels.
   In flatulence of the  stomach it may be taken in combination with some aromatic
water.   Against sea-sickness it should  be swallowed in a glass of white wine.  Du-
rande8 recommends a mixture of three parts ether, and two oil of turpentine, as a
solvent for biliary  calculi.  Bourdier9 employed ether to expel tape-worm.   He ad-
ministered  it, by  the stomach and  rectum, in  an infusion  of male  fern, giving  a
dose of castor-oil an hour after.  In faintness and lowness of spirits, it is a popular
remedy.   In poisoning  by hemlock and mushrooms, it has  been employed.10   In
asphyxia it has been used with benefit.
 1 Merat and De Lens, Diet. Mat. Mid.         2 Journal of Science, iv. 158.
 » Elem. Compend. Physiol, by Milligan.        4 Lectures on the Tissues, in Lancet, Nov. 22, 1834.
 » Lancet for 1836—7, vol. l. p. 271.
 • On the Effects of Ktlier in Spasmodic Affections of the Stomach, and in  Intermittents. See Medical
Facts and Observations, vol. v. Lond.
 ' Cours F.lim. de Maliire Midicale, Paris, 1789.
 • Observ. sur I'Ejficaciti du MAlange d'Eth'r sulphuriq. et d'lluile volatile du Tirib. dans Coliques
hipatiq. produites par des Pi'.rres Bitiaires, Strasburg, 1700.
 » Mim de la SociUde M d.                            l0 J. Frank, Toxicologic, S. 70,108. 
922            ORGANIC  SUBSTANCES.—Sulphuric Ether.

  The vapour  of ether is inhaled  in  spasmodic  asthma, chronic catarrh,  and
dyspnoea, hooping-couodi, and to relieve the effects caused by the accidental inhala-
tion of chlorine gas.   It may be used by dropping  some ether in hot water,  and
inspiring the vapour mixed with steam; or it may be dropped  on sugar, which is
to be  held in the mouth.  The inhalation of the vapour of the ethereal tincture of
hemlock is occasionally useful  in relieving  spasmodic affections  of the respiratory
organs, and has been recommended in phthisical  cases.
  j3.  External.—The  principal  external use  of ether is to  produce cold  by its
speedy evaporation.  Thus, in strangulated hernia, it may be  dropped on the tumour
and  allowed to evaporate  freely: by this  means, a considerable degree of  cold is
produced, and,  in consequence, the bulk of the part diminished, whereby the reduc-
tion of the hernia is facilitated.   Dropped on the forehead, or applied by means of
a piece of thin  muslin, ether diminishes vascular excitement, by the cold produced
from  its evaporation, and is exceedingly efficacious in  headache and  inflammatory
conditions  of the  brain.  In burns and scalds, it may also be employed as a refri-
gerant.   If its evaporation be  stopped or  checked, as by covering it with  a com-
press, it acts as a local irritant, causing rubefaction, and, by long-continued appli-
cation, vesication.   It  is used with friction  as a local stimulant.
  2.  Pharmaceutical Uses.—Ether is employed in the preparation of the Com-
pound Spirit of  Sulphuric Ether.  Ether, or its alcoholic solution, is also used to
extract the active principles of certain drugs, as of Lobelia, Aloes,  Musk, &c.   The
solutions are called Ethereal Tinctures (Tincturse Etherese), or by the French phar-
macologists Ethiroles.  These may be  conveniently prepared  by percolation.  Ether
is of assistance  in determining the purity of some  medicinal substances, as of Aco-
nitina and Veratria, which  are very soluble in it.   It is employed in toxicological
researches  to remove Bichloride of Mercury from organic mixtures.   [A solution
of gun-cotton  or xyloidine in  ether  is well  known and  extensively employed in
pharmacy under the name of Collodion.—Ed.]
  Administration.—It may be given in doses of from fjss to f5ij:  a teaspoonful
is the ordinary quantity.   This  dose  may be repeated at  short  intervals.   It is
usually exhibited in some aromatic water, and frequently in  combination with other
antispasmodics and stimulants, as ammonia  or valerian.  " It may be perfectly incor-
porated  with water, or  any aqueous mixture, by  rubbing it  up with  spermaceti,
employed in the proportion of  two grains for each fluidrachm of the ether."1
  Antidotes.—In  cases  of  poisoning by ether, the same treatment  is to be
adopted as before recommended in cases of poisoning by alcohol.
  1,  SPIRITUS JTHERIS SULPHURICI, E.; Spirit  of Sidphuric Ether.—(Sulphuric
Ether Oj;  Rectified Spirit Oij.   Mix  them.  The density of this preparation ought
to be 0.809.   "It does not affect litmus  paper,  or render water muddy; when
agitated with twice its volume  of a  concentrated  solution of muriate of lime, 28
per cent,  of ether separates by rest.")—Its  medicinal  properties are similar to,
though somewhat less powerful than those of ether, over which it has the advan-
tage of being miscible with water in all proportions.   The dose of it is f5j to f^iij,
mixed with some diluent.   It is used in the preparation of the Tinctura Lobelise
aether ea, E.
  t  SPIRITUS  MERIS COMPOSITUS, L. [U. S.];  Compound Spirit  of Sulphuric
Ether.—(Sulphuric Ether fgviij ; Rectified Spirit fgxvj ; Ethereal Oil f^iij.   Mix.)
—This  preparation  is  commonly called Hoffmann's Mineral Anodyne  Liquor
(Liquor  anodynus mineralis Hoffmanni); being  made in  imitation of a prepara-
tion described by Hoffmann,3 which it is said he was taught by an  apothecary of
the name of Martmeier.3   This  preparation is sometimes  employed  as an adjunct
to laudanum, to prevent the nausea which the latter excites in certain habits.  Its
dose is from f3ss to f3 ij iQ any proper vehicle.
1 United States Dispensatory, 3d edit. p. 727, Ph ladelphia, 1836.
1 De Acido Vitrioli Vinos'), 1732. Fr. Hoffmanni Operum omnium Supplementum, p. 655, GenevtB 1754
' Voigtells, Vollstandiges System der Arzneymittellehre, Bd. ii. 3tte Abt. S. 38, Leipzig, 1817.   ' 
Ethereal Oil:—History;  Preparation; Theory op Process.    923
      302.  OLEUM iETHEREUM, Z-ETHEREAL OIL.
                             (Spiritus anheris oleosus, D.)

   History- and Synonymes.—This liquid is commonly termed heavy oil of wine,
or simply oil of wine.  Dumas1 says it was known to Paracelsus, who designated it
sweet oil of vitriol.   Modern writers have given it various appellations, founded on
its supposed  composition.  Thus, according to Mr. Hennell,3 it  is  a sulphate of
hydrocarbon; Dumas3 calls it sulphatic ether; others, a double sulphate of ether and
hydrocarbon ; while Liebig4 terms it sulphate of oxide of ethyle and Etherole.5
   Preparation.—The following directions for procuring it are given in the Lon-
don Pharmacopoeia:—
  "Take of Rectified Spirit Ibij;  Sulphuric  Acid Ifeiv; Solution of Potash, Distilled Water,
of each f^j; or as much as may be sufficient.  Mix the acid cautiously with the spirit.   Let
the liquor distil until a black froth arises ; then immediately remove  the retort from the fire.
Separate the lighter supernatant liquor from the heavier one, and expose the former to the air
for a day.  Add to it the solution of potash first mixed with water, and shake them together.
Lastly, when sufficiently washed, separate the ethereal oil which subsides."
   The Dublin  College gives the following  directions for its preparation: " Take of Rectified
Spirit one pint and a half; Oil of Vitriol of commerce one pint and a half; Sulphuric Ether five
fluidounces.  Mix the oil of vitriol with one pint of the rectified spirit, in a matrass of glass,
and, connecting this with a Liebig's condenser, apply heat, and distil, till a black froth begins to
rise.  Separate the uppermost or lighter stratum of the distilled liquid, and, having exposed it
in a capsule for twenty-four hours to the atmosphere, let the residual oil be transferred to a
moist paper filter, and washed with a little cold water, so as to remove any adhering acid.   Let
it now be introduced into a bottle containing the remainder of the spirit mixed with the ether,
and dissolved."
   [The  U. S.  Pharm. directs the following method: Take of Alcohol  Oij; Sul-
phuric Acid Oiij;  Solution of Potassa f§ss; Distilled Water f^j.  Mix  the Acids
cautiously with the Alcohol, and allow the mixture to stand for twelve hours; then
pour it into a large glass retort, to which a receiver kept cool by ice is adapted, and
distil  by means of a sand-bath  until a black froth rises, when the retort is to be
removed immediately from the sand-bath.   Separate the  lighter supernatant liquid
in the receiver  from the heavier, and expose it to the air for  a day;  then add to it
the  Solution of Potassa previously mixed with the distilled water, and shake them
together.  Lastly, separate the Ethereal Oil as soon as it has subsided.]
   The process of the  London  Pharmacopoeia is that  followed  at  Apothecaries'
Hall, London.  The late  Mr. Hennell  informed me that  33 lbs. avoird. of Rectified
Spirit, and 64 lbs. avoird. of  Oil of Vitriol, yielded in one operation 17 ounces
avoird. of ethereal oil.   There is, therefore, an immense loss in the operation.
   Theory op  the  Process. — When  oil  of vitriol and  alcohol are mixed,
bisulphate of  oxide of ethyle  (C4H50,2S03) and water are formed.  Under  the
influence of heat, the bisulphate suffers decomposition; but the reactions vary with
the temperature.   When the  sulphuric acid is greatly in excess, and the boiling
point of the liquid has attained 320°  F., the  principal  products  of  the  decompo-
sition are sulphurous acid, olefiant gas  (carbo-hydrogen), water, and  carbon.   At
this period of the process, heavy oil of wine is also produced in small  quantity.
Its formation may be accounted for by supposing that two equivalents of  the bisul-
phate of oxide  of ethyle and water react on one another, and that the carbo-hydrogen
(C4H4=1 eq.  Etherole) of the one  is  substituted for the water of the other;  the
products being heavy oil of wine  (oleum sethereum, Ph. L.), sulphuric acid, and
water.
   The substance termed by Liebig Etherole (C4H4) is commonly denominated Light Oil of
 Wine.  It was discovered  by Hennell, who calls it Hydrocarbon from Oil of Wine, because it is
obtained  by boiling the heavy oil of wine with water.  It is a colourless oily  liquid, of sp. gr.
' Trail'de Chimie, v. 543.       3 Philosophical Transactions, 1826.
' Op. supra cit.               * Turner's Elements of Chemistry, 7th edit. pp. 811 and 861,1841.
* The term etherole is applitd to a | carbo-hydrogen, better known as Light Oil of Wine. 
924             ORGANIC  SUBSTANCES.—Ethereal Oil.
0.917 to 0 920.   When kept for some time at a low temperature, it deposits a crystalline mat-
ter called Etherine or Camphor of Oil of Wine (OH4), which is isomeric with etherole.
   Properties.—Ethereal oil  is an oily liquid,  having usually a yellowish tint,
though, when quite pure, it is  said  to be colourless.  It has  a peculiar  aromatic
odour, and a bitter taste.   Its sp. gr. according to  Mr. Hennell, is 1.05 ;  but, ac-
cording to Serullas, it is 1.13.   It boils  at 540° F.   It is insoluble in water, but
dissolves readily in  alcohol and  ether.   It neither reddens litmus nor  precipitates
a solution of chloride of barium, so  that the sulphuric acid contained in it  seems
to be completely neutralized.   According to Mr. Hennell, ethereal oil  dissolves a
variable quantity of a £ carbo-hydrogen,  part of which separates in a crystalhne
form  (etherine) when the oil is kept for some time, or when exposed to cold. When
ethereal oil  is  slightly  heated  with water, it yields a light yellow oil (etherole),
which floats on water,  and bisulphate of oxide of ethyle, which is dissolved by the
water.
   Characteristics.—Ethereal oil  is recognized  by its oily appearance, its pecu-
liar odour and taste, its slight solubility in, but greater specific  gravity than, water,
and its solubility in ether and  alcohol.   If it be heated in a test-tube, it  yields an
inflammable vapour which burns like olefiant gas, and a carbonaceous residue which
contains sulphuric acid, as is proved by lixiviating with water,  and testing by chlo-
ride of barium.   Ethereal oil, added to a solution  of chloride of barium,  occasions
no cloudiness; but, if  we  evaporate the mixture to dryness,  the  residue is found
to contain sulphate of baryta.
   Composition.—Three  chemists  have  analyzed ethereal oil,  namely,  Hennell,
Serullas, and  Liebig.    The results of  two only  of these agree, namely, those of
Liebig and Serullas.
               Liebig and Serullas.
             Atoms. Eq.Wt.  Theory.  Liebig.  Serullas.
Sulphuric acid  .  .  2   80    55.172   55.614    55.02
Carbon......8   48    33.103   33.180    33.05
Hydrogen.....9    9     6.207    5.788     6.11
Oxygen......1    8     5.517    5.418     5.49

Oleum iEthereum)  1   145    99.999   100.000   99.67
  (Ph. L.) . .  . .J
     Hennell.
Eq. Eq.Wt.  Per Cent.
 1     40     38.0
 9     54     53.7
 9      9     8.3
 0      0     0.0

 1    103    100.0
  It would appear from this table that Hennell1 must have analyzed ethereal oil holding in so-
lution carbo-hydrogen (etherine), and that he omitted to take into calculation the elements of
water which this oil contains.
  According to  Serullas3 and Liebig,3 this oil is a double sulphate of oxide of ethyle
(ether) and etherole  (carbo-hydrogen).
                                                      Or,           Atoms.   Eq.Wt.
                                         Sulphate of oxide of ethyle (ether)  1      77
                                         Sulphate of etherole (carbo-hydro-) .      fig
                                           gen)................\

                                         Sulphate of Oxide of  Ethyle and) .     ,.,
                                           Etherole.............$ l     145
                         Atoms.    Eq.Wt.
2 eq. sulphuric acid........  2      80
1 eq. oxide of ethyle (ether) ....  1      37
1 eq. etherole (carbo-hydrogen) . .  1      28

1 Sulphate of Oxide of Ethyle and ) l     14g
 Etherole..............>
   Dumas,4  however, regards  it as true  sulphatic  ether  (S03,C4H50), holding in
solution variable quantities of carbo-hydrogen.
   Physiological  Effects.—These have  not been determined.  I gave fifteen
drops to a small rabbit:  death  took place within  an hour.   The symptoms were
indisposition to move,  apparent tendency to sleep, followed by incapability of sup-
porting the  erect position, occasional convulsive movements, grating of  the teeth,
and insensibility.   The body was  opened immediately after death; the  heart  was
still beating, and  its right  cavities were  gorged with purple blood.  Ethereal oil,
therefore, acts on the nervous system in a somewhat analogous way to ether.
   Uses.—Ethereal oil is used in  the manufacture of  the Spiritus jEtheris Com-
positus of the Pharmacopoeia.

  i  Philosophical Transactions for 1826. pp. 247—8.          2 Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. xxxix. 153.
  * Turner's Elements of Chemistry. 7th edit. pp. 814 and 661.
  4 Traitt de Chimie appliqul aux Arts, v. 54.5. Paris, 1835. 
             Spirit of Nitric Ether :—History; Preparation.         925

  " Dr. Hare," in his Chemical Compendium, " reports the opinions of  Drs. Phy-
sick and Dewees in favour of the efficacy of  the officinal oil of wine, dissolved in
alcohol, in certain disturbed states of the system, as a tranquillizing and anodyne
remedy."1


  303. SPIRITUS iETHERIS NITRICI,  L. E.  \u. s.].—SPIRIT OF
       NITRIC ETHER, OR  SWEET SPIRIT OF NITRE.
     (Spiritus aethereus nitrosus, D.—Hyponitrous ether, with four volumes of rectified spirit, E.)

  History.—The first traces of this preparation are to be found in the writings of
Raymond Lully, in  the 13th  century.3  Basil Valentine, in  the  15th century,
taught a  much improved method of preparing it.3   Nitric ether  was first mentioned
by  Kunkel, in 1681.4  It has been known under various names, such as Dulcified
Acid of Nitre (Acidum Nitri dulcificatum), Sweet  Spirit of Nitre (Spiritus Nitri
dulcis), Spirit of Nitrous Ether (Spiritus jEtheris Nitrosi), and Nitre Drops.
  Preparation.—It is usually prepared by  the action of nitric acid on rectified
spirit at one  operation, as in the process  of the London  College, which is that em-
ployed at Apothecaries'  Hall, London.   Or it may  be procured by first  preparing
nitric [hyponitrous]  ether, and subsequently diluting this  with rectified spirit, as in
the process of the Edinburgh College.
  1.  Preparation of Hyponitrous Ether.—Liebig5  has lately given the  following
method  of  obtaining this compound in a state of  purity :  "One part  of starch,
and ten  parts of nitric acid, sp. gr. 1.3, are introduced into a capacious retort, which
is connected by means of a wide tube, bent at right angles, with a two-necked bottle,
so that the  farther end of the tube reaches to the bottom of the bottle.  Into this
bottle is introduced a mixture of two parts  of alcohol at 85 p.  c. and one part of
water, and  it is surrounded  by cold  water.   The second  aperture of the bottle is
connected, by means  of  a long  wide  tube, with a good cooling apparatus  or con-
denser.   The starch and nitric acid are heated in the water-bath ; pure hyponitrous
acid is disengaged, which, passing through the alcohol, instantly combines with the
ether, forming hyponitrite of oxide of ethyle,  which distils in a continuous stream.
This  process is very productive.   By  means of water, the new ether is purified from
alcohol, and by standing over chloride of calcium it is freed from water.  The tube
which connects the retort with the two-necked bottle must have a length  of two or
three feet, and must be surrounded with  moist paper during the operation.   If the
alcohol be not carefully  cooled, it becomes spontaneously hot, and  boils  violently.
From this moment the hyponitrite of ethyle is no longer pure."
  The process of the Edinburgh College for the preparation  of hyponitrous ether is  as follows:
Take of Rectified Spirit Oij and fgvj; Pure Nitric Acid (density 1.500) f^vij. Put fifteen fluid-
ounce? of the spirit, with a little clean sand, into, a two-pint matrass, fitted with a cork, through
which are passed a safety-tube, terminating an inch above the spirit, and another tube leading
to a refrigeratory.  The safety-tube being  filled with pure nitric acid, add through it gradually
three  fluidounces and a half of the acid.   When the ebullition which slowly arises is nearly
over, add  the rest of the acid gradually, half a fluidounce  at a time, waiting till the ebullition
caused by each portion is nearly over before adding  more, and cooling the refrigeratory with a
stream of  water, iced in the summer.  The ether thus distilled over being received in a bottle,
is to be agitated first with a little milk of  lime, till it ceases to redden litmus paper, and then
with half its  volume of concentrated solution of muriate of lime.   The pure hyponitrous ether
thus obtained should have a density of 0.899.
  The theory of Liebig's process for  making  hyponitrous  ether is  simple.  Starch
deoxidizes nitric acid and evolves hyponitrous  acid [the nitrous acid of Graham and
continental chemists].  This being conveyed into alcohol,  combines with the oxide
of ethyle of the latter, and disengages the water.
I  United States Dispensatory.
*  Dulk, Die Preussische Pharmaknpoe fibers, und erldutert, 2er Th. S. 701, 5te Aufl. Lei|iz. 1830.
•  Ibid.                * Thomson, System of Chemistry of Inorganic Bodies, 7th edit. ii. 317 1831.
»  Turner's Elements of i hemistry, 7th edit. p. 848. 
926        ORGANIC SUBSTANCES.—Spirit of Nitric Ether.
   Hyponitrous ether is, however, usually prepared by the action of nitric acid on
alcohol; as in the Edinburgh and Dublin processes.   The reactions are  then more
complicated, but vary with the strength  of  the acid and the  temperature.   They
essentially depend on the deoxidation of the  nitric acid  by the hydrogen and carbon
of the ethyle of part of the alcohol.   As hydrogen  has more affinity than carbon
for oxygen, it follows that in the earlier  stages,  and when reaction is moderate, it
is  the hydrogen of the  ethyle which is oxidized  by the oxygen of the nitric acid.
Thus, when we employ a dilute acid, or moderate the reaction by cold, the products
are aldehyd (hydrated oxide  of acetyle1), water, and  hyponitrous  ether.   When,
however, the reaction is more energetic, as when strong nitric acid is employed,  and
the temperature is not moderated, the carbon as well as the hydrogen of the ethyle
is  oxidized by the oxygen of the acid, and  several products,  besides  tho^e above-
mentioned, are then obtained.  Carbonic (CO8) and oxalic (C203) acids  are formed
by the oxidation of the carbon. Acetic (C4H!03) and formic  (C2H03)  acids are  also
generated; "besides acetate and formiate of ethyle" (Liebig).   By tbe deoxidation
of nitric acid there are obtained, besides hyponitrous acid already mentioned, nitrous
acid, binoxide of nitrogen, protoxide of nitrogen, and nitrogen (Thenard).
   2. Preparation of Spiritus .ffitheris Nitrici.—The  processes  of  all the British
Colleges differ from  each other.
   The  London  College orders of Rectified Spirit Ibiij; Nitric Acid j|iv. Add the Acid gradually
to the Spirit, and mix; then let 32 fluidounces  distil.
   The  Edinburgh  College directs the pure  hyponitrous ether  (obtained by the process above
detailed)  to be  mixed with the remainder (i. e. f^xxxj) of the rectified spirit, or  exactly four
times its  volume.   Spirit of nitric ether  ought not to be kept  long, as it always undergoes de-
composition, and becomes at length strongly  acid.   Its density, by this process, is 0.847,
   The  directions of the Dublin College are as follows :  Take of Rectified Spirit two pints and
eight fluidounces; Pure Nitric Acid three fluidounces; Water one ounce; Solution of Ammonia
a sufiicient  quantity.   Place six ounces of the spirit in a glass matrass capable  of holding a
quart, and connect  this with a Liebig's condenser, whose farther extremity is fitted loosely by
a collar of tow into a thin eight-ounce phial. Add  now the water to the nitric acid, and, having
introduced half of the  resulting solution into the  matrass, through a safety syphon tube, close
the mouth of this tube  with a cork, and apply for  a few moments  a  gentle heat, so as to cause
a commencement of ebullition. When the  action (which, shortly after commencing, proceeds
with much violence, and should  be  moderated by the external application of cold water) has
relaxed, introduce gradually the remainder of the acid, so as  to restore it.  The action having
entirely ceased, agitate the distilled product with half its bulk of the solution of ammonia, allow
the mixture to  rest for a few minutes, and, having separated  the supernatant ethereal liquid,
mix  four ounces of it with the rest of the spirit, and preserve  the product in small, strong, and
accurately stopped bottles.
   In the performance of the  preceding distillation, the condenser should be fed with ice-cold
water, and the phial, in which the distilled  liquid is received, should be surrounded by a  mix-
ture of one part salt and two of pounded ice; or, when ice cannot be procured, with a mixture
of eight parts of sulphate of soda in small crystals and five of commercial muriatic acid.
   [The  following  are the directions  of the U.  S. Pharm. : Take of Nitrate of Po-
tassa, in coarse powder, rbij;  Sulphuric acid  Ibiss; Alcohol Oixss ; Diluted Alcohol
Oj;  Carbonate of Potassa 3j.   Mix the  Nitrate of Potassa and the Alcohol  in a
large glass retort, and having  gradually poured in  the acid, digest  with  a gentle
heat for two hours;  then raise the heat and  distil a gallon.   To the distilled liquor
add the  Diluted Alcohol and  Carbonate of Potassa, and again  distil a gallon.]
   At Apothecaries'  Hall,  London, this preparation is made in  an  earthenware still,
with a condensing worm of the  same  material.   The still  is heated by the  slow
application of steam  to its outer surface.3   The theory3 of the process is essentially
the same as that for preparing pure hyponitrous ether.  The  latter, when formed,

 1 Acetyle, and the oxide of acetyle, are hypothetical substances.  Aldehyd  is regarded as  the hvdrate rf
the hypothetical oxide of acetyle.                                '     °       '"icnjarateci
 2 Brande, Manual of Pharmacy. 3d edit. p. 461, London.
 3 Dr. Golding Bird [Lond and Edinb. Phil. Mag. 1839, vol. xiv. p. 324) says, that while  the ether dis-
tils, mixed with alcohol only, oxalhydric [saccharic] acid (C^H^O'6), but no oxalic acid is formed   He
also states, that aldehyd is generated, but does not appear in thedistlled liquid until the formation of'ether
has nearly or entirely ceased ; the aldehyd and oxalic ac.d being nearly of simultaneous origin 
Properties; Characteristics;  Composition.             927
distils over along with rectified spirit, and constitutes the Spiritus aetheris nitrici,
Ph. L.
  Properties,  a. Of Hyponitrous Ether.—Pure hyponitrous ether, prepared
by Liebig's process, is pale-yellow, has a most fragrant smell of apples and Hungary
wines, boils at 62°, and has  the  sp. gr. of 0.947 at 60°.  It may be mixed with
an alcoholic  solution of potash without becoming brown (showing the absence of
aldehyd);  hyponitrite of  potash  and alcohol  are  formed.  Impure  hyponitrous
ether, prepared by the  ordinary  processes, boils  at  70° F., and  has  the  sp.  gr.
0.886 at 40°.  Its  smell is like that of the former, but at the same time suffocating.
Mixed with an alcoholic solution of potash it becomes dark-brown (showing the pre-
sence of aldehyd), with the  production of resin of aldehyd.  It is highlylnflam-
mable,  burning with a  bright flame.   When  kept it  becomes  acid, while  nitric
oxide gas is given off. This tendency to become  acid is greater when air is admitted,
and depends  on the presence of  aldehyd, which is oxidized by the oxygen  of  the
air or of the hyponitrous acid.  It is  soluble in  48 parts of water, and miscible, in
all proportions, with  ether and alcohol (Liebig).   The following is the composition
of the  pure hyponitrous ether:—
Carbon . .
Hydrogen
()ij gen .
Nitrogen .
 At.
.  4
,  5
.  4
,  1
Hyponitrous i ,
 Ether
us  )
Eq.Wt.
  24
  5
  32
  14

  75
Theory.
 32.00
  6.67
 42.67
 18.66

100 00
Dumas and
 Boullay.
   32.69
   6.85
   41.46
   19.00
100.00
        Or,
Hyponitrous
 Acid
Atoms.

I  1
Oxide of Ethyle )  ,
  (Ether)  . . . J  1

Hyponitrite of  )  -
 Oxide of Ethyle J  l
Eq.Wt.

  38

  37


  75
Per Cent.

 50.66

 4934
100.00
  /3. Of Spiritus ^Etiieris Nitrici.—Spirit of nitric ether is  a colourless, lim-
pid liquor, having  a fragrant ethereal odour, somewhat analogous to that of ripe
apples, and a pungent, aromatic, sweetish acidulous taste.   Prepared according to
the London Pharmacopoeia, its sp. gr. should not exceed 0.834;  but the preparation
of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia has a sp. gr. of 0.847.   It is very volatile, pro-
ducing  much cold by its evaporation.  It is very inflammable, and  burns with a
whitish flame.   By keeping, it  usually becomes strongly acid; though I have had
some kept for several years which possessed only slight acidity.  It dissolves in al-
cohol and water  in all proportions.   " Hyponitrous  ether  may be separated from
the alcohol, water, and uncombined acid, which the  preparation of the pharmaco-
poeia contains,  by digesting lime reduced  to powder in it, and  subjecting the mix-
ture to distillation."1
   Characteristics.—It is principally distinguished by its peculiar odour, its in-
flammability, its lightness, and its miscibility with water.   The  spirit of nitric ether
of the shops usually strikes a  deep olive colour with the  proto-sulphate of iron
thereby indicating the presence of binoxide or an acid of nitrogen; and produces
with  tincture  of guaiacum, a  blue  tint, which passes through  various shades of
green;  this last effect depends on  the presence  of  an acid of nitrogen.   These
effects are not  invariably produced; for in some spirit of nitric ether, which I have
had for several years, they do not take place.
   Composition.—Spirit of nitric  ether is a mixture  of [impure]  hyponitrous ether
and rectified spirit.  Prepared according to the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, its com-
position is as follows :—
                                          Vols.
              Hyponitrous ether..........1
              Rectified spirit...........4
                 SpiritusJEtheris Nitrici, Ph.Ed. 5
Sp. gr.	Weight
0.886	20.9
0.838	79.1
0.847
100.0
  Purity.—Few articles of the pharmacopoeia are more extensively adulterated
than spirit of nitric ether.   To prove how great a fraud must be practised with it
i Mr. R. Phillips, Translation of the Pharmacopeia, 4th edit. Lond. 1811. 
928        ORGANIC SUBSTANCES.—Spirit or Nitric Ether.

I  may mention that, in July, 1840, Mr. Hennell informed  me  that  it was then
selling  in  the trade at a price which was but just above that of the duty on the
spirit used in manufacturing the genuine article.  Wholesale dealers usually keep
two, or even  three, qualities of this preparation ;  the  inferior ones being obtained
by diluting tbe best with different quantities of water, or spirit of wine and  water.
Some years since, large quantities  of  spirit of wine, flavoured  with hyponitrous
ether, were imported from  Ireland  into London, under the name  of  spirit of nitric
ether, in order to evade the duty payable on it as spirit of wine.   Aldehyd and an
acid of  nitrogen  are accidental  impurities  frequently present.  The  goodness of
spirit of  nitric ether is to be estimated  in part  by an attentive examination of the
flavour,  and  by taking  the specific gravity of this liquid.   Prepared  according to
the process of the London Pharmacopoeia, its density is 0.834.   A free acid (an
acid of nitrogen) may be recognized  by litmus, and by the effervescence produced
on the addition of the alkaline carbonates.   The Edinburgh College gives the fol-
lowing characteristics of the  purity of spirit of  nitric  ether :—
   "Density, 0.847 ; it effervesces feebly, or not at all, with a solution of bicarbonate of  potash.
When agitated with  twice its  volume of  muriate of lime, 12  per  cent,  of ether  slowly
separates."
   Two samples of  spirit of nitric ether, prepared by Messrs. Howard and Co., of
Stratford, I found to be 47.8 over proof, according  to  Sikes's hydrometer ; indi-
cating the  sp. gr. to be about 0.85.   But I failed to separate the  hyponitrous ether
by the use of a solution of muriate of lime, as directed by the Edinburgh  College.
   Physiological Effects,   a. On Vegetables.—Its  effects  on  plants  have  not
been ascertained.
   j3. On Animals.—I am  not acquainted with any experiments made to determine
its effects on  animals generally.   Veterinarians employ it as a diuretic on various
occasions, and as a stimulant in the advanced stages of fever, to rouse the exhausted
powers of  horses.1
   y. On Man.—Tbe inhalation of its vapour is dangerous when too long continued,
as is proved by the following case:  A druggist's maid-servant was found one  morn-
ing dead in her bed, and death had evidently arisen from the air  of  her apartment
having been  accidentally loaded with the vapour of this liquid from the breaking
of a three-gallon  jar of it.   She was found lying on her side, with her arms folded
across the chest, the countenance and posture composed, and  the  whole appearance
like a person in a deep sleep.3  The use of ether vapour in surgical operations has
led to fatal results in several instances.   Taken as a liquid internally, in moderate
doses, it  operates as a  volatile  stimulant and diuretic.   According to the experi-
ments of Alexander, it acts  mildly on the kidneys.   It  is believed  to possess dia-
phoretic  properties.  By some pharmacologists it is described as  being refrigerant,
a quality which it owes perhaps to  the free  acid which it usually contains.  I am
unacquainted with the  effects of large doses, but they are probably analogous  to,
though  less  energetic than,  those of other ethereal  compounds.  Kraus3 says a
boy twelve years  of  age took a drachm  in  the morning fasting, and that it caused
violent colic,  which lasted for six hours, and was accompanied with vomiting.  Pro-
bably these effects arose from the preparation containing  a considerable quantity of
free acid.
   Uses.—It is employed as a diuretic  in some disorders of children, and  in mild
dropsical complaints, as in the anasarca which follows scarlatina.   It is  given in
conjunction with  squills, acetate or  nitrate of potash, or foxglove.  As  a refrige-
rant and diaphoretic, it is used in febrile complaints in  combination with the acetate
of ammonia and  emetic tartar.  As a carminative, it is frequently useful in reliev-
ing flatulence and allaying nausea.   On  account of its volatility,  it may be applied
to  produce cold by its evaporation.   Spirit  dealers employ it  as a flavouring in-
gredient.
i Youatt. The Horse, in the Library of Useful Knowledge.
2 Christison's Treatise on Poisons.                   3 Heilmittellehre, S. 4S4, Gottingi 
        Hydrochloric Ether:—History; Preparation; Properties.    929

   Administration.—The usual dose of this liquid, in febrile cases, is f5-ss to fjij,
or f3iij-  When we wish it  to  act as a diuretic, it should be given in  large doses,
as two or three teaspoonfuls.
   Antidotes.—In poisoning by the  inhalation of the vapour  of this compound,
the treatment will be the same  as that described for poisoning by carbonic acid gas.


     304. iETHER HYDROCHLORICUS.—HYDROCHLORIC
                                   ETHER.

   History and Synonymes.—In  the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia for 1735, was a
preparation called Spiritus Salis dulcis.   It was  a solution of hydrochloric  ether
in rectified spirit.  Very little, however, was known of the properties of this ether
till Gehlen  published a dissertation  on the subject, in 1804.1   This ether has had
various appellations, such as Chlorhydric Ether, Muriatic Ether, Marine Ether, and,
hypothetically, Chloride of Ethyle.
   Preparation.—It is best obtained by saturating alcohol  with hydrochloric acid
gas, and distilling, by means of a water-bath, into a carefully cooled receiver.
   By the reaction of one equivalent or 37  parts of hydrochloric acid  (HC1) on ODe
equivalent or 40 parts of alcohol  (C4H50 + H0), we obtain one equivalent or 65
parts  of  hydrochloric ether (0*HSC1) and two  equivalents  or  18 parts  of water
(2 HO).
   Properties.—Hydrochloric  ether  is a colourless  liquid, having  a  penetrating
odour, and a  taste somewhat sweetish.  Its sp.  gr. is  0.874 at  40° F.   It boils at
51° F.  This  great volatility prevents its being kept  in the  shops.   When pure it
is quite neutral, dissolves in about 24 parts of water, does not precipitate nitrate of
silver, and burns with a flame edged with green, producing vapours of hydrochloric
acid.   By the slow action of hydrate  of  potash on it, chloride of potu^ium and
alcohol are formed.
   Its composition is as follows :—
                Atoms.   Eq.Wt.   PerCent.          Or,     Atoms.   Eq.Wt.  Per Cent.
Carbon........4       21      36 92     Ethyle........1      29      41.61
Hydrogen.......5       5       7.69     Chlorine.......1      36      55.3i
Chlorine .......1      36      55 38                      —      —     -----
                 —      —      -----     Chloride of Ethyle . .  1      65      99.'J9
Hydrochloric Ether . 1       65      99.99

   Physiological Effects  and  Uses.—Tt  is a highly diffusible stimulant, like
the other ethers, but is rarely employed alone;  though it has been  used as an anti-
spasmodic.
   SPIRITUS  jETIIERIS  HYDROCHLORICI;  iEther Muriaticus  Alcoholicus;  Spiritus
Muriatico-JElhereus; Spiritus  Salis dulcis; Spirit of Hydrochloric Ether ; Spirit
of Muriotic Ether ; Dulcified Marine Acid.—In the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia for
1735, this was ordered to be prepared  by adding one part of muriatic acid to three
parts of rectified spirit, digesting for  some days,  and then distilling by a sand  heat.
Or it may be  prepared by dissolving  hydrochloric ether in an equal volume of recti-
fied spirit.  Liebig says, that the spiritus muriatico-ethereus, used on the continent,
contains heavy muriatic ether, the composition of which is not known.  The action
of spirit of muriatic ether seems to be similar to that  of spirit of nitric ether.  A
scruple of it thrown into the veins of a buck, augmented the renal  secretion.2   An
ounce  and a  half injected into the jugular vein  of a dog, coagulated the blood,
caused difficulty of breathing, and death.3   It has  been used  in dyspeptic affections
connected with hepatic obstructions.   In hectic fever, Berends4 found its continued
use beneficial.   The dose of it is f5j to f3iij.
' Thomson's System of Chemistry of Inorganic Bodies, 7th edit. ii. 310, l.ond. 1S31.
8 Lanz'ini, qu ted by Wibmer, Die Wirkung, tic. Bd. i. S. 56.        * Fteind, quoted by Wibmer.
* Sundelin, Handbuch der specielltn Heitmiltellehre, Bd. ii. S. 71, 3tte Auii Berlin, le:«.
      vol. n.—59 
930
ORGANIC SUBSTANCES.—Chloroform.
          305. iETHER ACETICUS. —ACETIC  ETHER.
   History.—It was discovered by Count de Lauraguais, in 1759.1
   Preparation.—It is prepared by submitting to distillation  a mixture of 16
parts of dry acetate of lead, 4* of alcohol, and 6 of oil of vitriol; or 10  parts of
crystallized acetate of soda, 15 of oil of vitriol, and 6 of alcohol, at 80  or 85 per
cent.  The product is rectified with slaked lime and chloride of calcium, to remove
acid and  water; and a quantity of acetic ether, equal  in weight to the alcohol, is
obtained (Liebig).
   Properties.—Acetic  ether  is colourless, and  has an agreeable odour of acetic
acid and ether.  Its sp. gr. is 0.89 at 60°.   It boils at 165°.  It is soluble in 7
parts of water, and mixes with alcohol  and ether in every proportion.  Oil of vitriol
resolves it into ether and acetic acid.
   Composition.—The composition of this ether is as follows :—
               Atoms.
Carbon.......  8
Hydrogen......  8
Oxygen ......  4

Acetic Ether  ...  1
Eq.Wt.
  48
Per Cent.
 54.54
  9.1
 36.36
100.00
Or,
Atoms. Eq.Wt. Per Cent.
Ethyle.............1
Oxygen ............ 1
Acetic acid..........1

Acetate of the Oxide of Ethyle 1
29 H 51	32.95 9.1 57.95
83
  Physiological Effects and Uses.—Acetic  ether  is not  used in medicine in
this country.   On the continent, however, it is occasionally employed.   It is some-
what similar in its operation to  the other ethers;  but is milder, more agreeable,
and more diaphoretic.  It is  used in nervous and putrid fevers, in cardialgia, spas-
modic vomiting,  and asthenic affections of the  stomach  and alimentary  canal.2
Dose, f'5ss. to fjij.

         306.  CHLOROFORMYL, £—CHLOROFORM, OR
                   TERCHLORIDE OF FORMYLE.3
                              Chloroformum, D. [U. S.].
  History.—The term chloric ether was applied  by Dr. T. Thomson4 to the liquid
formed  by  the union of equal volumes of chlorine and olefiant gas, and which is
described in different chemical works under the name of chloride of olefiant  gas, or
the Dutch liquid.  The formula of this  liquid is  C4H4Cla.   In 1831, Mr. Guthrie,
an American chemist, was led to attempt a cheap and easy process for preparing it,
by a statement in Silliman's  Elements of Chemistry, that the alcoholic solution of
chloric ether was a grateful and diffusible stimulant.   His process was as follows :__5
  "Into a clean copper  still put three pounds of chloride of lime and two gallons of  well-fla-
voured alcohol, of sp. gr. 0.844, and distil.   Watch the  process, and  when the product ceases
to come  over highly sweet and aromatic, remove and cork it up closely in  glass vessels. The
remainder of the spirit should be  distilled  off  for a new operation.  These proportions are not
essential—if more  chloride of lime  be used, the ethereal product will be  increased ■  nor is it
necessary that the proof of the spirit should be very high, but I  have commonly used the above
proportions  and  proof,  and  have every reason to be  satisfied with them.  From the above
quantity I have usually obtained  about one gallon of ethereal spirit."
  Both Guthrie and  Silliman erroneously believed the liquid thus obtained to be an
alcoholic solution  of  the chloride of olefiant gas,  and hence they termed it chloric
ether.   In 1831, Soubeiran6 submitted to distillation a mixture of chloride of lime
and alcohol, and examined the distilled product.   He found it  to consist of
14.39
Hydrogen...................   23g
Chlorine
83.26
 i Thomson, op..supra cit.                                       °- Sundelin, op. supra cit.
 * This article has been partly drawn up from a paper published by the author in the Pharmaceutical
Journal for March, 1846, vol. v. No. ix.
 * System of Chemistry, 6th edit. 1820.
 ' Silliman's American Journal of Science and Art for Jan. 1832, vol. xxi. p  64.
 8 Ann. de Chirr. et de Phys. t. xlviii. p 131. 
Preparation;  Properties.
931
   The atomic composition which he  gave for this liquid was, when reduced to the
English mode of calculation, CHCl; or C4H4C14.   He termed the liquid bichloric
etlier,  because it contains, as  he says, twice as much chlorine as is contained in the
chloride of olefiant gas.  In  1832, Liebig1 examined the product  obtained by sub-
mitting to distillation, in a capacious  retort, diluted  alcohol and  chloride of lime.
He analyzed the distilled product, but failed  to  detect hydrogen in it.   According
to his experiments, the compound consisted of
                    Carbon...................  12.6523
                    Chlorine...................  88.18
                                                          100.8323
   The formula which he deduced from this analysis was C4C15,  and he called the
liquid chloride, of carbon.
   In  1884, Dumas3 examined  this liquid.   He showed that Soubeiran had  not ob-
tained it pure, and that  Liebig had  made an  error with regard to its composition.
From his analysis of the pure  liquid, he deduced the following  as its real formula:
CHCl3.   On  account  of the  relation  of its  composition  to that of formic acid,
C3H03, the  oxygen  being replaced  by three  equivalents  of chlorine, Dumas de-
nominated this liquid Chloroform.   Liebig has admitted the accuracy of Dumas's
analysis by adopting his formula of  the composition of this liquid.  He has, how-
ever,  discarded Dumas's name  for this substance, and adopted that of the  chloride
or perchloride of for my le (Formyl-chlorid).   Thus, then, it appears that the liquid
now used in  medicine under  the  names oi chloric ether and  terchloride of carbon, is
altogether different from the chloride of olefiant gas, to which the name chloric ether
was originally applied.  Both of these names (chloric ether and terchloride of carbon)
have been given to it from erroneous notions entertained of its nature  and composition.3
   [Preparation.—This compound, the vapour of  which  is so  largely employed
for anaesthetic purposes in surgical and obstetric  practice, has been introduced into
two of the Pharmacopoeias, both of which contain formulae for its  preparation.
   The directions of the London  College  are as follows: Take of Chlorinated Lime Ibiv; Rec-
tified Spirit Oss; Water Ox; Chloride of Calcium, broken into pieces, ^j.   Put  the lime first
mixed  with the water into a retort, and add the spirit to them, so that the mixture may fill only
the third part of the retort.  Then heat them in a sand-bath, and, as soon as ebullition begins,
withdraw the heat as quickly as possible, lest the retort should be  broken  by the  sudden in-
crease  of heat.   Let the liquid distil into the receiver so long that there may be nothing which
subsides, the heat being  reapplied  if necessary.  To the distilled liquid  add a quarter of the
water, and  shake them all well together. Carefully separate the heavier portion which subsides,
and add the chloride to it, and frequently shake them for an hour.  Lastiy,  let the  liquid distil
again from a glass-retort into a glass receiver.
   The Dublin College  gives the  following formula: Take of  Chlorinated  Lime  B5x;  Fresh-
burned Lime ffiv; Water Cong,  iv; Rectified Spirit J xxv; Peroxide of  Manganese, in fine
powder, gij.  Slake the lime with  a quart of the. water, first raised to the boiling temperature,
and, having placed the slaked lime and the chlorinated lime in a sheet-iron or copper still, pour
on the  residue of the water first  mixed with  the spirit, and raised to the temperature of 100°.
Connect now the still with a condenser, and apply heat, which, however, must be  withdrawn
the moment the  distillation  commences.   The distilled product, the bulk of which need not
exceed a quart, will occur in two distinct strata, the lower of which is the crude  chloroform.
Let this be agitated twice in succession, with an equal volume of distilled water, and then in a
separate bottle with half its volume of pure sulphuric acid.  Lastly, let it be shaken in a ma-
trass with  the  peroxide of manganese, and rectified  from off this at  a very gentle heat.  The
specific gravity of chloroform is 1496.  The lighter liquid which distils over with  the chloro-
form, and the water used in washing the  latter, should be preserved with  the view of their
being introduced, with a new charge, into  the still in a subsequent process.
   [The  U. S.  P. directs the following:  Take of Chlorinated Lime ibx;   Water
Oiijss; Alcohol Oij.   Mix  the chlorinated lime first with the water, and then with
the alcohol, in a distillatory vessel having the capacity of six gallons.   Distil with
a brisk boat into a  refrigerated receiver, and, when the  temperature  approaches
176°,  withdraw the  fire, in  order that the distillation may proceed by the heat de-
* Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. t. xlix. p. 146.
* Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. V. No. xi.
a Ibid. t. lvi.p. 113, 1834. 
932              ORGANIC  SUBSTANCES.—Chloroform.

rived solely from  the reaction  of the materials.   When  the distillation slackens,
hasten it by a fresh application of heat, and continue to distil  until  the liquid
ceases to come over with a sweet taste.  Separate the heavier layer of liquid in the
receiver from the lighter by decantation, and, having washed it first with water, and
then with a weak solution of carbonate of soda, agitate it thoroughly with powdered
chloride of calcium, and distil it off by means of a water-bath, stopping the distillation
when eleven-twelfths of the liquid have come over.  The residue, together with the
light liquid  of the  first distillation, may be reserved for use in a second  operation.]
  Properties.—It  is a transparent, colourless liquid, having a sp. gr. of 1.48 L. or
1.496 D.  It boils at 140°, and the density  of its vapour is 4.2.  It  has a fragrant,
ethereal, apple-like odour, and  an ethereal, slightly acrid, but sweet taste.   It  is
readily dissolved by  alcohol and ether, but requires 2,000 parts of water to dissolve
it, to which it imparts its peculiar odour.  It is a powerful solvent, dissolving readily
camphor, caoutchouc, wax, resins, and iodine. It is not inflammable, but communi-
cates a dull, smoky yellow flame to alcohol.
  Composition.—Its formula  is well ascertained to be C2H,C13.
  Adulterations.—It may contain alcohol or ether—a fact indicated  by a corre-
sponding alteration in its sp. gr.  Sulphuric acid may be detected in  it by adding a
solution of a salt of baryta to water with which  it has been shaken.   Chloroform
itself is neutral, and should have no acid reaction.
  Physiological Effects.—In medicinal doses, chloroform is a stimulant, sedative,
antispasmodic, and anaesthetic.   In large doses, it causes profound coma and death.
In  man, it  has  been observed  to cause  excessive depression of the  heart's action,
and in persons affected with disease of this  organ, ordinary doses have  on several
occasions proved fatal.
  Administration.—Chloroform is seldom taken as  a liquid; the dose is from five
to ten minims, mixed with water and  a little mucilage.  The dose for inhalation  of
the vapour is from 3j to 3iij.   Dr. Simpson, however, has used as much  as eight
fluidounces in thirteen hours, in a case of labour.   Its administration requires great
care, and some experience on the part of the practitioner.
  Uses.—Chloroform is now chiefly used as an agent for obtaining  insensibility  to
pain during operations,  and is therefore to be regarded  more especially as an adju-
vant to surgery.  Before noticing the general history of its  application in the above-
mentioned manner, it maybe well to state that it  has also been used  with advantage
as a substitute for  the ethers, and found to possess equal efficacy as a stimulant and
antispasmodic.  The  form in which it has been ordinarily exhibited, is in admixture
with rectified spirit;  and  it is sold in the shops in this diluted condition under the
name of chloric  ether.   This is a most improper appellation, inasmuch as the term
chloric ether is  understood by chemists to  refer to an oil-like fluid,  formed  by the
reaction of chlorine upon olefiant gas (see page 930).   This solution, of chloroform
is, for the most part, made by adding one part of that fluid to nine parts of rectified
spirit; the dose  for an adult being from  Tt^xx to  n^xl two  or three times a day.  It
may be used as a substitute for  the sulphuric ether in all  cases requiring an anti-
spasmodic and stimulant remedy;  and as its flavour is preferred by most persons to
that of the ethereal preparations, it may be  advantageously prescribed where objec-
tion is made to the latter form  of stimulant.
  With respect  to the mode of using chloroform  as an anaesthetic agent, by intro-
ducing it into the circulation during the respiratory process, experience has shown
that this can only  be done with any degree  of safety by allowing  tbe vapour to  be
admixed with atmospheric air  in considerable proportion before it is taken into the
lungs.  This is  effected by a variety  of contrivances.   The principle on which the
earlier instruments for inhaling were constructed, was to close the nasal aperture by
a spring clasp, and  so to insure the admission of the atmospheric air merely to the
extent it might please  the operator to permit by the mouth.   The best instruments
now in use are,  however, constructed so as to allow the vapour  to pass bqth by the
nose and the mouth  into the  lungs, the patient being made to breathe through  a
mask.  The form recommended by Dr. Snow, who has paid great attention to this 
Apparatus for Administration.                       933

                Fig. 395.
a. Outer case, containing water-bath, screwed on—b. Cylindrical vessel, into which the chloroform is
     put; it is lined with a coil or two of bibulous paper up to the point c. d.  A cylindrical frame which
     screws into b; it has apertures at th? top for the admission of air, and its lower two-thirds are covered
     with a coil or two of bibulous paper, which touches the bottom of the  vessel b, except where the
     notches, e, are cut into it. /.' Elastic tube.  g.  Expiratory valve of face piece—the dotted lines in-
     dicate the positii'h of this valve when turned aside for, the admission of air not charged with vapour.
     h.  Inside view of face-piece, pinched together at the top to adapt it to a smaller face.  t. Inspiratory
     valve.1
  t  Directions for use.—Unscrew the outer cylinder, and put into it as much water as will fill it when re-
placed ; about 603 F. is the most suitable temperature for the water.  Having replaced the water-bath, the
chloroform (one to three fluidrachms, according to circumstances) is to be put into the inhaler, and the face-
piece is next to be attached to it by means of the elastic tube.  The  face-piece  should be  moulded to the
features of the patient, with the sxpiratory valve turned to one side,  in the direction of the dotted lines in
the engraving, and then this valve should he moved a little at each  inspiration, till it gradually covers the
opening; by this means the  air charged with vapour from the apparatus will be admitted by degrees, to
the exclusion of the external air, and thus any  irritation of the air-passages, which m ght arise trom the
Budden access of air charged with vapour, will be avoided.  It is recommended by Dr. Snow that tire ex-
piratory valve should be partially moved amde if the patient's breathing be deeper or more rapid than in
the natural state, and generully, also, in repeating the inhalation, to keep up insensibility during  an opera-
tion.  The lid which screws over the appuratus preserves any chloroform that is lift until another occa-
sion. 
934             ORGANIC SUBSTANCES.—Chloroform.

subject, is figured in the accompanying woodcut, for which we are indebted to Dr.
Snow.   The mask is of simple construction, and is fixed to an inhaler of Dr. Snow s
invention, which enables the operator to adjust the proportion of chloroform vapour
to atmospheric air.   The directions for use, which are appended to the  description
of the inhaler, will enable'the reader  at  once to understand the principle of its
action.  If from two to three drachms of chloroform be used, the air respired  will
contain from five to six per cent, of vapour of chloroform; and this is considered
by Dr. Snow to be a safe proportion.
   The important observations made by Dr. Snow, with respect to the action of chlo-
roform on the lower animals, as well as the facts he has  collected with regard to the
deaths which have taken place in  the human  subject while chloroform was being
inhaled, seem to have determined the following points very satisfactorily:—
   lstly.  Chloroform vapour, if it  be inhaled in large proportion with atmospheric
air, destroys life by paralyzing the heart.
   2dly. In smaller proportions,  but long continued, it  produces death apparently
by the brain, and by interfering with the respiratory function.   In such  cases the
heart is found to beat after respiration has ceased.
   3dly. Chloroform vapour, if it be blown upon the  heart, paralyzes it immediately.
   4thly.  Atmospheric air, loaded with from 4 to 5, or  even  6  per cent, of chloro-
form vapour, may be  safely administered, inasmuch as  that  mixture will not act
directly upon*the heart, but will give timely notice of its increasing effects in modi-
fying the normal discharge of the  functions of life.  The average time occupied in
producing insensibility is from three to four minutes.
   5thly.  The proportion of as much as from 8 to 10 per cent, of vapour of chloro-
form to atmospheric air is a dangerous mixture, as it suddenly charges the blood
going into the heart with a poison capable of acting directly on that organ.
   From  the above statement it would appear probable that many, if not all, the
deaths which have so unfortunately occurred from the use of chloroform, have been
the result of the too sudden administration of the vapour, and that in many cases
much more than  that quantity which caused dissolution might  have been  safely
taken,  had it been  administered in a more diluted form.
   To the experience of Dr. Snow, and the solid nature  of his  reasoning on  this
subject, we find  opposed many very bold statements.   Thus it has been  recom-
mended as the safest plan, to give the chloroform in large doses at once, and bring
about anaesthesia  as  rapidly as can  be effected.  It is  scarcely possible,  however,
after due consideration, to come  to any other conclusion than that there has been
more good luck than good management attending the  practice of those gentlemen
who act in direct opposition to rules laid down in accordance with the best results
of careful experiment and accurate reasoning.   Notwithstanding,  however,  that
the knowledge we now possess may enable us, with  due  care,  to protect from death
healthy persons who inhale chloroform, it must be remembered that fatal cases must
be  expected in certain diseased conditions, even when  every precaution has been
taken.   Thus it cannot be doubted, that where the  heart is affected either with ex-
tensive disease of its  component structures or of its valvular appliances  the dose
of chloroform which might be perfectly safe in health may in such cases produce a
fatal result.   This remark especially applies where the heart is  weakened either by
fatty degeneration or fatty deposit, or where atrophy of its tissue and thinning of
the walls of the organ have, to any considerable extent, lessened its muscular power.
It unfortunately happens, too, that these conditions, and especially the former are
not always easily ascertainable during life.  Again, we  may expect that  lesion of
the brain, of an obscure character, may sometimes render the inhalation hazardous.
   On  the whole,  then, even with every  precaution, it would  seem that to  give
chloroform to induce anaesthesia,  is to introduce an additional  element of danger
during an operation.   Experience  has shown that this amount of danger is but very
small; and therefore, when every  care is taken, and no  obvious disease can  be de-
tected in the internal organs of the  patient, it may sometimes be justifiable to re-
commend the inhalation of chloroform, in order to secure the patient from suffering. 
Acetic Acid :—History;  Preparation.
935
   Antidotes.—When too strong an effect is produced  by the vapour, the patient
should be placed in a horizontal posture, and cold effusion, with artificial respiration,
should be resorted to.—Ed.]

    307. ACIDUM  ACETICUM, L. E. D. [U. S.].-ACETIC  ACID.

   History.—Vinegar  must have  been known from the most remote periods of
antiquity.   It is mentioned by  Moses,1 1490 years before  Christ.   Hippocrates9
employed it (b%vc) medicinally.   Hannibal,  in his passage over the Alps, is said to
have softened the  rocks by fire and vinegar.3   Geber* was acquainted with the
purification of vinegar by distillation.   Stahl, in 1723, obtained concentrated acetic
acid from the acetates by the action of sulphuric acid.5
   Natural History.—Acetic acid is peculiar to the organized kingdom.  Acetic
acid, free, or combined  with potash, lime, or ammonia, is met with in the juices of
many plants.  Thus Vauquelin found the acetates of potash  and lime in the sap of
the elm; and  Morin detected  acetate of ammonia in the fruit of Areca Catechu.
Many vegetable  substances yield it by decomposition.  Acetic acid is said to  have
been detected  in the gastric juice, the perspiration, the urine, the milk, and the
blood.   It is probable, however, that in most, if not all,  of these  cases, lactic  acid
was mistaken for acetic acid.
   Gmelin6 says, acetic acid has been found in some mineral waters.   If the observa-
tion  be correct, the acid is probably to be referred to  some decomposing organic
matter  accidentally present in the water.  Geiger7 states, that  acetate of potash is
found in some mineral waters.
   Preparation.—The acetic acid  of  commerce is obtained from two sources—
vinegar and pyroligneous acid:  the first is procured by exciting  the  acetous fer-
mentation in certain liquors, the other by the distillation of wood.
   1.  Acetous  Fermentation.—All liquids  which  are  susceptible of vinous fer-
mentation may be  made to  yield  vinegar.   A  solution of  saccharine  matter (or
some substance capable  of producing sugar) is the essential  ingredient.  It is con-
verted,  by fermentation, first into alcohol, and subsequently into acetic acid.   The
liquids  employed in the manufacture of vinegar  vary according to circumstances.
In this country,  the vinegar of commerce  is obtained from an infusion of malt, or
of a mixture of malt and raw barley.   In wine countries, it is procured from  infe-
rior wines.   Dilute  spirit, beer, a solution of sugar, and other  liquids, are  also
susceptible  of the acetous fermentation.
   1.  Malt  Vinegar (Acetum, L. [£/. S.~\, Acetum Britannicum, or British Vinegar,
E.).—This is prepared from malt,  or a  mixture of malt  and  raw barley, which is
mashed with hot water, as in the ordinary operation  of brewing.   The  cooled  wort
is then transferred to the fermenting tun, where it is mixed with yeast, and under-
goes the vinous fermentation.   The wash is then  introduced  into  barrels standing
endways, tied  over with  a coarse  cloth,  and placed  close  together  in darkened
chambers, artificially heated by a stove.8   Here the liquor remains until the acetous
fermentation is complete.  This process usually occupies several weeks, or  even
months.  The product is not yet fit for sale.   It is introduced  into large tuns fur-
nished with false bottoms, on which is placed  rape (the  residuary fruit which  has
served for making domestic wines).   These rape-tuns are worked  by pairs; one of
them is quite filled with  the vinegar from  the barrels, and  the other only three-
quarters full, so that the fermentation is excited more easily in the latter than   the

  1 Numbers, vi. 3.                                a De Natura Mdiebri.
  * Livy, c. 37.—I'olybius, however, from whom Livy has borrowed the  gr< ater : art of his narrative, does
not mention the use of vinegar. See some remarks on this subject in  A Dissertation on the Passage of
Hannibal over the Alps, p. 107, Oxford, 1820.
  * lit instigation of Perfection, ch. iii.
  » Dulk, Die Prettssische Pharmak. Hbers. und erldutert, 2 ter Th. S. 123. 2te And. Leipz. 1830.
  s Handb. d. Chem. Rd. ii. S. 126.                    ' Handb. d.  Pharm. Bd. i. S. 601, 3tte Aufl.
  8 The proper temperature is usually stated to be about 803 f. ; but I suspect a much higher temperature
is employed. 1 found the heut of one of these chambers so great, that 1  w:is unable to support it beyond a
few minutes.  The proprietor of the establishment 'one of the largest vinegar works in the metropolis)
refused to allow me to inspect the thermometer hanging up in the chamber. 
936              ORGANIC SUBSTANCES.—Acetic Acid.

former, and every day a portion of the vinegar is  conveyed from  one to the other,
till the whole  is completely finished, and  fit for sale.1  Green twigs, or fresh  cut-
tings of the vine, recommended  by Boerhaave, are sometimes employed, instead of
rape, to flavour vinegar.   Formerly acetification  was effected  by placing the wash
in barrels,  the bung-holes of which were loosely covered with tiles.   These barrels
were then exposed to the sun and air for several months, until the acetification was per-
fect.   But the introduction of stoved  chambers  has nearly superseded this method.
   Malt vinegar has a yellowish-red colour,  an agreeable acid taste, which it owes to
acetic and  partly to  sulphuric acid, and a peculiar refreshing pleasant odour, which
it derives from acetic  acid and acetic ether.   Vinegar of four different degrees of
strength  is sold  by the makers, and is distinguished as Nos.  18, 20, 22, and 24:
the latter,  which is the strongest, is also called  proof vinegar, and  is estimated  to
contain 5 per cent, of  real acetic acid;  but, according to  Mr. Phillips, it does  not
usually contain more than 4.6 per cent.   One fluidounce (= 446 grs.) of the latter
strength should saturate very nearly 5S grs. of crystallized carbonate of soda.   In
the London Pharmacopoeia, it is stated that one flui'dounce should saturate 60 grs.
of crystallized carbonate of soda : the two grains extra being " allowed for saturating
the sulphuric acid  permitted  to be mixed with vinegar,  and for decomposing  the
sulphates of the water  used in vinegar-making."3   The Edinburgh College fixes the
density of  British vinegar at from 1.006  to 1.012 ;  but it is usually higher than
this.   Mr. Phillips3 found it, in one sample obtained from a respectable  source, to
be 1.019.   Dr.  T. Thomson found'it  to  vary from 1.0135 to 1.0251.   Vinegar is
very liable to undergo decomposition; it becomes turbid, loses its acidity, acquires
an unpleasant odour, and deposits a  slippery gelatiniform substance.   The muci-
laginous coat  or skin  which forms on  the surface  of  vinegar, and is called  the
mother of vinegar, appears to consist of myriads  of  exceedingly minute vegetables,
having a globular form.4   The  surface of vinegar is frequently covered by mouldi-
ness (Mucor Mucedo).   The microscopic animals, called Vinegar Eels5 (Anguillula
Accfi), are generated and  nourished  in vinegar.   They  may be destroyed  by sub-
mitting the liquid in which they are contaiued to heat.   Vinegar is also infested
by a small fly (Musca  cellar is).
   Malt vinegar consists of water, acetic acid, acetic ether, colouring matter, a peculiar
organic matter, commonly denominated  mucilage, a small  portion of  alcohol, and
sulphuric acid.   Vinegar-makers are allowed to add one-thousandth part by  weight
of  sulphuric acid.  This  may be detected by a solution of chloride of barium,
which  forms a white precipitate (sulphate of baryta), insoluble in nitric acid.  The
quantity of sulphate of baryta thrown down from a fluidounce of  vinegar,  by the
addition of solution of chloride of barium,  should not  exceed  1.14  grains.6   If
the vinegar be free from copper, lead, tin, and other metallic matter, it yields  no pre-
cipitate on the addition of hydrosulphuric  acid (sulphuretted hydrogen).   The pre-
sence of hydrochloric  acid  may be recognized  by nitrate of silver, which produces
a white precipitate (chloride of silver) with it, insoluble  in  nitric  acid.  The pre-
sence of nitric acid  in vinegar may be recognized  by boiling this liquid with  indigo,
which is rendered yellow by nitric acid.   Or it may be  detected  by saturating the
suspected acid  with potash or soda, and evaporating to dryness; the residue defla-
grates, when thrown on redhot  coals, if nitric acid  be  present.   The following is
the  note appended to the Acetum (P. L.), which is now removed to  the Materia
Medica  by the  London  College : Reddish-brown, with a peculiar  odour;  specific
gravity 1.019.   An ounce  is  saturated  by a drachm  of crystals of  carbonate of

  i For farther information on this subject, consult Aikins's Dictionary of Chemistry, vol  ii  p 468 Lond
1837: and Donovan's Domestic Economy, vol. i. 1830,  in Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopcedia         '
  2 Mr. R. Phillips, Translation of the Pharmacopeia, 4th ed,t. p. 51 Lond. 1841.
  3 Lond. Med. Gaz. new series, vol. ii. for 1838—39,  p. 6s7.       '
  * See Keltzing, in the Ripertoire de Chimie, iii. 263, Paris, 1838.
  f See  some remarks on these animalcules by Professor Owen, in the Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physi-
ology, n.U3, Lond. 1839.                                                           *
  « The Ed nburgh College  states, that " in four fluidounces [of British vinegar]  complete  nrecinitation
takes place with thirty minims of solution of nitrate of baryta;" but Mr. Phillips (Lond. Med Gaz  Au?
3, 1839, has shown, that more than three times this quantity of nitrate is required.                8' 
Preparation.                               937
soda.   No farther precipitation  can be effected by the addition of chloride of ba-
rium to  the vinegar, after  ten minims of  the  solution of  the chloride have been
added,  and the liquor filtered.   Its colour is not changed  by hydrosulphuric acid.
   2. Wine Vinegar (Acetum Gallicum, or  French  Vinegar, E. D.).—In wine coun-
tries, vinegar is obtained from  inferior  wines.  In  France, wine vinegar is  prepared
in casks, which are placed in a stoved chamber, heated  to between 68° and 77° F.
Each  vat communicates  with  the  air  by two apertures.   Every eight or ten days
the  liquor  in   the  vats must be changed.    Either red  or white wine may be used,
but  the latter  is generally employed.1
   Wine vinegar is of  two  kinds,  white and red, according as  it is prepared from
white or red wine.   White  wine vinegar  is  usually preferred, as it  keeps better.
That which  is made at Orleans is regarded  as the best. According to the  Edinburgh
Pharmacopoeia, its density varies from  1.014 to  1.022.    A sample of it, examined
by Mr. Phillips, had a density of  1.016;  and 100 minims of  it saturated nearly 14
grains  of  crystallized carbonate  of soda, while an equal  quantity of  English vine-
gar, exclusive  of the  sulphuric acid  which  it contains, saturated  little  more  than
12  grains;  consequently, the French  is  stronger  than the English vinegar  by
nearly  one-sixth.3   The  constituents of wine vinegar are very similar  to  those of
malt vinegar.    It  contains  a  small quantity of bitartrate  and sulphate of potash.
Both these  salts occasion precipitates with  barytic  solutions;  but that produced  by
the  bitartrate is soluble in nitric acid.   The Edinburgh  College states that  " ammo-
nia, in slight excess, causes  a purplish  muddiness,  and slowly a purplish precipitate.
In four fluidounces, complete precipitation  takes place  with 30 miuims  of  solution
of nitrate of baryta,"  Ph.  Ed.  But  Mr. Phillips3 has  shown that  this  quantity
of nitrate is more  than twice as much  as is requisite.
   3. Improved,  German, or  Quick  Method, of  Vinegar-making.—As  acetification
is essentially the oxidation of alcohol,  the German  chemists have contrived an im-
proved  method of effecting it, by which  the  time  necessary to  the production of
vinegar  is  greatly curtailed.   It  consists   in  greatly enlarging the surface of the
liquid exposed to the air.
   This  is effected by causing a mixture of one part of alcohol  at 80 per cent., four to six parts
water, -r^ss  of ferment, honey, or  extract of malt,  to trickle
down through a  mass of beech shavings steeped  in vinegar, and
contained in  a vessel called a  Vinegar Generator (Essigbilder) or
 Gradual ion Vessel.  It is  an oaken tub, narrower at the bottom
than at the top, furnished with  a loose lid or cover, below which
is a  perforated shelf (colender or false bottom), having  a num-
ber of small  holes, loosely filled with packthread about six inches
long, and  prevented from falling through by a knot at the upper
end.  The shelf is also perforated with four open glass tubes, as
air vents, each having their  ends projecting above and below the
shelf.   The  tub, at its lower part, is pierced with a horizontal
 row of eight equidistant  round holes, to admit  atmospheric air.
One inch above  the bottom is a siphon-formed  discharge  pipe,
whose upper curvature stands  one inch below  the level of the
air-holes in the side of the tub.  The body of the tub being filled
with beech chips, the alcoholic liquor (first heated to between
75°  F. and 83°  F.) is placed  on  the  shelf.  It  trickles slowly
through  the  holes by means of the packthreads, diffuses itself
over the chips,  slowly collects at the bottom of the tub, and then
runs off by the  siphon pipe.  The  airs enters  by the  circum-
ferential holes, circulates freely through the tub, and escapes by the glass tubes.   As the oxygen
is absorbed, the temperature of the liquid rises  to  100°  or  104° F., and remains stationary at
that point while the action goes on favourably.  The liquid requires to be passed three or four
 times through the cask before acetification  is complete, which is in  general effected in from
twenty-four to thirty-six hours.4
Fig. 396.
    Vinegar Generator.
(The upper part of the  figure
 represents a vertical section
 of the tube.)
 1 Sec Guibourt, Histoire Jbrigiedes Drogues Simples, 3eme edit. ii. G30, Paris, 1836; Ure's Dictionary
of Arts, p. 3, Lond. 18.39; and Donovan, op. supra cit. p. 328.
 l Lond Med. Gaz. Aug. 3. 1839.                                           > Op  supra cit.
 * For farther demils. consult Ure's Dictionary of Arts, pp. 4 and 617;  Mtseheilich, Lehrbuch der
Chemie, Ud. i. Sv 519,2te Auti. lieiiin, 1834 ; und Lit big, in Turner's Elements of Chemistry, 7th edit. p. 876. 
938
ORGANIC SUBSTANCES.—Acetic Acid.
Fig. 397.
    Theory of Acetification.—A  remarkable  distinction  between  the  acetous  and
 vinous fermentation is, that for the former to be perfectly established,  the presence
 of atmospheric air (or of oxygen) is essential, while for the latter this  is not neces-
 sary.   During the acetous fermentation, the alcohol is converted into acetic acid, by
 the absorption of atmospheric oxyxen.  One  equivalent or 46 parts of alcohol,
 with four equivalents or  32 parts  of atmospheric oxygen,  contain the elements
 of one equivalent or  51  parts  of  anhydrous  acetic acid,  and  of three  equiva-
 lents or 27 parts of water;  or one  equivalent or 60  parts of  hydrous acetic acid,
 and two equivalents or 18 parts of water, as represented in the following equation,
 C4H«02+04=3HO+C4H303  or 2HO-f-C4H303 + HO.
   According to Liebig, however, the  transformation of alcohol into acetic acid is
 not immediate and direct.   The atmospheric oxygen  first oxidizes part  of its hydro-
 gen, forming water and aldehyd (C4H402); and the latter absorbing oxygen, is con-
 verted into acetic  acid.
   The student will observe that the  theory  of acetification above given does not
 account for the ebullition  of carbonic acid during the  process, and which is gen-
 erally considered to be an incidental result of continued vinous fermentation, and not
 essential to the formation  of acetic acid.
   2. By the Destructive Distillation of Wood.—By the  destructive distillation
 of the hard woods (oak, beech, hornbeam, ash, and  birch), in iron cylinders, an
 impure acid, called Pyroligneous Acid, is  obtained.   The woods should be dried
                          during several months.   The lighter woods, as fir, and
                          old  ship timber, do not pay to distil, as the  acid product
                          is too weak.  Sometimes the still is  a cast-iron cylinder,
                          placed horizontally in a furnace, the  fire of  which plays
                          around the  cylinder,  as in  Fig. 397.  Another form of
                          still is used at a large manufactory in the neighbourhood
                          of London.   It is a short  cylinder of large diameter,
                          placed upright in  the furnace.   The wood, cut up into
                          convenient  lengths, is introduced into wrought-iron can-
                          isters, in  each of which is a hole, to allow of the escape
                          of volatile matters.  By the aid  of  a  crane, these can-
                          isters are raised and deposited in the  cylindrical still, the
                          top  of which  is then carefully closed and made air-tight
                          by luting.  The still communicates with a  large iron
                          pipe which passes successively  through  two  tanks of
                          cold water,  in which it is variously convoluted, and termi-
                          nates in  an underground   reservoir, where  tar and  an
 acid liquor are deposited.  The incondensible products are carbonic acid and some
 inflammable gases (carbonic oxide, light carburetted hydrogen, and olefiant gas),
 which escape.   When no more volatile matter comes over, the  still is  opened, and
 the canisters being removed while still  hot,  the apertures in  them are carefully
 closed by damp sand, to  exclude air.
   The tar obtained by the above process yields, on  distillation, oil of tar, and a
 residuum  called English asphalt, or pitch.   The acid liquor,  which rests on  the
 tar in  the  reservoir, consists of acetic acid, water,  tar, and pyroxylic spirit   A
 light tarry matter  usually  floats on the top of it.   By means of a  pump the acid
 liquor is raised and introduced  into a copper still, where it is subjected to  distilla-
 tion.   The first runnings contain pyroxylic spirit.   After this has come over, an
 impure dilute acetic acid, called pyroligneous acid, distils over.   The residue in the
 retort is English asphalt, or pitch.
   The pyroligneous acid thus obtained is mixed with cream of  lime, and the mix-
ture evaporated to  dryness in  shallow wrought-iron pans, when it forms a grayish
mass, called pyrolignite of lime.  If this be submitted to  distillation with  Sulphu-
ric acid, it yields an impure acetic acid, which is used in the manufacture of acetate
of lead, and for making carbonate of lead by the Dutch process.  If pyrolignite of
Section of a Pyroligneous
      Acid Still. 
Preparation.
939
lime be mixed with a solution of sulphate of soda, double decomposition is effected,
and sulphate of lime and acetate of soda are the products.   The latter  is repeatedly
crystallized until it is colourless, and  is  then in  a fit state for the manufacture of
pure concentrated acetic  acid.   [In some  manufactories, the acid liquor, after  the
separation  of  the greater part of  the  tar, by subsidence, is at once neutralized by
carbonate of soda, and the crude acetate of soda is obtained  by crystallization, and
subsequently  purified.—Ed.]
   1. Pyroxylic Spirit;  Pyrolygneous Ether ; Hydrate of Oxide of Meihyle; Bihydrate of Methy-
rene—Sometimes,  but improperly, termed  Naphtha.  The  first runnings of the distillation of
the acid liquor above referred to. are  redistilled once or twice, and the product is sold under
the name of pyrolygneous ether.  It is an impure liquor, containing, besides hydrate of the oxide
of methyle, acetone and other inflammable liquors.  It is employed by chemists as a substitute
for spirit of wine for burning in lamps, and  by hatters and varnish-makers for dissolving resin-
ous substances.  Drs. Babington  and Rees1 have suggested its use for the  preservation of sub-
jects for anatomical purposes.  The spirit is to be injected into the aorta,  the rectum, and the
peritoneum.  It was tried at the London Hospital, but the smell arising from the spirit was so
intolerable,  that, even if there were  no  other objections to its use, this  alone would  be fatal  to it.
Pure pyroxylic spirit is obtained by introducing it into a retort with excess of chloride of cal-
cium, and distilling the mixture by a water-bath, as long as volatile  matter passes off.  A quan-
tity of water, equal to the spirit employed, is then added, and the  distillation continued.  The
product is now pure pyroxylic spirit, carrying along with it a little water, which is removed by
a second distillation with quicklime (Liebig).   Pure proxylic spirit is a very mobile, colourless,
inflammable liquid, which has a peculiar odour, somewhat resembling that of alcohol and acetic
etlier.   It boils at  150°  F.   It dissolves many resins, mixes with most essential oils, and forms
crystalline compounds with baryta, lime, and chloride of calcium. Its composition is as follows:—
                Atoms.     Eq.Wt.
Carbon........2         1-2
Hydrogen.....    4         4
Oxygen.......2         16
            Or,         Atoms.  Eq.Wt.
Oxide of Methyle......1       '23
Water.............1        9

Hydrate of Oxide of Methyle  1       32
            Pyroxylic Spirit .  1        32
Or, C2H304-HO.
   Methyle (C2H3) is the hypothetical radical of pyroxylic spirit.
   Oxide of Methyle, or Methylic Ether (C2H30) is a colourless gas.
   The repeated use of small  quantities of pyroxylic  spirit caused colicky pains, and acted as
an anthelmintic.2
   2. Eblanin; Pyroxanthine : Pyroxylene—This substance was obtained by Scanlan from raw
pyroxylic spirit.  It is a crystalline substance, of an orange-red colour.  Oil of vitriol dissolves
it, ami assumes a reddish-blue colour.  Concentrated  hydrochloric acid also dissolves it, and
acquires  an intense purple colour.
                                    Atoms.      Eq.Wt.      Per Cent.
                      Carbon......21         126          75.45
                      Hydrogen ....   9           9           5.39
                      Oxygen.....   4           32          19.16

                          Eblanin ...   1         167         100.00

   Preparation of Acetic  Acid.—The Edinburgh and  Dublin  Colleges give
directions for the preparation of a concentrated  solution of  acetic acid, which they
simply term acetic acid.   The London College  has removed  the Acidum Aceticum
to the Materia  Medica, and  gives the following note for testing the purity  of the
commercial article which  is described as " Acidum e  ligno igne praeparatum purifi-
catum."
   Free of colour, with a  very acrid odour; specific gravity  1.048;  volatilized by heat.  No
precipitate thrown  down in  it on the addition of  nitrate of silvpr or chloride of barium.  A
piece of  silver being  digested with it, nothing is thrown down on the subsequent addition of
hydrochloric  acid.  Neither is its colour changed on the  addition of hydrosulphuric acid, nor
ammonia, nor by ferrocyanide of  potassium  subsequently to the ammonia.   100 grains are
saturated  by 87 grains of crystals of carbonate of  soda.  Acidum Aceticum Dilutum, P. L.—
Take of  Acetic Acid fjxxiij ; of Distilled Water Oj.  Add- to the acid as  much of the water
as may fill a  pint measure exactly, and mix.  The specific gravity is 1.008.  A fluidounce of
it is saturated by 57 grains of crystals of carbonate of soda.
  The Edinburgh College gives the  following  directions:  " Take of Acetate of Lead any con-
venient  quantity; heat it  gradually in a porcelain  basin, by means of a bath of oil, or fusible
i Guy's Hospital Reports, Oct. 1839; and Lond. Med. Gaz. new series, vol. i. for 1S39—40.
» Dierbach, Neuesten Entdeck. in d. Mat. Med. Bd. i. S. 314, 2ter Ausg. 1S37. 
940
ORGANIC  SUBSTANCES.—Acetic Acid.
 metal (8 tin, 4 lead, 3 bismuth) to  320° F.;  and stir till the fused mass concretes again; pul-
 verize this when cold, and  heat the powder again to 320°, with frequent stirring, till the par-
 ticles cease to accrete.  Add six ounces of the powder to nine  fluidrachms and a half of pure
 sulphuric acid, contained in a glass matrass;  attach a proper tube and refrigeratory, and distil
 from a fusible metal-bath,  with a  heat  of 320°, to  complete  dryness.  Agitate  the  distilled
 liquid with a grain  or two of red oxide of lead to  remove a little sulphurous acid ; allow the
 vessel to rest a few minutes, pour off the clear liquor, and redistil.  The density should be not
 above 1.065."
   The directions of the Dublin College are as follows:—
   AcinuM Aceticum glacials.—Take of Acetate of Lead, any convenient quantity.   Place it
 in an oven at about the  temperature of 300°, until it ceases to lose  weight, and, having  then
 brought it by trituration to a fine powder, let it be introduced into a flask or retort, and exposed
 to an atmosphere of dry muriatic acid gas, until very  nearly the whole of it exh'ibits a damped
 appearance.  The  flask or retort being  now connected in  the usual manner with a Liebig's
 condenser, let heat be applied by means of a chloride of zinc bath, until the entire of the acetic
 acid shall have distilled  over.  The muriatic acid gas should be slowly disengaged  from the
 materials directed  in the formula for Acidum Mitriaticum, using eight ounces of salt for every
 pound of anhydrous acetate of lead;  and, to render it quite  dry, it should, before being conducted
 into the vessel containing the sugar  of lead, be made  to bubble  through oil  of vitriol, and then
 pass through a  Ions; tube packed with small fragments of fused chloride of calcium.   The spe-
 cific gravity of this acid is 1005.
   Acidum Aceticum foiite (Acidum Aceticum).—Take of Glacial Acetic Acid I3VJ; Distilled
 Water ^iv.   Mix.   The specific gravity of this acid is 1066.
   Acidum Aceticum dilutum—Take of Acetic acid of commerce (sp. gr. 1044) Oj ; Distilled
 Water Ovij.  Mix.  The specific gravity of this acid  is  1006 '
   [The directions of the U. S. Pharm. are as follows: Take of Acetic Acid Oj;  Diluted Water
 Ovij.  Mix them.  It has sp. gr. 1.004, and 100 grains saturate 7.5 grains of crystallized bicar-
 bonate of potassa.]
   The London College formerly ordered for the preparation of this acid, Acetate  of
 Soda  fbij ; Sulphuric Acid 3ix ; Distilled Water  gix.   Add the sulphuric acid,
 first mixed  with the water, to  the acetate of soda  put into a glass retort,  then let
 the  acid distil in  a sand-bath.   Care is to be taken that the  heat,  towards the end,
 be not too much increased.
   The proportions of  acetate of soda, sulphuric acid, and water,  above given, are
 nearly equal to one  equivalent  or  137  parts  of  crystallized  acetate  of soda, one
 equivaleut or 49  parts of the strongest oil of vitriol  (protohydrate of sulphuric acid),
 and six  equivalents or 54 parts of  water.  The results of the distillation, on this
 calculation, will be the  formation of one equivalent or  72 parts of anhydrous  sul-
 phate of soda, and the disengagement of one equivalent or 51 parts of anhydrous
 acetic acid, and thirteen  equivalents or 117 parts of water.   The calculated results
 agree very closely with the actual products.   The resulting  acid consists of 51 real
 acetic acid and 114.58 water;  so that 117—114.58=2.42  of water must remain
 in the retort with the sulphate of soda.   Omitting the water, and  treating  the ace-
 tate of soda as anhydrous, the following equation will  represent the chemical changes
 which ensue, NaO,C4Hs03 + S03,HO=NaO,S03+Ac (C4H303)  HO.
   The Edinburgh  College employs acetate  of lead  instead of acetate of soda.  The
 salt is first dried  t© expel the water of crystallization, and the anhydrous salt thus
 obtained is subjected to distillation along with  pure oil  of vitriol,  with the view   I
 presume, of obtaining glacial acetic acid.   Hydrated acetic  acid  distils over, and
 sulphate of lead is left in  the  retort.  To  remove any sulphurous acid which'may
 be formed, red oxide  of  lead is ordered  to be  added to the  acetic acid, by which
 sulphate and sulphite of lead are formed, and  the acetic  acid is then to be  redis-
tilled.3  The Dublin College also employs acetate of lead to yield glacial acetic acid.
The reactions  are similar to those of the  Edinburgh process.
  1 For farther details, see Thomson's Chemistry of Organic Bodies, p. 751 Lond  1838
J7^ Process of .the Edinburgh PharrnacopcE a has been critically examined by Mr. R. Phillips (Lond
Med. Gaz. new series, vol.  11. for 1839-40, p. 271).  It cannot be denied that several unnecessary refine-
ments have been introduced into it. which render the operation troublesome, wasteful, and expensive
Such are the use of a bath of oil or fusible metal—the addition of red lead-and subsequent redistillation
of the acid to get rid of a quantity of sulphurous acid, which, judg ng from the  quantity of red oxide
to be used, cannot exceed the ^^^ part of the product. Moreover, the whole process is objectionable on
the ground that acid of this strength is not required for medicinal or pharmaceutical purposes. 
Properties.
941
  The distillation of acetic acid is usually effected in glass or  earthenware  stills.
On the large scale, silver condensers are sometimes used.
  Properties.— Glacial Acetic Acid is the strongest  acetic acid procurable.   It
crystallizes at 45° F. when we throw into  it  any particle of solid  matter (a crys-
tal  of  acetic acid  answers best), and  the thermometer plunged into it rises at the
same time from 45° to 51°.  These  crystals  are  brilliant, broad flat  plates, of a
pearly lustre.  They melt  at a temperature somewhat  below 60° F.  The sp. gr.
of the  liquid at 60° is 1.06296.
  When crystals of glacial acetic acid are dissolved in water we  obtain a solution
which, by way of distinction, we may denominate liquid acetic acid.  The follow-
ing table, drawn up by Dr. Thomson,1 shows the specific gravity of various atomic
compounds of this acid and water :—
                    Acid.          Water.             Sp. gr. at 60°.
                      1 atom . . .  -f   1 atom......1.06296
                      1......-f'2.........1.07060
                      1 .......  -f   3.........1.07084
                      1 ......  4-   4  .........  1.07132
                      1......+   5.........1.06S20
                      1......-f6.........1.06708
                      1........7.........1.06319
                      1......4-8.........1.05974
                      1......-f   9.........1.05794
                      1......4-10.........1.05439
   More recently Mohr2 has published the following table, exhibiting the sp.  gr. of
acetic  acid of different  strengths :—
Per Cent, of		Per Cent of		Per Cent, of	
Glacial Acid	Sp. Gr.	Glacial Acid	Sp. Gr.	Glacial Acid.	Sp. Gr.
(C'H'O' + Aq.)		(C'H'O3-)- Aq.)		(C4H3Oa+Aq.)	
100	1.0635	! ' 66~	1.069	32	1.0424
99	1.0655	1 65	1.068	31	1.041
98	1.067	1 64	1.068	30	1.040
97	1.06 SO	63	1.068	29	1.039
96	1.069	62	1.067	28	1.038
95	1.070	61	1.067	27	1.036
94	1.0706	60	1.067	26	1.035
93	1.0708	59	1.066	25	1.034
92	1.0716	58	1.066	24	1.033
91	1.0721	57	1.065	23	1.032
90	1.0730	56	1.064	22	1.031
89	1.0730	55	1.064	21	1.029
8b	1.0730	54	1.063	20	1.027
S7	1.0730	53	1.063	19	1.026
86	10730	52	1.062	18	1025
85	1.0730	51	1.061	17	1.024
84	1.0730	50	1.060	16	1.023
83	1.0730	49	1.059	15	1.022
82	1.0730	48	1.058	14	1.020
81	1.0732	47	1.056	13	1.018
80	1.0735	46	1.055	12	1.017
79	1.0735	45	1.055	11	1.016
78	1.0732	44	1.054	10	1.0d5
77	1.0732	43	1.053	9	l.'"13
7G	1.073	42	1.052 •	*	1.012
75	1.072	41	1.0515	! 7	1.010
74	1.072	40	1.0513	6	1.008
73	1.072	39	1.050	! 5	1.0067
72	1.071	38	1.049	4	1.0055
71	1.071	37	1.048	3	1.004
70	1.070	36	1.047	2	1.002
69	1.070	35	1.046	1	1.001
68	1.070	34	1.045	0	1.000
67	1.069	33	1.044		
1 First Principles of Chemistry, ii. 135.
a Pharm. Central-Blatt fur 1839, <. fc40—1. 
 942              ORGANIC SUBSTANCES.—Acetic Acid.

   From these tables  it is obvious that density is no criterion of the strength of
 liquid acetic acid.
   The Acidum Aceticum of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia is stated  in one part of
 that work to have a sp. gr. of  not above 1065, in another to have a  sp. gr.  of not
 above 1.0685;  moreover, in the same work, the  density of the acid is said to  be
 increased by [the addition of] 20  per cent,  of  water.   There  are, however, some
 obvious  mistakes in  these statements.1  The  Acidum  Aceticum of the- London
 Pharmacopoeia has a sp. gr. of 1.048.   One hundred grains of it are saturated by
 eighty-seven grains  of crystals of carbonate of soda.   Hence it contains  30.8 per
 cent, of  real or anhydrous acetic acid.   It is a  limpid, colourless liquid,  having a
 pungent but agreeable odour, and an acrid taste.   It possesses the usual properties
 of an  acid—such as reddening litmus, causing  effervescence with the alkaline or
 earthy carbonates,  and saturating  bases.  It is volatile, and by heat evolves an
 inflammable vapour.   [The sp. gr. of U. S. Pharm. is 1.041.]
   Characteristics.—Free acetic acid is  known by its peculiar odour and by its
 volatility.-  Its  vapour reddens  litmus,  and fumes  with  ammonia.   It does not
 occasion any precipitate with lime-water, solutions of the barytic salts, or a solution
 of nitrate of silver.   It forms with potash a very deliquescent salt.   Concentrated
 acetic  acid does not cause effervescence when marble is  dropped into it,  unless
 water be added.  The neutral  acetates  are  all soluble, save those of molybdenum
 and tungsten.   The acetates of silver and protoxide of mercury are slightly soluble.
 The acetates are known by the  acetic  odour which they emit  on the addition of
 sulphuric acid and  the application of  heat, and by the white lamellar and  pearly
 precipitates which many of them produce with the nitrate of  silver and the  proto-
 nitrate of mercury.   They redden  solutions of the sesquisalts of  iron (forming
 sesquiacetate of iron).   All the acetates  are decomposed by heat,  and give results
 which vary somewhat according to the  nature of the base.   Some of the  acetates,
 as those of potash, lead, and  copper, evolve, when heated, an  inflammable  fluid,'
 called  acetone or pyroacetic  spirit, whose composition is C9,H3,09.
   Composition.—Anhydrous  or real acetic acid (Ac) consists of carbon, hydrogen,
 and oxygen, in the  following proportions :—
                        Atoms.   Eq.Wt.    Per Cent.    Prout.     Berzelius.
         Carbon........4        24       47.06       47.05        46.83
         Hydrogen.......3         3        5.88        5.88        6.35
         Oxygen........3        24        47.06       47.07        46.82
         Anhydrous Acetic Acid 1        51       100.00      100.00      100.00

  The Acidum Aceticum of the pharmacopoeias  is a  compound of  Anhydrous or
 Real Acetic Acid and Water.   Prepared according to  the London Pharmacopoeia,
 100 grs. of it contain 30.8 grs. of  real acetic acid; or very nearly one equivalent
 of real acetic acid, and 13 equivalents of water.

                                  Atoms.    Eq.Wt.    Theory.   Experiment.
           Anhydrous acetic acid......1       51       30 35       30 8
           Water...............13      117       69^65       69/2
                Acidum Aceticum, Ph. L.  1      168      100.00      ~10o!o

  Owing to the errors before alluded to in the statements of the Edinburgh College,
it  is  impossible  to estimate,  correctly, the strength  of the  acid intended  to be
obtained by the process given  in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia.   If, however, the
acid had a sp. gr. of  1.068, and  100 minims of it required 216 grs. of crystallized
carbonate of soda to saturate it, as  stated  by the College, its percentage quantity
of real acetic acid would be 78.65.
  Acetometry.—The strength of acetic acid  is  best determined by ascertaining
the quantity of alkaline carbonate which is required to saturate a given quantity  of
acid.   Crystallized carbonate of soda, or crystallized bicarbonate  of potash, are salts

    1 See Mr. R. Phillips, in the  London Medical Gazette, new series, vol. ii. for 1838—9, p. 688. 
Impurities :  Physiological Effects.                 943
of uniform constitution, and  may be employed for this purpose.  Every 144  grs.
of the crystallized carbonate of soda, or 101 grs. of crystallized bicarbonate of pot-
ash, are equal to 51 grs. of real acetic acid, or 60 grs. of glacial acetic acid.  Marble
or carbonate of lime is objectionable, since concentrated acetic acid will not decom-
pose it without the addition of water.  It has  been  already shown  that specific
gravity is no criterion of the strength of the hydrated acid ; since two acids of very
unequal strength may have the same density.   Moreover, the foreign matters (i. e.
mucilage and alcohol) contained  in  vinegar, alter the density of this fluid, though
they do not affect its acetometrical strength.   The acetometrical method employed
by the Excise is that recommended by Messrs.  J.  and P. Taylor,1 and consists in
estimating the strength of the acid by the sp. gr. which it acquires when saturated
by hydrate of  lime.  Acid which contains 5  per cent,  of real  acetic acid, is  equal
in strength to  the  best malt vinegar, called by the makers No. 24, and is assumed
as  the standard of vinegar  strength, under the denomination of proof vinegar.2
Acid which contains 40  per cent, of real acetic acid, is,  therefore, in the language
of  the revenue, 35 per cent, over proof; it is the  strongest acid on which duty is
charged by the Acetometer.  Vinegars, which have not been distilled, contain  mu-
cilage, and require an allowance for  the increase of weight from this cause;  hence
in the Acetometer sold by Bate, a weight marked  M  is provided, and is  used in
trying such  vinegars.8   As the  hydrate of lime employed causes the precipitation
of part of the mucilaginous 'matter in the vinegar, it serves to get rid of part  of the
difficulty above referred to.
   Impurities.—The presence of sulphuric, hydrochloric, or nitric acid—of metal-
lic matter—and of acrid substances in  acetic  acid, may be detected by the same
methods as have already been pointed out for vinegar.  Sulphurous acid is recognized
by the white precipitate (sulphate of lead) produced on the addition of peroxide of
lead.  The presence of lead in acetic acid is known  by the yellow precipitate (iodide
of lead) occasioned by the addition of iodide of potassium.
   Physiological Effects.—Before proceeding  to notice the operation of  acetic
acid on vegetables and animals, it may be useful  to  point eut such of its effects on
dead organic matters as have reference to  its influence on living beings.   In  the
first place, it is a well-known and powerful antiseptic,  and is  employed, partly on
this account, in the ordinary operation of pickling, and in the preservation of animal
food, and of  anatomical preparations.   The impure acetic acid obtained in the dis-
tillation  of wood acts more  efficaciously in this respect  than  the pure  acid,  on
account of the creasote which it contains.   Secondly,  the action of acetic  acid on
albumen, fibrin, and blood-disks, deserves especial notice.  Liquid albumen (as scrum
of blood and white of egg) is  not  coagulated by the  ordinary  acetic acid of the
shops.   Coagulated albumen is  readily dissolved by it  with the  evolution of  nitro-
gen, especially with the assistance of heat.   Fibrin, as muscle or the  crassamentum
of the blood, is  also dissolved by it;  the  solution, by evaporation, yields a gelati-
niform mass.   Caseine is coagulated  by it.   It changes  the form of the red particles
of frog's blood, and dissolves part of the red colouring  matter.4   It is an excellent
solvent of gelatine, as well as of gelatinous  tissue.   Diluted and mixed with mucus,
it acts as a digestive  fluid.5
   o.  On Vegetables.—Distilled  vinegar is ranked, by Achard,  among vegetable
poisons.8
   0.  On Animals generally.—Concentrated acetic acid acts as a caustic poison to
dogs.  It causes blackening of the mucous lining of the stomach, analogous to that
produced by  sulphuric acid.7  Four or five ounces of common vinegar  proved fatal
to dogs in ten  or fifteen hours, when vomiting was  prevented by tying the cesopha-

  » Quarterly Journal of Science, vi. 2J5.             a 58 Geo. III. c. 65.
  * See Description of the  Acetometer for determining the Strengths of Acetic Acid, made for the Revinut
of the United Kingdom, by R. B. Bate, 21, Poultry, London.
  4 .MQller's Physiology, p. 106.                    » Miiller, op. eit. p. 545.
  * De Candolle, Phys. Vig:t.                      T Orfila, Journ. de Chim. Mid. t. vii. p. 449. 
944
ORGANIC SUBSTANCES—Acetic Acid.
 gus.1   Injected into the veins, vinegar does not appear to act energetically.  Viborg
 threw two ounces and a half of wine vinegar into the jugular vein of a horse;  the
 next day the animal was well.3   Analogou.s  results  have been obtained by Courten
 and Hertwich (quoted by Wibmer), and by  Pommer.3
   The impure acetic acid obtained by the  distillation of  wood has  been usually re-
 garded as possessing much more activity than pure acetic acid of the same strength,
 in consequence of the  presence of empyreumatic oil.   An extensive series of ex-
 periments have  been made with  it on amphibials, birds, and mammals, by Berres,
 Kerner, and Schubarth.   From these it appears that pyroligneous acid is a caustic
 poison; and  that  it destroys  some of the lower animals, viz. :  amphibials, merely
 by contact with the external skin.  Large doses  affect the cerebro-spinal system,
 and cause giddiness, insensibility, paralysis, and  convulsions.   A  very constant
 effect  of  it was an affection of the windpipe  and lungs.  The acid was detected by
 its odour, in the blood  and secretions.*
   y.   On Man.—In  the  concentrated  state,  acetic acid is an irritant and  corrosive
 poison.   Its chemical influence depends principally on its power of dissolving fibrin,
 albumen, and gelatine, as before mentioned, by which it is enabled to dissolve many
 of the animal tissues.   Applied  to the skin, it acts as a rubefacient and vesicant.
 Only one fatal case of poisoning by its internal use  is known.   The patient (a girl)
 appeared to be intoxicated, complained of acute pain, and was violently convulsed.5
 Swallowed in a very dilute form, and  in moderate doses, it proves refreshing, allays
 thirst, diminishes preternatural heat, lowers the  pulse, and augments the urine.    In
 its  general effects, therefore, it appears  to  lower the powers of life, and  to prove
 antiphlogistic.  It agrees in its operation with the diluted mineral acids.   Its local
 operation is  astringent.  Used moderately, it assists the digestive  process, and  is,
 therefore, taken as a condiment.   It is in repute with young ladies for diminishing
 obesity.  " Every one knows," says Giacomini,6 " that when habitually  taken, it
 produces  leanness, from a sort of languor of the digestive process."   The following
 is a case, quoted by this author, from Portal:—
  " A few years ago, a young lady, in easy circumstances, enjoyed good health; she was  very
 plump, had a good appetite,  and a blooming complexion.   She began to look upon her plump-
 ness with suspicion; for her  mother was very fat, and she was afraid of becoming like hef.
 Accordingly, she consulted a  woman, who advised her to drink a small glass of vinegar daily:
 the young  lady followed her  advice, and her plumpness diminished.  She was delighted with
 the success of the remedy, and continued it for more than a month.  She began to have a cough,
 but it was dry at its commencement, and was considered as a slight cold, which would go off!
 Meantime, from dry it became moist;  a slow fever came on, and a difficulty of breathing ;  her
 body became lean, and wasted  away;  night-sweats, swelling of the feet and of the legs'suc-
 ceeded, and a diarrhcea terminated her life.  On examination, all the lobes  of the lungs were
 found filled with tubercles, and somewhat resembled a bunch of grapes."
  It is said that the long-continued use of  it, in full doses,  will  induce chronic
 diseases of the gastro-intestinal mucous membrane;  and Morgagni says it  has even
 given rise to scirrhus of the pylorus.
  Vinegar may be taken in considerable quantity at one time without inconvenience.
 Dr. Christison7 knew a case in which  eight ounces were swallowed  without injury.
  The  vapour of strong  acetic  acid  is  very pungent  and  irritating.   The long-
 continued inhalation of acetic vapours by the workmen employed at vinegar-works
 is said by Sundelin8 to be injurious to the lungs, and to bring on chronic inflamma-
 tion of these organs.   On inquiry among  the workmen of a  large vinegar manu-
 factory, I find the notion  of the injurious  influence of the vapour generally repu-
 diated.  Both at these works, and at a pyroligneous  acid manufactory, the workmen
 appeared in excellent health.
   Uses—The uses of acetic acid and vinegar  to the medical practitioner are of two
kinds—medicinal and pharmaceutical.
1 Orfila, Journ. de Chim. Mid. t. vii. p. 449.
2 Wibmer, Die Wirkung der Arzneimiltel. und Gifte, Bd. i. S. 11.
3 Cnr stison, Treatise on Poisons.    * Wibmer, op. supra cit.
* Orfila. Journ. Chim. Mid t. ii.    s Lond. Med. Gaz. new series, vol ii for l>-3s_o  D  ,—
1 Christison, Treatise on Poisons.    ■ Handb. d. Heilmittellehre.             "  ' 
Uses; Administration.
945
  1.  Medicinal.—Taken  internally,  common vinegar, or acetic acid properly di-
luted, is used for various purposes: the most important of these are to allay febrile
heat by its refrigerant qualities; to diminish inordinate vascular action ; to relieve
certain  affections of  the brain supposed to depend on or be connected with venous
congestion; and to act by  its chemical properties  of  an  acid.  Thus, in fevers,
whether simple  or eruptive, but especially in those varieties commonly denominated
putrid and  bilious, vinegar (more or less diluted with water) is a most refreshing
drink, allaying  thirst, and  diminishing excessive heat.   In hemorrhages,  as from
the nose, lungs, stomach, or uterus, it  is  particularly beneficial by its refrigerant,
sedative,  and astringent qualities.   It diminishes  excessive vascular action,  and
promotes contraction of the bleeding vessels.   As a local astringent, it is  injected
into the nose in  epistaxis, and  is used as a wash in profuse hemorrhoidal discharges.
The benefit obtained by the application of vinegar and water to the abdomen, vulva,
and thighs, in uterine hemorrhages, arises principally from the  cold produced.  In
phthisis pulmonalis, vinegar, diluted with water, is sometimes serviceable as a pallia-
tive, by its refrigerant qualities: it relieves the hectic symptoms, diminishes or puts
a stop to the night-sweats, checks bronchial  hemorrhage, and  prevents diarrhoea.
In  mania, it has  been  recommended  as  a means of allaying cerebral excitement.
In poisoning by opium, it is used as a counter-poison; but as acetic acid forms very
soluble, and, therefore, powerful compounds  with morphia, it  ought not to be
exhibited until the contents of the stomach have been evacuated.  In poisoning by
the alkalies and their carbonates, and by lime, vinegar is the safest and most  effi-
cacious acidulous .substance that can be administered.   In diseases attended  with
phosphatic deposits  in the urine, it may be advantageously used either as a medicine
or condiment.   As an adjunct to the  acetate of lead, acetic acid  is recommended by
Dr. A. T. Thomson, to prevent tlie formation of carbonate of lead, which is more apt to
produce lead colic than the  acetate.   In scurvy, acetic acid has  been found service-
able.   Clysters containing vinegar have been employed for the purpose of provoking
alvine evacuations in obstinate constipation and strangulated  hernia;  of expelling
the small round worm (Ascaris vermicular is); of checking uterine and intestinal
hemorrhage; and of  relieving inflammation or congestive conditions of the brain.
   As a stimulant, disinfectant, and antiseptic, diluted acetic acid is used in gangrenous
and other ill-conditioned ulcers.  For  these purposes, crude pyroligneous acid-is more
efficacious than ordinary vinegar, on account  of the creasote and other substances
which it contains.  In ulceration of the throat, in scarlatina, and in cynanche, gargles
containing acetic acid or vinegar are sometimes used with good  effect.   Acetic col-
lyria  are useful as mild astringents in  chronic ophthalmia, and for removing lime-
dust adhering to any part of the globe or  lid of the eye.   Sponging tbe face, trunk,
or extremities, with cold or tepid vinegar and water, usually proves refreshing and
grateful in  febrile  disorders with a  hot  skin.   It diminishes  preternatural heat,
promotes the cutaneous functions, and operates as a beneficial  stimulant to the nerv-
ous system.  Fomentations containing vinegar are used iu bruises and  sprains.
  The concentrated acetic  acid, known in the shops as Beaufoy's, is a valuable
remedy for  the  cure of the different forms of porrigo, popularly called ringworm
or scalled-head.   Its application, which may be effected by means of a piece of lint
wrapped around a wooden  stick, causes acute  but temporary pain,  redness of  the
skin, and whitening of the  abraded  spots.  One or two applications are usually
sufficient to effect a cure.  Strong acetic acid is also employed as a caustic to destroy
corns and warts. It has been proposed as a speedy means  of exciting rubefaction
and vesication, and for this purpose  blotting-paper or cambric,  moistened with the
acid, has been applied to the neck in  cases of croup.
  Administration.—Vinegar is used as a condiment ad libitum.   Medicinally,
it is given in doses  of from f3j  or f^ij to  f|ss.   As an enema, f£j  or f^ij have
been used.  A refrigerant  drink in fevers is made by adding f^j or f^ij  of viue-
gar to a quart of water.  A vinegar-wash  is prepared by mixing  f jiij of vinegar and
f|v of water.
       vol. n.—60 
 946              ORGANIC SUBSTANCES—Acetic Acid.

   Antidotes.—In poisoning by strong acetic  acid, the treatment is the same as
 that for poisoning by other acids.   (See Acidum Sulphuricum.)
   1. ACETDI DESTILIATDI, E. [U. S.];  Distilled  Vinegar.— The  Edinburgh is the
 only British college that gives directions for the preparation of this liquid.
   They are as  follows:  "Take of Vinegar  (French, by preference) eight  parts;  distil over
 with a gentle  heat six parts;  dilute the product, if necessary, with distilled water till the
 density is 1.005."
   The first portions which distil over are alcohol, acetic ether, water, and  a little
 acetic  acid.   Thus  prepared, distilled vinegar has a yellowish tint, and  contains,
 besides acetic  acid and water, a little alcohol, acetic ether, and an  organic substance
 called  mucilage.   Hence, when it is  saturated with alkalies, the  solution becomes
 brown  by heat, and deposits a dark-coloured  substance, probably arising from  the
 decomposition of the mucilage.
   Its  density is stated to be  1.005; and one hundred minims of it neutralize eight
 grains of  crystallized carbonate of soda,  indicating the  percentage quantity  of real
 acid to be 3.071.  In order to prevent the distilled vinegar from acquiring a metal-
 lic impregnation, the head of the still and the worm  or condensing pipe should be
 of glass or earthenware.  I was informed at one vinegar works that a silver worm
 was employed.

   ACETUM GALLIUM.—French Vinegar is thus enumerated in the Materia Medica
 of the  Pharmacopoeias of Edinburgh and Dublin.

   2. ACIDUM ACETICUM AROMATICUM,  E.—(Rosemary, and Origanum,  of  each  gj,
 dried;  Lavender, dried, gss; .Cloves, bruised, 3ss;  Acetic Acid Oiss.  Macerate
 for seven  days, strain and express strongly, and filter the liquor.)—In the former
 Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, there was  contained, under the same name, a somewhat
 similar but weaker preparation, made with  diluted acetic acid (i. e. distilled vine-
 gar), in imitation of the  celebrated  Marseilles  Vinegar or Vinegar  of the Four
 Thieves3 (Vinaigre des Quatre-Voleurs; Acetum quatuor Furum), once supposed
 to be  a prophylactic against the  plague and other contagious diseases.   It was a
 very useless preparation.   Iu the  present Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, concentrated
 acetic  acid has  been substituted  for distilled vinegar, and Origanum for Sage.  It
 is now a pungent perfume, and may be  used  as a substitute for Henry's Aromatic
 Vinegar.   But  it appears to me to be a  very unnecessary preparation.
   The Acetum aromaticum,  or Aromatic Vinegar of the shops, is made in imita-
 tion of Henry's Aromatic Vinegar.   At Apothecaries' Hall, it  is prepared  by dis-
 solving the Oils of Cloves,  Lavender, Rosemary, and Acorus Calamus, in crystal-
 lizable Acetic Acid.  It is a very volatile and corrosive preparation,  and requires
 to be kept in carefully stoppered bottles.   Some manufacturers add camphor.  The
 addition of water to it causes the precipitation of the greater part of the camphor.
 It is a much employed  pungent perfume, whose vapour is snuffed up the nostrils,
 to produce a powerful excitant impression,  in  fainting,  languor,  headache, and
 nervous debility.  For this purpose it is dropped on sponge, which is  preserved in
 smelling-bottles  or vinaigrettes.  It is also used for the purpose of correcting unplea-
 sant odours, which it does, not by destroying, but by  disguising them.   An extem-
poraneous aromatic vinegar may be prepared by putting into a stoppered bottle f3j
 of acetate  of potash, three drops of some essential oil  (as Lavender or Lemon) and
 twenty drops of oil of vitriol.
5r f839^l6,^:271i.lliPS' mLmd0n Medical Gaz^e, new series, vol. ii. for lKte-9, p. 688; and vol. ii. 
         Citric Acid:—History; Natural History; Preparation.      947

   I  ACIDUM ACETICUM CAMPHORATUM, E. D.—(Camphor gas; Acetic  Acid fgviss.
 Pulverize the camphor with the aid of a little rectified spirit, and dissolve it in the
 acid, E.)—(Camphor gj;  Rectified Spirit 3J ; Strong Acetic Acid gx.  Reduce
 the camphor to powder by trituration with the spirit:  then add the acid and dissolve,
 D.)—This preparation is an officinal substitute for Henry's Aromatic Vinegar.   The
 spirit is used  merely to assist in reducing the camphor to powder.   Camphorated
 acetic acid is  exceedingly pungent and  corrosive.   Its vapour is  snuffed  up the
 nostrils as a powerful stimulant in syncope.   It is never used internally.
   4. OXYMEL, L. D.; Syrupus Aceti, E. ; Oxymel Simplex,  or Simple Oxymel.—
 (The London  College directs  of  Honey Ibv; Acetic  Acid ^vij; Distilled Water
 ^viij.  Mix the acid added to the water with the honey made hot.—The  Dublin
 College orders of  Honey, by weight, ibj;   Acetic Acid of Commerce, sp. gr.
 1.044,  ^iij.  Mix the acid with the honey previously  heated, D.—The Edinburgh
 College substitutes sugar for honey : Take of Vinegar, French in preference, fjxj;
 Pure Sugar 3xiv.   Boil them together.)—It is  employed as a detergent and  pec-
 toral.  It is frequently added to gargles; but is more commonly used as an expecto-
 rant in slight colds and coughs.   Diffused through barley-water, it forms an agree-
 able refrigerant drink in febrile and inflammatory complaints.  It is sometimes used
 as a vehicle for other medicines.   Dose from 5J to Jss or 3j.
   Pharmaceutical Uses.—Vinegar or acetic acid is employed for extracting the
 virtues of  various  medicinal substances, as  Squills, Opium, Colchicum, and Can-
 tharides ;  the solutions  are  called Medicated  Vinegars (Acetica), or by the  French
 pharmacologists, Oxiolis (from b%oe, vinegar).  A small quantity of spirit is usually
 added to them for  the purpose of preventing the decomposition of the vinegar, and,
 in consequence of this,  a  small  portion of  acetic ether is  generated.  They are
 usually prepared by  maceration.   The preparations into the composition of which
 acetic acid and honey enter, are called  Oxymels ( Oxymellites), or the Acid Mellites.
 Acetic acid is employed also in the manufactufe of the salts  called  Acetates.   It is
 a  powerful  solvent  of the gum-resins, and is used,  on this account, in the prepara-
 tion of  the Emplastrum Ammoniaci.  Lastly, distilled vinegar is used in the pre-
 paration of Cataplasma  Sinapis,  Ceratum  Saponis,  Linimentum  iEruginis,  and
 Unguentum Plumbi  compositum.


      308.  ACIDUM  CITRICUM, L. E. D. [U. s.] -CITRIC ACID.

   History.—This acid was first procured in the solid state by Scheele, in 17^1.
 It is sometimes termed the Concrete Acid of Lemons.
   Natural History.—Citric acid is peculiar  to the vegetable kingdom.   It is
 found in many acid juices of fruit usually free, but sometimes in  combination with
 either potash or  lime.   Besides  the fruits of the genus Citrus, it is  found, with
 little or no  malic acid, in the fruits of Dulcamara, Dog-rose, Cranberry,  Bird-cherry,
 and  Whortleberry.    Mixed with an equal quantity of malic acid,  it is found in the
 Gooseberry, Red-currant, Strawberry, Raspberry, and Cherry.   In the Tamarind, it
 exists with both malic and tartaric acids.
   Preparation.—The  Edinburgh College alone gives directions for the prepara-
 tion of this acid.
   The London College, in its former Pharmacopoeia, ordered of Lemon  Juice Oiv; Prepared
 Chalk givss; Diluted  Sulphuric Acid gxxviiss; Distilled Water Oij.  Add the Chalk gradually
 to  the Lemon Juice made  hot, and mix.  Set by, that the  powder may subside ; afterwards
 pour off the supernatant liquor.  Wash the Citrate of Lime frequently  wiih warm water. Then
 pour upon it the diluted Sulphuric Acid and the Distilled Water, and  boil  for a quarter of an
 hour.  Press the liquor strongly through linen, and  strain it;  evaporate the strained liquor with
a gentle heat, and  set it by, that crystals may be formed.  Dissolve the crystals, that they may
be  pure, again and a third time in water, and as often strain the solution, boil down, and set it
aside.
  The Edinburgh College employs tire same quantity of Lemon"  Juice and Chalk (or of the latter
a sufficiency),and "Diluted Sulphuric  Acid f^xxvii, or in  the same proportion to the chalk 
918
ORGANIC SUBSTANCES.—Citric Acid.
required."1  The lemon juice is to be boiled twice, and allowed to rest once before the chalk is
added.  After the sulphuric acid has been added, the filtered liquor is to be tested  with a .om-
tion of nitrate of baryta, and if the precipitate thereby obtained be not almost '  entirely S0IU»'«
in nitric acid," more citrate of lime is to be added  [to saturate the great excess  ol sulpliunc
acid ]
  The Dublin College gives no process for the preparation of this acid.
   The juice of lemons and limes is imported for citric acid manufacturers, in pipes
and  hogsheads.   It is  saturated  with  chalk or  whiting in a large vat.   J5y this
means a citrate of  lime  is formed.  This is precipitated, while the carbonic acid ot
the chalk escapes, and the mucilage of the juice for the most part remains in solution.
MATERIALS.
COMPOSITION.
_, ,,          I Carbonic Acid
Cha,k......[Lime ...

Lemon Juice
Water, Mucilage, Spc.
Citric Acid......
    PRODUCTS.

-Carbonic Acid Gas.

-Water, Mucilage,&c
-Citrate of Lime.
                           Ci + CaO,Co2=CaO,Ci -f C0a.

   The supernatant liquor is then drawn off, and the citrate of lime is passed through
a sieve and  frequently washed with  warm  water, until the mucilage and other
soluble impurities  are for the  most part  got rid of.   Sulphuric acid, diluted with
water, is  afterwards  added:  sulphate  of  lime  separates, and citric  acid is left  in
solution,  CaO,Ci + S03=CaO,So3-fCi.
   The clear solution is then evaporated in leaden boilers, and the concentrated so-
lution set aside to  crystallize.   The crystals  are afterwards purified by re-solution
and re-crystallization.s

                                      Fig. 398.
Citric Acid Manufactory.
a, a, a. Casks of I»emon Juice.
    b. Wooden Vat for saturating the juice with
        chalk.
  e, c. Copper Pumps.
    d. Decomposing Tub for the citrate of lime and
        sulphuric acid.
    e. Leaden boiler.
/,/. Finishing Leaden Boilers.
  g. Crystallizing Pans.
  h. Leaden Siphon for running off the waste liquor
      from the vat b.
  i. Chemical Tests.
  k. Movable Strainer for clearing the mother  li-
      quors.
   Properties.—Citric acid crystallizes  in colourless, odourless,  very sour, trans-
parent, short, rhomboidal  prisms, whose extremities  are  terminated  by four  trape-
z »idal  faces,  and  which  belong  to the  right  prismatic system.3   Crystallized
  1 The Edinburgh College employs half an ounce of diluted sulphuric acid less than the quant;tv
ordered by the Loudon College; whereas it ought to have been increased by eight ounces, in con
of the. diluted sulphuric acid of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia being weaker than that of the Lone
macopoeia (Mr. R. Phillips, Lond. Med. Gaz. new series, vol. ii. 1S38__9 p. 690).
  2 For farther details, consult Parke's Chemical Essays, 2d edit. i. 539 1£23.
  * Brooke, Annals of Philosophy, new seiies, vi. 119.
    formerly
 consequence
^ondon Phar- 
Characteristics;  Composition.
949
citric acid  becomes  damp  by exposure to a  moist atmosphere,  though  Dumas
and other French chemists, state it to be unalterable by the
air.   According to Vauquelin, it  is soluble in 75 parts of       Fig. 399.
cold and 50 of boiling water.   The solution is strongly acid,
and becomes mouldy by keeping.  Crystallized citric acid is   /\   c2
much  less  soluble in alcohol than in water.   Its sp. gr. is
1.617.   Heated with potash, it is converted into oxalic and   \h\
acetic acids and water.  Treated with oil of vitriol, it evolves
sulphurous acid, carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, acetic  acid,
and water.   Heated  with  nitric acid,  it  becomes  oxalic
acid.                                                          Crystal of Citric Acid.
   According  to Crasso, crystallized citric acid, when exposed
to heat, exhibits four stages of decomposition.   During the first, the water of crystal-
lization alone is given  off, and the residue contains unaltered citric acid.   The second
stage is characterized by white vapours, and the production of acetone, carbonic oxide,
and carbonic acid, while the residue consists of hydrated aconitic acid (C*H03+Aq.),
which  is the true pyrocitric acid.  In the third stage,  the aconitic acid, not being
volatile, is  itself  decomposed, yielding carbonic acid and an oily liquid which soon
crystallizes.  This is the pyroaconitic acid, the citricic of Baup, for which Crasso
proposes the name of  itaconic acid (C5Ha03-f HO).   This acid, when heated, yields
citraconic acid (CsII203 + HO), the citribic acid of Baup.  In the fourth period empy-
reumatic oil is produced, and a voluminous coal remains behind.1
   Characteristics.—When added  in  excess to  lime-water, no precipitate  is pro-
duced.   " When  a few drops  of solution of citric  acid  are added  to  lime-water,
a  clear liquid results, which,  when  heated,  deposits a  white  powder, soluble iu
acids without effervescence" (Liebig).   It does not yield a crystalline precipitate
when added in excess  to a solution of carbonate of potash.  It forms, with barytic
water, a white precipitate (citrate of baryta).   With a solution  of acetate of lead it
also furnishes a white precipitate (citrate of Idhd), soluble in ammonia, which forms
with it a double salt (ammoniacal citrate of lead).   Added to a solution of  nitrate
of silver it produces a white precipitate  (titrate of silver), which, when  heated, be-
comes  brown, froths up, deflagrates, discharges white fumes, and  leaves an abund-
ant, ash-gray, coarsely fibrous, crumbly residue, which by heat becomes  pure silver.
   Composition.—The following is the composition of  crystallized citric acid:—
                          Atoms.   Eq.Wt.  Per Cent.   Dumas.     Prout.     Ure.
     Carbon  ............  4      24       35.8     36.28      34.28      33.00
     Hydrogen...........  3       3        4 5      4.45       4.76      4.63
     Oxygen............  5      40       59.7     59.27      60.96      62.37
     Citric Acid crystallized by )
      cooling a solution satu- >   1     67      100.0      100.00     100.00     100.00
      rated at 212D......)

   Crystallized citric acid of commerce  contains, however, somewhat more oxygen
and hydrogen (elements of water) than the above.   According  to Berzelius, hypo-
thetical dry citric  acid is composed of  C4H204 (=58); and, therefore, the  acid,
crystallized by cooling, consists of Ci+Aq. (58+9=67), and the commercial acid
of Ci + UAq. (58 + 12=70).
   But Liebig9 regards the hypothetical dry citric acid as composed of C12H50"(=
165).   On this supposition, the acid, crystallized  by cooling, is composed of  Ci +
3HO + Aq. (165+36=201); and  the commercial crystals of Ci+3HO+2Aq.
(165 + 45=210).   On this view of  its  constitution, citric acid is  a  tribasic acid;
that is, it  combines  with three equivalents of base; its equivalent weight  being
three times the amount assumed in the above tables.
   Purity.—Powdered citric acid  is sometimes adulterated with powdered tartaric

           1 Crasso, quoted by Lieb'g, in Turner's Elements of Chemistry, 7th edit.
           » Turner's Elements of Chemistry, 7th edit. 
 950             ORGANIC  SUBSTANCES.— Tartaric Acid.

 acid.   The fraud  may be readily detected by dissolving the suspected  acid  in a
 small quantity of water,  and adding  cautiously  to  it  a solution  of carbonate of
 potash, taking care  that  the acid be in excess.   If  any tartaric acid  be  present, a
 white crystalline precipitate (bitartrate of potash) is formed.  The directions of the
 London and  Edinburgh  Colleges for  ascertaining the  purity  of  the acid are as
 follows:—
   This acid is soluble  in water;  what is  precipitated from the solution by acetate of lead is
 dissolved by nitric acid.  No salt of potash, except  the tartrate, is precipitated by solution of
 citric acid.  It is totally dissipated in the fire. (Ph. Lond.)
   The solubility of the plumbeous precipitate in  nitric acid shows the absence of
 sulphuric acid or a sulphate,  although a salt of baryta would be a better test.
   A solution in four parts of water  is not precipitated by carbonate of  potash ; when incine-
 rated with the aid of the red  oxide of mercury, no ash is left, or a mere  trace. (Ph. Ed.)
   The elements of citric  acid (viz. oxygen, hydrogen, and  carbon) are  dissipated
 by a red  heat.  But this  dissipation  is promoted  by agents (ex. red oxide  of  mer-
 cury)  capable of supplying oxygen without leaving  any fixed  residuum.   [When
 the acid is slowly heated  in air, it melts, burns with a yellowish flame, and leaves
 but a  small residue of carbon.   When warmed with  concentrated sulphuric acid, it
 is not blackened, but acquires a yellowish colour.—Ed.]
   Physiological Effects.—Orfila1 ranks citric acid among the irritant poisons;
 but Drs. Christison2 and Coindet gave drachm  doses of it to cats without observing
 that the animals suffered  any inconvenience therefrom.   The effects of large doses
 of  this acid on man  I am not  acquainted  with.   Small quantities of it, dissolved
 in water, form an agreeable beverage,  which allays thirst, diminishes preternatural
 heat, checks profuse sweating, and promotes the secretion of urine.  Vogt3 considers
 it  to  act  more powerfully on the skin,  and less  so  on  the alimentary canal and
 urinary organs, than tartaric acid.  In its action  on the skin it agrees with acetic
 acid. ^ The continued  employment  of it, as  well as of other   acids,  disturbs  the
 functions of the digestive  organs.4   •
   Uses.—Citric acid is employed  in  medicine as a  substitute  for  lemon juice, in
 the preparation of refrigerant drinks and effervescing draughts, and as antiscorbutic,
 anti-narcotic,  and anti-alkaline.  (See Lemon Juice.)
   1. ARTIFICIAL LEMON JUICE—This is  prepared  by dissolving  Citric  Acid  5viiiss,
 in Water f|xvj, and flavouring with a few drops of  Essence of Lemons.   This is
 less apt to undergo decomposition  than the genuine juice, for  which the artificial
juice  may be employed in  the preparation of cooling beverages.
   % EFFERVESCING CITRATES—Citric acid, with  the alkaline  carbonates,  is fre-
 quently employed in the preparation of effervescing  draughts.   The following are
 the relative proportions of acid and base required to form  a neutral compound :—
            20 grains of Commercial Crystals of Citric Acid are saturated by about—
                  Crystallized Bicarbonate of Potash........29 ers
                  Carbonate of Potash of Commerce  ....'.'.'.'. 24 "
                  Hydrated Sesquicarbonate of Ammonia  .'.'.'.' 17 "
                  Crystullized Carbonate of Soda.........'   41 <<
                  Sesquicarbonate of Soda of Commerce ...... 24 "

   The most agreeable effervescing citrate is  that prepared with bicarbonate of pot-
ash, flavoured with tincture of orange-peel and syrup  (see Potasste  Citras Vol. I')
The carbonates of soda are rarely employed with citric acid.              '

309.  ACIDUM TARTARICUM, z. E. d. [U. S]-TARTARIC ACID.

   History.—Tartaric  acid was first procured in  a separate state by  Scheele  in
1770.   It is sometimes termed the crystallized acid of tartar.                 '

  '• Slt^t^Ste Aufl.                   " 2 Chri8ti8-> OnPoisons^^^r
Work°r S°me fafther obserVatl0nS °n ltS effeCt8' Bee the  article Lem°n J^ce in a  subsequent  part of this 
Natural History; Preparation; Properties.
951
   Natural  History.—It is peculiar  to the  vegetable kingdom.   In the fret
state it exists  in tamarinds, grapes, the  pine-apple, and pepper.   It  is  also  found
native in  combination with bases:  thus  bitartrate of potash exists  in  tamarinds,
grapes, and mulberries, and tartrate of lime in the fruit of Rhus typhinum.
   Preparation.—The London and Dublin Colleges have placed this acid among
the articles of Materia Medica.   No  formula  is given  for  its preparation.   The
process of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia is as follows :*—
  Take of Bitartrate of Potash ftiv; Boiling Distilled  Water  Cong, iiss; Prepared  Chalk
§ xxv and ^vj ; Diluted Sulphuric Acid Ovij and f, xvij ; Hydrochloric Acid f^xxviss, or as much
as may be sufiicient. Boil the Bitartrate of Potash with two gallons of Distilled Water, and add,
gradually, half the prepared Chalk; then, the effervescence having ceased, add the remainder of
the Chalk, previously dissolved  in the  Hydrochloric Acid, with four pints of the Distilled Wa-
ter.  Lastly, set aside, that the Tartrate of Lime  may subside; pour off the liquor, and wash
frequently the Tartrate of Lime with Distilled Water, until it be void of taste;  then pour on it
the diluted Sulphuric Acid, and boil for a quarter of an hour.  Evaporate the strained  liquor
by a gentle heat, that crystals may be formed.
  Dissolve the crystals, that  they may be pure, again, and a third time, in  water, and as often
strain the liquor, boil down, and set it aside.
   The following is the theory of the process for  making tartaric acid: By the mu-
tual action of  bitartrate of potash and carbonate of lime (chalk), we obtain tartrate
of  potash  in solution,  and tartrate of lime precipitated, while carbonic acid escapes.
The following diagram explains these changes :—
MATERIALS.
1 eq. Chalk
-»{!
                 1 eq.
                  eq.
1 eq. Bitnrtrate    ( 1 eQ-
    Potash = 180 J 1 eq.
 COMPOSITION.
Carbonic Acid .
Lime......
Tartrate Potash
Tartaric Acid .
 22-
 28,
114.
230
       PRODUCTS.
-1. eq. Carbonic Acid =  22

-1 eq. Tartrate Potash = 114
-leq. Tartrate Lime  =  94

                    230
or,  KO,2T+CaO,C02=CaO,T+KO,T+C02.   If  to  the solution of tartrate  of
potash we add chloride of calcium (obtained by dissolving chalk in hydrochloric acid),
double decomposition ensues ;  tartrate of lime is precipitated, and chloride of potas-
sium remains in solution.
     MATERIALS.

1 eq. Chlor. Calcium =56


1 eq.TartratePotash=114
      COMPOSITION.
1 eq. Chlorine........36-
1 eq. Calcium........20>

Uq.Potash\\^a^m,0:

1 eq. Tartaric Acid.....66-

                     170
       PRODUCTS.
»1 eq. Chloride  Potas-
sium =76
A. eq. Lime 28
11 eq. Tartrate Lime=94
or,  KO,T+CaCl=CaO,T+K,Cl.   The tartrate of  lime obtained in the above two
operations is then decomposed by sulphuric  acid, which forms the almost insoluble
sulphate of lime, and sets tartaric acid free.
MATERIALS.
COMPOSITION.
1 eq. Tartrate Lime =
1 eq. Sulphuric Acid=
         PRODUCTS.
_1 eq. Tartaric Acid . . . . = 66
.1 eq. Sulphate Lime
134
134
or, CaO,T+S03=CaO,S03+T.
   Properties.—Tartaric acid crystallizes in elongated, colourless, inodorous, very
sour, imperfectly transparent prisms, which belong to the oblique prismatic system.'
The crystals are permanent in  the air.   When heated,  they fuse, and undergo
  1 The Edinburgh College employs the same quantity (Ovij and fSxvii) of Diluted Sulphuric Acid for-
merly recommended by the London College; but, as its strength is weaker, the quantity ought to have been
f renter.  The •' Edinburgh College should have directed more than ten pints of Sulphuric Acid, instead of
 ess than eight" (Mr. R. Phillips, Lond. Med. Gaz. new series, vol. ii. 1«38—9, p. 6S9).
  ' Brooke, Annals of Philosophy, new series, vol. vi. p. 118. 
952             ORGANIC SUBSTANCES.—Tartaric Acid.

chemical changes varying  with the degree and continuance  of the heat.   When
they have lost by heat a  fourth of their water, they become tartralic acid, which
has, in its salts,  the same  composition as  tartaric acid, but neutralizes  one-fourth
less  base.   It differs  from  tartaric acid, therefore, as  pyrophosphoric acid  differs

                  Fig. 400.                             Fig- 401.
                             Crystals of Tartaric Acid.
  Fig. 400.  The crystal as usually modified. [The i  Fig. 401. The same modified form, with the planes
           corresponding planes in both figures            Irregularly disposed, as they appear in
           are marked with the same letters.]   |           most of the crystals.

from phosphoric acid.   When tartralic acid is farther heated, it loses as much more
water, and becomes tartrelic acid, which also  has,  in  its salts,  the composition of
tartaric acid, but only half the neutralizing power.  It  corresponds, therefore, to
metaphosphoric acid.   By a  higher degree  of heat all the water of this acid  is
driven off, and we have anhydrous  tartaric acid,  which, however, has lost its acid
properties, and is quite insoluble  in water.1  " This  is a powerful  argument  in fa-
vour of the view, according to which all acids are compounds of hydrogen" (Liebig).
When subjected to a distillation,  tartaric acid  yields carbonic acid, water, and two
pyrogenous  acids, one  of  which  is crystalline, and  is  called pyrotartaric acid
(C5H303 + Aq.); the  other is oily, and is  termed pyruvic acid (C6H305+Aq.)
Strongly  heated in the air, it  evolves the odour of caramel, and  furnishes a carbon-
aceous  mass, which eventually disappears by  combustion.  Cold  water dissolves
crystallized tartaric acid; boiling water takes twice its own weight of the acid.   A soft
mucilaginous, flexible  mass is formed in a solution  of tartaric  acid, as  well as of
emetic  tartar, when  long kept.3   Alcohol sparingly dissolves  the acid.  Heated
with either nitric acid or potash, it yields oxalic acid.   By  the  action of  sulphuric
acid on it acetic acid  is formed.   When heated with sulphuric acid, it is strongly
blackened.
   Characteristics.—A  solution  of  tartaric  acid  is very sour,  and causes with
solutions  of caustic lime, baryta, and strontia, white precipitates (earthy  tartrates),
soluble in excess  of acid.   Sal ammoniac dissolves the precipitate (tartrate of lime)
produced by lime-water.   With acetate  of lead, the solution of tartaric acid also
forms a white precipitate (tartrate of lead), soluble in excess of acid. Dropped into
a solution of sulphate of lime, it furnishes  no precipitate.   Heated with  a solution
of chloride of platinum, tartrate of potash occasions a  black  precipitate  (metallic
platinum).   If excess of acid be  added to  a concentrated  solution of a potash-salt,
small granular crystals (bitartrate of potash) are deposited.  With nitrate of silver
tartrate of  potash furnishes  a white  precipitate  (tartrate of silver), which  when
heated, does not deflagrate,  but becomes brown, froths up, evolves  white fumes  and
leaves pure silver.                                                           '
   The London College gives the following directions for ascertaining the  purity of
tartaric acid:—                                                               J
  Free of  colour;  destroyed by a red  heat: soluble in water.  The solution precipitates bitart-
rate of potassa from any neutral salt of potassa.   Nothing is precipitated from the same sola-

  1 See Fremy, Ann. de Chim. et. de Phys. Aout, 1838.
  3 This formation is probably owing to the develooment in th* .nlnii™  n.c « „„„,.li.       . .
Keitzing (Repertoire I Chinlie, iii. 278, Paris, lB^^&^&Z^&^ffi**.
a solution of emetic tartar.                                     6        F    wmcn iorms  in 
Composition;  Impurity;  Physiological Effects.           953
tion by chloride of barium.  That which acetate of lead  precipitates is soluble in  nitric acid.
One hundred grains of this acid dissolved in water are saturated by 192 grains of crystals of
carbonate of soda.
Composition.—The composition of tartaric acid is as follows
               Atoms.
Carbon........4
Hydrogen......2
Oxygen  .......  5

Anhydrous Tartaric ) .
  Acid........< 1
Eq.Wt.
  24
   2
  40

  66
Per Cent.
  36.36
   3.03
  60.61

 100.00
Berzelius.
  35 980
   3.807
  60.213

 100.000
Anhydrous  Tar-
  taric acid . .  .
Water......   1
Atoms.
  I'
Eq.Wt.  PerCf
  66     88
   9     12
Crystallized Tar- i
 taric Acid  . . .
75
100
or, C<H20s—Symbol T; or, C<IP05+HO.
  Liebig regards the equivalent weight of  the acid as double  that above assumed;
and  the  acid, therefore, is considered as a bibasic one, inasmuch as, on  that hypo-
thesis, it saturates two equivalents of base.  [According to Liebig,  therefore,  the
formula  of the crystallized acid is  C8H4O10+2HO, and of the acid in the bibasic
salts,  CsH4010 = T.—Ed.]   Fremy's researches, above referred to, tend to  support
this  view.
   Impurity.—The only adulteration practised on this acid is  the  mixture of its
powder with bitartrate of potash. This fraud may be detected by the difficult solu-
bility in water of the bitartrate, and its yielding, on incineration, carbonate of pot-
ash  (known by the tests hereafter to be described).  The tests of the purity of the
acid, given by the Edinburgh College, are as follows :—
  "When incinerated with the aid of the red oxide of mercury, it leaves no residuum, or a
mere trace only/'—Ph. Ed.
   This test is devised to detect any  fixed substance, and might be used to recognize
the potash, if  bitartrate of this alkali had been present.
   Physiological Effects.—The  effects  of  tartaric acid, in small doses properly
diluted,  are those of a refrigeraut.   It reduces febrile heat,  diminishes excessive
vascular action, allays  thirst, checks  excessive perspiration, and  perhaps also a  too
copious secretion of bile.   It  appears  to promote the action of the  absorbents, to
increase the secretion of urine, and  to act gently on the bowels.  It possesses  the
tonic properties of the miueral acids in a very slight  degree only,  if at all.   Its
continued  use very readily disturbs  the digestive process.  Some doubt  exists as to
the effect of large doses of  the acid.   According to Dr. Christison,1 it may be taken
in very considerable  quantities without  injury.  Six  drachms have been taken in
twenty-four hours without  inconvenience.   Pommer, however, asserts that, when it
is injected into the veins, it is scarcely less poisonous than oxalic acid. (Ibid.) [One
ounce  of the acid taken at a dose, dissolved in half a pint of warm water, produced
violent inflammation of the alimentary canal, and death in nine days.—Ed.]
   Uses.—Tartaric acid may be used as a cheap substitute for citric, acid or lemon-
juice, in the formation of acidulous  refrigerant drinks, for febrile and inflammatory
disorders.  It is, however, rarely employed for this purpose.  Its common medicinal
use  is  in the preparation of effervescing compounds, with the alkaline carbonates,
especially  with bicarbonate of  soda.

   EFFERVESCING TARTRATES.—The  following are the relative proportions of tartaric
acid and alkaline  carbonates for preparing effervescing draughts:—
                 20 grains of the Crystals of Tartaric Acid are saturated by—
                    Crystallized Bicarbonate of Potash.....27 grs.
                    Carbonate of Potash of Commerce......22  "
                    Hydrated Sesquicarbonate of Ammonia  . .  .  15} "
                    Crystallized Curbonate.of Soda.......38} "
                    Sesquicarbonate of Soda of Commerce ....  22  "

   The most commonly used effervescing tartrate is that made with sesquicarbonate
of soda  (see Sodse Sesquicarbonas and Sodse Tartras).
i Treatise on Poisons, 3d edit. p. 208. 
95±              ORGANIC SUBSTANCES.—Oxalic Acid.
           310. ACIDUM OXALICUM.1—OXALIC ACID.

   History.—This  acid was  discovered by Scheele, though  the  credit of its  dis-
covery was for a long time given to Bergmann.8
   Natural History.—It is found in both kingdoms of nature.  In the Inorgan-
ized Kingdom, oxalic  acid, in combination with the protoxide of iron, constitutes
the mineral denominated by Rivero, Humboldtine; by Necker and Beudant,  Hum-
boldtite.   In the Organized Kingdom, oxalic acid is found in  both plants and  ani-
mals, but principally in the former.   Oxalic acid,  in combination with either lime
or potash, is a constituent of a considerable number of plants, especially those be-
longing to the orders Polygonacese and Lichenacese.  Oxalate of lime is found in
Rhubarb, Bistort, many Lichens, &c.   Some Lichens  contain nearly  half their
weight  of oxalate of  lime.  In  Variolaria faginea (V. communis), Braconnot
found 47.4 per cent, of this  salt.  Combined with potash, oxalic acid is found in
Oxalis  Acetosella, Rumex Acelosa, Rhubarb, &c.   Oxalate of soda is found in Sal-
sola.  A solution  of free oxalic acid is said to exude from the hairs of Cicer Arie-
tinum, but the accuracy of  the statement is doubtful.   Oxalate of lime constitutes
the Mulberry Calculus, and is found in the Liquor Allantoidis of the cow.
   Preparation.—Oxalic acid is obtained by the  action of nitric acid on sugar or
potato starch.  Treacle is usually employed in this country as a substitute for solid
sugar.   The process is generally conducted in open earthenware jars, heated by a
warm water bath.   The nitrous vapours evolved  are usually allowed to escape  into
the air.   In  France, attempts have been made to economize them by  their employ-
ment in the manufacture of sulphuric acid (see Sulphuric Acid).   To prevent their
noxious influence on the workmen and  the surrounding neighbourhood,  as well as
to economize them, a patent has been  taken out to conduct  the  process in  closed
vessels connected with receivers and condensers, by  which the vapours are  condensed
and  collected again to be used.3  Oxalic acid is also obtained by digesting, by aid
of a gentle heat, one part of sugar, or, better  still, of potato  starch,  in 5 parts of
nitric acid of sp. gr. 1.42,  diluted with 10  parts of water, as long as gaseous  pro-
ducts are evolved; by evaporation, the  acid is obtained  in  crystals, which may be
purified by a second crystallization,  after  being well  dried  on  paper  or  porous
earthenware.  From 12 parts of  potato starch,  5  of the acid are obtained.    The
mother  liquor should  be  treated with an additional quantity of acid, and  again
warmed, when a second crop of crystals will be obtained; this is repeated until the
solution is quite exhausted.*
   The formation of oxalic  acid depends on  the oxidation of  organic matter,  at the
expense of part of the oxygen of the nitric acid, while nitrous vapours are  given
out.   Those organic matters, as sugar and starch, which contain oxygen and hydro-
gen in the  same proportion as water, yield  it in the greatest quantity.   One equiva-
lent  of anhydrous  sugar (Cl3H909), and eighteen equivalents of oxygen (O18), con-
tain  the elements  of six equivalents  of anhydrous  oxalic acid (6C203), and nine
equivalents of water (9HO).  But the process is not  so  simple as this calculation
would lead us to suppose.   Part of the carbon of the sugar  escapes in the form of
carbonic acid  gas.   The mother liquor contains, besides  some acetic acid, saccharic
acid  (CiaH5Ou); which, when acted  on by a farther portion of nitric, is converted
into oxalic and carbonic acids.   If the nitrous vapours be conveyed into a condenser,
nitric and nitrous acids may be collected.
   Properties.—The  crystals of oxalic  acid are  colourless, transparent prisms,

  « This acid has been  omitted, inadvertently I presume, in the Edinburgh PharmacopcEia, though it is
directed to be employed in the preparation of oxalate of ammonia.                    "'""o"
  2 See Thomson's System of Chemistry. vol. ii. p. 15, 7th ed. Lond. 1831
  1 Repertory of Patent Inventions, X S. vol vii. p. 5, Lond. ia37 -A patent has been taken out for nre-
panng this acid in leaden vessels, and tor obtaining it from  potatoes (Ibid. X. S. vol. xv. p. 363 Lond.
  * Liebig, in Turner's  Elements of Chemistry, p. 698, 7th ed. Lond. 1S40. 
Characteristics; Composition.
955
which belong to the oblique prismatic system.  They are usually flattened, six-sided
(by the truncation of one pair of the lateral edges), and have two or four terminal
planes.1   The crystals of oxalic acid taste and react on vegetable colours powerfully
acid.   When  pure, they have no  odour.  Exposed  to a warm air they effloresce,
evolve 28 per cent, (equal to two equivalents) of water, and become a pulverulent
residue (hydrate of oxalic acid).   When  heated rapidly  to  350° F. they  fuse,
evolve water, and the hydrate of the acid sublimes, a portion of it at the same time
undergoing  decomposition, but no residue  being  left  if the acid  be quite pure.
They dissolve in from 8 to 11 parts of water at 60° F., in their own weight of boil-
ing water, and in 4 parts  of alcohol at 60°  F.  By  the  action of oil  of vitriol,
aided by  heat, they  are resolved into water, which remains with the sulphuric acid,
and equal volumes of carbonic acid and  carbonic oxide  gases.
   Characteristics.—Oxalic acid strongly reddens litmus, and is  entirely volatil-
ized by heat.   By the effect of heat, it is at once  known from the  sulphates of
magnesia and zinc,  both of  which are fixed.   Nitrate of  silver added  to a solution
of it, yields a white  precipitate  (oxalate of silver), which is soluble in nitric acid,
and when dried and heated  on the  point of a  knife,  by the flame of a  candle or
spirit-lamp, becomes brown on  the edge, very feebly detonates, and is completely
dissipated, being  converted  into water,  carbonic  acid,  and  metallic silver.  With
lime-water,  or a solution of chloride of  calcium, oxalic acid yields  a white precipi-
tate (oxalate of lime), insoluble, or nearly so, in excess of oxalic acid, readily soluble
in nitric  acid, and slightly so in hydrochloric acid.   If the precipitate be collected,
dried,  and  calcined, it yields  quicklime.   With sulphate  of  copper, Qxalic  acid
yields a  bluish-white precipitate (oxalate of copper).   It  reduces the sesquichloride
of gold,  and deoxidizes iodic acid on boiling.
   To detect oxalic acid in oxalate of lime, proceed  as follows :  Boil the oxalate with a solu-
 tion of carbonate of potash for two hours, and filter.  The liquor contains oxalate and carbonate
 of potash. Add acetate of lead, collect the precipitate (oxalate and carbonate of lead), suspend
 it in water, through  which sulphuretted hydrogen is to be passed; filter (to get rid of the dark
 sulphuret of lead), boil the clear liquor, which is a solution of oxalic acid, and test as above for
 the free acid.   If the oxalate of lime were mixed with organic matter, the filtered liquor should
 be feebly  acidulated with nitric acid, before adding the acetate of lead.  The acidulated liquor
 should be filtered, rendered faintly  alkaline  by carbonate of  potash, again  filtered, and then
 mixed with acetate of lead, and the precipitate treated as above.
    Composition.—Anhydrous  oxalic acid, as  it exists in dry oxalate of lead, has
 the following composition :—
                     Atoms.  Eq.Wt.  PerCent.          Or,     Atoms.   Eq.Wt.    Per Cent.
 Carbon...........2     12      33.3   Carbonic Acid ....  1        22        61.1
 Oxygen...........3     24      66.6   Carbonic Oxide ...  1        14        3S.9
 Anhydrous Oxalic Acid  . .  1     36     100.0                     1        36       100.0

    Crystallized oxalic acid contains three equivalents of  water, of  two of which it
 may be  deprived by heat, leaving what has been  termed hydrate of oxalic  acid.
 The composition of  these two substances is  as follows :—
                   Atoms. Eq.Wt.   PerCent.                    Atoms.  Eq.Wt.  PerCent.
 Anhydrous Oxalic Acid 1     36      57.14   Anhydrous Oxalic Acid  1       36       SO
 Water...........3     27      42.86   Water..........  1       9       20
 Crystallized Oxalic Acid 1      63      100.00   Hydrate of Oxalic Acid  1       45      100

    Some chemists regard the hydrate of oxalic acid as  a  real hydracid, composed of
 Cs04+II.  [The formula of this acid, in the anhydrous state,  is 2CO + 0, or C803;
 Symb.  <J=eq. 36.24.   The formula of the  hydrated  acid, 1  at.  O+l eq. HO
 eq.=45.24;  and of the crystallized acid,  1 at. 0 + 3 eq. HO  eq.=63.24.—Ed.]
    Impurity.—The crystals of oxalic acid of commerce are sometimes contaminated
  i Crystallized oxalic acid has often been mistaken for sulphate of magnesia, and the consequence has
been fatal in many instances. Sulphate of zinc and bicyanide of mercury are likewise apt to be confounded
with this aeid. 
956
ORGANIC SUBSTANCES—Oxalic Acid.
with nitric acid.   In this state they have usually a faint odour, and stain the cork
of the bottle, in which they are  kept, yellow.   If  they be  exposed to a warm at-
mosphere, the  nitric  acid escapes along with  the  water of crystallization.  [The
presence of nitric acid may be detected by boiling the crystals with a weak solution
of sulphate of indigo.   The colour is discharged.—Ed.]
   Physiological Effects,  a.  On  Vegetables.—A solution of oxalic acid acts as
a poison to plants.1   The acid (solid?) has been said to promote the germination of
old seeds;2 but I suspect the statement to be inaccurate.
   (3.  On Animals.—The best series  of experiments on  the effects of  this acid on
animals are those of Christison and Coindet.3   They found that concentrated solu-
tions of half-ounce doses of  this acid introduced into the  stomachs of cats and dogs
caused exquisite pain, violent attempts to vomit, dulness, languor, great debility,
and death in  from two to twenty minutes.  A post-mortem examination of the bodies
showed softening and corrosion of the inner coat  of the  stomach.   Large doses of
a dilute solution caused great depression of the heart's action; and small doses gave
rise to  tetanus  or narcotism.  Farthermore,  the acid acts with great violence, and
produces nearly the same effects, to whatever part of the body it is applied.   From
these  results  it has been inferred that  the concentrated acid is a corrosive poison—
while the dilute acid ceases to be corrosive, but, becoming  absorbed,  acts  on  the
brain, spinal  cord, and heart.  It appears to  me absurd to suppose, as is usually
done,  that a dilute solution ceases to act chemically.   It does  not, indeed, destroy
the gastric membrane as a concentrated solution does, but doubtless it must effect
some  chemical change on the blood when it gains access to it;  though the precise
alteration  may hitherto have evaded  notice.   We  know that  a  twentieth part of
oxalic acid added to boiling  syrup renders it thin, and incapable  of crystallizing;
and it is possible that  its action on other organic substances may be equally ener-
getic;  and thus alterations  may be effected in the condition of  the blood, which,
though not very marked, may nevertheless be  sufficient  to render this fluid incapa-
ble of supporting life.
   y. On Man.—The effects of oxalic acid on the human subject  vary somewhat with
the dose.   When  this is large,  and  the solution  concentrated,  acute pain is ex-
perienced;  but, after  small  doses and dilute  solutions, this symptom is not well
marked.  Vomiting is usually present.  The  circulation is  always depressed;  the
pulse  being feeble or failing, and the surface cold and clammy.  Nervous symptoms
(such as lassitude,  weakness  of the limbs, numbness, pain  in  the back extending
down  the thighs, and, towar 's  the  end, convulsions) have  sometimes, but by no
means invariably, made their appearance.   But  death follows so  speedily after the
injection of large doses (" few of those who  have  died  survived  above an hour,"
Christison), that the symptoms have not been fully  made out.   If life be prolonged
for a few hours, symptoms of gastro-enteritis are observed.   Post-mortem examina-
tion discovers irritation and often corrosion of  the  stomach.   Some years  since, I
opened the body of a man who died in twenty minutes after swallowing oxalic acid
by mistake for  Epsom salts.   The post-mortem examination was made  a  few hours
after death, and while the body was quite warm.  The stomach  presented a diffused
redness, like  that of a part affected with erysipelas.  The epithelium was destroyed,
and presented, in patches, the appearance of the scalded cuticle,  or of the  pellicle
which forms on the surface of boiling  saline solutions.
   Uses.—Oxalic acid  is not at the present  time  used in medicine.   In France,
Tablettes d'Acide Oxalique  are prepared.  Either free or combined with ammonia,
it  is a valuable test for lime.  It is employed for  removing ink stains and iron
moulds from  linen;  for cleaning the leather of boot-tops; and for certain styles of
discharge in calico-printing.
  i Marcel, quoted by De Candolle, in his Physiologic Vigitale, t. iii. p. 1355, Paris, 1832
  2 Repertory of Patent Inventions, vol. xiii. p. 408 1832
  » Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, vol. xix.-ln Wibmer's work(Dte Wirkung, &c Bd iv S
35) will be found a notice of the experiments of Rave and Klostennann. 
        Creasote:—Natural History; Preparation; Properties.     957

  Antidotes.—In cases of poisoning by this acid, it is advisable to administer as
Bpeedily as possible large quantities of chalk, whiting, or magnesia, suspended in
water, by which inert earthy oxalates are formed in the stomach.  In the absence
of these antidotes, large quantities of warm water may be administered, and at the
same time vomiting is to  be promoted by tickling the throat.   Small quantities of
water may prove injurious  by favouring absorption.   Alkalies  do not deprive the
acid of its poisonous operation.  The stomach-pump and emetics may be used; but,
on account of the rapidity with which this acid acts, it is not advisable to lose time
by their  application  until  after  the antidote has been administered.   The same
treatment is  to be adopted in poisoning, by the following salts:—

  1. AMMONLE OXALAS, E.—See vol. I.
  2. POTASSjE OXALATES.—See vol.  I.


                   3U.  CREASOTON, Z-CREASOTE.
                         Creazotum,  E.—Creasotum, D. [U. S.].
                  ( Kn Oxy-hydro-carburet; prepared from pyroxylic oil, L.)

   History.—This substance was discovered a few years since by Reichenbach, who
termed it Creasote (from %pcaj, flesh, and <jw£<o, / preserve), or  the flesh-preserver,
on  account of its antiseptic property.  Its name is  sometimes written  Creosote, or
Kreosote.
   Natural History.—-It is an artificial product; and is obtained by the destruc-
tive distillation  of organic substances.   It is found in pyroligneous acid, in tar, in
Dippel's oil, in  wood smoke, and empyreumatic waters.
   Preparation.—The  preparation of  creasote is a very troublesome and tedious
process.   The following  concise  abstract of it is taken from Turner's Elements of
 Chemistry (5th  edit. p. 872).   Those  portions of the oil (called in the Pharmaco-
poeia ptyroxylic  oil) distilled from wood-tar, which are heavier than water, are first
treed from adhering acetic  acid by  carbonate of potash, and, after separation from
the acetate,  are distilled.   A  little phosphoric acid is  mixed with the product to
neutralize ammonia, and  another distillation resorted to.   It is  next mixed with  a
strong solution  of  potash, which combines with creasote, allows any eupion which
may be  present to collect on its surface, and by digestion decomposes other organic
matter :  the alkaline solution is then neutralized by sulphuric acid, and the oil which
separates is collected  and distilled.   For the  complete  purification of the creasote,
this treatment with potash, followed by neutralization  and distillation, requires to
be  frequently repeated.1  The oil from which creasote is prepared is that obtained
by the distillation of  wood-tar, and  is either imported from Stockholm, Archangel,
and America, or is made in the manufacture of pyroligneous acid.
   Properties.—Pure creasote  is colourless and transparent;  and has a high re-
fractive  power,  and an oleaginous consistence.   Its odour is that of smoked meat,
its taste burning aud caustic, its sp. gr.  1.037  at 68° F.   [According to the Dublin
Pharmacopoeia, its sp. gr. is 1.066.—Ed.]  It boils at  397° F.; and  is fluid at
—16 6° F.   It is combustible, burning with a sooty flame.  It  absorbs  chlorine,
and is resinified by it.  Nitric acid  is decomposed by it, with the evolution of nitrous
fumes.   Sulphuric acid  in  small quantity reddens, and  in large quantity blackens
it.   Potassium  decomposes it, with  the evolution of gas  (hydrogen?) and the forma-
tion of  potash, which combines with  some inspissated  creasote.   It is soluble in
alcohol,  ether, sulphuret of carbon, eupion, naphtha, acetic acid,  and acetic ether.
It dissolves resins, various  colouring matters (as of cochineal, saffron, and madder),
and some salts (as the acetate of potash).  It has very little  action on caoutchouc,
and does not possess any acid or alkaline reaction on test paper.   Mixed with water,

  '  For farther details I must  refer to Dumas's Trite de Chimie; Ihe Ann. de Chim. et Physiq. t. 57,
1834 j and Cozzi, in the Journal de Pharmacie, t. xxviii. p. 629. 
958                ORGANIC SUBSTANCES.—Creasote.

it forms  two combinations : one is a solution of 1.25 parts  of creasote in 100 of
water; the  other, on the contrary, is  a  solution of  10 parts of water  in 100 of
creasote.
  It coagulates soluble albumen.   Concentrated albuminous liquids are immediately
coagulated by it; diluted ones, gradually.   Fibrin is not altered by it.   It is power-
fully antiseptic with respect to meat and fish.   Tar, smoke, and crude pyroligneous
acid, owe part, if not the whole, of  their antiseptic properties to it.  According to
Dr. J. R. Cormack,1 the only essential part of the mummifying process  practised by
the ancient Egyptians was the application of such a heat as would first dry up the
body, and then decompose the tarry matters which had been previously introduced,
and thus generate creasote.
  Characteristics.—The odour of creasote  is its most  characteristic property.
To  this must be added its combustibility, its oleaginous appearance, its complete
solubility in acetic acid and caustic potash, and its  action on  albumen  before men-
tioned.
  Impurity.—Creasote, when pure, is perfectly colourless; but that  met with in
commerce has frequently a more or less brownish tinge.  Rectified oil of  tar, cap-
nomor, and a substance like almond oil, have been mixed with it.a  These impurities
are readily detected by mixing separate portions of the suspected liquid with acetic
acid and caustic potash : pure creasote is  completely soluble in these fluids; not so
the adulterated.   Capnomor is similar to creasote in many of its physical  and
chemical properties, and is frequently associated with the creasote of  the shops.
  Composition.—Ettling3 analyzed creasote which was supposed to contain three
per cent, of water.   Making allowance for this impurity, its  composition, as deter-
mined by this chemist, is nearly as follo.ws:—
                               Atoms.     Eq. Wt.      Per Cent.
                     Carbon ....  14        84         77.42
                     Hydrogen  . .   9         9          8.12
                     Oxygen ....   2        16         14.46
                     Creasote  ...   1         109         100.00

or, Cl4H902.  At present, however, the equivalent of creasote must be considered as
uncertain, since no definite compound of this substance has been analyzed, by which
the combining proportion could be ascertained.
  Physiological Effects,  a. On  Vegetables.—Plants moistened with  creasote
water fade and die.4   The injurious  effects of smoke on vegetation are probably to
be referred principally to the creasote which it contains.
  0.  On Animals generally.—Insects  (as  flies), spiders, and small  fishes,  die in
two minutes after their immersion in water containing a few drops of creasote sus-
pended  in it.   According to Dr. Cormack, the effects of creasote on dogs are re-
markably similar to those of hydrocyanic acid, and are  much less apparent when
this  substance  is  injected into the  carotid arteries than  into  the veins.   When
thrown into the latter, it suddenly stops the  heart's action, and causes hurried respi-
ration, one or two convulsive fits, shrill cries, and death.  Injected into the carotid
artery, it produces coma.  Introduced into the stomach, it gives rise to dimness and
fixation of the eyes, vertigo, and coma; when given in large  quantities, it also affects
the heart.5  Cornehani6 and  Miguet  have observed inflammation of the  gastro-in-
testinal mucous  membrane of dogs poisoned  by  creasote, but  which survived some
time after its administration.
  y. On Man.—Creasote operates locally as an irritant and  caustic.  Applied to the
skin it causes heat, redness, and the destruction of the  cuticle, which comes away
in the form of furfuraceous  scales.   On the  tongue it produces a painful sensation.
Dropped into the eye, it occasions acute pain.  Placed in contact with a suppurating

  • Treatise on Creasote. Edinburgh, 1836.                      2 Cormack, op. cit.
  ' Ann. de Chimie, lin. p. 333.                                       '  r
  * Miguet, Recherches sur la Criasote, 1S34.                     i Corm-ick nn  rit  r.  «c  .
  • Jour. Chem. Mid. t. ii. ser. 10; and Brit, and For. Med. Rev. vol. i. p  865.  '       P'  '  " ^ 
Uses.                                    959
surface, it whitens  the part, like nitrate of silver.   Swallowed  in  large  doses, it
causes vomiting and purging.   The caustic effect of  creasote  depends on its union
with albumen.   Unless  largely diluted, it occasions,  when swallowed, heat  in the
pharynx, oesophagus, and stomach.   Small doses, as one or two minims, produce in
most individuals no other unpleasant effect than that  just mentioned.  Larger doses
give rise  to nausea, vomiting, vertigo, headache, and  heat of  head.   Dr. Elliotson1
knew a lady  who  increased the dose of creasote to forty drops before it disagreed;
the addition  of  a  single drop beyond this  produced extreme giddiness, insensibility,
and  vomiting, followed by headache for  several days.   When given in  moderate
doses, it  does not  affect the bowels; so that, as Dr. Elliotson has observed, "aperi-
ents are as requisite as if it was  not taken."   When, however, the dose  has been
considerably augmented,  diarrhoea, or even dysentery, has been produced.3  The in-
fluence of creasote  on  the urinary organs is sometimes very marked.   Dr.  Macleod3
was,  I  believe,  the first who  noticed  that the urine  acquired a blackish colour  by
the  use of it.   A similar  effect  is referred  to by Dr.  Elliotson.   In  some  cases
creasote  is recognized, by its odour, in the urine, showing that it has been absorbed.
Occasionally it  increases the quantity of this secretion ;  but, in diabetes,  it some-
times has  an  opposite effect.   In some  instances it has caused  micturition and
strangury, so that  in its  influence over  the urinary organs it bears some resem-
blance to turpentine.  Some other effects  which have been  ascribed to it require
farther evidence to establish them.   In  the  dose of  two  drachms, creasote proved
fatal in thirty-six hours.   It caused acute pain.4
   Uses.—Various substances, some known  to contain creasote, others supposed to
do so, have long  been used in medicine,  in  the same diseases in which creasote it-
self is now employed; and, in consequence, it has  been imagined  that  they owe
part of whatever  efficacy they really possess to this substance.   These  remarks
apply to  Tar,5  Soot,6 Crude Pyroligneous Acid, Aqua Binelli,7 the Empyreumatic
Water of Runge  and  Hanke, Pyrothonide,8 and Animal or Dippel's Oil.   To this
list should be added, according to Dr. Cormack (op. cit.),  Mummy.
   As an  internal remedy, creasote has been principally  celebrated, in this  country,
as a medicine possessing  extraordinary powers of arresting vomiting.  It has, how-
ever, been  greatly overrated.   It  is decidedly injurious in inflammatory conditions
and structural disease  of  the stomach, and frequently fails in  allaying  the sickness
dependent on organic  diseases,  as of  the  heart and  kidneys.   It  is most successful
  ' Medico-Chirur. Trans, vol. xix.                                  2 Cormack, op. cit. p. 93.
  ■ Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xvi. p. 599; and vol. xvii. p. 653.
  ' See The Times of June 17, 1839.  I presume the mental faculties were unaffected.
  * Tar will be described hereafter.
  e Wood Soot (Fuligo Ligni) was formerly contained in the list of the Materia Medica of the British
Pharmacopoeias.  It is still in use on the continent, and statements of its efficacy are occasionally met
with in the periodicals.  It is a mixture of distilled products from the imperfectly burnt wood and of ashes,
or other fixed matters, carried up the chimney by the current of air. It consists of a pyrogenous or empyreu-
matic resin called pyretin, combined with acetic acid, which also saturates the bases (potash, lime, and
magnesia) of the ashes which are  carried up the chimney.  Besides these, there are small quantities of
sesquioxide of iron, silica, and carbon. Acetate of ammonia, chloride of calcium, and sulphate of lime, are
also contained in soot.  Moreover there is extractive matter, part of which is insoluble in alcohol. Lastly,
to these constituents must be added creasote.  Braconnot (Ann. Chim. et. Phys. t. xxxi. p. 37) mentions a
bitter principle, which he calls asboline (from &(r@:toi, soot), in soot; but Berzelius (Traiti de Chimie,
t. vi. p. 725) considers it to be a mixture of different matters with the acidpyretine. The matters insoluble
in water constitute about 0.44 of soot.  Formerly soot was esteemed  tonic, antispasmodic, and emmena-
gogue. It is  now principally employed as an external remedy, chiefly in ringworm and other analogous
eruptions, and obstinate ulcers.  It is employed in the form of decoction (prepared by boiling two handfuls
of hoot in a pint of water for half an hour) and of ointment (composed of a drachm of soot to an ounce of
lard). The decoction has been used as an injection in chronic cystitis (Lond. Med. Gaz. 1839—40. vol. i.
p. 864).  The Tincture of Soot, formerly in the London Pharmacopoeia, consists of Wood Soot sij ; Assa-
foetida 3j; and Proof Spirit fjxxxij.  It is sometimes called Soot Drops or Hysteric Mixture, and is pre-
scribed in doses of one or two teaspoonfuls in hysteria.
  1 Aqua Binelli, or Aqua arterialis balsamica Doctoris Binelli, a once-celebrated styptic, discovered
by a physician (Dr. Binelli) of Turin, in 1797, (Dierbach, Neucsten Entdeck.ind. Mat. Med. 2te Ausg. 1837.
Hee also Dr. J. Davy, Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journ. July, 1833.)
  ' Pykothonidb (from T-jp, fire  ; and objvx, linen), or liquor pyro-oleosus e  linteo paratus, is a very
popular remedy for toothache and  skin diseases.  It is sometimes prepared by distilling rags, and is then
called rag oil; but the common mode of procuring it is to hum a cone of paper on a plate or other cold
body ; it is then termed paper oil.  It has been analyzed by Herberger (Buchner, Repertorium, Bd. 32. S.
347).   For farther particulars concerning it, consult Merat and De Lens, Diet. Mat. Mid.; Lierbach,  op.
cit.;  Schwartze, Pharm. Tabell. 2te Aus.; L. Richter AusfUhrl. Arzneim. Supplem. Bd. 
960
ORGANIC SUBSTANCES.—Creasote.
in hysterical cases, and sometimes succeeds in pregnancy.   Creasote was first em-
ployed to relieve vomiting by Dr. Elliotson,1 to whose paper, as well as to that of
Mr.  Taylor, apothecary of the North  London Hospital,9 I must refer for  cases
illustrative of extraordinary success with it.   It is regarded  by Dr. Macleod3 as of
doubtful efficacy;  and has completely failed in  the  hands of Dr. Paris.4   Dr.
Burne,5 however, found it  efficacious in gastro-enteritic irritation.   I  have found it
much more  frequently fail than succeed in alleviating  irritable stomach.   It some-
times relieves the chronic vomiting connected with granular  disease of the kidneys
when other  means fail.6  In gastrodynia or flatulence it  occasionally succeeds, but
is admissible in those cases only in  which local stimulants are usually found  bene-
ficial.  Where both hydrocyanic acid and creasote have been separately tried with-
out success, Dr. Elliotson  advises their union.  Creasote has been  tried in  a few
cases of diabetes.   In some it diminished  both the quantity  and saccharine quality
of the urine.7   I have tried it at the London Hospital, but without obtaining bene-
fit from its use.  In  neuralgia, hysteria, and pulmonary diseases, it  has  also been
used with occasional  advantage; but a more extended experience is required to
establish its efficacy in these cases.
   As an external agent, creasote may frequently be employed with great advantage.
It has been  successfully applied to relieve  toothache.   After carefully cleaning out
the cavity of the tooth, a drop of creasote, or an alcoholic solution of  this principle,
may be introduced  by  means of a  camel's  hair pencil, and  the cavity filled  with
cotton soaked in this liquid.  As a  local application  to chronic skin diseases (par-
ticularly the different forms of porrigo,  impetigo, eczema) it is of considerable value.
Where a caustic application is required, it may be applied undiluted; but for other
purposes, it is used either  in the form of  ointment, or dissolved in water as a wash.
Creasote may be beneficially used as an application to foul and indolent ulcers.   It
serves the double purpose  of stimulating the living surface (and thereby of chang-
ing the quality of actions  going on  in the part), and also of  preventing the putre-
faction of the secreted matters.   It  is sometimes applied pure,  but more commonly
diluted with water.   Lupus is  said to  have healed  under the  employment of an
ointment of creasote.8   In hemorrhages  creasote acts  as a  most  efficient styptic,
partly in consequence of its power of coagulating albuminous liquids, and thereby
of causing the formation of a clot, and partly by causing contraction of  the bleed-
ing vessels.    Creasote water (prepared by mixing one part of  creasote with eighty
parts of water) may be applied either to  bleeding wounds and  leech-bites, or intro-
duced into  the vagina in uterine hemorrhage, by means of pledgets  of lint soaked
in it.  There are many other purposes for which creasote has been applied as a
local agent, but which I think it sufficient merely to name, referring  the  reader to
the various  papers and works before quoted for farther information.   It has been
employed to check caries, to restrain excessive  suppuration, and to repress fungous
granulations in  burns and  scalds; to act as a counter-irritant in chronic ophthalmia,
in which disease it is sometimes dropped  into the eye  on  the  same  principle that
nitrate of silver and other  local stimulants are used; and to remove condylomatous
and  other excrescences.  The inhalation of creasote vapour is occasionally useful in
relieving excessive bronchial secretion.   Dr. Elliotson cured  two cases of glanders
in the human subject by injecting an aqueous  solution of creasote up the affected
nostril.9
   Administration.—Creasote may be given, at the commencement of  its use, in
doses of one or two drops diffused through an ounce of some aromatic water by the
aid of mucilage : the dose  should be gradually increased.   As before mentioned in
1 Medico-Chirurg. Trans, vol. xix.                              ., T „„.,, .,    . ,r  10Qs
» London Medical Gazette, vol. xvi. p. 598, and vol. xvii. p. 653.        "      ' AU*,18t ,J> leJ5,
4 Appendix to the 8th edit, of the Pharmacologia, 1838.
5 London Medical Gazette, August 16, 1838.
' See Christison, On Granular Degeneration of the Kidneys, Edinb  1839
' Dr. Elliotson. Med.-Chirurg. Trans. ; and Professor Berndt, Lancet ' Julv 18 1835
f Mr. Browne, in the London Medical Gazette for April 7 1838           '
9 See also Lancet, vol. ii. for 1834—5. p. 398. 
Rock Oil:—History;  Natural History.
961
one case forty drops were given with impunity;  in  another instance, ninety drops
were administered in less than half a day without any bad symptom.1
  As a caustic, undiluted creasote is sometimes applied by means of a camel-hair
pencil.
  Lotions, gargles, or injections of creasote, are prepared by dissolving from two to
six drops (according to the circumstances of each case) in an ounce of water.  A solu-
tion of this kind is sometimes mixed with poultices.
  The inhalation of  creasote vapour may be  effected  by diffusing  a few drops of
creasote through water  or  a mucilaginous liquid, and  breathing through  this by
means of the ordinary inhaling bottle.
  Antidotes.—In a case  of  poisoning  by creasote, the depression  of the vital
powers  is to  be counteracted  by ammonia and other stimulants.  Dr. Cormack
suggests the use of  chlorine, but the value of this agent has not been determined
by actual  experiment.   Oleaginous and mucilaginous drinks  are  recommended by
Corneliani for the purpose of preventing the local action of creasote on the mucous
lining of  the  stomach and intestines.   Vinegar  does  not diminish, but, according
to Corneliani, increases  its activity.   Dr.  Cormack says albumen augments [?] its
poisonous operation.  Bleeding is suggested by this writer, in order to relieve  the
distension, aud thereby  to excite the contractions, of the heart.  Artificial  respira-
tion should on  no  account be  omitted.   Any inflammatory symptoms which may
subsequently appear are of course to be treated by the usual antiphlogistic measures.
  1.  MISTURA CREASOTI, Mistura Creazotce,  E. — (Take of Creazote and Acetic
Acid, of each  nrxvj;  Compound Spirit of Juniper, and Syrup, of each  f^j ; Water
f^xiv;  mix the creazote with the acid, then gradually [add] the water,  and lastly
the syrup and spirit.)—Dose f^j to f^ij or more.
  2. INGUENTUM CREASOTI, L.  D.  [U. S.];  Unguentum Creazoti,  E.—(Creasote
f3ss; Lard Jj; rub them together, L. [U. S.].—Axunge ^iij; Creazote 3j-  Melt
the axunge, add the creazote, stir them briskly, and continue to do so as the  mixture
concretes  on cooling, E.   Take  of Creazote 3J j Ointment  of White Wax 3vij.
To the ointment liquefied by a  moderate heat  add the  creasote, and stir constantly
until  the mixture concretes, D.)—It is used  principally in skin  diseases,  as ring-
worm.  The quantity of creasote may  be augmented  or lessened, according to
circumstances.
    312.  PETROLEUM, L. £-PETROLEUM, OR  ROCK OIL.
                              Petroleum Barbadense), L.
                      (Bitumen Petroleum.  Petroleum Barbadense.)

   History.—Herodotus3 mentions the petroleum springs of Zacynthus (now called
Zante) more than 400 years before  Christ.  Plutarch, in his  Life of Alexander,
speaks of a lake of naphtha at  Ecbatana (now Hamedan), in Media.  The substance
known to  mineralogists  as petroleum is the black naphtha (vdfda p-ixaiva) of Dios-
corides (lib. i.), the bitumen liquidum of Pliny, (lib. xxxv.)
   Natural History.—There are two varieties of liquid bitumen or mineral oil:
one is transparent and nearly colourless, or only slightly yellow, and, when burnt,
leaves no residuum; the other  is thick, of  a reddish-brown colour or blackish, and
leaves, after combustion,  a black coal.   The first is called naphtha  (a Chaldsean
word) ;  the second petroleum (from  petra,  a rock;  and oleum,  oil), or rock oil, be-
cause it is frequently found exuding in the  form of an oily liquid from rocks.  Both
kinds are supposed to be produced  by the decomposition of  organic (vegetable)
matter, for they are always found in Neptunian rocks, and they  appear sometimes
to be  one of the products of the decomposition of coal.3   From the investigation of
1 Mr. Taylor, Lancet, August 15, 1835.                               ' Melpomene, cxcv.
' Berzelius, Trait,', de Chim. t. 6me.
      VOL.  II.—61 
962
ORGANIC  SUBSTANCES.—Rock Oil.
 Drs. Christison and Gregory,1 it appears probable that some varieties of petroleum,
 as that of Rangoon, are products  of destructive distillation, since they contain pa-
 raffine and eupion, substances obtained from organic bodies by heat.
   Petroleum is found  in  this country at Ormskirk, in Lancashire, at  Colebrook
 Dale, and at St. Catherine's Well, near Edinburgh.   In France, it  is  produced at
 the village of Gabian, in Languedoc, and  hence  it was termed  Oleum Gabianum.
 It is also found in various parts  of Europe, especially in Italy.   In the United
 States of America it is met with in various places; that from  the shore  of Seneca
 Lake, in New York, is called Seneka Oil.  Several of the West  India Islands, espe-
 cially Barbadoes and Trinidad, yield  it.   The Barbadoes petroleum (Petroleum
 Barbadense, L.;  Pisselceum Indicum,  Dale)  is commonly termed Barbadoes Tar,
 or Barbadoes  Naphtha.   Mr.  Hughes3 speaks of two kinds of it;  one of a dirty
 black, inclining to green,  issuing from some hills in St. Andrew's and St.  Jo-
 seph's parishes; and one of a blacker colour, in St. Joseph's parish.   That imported
 by Mr. Clarke professes to be the produce of the springs on Mount Hall estate, in Bar-
 badoes.   In various localities of Asia, petroleum is met with in great abundance.
   Extraction.—Mr. Hughes says that the mode of procuring the green tar of Bar-
 badoes,  is to dig a hole or trench in, or very  near, the  place where it  oozes out of
 the earth.  This by degrees becomes filled with water, having a thick film or cream
 of this liquid bitumen swimming upon  the surface;  from whence it is skimmed off,
 and preserved in earthen jars or other vessels.   The most convenient season  for
 gathering it is in the months of January, February, and March.
   Properties.—Barbadoes petroleum, at  ordinary temperatures, has the consist-
 ence of  treacle ; it colour is  reddish-brown or blackish ; its odour and  taste are bi-
 tuminous.  It floats  on  water;  id  combustible, yielding a thick black smoke, and
 leaving  a carbonaceous residuum.  It is insoluble in water and alcohol.
   Composition.—The ultimate constituents  of Barbadoes petroleum are carbon
 and hydrogen, with small quantities of oxygen and nitrogen.   The latter probably
 are accidental.
   By distillation, five parts by measure yield  rather more than four  parts of a yel-
 low oily fluid, somewhat similar in appearance to the liquid carbo-hydrogen obtained
 in the manufacture of oil-gas, but dissimilar to naphtha.   The residuum  in the re-
 tort is a substance analogous to asphallum.   It  yields by destructive distillation
 traces of ammonia.   Some kinds of petroleum contain paraffine  and eupion.
   Physiological Effects.—Petroleum possesses stimulating properties,  which
 are principally observed  in its effects on the organs of secretion  (the skin, the kid-
 neys,  and the mucous membranes), the activity  of which it  promotes  : hence it
 has been called sudorific, diuretic, and expectorant.   It becomes absorbed, and in
 this way probably acts topically on the  secreting organs; for Mr. Hughes observes
 that when a horse " that has  been dosed with it begins to be warm upon his jour-
ney, the  rider will smell the tar strongly."   It  is said to be  an excitant to  the
lymphatic vessels and glands.
   Uses.—As an internal remedy, it is  employed in chronic pulmonary  affections
 (as winter  coughs and old asthmas), in obstinate  skin diseases (as lepra, psoriasis
 and impetigo)^ and against tape-worm.  Mr.  Hughes says it  is used  in paralytic
and nervous disorders.                                                      J
   As an external agent, it is applied  to obstinate ulcers, as lupus and  cutaneous
diseases, and is employed as a stimulating liniment in  chronic  rheumatism  paraly-
 sis, and chilblains.                                                    ' r   J
   Administration—The dose of Barbadoes petroleum is a  small  teaspoonful
given in any convenient vehicle (as  some aromatic  water, tea, or  spirit)   The
quantity should be gradually increased.  An  ounce has been  taken  in the day
without any inconvenience.                                                   J
t Trans, of the Roy. Soc. Edinb. vol. xiii. p. 1. i The Natural History of Barbadoes, p. 50 
Amber:—History; Natural History; Properties: Composition.   963
                 313. SUCCINUM, D. \u. S.].-AMBER,
                     (The oil obtained by its destructive distillation, D.)

   History.—Amber was known to Thales  of Miletus, 600 years before Christ.
He was the first to notice that, when rubbed, it acquired the power of attracting
light bodies.  Hence  arose  the term electricity, from  rj\extpo*, amber.   Theo-
phrastus1 also mentions this property.
   Natural History.—Amber is  found in different parts of the world.   The
principal portion of that  met  with in commerce comes from the southern coasts of
the Baltic,  in Prussia, and is cast on the shore between Kbnigsberg and Memel.
It is also found on the shores of Norfolk.   It is supposed to be disengaged, by the
action of the sea, from  beds of lignite.   The  vegetable origin of amber is shown
by various facts.  It is usually  associated with substances (bituminous wood, coal,
&c.) known to be derived from plants.  Externally we observe on it various  im-
pressions of the branches and bark of trees; and inclosed  in it are insects and parts
of plants (as the wood, leaves, flowers, and fruit).  According to Sir David Brew-
ster,3 its optical properties  are those of an indurated  vegetable juice.  From  these
circumstances, as  well as from its  chemical composition,  amber  is  supposed  to
have been a resinous exudation  from some tree.  As the  wood, leaves, blossoms,
and fruit of some coniferous plant are found in amber, this plant has been supposed
to be the amber tree ; and a microscopic  examination of the wood leads to  the
conclusion that the amber tree is a species, though probably an extinct one, of  the
genus Pinus, closely  allied  to P.  balsamea.3  On  chemical grounds,  however,
Liebig4 suggests that it is a product of wax, or of some other substance allied to  the
fats of fixed oils; since succinic acid is formed by the oxidation of stearic and mar-
garic acids.5
   Properties.—It occurs in irregularly shaped pieces, usually flat, and somewhat
rounded at the sides.   It colour  is yellowish-white (succinum album), yellow (suc-
cinum citrinum), or reddish (succinum  rubrum).   It is usually translucent, some-
times opake or transparent; it is tasteless and odourless.   Its sp. gr. is about 1.07.
It is  brittle, yields readily to the knife, has a conchoidal  vitreous or resinous frac-
ture, and becomes negatively electrical by friction ; it contains various insects which,
apparently, must have become entangled  in  it while  it was soft and viscid.   (For
an account of these, consult Mr. Hope's paper before quoted; also Burmeister's
Manual of Entomology, p. 574).
   Heated  in the air, amber fuses at about 550° F., then  inflames, and burns with
a yellow flame, emitting a  peculiar odour, and leaving behind a light shiny black
coal.   It cannot be fused without  undergoing some chemical change.   It evolves
water, volatile oil, and  succinic acid;  the residual  mass is termed colophonium suc-
cini.   By  destructive  distillation in  a retort or  alembic,  amber  yields first  an
acid liquor (which contains succinic and acetic acids), then some succinic  acid is de-
posited in the neck of the retort, and an empyreumatic oil (oleum succini) comes
over,  at first thin and yellowish, afterwards brown and thick; towards the end  of
the operation, a yellow light sublimate is observed  in the neck of the retort; this is
called, by  Berzelius, crystallized pyrdtine; by Vogel, volatile resin of amber;  by
Gmelin,  amber-camphor.   An inflammable gas is evolved  during the whole time of
the operation.
  Composition.—The ultimate  constituents  of  amber are, carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen.  The proximate  principles are, a volatile oil,  two  resins, succinic acid, and
a bituminous substance.
  i Da Lapidibus.
  s Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, vol. ii.       *
  * Hope, On Succinic Insects, in Trans. Entom. Soc. vols. i. and ii.  See also Sendelius, Historia 5«e-
cinorum, Lips. 17i2.
  4 Turner's Elements of Chemistry, 7th edit. p. 1<'50.
  * For farther details respecting the natural history of amber, consult John's Naturgeschichte d. Succins,
Coin. 1816; and Graftenhauer's Histoire Naturelle, chimique, et technique, du Succin, Paris, 1824. 
964
ORGANIC SUBSTANCES.—Amber.
              Ultimate Constituents.
                            Drassier.      Ure.
Carbon................. 80.59      i70.68
Hydrogen  ...............  7.31       11.62
Oxygen.................  6.73       7.77
Ashes (silica, lime, and alumina) .  .  3.27       —

Amber.................97.90       90.07
Proximate Constituents.
    Berzelius.
 Volatile Oil.
 Two Resins.
 Succinic Acid.
 Bitumen.
Amber.
   According to Hiinefeldt, hydrochloric acid extracts from amber, besides succinic
acid, another acid, very similar to metallic acid.                           .
   The volatile oil has a strong but agreeable odour.   The resins are soluble in both
alcohol and ether; if an alcoholic solution  of  the two  resins be prepared by heat,
and  then allowed to  cool, one of the resins is deposited.   The bituminous matter
constitutes the principal  part of amber;  it  is insoluble  in alcohol, ether, the oils,
both volatile and fixed, and alkaline  solutions.
   Characteristics and  Purity.—The  resins copal and  animi  are sometimes
substituted for amber.  They may be distinguished by the difference in their colour
and fracture, and by  their not emitting the  peculiar odour of amber when thrown
upon  hot iron.1  They do  not yield succinic acid when  submitted  to distillation.
Copal, during  its combustion, is constantly  falling in drops;  and by this character
may be distinguished  from amber.8
   Physiological Effects.—Amber was  formerly celebrated as a stimulant and
antispasmodic.  It probably possesses little  or no medicinal power.
   Uses.—It  is not  employed as a medicine in this country.   It was formerly
used in chronic  catarrhs, amenorrhcea, hysteria,  &c, and'was given either  in the
form of powder,  in doses of  from  ten grains to  a drachm, or in that of tincture,
a formula for which is contained both in the French Codex and Prussian Pharma-
copoeia.
   1. OLEUM SUCCINI,  D. [U. S.]; Oil of Amber.—No directions for the preparation
of this oil are given in the Dublin Pharmacopoeia.        ^
   The following  mode of preparing this oil I have seen  practised by an experienced
manufacturer: The  amber is distilled  in a  large iron still or retort, set  in  brick-
work over a proper fire, and  connected with an earthen globe, which opens into an
old oil jar for a receiver.  Three distilled  products are  obtained; impure succinic
acid, called volatile salt  of amber; an  aqueous liquor, termed  volatile  spirit of
amber, consisting of  water, acetic and succinic acid, and pyrogenous oil;  and vola-
tile oil of amber.  The residue in the retort is a kind of pitch, and is called English
asphalt.  The oil is  afterwards rectified by  distillation  in an  iron  pot, to which an
earthen head is adapted.   A very  gentle heat suffices for  re-distillation.    Scrapings
of Copal and the resin Dammar are  frequently substituted for amber.   They yield
no succinic acid, but a  volatile oil scarcely distinguishable from genuine  oil of
amber.
   Volatile  oil of amber, when  fresh  drawn, has a pale yellowish colour, which
deepens by  age, and  a strong and remarkable, but agreeable odour.  It is a power-
ful local irritant.  When rubbed on the skin, it acts as a rubefacient, and is some-
times employed in liniments in  rheumatism and  paralysis.   Taken internally, it
operates,  like mpst other  empyreumatic oils, on the  nervous system, and is used as
a  stimulant, antispasmodic, and  emmenagogue, in hysteria and amenorrhcea.   The
dose is from ten to fifteen drops.  It  is  a  constituent  of the Tinctura Ammonise
composita, which is  made in imitation of  Eau de Luce, the  history of which has
been fully detailed by Beckmann.3
   Artificial Mcsk (Moschus artlficialis; Moschus factitius) is prepared by adding gradually
1 Jiiiss of concentrated  nitric acid to f £]" of oil  of amber, in a  large glass tumbler. " When the
acid is  not of sufficient strength, its action must be assisted by heat.  The oil is gradually resin-
iried at the expense of the oxygen of the  acid'nitrous fumes being evolved.  An orange yellow

  i United States Dispensatory.          2  Kidd's Outlines of Mineralogy, vol. ii. p. 38 Oxford 1809
  ' History of Inventions and Discoveries, 2d edit. vol. iv p. 595,  Lond.  1814.                 ' 
The Manqosteen Tribe.
965
resin, having a peculiar musky odour, is obtained; which is to be well washed with water to
remove all traces  of acid.  Artificial musk is reputed to be antispasmodic and nervine, and
has been employed in hooping-cough, and low nervous fevers.  A tincture of it (Tinctura
Moschi artificialis) is prepared by dissolving gj of artificial musk in f 5Jx of rectified spirit.  The
dose is f J5J.
   2. ACIDUM SUCCIMCUM; Succinic Acid, or the Acid of Amber ;  Sal Succini.—
This acid is obtained in the distillation of amber.   The  mode of purifying it  has
been already stated.   It may also be procured  by the oxidation of stearic and mar-
garic  acids.   It crystallizes in  colourless white scales or  prisms, which  are quite
volatile.   Anhydrous succinic acid is composed of C4H2O3=50.  The sublimed acid
is composed of 2S+HO=109.   It is soluble in water;  scarcely  so  in cold, but
more  so in boiling, alcohol.   It is almost insoluble in oil of turpentine, by which it
is distinguished from benzoic  acid.   Succinate  of ammonia produces, with the salts
of the sesquioxide of iron, a brownish-red flaky precipitate (persuccinate of iron),
and, with the salts of lead, a white precipitate (succinate of lead).  Succinic acid
is said to possess stimulant and antispasmodic  properties, and to promote perspira-
tion and excretion of urine.   It was formerly  employed in rheumatism,  gout, sup-
pressed or repressed eruptions, and  cramps.  It is  now  never used in  medicine.
The dose in which it was formerly given  was grs. v to grs. xv.


  314.  OLEUM  ANIMALE  EMPYREUMATICUM—EMPY-
                      REUMATIC ANIMAL OIL.

   When animal substances (as bone or hartshorn) are subjected to destructive  dis-
tillation, a fetid volatile oil is obtained, which  is commonly called Animal or Dip-
pel's  Oil.  That which is found  in  commerce is obtained in  the  manufacture of
bone black.  It is identical in  its nature with the Oleum Cornu Cervi, or Oil of
Hartshorn, formerly used in medicine.  As usually met  with, it is a thick, brown,
viscid oil, having a most repulsive  odour. By  distillation,  however, it may  be
rendered colourless and limpid,  but is soon altered  by the action of air  and light.
Its ultimate constituents  are  Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and Oxygen.  It  con-
tains  ammonia, and  therefore has an  alkaline reaction.   Unverdorben  alleges that
it contains four oily salifiable bases,  to which he has given the names of odorine,
animine, olanine, and ammoline.  Reichenbach has obtained creasote  from it, and
ascribes to this principle the supposed virtues of animal oil.  Whatever may be its
active principle, animal oil is undoubtedly  a very powerful agent.   In large doses,
it acts as an energetic poison, operrting in two ways, locally as an irritant, remotely
as a narcotic.1   Swallowed in moderate doses,  it stimulates the vascular and nerv-
ous systems, and is  esteemed  antispasmodic.  It has been employed as a local agent
in bruises, gangrene, porrigo, and other  diseases of the  skin.  Internally  it has
been used to prevent an  attack of epilepsy or ague, as  a stimulant in low fevers,
aud as an antispasmodic in  hysteria and other affections of the nervous system ac-
companied with convulsive movements.   Bremser8 used Chaberl's oil (prepared by
mixing three parts oil of  turpentine with one part  Dippel's oil, and distilling three
parts) as an anthelmintic in  tape-worm.   The dose  of animal oil is a few drops,
cautiously increased.


  Order  LXXIII.  GUTTIFERiE, Jussieu.—THE MANGOS-

                             TEEN  TRIBE.

                               Clusiack.e, Lindley.

  Characters.—Sepals 2 or 6, usually persistent, round, frequently unequal, and coloured ; aesti-
vation  imbricated.  Petals hypogynous, 4 to 10.  Stamens hypogynous, indefinite or rarely definite
1 Christison, Treatise on Poisons.
« Traiti sur Us Vers Intestin. Paris, 1824. 
966
VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord. Guttifer^e.
Fig. 402.
                                     distinct, or variously  united to the  base; filaments
                                     unequal; anthers adnate, introrse or  extrorse, some-
                                     times unilocular, and  sometimes opening by a pore.
                                     Torus  fleshy, occasionally 5-lobed.   Ovary solitary,
                                     1  or many-celled ; ovules solitary, or  several in each
                                     cell, erect or ascending, or numerous, and attached
                                     to several placenta?;  style usually 0, or very short,
                                     seldom  conspicuous;  stigmas peltate  or  radiate.
                                     Fiuit capsular or fleshy, or drupaceous,  1- or many-
                                     celled, valvular and septicidal, or indehiscent. Seeds
                                     definite, in a pulp, apterous, often arillate; testa thin
                                     and membranous; albumen none; embryo straight;
                                     radicle small  next the hilum; cotyledons large, thick,
                                     and fleshy,  often cohering.  Trees or shrubs,  some-
                                     times parasitical.  Juice resinous.  Leaves exstipulate,
                                     always opposite, coriaceous, with a strong  midrib,
                                     and many oblique lateral parallel  veins.  Flowers
                                     articulated  with  their  peduncle.— (Wight  and
                                     Arnott)
                                        Properties.—The species all abound in a viscid,
                                     yellow, acrid, and purgative gum-resinous juice, re-
                                     sembling Gamboge (Lindley).   Several species  of
                                     Garcinia yield edible fruits. The fruit G. Mangostana
(Fig. 402) is the most delicious of East Indian fruits, and is " the only fruit which sick people
are allowed to eat without scruple."
Garcinia Mangostana.
         315. GARCINIiE  SPECIES INCERTA, L.-THE
                           GAMBOGE  PLANT.

Hebradendron cambogioides, Graham, E. D.—Cambogia Gutta, Linn.—Stalagmitis cambogioides, Moon.
                           Sex. Syst ' Monoecia, Monadelphia.
                   (Gummi resina, L.—Gummy-resinous exudation, E.D.)
                                 [Gambogia,  U. S.]
History.
Fig. 403
Hebradendron cambogioides
A. Male flowering branch.
     1. Back view of a flower
■The first notice of gamboge  is  by Clusius,3 in 1605.  He received
             this gum-resin, in 1603, from Peter Garet, of Amster-
             dam.   It  had been brought from China by Admiral
             van Neck and his companions, and its  oriental name
             was said to be Ghittaiemou.
                [Botany.  Gen. Char.—Flowers polygamous.   Sta-
             mens more or less united.   Anthers opening longitudin-
             ally.   Fruit succulent, 4- to 10-celled.
                Hab.—Ceylon,  Indian Archipelago.
                The  annexed cut represents the plant  still adopted
             in the Edinburgh and Dublin Pharmacopoeias as that
             yielding gamboge.   The London  College have agreed
             with Dr. Christison in considering the distinctive cha-
             racters  given  by the  late Dr.  Graham  insufficient to
             authorize a generic distinction, and so to  separate  the
             plant described by him from the genus Garcinia.   The
             true gamboge plant appears to have been  possessed by
             Dr. Almeida, of Singapore, who received it from Siam
             direct.   It has not,  however, been fully described —
             Ed.]                                     j
                             The Stalagmitis Cambogioides, Murray,3 L • S. Camboeia Per-
     2. Side view of the calyx soon D doe* not roallir *Zi-t   ti       ■   '   \umuopai ™r-
        and column of stamens. Tf"'?'a      l    Y ,   ^   The sPecimen. which has been
B. Fruit-bearing branch.        u  ^  d RS *   ' 1S ln    Banksian Herbarium, and was found
     3. Section of fruit with its by Mr. Brown* to consist of two plants (Xanthochymus ovalifolius
        fourseejB-____________of Roxburgh, and Hebradendron cambogioides of Graham), the
 1 As the female flowers have not yet been examined  the true niaro nf mi. „i.„» •  n.
^^rur^^'p £innJu8 putshis ^^^^^&^^r^system
 « Graham, Comp. to Bot  Mag. ii. 197.                             ' Comm. Getting, ix. 169. 
            The Gamboge Plant :—Preparation ; Description.         967

union of which had been concealed by sealing-wax.  As it appears, according to Dr. Christison,1
that the gamboge of Siam is "as nearly as possible identical in composition  and properties"
with that of Ceylon, it is probable that both are obtained from the same, or some nearly allied
species.  Indeed, it has been suggested that the plant may have been carried from Siam to
Ceylon;  for the Blioodist  religion is supposed to have passed from  the former to  the latter
country, and with it the practice of painting the temples and holy places with gamboge.
   Preparation.—The only account which we possess of the method of obtaining
Siam  gamboge,  is that  given to Konig by a Catholic priest residing at  Cochin-
China.3  According to this statement, when the leaves or branchlets are broken, a
yellow milky juice issues guttatim (hence the origin of tbe  term Gummi Guttse,
applied to gamboge), and is received either on the leaves of the  tree, or in cocoa-
nut shells, and from thence is transferred into large fiat earthen vessels, where it
is allowed  to harden during the summer season, and is afterwards enveloped with
leaves.   The cylindrical or  pipe variety receives its form by being run  into  the
joints of the bamboo while it is in the liquid state.8  A few years since, there was
an importation  of gamboge in the bamboo cylinders (gamboge in the bamboo).
Each cylinder  or stem was  about twenty-one inches long and one inch and a half
in diameter, closed at the lower end by the transverse partition of the nodus, and
at the upper by a piece of oil-skin.  In Ceylon, gamboge is obtained by wounding
the bark of the tree  in various places with a sharp stone, when the flowers begin
to appear.    The cream-like juice which exudes hardens in the sun.*  According to
Mrs.  Walker, the Cingalese method of collecting it is " by  cutting  pieces of  the
bark  completely off, about the size of the palm of the hand,  early in the morning.
The gamboge oozes out from the pores of the bark in a semi-liquid state, but soon
thickens, and is scraped off by the collectors  next morning, without injury to  the
tree, the wounds in the bark readily healing, and becoming fit to undergo the ope-
ration again."5
   Description.—Two kinds of gamboge (cambogia ; gummi-gutfse) are described
by pharmacological writers—viz. the Siam and the Ceylon.  Of these, the first only
is known in commerce.
   1.  Siam Gamboge (Cambogia  Siamensis, Ph. Ed.).—This is  the  gamboge of
the  shops.   It  is brought to this country sometimes direct from Siam;  at other
times, indirectly by way of Singapore,  Penang,  or Canton.   It comes  over in boxes,
cases,  or chests.   In 1839, duty (-is. per cwt.) was paid on 15 cwts.;  in 1838, on
40 cwts.  It presents itself, in commerce, in  three forms:  1st, in rolls or solid
cylinders ; 2dly, in pipes or  holloiv cylinders ;  3dly, in cakes  or amorphous masses.
Both the  solid  and  hollow  cylinders are  known  in commerce  as pipe gamboge.
What is called coarse gamboge consists of the commonest pieces of the above.
   o.  Pipe gamboge consists  of cylindrical pieces, varying in size from  one to three
inches in diameter.   Some of them  appear to have been formed by rolling; but
many of them are striated, from the impression of the bamboo stems, into the hol-
low of which the gamboge juice has been run, aud not unfrequently portions of the
stems are still adherent;  and on one occasion, as above-mentioned, the gamboge was
imported in the stems (gamboge in the bamboo).  The gamboge cylinders are some-
times distinct, and covered externally with a dirty greenish-yellow dust; at others,
agglutinated, or even folded, so as to form masses of varying sizes and forms.  Pipe
gamboge occurs iu all  qualities;  the  finest and the worst specimens  of gamboge
which I  ever saw having this form.   Fine gamboge is brittle  and odourless ; it  has
very little  taste  at first, but,  after some time, it causes a sensation of  acridity in  the
throat.   Its fracture is conchoidal;  its fractured surface Js opake, reddish-yellow,
with a glimmering lustre.   It is completely dissolved by the successive action of
ether and water.   Mixed with a sufficient quantity of water, it forms a yellow emul-
sion, the films of which are excellent microscopic objects for observing the active
l Comp. to the Bot. Mag. vol. ii. p. 236.                       2 Murray, App. Med. iv. 056.
» White, Voyage to the China Seas, Boston, 1823, p. 250, quoted by Dr. A. T. Thomson, in Lond. Disp.
• Murray, op. cit. pp. 108 and 057.                            * Graham, op. supra cit. p. 196. 
968
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Guttiferje.
molecules described by Mr. R. Brown.1   Tbe powder of fine gamboge is bright yel-
low.   The Edinburgh College gives the following characters of pure gamboge:—
  "Fracture somewhat conchoidal, smooth, and glistening; a decoctionof its powder, cooled, is
not rendered green by tincture of iodine, but merely somewhat tawny."
   The iodine is employed to prove the absence of starch.   Inferior qualities of gam-
boge are harder, more earthy in fracture;  the fractured surface is brownish or gray-
ish-yellow, frequently with  black spots, from the presence of foreign  bodies which
are intermixed.  It is not completely dissolved by the successive action of ether and
water.   Iodine readily detects, in  the cooled decoction, starch, by the  green colour
which it gives rise to.
   /3. Lump  or  Coke  Gamboge occurs in  masses of several pounds weight.   Its
quality is inferior to the finest pipe kind.   Internally we observe fragments  of wood,
twigs,  and air-cells.   In most of its characters  it agrees with the inferior  qualities
of pipe gamboge, and like this contains starch.
   2.  Ceylon or Cingalese Gamboge (Cambogia Zeylanica, Ph. Ed.).—I am unac-
quainted with  this kind of gamboge, which is unknown in English commerce.  Dr.
Christison says that, as he has seen it, it  " is usually in small irregular fragments,
but, as originally collected, is  in flattish  round  masses, as if moulded in shallow
bowls, weighing about a pound or upwards ; and it appears to be composed of aggre-
gated irregular tears, with interspaces and cavities, which are lined with  a dark pow-
dery matter, or with a powder of an earthy appearance.   Altogether it seems a very
coarse article."  It forms, " with great ease, an emulsion nowise inferior in smooth-
ness, and very little, if at all, in  liveliness  of  tint, to  that of the very best Pipe
Gamboge of Siam."
   Composition.—Gamboge was  analyzed, in 1808, by Braconnot;3  in  1813,  by
John ;3 and  in 1836, by Dr. Christison.4
Soluble gum . . Woody fibre . . Moisture ....	Siam Gamboge.								
	Cylindrical or pipe.		Cake or Lump.		Coarse.		Ceylon Gamboge.		
	First.	Second.	First.	Second	First.	Second.	First.	Second.	Third.
	74.2 21.8 trace. 4.8	71.6 24.0 trace. 4.8	64.3 20.7 4.4 6.2 4.0	65.0 19.7 6.2 50 4.2	61.4 17.2 7.8 7.8 7.2	35.0 14.2 19.0 22.0 10.6	68.8 20.7 6.8 4.6	71.5 18.8 5.7 ( not ascer-( tained.	72.9 19.4 4.3 not ascer-tained.
Gamboge ....	100.8	100.4	99.6	100.1	101.4	100.8	100.9	96.0	96.6
  1. Gambogic Aciri;  Gambodic Acid, Johnston; Resin, Christison.—Obtained  by evaporating
to dryness the  ethereal tincture of the pure gum-resin.  It is brittle, in thin layers of a deep
orange colour, in thicker masses of a cherry-red tint.  It is insoluble in water, but soluble in
alcohol, and still more so in ether.  It communicates an appreciable yellowness  to 10,U00 times
its weight of spirit.  It is soluble in the caustic alkalies, forming  dark red  solutions  (alkaline
gambogiates), which yield, with acids, a  yellow precipitate (gambogic acid) ; with acetate of lead,
a yellow (gambogiate of lead) ; with the  salts of iron, a dark-brown (gambogiate of iron), and
with sulphate of copper, a brown one (gambogiate of copper).  The  composition of gambogic
acid, according  to Johnston,5 is C^H^O8.  When heated to about  400° F. it undergoes partial
decomposition,a resin soluble in  cold alcohol being formed, and another insoluble in "that liquid.
The constitution of the latter  seems to be represented  by C40H22O9.—In doses of  five grains,
gambogic acid occasioned  profuse watery discharges,  without pain  or other uneasiness.  If the
activity of gamboge depended solely on the  resin, five, or five and  a half, grains of  the resin
should be equal to seven of gamboge; but, according  to  Dr. Christison, this  is not  the case.
• Phil. Mag. for Sept. 1S28 and 1829.              » Ann_ de chim jxvjii  33
• Plilmf™nndl839 Chem' "' 626'                 ' ComPanion t0 the botanical Magazine, ii. 233. 
       The Gamboge Plant :—Chemical Characteristics -, Effects.    969

Hence, either it is not the sole active ingredient, or it becomes somewhat altered in the process
for procuring it; the latter supposition is the more probable.
  2. Gum (Arabine?).—The gum of gamboge is soluble in water, like gum Arabic.
  3. Starch or Fecula.—This  substance, which is found in common gamboge, is doubtless an
adulterating substance.
  Chemical  Characteristics.—Gamboge emulsion  becomes transparent and
deep red on  the addition of potash, forming gambogiate of potash.   Digested  in
alcohol  or  ether, gamboge yields orange-red tinctures (solutions of gambogic acid).
The ethereal  tincture dropped on water  yields, on  the evaporation of the ether, a
thin,  bright  yellow, opake film or scum (gambogic acid), soluble in caustic potash.
The   alcoholic tincture dropped  into water yields a  bright, opake, yellow emulsion,
which becomes clear, deep red, and  transparent, on the addition  of caustic potash.
The  gambogiate of potash (obtained by any of the above  processes) gives, if  the
alkali be not in excess, with acids, a yellow precipitate (gambogic acid); with ace-
tate of  lead, a yellow precipitate (gambogiate of lead); with sulphate  of copper,
brown (gambogiate of copper);  and with the salts of iron, dark brown (gambogiate
of iron).
  The detection of gamboge in pills has become, on some occasions, an important object of
medico-legal research.1  Spurious extractum colocynthidis  compositum, and the pill cochia. of the
shops, sometimes contain gamboge.  The mode of detection, in all these cases, is simple:  Digest
one portion of the suspected substance in alcohol, and another in ether.  Then subject the alco-
holic and ethereal tinctures to the tests above mentioned.
  In external appearance, the resin of Xanlhorraa hostile is the only substance that could, by a
remote  possibility, be confounded with gamboge.  But the above chemical  characters readily
distinguish gamboge.   They would also prevent the yellow colouring matter of saffron, of tur-
meric, and of rhubarb, from being confounded with that of gamboge.
   Physiological Effects,  o.  On Animals generally.—The  animals on which
the effects of gamboge have been tried, are dogs, horses, oxen, sheep, and  rabbits.
From his experiments on dogs, Orfila3 inferred that it is a powerful  local  irritant;
and that when applied to any of  the animal tissues, its fatal operation depends, not
on its absorption, but on its powerful local action, and on the sympathetic irritation
of the nervous system.   It appears  to be an uncertain  and dangerous medicine for
herbivorous animals, and  is, therefore, never employed by veterinarians.  Daubenton
states, that two drachms killed a sheep.8  Two ounces and  a half have been  found
to produce very little effect on a cow; while twice  that quantity caused  dysentery,
which continued seventeen days.  On the horse, from six  to twelve drachms have
merely rendered the stools somewhat softer and more frequent, although shivering,
loss of  appetite, irregularity of  pulse, great anxiety,  and other alarming  constitu-
tional symptoms were brought on.4   On the other hand, Viborg5 has given an ounce
to the horse without any remarkable effect.
   (3.  On Man.—Taken in  small doses,  gamboge promotes the secretions of the ali-
mentary canal and of the kidneys, and  causes more frequent and liquid  stools than
natural.   In  larger doses, it occasions nausea, oftentimes vomiting, griping pains of
the bowels, watery stools, and increased  discharge of urine.  When  the action is
very violent, there is great depression of the vascular system.   In excessive doses, it
acts as  an acrid poison.   A drachm caused  horrible vomiting and purging,  followed
by syncope and death.8  The deaths which have occurred from  the use of enormous
quantities of  Morisou's pills7 are mainly ascribable to  the gamboge  contained in
these medicines. In these  cases, the symptoms were violent vomiting and  purging,
abdominal  pain and tenderness, cold  extremities, and sinking pulse.   On post-
mortem examination, inflammation, ulceration, and mortification of the  intestines,
were  found.
  Gamboge'belongs to the active hydragogues and drastic purgatives.  Its  activity
i  Trial of Joseph Webb, at York Summer Assizes, 1834, taken by Mr. Frazer, Lond. 1834.
2  Toxicol. Gin.                       * Mim. de la Soc. Roy. de Mid. de Paris, t. iv. p. 261.
4  Moiroud, Pharm. Vit. p. 267—8.         » Wibmer, Wirk. der Arzneim. u. Gifte, ii. 359.
•  Pnullini, Eph. Nat. Cur. Dec. i. Ann. viii. p. 139.
'  See Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xiv. 612 and 759; xvii. 357, 415, and 623; xviii. 75 and 297, and six. 976. 
970
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Guttiferje.
 is inferior to elaterium and croton oil.  In acridity it exceeds jalap, scammony, and
 even colocynth.  In its mode of operation it is allied to, though scarcely so acrid as
 euphorbium.  It is exceedingly apt to irritate the stomach, and  to occasion nausea
 and vomiting.   This arises from its ready solubility in the gastric juices.  As this
 action  on the stomach is exceedingly objectionable, we sometimes endeavour to lessen
 it by conjoining aloes, or some other substance which  diminishes the solubility of
 gamboge in aqueous fluids, and by giving the medicine in the form of pill.   Sun-
 delin1  ascribes to gamboge an  especial power of exciting the vascular system (arte-
 ries and veins)  of the pelvic organs, in virtue of which, he says, it readily  gives rise
 to the  hemorrhoidal flux and uterine hemorrhage.   Farthermore, he  regards  it as
 powerfully irritating and exciting to the abdominal nerves, especially the sacral and
 pelvic  divisions.
   Uses.—From the foregoing account of the effects of gamboge, it is very evident
 that it is a remedy well adapted for acting as a stimulus to the abdominal and pelvic
 viscera, either to rouse them when in a torpid state, or to give them  preternatural
 activity, and thereby to relieve some distant organ, on the principle of counter-
 irritation.   On the  other hand, the  use  of  gamboge is highly objectionable when
 there is an irritable or inflammatory condition of the stomach or bowels, a  tendency
 to abortion, or to uterine hemorrhage, and also when we do not want to promote or
 increase the hemorrhoidal discharge.  The following are some of  the cases in which
 we employ it:—
   1. In constipation, where an active cathartic of small bulk is required, gamboge
 is employed.  It is, however,  not given alone, as the necessary dose would be very
 apt to create nausea and vomiting.   It  is,  therefore, usually conjoined with  other
 and milder purgatives, the operation of which it increases and quickens, while they,
 by diminishing its  solubility in the juices  of the stomach, lessen  its tendency to
 create  nausea or vomiting.  The  Pilulse catharticse compositse, Ph.U.S., and the
 Pilulse cambogise compositse,  L. D., may be  referred to  as  preparations  in which
 these objects have been kept in view.
   2. In cerebral affections, as apoplexy, or a tendency  thereto,  gamboge, usually
 associated with other purgatives, as above stated, is a highly valuable counter-irri-
 tant purgative.  By stimulating and rousing the nerves, bloodvessels,  and  secretory
 apparatus of the abdomen, it  is often calculated to relieve determinations of blood
 to other parts.
   3. In dropsies, gamboge has been employed, on account of its hydragogue opera-
 tion, where  the  use of drastic  purgatives is indicated.  To its  efficacy numerous
 practitioners have borne testimony.   It  is,  however rarely given alone, but usually
 in combination  with other and milder remedies (as jalap and  bitartrate of potash)
 of the  same class.  If it be desirable to act also on the kidneys, an alkaline solution
 of gamboge  has been recommended.  Gamboge has been  thought more  especially
 serviceable  in those  forms of dropsy connected with hepatic obstruction.
   4. As an anthelmintic, gamboge has been frequently employed as  a remedy for
tapeworm, and  not  unfrequently with considerable success.   Several  empirical an-
thelmintic remedies2 are said to owe their efficacy to this substance.  It  is an im-
portant constituent  of Madame Nouffer's specific.
   Administration—On account of its  tendency to occasion vomiting and griping,
gamboge is usually  given in small doses, as  from one to three or four grains, in the
form of pill, and repeated every four or  six hours.   In this way, it may be given
with safety and without inconvenience.    The full dose  of it is said to be  from ten
to fifteen grains.  An alkaline solution of gamboge has  been long known on the
continent under  the name of tincture of gamboge (tinctura gummi aW/a?),3 and has
 been employed  as a powerful diuretic in dropsy.  It consists of gamboge, in powder,
 Jss; carbonate of potash 3j (intimately mixed with the  gamboge); and brandy Sxii.
 Digest with a gentle heat for four days.—Dose f5ss to f3j
i £rfv5S?i!ivSS.«u. Abt. n. s. 203.          2 See Murray> **•Med-iv-121>« ««• 
  Wild Cinnamon:—History; Botany;  Description; Composition.  971

  Antidote.—In poisoning by gamboge, our chief reliance must be placed on the
palliatives  already mentioned for poisoning by euphorbium and elaterium.   I am
acquainted with  no well-ascertained antidote, though the alkalies  (carbonate of
potash, according to Hahnemann1)  have been said  to diminish the violence of the
topical action of gamboge.

  PILULE  CAMBOGLE COMPOSITE, L.;  Pilulse Cambogise,  E.;   Gamboge Pills.—
(Gamboge, bruised, 3ij [one part, E.~\; Socotrine  or  Hepatic  Aloes, bruised, 3iij
[East Indian or  Barbadoes Aloes, one part,  E.~\;  Ginger, bruised, 3J  [Aromatic
powder, one part, E.~]; Soft Soap Jss [Castile Soap, two parts,  E~\.   Mix the pow-
ders together,  then add the soap [and  then a sufficiency  of syrup, E.~\, and beat
them into one mass.)—Cathartic—considerably more active than  the Pilulse Aloes
compositse. Employed in obstinate constipation.—Dose, grs. x to grs. xv.—The aloes,
by diminishing the solubility of the gamboge, renders the latter less likely to  irritate
the stomach.   The formula is  said to be a simplification  of one  proposed  by Dr.
George Fordyce.


    316. CANELLA ALBA,  Murray, L.  E. D.-LAUREL-LEAVED
                 CANELLA,  OR  WILD  CINNAMON.
                          Sex. Syst. Dodecandria, Monogynia.
                              (Cortex, L.—Bark, E. D.)
                                  [Canella, U. S.]

   History.—The bark of this tree has been frequently confounded with that of
Drimys  Winteri, hereafter to  be described.   Clusius3 describes  both barks,  and
notices two kinds of canella bark.
   Botany.  Gen. Char.— Sepals  5.   Petals 5 ; somewhat coriaceous, glaucous-
blue, contorted in aestivation.   Stamens united to form a tube ; anthers 15, resem-
bling furrows.   Stigmas 3.  Berry 3-celled, or  by abortion 1-celled; cells 1- or 2-
seeded.  Embryo (according  to  Gaertner,  but  perhaps an error) surrounded by
fleshy albumen, curved, with linear cotyledons. (De Cand.)
   Sp. Char.—The only species.
   A tree, growing from  10  to 50  feet high.  Leaves  alternate, shining, obovate,
cuneate at the base, coriaceous and opake when old, dotted when young.  Flowers
small, clustered,  purple.   Berry  the size of a pea, fleshy, smooth, blue or black.3
   Hab.—West Indies and continent of America.
   Description.—The canella bark of the shops (cortex canellse albse), sometimes
termed on the continent  costus dulcis or costus corlicosus, is the inner  bark of the
stem and branches.   It occurs  in quills or broken pieces, which are hard, somewhat
twisted, of a yellowish-white or pale orange-colour, somewhat  lighter on the inter-
nal  surface, and  have an aromatic  clove-like odour, an acrid peppery taste, and  a
white granular fracture.
   J. Bauhin and others have confounded it with Winter's bark;  hence it has been
denominated spurious Winter's  bark (cortex Winteranus spurius).   The pale colour
of its inner surface is one out of several physical characters by which the two barks
may be distinguished.   Chemically they may  be distinguished by nitrate of  baryta
and  sulphate of iron, both of which cause precipitates  in  the infusion of Winter's
bark, but not in that of canella.4
   Composition.—Canella bark was analyzed, in 1820, by Henry ;5 and in 1823,
by Petroz and Robinet.6
i Hufeland's Journ. Bd. v. S. 12.              a Exot. lib. iv. cap. i. p. 75, and cap. iii. p. 78.
' Swartz, Trans. Linn. Soc. i. 96.              4 Journ. de Pharm. t. v. p. 481.
• Ibid.                                  • Op. cit. vol. viii. p. 197. 
972             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Aurantiaceje.
Henry's Analysis.	Petroz and Robinet's Analysis.
Volatile oil.	Volatile oil.
Aromatic resin.	Resin.
Brownish-yellow colouring matter.	Bitter extractive.
Extractive.	Canellin.
Gum.	Gum.
Starch.	Starch.
Albumen.	Albumen.
Lignin.	Lignin. Salts.
Salts.	
Canella Bark.	Canella Bark.
  1. Volatile Oil of Canella Bark—According to Cartheuser, it is dark yellow, fluid, and
heavier than water.  It has an acrid taste.
  2. Resin.—Henry found this constituent to be aromatic, but not acrid.
  3. Bitter Extractive.—Brown, very bitter, not crystallizable.  Soluble in alcohol, ether,
and slightly in water.
  4. Canellin—(Mannite?).—A crystallizable, saccharine substance, incapable of undergoing
the  vinous fermentation.
  Physiological  Effects.—Canella bark is  an aromatic  stimulant  and tonic.
Its  aromatic qualities  depend on the oil and resin; its tonic properties on its bitter
principle.   As an aromatic, it ranks between cinnamon and cloves.
  Uses.—In  this country it is  employed  principally as an  aromatic  addition to
purgatives  and tonics, as  Vinum aloes, and Tinctura gentianse composita, E.,  and
Vinum gentianse, E.;  and is well adapted for debilitated  conditions of the digestive
organs.   [The Pulvis aloes cum canella, of former pharmacopoeias, was, and still is,
a very favourite popular remedy.—Ed.]
  By the Caribs (the ancient natives of the Antilles) and the negroes of the West
Indies it is employed  as a condiment.   It has been considered useful in scurvy.
  Administration.—Dose of  the  powder, grs. x to 3ss.
         GENTIAXE, E.;  Wine of  Gentian.—(Gentian, in  coarse powder,  ^ss;
Yellow Bark, in coarse powder, £j ; Bitter Orange-peel, dried and sliced, 3ij; Ca-
nella, in coarse  powder, 3j; Proof  Spirit fgivss;  Sherry  Oj, and fjxvj.   Digest
the root and barks for twenty-four hours in the spirit; add the wine, and digest for
seven days more;  strain and express the residuum  strongly, and filter the liquors.)
—Wine of  gentian is an aromatic tonic,  useful  in  dyspepsia  and  anorexia.   It is
apt to  become acetous by keeping.—The  dose of it is f|ss to f^j.
Order LXXIV.  AURANTIACEiE,   Correct.—THE  ORANGE

                                    TRIBE.

  Characters.-Calyx  urceolate or campanulate, somewhat adhering  to the disk, short, 3- or
5-toothed, withering.  Petals 3 to 5, broad at the base, sometimes distinct, sometimes slightly
combined, inserted  upon the  outside of a hypogynous  disk, slightly imbricated  at the edges.
Stamens equal in  number to the  petals, or twice as many, or some multiple of their number
inserted upon a hypogynous disk; filaments flattened at the base, sometimes distinct, sometimes
combined in one or several parcels ; anthers terminal, innate.  Ovary many-celled • style 1 taper •
stigma  slightly divided, thickish.  Fruit pulpy, many-celled, with a leathery rind, replete with
receptacles of volatile oil, and sometimes separable from the cells; cells often filled with pulp
Seeds attached to  the  axis,  sometimes numerous, sometimes  solitary, usually pendulous occa-
sionally containing more embryos than one ; raphe and chalaza usually very distinctly marked-
embryo  straight; cotyledons thick, fleshy; plumule conspicuous.—Trees or shrubs, almost always
smooth, and filled everywhere with little transparent receptacles of volatile  oil.   Leaves alter-
nate, often compound always articulated with the petiole, which is frequently winged. Spines,
if present, axillary (Lindley).                                             a      r    >
  Properties.-^ tlie bark, leaves flowers, and rind of the fruit, are numerous vesicular or
rounded reservoirs, which contain a highly fragrant volatile oil.  Pulp of the fruit acidulous and
*clrlg6rcint. 
Citron Tree:—History; Botany;  Description;  Effects and Uses.  973
      317. CITRUS MEDICA, Risso, E}- THE CITRON TREE.
                          Sex. Syst. Polyadelphia, Polyandria.

   History.—The fruit of this species is supposed to be the pJipxov pijtiixbv of Theo-
phrastus.3  Pliny3 calls it malum citreum.   It is probable  the citron is referred to
in the Old Testament on several occasions,* where, in our translation, the word apple
has been employed.5
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—Flowers  usually with  a  quinary proportion of parts.
Calyx urceolate, 3- to 5-cleft.  Petals 5 to 8.   Stamens  20 to 60; filaments com-
pressed, more  or  less  united at  the base,  polyadelphous;  anthers  oblong.   Style
terete;  stigma  hemispherical.  Fruit baccate, 7- to
12-celled; cells many-seeded, pulpy.   Spermoderms            FlS- 404-
(seed coats) membranous; auricles of the  cotyledons
very short.  (De Cand.)—Trees or shrubs, with axil-
lary spines.   Leaves reduced  to one terminal leaflet
at the apex of the petiole, often winged.   The rind
of the fruit is regarded by De Candolle as a kind of
torus, by Dr.  Lindley as the union of the epicarp and
sarcocarp.  In the  external  yellow portion (flavedo
or zeste) of it are  the rounded or vesicular receptacles
containing volatile  oil;  the  inner white  portion  is
spongy.   The cells of the fruit are  filled with small
pulpy bags, readily separable from each  other, and
containing  the  acid   juice.   Seeds  ex-albuminous,
marked externally with the raphe; inner coat stained
at one extremity,  indicating the place of the chalaza.
   Sp. Char.—Petioles naked.   Leaves oblong, acute.
Floicers with  40 anthers, often without pistils.  Fruit          Citrus medica.
oblong, rugous, with a  thick rind  and acidulous pulp.
(De Cand.)— Tree.   Young branches violet.   Leaves subserrate.   Petals externally
purplish.  Fruit  large, violet-red when young, fine  yellow when mature;  its rind
adherent, with an agreeable odour.  Risso8 enumerates three varieties.
   Hab.—A native of Asia.   Cultivated in  the South of Europe.
   Description, &c.—The fruit of this  tree  is  the  citron (malum  citreum).   It
sometimes attains a weight of more than 20 lbs.   Those fruits which preserve their
pistilla are called  pitima.  Risso  says they are sought after by the Jews, who sus-
pend them to palms  at  the  Feast of  the Tabernacle.   The  flavedo of  the citron
abounds in volatile oil, which  may be  obtained either  by expression or distillation.
The leaves, as also the flowers, of the citron-tree, yield a volatile oil by distillation.7
The leaves are interposed between linen,  to  which they communicate  a fragrant
odour;  moreover, they are said to keep away insects.
  Two volatile oils, known respectively as the essence or essential oil of citron, and  the essence or
essential oil of cedra, are employed in  perfumery.  Both are highly fragrant, almost colourless,
and lighter than water.  They are distinguished  by  their odour ;  that of the essence of cedra
combining the odours of citron and bergamot.  These two oils are usually confounded by phar-
macological writers.  From  their apparent  freedom  from mucilage, I presume both have been
procured  by distillation.   The composition of one of these has been ascertained by Dumas,8 to
be identical with that of the essential oil of lemons, viz. C'°H8.
   Physiological Effects and  Uses.—Analogous  to  those of  the orange and
lemon.   The  fruit is seldom brought to the table in the raw state, but it yields some
 1 In tlie Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia of 1839, and also in that of 1841, Lemons are referred to Citrus medica,
Risso (De Cand.).  This is an error.
 2 Hist. Plant, i. 22. and iv. 4.                  * Hist. Nat. xv. 14, ed. Valp.
 4 Cant. ii. vii. and viii.; Joel, I.                • Carpenter, Script. Nat. Hist.
 • Ann. du Mus. d'Hist. Nat. xx.                ' Raybaud, Journ. de Pharm. Aout, 1831, p. 437.
 • Traiti de Chimie, v. 672. 
974             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Aurantiace.e.
excellent preserves and sweetmeats.   The juice is employed to flavour punch  and
negus.  It forms, with sugar and water, a  refreshing refrigerant beverage.   The
essential oil is used in perfumery, and may be employed in medicine for scenting.
 318. CITRUS BERG-AMIA, iJmo.-THE  BERGAMOT  CITRUS.
                                Citrus limetta, E.
                         Sex. Syst.  Polyadelphia, Polyandria.
                        (Volatile oil of the rind of the fruit, E.)

  Botany.  Gen. Char.—See  Citrus medica.
  Sp. Char—Leaves oblong, more  or less elongated,  acute  or obtuse, underside
somewhat pale.  Petiole more or less winged or margined.  Flowers usually small,
white.  Fruit pale yellow, pyriform or depressed; rind with concave receptacles of
oil;  pulp more or less acid (Wight and Arnott).
  Hab.—Cultivated  in the South of Europe.
  Description.—The volatile  oil or essence  of bergamot (oleum bergamii, oleum
bergamotse), imported from the South of Europe, is procured  from the rind of the
fruit.  It may be obtained either by expression (as the volatile oil of lemons) or by
distillation.1  It is pale greenish-yellow, with a remarkable odour, and a sp. gr. of
0.885.   Its composition is identical with that of oil of lemons, being C10H8.
  Uses.—Oil of bergamot is employed as a perfume only.  It is a useful odorife-
rous adjunct to unguents.


 319. CITRUS LIMONUM,  Risso, L. E. ZX2-THE LEMON TREE.
(Fructus cortex exterior;  Oleum volatile e fructus cortice expressum; Succus recens et exsiccatus, L.
               Fruit; Rind of the fruit; Volatile oil of the rind of the fruit, E.
                 Fructus succus, tunica exterior et ejus oleum volatile,  D.)
Fig. 405.
      Citrus Limonum.
a. Flower.  6. Fruit divided.
   History.—It is supposed  that the
Greeks and Romans were unacquainted
with the orange and lemon, which only
became known to Europeans at the time
of the Crusades.3  This supposition re-
ceives confirmation from the fact, " that
the Persian and Arabian authors do not,
as is their wont, give any  Greek syno-
nyme of either, but of the citron, which
is supposed to have been known to the
Romans."*
  Botany.   Gen.  Char.—See Citrus
medica.
  Sp. Char—Young branches  flexible.
Leaves oval or oblong, usually  toothed.
Petiole  simply  margined.    Flowers
white, tinged with red.   Fruit yellow,
ovoid or rarely globular; terminated
by a more or less elongated knob; rind
with convex  vesicles of  oil;  pulp acid
(Wight and Arnott).
  Hab—A native of Asia (Himalaya,
Royle;  Persia, Risso).   Cultivated in
the South of Europe.
   Description, Composition,   Pro.
1 Raynaud, Journ. de Pharm. Aout, 1834.
3 In the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, limes are erroneously referred to this species.
' Macfadyen, in Hooker's Bot. Miscel. vol. i. p. 299.                   * Royle
Illustr. p. 130. 
    Lemon Tree:—Description;  Composition; Properties and Uses.  975

 PERTIES, and Uses.—Lemons (limones) are imported from Spain, Portugal, Italy,
 and the Azores, packed in chests, each lemon being separately rolled in paper. The
 Spanish lemons are most esteemed.   We employ in medicine both the rind and  ihe
juice.
   1. Lemon Peel ( Cortex Limonum, L. E. D.).—The flavedo (flavedo corticis limo-
 num) is pale yellow and rough.   By drying, its  colour deepens.  Its taste  is aro-
 matic and bitter ; its odour, which is owing to the volatile oil lodged  in appropriate
 receptacles,  is strong  and  peculiar.  The  inner  portion  of the cortex is  white,
 Bpongy, and almost  both odourless and tasteless.   The flavedo yields, both by dis-
 tillation and expression, a volatile oil (essential oil of lemons).   A watery  infusion
 of lemon peel becomes greenish-brown on the addition of the sesquichloride of iron.
   Lemon peel has not been  regularly analyzed, though  some of its constituents
 have  been examined.   It  contains  volatile oil, hesperidin, a bitter principle, and
 gallic acid.
   1. Volatile Oil.—(See p. 977.)
  2. Hesperidin.—A crystallizable,neutral, resinous (?) principle, which resides in the white
 portion of the rind of the fruit of the genus  Citrus.  It  has the form of silky needles, which
 are odourless and tasteless, when pure, though  they  usually possess slight bitterness,  probably
 from the presence  of another  principle.  It is fusible, slightly soluble in water, but more so in
 alcohol; insoluble in ether, and the oils, both fixed and volatile.  Oil of vitriol  reddens it.1
   3. Bitter Matter (Auranliin).—This is referred to the class of substances  vaguely denomi-
 nated extractive.  It is the presence of this substance which enables  an aqueous solution of
 impure hesperidin to form a reddish-brown precipitate with the persalts of iron.  It frequently
 contains traces of gallic acid.
   Lemon peel is a grateful stomachic and aromatic.   It is employed more  as a fla-
 vouring ingredient than for its own proper effects.  It is a constituent of the Infu-
 sum  gentianse compositum, and of the Infusum  aurantii compositum.   Candied
 lemon peel (cortex limonum conditus) is an agreeable stomachic, and is employed as
 a dessert and in confectionery.
   2. Lemon Juice (Succus Limonum, L. [U. S-] ).—A slightly turbid, very sour
 liquor, with a grateful  flavour, obtained from  lemons  by expression and straining.
 Owing to the mucilage and extractive which it contains, it readily undergoes de-
 composition, though various methods have been proposed of preserving it.   On this
 account, an artificial lemon juice has been proposed as a substitute.  The juice, both
 of  lemons and limes (the  fruit of  Citrus  Lima,  Macfadyen, or C. acida, Rox-
 burgh), is extensively  imported.   In 1839, duty of  one halfpenny per gallon was
 paid on 37,338 gallons of these juices.  In the West Indies lime juice, is preferred
 to lemon juice.
   According to Proust, lemon juice consists of citric acid, 1.77 ; malic acid, gum,
 and bitter extractive, 0.72 ;  and water, 97.51.   Lime juice contains the same  ingre-
 dients, in somewhat different proportions: the quantity of citric acid in it is larger
 while that of mucilage, &c. is less.
  Citric Acid.—(See ante, p. 947.)
   Lemon juice furnishes a  most agreeable and  refreshing  beverage, and proves re-
 frigerant and antiscorbutic.   It is employed for several purposes, as follows :—
   o. In the preparation of refrigerant drinks.—It may be  either added to barley-
 water, or mixed  with  sugar and  water to form lemonade.   The latter may be ex-
 temporaneously made,  by adding two lemons sliced, and  two ounces of sugar, to
 two pints of boiling  water,  and digesting until  cold.   A similar  beverage is called,
 by  Mr. Brande,3 King's Cup.   These acidulated drinks are exceedingly useful for
 allaying thirst, and as  refrigerants in febrile and inflammatory complaints, and  in
 hemorrhages.  In  the  latter maladies, iced  lemonade should be preferred.  WheTe
 there is nausea or a tendency to sickness, effervescent lemonade is  useful.   " Lemon-
 ade, as a beverage  in putrid diseases, was first introduced by the  French physicians
 in the beginning of the seventeenth century; and about the year 1660, an Italian
1 Hehreton, Journ. de Pharm. xiv. 377.
a Diet, of Pharm. 341. 
976
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Aurantiaceje.
 from Florence, having learnt a process of freezing confectionery, conceived the happy
 idea of converting such beverage into ice.   This found a ready sale, and was  the
 occasion of so great an increase in the number of sellers of lemonade,  that, in  the
 year 1660, the Lemonadiers of Paris were formed into a company, and received a
 patent from the Government.1
   ji. In the formation of the effervescing draught.—The effervescing draught, made
 with lemon juice (or citric acid) and bicarbonate of potash, is one of the best reme-
 dies we possess for allaying sickness and  vomiting.  The citrate of potash, which
 is formed, is a mild diaphoretic and diuretic, and often allays restlessness and watch-
 fulness in  fever.   It is adapted for lithic acid deposits ; but, like other remedies of
 the same class, is sometimes objectionable in phosphatic deposits. When  our object is
 to determine to the skin, an effervescing draught, composed of  lemon juice or citric
 acid and sesquicarbonate of ammonia, is to be preferred.   The relative proportions
 of the  alkaline  carbonates, and of lemon juice or citric acid, for the formation of
 effervescing draughts, is as follows :—
              Citric Acid. Lemon Juice.            A Scruple of the Alkali.
               Grains 14 or fsiiiss.......  Bicarbonate of Potash.
               Grains 17 or f3iv........  Carbonate of Potash.
               Grains 24 or fsvj.........  Sesquicarbonate of Ammonia.

   Effervescing draughts are exceedingly valuable vehicles for the exhibition of
 other remedies.
   y. As an Antiscorbutic.—Lemon juice has long  been regarded  as an invaluable
 antiscorbutic; but  on  account of  the  difficulty of preserving  it, crystallized citric
 acid is usually substituted.   " Those only," says Sir Gilbert  Blane,3  " who have
 made themselves acquainted with the early part of the naval  history of this coun-
 try,  or those who have perused the  interesting, popular, and eloquent  narrative of
 Commodore Anson's  voyage, can duly appreciate the value of this simple remedy."
 Yet, on hypothetical grounds, Dr. Stevens3 ventures  to assert that citric acid pro-
 duces scurvy!
   8. As an Antidote.—In poisoning  by the alkalies and their carbonates, the vege-
 table acids are the antidotes;  and  the most convenient, easily procurable acidulous
 substances are, in general, vinegar and lemon juice.
   £. As an Anti-narcotic.—In poisoning by  narcotic substances, as opium, lemon
juice may be administered, after the poison has  been removed from  the  stomach, to
 counteract the effects.
   [In  Rheumatism.—Lemon  juice has  been recommended as a remedy in acute
 rheumatism and gout by Dr. Owen Rees, and has  been used with success by many
 practitioners, not only  in  this country, but  in  Italy, France,  and  America.  Dr.
 Rees considers the citric acid to undergo  changes  in the stomach, and to supply
 oxygen to  such elements as tend  to  produce  uric  acid, and thereby to induce the
formation of urea and carbonic acid instead.—Ed.]
   f. Other Uses.—Several of  the medicinal uses of lemon  juice can only receive a
passing notice.   Such  are, the  employment of it, with common salt, in dysentery,
remittent fever, bellyache, and putrid sore-throat as recommended by Dr. Wright-4
its use in cardialgia, by Dr. Dewees; and in syphilis, by Dr. Rollo.  As a topical
remedy for uterine^ hemorrhage, after delivery, Dr. Evratt5 recommends that a cut
peeled  lemon  be introduced  into  the  uterus, and  the juice there expressed.  It
causes  uterine contractions, by which the juice  is  expelled and the hemorrhage
stopped.   In hospital gangrene, Dr. Werneck6 applied, with good effect, in the first
stage of the disease, either lint soaked in lemon juice, or segments of lemons.
  Administration.—The mode of  employing  lemons will be obvious from the
preceding remarks.
i Dr. Paris, Pharmacol. 6th edit. ii. 301.
2 Select Dissert, p. 8, 1822; see also Observ. on the Diseases incident to Seamen     » On th, Blnnd
• Memoir of the late Dr. Wright, p. 322.                ,Arch GfL  Tf\Ul1 ian. . ?<£/   ,??"
• Dierbach, A'e«Mt. Entd. in d. Mat. Med. 3te Abt. S. 512, 1S28               JaDV- 1&25' P" M1 
Lemon Tree :—Uses.
977
  1. OLEUM  L1M0M1I, L. E. D. [U. S.];  Essential Oil of Lemon Peel;  Essence  of
Lemons.—This oil is usually procured by expression, as follows: the flavedo of the
lemons is removed by rasping, and is afterwards expressed in hair sacks.   The oil
which is  thus procured is received in flasks, where it deposits some of its impurities,
and is then decanted and filtered.1  Baum6a says the rasped flavedo is pressed between
glass plates.   Expressed oil of lemons is  somewhat turbid, and liable to undergo
change by keeping, owing to the mucilaginous matter which it contains in solution.
Oil of lemons may be procured  also  by distillation ;  and the oil thus procured is
pure, not disposed to undergo change by keeping, and is employed, under the name
of scouring  drops, for removing grease spots from silks and other textures; but its
flavour is less pleasant  and  sweet.   The greater part of the oil of  commerce  is
brought  from Portugal and Italy; some, however, is procured from France.  When
quite pure,  it  is  colourless, limpid,  and of a fragrant odour, like that of lemons.
Its sp. gr. at 70° F. is 0.847.   It is  soluble in all  proportions in anhydrous alco-
hol, and  it boils at about 145° F.   When the commercial oil  is exposed to a tem-
perature  of —4°  F.  it deposits white crystals, the nature  of which is not  known;
the rectified oil remains perfectly liquid and transparent at this  temperature.  Oil
of lemons is composed of two isomeric oils, one (citrene, Dumas;  citronyle, Blanchet
and Sell) capable of forming, with hydrochloric acid, a crystalline compound (com-
posed of  C10H8-fHCl); the other (citryle) not forming any crystalline compound with
this acid.   The composition of the oil of lemons is C10H8; i.  e. it  is identical with
that of the  oil of turpentine, savin, copaiva, bergamot, and citron.3
   Oil of essence of  lemons possesses the stimulant properties of  the milder volatile
oils, and  is denominated carminative and diaphoretic. In full  doses, it is said to be
apt to occasion headache and giddiness.  Its principal use is for  communicating an
agreeable odour and flavour to other medicines.   It may be taken as a carminative,
in the dose  of a few drops, on sugar (elseosaccharum limonum).   As a perfume, it
is an exceedingly useful adjunct to sulphur ointment, and  to evaporating  lotions.
To this,  as to some other volatile oils (see oleum rosmarini), has been ascribed the
power of promoting the growth of the hair, and, in consequence, it has been added
to pomatum.  More recently, it has been  employed as a stimulant application  in
various external  inflammations of the eye.   It  was  first used in these diseases by
Dr. Worlitz,* who applied  it  by squeezing  the little drops of oil from the rind  of
the lemon into the eye.   He used it with good effect  in  rheumatic, catarrhal, and
scrofulous inflammations of the eye, in pannus  and  pterygium, and in opacity and
some other  consequences of inflammation of the cornea.  It  has since  been tried
by Mr. Foote,5 at the Ophthalmic Hospital, who dropped the oil into the eye in the
same way that the vinum opii is applied.   In some cases  it caused excessive pain.
He thinks  it preferable  to  the vinum opii, in all cases where  a  stimulant is re-
quired.
   2. SYRUPUS  LIMONUM,  L. E. [Syrupus  Limonis, U. S.]j   Syrup of Lemons.—
(Lemon  juice,  strained [and freed from  impurities by subsidence, E.~], Oj ; Sugar
ifeiiss [Rectified Spirit giiss, L.~\.  [Boil the juice for ten minutes, and strain; add
the sugar to this, and dissolve.  Lastly, when the syrup is cold, add the spirit.—
The Edinburgh College dissolves the sugar in the juice, allows  subsidence, skims,
and pours off the clear liquor.—The Dublin. College has now a  substitute  for this
syrup, which  is  called Syrupus Acidi Citrici, made as  follows: Citric Acid,  in
powder, Distilled Water, of each ^hss; Tincture of Lemon Peel 3v;  Simple Syrup
Oiij.  The acid is dissolved in the water, and the solution added to the syrup and
tincture.—Ed.]   Refrigerant.   An  agreeable adjunct to diluent drinks, as barley-
water, in febrile and inflammatory complaints, and to gargles.—Dose,  f 3J to f3iv.
  1 Henry and Guibourt, Pharm. Raison. 2eme edit. t. i. p. 284.       » Elim. de Pharm. t. i. p. 486.
  ' For some interesting observations on this and some other oils of this order, see Soubeiran and Capitaine,
Journ. de Pharm. xxvi. p. 1 and 66.
  * Dierbach, Neuest. Endt. in d. Mat. Med. Bd. i. S. 78,1837; also Lond. Med. and Phys. Journ. for
1S30, new series, vol. viii. p. 366.
  • Trans, of the Med. Bot. Soc. for 1632—3, p. 73.    *
       vol. ii.—62 
978
VEGETABLES.—Xat. Ord. Aurantiaceje.
320.  CITRUS AURANTIUM, Risso, L. E. D.-THE  COMMON OR
                      SWEET  ORANGE  TREE.
                         Sex. Syst. Polyadelphia, Polyandria.
(Fructus; Fructus cortex exterior; Flores; Oleum e floribus destillatum, I,.-Distil!ed water of the
   flowers; Volatile oil of the flowers, £.—Fructus succus et tunica exterior ; Flores; Folia, D.)
  History.—It is somewhat uncertain when  the sweet orange became known to
                                                    Europe.  The bitter orange,
                     Fig. 406.                        as  well as the lemon,  was
                                                    known  during  the  middle
                                                    ages, but the sweet  orange
                                                    is  supposed  not  to have
                                                    been introduced until a pe-
                                                    riod after this.1
                                                      Botany.—Gen. Char.—
                                                    See Citrus medica.
                                                      Sp. Char.—Leaves oval,
                                                    elongated, acute,  sometimes
                                                    slightly  toothed ;   petiole
                                                    more  or  less dilated  and
                                                    winged.   Flowers   white,
                                                    large.  Fruit orange-colour-
                                                    ed, roundish or ovoid, usu-
                                                    ally  depressed,  rarely  ter-
                                                    minated by  a small knob;
                                                    rind with  convex  vesicles
                                                    of  oil; pulp  sweet  (Wight
                                                    and Arnott).—A great num-
                                                    ber of sorts is known to  gar-
                                                    deners.  The China orange
                                                    is  the  common   orange of
                                                    the markets and of the Por-
                                                    tuguese.  The St. Michael's
                                                    orange  is a small  seedless
                                                    variety.    The   blood-red
                                                    orange has a reddish-yellow
                                                    fruit,  with a pulp  irregu-
                                                    larly mottled with crimson.
                                                       Hab.—Asia ;   probably
                                                    China.  Cultivated  in  the
                                                    South of Europe, the Azores,
                                                    and the West Indies.
                                                      Description.---Orange
                                                    haves  (folia aurantii) are
feebly bitter.  Their watery infusion is greenish and somewhat bitter.   They  con-
tain a fragrant volatile oil, which is procured  by distillation, and is called, in the
shops, essence de petit grain.   Orange flowers (flores aurantii seu  naphse), when
fresh, are white.   They are sometimes exported from  the South of Europe, strati-
fied with common  salt in barrels (Risso).   Dried orange flowers are  yellowish, and
have an agreeable  odour, which is less powerful than that of the fresh flowers.  By
distillation, orange flowers yield a fragrant volatile oil (oleum Neroli;  oleum au-
rantii).  The small green fruits (fructus immatwrus  aurantii) which fall during
the great heats of  the summer, are carefully collected  and dried.  They  as well as
the unripe fruit  of the next species [citrus vulgaris}, form the orange berries (lacca
aurantii) of the shops.   Their size does not exceed that of a cherry; their colour
                  Citrus Aurantium.

1. Flower. 2. A set of Stamens.  3. Section of Ovary.  4. Sec-
                    tion of Fruit.
1 Macfadyen, Bot. Miscell. i. 302. 
                       Bitter Orange Tree :—History.                   979

is dark-grayish or greenish-brown;  they have an aromatic odour and a bitter taste.
They are used for flavouring  Curacoa.  When smoothed by a lathe, they constitute
the issue peas of the shops : they are preferred to ordinary peas for keeping up the
discharge of an issue, on account of their pleasant odour.   An infusion of orange
berries  is  rendered green by  the  sesquichloride of  iron.   By  distillation these
berries yield a fragrant oil (the original essence de petit grain).   The  ripe fruit,
or the orange (aurantium ; poma aurantiorum), is imported in chests  and boxes,
each orange being separately packed in paper.  The  best  come from  the Azores
and Spain ; very good ones are  also brought from Portugal,  Italy, and other places.
The rind is sometimes employed as a substitute for the rind of  the bitter orange.
It yields, by distillation,  a fragrant volatile oil (essential oil of sweet orange).
   Composition.—1. Orange Flowers were  analyzed by Boullay,1 and found  to
contain volatile oil, bitter extractive, gum, acetic acid, and acetate of lime.
   2.  Orange Berries were analyzed,  in 1828, by Lebreton,2 who found their  con-
stituents to be as follows :   Volatile oil, sulphur,  chlorophylle, fatty matter, hespe-
ridin, bitter astringent matter, with  some traces  of gallic  acid, citric  and malic
acids, citrates and malates of lime and potash,  gum, albumen,  lignin, mineral
salts, and  traces of iron and silica.   Widemann3 obtained  a crystalline substance
analogous to, but yet different from, hesperidin.
   3. Orange Peel has not been analyzed; but its composition is, doubtless, analo-
gous to that of lemon peel.
   4. Orange Juice  consists of citric acid, malic acid, mucilage,  albumen, sugar,
citrate tflime, and water.
   1. Volatile Oils from the Sweet Orange Tree.—The volatile oils obtained from tho
leaves, flowers, and fruit rind of the sweet orange tree, agree, in  their  essential chemical cha-
racters, with each other, with the corresponding oils obtained from the bitter orange, and with
the volatile oil of lemons.  They differ principally in their odour.
  The oi7 of sweet orange kept in the perfumers' shops, is obtained by distillation with water
from the rind of the fruit.
  The other volatile oils of this species are not distinguished in English commerce from  those
of the next species.
  2. Hesperidin.
  3. Bitter principle (Aurantiin).
  4. Widemann's Crystalline Matter.—Obtained from unripe oranges.  It is distinguished
from Hesperidin by its very distinct prismatic crystallization, by its insolubility in water, and
by its not forming oxalic acid with nitric acid.
   Physiological Effects and Uses.—Sweet Orange Peel is an aromatic stimu-
lant and tonic analogous to lemon peel, and is occasionally employed as a substitute
for the  bitter  orange peel.   " Large quantities of it are sometimes productive of
mischief, especially in children, in whom colic, and even convulsions, are sometimes
induced by it.   We  have known the  case of a child, in which  death resulted  from
eating the  rind of an orange."4
   Orange Juice is a refreshing and grateful  beverage, and is extensively used at
the table.  In febrile and inflammatory complaints,  it is  a valuable refrigerant;
—allaying thirst and diminishing preternatural heat.

  321. CITRUS BIGARADIA, Risso, L.  E. D.-THE BIGARADE, OR
                        BITTER ORANGE TREE.
                            Sex. Syst.  Polyadelphia, Polyandria.
    (Fructus cortex exterior, L.—Distilled waters of the flowers; Rind of the Fruit; Volatile oil of
                                 the flowers, E. D.)

   History.—The bitter orange became known to Europe  during  the middle  ages.
All the old established orange groves of Spain, as those at Seville, planted by the
Moors,  are of  the  bitter  orange.5
1 Bull, de Pharm. i. 337.
* Ibid. xvi. 707.
* Macfadyen, in Hookor's Bot. Miscsll. i. 302.
1 Journ. de Pharm. xiv. 377.
4 United States Dispensatory. 
980
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Atjrantiace.e.
Citrus Bigaradia.
             Fig. 407.                 Botany. Gen. Char__See Citrus medica.
                                      Sp. Char.—Leaves elliptical, acute, or  acu-
                                    minated, slightly toothed.   Petiole more or less
                                    winged.  Flowers large, white.   Fruit orange-
                                    coloured, roundish, or slightly elongated or de-
                                    pressed;  rind  with  concave  vesicles  of oil;
                                    pulp acid and  bitter (Wight and Arnott).
                                      Numerous  varieties  of this  are  cultivated.
                                    One  of these yields the  fruit  known in  the
                                    English market as the Seville Orange.
                                      Hab.—Asia.   Cultivated in  Europe.
                                      Description.—The leaves of this  species,
                                    when rubbed,  emit  a very  agreeable  odour.
                                    Distilled with water, they yield a bitter, aro-
                                    matic water,  known  in  Languedoc  as  eau  de
                                    naphre (aqua naphse).   At the same operation
                                    is procured a volatile oil, called the essence  de
petit  grain, of  finer quality than that obtained from  the leaves  of  the sweet
orange.   The  flowers  yield  by distillation with  water, orange-flower water (aqua
aurantii, Ph. Ed.) and oil of Neroli (oleum aurantii, Ph. Ed.) of finer quality than
the corresponding preparations obtained from the flowers of the sweet orange.   The
unripe fruits, like those of the sweet orange, are called orange-berries, and are em-
ployed for the purposes before  mentioned.   The Seville orange is round and dark,
and has an uneven, rugged, very  bitter rind (bitter orange peel; cortex aurantii,
Ph. L. and Ed.), which is employed for  medical  purposes  as well as in  the prepa-
ration of candied orange peel, and for flavouring the liquor called  Curacoa.
   Composition.—The composition of the leaves, flowers,  and fruit of the bitter
orange is  doubtless analogous  to that  of  the corresponding parts of the sweet
orange.
   1. Oil of Orange-Leaf ; Essence de  petit grain.—The term essence de petit grain was origi-
nally applied to the volatile oil of the" orange-berry, which, however, readily underwent decom-
position.  It is now used  to indicate the volatile oil obtained from the leaves both of the bitter
and sweet orange.  That procured from the bitter orange is of better quality than that from the
sweet.
   2. Oil of Orange-Flower; Oil of Neroli (Oleum Aurantii).—Procured from the flowers of both
the bitter and sweet orange;  but that from  the former is preferred.  It is  obtained  by submit-
ting the flowers, with water, to distillation ; and it is found floating on the water in the receiver.
It has an aromatic and fragrant odour, somewhat different from that of the  flower.  "It appears
to me," says Soubeiran,1 " to  be a product of the alteration of the natural essential oil.  The
latter is more soluble than the neroli oil, and remains in solution in the water. Its presence
may be demonstrated by agitating the distilled water with ether deprived of alcohol.  By spon-
taneous evaporation, the ethereal solution leaves behind an essential oil, which has absolutely
the same odour as the flowers, and which dissolves in water."  Oil of neroli, furnished me  by
one of the most respectable importers as genuine oil, has a reddish colour.  I am informed that
the essence de petit grain is frequently substituted for it.
   3. Oil of the Rind of the Bitter  Orange.—This is sold by perfumers as essential oil of
bitter orange.   It has a considerable resemblance to the oil of the sweet orange.
   Physiological  Effects and  Uses.—The rind of  the Seville orange being
considerably more bitter than that of the sweet orange, is  to  be regarded as more
stomachic and  tonic.  Its uses are  the same.   Its principal value is as a flavouring
agent.

   1. INFUSUM AURANTII COMPOSITUM, L. D.;  Infusum Aurantii, D.;  Compound In-
fusion of Orange Peel—(Bitter Orange  Peel,  dried, gss [3iij, D.]  [Lemon  Peel
5ij, L.]; Cloves, bruised, 3j [3ss, D.];  Boiling  [distilled] Water Oj  [Oss,D.].
Digest for a quarter  of an hour in a vessel lightly  covered, and  strain [through
linen or calico, E.;  infuse for half an  hour, />.].)—An agreeable  stomachic.  It is
ATo«v. Traiti de Pharm. i.454. 
             Bitter Orange Tree:—Syrup; Tincture; Water.         981

an excellent vehicle for tbe exhibition of various other medicines, as saline purga-
tives, ammonia, bitter tinctures, &c.—Dose, f^j  to f^ij.
   2. CONFECTIO AURANTII, L.;  Conserva Aurantii, E. [Confectio Aurantii Corticis,
U. S.];  Confection  of  Orange Peel.—(Orange Peel, separated by a  rasp, Ibj;
Sugar Ibiij.  Beat the rind in a stone mortar with a wooden pestle; then, the sugar
being added, again beat them, until they are thoroughly incorporated, L.—Grate off
the rind of bitter oranges, and beat it into a pulp, adding gradually thrice its weight
of white sugar, E.)—An agreeable stomachic.  Employed as an adjunct to bitter
and  purgative powders, which are to be formed into electuaries.  It is a good vehicle
for the exhibition of the  sesquioxide of iron.

   I SYRUPUS AURANTII, L. E. D.;  Syrup of Orange Peel—(Dried Bitter Orange
Peel |iiss;  Boiling Water Oj;  Pure Sugar Ibiij  [Rectified  Spirit |iiss, L.V
Macerate the peel  in the water for twelve hours, in a vessel  lightly covered; boil
for ten  minutes, strain  the liquor,  and  proceed as for the Syrupus Althaeae,  L.
[add the sugar, and dissolve with the aid of heat, E.~\.)—To avoid the volatilization
of the essential oil, as  little heat  as possible should be employed in the process.
The Dublin College orders as  much sugar  as may  be necessary.  An  equally
agreeable and efficacious syrup may be prepared by adding f 3j of tincture of orange
peel to Oj of simple syrup.   Syrup of orange  peel is stomachic, but its principal
use  is for flavouring.  Dose, f 3j to f3iij.
   4. TINCTURA AURANTII, L. E. D.; Tincture  of  Orange  Pee?.—(Bitter  Orange
Peel, dried, Jiiiss [^iv D.~\; Proof Spirit Oij.   Macerate for seven [fourteen, D.~\
days [and express strongly, E.V and filter the liquor.  " This tincture may be pre-
pared by percolation, by cutting the peel into  small fragments, macerating it in a
little of  the  spirit for twelve hours, and beating the mass into a coarse pulp before
putting it into the percolator," E.)   This  tincture is an agreeable stomachic, and is
principally employed as a flavouring adjunct to decoctions and infusions (tonic or
purgative), effervescing mixtures, &c.  Dose, f3J to f^iij.

   6. AQUA FLORIS AURANTII, L.; Aqua Aurantii, E.; Orange-flower Water.—[This
preparation is now removed  to the  Materia Medica of the London Pharmacopoeia.
—Ed.]   Orange-flower water is usually imported.  That prepared from the flowers
of the bitter orange possesses the  most fragrant odour, but it  is sometimes pre-
pared from the flowers  of the sweet orange.   It contains  free acetic acid,  derived
from the flowers; hence, if  kept in  a vessel of lead or copper, it acquires a metal-
lic impregnation.   The presence of lead in it has recently been pointed out by Mr.
Squire.1   The following are the characters of the pure orange-flower water:—
  "Nearly colourless;  unaffected by sulphuretted hydrogen.—Ph. Ed.
   Sulphuretted hydrogen produces, with either lead or copper, a dark-coloured pre-
cipitate.   Orange-flower water is  employed in medicine, as well as in  perfumery,
on account of its agreeable odour.
  AacA  Coloniensis; Eau de Cologne; Cologne Water.—A  much  admired perfume. Two
varieties are known in the shops—the French and the German ; the latter fetches the highest
price.  Both profess to be made by Farina.  The recipes for making it are numerous.   I sub-
join one, which is said, by Trommsdorff,1 to be followed in the Cologne manufactories: Oil of
Neroli; Oil  of Citron; Oil of Bergamot; Oil of Orange; Oil of Rosemary:  of each twelve
drops;  Malabar Cardamoms 3J; Rectified Spirit Oj.   Distil.   Eau de Cologne  forms an agree-
able evaporating  lotion in  headache, fever, &c.   It should be applied by means of a single
layer of linen.
                   OTHER MEDICINAL ATJRANTIACEiE.

  The Feronia Elephantum, a large tree growing in most parts of India, yields a gum which
is used for medicinal purposes by the practitioners of Lower  India.  It is an exudation of the
' Brit. Ann. of Med. for Jan. 1837, p. 15.                       * Journ. de Pharm. xviii. 79. 
982            VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. TERNSTRbMiAOEiE.
stem, and closely resembles gum Arabic.1  It is not improbable that part of the East India gum
brought to this country may be the produce of this tree.
Order LXXV.
TERNSTROMIACE^E,  Lindley.—THE TEA
               TRIBE.
  Though unable to do more than bestow a passing notice on Tea, I cannot wholly omit  all
reference to this important and interesting substance.   Two kinds of Tea  plant are cultivated
in our green-houses; the one called Thea viridis, or Green Tea, the other  Thea Bohea, or Black

                                      Fig. 408.
/^^p^t^i
                                     Thea Bohea.

Tea.  Great discrepancy of opinion exists as to whether the different varieties of tea of com-
merce are obtained from one or from two species.2  The well known differences between
green and black teas lend great support to the assertions of those who contend that these teas
are obtained from different plants growing in different provinces of China   Mr  Reeves's ob-
servations on this points appear to me  exceedingly apposite.  In commerce,  two principal
kinds of tea are distinguished—the Black  and Green; to the first belong Bohea, Congou, Campoi,
^uchong, Caper and Pekoe; to the latter, Twankay, Hyson-skin, Hyson, Imperial, and Gunpowder.*
*rank5 analyzed both black and green teas, and obtained the following results:—
Tannin..........
Gum  ...........
Woody fibre.......
Glutinous matter  .  . . .
Volatile matter, and loss

           Tea ....
 Black.
.  40.6
.   6.3
.  44.8
   6.3
.   2.0
Green.
34.6
 5.9
51.3
 5.7
 2.5
100.0  .... 100.0
  Sir H. Davy* also found more tannin in black than in green tea, in the proportion of 48 to 41.
But these results are opposed to our daily experience, as derived from flavour, which indLes
2 See Royle's Illustr. p. 109; and Hooker, Bot. Mag. t. 3148.
 1 Ainslie, Mat. Ind. i. 161.
 1 See Royle, op. cit.


leartantations %n Assam, in Jameson's Journal, xxviii. 126, 1840                   -rroauce of the
   Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. Ii. 1252.          '    »  . •™»'     . pM|. Tmns fm       ^ 
The Dipterocarpus Tribe.
983
the greater astringency in the green tea, and to the experiments of Mr. Brande.1  The differ-
ence in the quantity of tannin in the two kinds of tea is, however, not very great.  A lew years
ago, Oudry2 announced the existence  in tea of a crystalline, salifiable base, to which he gave
the name of theina;  but more recently Jobst3  has asserted  its identity with  caffein,  already
noticed.  Dr. R. D. Thomson* has described a fixed oil (Tea Oil) obtained from the tea plant.
It is composed of elaine 75, and stearine 25.   Notwithstanding the extensive employment of
tea as an article of diet, yet it is no easy matter  to ascertain correctly its precise effects on  the
constitution.  Its astringency is proved by its  chemical properties; and hence  tea may be
resorted to as an easily accessible antidote in cases of poisoning by substances containing vege-
table alkalies, or by emetic tartar.   Another quality possessed, especially by green tea, is that of
diminishing the tendency to sleep.  Hence, like coffee, it is often resorted to by those who desire
nocturnal 'study.   Moreover, it maybe employed as an antisoporific to counteract the effects of
opium and intoxicating liquors; and Dr. Clutterbuck6 has suggested its application  to the relief
of the stupor of fever, which he considers to be nearly allied to intoxication.  Tea appears to
possess a sedative influence with regard to the vascular system; and in this, as well as in the
watchfulness which it produces, tea somewhat resembles foxglove.  On account of its sedative
power, Dr. T.  Percival6 recommends its use in feverish and inflammatory diseases, and I can
speak, from frequent  observation, of its good effects in  these maladies.   To this power should
also be referred the  relief of headache experienced  by the use  of tea.  In colds,  catarrhs,
rheumatism, &c. warm infusion of tea is  frequently employed as a diluent, diaphoretic, and
diuretic.   Strong green tea, taken in large quantities, is capable, in some constitutions, of pro-
ducing most distressing feelings,7 and of operating  as a narcotic.  Dr. Lettsom8  found that a
strong infusion  of tea, introduced into the abdomen of a frog, caused  paralysis  of the  hind
extremities of  the animal.9



Order LXXVI.  DIPTERACEyE, Lindley.—TEE  DIPTERO-

                               CARPUS TRIBE.

                                 DlPTEHOCARPE.£, Blume.

   Drtobalanops aromatica, Gaertner (D. Camphora, Colebrooke; Shorea camphorifera, Roxb.)
is a large tr^e growing in Sumatra and Borneo. From its stern are obtained a  liquid called
Camphor oil, and a crystalline solid denominated Sumatra or  Borneo Camphor.
   1. Liquid Camphor; Camphor Oil.—Is obtained by making deep incisions  into the tree with
an axe.   The  oil gushes out, and is received in bamboos or other convenient utensils.10  It is
occasionally imported into this country in tin canisters.   It is sometimes perfectly limpid, trans-
parent, and colourless;  but more usually it is more or less coloured, being yellow  or brownish.
Its odour is somewhat analogous to that of oil of cajuputi, combined with the odour of camphor
and cardamoms.  Some samples have a strong odour of turpentine.  This oil has been analyzed
by Martins.11   The mean of three analyses gave him for its constituents carbon, 83.129, hydro-
gen  11.346, and oxysen 5.25; or C^H16©8.'  Recently, Pelouze12 has  analyzed it.  He regards it
as a hydrocarbon, whose formula is C^H16.   By exposure  to the air, it rapidly  oxidizes and
becomes  C20H16O4.  Hence, therefore, it would appear that  Martius must  have  analyzed an
oxidized oil.  Camphor oil has been employed in the preparation of scented soap.   Sixty pounds
of dark brown oil yielded forty pounds of colourless liquid oil, and  twenty pounds of crystalline
camphor.
   2. Sumatra or Borneo Camphor.  By the natives of  Sumatra it  is termed Kapurbarus (i. e.
Baroos Camphor).—It is found in the  natural fissures or crevices of the wood, and is obtained
by cutting down the tree, dividing it transversely into several blocks, which are split  with wedges
into small pieces, from  the  interstices of which the camphor, if there be any, is extracted.13
After being separated from impurities, it is packed in catties.  Being much  esteemed by the
Chinese, it fetches a  very high price.  According to Mr. Crawford,14 its value is 78 times that
of Japan camphor!  It rarely comes to this country as a commercial article.  For some of the
samples in my museum I am indebted to the late Mr. Gibson (of the firm of Howard, Jewell,
and Gibson, of Stratford), who stated that "they are  part of two very small  boxes imported
about twenty years ago, which were bought by me at the common price of camphor at the time,
but which it was afterwards discovered were invoiced  at an enormous price.  Our firm gave
  1 Quart. Journ. xii. 201.                                 2 Thomson, Org. Chem. p. 205.
  * Ann. d. Pharm. xxv. 63, 1838.                           * Jameson's Journal, xxii. 360.
  * Inquiry into the Seat and Nature of Fever, 2d edit. p. 434.    e Essays, vol. i.
  ' Dr. E. Percival. Dublin Hosp. Rep. i. 219.                 » Natural History of the Tea Tree, 1772.
  • For koiiip interesting information on Tea, see Dr. Siginond's work, entitled Tea, its Effects, Mtdicinal
and Moral, IKiO.
 10 Prinrr, Koxb. Fl. Ind. ii. 616.                  " Berlin. Jahrbuch, xl. 464, 1838.
 " Journ. de Pharm. xxvi. 646.                    " Marsden, History of Sumatra, 3d edit. p. 150.
 14 History of the Indian Archipelago, iii. 4J8. 
984
VEGETABLES.—Xat. Ord. Byttxeriace.e.
them up to the  importers,  reserving samples, and  they were re-shipped for India.  I never
on any other occasion except one saw a small specimen of what I have named native camphor:'
  Sumatra or Borneo camphor occurs in small white fragments of crystals.  They are transpa-
rent, brittle, and  have a camphoraceous odour and a hot  taste.  According to Pelouze, its crys-
talline form is a prism with six regular faces, and derived from the rhombohedric system.  It
is lighter  than  water, very slightly soluble only in water; but is very soluble in alcohol and
ether.  It is fusible and volatile.  Its composition, according to Pelouze, is C^H^O2.
  Sumatra Camphor is distinguished from Common or Laurel Camphor by several characters ;
such as the form of the crystals above mentioned; their greater hardness, so that when shaken
in a bottle they produce a ringing sound ;  they are more brittle, and do not so readily sublime
and condense in crystals in the upper parts of the bottle.
  Its  medicinal properties are probably similar to those of ordinary or laurel camphor.  But in
the  East, especially by the Chinese, the  most extravagant virtues are assigned  to it, and it is
accordingly highly valued. In  the Puntsaou it is called Lung Naou Heang, or " Dragon's Brain
Perfume."
Order  LXXVII.   BYTTNERIACEiE,  De  Candolle.
                            CACAO  TRIBE.
-THE
Fig. 409.
  The Theorroma Cacao is a native of the West Indies and
of Continental America.
  Its seeds (nuclei cacao) when torrefied, and with various ad-
ditions (sugar, and usually either cinnamon or vanilla), made
into a paste, constitutes chocolate (chocolata), which  furnishes a
very nourishing  beverage, devoid  of the  ill  properties pos-
sessed by both tea and coffee, but which, on  account of the con-
tained  oil, is  apt to disagree with dyspeptics.1  Cocoa is  an-
other preparation of these seeds.  It is said to be made from
the fragments of the seed-coats mixed with portions  of  the
kernels.  It is somewhat astringent, and is adapted for persons
with relaxed  bowels.
Theobroma Cacao.
Order LXXVIII.  MALVACEAE, R. Brown.-^-THE MALLOW

                                     TRIBE.

  Characters.—Calyx of 5 (rarely 3 or 4) sepals, more or less coherent at the  base, valvate
in aestivation, often with bracts or externa] sepal3 forming an  involucre or outer calyx.  Petals
as many as the sepals, and alternate with them ; hypogynous, equal; spirally contorted in Eesti-
vation, generally adnate to (but sometimes distinct from) the lower part of the tube of the  sta-
mens.  Stamens equal in number, or more commonly a multipleof the petals; generally indefi-
nite  (rarely definite), hypogynous.   Filaments united into a tube, and unequal in length  the
outer ones being shorter.  Anthers 1-celled, uniform, dehiscing by a transverse chink   Ovarv of
many carpels, generally verticillated round the axis,  and  coherent (sometimes free)   Styles as
many as the carpels, either distinct or united.  Stigmas as many as the carpels, moreor less  dis-
tinct   Carpels either  1- or 2-seeded, and dehiscing inward by a chink, or polyspermous, with a
locuhcidal dehiscence, or having a septum in the  middle which bears the  seed  on  the inner
side; in some cases  nearly free, in others united into a many-celled capsule or an anomalous
berry.  Albumen none.  Embryo straight.  Badicle terete.   Cotyledons twisted like a chrysalis —
Herbs, shrubs, or trees.   Leaves alternate, generally petiolate, and with stipules (De Cand )
  Properties.-"The uniform  character is to abound in mucilage, and to  be totally destitute
of all unwholesome qualities  (Lindley).                                       i
bei
lln'&^Ph'aZA1 w!^ manufactur«of chocolate, see Ure, Dictionary of Arts, P. 292; and Sou- 
Common Mallow:—History;  Botany;  Description.        985
  322.  MALVA SYLVESTRIS, Unn. E.-COMMON MALLOW.
                         Sex. Syst. Monadelphia, Polyandria.
                                   (Herb, E.)

   History.—According to  Dr. Sibthorp,1 the Maxdxrj 2*po-<u'a of Dioscorides3 is
the Malva sylvestris.
   Botany.   Gen. Char.— Calyx 5-cleft, persistent, surrounded by an involucel of
usually 3, rarely 1 or  2, or 5 or  6, more or  less oblong or setaceous bracteoles.
 Ovary with many cells, each with 1 ovule.   Styles as many as the cells.   Carpels
several  (rarely only 5), capsular, indehiscent, 1-seeded, circularly arranged around
the axis.   Radicle inferior (Wight and Arnott).
   Sp. Char.—Stem erect.   Leaves 5-  to 7-lobed, acute.   Pedicels  and petioles
hairy. (De Cand.)
   Root perennial, tapering, branching, whitish.   Stem 2  or 3 feet or more high,
branched.   Leaves deep green, soft and downy.   Flowers large, three or four  to-
gether,  axillary.   Petals obcordate, purplish  rose-coloured, with deeper veins, com-
bined by the base of their claws.
   Hab.—Indigenous;  hedges and  road sides.  Flowers from June to August.
   Description.—Common  Mallow (herba malvse sylvestris) is odourless, and has
merely  a  mucilaginous  herbaceous taste.  Its watery  infusion is deepened in colour
by the  sesquichloride of iron, and forms a precipitate with acetate of lead.  Dwarf
mallow (herba malvse rotundifolise) possesses similar properties.
   Composition.—I am  unacquainted with  any  analysis of  this plant.   The con-
stituents are probably similar to those of Althaea officinalis.   Mucilage is the pre-
vailing  principle.   Extractive also is another constituent.   The colouring matter of
the flower is an  exceedingly delicate test of alkalies, which render it green.
   Physiological Effects and Uses.—Emollient and demulcent.   Employed in
the form of decoction, in  irritation of  the alimentary canal, and of the pulmonary
and urinary organs.  In tenesmus,  the decoction is used in the form of enema.   In
external inflammations,  emollient fomentations  and cataplasms of mallow are  some-
times employed.

823.  ALTHiEA  OFFICINALIS, Linn. L. ^.-COMMON  MARSH-
                                MALLOW.
                         Sea;. Syst.  Monadelphia, Polyandria.
                         (Folia; Radix, L.—Leaves;  Root, E.)

   History.—According to Dr. Sibthorp,3 this plant  is the 'A%6ala of Dioscorides.*
   Botany.   Gen. Char.— Calyx surrounded by 6- to 9-cleft, involucel.   Carpels
numerous, capsular, closely and circularly arranged  round  the  axis  (Wight and
Arnott).
   Sp. Char__Leaves softly  tomentose on both  sides,  cordate  or  ovate, toothed,
undivided, or  somewhat 3-lobed.   Peduncles axillary, many-flowered, much shorter
than the leaf.  (De Cand.)
   Boot perennial,  tap-shaped,  rather  woody.   Stem 2 or 3 feet high.  Leaves
hoary green, peculiarly  soft and downy, with a fine starry pubescence.  Flowers 3
or 4 together,  on axillary stalks, large, pale rose-coloured.
   Hab.—Indigenous; marshes, especially near the sea.
   Description.—The  leaves of Marsh-mallow (folise  althaeas) are  odourless, and
have a mucilaginous taste.  The root (radix althsese)  is long, cylindrical, branched,
about the thickness of the finger, plump, mucilaginous, white internally, and covered
with a yellowish epidermis.   That which is imported from France has been deprived
1 Prodr. Fl. Grcec. ii. 45.
• Prodr. Fl. Grate, ii. 42.
* Lib. ii. cap. 144.
4 Lib. iii. cap. 163. 
986               VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Malvaceae.

of its epidermis, and is white (decorticated root of marsh-malloiv).  Its odour  is
feeble;  its taste sweet and mucilaginous.  Iodine  colours it dark blue.  Sesqui-
chloride of iron forms with the  concentrated  decoction, a brown  semi-transparent
gelatinous mass.
   Composition.—Marsh-mallow root has been analyzed by Bacon,1 by L. Meyer,2 by
Wittstock,3 and by Buchner.4  The results of the  latter chemist are as follows:—
Fatty oil 1.26, glutinous matter  1.81, uncrystallizable sugar and althein 8.29, mu-
cilage  35.64, starch 37'.51, phosphate of  lime 8.29, vegetable medulla 11.05, and
woody fibre 7.50 [excess 11.35].
  Asparagin ;  Asparamide; Althein.—The substance which has been called althein is identical
with asparagin.  It is crystallizable, odourless, and almost tasteless.  It is soluble in water and
alcohol, sp. gr. 0.837; but it is insoluble in absolute alcohol and in ether.  It consists of C^N2©5.
Acted on by the watery solutions of the  alkalies, it evolves  ammonia, and is converted into
aspartic  acid (C8H5N06);  hence it  is called  asparamide, as it is an  aspartite of ammonia
(C8H5N06+H3N), minus an atom of water.  It has an influence on the therapeutic properties
of the root.
   Physiological Effects and Uses.—Similar to those of common mallow, al-
ready stated.   On the  continent it  is a favourite demulcent.   The pastilles and pate
de guimauve  are used as  pectorals.   The powder of marshmallow root is used  in
France  to envelop pills.   " The  simple decoction is recommended  as an injection,
to be thrown into the vagina, in cases of difficult labour, arising from rigidity of the
soft parts."5

   1. MISTURA ALTMiE, E.; Marsh-mallow Mixture.—(Root of Althaea £iv; Raisins,
stoned,  Jij; Boiling Water Ov.  Boil down to three pints; strain through linen  or
calico, and, when the sediment has subsided, pour off the clear liquor for use.)—An
agreeable  diluent and demulcent.  Employed in visceral inflammation and irrita-
tion; as nephritis, calculous affections,  gonorrhoea, strangury, &c.   From one  to
three pints may be taken in the course of the day.
   2. S11UPUS ALTILEiE,  L. E.; Syrup  of Marsh-mallows.—(Althaea  Root, sliced,
§iss; Pure Sugar Ibiiss;  Water  [boiling, E.~\.  Boil down  the water with the
root to one-half [strain, E.~\, and  express [strongly through  calico, E.~] the  liquor
when cold, L.   Set aside  for twenty-four hours, that the impurities  may subside;
then pour off  the liquor, and the sugar being added, boil down to a proper consist-
ence.)—Demulcent, employed as an adjunct  to  cough mixtures, and as a pectoral
for children.   It readily ferments,  and becomes  ropy.—Dose, f 3j  to f^ss.


324. GOSSYPIUM HERBACEUM, Linn. E-COMMON COTTON.
                           Sex. Syst. Monadelphia, Polyandria.
                            (Hi-iira  attached to the seed, E.)

   History.—It is somewhat doubtful who first  mentioned cotton.  There is some
reason for supposing that cotton cloth is referred  to in  the Old Testament.6   Cotton
(j3v<jo-oj), is  mentioned by Herodotus ;7 but  he or  his translators are in error, in
stating8 that the Egyptians, in embalming, wrapped the body in cotton cloth; since
all mummy cloths  are found, on a microscopic examination, to be linen.9   PlinyM
speaks of the cotton plant ( Gossypion) and of the cloth (Xylina) made of the woolly
substance which envelops the seeds."
   Botany.   Gen. Char.— Calyx  cup-shaped, obtusely 5-toothed,  surrounded  by a

  1 Journ. deChim  Mid.• «•_551.                       2 Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. ii. 1251.
  » Pharm. Central-Blatt fur 18-31, S. 2/7.               * Ibid, fur 1632 S 511
  » Montgomery, Obs. on the Dubl. Pharm.                   '       >  ■   ■
  « Harris, Natural History of the Bible ; Carpenter, Scripture Natural History.
  ' Thalia, cv.                                     s Euterpe, lxxxvi.
  9 Dutrochet, in Jameson's Journal, vol. xxiii p. 320. Thig author suggests that the £6<r<Toe of Herodo-
tus was the filamentous weavable matter which lint [flax] supplied
 w Hist. Nat. lib. xix. cap. 2, ed. Valp.
 " For farther historical details, see Royle's Illustr. p. 84, et seq. 
   Common Cotton:—Description; Composition;  Effects and Uses.   987

3-leaved involucel, with the leaves united and cordate at the base, and deeply cut or
toothed irregularly.   Style simple, marked with 3 or 5 furrows towards the apex.
Stigmas usually 3, sometimes  5.   Capsules 3- to 5-celled, 3- to 5-valved at  the
apex, loculicidal.  Seeds numerous, imbedded in cotton.   Young branches and leaves
more or less conspicuously covered with little black dots; nerves below usually with
one or more glands (Wight and Arnott).
   Sp. Char.—Bi-triennial; young parts  hairy.   Leaves hoary, palmate,  with sub-
lanceolate, rather acute lobes.   Stipules falcate-lanceolate.   Leaves of the exterior
calyx dentate.   Capsules ovate  pointed.   Seeds free, clothed with firmly adhering
white down under the long white wool (Roxburgh).—Petals of a lively yellow colour,
with a  purple  spot near  the claw.   Dr. Roxburgh1 particu-
larly distinguishes  three  varieties cultivated in India—viz.,        Fig. 410.
the Dacca, the Berar, and the  China cottons.
   Hab__Asia.   Cultivated in  India, Syria, Asia Minor, the
Mediterranean,  and America.
   Description.—The filamentous substance, called  cotton
(gossypium), consists of  tubular hairs, which arise from the
surface of the seed-coat.   By drying, they become flattened;
and in this state, if they be immersed in water and examined
by the microscope, they  appear  like  distinct,  flat, narrow
ribands, with only occasional  appearances of joints,  which
are indicated by a line at a right angle,  or nearly so,  to the
side of the tube.   Cotton is distinguished (under the micro-
scope) from the vegetable  fibre which constitutes linen  by
the tubes of the latter being in bundles, round, tapering at   Gossypium herbaceum.
the extremities, and, when jointed, having oblique articula-
tions.   Cotton which has undergone no preparation is denominated raio cotton.9
   Composition.—Cotton is a modification of lignin, and consists, therefore, of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; but the  precise  relative proportions of its consti-
tuents have not been ascertained.    In all its essential chemical  properties it agrees
with ordinary woody fibre.  It  is  completely insoluble  in water,  alcohol, ether, oils,
and vegetable acids.  Strong alkaline  lyes dissolve it.  The strong mineral acids
decompose it.   With nitric acid it yields oxalic acid.
   Physiological  Effects and  Uses.—Raw cotton, or cotton wool, has been
employed  with  apparently good effect  in the treatment of  burns.8  It allays pain
and irritation, apparently by forming, with the discharges, a substitute for the epi-
dermis, under  the protection of which the process  for the formation of the new
cuticle takes place, undisturbed by external irritation.   The exclusion of the air
seems to be a most  important part of the treatment;  and, of course, to effect this,
many other agents (as lint) will answer  in the place of cotton.   The following is
the method of employing cotton:  The cotton should  be carded in narrow fleeces,
thin enough to be translucent, and applied in successive layers,  so as completely to
protect the injured  parts from the effects of motion and pressure.  When the skin
is severely scorched, a spirituous or turpentine wash may be applied previously to
the application of the cotton.   As complete repose of the part is necessary, the first
dressing should be allowed to remain as long as possible undisturbed.   Raw cotton
has also been used as a topical application in erysipelas.*
   Cotton-wool, impregnated with  nitre or chlorate of potash, has been employed as
moxa.
   The  well-known  superiority  of linen  to cotton, as  a dressing for wounds and
ulcers,  is usually ascribed  to the triangular  shape of  the cotton fibres, the sharp
 i Fl. Ind. iii. 184.
 * For much interesting information regarding Cotton, but which is unsuited to this work, consult Royle,
op. cit.; M'Culloch, Dictionary of Commerce ; and Ure, Dictionary of Arts.
 * Anderson, Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journ. xiii. 215, 1828.
 4 Lond. Med. Gaz. Nov. 8, 1839.
 
988                VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Linace2e.

angles of which are supposed to cut and  irritate the flesh.  But this shape of the
fibres exists only in the imagination of those who have never examined them by
the microscope.   Raspail1 ascribes the superiority of linen for surgical purposes to
the hollow condition of the tubular fibrillse, by which  they are enabled to  absorb
into their interior  the  blood or purulent secretion.   The tubes of cotton, on the
other hand,  are  filled  with  an  organizing substance, and, therefore,  can  imbibe
nothing into their interior.
   [COLLODIUM, U.  S.;   Collodion.—(Take of  Cotton,  freed  from  impurities, and
finely carded, half  an ounce; Nitrate of Potassa, in powder, ten ounces; Sulphuric
Acid  eight fluidounces  and a half;  Ether two pints and a half;  Alcohol a fluid-
ounce.  Add the Sulphuric Acid to the Nitrate of Potassa  in a Wedgewood mortar,
and triturate them until uniformly mixed; then add the Cotton, and by means of the
pestle  and a  glass  rod, imbue it thoroughly with the  mixture for four  minutes.
Transfer the Cotton to  a vessel containing water, and wash it, in successive  portions,
by agitation and  pressure, until  the  washings  cease to have an acid taste, or to be
precipitated on  the addition of chloride of barium.   Having  separated the fibres
by picking, dry  the cotton  with  a  gentle  heat,  dissolve it  by  agitation  in  the
Ether, previously mixed with the Alcohol, and strain.  Collodion should be kept in
closely-stopped bottles  previously well dried.   The first part of the above process
produces gun-cotton, which is dissolved in ether.  It is a transparent solution, of
syrupy consistence  and ethereal  smell.  It is  used as an application in surgery to
wounds, with the  view of producing  cohesion of the edges.  When  applied, the
ether evaporates, leaving a film,  which is  the bond of union.    It is sometimes used
as a covering to ulcers, burns, and superficial inflammation, as a protection and sti-
mulant.   I have used it with advantage in sore nipples.]
Order LXXIX.  LINAGES,  Lindley.—THE FLAX  TRIBE.

                                Lixeje, De Candolle.

  Characters.— Calyx 3- or 4, generally 5-sepaled.  Sepals coherent only at the base, imbri-
cate in  aestivation, continuous with the peduncle, and  therefore persistent.  Petals as many as
the sepals; hypogynous, unguiculate at the base, slightly  united together, and to the ring* of the
stamens; alternate with the sepals, twisted in aestivation.  Stamens equal in number, and alter-
nate with the petals, cohering into a monadelphous ring at the base, and having an abortive
filament,or tooth,between each.  Anthers innate, bilocular, bi-rimose.  Ovaries subglobose, with
as many cells as there are sepals, rarely fewer.  Styles as numerous as tbe cells of the ovary.
Capsule globose, crowned by the permanent bases of the  styles, composed of carpels having in-
duplicate margins and dehiscing at the apex by two valves, and which are divided into partial
cells, by an  incomplete dissepiment arising from the centre.   Seeds in each cell  two inverted.
Albumen generally none, but in its stead there is a tumid, fleshy endopleura.  Embryo straight,
with the radicle turned towards the hilum.—Herbs or shrubs, with entire exstipulate leaves (De
Cand.)
  Properties.—The fibres of Linaceae have great tenacity.  The seeds abound in oil and
mucilage, and are in consequence emollient


    325.  LINUM USITATISSIMUM,  Linn. L. E. D.-COMMON
                                    FLAX.

                          Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Pentagynia.
(Semina; Oleum e seminibus expressum, L. D._Seeds;  Meal  of the seeds deprived of their fixed oil by
                        expression ; Expressed oil of  the seeds, E.)

   History.—From time  immemorial flax has  been employed in the manufacture
of cloth;  and it appears, from our most ancient records, that Egypt was celebrated
for its production.2  Dutrochet3  asserts that mummy cloth is made of  flax.
i Chim. Organ.                                 2 Exodus, ix. 31 j Herodotus, Euterpe, cv.
* Jameson's Journal, xxii. 221.                                          '     r ' 
Common Flax:—Botany;  Description;  Composition.        989
411.
Linum usitatissimum.
  Botany.   Gen. Char.—Sepals  5, distinct, quite entire or  serrated.  Petals 5.
Stamens 5.   Styles 3 to 5, distinct from  the base, or combined to the  middle or
apex  (Wight and Arnott).
  Sp. Char.—Smooth, erect.   Leaves lanceolate or linear.   Panicle corymbose.
Sepals ovate,  acute, with membraneous margins.   Petals some-
what  crenate,  larger by three times than  the calyx.  (De Cand.)
—Annual.  One or two feet high.   Leaves distant.   Flowers
large, purplish-blue.   Capsule globular, about the size of a small
pea.
  Hab.—Indigenous;  cornfields;  not unfrequent.  Extensively
cultivated  in  this, as well as in other European countries, both
for  its fibre for making thread,  and for its oil obtained from the
seeds.
  Description.—The seed of the flax, commonly termed linseed
or lintseed (semina  lini), is small (about a line long), oval, ob-
long,  flattened on the  sides with  acute  edges, pointed at one
extremity, smooth, glossy, brown externally, yellowish-white  in-
ternally, odourless,  and has an oily  mucilaginous  taste.  The
seed-coat is mucilaginous;  the nucleus  oily.   The cake (pla-
centa lini) left after the expression of the oil, is usually denomi-
nated oil cake;  it forms, when  ground  to a fine powder, linseed
meal (farina lini).   The  best oil cake  for  the preparation of
linseed meal is the English, fresh made.  Foreign cake is of in-
ferior quality.  The  colour of  linseed meal is grayish-brown.
It abounds in mucilage.  The meal prepared by grinding the unpressed seeds yields
a considerable quantity of- oil.
  The substance termed flax is prepared from the fibrous portions of the bark of
the plant.1  The short fibres which are removed in heckling constitute tow (siupa),
which is employed both in pharmacy and  surgery. Of flax is made  linen (linteum),
which, when scraped, constitutes lint (linteum carptum; linamentum), an important
agent to the surgeon.3
  Composition.—Linseed  has been analyzed  by L. Meyer.3   Its  constituents
he  found to be  as  follows :  Fat oil (in  the nucleus)  11.265, wax (in the  husk
principally) 0.146, acrid soft resin (in the husk principally) 2.488, resinous colour-
ing matter 0.550, yellow extractive with tannin and salts (nitre  and  the  chlorides of
potassium  and calcium) 1.917, sweet extractive, with malic acid and  some  salts,
10.884, gum  (in the nucleus) 6.154, nitrogenous mucilage, with acetic acid and salts
(in the husk  principally), 15.120,  starch, with salts (in the husk),  1.480, albumen
fin  the nucleus) 2.782, gluten (in  the  nucleus)  2.932, husk and  emulsion (?)
44.382.   The ashes contained oxide of copper.
  1. Fixed Oil.—(See p. 989.)
  2. Mucilage of Linseed.—Has been examined by Bostock,4 by Vauquelin,6 and by Guerin-
Varry.8  Resides in the seed coats.   Is  extracted by hot water.  When the solution is  mixed
with alcohol, white mucilaginous flocks are precipitated. Diacetate of lead forms a precipitate
in it.  Neither infusion of nutgalls  nor chlorine have any effect on it.  It is not coloured blue
by iodine.  It reddens litmus (owing  to the free acetic acid).  It consists of two parts: one
soluble, the other insoluble in water.  Its ashes contain  carbonates of potash and lime, phos-
phate of lime, chloride of potassium, sulphate of potash, oxide of iron, alumina, and silica.
      Proximate Analysis.
Soluble part...........52.70
Insoluble part..........29 69
Ashes..............   7.11
Water..............10.30
Mucilage of Linseed
100.00
            Ultimate Analysis.
Carbon.............34.30
Hydrogen............   5.69
Nitrogen............   7.27
Oxygen.............52.11

      Mucilage of Linseed . .  . 100.00
1 Sec Ure's Dictionary of Arts, p. 482.
» [A microscopicnl anamination shows that much of the Lint now sold consists of Bcraped cotton.—Ed.]
• Umtlin, Handb. d. Chem. ii. 1251.                          * Mcholson's Journal, xviii. 31.
» Ann  de Chim. lxxx. 314.                                 * Journ. dt I Aim. Med. vii. 7V9. 
990
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Linace;e.
  a. Soluble part (Arabine?) soluble in cold water.  Treated with nitric acid, yields 14.25 per
cent, of mucic acid, besides some oxalic acid.
  8. Insoluble part. A nitrogenous  substance, not soluble  in water, and not yielding mucic
acid by the action  of nitric acid.  Properly speaking, therefore, it is not a gummy substance.
  Physiological Effects.—Linseed is emollient and  demulcent.  It also  pos-
sesses  nutritive  qualities; for, in the  form of a thick mucilage (or jelly, as it is
termed), it is employed for fattening  cattle.   Linseed cake is  also  employed for
a similar purpose.  Linseed oil  is a mild laxative.
  Uses.—Employed, to allay irritation, in the form of infusion or tea, expressed oil,
and meal.
  1. INFUSUM  LEVI  COMPOSITUM,  L. [U. S.];  Infusum Lini, E.;  Linseed Tea.—
(Linseed, bruised, 3vj  [Jss, U.  S.~\; Liquorice Root, bruised, 3ij; Boiling [distilled,
L.~\ Water Oj.  Digest near the fire, in a lightly covered vessel, and strain [through
linen or calico, E.~\.)—Employed as an emollient and demulcent in  irritation and in-
flammation of the pulmonary and urinary organs, and of the mucous  membranes
generally :  as gonorrhoea, dysentery,  alvine  irritation, and pulmonary affections.
It is rendered more  palatable by  the  addition of sliced lemon and sugar-candy.—
Dose, f^ij to f§iv, or ad libitum.

  [I  DECOCTUM LINI  COMPOSITUM, D.;  Compound  Decoction of Linseed.—(Take
of Linseed |j; Liquorice Root,  bruised, |ss;  Water Oiss.   Boil for ten  minutes
in a covered vessel,  and strain while hot.)—Ed.]

  3. OLEUM LINI, L. E. D. [U. S.] ;  Linseed Oil—To prepare this oil, the seeds are
first bruised or  crushed, then ground, and  afterwards subjected to pressure in  the
hydraulic or screw press.1   Cold-drawn linseed oil (oleum lini sine igne) is paler
coloured, less  odorous, and has  less taste, than  linseed oil prepared by the aid  of a
steam heat of about 200° F. (oleum lini, offic.);  but, according to Mr. Brande a it
" soon becomes rancid  and more disagreeable than that expressed at a  higher tem-
perature."  The seeds yield by cold expression 18 or 20 per cent, of oil; but by the
aid  of heat from 22 to  27 per cent.  Linseed oil is usually amber-coloured; but it
may be rendered quite  colourless.  For a fine  sample of colourless oil I  am in-
debted to Mr. Whipple.   Linseed oil has a peculiar odour and taste; it is soluble
in alcohol, but more readily so in ether.  When exposed to the air, it dries into a
hard transparent varnish.  This change is  greatly  accelerated by  boiling the  oil
either alone or with litharge, with sugar of lead or with common white vitriol.   The
resulting oil is called drying oil or boiled oil.   The  efficacy of  the process is as-
cribed by Liebig3 to the  elimination of substances  which oppose  the oxidation of
the oil.  The ultimate composition of linseed oil, according to Saussure, is carbon
76.014, hydrogen  11.351, and oxygen 12.635.   Its proximate  constituents are
oleic acid (chiefly), margaric acid, and glycerin.—Rarely employed internally.  Its
most ordinary use is for the preparation of Linimentum calcis, alreadv f Vol  T n
564) described.*                                           ;       J  K        p'

  4. FARINA LINI, E.; Linseed Meal—(The meal of the seeds deprived of their fixed
oil by  expression, E.)—Emollient.  Employed in the preparation of the linseed
mealpoultice.  It is a constituent of the pulvis pro cataplasmate, D., alreadv noticed
The farina of the unpressed linseed is preferred to the powder of  linseed cake on
account of its oleaginous quality.   What is usually sold as such has been prepared
from recently  pressed English oil cake.

  5. CATAPLASMA LINI, L.;  Linseed  Meal  Poultice.—{Boiling Water 5x •  Lin
seed, powdered,  givss, or as much  as  may be sufficient.   Add the water  by de-

  1 See Ure's Dictionary of Arts, p. 899.
   Journ. de Pharm. xxvi. 193.                                        a Diet, of Pharm.

i-^K'li^S                                            has been introduced
them together.  The Dubli/college orders of &viM 
                   The Chick-weed Tribe:—Clove Pink.                991

grees to the linseed, stirring  constantly  that a poultice  be made.)—A valuable
emollient poultice.


   326. LINUM CATHARTICUM, Linn. E.-PURGING FLAX.
                          Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Pentagynia.
                                    (Herb, E.)

   History.—First mentioned by Thalius in the sixteenth century.1
   Botany.  Gen. Char.—See Linum usitatissimum.
   Sp. Char.—Smooth, erect.   Leaves opposite, obovate-lanceolate.   Stem  above
dichotomous.  (De Cand.)
   Annual.   Stem slender, 2 to 6 inches high.  Flowers drooping before expansion,
white, small.
   Hab.—Indigenous;  pastures; common.
   Description.—Purging flax (herba lini cathartici) is odourless, but has a very
bitter taste.
   Composition.—I am unacquainted with  any analysis of this  plant.  Probably
its purgative principle is bitter extractive.
   Physiological Effects and Uses.—Cathartic and occasionally diuretic; but
somewhat uncertain in its operation.   Formerly used in rheumatism.   Now almost
obsolete.  Dose 3J of the dried plant;  or an infusion of a handful of  the fresh
plant may be employed.
   Order   LXXX.  CARYOPHYLLACE^.—THE  CHICK-

                             WEED TRIBE.

                        Cartophylle2E, Jussieu; De Candolle.

  Characters.—Calyx generally persistent, of 4, or oftener  5 sepals, which are continuous
with the pedicel, and either free or coherent into a 4- or 5-dentate tube, imbricate in aestiva-
tion.   Petals as many as the sepals (very rarely 0), inserted on the torus, which is more or less
elevated on a pedicel (anthophorus), alternate with the sepals, unguiculate, having the fauces
sometimes crowned with petaloid  scales.  Stamens as many  as, or double the number of, the
petals inserted in  the torus.   Filaments subulate,  sometimes  submonadelphous at the  base.
Anthers 2-celled.  Ovary simple, 2- to 5-valved, inserted at the apex of the torus, and crowned
by an  equal number of styles.  Capsule of 2 to 5 valves, united at the base, dehiscing at the
apex, generally 1-celled, sometimes  2-to 5 celled.  Septa protruding  from  the middle of the
valves, incomplete or continuous to the axis.   Placenta central.  Seeds numerous (very seldom
few or definite); albumen  farinaceous generally central; embryo usually peripherical, more or
less incurved (seldom central and straight); radicle directed towards the hilum.  Herbs or under-
shrubs, with opposite entire leaves.  Stems jointed. (De Cand.)
  Properties.—Remarkable, for the most part, for their insipidity and consequent inactivity.


 327.  DIANTHUS CARYOPHYLLUS,  Linn.—CLOVE   PINK;
          CARNATION,  OR CLOVE  GILLYFLOWER.

                           Sex. Syst. Decandria, Digynia.
                                    (Flores.)

   History.—First noticed by Manfredus de Monte Imperiali.2
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—Calyx tubular, 5-toothed, imbricated at the base  with
2 to 4 opposite scales.   Petals 5, with long claws.   Stamens 10.   Styles 2.   Cap-
sule 1-celled.   Seeds compressed, convex on one side, concave on the other; peltate.
Embryo scarcely curved. (De Cand.)
   Sp. Char.—Stem branched.   Flowers  solitary.   Scales of the calyx  4,  very

   i Sprengel, Hist. Rei Herb. i. 35.                        * Sprengel, op. supra cit. i. 293. 
992
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Polygale^e.
 short, ovate, somewhat mucronate.   Petals very  broad, beardless.   Leaves^ hnear-
 awl-shaped, channelled, glaucous.  (De Cand.)
   A perennial plant;  the origin  of the fine  carnations of the  gardens,   flowers
 pink, purple, white, or variegated ;  double, semi-double, or single.1
   Hab.—Indigenous.   Cultivated in gardens.
   Description.—The red or deep crimson gillyflowers (flores dianthi caryophylli;
flores caryophylli rubri; flores tunicse) were  formerly employed in  medicine on ac-
 count of their colour.   They have a pleasant aromatic smell, and  a bitterish  sub-
 astringent taste.   They communicate to water their smell  and colour.9
   Composition.—I am unacquainted with any analysis of them.   They obviously
 contain a volatile oil, colouring  matter, and an astringent principle.
   Physiological Effects and  Uses.—Formerly supposed to have an influence
 over the nervous system to raise the spirits, &c.   Simon Pauli3 recommended them
 in various nervous  and spasmodic affections, and  in malignant fever.  They have
 also been used as flavouring  and colouring agents;  and a  syrup of them was form-
 erly contained in the British Pharmacopoeias.


 Order LXXXI.  POLYGALE.E,  De  Candolle.—THE  MILK-
                             WORT  TRIBE.

                      Poltgai.ace^, and Krameriace^, Lindley.

  Characters.—Sepals, 5, imbricate  in aestivation, the two interior generally petaliform, the
 three exterior smaller;  two of them are interior, and sometimes  united, the third is posterior.
Petals 3 to 5 hypogynous, more or less united by means of the tube of the stamens (rarely dis-
 tinct).  Filaments of stamens adherent to the petals, monadelphous, divided at the apex  into
two  opposite equal  phalanges.  Anthers  8, 1-celled, innate, dehiscing by pores  at the apex.
 Ovary 1, free, 2 celled, rarely 1- or 3-celled.  Style 1.   Stigma 1.  Pericarp capsular or drupa-
ceous, 2- or 1-celled.   Valves septigerous in the middle.  Seeds pendulous, solitary, often with a
 carunculate arillus at the base ; embryo  straight, generally in the  axis of a fleshy albumen (or
rarely), exalbuminous, in which case the endopleura is tumid. Herbs or shrubs.  Leaves entire,
generally alternate, articulated on the stem. (De Cand.)
  Properties.—Leaves and roots for the most part bitter and astringent.


    328. POLYGALA SENEGA,  Linn. L. E. D.—THE SENEKA.
                           Sea;. Syst. Diadelphia, Octandria.
                              (Radix,L.—Root, E. D.)
                                  [Senega, IT. S.]

  History.—The root of this plant was introduced into  medicine  as a remedy for
the bites of venomous animals, in the early part of the last century, by Dr. Ten-
nant, a Scotch physician,  residing in Pennsylvania.4
  Botany.   Gen. Char—Sepals persistent, the two inner ones wing-like.   Petals
3 to 5,  adnate to the tube of the stamen; the inferior one  keel-shaped (perhaps
composed of two united).   Capsule compressed, elliptical,  or  obcordate.   Seeds
pubescent, carunculated at the hilum, destitute of a coma. (De Cand.)
  Sp. Char.—Stems several, somewhat erect, simple, terete.  Leaves ovate-lance-
olate, the upper ones  acuminate.   Racemes somewhat spiked.   Wings orbiculate.
Capsule elliptical, emarginate. (De Cand.)
  Root perennial, branching.   Stems annual, from 9 to  12 inches  high  occa-
sionally tinged  at  their lower part with red  or  purple.   Leaves alternate, sessile,
or on very short stalks, paler beneath.   Flowers small, white.  Alee of the calyx
white, with green veins.   Capsule small, containing two blackish seeds.
1 For horticultural information respecting them, consult Loudon's Encyclopaedia of
2 I ....mo Afnt TlT^ii                                          r  . „ J 
The Seneka:—Description; Composition;  Physiological Effects.   993
   Hab.—United States of America;  most abundant in  the southern and western
parts.
   Description.—Senega or Seneka  root (radix  senegse  seu senekse),  sometimes
called the seneka-snakeroot or the  rattlesnake root, is imported  from the  United
States in bales.   It varies in size from that of a writing-quill  to  that of the  little
finger ; it is contorted, presents a number of eminences,  and terminates  superiorly
in an irregular tuberosity, which exhibits  traces of numerous  stems; a  projecting
line extends the  whole  length of  the root.  The cortical portion is corrugated,
transversely cracked, thick, of a grayish-yellow colour.  The central portion (medi-
tullium)  is woody and white.  The taste of  the  root is at first sweetish  and muci-
laginous, afterwards acrid and pungent, exciting cough  and a flow  of  saliva; its
odour is  peculiar and nauseous.
   Composition.—Senega root has been  repeatedly made the subject of chemical
investigation.    In the last century it was  examined  by Burckhard, by Keilhorn,
and by Helmuth.1  In  1804 it was  analyzed by Grehlen ;3 and  in  1811  by Fou-
geron.8   Peschier* also  published an analysis of it.   In  1826 it  was  analyzed by
Feneuille,5  in  1827  both by Dulong d'Astafort8 and  by Folchi,7  in  1832  by
Trommsdorff,8  and in 1836 by Quevenne.9  I subjoin three of these analyses:—
        Trommsdorff.
Volatile oil.......a trace.
Acrid resin.......   4.552
Sweetish bitter extractive  33.570
Pectic acid.......10.444
Wax..........   0.746
Soft resin........   5.222
Mucus  .........   5.968
Woody fibre.......34.316
Malates, potash, and lime   2.536

      Dried Senega Root  97.354
          Dulong.
Volatile oil, traces.
Acrid extractive.
Yellow extractive.
A substance reddened by sulphuric
 acid.
Peetic acid.
Wax.
Resin.
Gum.
Woody fibre.
Malates of potash and lime.
Mineral salts and iron.
Senega Root.
        Quevinne.
Polygalic acid.
Virgmeic acid.
Tannic acid.
Pectic acid.
Cerin.
Fixed oil.
Yellow colouring matter.
Gum.
Albumen.
Woody fibre.
Salts, alumina, silica, magnesia,
  and iron.

      Senega Root.
  1. Poltgalic Acid, in the impure state, was first procured by Gehlen, who called it Senegin.
It is the active principle, and resides in the cortical part of the root.  When pure it is a white,
odourless powder, which is at first tasteless, but afterwards communicates  an acrid feeling to
the  mouth, and a sense of constriction to the fauces.  It irritates the nostrils and excites sneez-
ing.  It is volatile, and, when decomposed by heat  in a glass-tube, evolves no ammonia, and
hence contains no nitrogen.   It is soluble in water and in  alcohol, especially  when heated by
heat; but it is insoluble in  ether, acetic acid, and  the oils.  Its solution forms white precipi-
tates (polygalates)  with diacetate of lead and  protonitrate of mercury.  Sulphuric acid has a
characteristic  effect on polygalic acid;  it renders polygalic acid yellow, then rose-red, and after-
wards dissolves it, forming  a violet-coloured  solution, which becomes decolorized in  twenty-
four hours. The alkaline  polygalates  are not  crystallizable.  Polygalic  acid  consists of carbon
55.704, hydrogen 7.529, and  oxygen 36.767 ;  or, C22H180".  It has considerable resemblance to
esculic acid.10 Given to dogs in doses of six or eight grains, it causes vomiting, embarrassed re-
spiration, and death in three hours.  Two grains  thrown into the jugular vein caused vomiting,
and, in two hours and a half, death.
  5. Viugineic  Acid.—A  volatile, fatty acid, analogous  to valerianic, phocenic, and butyric
acids. It is an oily liquid,  of a reddish colour, a strong, penetrating, disagreeable odour, and an
acrid taste. It is  soluble in  alcohol, ether, and caustic potash, but scarcely so  in water.

  Physiological Effects.—Senega possesses acrid and stimulant properties.  In
small doses  it is diaphoretic,  diuretic, and expectorant;  in larger doses, emetic and
purgative.   Sundelin11 took  a scruple  of powdered senega root every two hours for
six hours;  it caused irritation of the back part of the tongue and throat, and gave
rise to an increased flow  of saliva. These effects were soon followed  by considerable
burning in  the stomach, nausea, and  vomiting.   The  skin became warmer  and
moister;  there  was griping pain  of the bowels,  followed  by  watery evacuations;
i Murray, App. Med. ii. 564.
» Journ. de Chim. Mid. ii. 549.
• Jovrn. de Chim. Med. ii. 431.
' Journ. de Chim. Mid. iii. 600.
• Journ. de Pharm. xxii.
11 Handb. d. spec. Heilmittell. ii. 176, 3te Aufl.
    vol.  ii.—63
 3 Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. ii. 1249.
 • Quoted by Goebel and Kunze, Pharm. Waarenk.
 1 Journ. de Pharm. xiii. 567.
 ' Pharm. Central-Blatt fur 1832, S. 149.
10 Journ. de Pharm. xxiii. 270. 
994
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Polygale.e.
the secretion of urine was increased, and a feeling of heat was experienced  in  the
urinary passages.   For some days after, there was gastric uneasiness with  loss o(
appetite.  In larger doses, it caused burning pain  in  the stomach and bowels, vio-
lent vomiting, purging, anxiety, and giddiness.
  It appears to excite moderately the vascular system, to promote  the  secretions
(at  least those of the kidneys, skin,  uterus, and bronchial membrane), and to exert
a specific influence over the nervous system. It has been principally celebrated for
its expectorant effects.
  In its operation on the nervous system, it has considerable resemblance to Arnica;
but its influence over the secreting organs is much  greater.   It is somewhat analo-
gous to Helenium in its action.
  Uses.—In this country, senega is comparatively but little employed.   It is an
exceedingly valuable remedy in the  latter stages of bronchial or pulmonary inflam-
mation, when  this  disease occurs in  aged, debilitated,  and torpid constitutions, and
when the use of  depletives is no longer admissible.  It appears  to re-establish a
healthy condition of  the secreting organs, to promote  the resolution of the morbid
deposits, and to give strength to the system.   I usually administer it in combina-
tion with ammonia, which appears to me to promote its beneficial operation.  Fre-
quency of pulse, and a febrile condition  of the system,  are  by no means  to be
regarded as impediments to the use  of this medicine.
  In  chronic  catarrh and humoral asthma it has  also been used.   It has been
extravagantly  praised by  Dr. Archer, of Maryland, as a remedy for croup.1   He
represents it as  being capable, without the aid of any other means, of  removing
this alarming disease.  Few practitioners, I suspect, would venture to trust it.  Yet
it might be a useful addition to emetics.   As a  stimulant and promoter  of  the
secretions, it has  been used with advantage in the latter stage of low fever  accom-
panied with torpidity.  It has also been used as an emetic,  purgative, and diapho-
retic, in rheumatism, as a diuretic in dropsy, and as an emmenagogue in amenorrhcea.
It was introduced into practice as  a  remedy against the bite of venomous animals,
as the  rattlesnake.
  Administration.—The  dose  of the powder is from  grs. x to  9j.   But  the
infusion or decoction is the best form of exhibition.
  1. DECOCTTM SEXEGjE,  L. [U.  S.];  Decoction  of  Senega.—(Senega  Root  3x
[|i, U. &]; Distilled Water two pints [Water Oiss,  U. &].   Boil down to  a pint,
and strain.)—Stimulating, expectorant, and diuretic.  Dose, f^j  to f^iij, three or
four times daily.   Ammonia is often a valuable addition to  it.
  [% INFUSUM POLYGALE, D.—(Polygala Root, bruised, gss;  Boiling Water £ix.
Digest for one hour in a covered vessel, and strain.)—The product should measure
about eight ounces.—Ed.]

  [1.  DFUSDI SENEGiE, E.; Infusion  of Senega.—(Take of  Senega 3x;  Boiling
Water one pint.   Infuse for four hours in  a covered vessel,  and  strain.)—Ed.]
  [4. SYRUPUS SENEGA, U. S.   Syrup of Seneka.—(Take of Seneka, bruised, four
ounces; Water a pint; Sugar a pound.  Boil  the  Water with the Seneka to one-
half, and strain; then add the Sugar, and proceed in the manner directed  for Syrup.
Or, take Seneka in coarse powder four ounces; Water a sufficient quantity;  Sugar
fifteen ounces.  Mix the  Seneka with four fluidounces of Water, and allow the
mixture to stand for twelve hours;  then put it into an open apparatus for displacement,
and gradually pour water upon it  until the liquid passes nearly tasteless.   Evapo-
rate the filtered liquor to half a pint, strain, and having added the Sugar, proceed
as for Syrup.)—This preparation  possesses all  the advantages of the decoction, to
which, moreover, it is superior, in its acceptability to the  patient.  It may be  em-
ployed by itself, or it may be combined with other articles and employed in the form
of cough mixture.   The dose is f3i  or  f3ij.
1 Eberle, Mat. Med. 
     TheRhatany:—History;  Botany;  Description;  Composition.   995

   5. EXTRACTDI SENEGA; Extract of Seneka.—(To make this preparation, a formula
has been given by Mr. Procter, in Am. Journ.  of Pharmacy, vol. xiv. p. 287.  Take
of Seneka, in coarse powder, §xvj; Alcohol Oij; Water Oiv.   Mix  the  Alcohol
and Water, and macerate the Seneka in one half of it for two days, place the mix-
ture in a displacement apparatus, and operate with the same  menstruum until six
pints of  tincture are obtained.  Evaporate this on a water-bath till reduced to the
consistence of an extract.  One drachm of  this extract dissolved in a pint of water
yields a preparation of the  same theoretical  strength, but greater actual strength
than  the officinal decoction.   It may be used  in the same manner as the preceding,
by combination.]


329.  KRAMERIA TRIANDRA,  Ruiz and Pavon, L. E. 0.-THE  RHA-
                                   TANY.
                        Sex. Syst. Tetandria, Monogynia, Willd.
                              (Radix, L.—Root, E. D.)

   History.—This plant  was discovered by Ruiz and Pavon, in 1779, in  South
America.   It was introduced  to  notice  into  this  country, as a medicine,  by
Dr. Rcece, in 1808.  In  1813, Ruiz's dissertation  on it appeared in an  English
dress.1
   Botany.—Gen. Char.—Sepals 4 or 5, irregular,  coloured, spreading, deciduous.
Petals 4 or 5, irregular, smaller than the calyx, the 3 inner unguiculate.   Stamens
1, 3, or 4, hypogynous, unequal.   Ovary 1-celled, or incompletely 2-celled; style
terminal;  stigma simple; ovules  in pairs, suspended.   Fruit between hairy and
leathery, globose, covered with hooked  prickles,  by abortion  1-seeded, indehiscent.
Spreading, many-stemmed undershrubs.  Leaves  alternate, simple, entire, or 3-fo-
liate, spreading.  Racemes simple, spiked (Lindley).
   Sp. Char.—Leaves  oblong, somewhat acute,  villous-silky.  Pedicels  somewhat
longer than the leaf, bibracteate, forming a short raceme. (De Cand.)
   Suffruticose.   Root long, branching.   Stem  procumbent,  branching.    Leaves
sessile, covered  on  both surfaces with  long,  silky leaves.  Flowers solitary, lake-
coloured.  Stamens 3.    Drupe round, beset with stiff reddish hairs.
   Hab.—Peru; growing abundantly in Huanuco, Huamalies, and Canta.
   Description.—Rhatany  root (radix kramerise seu rhatanhise) is brought from
Peru.  It consists  of numerous woody, cylindrical, long branches, varying in thick-
ness from that of a  writing-quill upwards.   These pieces consist of a slightly fibrous,
reddish-brown bark, having an intensely astringent and slightly bitter  taste, and of
a very hard, ligneous meditullium, of a yellowish or pale red colour.   The  largest
quantity of astringent matter resides in  the  bark, and therefore the smaller branches
(which have a larger proportion of bark) are to be preferred.
   Foreign or South American  extract of rhatany (extractum kramerise seu rha-
tanhios americanum) is occasionally imported.
   Composition.—Rhatany  root has been analyzed  by Trommsdorff, Vogel, C. G.
Gmelin, and Peschier.2
                                        Peschier.
                     Dried watery extract  31.25 I Tannin................  42.6
                     Insoluble matters . .  68 75  Gullic acid..............  0.3
                                      -----  Gum, extractive, and colouring matter  56.1
                       Rhatany Root . . 100.00  Krameric acid............   0\4
                                            Dried Watery Extract of Rhatany Root 100.0
Rhatany Root . . 100 0  |l

  I. Tannic Acin.—To this, as well as in part to a minute portion of gallic acid, rhatany root
owes its astringent qualities.  It  is this acid which enables an infusion of rhatany root to form,

 i  Eckaid, Diss. Inaug. de Bad. Ratanhice, Berol. 1822.       *  L. Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. ii. 125.
	383
Swi—t matter . .	6.7
Mucilage ....	8.3
Nitrogenous ditto	2.5
	43.3
	0.9]
 
996
VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord.  Poltoalkb.
with a solution of gelatine, a precipitate (tannate of gelatine), and with sesquichloride of iron a
brownish-gray precipitate (tannate of iron).  The properties  of tannic acid have been already
described.
  2. Khameiuc Acm.—Peschier ascribes the stypticity of rhatany to this acid, the properties of
which are at present imperfectly known.
  Physiological Effects.—A  powerful astringent, and, like other agents of this
class, tonic also.   (See the effects of astringents, ante.)
  Uses.—Rhatany root  is adapted  to all those cases requiring the employment of
astringents; such as profuse mucous discharges (as humid catarrh, old diarrhoeas,
fluor albus, &c), passive hemorrhages (especially metrorrhagia), and relaxation and
debility of the solids.   It is sometimes used as a tooth powder (as with equal parts
of orris root and  charcoal).   Dentists sometimes employ tincture of rhatany diluted
with water as an astringent mouth wash.
  Administration.—The  powder  may be given in doses of from grs. x to 3ss.
The infusion or extract is more commonly employed.   Compound tincture of rha-
tany is prepared  by digesting §iij of bruised rhatany root, and §ij of orange peel,
in Oj of proof  spirit.   Sometimes  sss of serpentary root and 3j of saffron are
added.  It is an  efficacious astringent and stomachic.—Dose, f3J to f3iij.
  1. INFUSUM  KRAMERLE, L. D.;  Infusion of Rhatany.—(Krameria gj [gss Df];
Boiling Distilled Water  Oj, [%ix i>.]  Macerate for four hours [one hour, D.~\ in
a lightly covered vessel,  and  strain.   (The product should  measure  about eight
ounces, D.)—Astringent and tonic.   Dose,  f^j to fjij.
  2. EXTRACTUM KRAMERLE, E.;  Extract of Rhatany.—(Prepared as extract of
liquorice.   [A better mode is by  evaporation of the  displaced infusion.]   Astrin-
gent.)—Dose,  grs. x to 9j.
  [3. TINCTURA KRAMERLE,  U. "S.   Tincture of Rhatany.—(Rhatany  in powder
§vi;  Diluted Alcohol Oij.   Macerate for fourteen days, and strain, or prepare by
displacement.)—Used as an adjunct to cretaceous mixtures, or  with  tonics.   The
dose is f3j to f^ij-   It may be employed diluted with water as a gargle.]
  [1. SYRUPUS  KRAMERLE, U. S.  Syrup of Rhatany.—(Extract of Rhatany gij;
Water Oj;  Sugar lb ijss.  Dissolve the extract in the  water, and make the solu-
tion into  a  syrup.  A pleasant astringent,  used in diarrhoeas, chronic dysentery,
and hemorrhages.)—Dose, f3J  to  f^ss.]
  Order  LXXXII.  VIOLACEiE,  Lindley.—TBE  VIOLET
                                   TRIBE.

                              Violahije, De Candolle.

  Ckakacteiis.—Sepals 5, persistent, with an imbricate aestivation, usually elongated at the base
Petals 5, hypogynous, equal or  unequal, usually withering,  and with an  obliquely convolute
activation.   Stamens 5, alternate with  the petals, usually opposite them, inserted on a hypogy-
nous disk, often unequal; anthers bilocular, bursting inwards, either separate or cohering and
   '     '       i     '    .ei       ,.,  ',      fe """"uoi cmici separate or conenng, and
lying close upon the ovary : filaments dilated, elongated beyond the anthers ; two, in the re-ular
flowers, generally furnished with an appendage or gland at their base,  Ovary  1-celled  many-
seeded, or rarely 1-seeded, with 3 parietal placente opposite the three outer sepals ; style single,
usually decimate, with an oblique hooded stigma.  Capsule of 3 valves, bearing the placental in
their axis.  Seeds often with a tumour at their base; embryo straight, erect, in the axis of fleshy
albumen-Herbaceous plants  or shrubs.   Leaves simple,  usually alternate, sometimes opposite,
stipulate, entire, with an involute vej-nation.   Inflorescence various (Lindley).
   PnnBi'BTTrc ___Rnntc mr»ro r»r loco c»i-k-ni*i,-.                           *
Properties.—Roots more or less emetic. 
The Sweet Violet :—History;  Botany; Description;  Uses.    997
  330. VIOLA ODORATA, Linn. L.  £.-THE SWEET VIOLET.
                           Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Monogynia.
                           (Petalum recens, L.—Flowers, E.)

  History.—According to Dr. Sibthorp,1 this is the lov 7top<pvp6iv (purple violet)
of Dioscorides.3   It was employed in medicine by Hippocrates.
  Botany.—Gen. Char.—Sepals 5, unequal, prolonged into  appendages  at the
base.   Corolla unequal, 2-lipped, of 5 petals, the lower calcarate.   Capsule burst-
ing with elasticity, many-seeded, 3-valved.—Herbaceous plants  (Lindley).
  Sp. Char.—Stigma uncinate, naked.   Leaves rounded cordate.   Sepals ovate,
obtuse.   Spur very blunt.   Capsule turgid, hairy.   Seeds  turbinate, pale.   Run-
ners fiagelliform. (De Cand.)
  Perennial.    Flowers  fragrant,  deep purple,  often white,  occasionally  lilac.
Bracts inserted above the middle of  the scape.
  Hab.—Indigenous.  Flowers in March and April.  Cultivated on account of the
odour and colour of the flowers.
  Description.—Violets (flores violse odoratse)  should be gathered immediately
they are  expanded,  as  they subsequently become purplish.   Their delightful frag-
rance is well known.  The root of the violet (radix violse odoratse) has been used
in medicine.
   Composition.—In 1822, Pagenstecher3 detected the following  substances in an
infusion of the flowers : Odorous principle,  blue colouring matter,  sugar both crys-
tallizable and uncrystallizable, gum,  albumen, and salts of potash and lime.   Boul-
lay* obtained from the root, leaves, flowers, and seeds an acrid principle, which he
has  termed violine.
  1. Odorous Principle.—This has not been isolated.  It is supposed, however, to be of the
nature of volatile  oil.   By digesting violets in olive oil, the latter  dissolves the odorous matter,
and acquires the smell of  violets:  this preparation is the oil of violets, the huile de violette of per-
fumers.  The  eau or esprit de violette is nothing more than an alcoholic tincture of the  rhizome
of the Florentine orris, which has an odour similar to that of the  violet.
  2. Colouring Matter—It is soluble in water, but not in alcohol.  It is  changed to red by
the strong acids, and to green by the alkalies: hence, the expressed juice and  syrup are valu-
able as tests for discovering the existence of either  acids or alkalies.  An  infusion of violets has
been said to  contain three kinds of colouring matter ; namely, a  blue colouring matter, not pre-
cipitable by the acetate of lead, but which is completely decolorized by sulphuretted hydrogen ;
secondly, a bright-red acid colouring  matter, which  causes  a bluish-green precipitate with the
solution of acetate of lead; thirdly, a violet-red colouring matter, which does  not precipitate the
neutral'acetate of lead, but throws down a greenish-yellow precipitate with  the subacetate
of lead.
  3.  Violine (Eme'tine indigene).—It was at first mistaken for Emetina.  Its nature  requires
farther  investigation.  It is a white powder, of a  bitter acrid taste, slightly soluble in water,
and  insoluble in etlier.  It is precipitated from its  solution by infusion of nutgalls.  Its opera-
tion  is similar to that of emetine.
   Physiological Effects.—The odorous emanations of violets, like  those of some
other flowers, are said to have occasionally proved dangerous, and in one case, were
supposed to have brought on apoplexy.5 Dr. Lindley6 has known them  cause faint-
ness and giddiness.   Taken internally, violets act as laxatives.   The seeds  possess
similar properties.   The root, in doses of from 3ss to 3J> proves  emetic and  pur-
gative.
   Uses.—Violets are employed  in  the preparation of the officinal  syrup.  They
are useful as a test for acids and alkalies, and are  much  sought after for bouquets.
The root might  be employed as a substitute  for ipecacuanha.
   SYRUPUS HOLE, L. B.;  Syrup of Violets.—(Of the Violet  Six;  Boiling  Dis-
I Prodr. Fl. Grrrc. i. 147.
» Gmelin, Handb. d. Chun. ii. 1249.
' Trillcl, quoted by Murray, App. Med. i. 178.
a Lib. iv. cap. 122.
* Journ. de Pharm. x. 23.
s Flora Medica. 
998
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Cistace;e.
tilled Water Oj ; Sugar rfciij, or a sufficiency; Rectified Spirit giiss, or a sufficiency.
Macerate the violet in water for twelve hours, then express  and strain.—Set aside
that the dregs subside, and proceed  as directed for the Syrupus Althaeas, L.   (Fresh
Violets, L. Ifej; Boiling Water Oiiss; Pure Sugar ibviiss.   Infuse the flowers for
twenty-four  hours  in the water  [in a covered  glass or earthenware  vessel, E.~\;
strain without  squeezing, and dissolve the  sugar in  the filtered liquor,  E.)—The
colour of this preparation is improved by making  it in a tin or pewter  vessel.   No
satisfactory explanation  of this has been offered.   The Edinburgh College, fearful,
I presume, of metallic impregnation, direct glass  or earthenware vessels  to  be  em-
ployed.—Genuine  syrup of  violets  is readily distinguished from any counterfeit by
                             its  being reddened by an acid, and made  green by an
          Fig. 401.            alkali.   Hence it is  employed as  a test.—As a medi-
                             cine it is used as a mild laxative for new-born infants.
                             Thus, a mixture of equal parts of oil of almonds and
                             syrup of violets is often administered, in  the dose of
                             one or two teaspoonfuls, for the\purpose mentioned.
Root of Ionidium Ipecacuanha.
      OTHER MEDICINAL VIOLACE^S.

  The roots of several species of Ionidium  possess emetic
qualities,  and have been employed  as substitutes for  our
officinal ipecacuanha (Cephaelis Ipecacuanha).
  The root of Ionidium Ipecacuanha, a native of the Bra-
zils, is termed False Brazilian Ipecacuanha.  It yielded Pelle-
tier five per cent, of emetine.  The dose of it, as an emetic,
is gss to !jj infused in water.
  The root of the Ionidium microphtllum,  or the Cuichun-
chully, a native of Quito, possesses similar properties.
  Dr. Bancroft1 speaks favourably  of it  in  Elephantiasis
tnberculata.   But the specimens which he sent home as Cui-
chunchully are said by Sir  W. Hooker to be identical with
Ionidium parviflurum, Vent.  Dr. Lindley,2 however, received
from  the  Hon.  W. F. Strangways,  the "Cuchunchully de
Cuenca,"  which was the I. microphyllum of Humboldt.
Order  LXXXIII.  CISTACE^E, Lindley.—TBE  ROCK-ROSE
                                   TRIBE.
              Cisti, Jussieu.   Cistoide.e,  Ventenat.  Cistineje, De Candolle.
Cistus creticus.
  The  substance called Ladanum is  a  resinous exudation  from the
Cistus creticus, growing, as its  name implies, in  Crete.   In the time of
Dioscorides it was collected by combing the beards of the goats which
browse on the plant.  According  to Tournefort3 and Sieber, it is now
collected  by a kind of whip or  rake, with a double  row of leathern
thongs.  With this the countrymen brush the plants, and when the whips
are sufficiently laden with the juice.it is scraped off by knives, and made
into cakes.  Pure  ladanum consists of resin and volatile oil 8G, wax 7,
aqueous extract 1, and earthy matters and hairs 7 (Guibourt).  Pelletier
found 72 per cent, of sand in  it.   It possesses stimulant properties, and
was formerly a constituent of some plasters.  Its use is now obsolete.
1 Comp. to Bot. Mag. i. 278.
* Voyage into the Levant, i. 79, 1741.
2 Flora Medica, p. 
Cabbage or Cruciferous Tribe.—Cuckoo-Flower:—History; Uses.  999
Order  LXXXIV.  CRUCIFERE^, Jussieu.—TBE CABBAGE

                     OR CRUCIFEROUS TRIBE.

                               Brassicace^, Lindley.

  Characters.—Sepals 4,  deciduous cruciate.  Petals 4, cruciate, alternate with the sepals.
Stamens  6, of which two are shorter, solitary, opposite the lateral
sepals, and occasionally toothed; and four larger, jn pairs, opposite the        Yig. 403.
anterior and posterior sepals, generally distinct, sometimes connate, or
furnished with a tooth on the inside.  Disk with various green glands
between the  petals,  and the stamens  and ovary.   Ovary superior,
unilocular, with parietal placentae usually meeting in the middle, and
forming  a spurious dissepiment.   Stigmas 2,  opposite the placentas.
Fruit a silique or  silicule, 1-celled, or spuriously 2-celled; 1- or many-
seeded; dehiscing by two valves separating from the replum; or in-
dehiscent.  Seeds attached  in a single row by a funiculus to each side
of the placenta?, generally  pendulous.  Albumen none.  Embryo  with
the radicle folded upon the cotyledons.—Herbaceous plants, annual,  bien-
nial,  perennial, very seldom suffruticose.  Leaves alternate.  Floivers
usually yellow or white, seldom purple (Lindley).
  Properties.—Pungent stimuli.  They furnish nutritive, condiment-
ary, and  antiscorbutic  substances.  Their  pungency depends on an
acrid volatile oil,  composed of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, sulphur, and
oxygen.  This oil becomes absorbed, and in some cases is detectable in
the secretions.  The  nutritive properties of cruciferae arise from  their
mucilaginous, saccharine, and extractive constituents.  Cakile maritima
is purgative.  Cheiranthus lividus is said to be dangerous to goats; while
Lepidum piscidium, we are told, stupefies fish.   These statements, how-
ever, require  farther  proof.   With these doubtful exceptions, none  of
the cruciferae are poisonous.                                            A Silique.
  331.  CARDAMINE  PRATENSIS, Linn— CUCKOO-FLOWER.
                          Sex. Syst. Tetradynamia, Siliquosa.

   History.—Brunfels and Tragus are the  earliest writers in whose works an un-
doubted notice of this plant appears.1
   Botany.   Gen.  Char.—Silique linear, with flat, nerveless  valves, which  often
separate elastically.   Seeds ovate, not bordered  (0=).   Umbilical cords slender.
(De Cand.)
   Sp. Char.—Leaves pinnatisect;  segments of  the radical ones somewhat round-
ed—of the cauline ones, linear  or  lanceolate,  entire.   Style  very short, scarcely
more slender than the silique; stigma capitate.  (De Cand.)
   Root perennial.   Stem about a foot  high.  Floicers light purple, flesh-coloured,
or white.
   Hab.—Indigenous;  meadows and moist pastures.  Flowers in April and May.
   Description.—The flowers (flores cardamiues) are  somewhat bitter and pun-
gent, and have a slight odour.   By drying they become  inodorous  and  almost
insipid.   The leaves possess a  flavour analogous to, though less agreeable than,  the
common water-cress.
   Composition.—I am unacquainted with any analysis of the plant worth quoting.
The pungency depends on volatile oil, the bitterness on  extractive matter.   A  few
experiments on this plant are  mentioned by  Gronhert.2
   Physiological Effects and Uses.—The flowers of cardamine are  said to be
stimulant, diaphoretic, diuretic, and nervine.   They were  formerly used in epilepsy,
especially when it occurred in children, but have now fallen into almost total disuse.
They were recommended by Sir George Baker8 in cholera and spasmodic asthma.
Dose of the dried flowers, 3'j <>r 3"J«
1 Sprengel, Hist. Rei Herb.
» Med. Trans, i. 442.
2 Spec. Inaug. Resiomonti, 1785. 
1000             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Crucifereje.
 332.  COCHLEARIA  ARMORACIA, Linn.  L. E— HORSERADISH.
                           Sex. Syst. Tetradynamia, Siliculosa.
                           (Radix recens, L.—Fresh root, E.)

   History.—Sprengel1  considers this plant to be  the  £a$an$ dypt'a of  Diosco-
 rides;3 and Dierbach3 suggests  that  it was known to  Hippocrates.   But  these
 opinions are by no means well established.
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—Silicule  sessile,  ovate-globose or oblong, with ventri-
 cose valves.   Seeds many, not bordered.   Calyx equal, spreading.  Petals entire.
 Stamens  not toothed.—(0=).  Flowers white.   Leaves often somewhat fleshy.
 (De Cand.)
   Sp. Char.—Silicules ellipsoid.  Eadical  leaves oblong,  crenate;  cauline  ones
 elongated, lanceolate,  dentate, or  incised.   Root fleshy, large.  (De Cand.)
   Root perennial, long,  cylindrical, white,  very pungent.   Stems two feet  high.
 Leaves much veined.   Flowers white.
   Hab.—Indigenous; extensively cultivated.  Flowers in May.
   Description.—Horseradish root (radix armoracise;  radix raphani rusticani)
 evolves, when scraped into  shreds, a  highly penetrating acrid vapour.   Its taste is
 very pungent.   It is  coloured  blue  by tincture  of iodine.  An  infusion of  it is
 tinged reddish yellow  by  the sesquisalts of iron.
   Composition.—Horseradish root was  analyzed by Gutret,4 who found its  con-
 stituents to be—acrid volatile oil, bitter resin, extractive sugar, gum, starch, woody
fibre, vegetable albumen, acetic acid,  and acetate and sulphate of lime.
  Volatile Oil (Oleum  Armoracea).—Obtained by distillation without water. It is pale yellow,
 heavier  than water, and very volatile.   Its odour is exceedingly powerful, and  like that of
 horseradish.  One drop is sufficient to infect a whole room.  Its taste is at first sweetish, then
 burning and acrid.  It causes inflammation and vesication when applied  to the skin.  It is
 slightly soluble in water,  easily so in alcohol. The watery solution yields, with acetate of lead,
 a brown precipitate  (sulphuret of lead)  ; with nitrate of silver, a black one (sulphuret of silver).
 [It contains sulphur and nitrogen, but no oxygen. It has lately been shown to be identical with
 Volatile Oil of Mustard.—Ed.]
   Physiological Effects.—Horseradish is a well-known pungent, acrid stimu-
 lant,  capable of producing vesication when applied to the skin, and of causing
 vomiting  when taken,  in the form  of infusion, into the  stomach.  Its odorous
 emanations readily excite a  copious flow of tears.  On the general system  it operates
 as a stimulant, and promotes both urine and perspiration.
   Uses.—Scraped in  shreds, it is used at the table as a  condimentary accompani-
 ment to roast beef.  It is not much employed, as  a  medicine.   Chewed, it serves
 as an excellent masticatory.  Taken in  this way, or in the form of syrup, it may be
 serviceable in some forms of hoarseness.   An infusion of it may be taken to excite
 vomiting, or to promote the operation of other emetics, as in poisoning by narcotic
 substances.   As a general stimulant, diaphoretic, and diuretic, it  has been used in
 palsy, chronic rheumatism, and dropsy.   It  is  one of the  remedies deemed anti-
 scorbutic.
   Administration.—Dose,  3ss  or more,  scraped into shreds.

   1. IXFUSni ARMORACLE COMPOSITUM, L.;  Compound Infusion of Horseradish —
 (Horseradish, sliced;  Mustard-seeds,  bruised,  of  each  gi;  Compound Spirit  of
 Horseradish  f 5j ; Boiling Distilled Water Oj.   Macerate  the root  and seeds in
 the water for two hours in a lightly covered vessel,  and strain.  Then add the com-
 pound spirit of Horseradish).—This preparation soon  undergoes decomposition   It
 is stimulant and diuretic^  and has been employed in chronic rheumatism, paralysis,
 dropsies, and scurvy.—Dose,  fgj  to fgij.                                    J
1 Hist. Rei Herb. i. 182.                               3 Lib {• 138
3 Arzneim. d. Hipp ok. 125.                             « fSmoiin uv. ji. j „,
             rr                                   umehn, Handb. d. Chem. ii. 1248 
            Black Mustard :—History;  Botany;  Description.       1001

  2. SPIRITUS  ARMORACLE  COMPOSITUS,  L.; Compound Spirit of Horseradish.—
(Horseradish, sliced; Dried  Orange Peel, of each  |xx;  Nutmegs,  bruised, 3v;
Proof Spirit, Cong, j; Water Oij.  Mix, and let a gallon distil by a  gentle heat).—
Usually employed as a stimulating adjunct to other medicines, especially to diuretic
infusions.  Dose, f3j to f3iv.


       333.  COCHLEARIA OFFICINALIS, Zfn«.-COMMON
                            SCURVY-GRASS.
                         Sex. Syst. Tetradynamia, Siliculosa.
                                    (Herba.)

  History.—This plant does not appear to have been known to the ancients.
  Botany.—Gen. Char.—See  Cochlearia Armoracia.
  Sp. Char.—Silicules ovate-globose, twice as short as their  pedicels.   Radical
leaves  stalked, cordate; cauline ones ovate dentate-angular.  (De Cand.)—Annual
Stem./Sihont a foot high.  Flowers pure white.
  Hab.—Indigenous;  on  the  sea-coast  and in watering-places on the Welsh and
Scottish  mountains.  Cultivated in gardens.—Flowers in April and May.
  Description.—Scurvy-grass  (herba cochlearise) evolves, when  rubbed, a  some-
what pungent odour.   Its taste  is penetrating and acrid.
  Composition.—The inspissated juice was examined by Braconnot,1 and the fresh
herb by Gutret.s  The latter obtained from it the following constituents: volatile
oil, bitter resin, bitter extractive, gum, green fecula, vegetable albumen, hydrochlorate
and sulphate of ammonia, nitrate and sulphate of lime.
  Volatile Oil (Oleum Cochlearia:).—This oil is identical with the oil of horseradish (ante, p.
lOOO^.
  Physiological Effects and Uses.—A gentle stimulant, aperient, and diuretic.
It has long  been esteemed as an  antiscorbutic.3   It has also been used in visceral
obstructions.   It is occasionally eaten with bread and butter, like the water-cress.
[Formerly introduced into the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, now  omitted.—Ed.]


   334.  SINAPIS  NIGRA,  Linn. L. E. fl.-COMMON  OR  BLACK
                                MUSTARD.

                          Sex. Syst. Tetradynamia, Siliquosa.
(Semen, L.—Flour of the seeds, generally mixed with those of Sinapis alba, and deprived of fixed oil by
                        expression, E.—The flour of the seeds, D.)

   History.—Mustard (vdrtv) was employed in medicine by Hippocrates.
   Botany.  Gen. Char.—Silique  somewhat terete;  the valves nerved.   Style
small, short, acute.   Seeds in  one row, somewhat globose.   Calyx spreading. (De
Cand.)
   Sp. Char.—Siliques smooth, even, somewhat tetragonal, pressed close to the pe-
duncle.   Lower leaves lyrate; upper ones lanceolate, quite entire, stalked.—Annual
Stem  3 or 4 feet high.  Flowers yellow.
   Hab.—Indigenous;  hedges and waste places.   Cultivated in fields, especially in
Durham aud Yorkshire.
   Description.—Black mustard seeds (semina sinapis  nigrse) are small  and
roundish.   Externally they are beautifully veined,  and of a reddish or blackish-
brown colour,  though sometimes  whitish.  Internally  they are yellow.  They are
inodorous, but have an acrid, bitter, oleaginous taste.

  1  Journ. Phys. lxxxiv. 278.                             - Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. ii. 1218.
  3  tee Valentinug, Cochlearia curiosa, by Shirley, 1676. 
1002              VEGETABLES.—Xat. Ord. Crucifereje.

               Fig. 404.                     Manufacture  of Mustard.—The fol-
                                        lowing method of preparing flour of mustard
                                        (farina  sinapis) was kindly furnished me
                                        by  a  manufacturer:   The seeds  of both
                                        black and white mustard are first crushed be-
                                        tween  rollers, and  then pounded in mortars.
                                        The pounded seeds are then sifted.   The re-
                                        sidue  in the sieve  is called dressings or sift-
                                        ings : what passes  through is impure flour
                                        of mustard.   The  latter by a second sifting
                                        yields  pure flour of mustard,  and a second
                                        quantity of dressings.   The  common flour
                                        of mustard of the  shops is adulterated with
                                        flour  (wheaten), coloured  by turmeric, and
                                        rendered hot  by pod pejiper.   By pressure
                                        the dressings  or siftings  yield  a  fixed  oil
                                        (fixed oil of mustard), which  is  used for
                                      .  mixing with rape and other oils.  The whole
                                        seeds are never pressed.  Mustard cake is em-
                                        ployed as a manure, being too  hot for cattle.
                                           Composition.—Black mustard  seed was
                                        analyzed by Thibierge.1   Some  of its con-
                                        stituents have subsequently been  examined
    a. Sinapis alba.  b. Sinapis nigra.      by  Henry fils and Garot ;a by Pelouze ;3 by
                                        Kobiquet  and Boutron ;*  by Faurc ;5  by
Simon ;8  by Bussy ;7 and  by Bouton  and  Fremy.8   From their labours we learn
that black mustard seed contains myronate of potash, myrosine, fixed oil,  a pearly
fatty matter, gummy matter, sugar, colouring matter, sinapisin, free acid, peculiar
green matter, salts.
   1. Myromc  Acid.—So called by Bussy, its  discoverer, from popov, an odorous oil.  It is an
inodorous, nonvolatile, bitter, non-crystallizable acid.  It is soluble in water and  alcohol; but
not in ether.  It is  composed of carbon, sulphur, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen.  The  alkaline
myronates are crystallizable.   Myronate of  potash yields no precipitate with nitrate  of silver,
nitrate of baryta, acetate  of lead, corrosive sublimate,  or chloride of calcium.  The character-
istic property of myronic acid is, to yield the volatile oil of mustard when mixed with myrosine
and water.  [This acid in  mustard seed is combined with potash, forming myronate of potash,
which is identical with the sulpho-sinapisin of Henry.—Ed.]
   2. Myrosine ; Emulsin of Black Mustard.—Bussy called it myrosine, from /xv^ov, odorous oil, and
trim, with, because it yields,  with  myronic acid and  water, the volatile oil of mustard.  It has
considerable resemblance to vegetable albumen and emulsin; but as  it cannot be  replaced by
either of these substances,  in the development of the volatile oil,  it must be regarded as a sub-
stance sui  generis.   It is soluble in water : but  is coagulated by heat, alcohol, and  acids, and in
this state it loses the power of acting on the myronates, and of  yielding the volatile oil.
   3. Sinapisine.—This term has been given, by Simon, to a substance which he procured from
black mustard seeds, and which, he states, possesses the following properties:  It presents itself
in the form of white, brilliant, micaceous, volatile crystals, which  are soluble in alcohol, ether,
and the oils, but are insoluble in acids and alkalies.  When mixed with the albumen (myro-
sine) of the mustard seed,  it yields the  volatile oil of mustard. Bussy ascribes this last properly
to myronic acid.  It is highly improbable that  two constituents of mustard should  possess it.
Analogy would lead us to suppose that the  oil is generated by non-acid substances.  Simon says
sinapisine contains no sulphur.  Myronic acid contains sulphur.
   4. Volatile Oil of Mustard.—This does not pre-exist in  the seeds;  but is  formed when
water is added'to the farina, by  the mutual action of the contained  myrosine and myronate of
potash (sinapisine?), just as the  volatile oil  of bitter almonds is generated by the  mutual action
of emulsin,  amygdalin, and water (see p. 768).   Alcohol extracts from the farina  no volatile
oil; but, by coagulating the myrosine, renders the farina incapable of developing  the oil by the
1 Journ. de Pharm. v. 439.
- Journ. de Chim. Mid. i. 439 and 467; and Journ. de Pharm. xvii. 1.  ' Journ. de Chim. Med. vi. 577.
4 Journ. de Pharm. xvii. 290.                                  « Ibid.
e Ibid. xxv. 366.                                             ' Ibid. xxvi. 39.
8 Ibid. p. 48.
 
Black Mustard:—Physiological Effects;  Uses; Administration.   1003

subsequent action of water.   Sulphuric acid and the other mineral acids, as well as carbonate
of potash, check the formation of the oil.  But when the oil is once formed, the acids have no
power to prevent its effects.  Volatile oil of mustard is colourless or pale yellow; it has  a most
penetrating odour, and a most acrid burning taste.  Its sp. gr. at 68° F. is 1.015 (1.03S).  It boils
at 2i)0° F.  It is slightly soluble in water, but readily so in  alcohol and ether.  By the action of
ammonia on this oil, a white, odourless, crystallizable substance (an amide?) is produced, which
consists of one atom of the oil, and one atom of ammonia, C6H6Nb2-(-NH3.1  These crystals are
decomposed with the greatest facility by binoxide of mercury.2   [Volatile  oil of mustard is
represented by the formula C8H5NS2.  According to Wertheim, this oil  is the sulphocyanide of
allyle (AII=C6H5).  This is theoretically consistent with the constitution above given, for C6H5
C2NS9=C>H5NS2=All,CyS2.—Ed.] It is powerfully acrid, rubefacient, and vesicant.  It has
been proposed as a  rubefacient in paralysis, and as a vesicant. The distilled water of mustard has
been employed  against the itch.3
  fc. Fixhd Oil of Mustard.—Usually procured from the dressings or siftings of mustard
above referred to.  It constitutes  about 28 per cent, of the seeds.  Its colour  is reddish or
brownish-yellow.  It has a faint odour of mustard, and a mild oily taste.   It does not  readily
become rancid.  It has been used as a purgative and anthelmintic.4
   Physiological Effects.—Mustard is  an acrid stimulant belonging to the group
of the volatile pungent stimuli. It  holds an  intermediate rank between horseradish
and pepper.   Its topical  action is  that of a powerful acrid, and  depends on the
volatile oil developed  by the action of water.   The irritant operation, on the eyes',
of the vapour arising from a mixture of hot water and flour of mustard, is fami-
liarly known.   Mustard cataplasms cause  redness and burning pain, which,  if the
application be continued,  becomes almost insupportable.   A prolonged  application
causes vesication, with even ulceration and gangrene.  Compared  with those of
cantharides,  the topical effects of  mustard on the skin sooner subside when the ap-
plication  is discontinued.   When swallowed, mustard  evinces  the same stimulant
operation on the stomach  and bowels.   Taken in moderate  quantities,  with the
food, it promotes  the appetite, and assists the assimilation of substances which are
difficult of digestion.   In  somewhat larger doses (as one  or two teaspoonsful) it
rouses the gastric susceptibility, and operates as an  emetic.  In excessive quantities
it gives rise  to vomiting, purging, and gastro-enteritis.  The effects of mustard on
the general system are those of a  stimulant.   It quickens  the  pulse, and  promotes
the secretious (especially the urine) and the exhalations.
   Uses.—The dietetical uses of  mustard are well  known.   It is well  adapted for
cold, phlegmatic  individuals, with a  torpid or atonic condition  of the  digestive
organs.   It  is an excellent condimentary adjunct to heavy and difficultly digestible
foods, as  fatty matters.
   As a medicinal agent, mustard is employed  for several purposes.   As  an emetic
it is useful where we want to rouse the gastric sensibility, as in narcotic poisoning,
malignant cholera, and some  forms of paralysis.5   As a stimulant to the digestive
organs, it is  applicable in atonic or torpid conditions of these parts, with dyspepsia,
loss of appetite, and hepatic torpor.  As  a  diuretic it has been  employed with some
benefit  in dropsy.8  As a febrifuge in intermittents, it has  been  employed  either
alone or in conjunction with cinchona.7  But the principal use of mustard is as a
rubefacient (see  Cataplasma Sinapis).  Flour of mustard, or bruised mustard seed,
is sometimes added to  pediluvia.
   Administration.—As  an emetic,  the  dose is  from a teaspoonful to a  table-
spoonful of  the flour of  mustard  in a tumblerful of water.   As a diuretic in drop-
sies, and  for some other purposes, mustard whey (serum lactis sinapinum) is  a con-
venient form of exhibition.   It is prepared by boiling half an ounce of the bruised
seeds or powder in a pint of  milk, and straining; the dose is f§iv  twice  or  thrice
a day.
 1 This constitution differs from that formerly given by Dumas and Pelouze, Journ. de Chim. Med. ix.
615.
 2 Robiquet rind Bussy, Journ. de Pharm. xxvi. 119.   ' Julia Fontenelle, Journ. de Chim. Mid. i. 131.
 * Kontenclle, op. supra cit. 131.
 * On the use of mustard emetics in cholera, see Lond. Med. Gaz. ix. 519, 592, and 795.
 • Mead, Works, p. 514, 1T02.                      ' Bergius, Mat. Med. 2d edit. ii. 618. 
1004            VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord. Crucifere;e.

  CATAPLAS3IA SIXAPIS, L. j  Sinapismus; Mustard Poultice or Sinapism.—(Lin-
seed ; Mustard seed, of each, powdered,  giiss;  Boiling Water  gxj.    Add  the
powders, previously mixed, to the water by degrees, stirring  so that a  poultice be
made.)—Crumb of  bread may be  often  conveniently substituted for linseed meal.
Vinegar and other acids  check the formation of the acrid oil.  Boiling water  also
has an injurious effect.   Hence water whose  temperature does not exceed 100° R
is to be preferred for making the mustard poultice.   Aetius1 was  acquainted with
the injurious  influence exercised by vinegar on mustard; and he observes: "Sed
et hoc noscendum est: si in aceto maceretur sinapi inefficatus redditur :   Acetum
enim sinapis vim discutit."   Several experiments on this subject  have been made
by Trousseau and Pidoux.3  They found that a sinapism made with flour of black
mustard  and water  produced as much  effect in six minutes as one made with flour
of black mustard and vinegar did  in fifty.  Curiously enough, however, they state
that vinegar did not diminish the activity of English flour of mustard.   This, per-
haps, is referable to the fact that  common English flour of mustard contains  pod-
pepper, the active principle (capsicin) of which is soluble in  vinegar.  The London
College formerly ordered vinegar.—The  mustard cataplasm is a powerful local irri-
tant.   It readily excites inflammation, and, when allowed to remain applied suffi-
ciently long, causes vesication.  It proves, in many cases, a most painful  applica-
tion.   In various affections of the brain (as in the stupor and delirium of low fever,
in apoplexy, and in poisoning by opium) it is  a most valuable application  to  the
feet and ankles.  In pulmonary and  cardiac diseases  it is  occasionally applied to
the chest with excellent effects.   Dr. Blackall3 speaks in high terms of the mustard
cataplasm, quickened with oil of turpentine, in typhoid  pneumonia.  Of course, in
all  these cases, it operates on the principle of a blister, over which its speedy effect
gives it a great advantage.   It is applied spread on  linen or calico.  Great caution
is necessary in its application to persons who are insensible to pain;  for  if it be
continued too long, it may  occasion ulceration and sloughing, though no pain be
manifested.   Hence its effects should be examined at short intervals.   In one  case,
death had nearly resulted from  the neglect of this caution.  Four sinapisms  were
applied to the wrists and insteps of a female lying in a comatose condition following
puerperal convulsions.   As no manifestation of pain occurred, the application was
continued for three hours.   Sloughing followed, which nearly proved fatal.4


      335.  SINAPIS ALBA,  Linn. L. E. D.-WHITE MUSTARD.
                         Sex. Syst. Tetradynamia, Siliquosa.
(Semen, L.—Semina, D—Flour of the seeds of Sinapis nigra, generally mixed with those of Sinapis alba,
                        and deprived of fixed oil by expression, £.)

   Botany.   Gen. Char.—See  Sinapis  nigra.
   Sp. Char.—Siliques hispid, spreading, somewhat narrower than the ensiform beak.
Leaves lyrate, and, as well as the stem, nearly smooth.   (De Cand.)
   Annual.   Stem 1 or l£  foot high.    Flowers large,  yellow.  Beak longer  than
the pod.
   Hab.—Indigenous;  in waste places.   Cultivated in botb fields and  gardens.
Flowers in June.
   Description.—"White mustard seeds (semina sinapis albse) are larger and some-
what less acrid to the taste  than the black ones.   They consist of rounded-elliptical
yellow grains, composed of  a yellow nucleus enveloped  in  a  tbin semitransparent
shell.   The hilum  is at one extremity of the ellipse.
   Composition.—According to the analysis of John,5  wbite mustard  seeds consist
of  an acrid volatile oil, yellow fatty  oil, brown mild  resin, extractive (very  small
1 Sermo iii cap. 181.
3 Observ. on Dropsies, 4th edit. p. 339, 1824.
* Gmelin, Handb. de Chem. ii. 1247.
2 Traiti de Thirap. i. 692.
* Trousseau and Pidoux, op. supra cit. i. 700. 
              White Mustard:—Physiological Effects; Uses.         1005

quantity), gum  (small quantity), woody fibre, albumen, free phosphoric acid, and
salts.
   Robiquet and Boutron,1 however, have proved that white mustard contains neither
volatile oil nor any substance capable of producing it; and that it owes its activity
to a non-volatile acrid substance, which does not pre-exist in the seeds, but is readily
formed in them under certain  conditions.   Another  chemical peculiarity of white
mustard seed is, that it contains sulphosinapisin.2   Hence, while sesquichloride  of
iron strikes a deep red colour in an infusion of  white mustard,  it merely communi-
cates an orange tint to the infusion of black mustard.   Moreover, the thick mucila-
ginous liquor obtained by digesting  the  seeds of white  mustard in cold water  is
peculiar to them.3   Simon4 has announced  the existence of a new principle,  which
he calls erucin.
   1. Sulphosinapisin.—It was at first supposed to be an acid, and was in consequence called,
by Henry and Garot,6 sulphosinapic  acid.   But they subsequently established its non-acid proper-
ties.   It is a white, crystallizable,odourless, bitter substance, soluble in  water, alcohol, and ether.
Under the influence of various agents (acids, oxides, and salts) it readily yields hydrosulphocyanic
acid.  To this acid is  probably to be ascribed the red colour developed when a persalt of iron
is added to an aqueous infusion of  white  mustard.  Its aqueous solution forms, with nitrate of
silver, a white precipitate.  Boutron and Fremy state that sinapisin [sulphosinapisin], under the
influence of emulsion  [myrosine], is converted  into an acrid substance and hydrosulphocyanic
acid.  Sulphosinapisin consists of carbon  57.920, hydrogen  7.795, nitrogen 4.940, sulphur  9.657,
and  oxygen 19..G8S; or C24H^NS207. [This statement of its composition requires revision.—Ed.]
   2.  Non-volatile Acnm Principle.—This does  not pre-exist in  white  mustard, but is
readily developed in it by cold water.  As  before mentioned, Boutron and Fremy6 ascribe  its
formation to the action of the emulsion of the seed  on the sulphosinapisin, by which hydrosul-
phocyanic acid and this acrid matter are produced.  The latter substance is an unctuous, reddish,
odourless liquid, which has the pungent hot taste of horseradish.  It contains sulphur as one of
its constituents.
   [From recent researches it appears that myrosine is contained both in black and white mus-
tard; it is found to be precisely similar, and to possess similar properties, in the two varieties of
seeds;  but the products are different.  Thus white  mustard does not  yield with myrosine and
water the volatile oil of mustard, but a pungent oil of a different kind; hence it may be inferred
that white  mustard does not contain myronate of potash, but some other substance of an analo-
gous kind.   This different result on the two seeds is not owing to any peculiarity in the myrosine
of white mustard, because when this is added to the residue of black mustard deprived of its
myrosine, it yields the volatile oil, just as  the emulsine of the sweet almond produces the essen-
tial oil of almonds on mixture with the amygdaline of the bitter almond and water.  IMyrosine
acts on amygdaline like emulsine, but  the  latter cannot develop volatile oil of mustard by its
action on myronate of potash.—En.]
   3. Eritcin.—A yellowish-white substance, which is very soluble in  ether,carburet of sulphur,
and turpentine.  It dissolves in boiling alcohol, but is insoluble in water and solution of ammonia.
It does not redden the salts of iron, and contains no sulphur.
   Physiological Effects.—Similar to, though milder than, those  produced  by
black mustard.  Swallowed whole, the seeds prove stomachic, laxative, and diuretic.
But their use in the large quantities  in which they have been  recommended is by no
means free from danger.  Gastro-enteritic inflammation of a  fatal kind has been
induced by them.   The danger of their accumulation in the appendix caeci is obvious.
 Mr. J. L. Vv'hceler7 has known them retained in  the bowels for seven weeks.
   Uses.—Dr. Cullen8 first  mentions  the practice of giving half an  ounce, or  an
ordinary tablespoonful, of entire and unbruised mustard seeds.   A few years  ago,
it was again brought forward,  as if  new.9  It  has been advocated in a long list of
diseases  attended with torpor or atony of the digestive organs ; and at one time it
was  fashionable and popular.   Sir John  Sinclair10 recommended mustard seeds for
the  preservation of the health of  old  people especially.   The seed-leaves of  white
mustard and of Lcpidium sativum are used  at table under  the  name of mustard
and cress or corn salad.
>  Journ. de Pharm. xvii. p. 279.                - Henry and Garot, Journ. de Chim. M'd. i. 441.
*  C'Mili-t, Journ. de Pharm. xiii. 191.            ' Journ. de Pharm. xxv. 370.
1  Journ. de Chim. Mid. i. 439.                 s Journ. de Pharm. xxvi. 50.
1  Cat. Rat. Plant. Med. Lond. 1830.            s Mat. Med. ii. 171.
*  C. T. Cooke, Obs. on the Efficacy of White Mustard Seed, 3d ed. 1826.
1° Lancit,  Jan. 25, 1834, p. 669. 
1006            VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Papaverace^e.
  Administration.—From  two or three  large teaspoonfuls  to a tablespoonful
of the whole unbruised seed have been recommended to be swallowed three or four
times daily.
Order  LXXXV
PAPAVERACE.E,
            TRIBE.
Jussieu.—TEE  POPPY
Fig. 405.
  Characters.—Sepals 2, deciduous.  Petals  hypogynous, either 4, or  some multiple of that
                       number, placed in  a cruciate manner.  Stamens  hypogynous,  either
                       8, or some  multiple  of 4, generally very numerous, often in four
                       parcels, one of which adheres to the base of each petal; anthers
                       2-celled innate.  Ovary solitary; style short or none, stigmas alter-
                       nate with the placenta?, 2  or many;  in the latter  case stellate
                       upon the flat apex of the ovary. Fruit 1-celled, either pod-shaped,
                       with two parietal placentae, or capsular, with  several placentre.
                       Seeds numerous; albumen between fleshy and oily; embryo minute,
                       straight at the base  of the albumen, with plano-convex cotyledons.—
                       Herbaceous plants or shrubs, with a milky juice.  Leaves alternate,
                       more or less divided.  Peduncles long, 1-flowered; flowers never blue
                       (Lindley).
                         Properties.—The plants of this order possess narcotic and acrid
                       properties.  At the head of the narcotic  papaveraceae  stands the
                       genus Papaver, from which  opium is  procured.  The acrid  papa-
                       veraceae usually possess narcotic properties also.   Sanguinaria cana-
                       densis is one of the best  known aero narcotics  of this order.1  In
                       doses of from  ten  to twenty grains it operates  as an emetic.  In
                       larger doses it causes depression of  pulse, faintness, dimness of
                       vision, and alarming prostration of strength.  Its active principle is
an alkali called sanguinarina.  Chelidonium majus is another acrid of this order
Capsule of the Poppy.
       336. PAPAVER  RHCEAS, Linn. L. E. J.-COMMON  RED
                               CORN POPPY.

                           Sex. Syst. Polyandria, Monogynia.
                          (Petalum recens, L.—Petals, E. D.)

   History.—Theophrastus3 calls the  red  poppy £ot<ij.   Dr.  Sibthorp3 considers
the pr,uxv poid; of Dioscorides4 to be  the red poppy.
   Botany.   Gen. Char—Sepals 2, convex, deciduous.   Petals  4.   Stamens nu-
merous.   Style 0.   Stigmas 4  to 20, radiating, sessile upon the disk crowning the
ovary.   Capsule obovate, 1-celled, composed of from 4 to 20 carpels inclosed°in a
membranous production of the thalamus, dehiscing by short valves under the crown
of the stigmas.   Placentse  between  the valves, produced  internally, forming com-
plete dissepiments. (De Cand.)—Herbs, with a white juice.  Peduncles inflexed at
the apex before flowering.
   Sp. Char.— Capsule smooth, obovate.    Sepals  hairy.   Stem many-flowered
rough, with spreading setae.  Leaves pinnatipartite; lobes elongated, incised-den-
tate, acute. (De Cand.)
   Annual.   Petals rich scarlet.   This plant is distinguished from Papaver dubium
by 1st,  the wide-spreading hairs of the flower-stalks; 2dly,  a  shorter capsule;
odly, its stigma ot eight to ten  rays.
   Hab.—Indigenous.  A troublesome weed common  in  fields.  Flowers in June
or July.
 t  DESCRIPTION.-The petals of the red poppy  (petala rhceados seu papaveris erra-
tici) have a neb  scarlet colour,  a slightly opiate odour, and a bitterish taste   Bv
drying they become violet red and odourless.                               '
1 Bird, An Inaug. Dissert, on Sang, canad. New York  18Q9
» Prod. Fl. Grcec. i. 359.                        '
2 Hist. Plant, ix. 13.
4 Lib. iv. cap. C4. 
White Poppy :—History.
1007
  Composition.—The flowers of  the red poppy have been analyzed  by Beetz and
Ludewig,1  and by  Riffard.2   The  latter chemist obtained yellow fatty matter 12
red-coloured matter 40, gum 20, lignin  28.   It is not  improbable that this plant
may contain morphia in very minute quantity.
  Red Colouring Matter.—Riffard obtained it, in the impure state, by first macerating the
petals in ether to remove a fatty matter, and then in alcohol.  By distilling the alcoholic tincture
to dryness, a dark-red colouring matter was obtained, which in  thin layers was bright red.   It
was  deliquescent in  the air, soluble in alcohol and  in water,  but  insoluble in ether.  Acids
diminished the intensity of its colour.   Chlorine decolorized it.  The alkalies blackened it.  By
the last character  it  is distinguished from the colouring matter  of the red cabbage, &c, which
becomes green by alkalies.   Sesquichloride of iron gives it a dark violet or brown tinge.
  Physiological Effects and Uses.—The  red  poppy is valued medicinally as a
colouring ingredient only.   It probably possesses a  narcotic property  in  a very
slight degree, but which  is  scarcely sensible  in the ordinary doses in which this
medicine is employed.  Navier3 says that the continued  use of the tincture or syrup
by dogs gave the stomach a bluish-red tinge.

  6. SYRUPUS RIKEADOS, L. E.; Syrup  of Red Poppies; Syrup  of Corn Poppy.—
(Of  the Red Poppy Ibj;  Boiling Distilled Water Oj; Sugar rbiij, or a sufficiency;
Rectified Spirit  giiss, or a sufficiency.   Add the  red  poppy gradually to the water
heated in a water-bath [vapour-bath, E.~], frequently stirring them; then the vessels
being removed,  macerate for  twelve hours; afterwards [strain and, E.~] express the
liquor by hand  [through  calico, E.~\, and [proceed as ordered for the Syrupus Al-
thaeae, L.~\ [add the sugar, and dissolve  with the aid of heat, E.J)—Employed only
as a colouring ingredient, especially in  conjunction with acids, which brighten  it.
It readily ferments and spoils.


   337. PAP A VER  SOMNIFERUM, Linn. L.  E. D. - THE SOM-
                   NIFEROUS OR WHITE POPPY.
                          Sex. Syst. Polyandria, Monogynia.
(Capsute maturae;  Capsulse immature succus concretus,  L.—Capsules not quite ripe; Concrete juice
     from the unripe capsules, E.—Cnpsularum succus proprius concretus; Capsulse maturs, D.)

  History.—This is  one  of the most anciently known and described  plants.
Homer speaks of the poppy  (p^xuv) growing in gardens;4 so that it appears to have
been in  cultivation even  at  that  early period.  It was employed in medicine by
Hippocrates, and is mentioned by Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and Pliny.  Hippoc-
rates5 speaks of two kinds, the black and white poppy; the former, he  says, confines
the bowels more than the latter.
  It is uncertain at what period opium was first known or introduced into medicine.
Hippocrates0 recommends the nyxwiov,  or poppy juice, in a disease  of the uterus;
and  Dioscorides,7 on the  authority of Erasistratus, tells  us that Diagoras (who was
contemporary, as  is supposed, with Hippocrates) condemned the  use of opium.
These  are, I believe, the  most* ancient Greek  authorities who speak of this sub-
stance ; and it is impossible, I think, to  arrive at any accurate conclusion from their
remarks, whether opium had or had not been known long before  their time, though
Alston8 infers, from the little use made  of it by Hippocrates, as  well as from Diac-
oras  condemning its use in diseases of the eyes, that its virtues were not known long
before  him.  Dioscorides and Pliny9 mention that the expressed  juice of the heads
and  leaves is termed Meconium, and that it is much weaker than opium.  Theodore
Zwinger, Sprengel,10 and others,  have  supposed  that the  nepenthes (vrinevOic) of
Homer11 was opium.  Dr.  Royle,18 however, has suggested that the substance referred
1 Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. n. 1-2-16.
1 Wibmer, Wirk. d. Arzneim. u. Gifte, Bd. iv. S. 47.
1 De vict. rat. lib. ii. p. 357, ed. Fees.
* Lib. iv. cap. 65.
' Hist. Nat. lib. xx. cap. 76, ed. Valp.
" Od. iv. 220.
 2 Journ. de Pharm. xii. 412
 4 II. viii. 306.
 6 De Morb. Mul. lib. ii. p. 670.
 R Led. on the Mat. Med. ii 456
10 Hist. Rei Herb. i. 25
15 Illustr. p. 334. 
 1008            VEGETABLES.—Nat.  Ord. Papaverace^g.

 to by  Homer may have been  a preparation of Cannabis sativa, the remarkable
 effects of which have been recently pointed out by Dr. O'Shaughnessy.^
   The word opium is derived from 6*6 j, the juice, and signifies that it is the juice
 par  excellence; just as the flower  of the rosemary has  been called anthos, or the
 flower, and the cortex cinchonse, the bark.
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—See Papaver Rhosas.
   Sp. Char.— Capsules obovate or globose, and,  as well as the calyces,  smooth.
 Stem smooth, glaucous.  Leaves amplexicaul, cut-repand, dentate, somewhat  obtuse.
 (De Cand.)
   An  annual herb.  Root white, tapering.   Stem 2 to 6 feet high, erect,, branched,
leafy,  glaucous green.   Leaves alternate,  sessile, ovate-oblong, glaucous  beneath.
Peduncles  terminal, leafless, with bristly hairs.  Seeds numerous, small,  roundish
or reniform, oily, sweet, and edible.
  There are two well-marked varieties, which, by some botanists, are considered to  be distinct
species:—
  a.  nigrum; P. somniferum, Gmelin.—Capsules globose, opening by foramina under the stigma.
Seeds black.2  Peduncles many.  Fbwers usually violet or red, of different tints, though some-
 times white.
  8.  album; P. officinale, Gmelin.—Capsules ovate globose; foramina under the  stigma either
none or obliterated.  Peduncles solitary.  Seeds and petals white.
   Hab.—Asia and Egypt.   Grows apparently wild in some parts of England, but
has probably escaped from  gardens.   Cultivated in Hindostan, Persia, Asia  Minor,
and  Egypt, on account  of  the  opium obtained from it.   According to Dr.  Royle,
var. p  album is cultivated in the plains of India;  and var. a nigrum intthe Hima-
layas.   In Europe,  the  poppy  is cultivated for the capsules, either as medicinal
agents or for the oil (poppy oil) obtained from the seeds,  and which is employed in
painting.   The London market is principally supplied with poppy heads from the
neighbourhood of Mitcham, in Surrey.
   Description.  1.  Of  Poppy Heads.—Poppy heads (Capsulse  seu  Capita
Papaveris) are usually collected when quite ripe, as ordered  by the London and
Dublin Colleges; but they would be more active as medicinal  agents if  they were
gathered while still green; and the Edinburgh College very properly directs the
immature  capsule to be employed.   As met with in commerce, poppy heads vary
somewhat in size from that of a  hen's egg  to  that of  the fist.   Their texture  is
papyraceous;  on the top of them is the star-like stigma.  They are yellowish  or
yellowish-brown, and, if they have been collected before they were quite ripe, have
a bitterish taste.   When fresh, they  have a slightly opiate odour,  which  they lose
by drying.  A decoction of the dried poppy capsule is rendered, by the sesquichlo-
ride  of iron,  brownish-red  (meconate of iron).  Nitric acid  makes the decoction
transparent, and communicates  a slightly orange-red tinge, indicative  of the pre-
sence of  morphia.
   2. Opium.  Preparation.— The mode of extracting opium is, to a certain ex-
tent, similar in all  countries,  and consists in  making incisions into the  half-ripe
poppy  capsules,  and  collecting the  exuded juice.   According  to Dioscorides3
Kaempfer,1 Kerr,5 and Texier, this juice is worked up into a homogeneous mass •
whereas Bellomus6 and Olivier? speak of  the juice concreting on  the poppy • and
the first of these writers describes opium  as consisting of agglomerated granules
  Now Guibourt,8 by examining the opiums of commerce by means of a magnifier
thinks  he has discovered that the Smyrna and Persian (or  Trebizond)  opium  is
composed oi  small agglutinated  tears (opium with a grain);  whereas the  Egyp-
tian, and  I would add  the  Indian opium, is a homogeneous  mass, and  therefore
must have been worked up  in the  manner  described  by  Dioscorides, Keemp-

 1 On the Prepar. of the Indian Hemp, Calcutta, 1S39.
 - \Maw seed is the seed of a variety of garden Donnv iP-i^mr** .„„„•/„. __%  -
It is eagerly eaten by birds, and is used as! medkine for(them^ED 1       }   * Kra>'lsh-blue colour'
 3 Lib.  iv. cap. 64.                                '    '*  A  .     _,
 • Med. Obs. and Inq. vol. v. p. 317.                          , j,mmn- E*ot.:P- 643.
 ' Voy. dans VEmpire Ottoman.                             , °rb.sefrv\U^ '!!• «aP- 15.
                                                       Hist, abrig. n. 3me ed. 1830. 
White Poppy:—Cultivation.                    1009
fer, and others (homogeneous opium).    M. Ch.  Texier1 thus describes the process
of obtaining opium followed in  Asia  Minor: " A few  days after the  flower has
fallen, men and  women repair to the fields and  cut the head of  the poppy horizon-
tally, taking care that the incisions do not penetrate the  internal cavity of the shell.
A white substance immediately flows out, and collects in tears on the edges of the
cuts.   In this state the field is left for twenty-four hours, and on the following day
the opium is collected by large  blunt knives.  Each head furnishes opium  once
only, and that  to an extent  of a few  grains.   The first sophistication which  it
receives is that practised  by the  peasants who collect it,  and who lightly  scrape the
epidermis from the shell  to  augment the weight.   This operation  adds about one-
twelfth of foreign matters.  Thus collected, opium has the form of a glutinous and
granular jelly.   It is deposited  in  small earthen  vessels, and beat up with saliva.
When asked why water was not employed in place of  saliva, the answer was that
water caused it to spoil.  It is afterwards enveloped in dry leaves, and in this  state
it is sold.   The seeds of  those poppies which have yielded opium are equally  good
for sowing the following year."
   Some little variation  will  be found  in the  description  of other writers of the
methods practised in  other parts of the   East.   Kaempfer says  that  in  Persia the
incisions are made crosswise by a five-edged knife.   Kerr states that, in the province
of Behar, " two longitudinal double incisions"  are made " upon each half-ripe cap-
sule, passing from below upwards; care  being  taken that the internal cavity of the
capsule is not penetrated.
   [The most complete history of  the cultivation  and preparation of opium in our
Indian possessions has been published by Dr. Eatwell.   An abstract of his  paper
was published in the eleventh and twelfth volumes of the Pharmaceutical Journal,
in 1852.  We  have selected  from this  such portions as appeared to possess any
interest iu  reference to the  history of this  most  important  article of  Materia
Medica.—Ed.]
   The cultivation of the poppy in British India is confined to the large central Gangetic tract,
about six hundred miles in length  and  two hundred miles in depth, which is bounded on the
north by Goruckpore, on the south by  Hazareebaugh, on the east by Dingepore, and on the
west by Agra.  This large extent of country is divided  into two agencies, the Behar and the
Benares, the former being presided over by an agent stationed at Patna, at which station  is the
central or sudder factory of the  agency, the latter being under the control of an agent residing
at Ghazeepore, which  station contains  the sudder factory of the Benares  agency.   Finally, the
control of the entire department is vested in the Board of Customs, Salt, and Opium, located at
Calcutta.  Of the two  agencies, the Behar is the larger and  more important, sending  to the
market about treble the quantity of drug turned  out by the Benares agency.  The Benares
agency comprises eight divisions, namely, the  Benares and Mirzapore, the Ghazeepore, the Azin-
ghur, the Juanpore, the Selimpore,  the Goruckpore, the Cawnpore, and the  Futtehpore.  In these
eight divisions, the aggregate amount.of land under poppy cultivation, in the season 1 b 19-50, was
107,823 beegahs.2
   The lands selected for  poppy cultivation are generally situated  in the  vicinity of villages
where the facilities for manuring and irrigation are greatest.  In such situations, and when the
soil is rich, it is frequently the practice with the cultivators to take a crop  of Indian corn, maize,
or vegetables off the ground  during the rainy  season, and  after the removal of this, in Septem-
ber, to dress and manure the ground for the  subsequent poppy  sowings.  In other situations,
however, and when the soil  is not'rich, the poppy crop is the  only one  taken off the ground
during the year, and from the commencement of the rains in June or July until October, the
ground is  dressed and  cleaned by successive ploughings and  weedings, and  manured  to the
extent which  the means of the  cultivator will permit.  In the final  preparation of the land  in
October and November, the  soil,  after being well  loosened and turned  up by the plough, is
crushed and broken down by the  passage of a heavy log  of wood over its ?urface, and it is in
this state ready for sowing.  The  amount of  produce from various  lands differs considerably.
Under very favourable circumstances of soil and season as much as 12 or even 13 seers (26 lbs.)
of standard opium may  be  obtained from  each beegah of 27,225 square feet.   Under less
favourable conditions the out turn may not exceed three or /our  seers, but the  u=ual amount of
produce varies from 6 to 8 seers per  beegah.
   The chemical examination of different soils in connection with their opium-proilucing powers
» Journ. de Pharm. xxi. 196.    ,                            * A Beegah is 27,225 square feet.
      VOL.  II.—04 
1010              VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Papaverace^e.
presents afield for very profitable  and interesting inquiry;  nor is the least important part of
the investigation that which has reference to the  variations in the proportions of the alkaloids
(especially the morphia and narcotine) which  occur in opium  produced in various localities.
That atmospheric causes exert a certain influence in determining these variations is probable;
that they influence the amount  of produce, and cause alterations in the physical appearance of
the drug are facts well known to every cultivator.  Thus, the effect of  dews is  to facilitate the
flow of the juice from the  wounded capsule, rendering  it abundant in quantity, but causing it
at the same time to be dark and liquid.  An easterly wind (which in this part of  the country
is always  concomitant with a damp  state of atmosphere) retards  the flow  of the juice,
and renders it dark and liquid.  A  moderate westerly wind, with  dew at night, form the
atmospheric conditions most favourable  for  collections, both as  regards  the quantity and the
quality of the  exudation.   If, however, the  westerly wind (which is an extremely  dry wind)
blow violently, the exudation from  the capsules  is sparing.   Whilst  the effects of the meteor-
ological phenomena in producing the above results are well marked, their action in altering the
relative proportions of the  chemical constituents of the juice of the poppy plant is more ob-
scure ; and it  is highly probable that the chemical composition of the  soil plays  a most import-
ant part in this respect. Dr. O'Shaughnessy is certainly the most accomplished chemist who has
ever in India  turned his attention to the subject, and he  has published the results of his analysis
of specimens  of opium from the different divisions of the  Behar agency, which  are worthy of
much attention. In  the opium  from eight  divisions of the agency, he  found the quantity of
morphia to range from If to 3J grains per cent., and the amount of the narcotine to  vary  from
£ grain to 3J grains per cent., the  consistence of the various specimens being between  75 and
79 per cent.   In the opium  from  the  Hazareebaugh  district (the  consistence of the  drug
being 77) he found A\ per  cent, of  morphia and 4 per  cent, of narcotine, whilst from a speci-
men of Patna  garden opium he extracted no less than lOf per cent, of  morphia and 6 per cent.
of narcotine, the consistence of  the drug being 87.  Willi respect to  this last  specimen, Dr.
O'Shaughnessy mentions that the poppies which  produced it were irrigated three times during
the season, and that no manure was  employed upon the soil.   It is much to be regretted that
these interesting results were not coupled with an analysis of the  soils from which the speci-
mens were produced, for to chemical variations in it  must be attributed the widely different
results recorded above.   The climate in which the  Patna garden opium was produced (and
which is equal in narcotic excellence  to the best opium of Turkey or Egypt)  was precisely the
same as that in which the comparatively poor specimens of the eight divisions above alluded to
were collected, and therefore could  not have exerted any influence in  producing the chemical
differences which the drug  from the different localities presented.
  The poppy  cultivated in  the  Benares  and Behar agencies is exclusively the white variety
(papaver somniferum album).   In situations favourable to  its growth, it vegetates luxuriantly,
attaining usually a height of about four feet.   The stem  is branched, and is terminated by from
two to five ovate-globose capsules, averaging in  size a duck's egg.  The plant takes about three
months and a half in reaching maturity, and  the time for its cultivation is exclusively the cold
season, extending from November to March.  It has been found advantageous  to  change the
seed employed in the different divisions every two or three years, and there are certain districts
which produce seed of generally acknowledged superiority, and from which the supplies are
therefore drawn, and distributed to the cultivators of distant agencies.   The soil having  been
prepared in the manner described above, the sowing is  effected by throwing the  seed broadcast
over the  land, and this takes place between  the 1st and 15th of November.  In three or four
days, the plough is again  passed over the land  to bury the seed ; and  the soil is afterwards
again levelled by means of the log of wood before alluded  to.  The whole  surface  is then
divided into square  compartments, the  sides of which are about ten feet  in length, and are
raised and converted into little channels for the purpose of irrigation.   The  number of times
the plant may require irrigation depends in a great measure upon the  nature of the season;  if
some heavy showers  fall in December, January, and February, two irrigations may be sufficient;
whereas, if the cold season  pass over with little  or no rain, the operation may be required  to be
repeated five or six times.   Ten or  twelve days are  sufficient for the germination of the seed,
and after the little plants have attained a height of two or three inches they are carefully weeded
and thinned.
  In its progress towards maturity, the poppy plant is liable to injury in various ways   It may
be nipped by  unusually severe frosts, or the  plant may become stunted and never fairly reach
maturity, owing to the first sowings failing and  subsequent  late ones being  required  or owin«
to unusual heat and deficient  moisture.   Portions of cultivation sometimes droop  and wither
from causes which are not  obvious, or are attacked by blight; and finally, considerable injury
is frequently inflicted upon the poppy plants by a parasitical species of broom rape (the Oro-
banche  indica), which, attaching itself to the roots of  the  plants, causes  them  to wither   In
February, the  plant is generally  in full flower, and towards the middle of the month, and just
before the time for the fall  of the petals,  these latter are  all carefully stripped off and collected
They are then formed  into  circular  cakes from ten to fourteen  inches in diameter, and about
jV of an inch in thickness.   1 he manner in which these leaf-cakes are formed is  the  following •
A circular shallow earthen  vessel is heated to the  requisite degree, by being placed inverted 
White Poppy:—Cultivation.
1011
 over a slow fire.   A few petals are then spread upon its heated convex surface, and as soon as
 the glutinous juice which  they contain is seen to exude, others are added to the moist surface
 and are pressed down by means of a cloth.   As soon as these latter become moist in turn, they
 receive a similar addition of petals, and in this manner the cake is extended  circularly by suc-
 cessive and continuous additions, until  it has reached the required dimensions.  Instead of the
 earthen vessel,  a shallow or nearly flat iron cooking utensil is sometimes used.  The  cakes of
 petals (known  in the department under the name of " leaves'"), when  they reach the sudder
 factory at Ghazeepore, are  carefully sorted and separated  into three classes, according to  their
 size  and colour.  The smaller and dark-coloured "leaves" are used in  forming the inner por-
 tions of the shells of the opium cakes, whilst the largest and least discoloured ones are kept, for
 furnishing their outside coverings.   In a few days after the removal of the petals,  tbe  capsules
 have  reached their utmost  state of development, when the  process of collection commences,
 which extends  from about the 20th of February to the 25th of March.
   The mode of collecting the juice is the following:  At about three or four o'clock in the after-
 noon, individuals repair to the fields and scarify the poppy capsules with sharp iron instruments
 called nushturs.  The nushtur consists of four narrow bars of iron, each of which  is about six
 inches in length, and of about  the thickness of the blade of a penknife.   At one extremity, each
 bar does not exceed  a quarter of an  inch in  breadth; but  it gradually expands, until it has
 acquired the breadth of  about one inch at the opposite end, where it is deeply notched.  The
 sides of the notch are somewhat curved and ground to sharp edges, and the external .angles are
 brought to sharp  points.   The four  little bars, being placed side by  side, are  bound firmly
 together by means of strong cotton thread; and the points, at their cutting extremities, are kept
 separated from  each other,  to the  extent of about -fa of an inch, by means of the cotton thread
 which is passed between each pair of contiguous blades.  Thus prepared, the instrument pre-
 sents four pairs of curved,  pointed, diverging  blades, somewhat similar  in shape to  the lancet
 blades of a cupping scarificator.  In employing the  nushtur, only  one set of points is brought
 into use at  a time, and the  capsule is scarified longitudinally from its base  to its summit, the
 incisions generally passing  more or less along one of the longitudinal eminences, observable on
■ the outside of  the capsule, which mark the attachment  of the  internal  dissepiments.  The
 scarifications thus made are very  superficial, and do  no more than traverse the thin pericarp
 of the capsule.  If a horizontal section be  made of the capsule of a vegetating  poppy plant, the
 milky juice will after a few seconds be perceived to exude first and in greatest quantity  from
 those portions of the sarcocarp which correspond to the bases of the dissepiments.   It does not,
 however, exude only from these points, but ultimately  from the entire surface  of the cut sarco-
 carp.   It moreover does not appear in dots as if poured out from longitudinal vessels, but exudes
 gradually from the meshes of the cellular tissue.  If a thin segment of the capsule be examined
 under a high magnifying power, no longitudinal vessels are observable, but a confused mass of
 cellular tissue is observed  occupying  the interspace between the  epicarp and endocarp; and
 opposite to  the duplicatures of the endocarp, which  go to form the dissepiments, the meshes of
 the cellular tissue are perceived  to be  much larger than in other situations; hence the free
 exudation of juice at these  points.  It therefore appears that the mode of making the scarifica-
 tions as actually practised is the most effectual that could be adopted.  Each capsule is scarified
 from two to six times, according to its dimensions; an interval of either two or  three days being
 allowed after each operation.
   The capsules having been scarified  in the manner above described, the  collection of the
 juice is made at an early hour in the following morning.   This  is effected by  means of instru-
 ments called seetooahs, which  are made of sheet-iron, and resemble concave trowels ; and with
 these the juice is scraped from the surface of  the scarifications, until the instruments  become
 filled, when their contents are emptied into an earthen pot which the  collector carries by his
 side.  After the plant has ceased  to yield  any more juice, its utility is still unexhausted.   The
 capsules are then collected,  and from the seeds an oil is extracted, which is used by the natives
 for domestic purposes, both for burning in  lamps and for certain culinary purposes.  Of  the
 entire seed a comfit is made, resembling in  appearance caraway comfits.   Of  the dry cake
 remaining after the extraction of the oil, a coarse description of unleavened bread is sometimes
 prepared by the very indigent, or it is given to cattle, or used medicinally for poultices.  The
 capsules, deprived of  their seeds, are still available  for  preparing emollient  and anodyne
 decoctions, which the natives use both internally in coughs, and externally as fomentations.  The
 stems and leaves are lelVstanding, until they have become perfectly dry,  under the influence of
 the hot winds of April and  May, when they are removed, and crushed and broken  up into a
 coarse powder,  known, in  the department, under the  name of'• poppy trash," and  which  is
 employed in packing the opium cakes.  When fresh collected, the juice from the capsules  pre-
 sents the appearance of a  wet granular mass, of a  pinkish colour, and in the bottom of the
 vessel  which contains it is found collected a dark fluid resembling  infusion of "coffee, to which
 the name of pussewah is given.   The recent juice reddens strongly litmus  paper, and acts
 rapidly  upon metallic iron, covering it speedily with  an inky crust of meconate of iron.  The
juice, when  brought home by the cultivator, is placed in a, shallow earthen ves.-el, which is
tilted to Mich a decree that all the  pussewah can  drain off;  and  this plan is persevered in so
long as anything fluid will separate.  The pussewah obtained by this means is set aside in a 
 1012             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Papaverace.e.

 covered vessel, and receives no farther attention until taken for weighment to the Ghazeepore
 sudder factory.
   The opium now requires frequent  attendance on the part of the cultivator.   It is daily ex-
 posed to the air, though never to the sun, and is regularly  turned over every few days, in order
 to insure a uniform dryage in the whole  mass;  and this  process  is  persevered in for  the
 space of three weeks or a month ; or, in fact, until such  lime as  the drug may have reached
 within a few degrees of standard consistence.  Standard opium, according to the Benares regu-
 lations, is opium which, on being  subjected to a  temperature of 200°  Fall., until  everything
 volatile is driven off, shall leave a residue of 70 per cent.   This is the consistence at which the
 agency puts up the drug for the market, every effort being made to adhere to it as strictly as pos-
 sible, and this is likewise the  standard by which the price paid to the  cultivators is regulated.
 If the cultivator deliver his  drug of standard consistence,  he receives for it the regulated
 price; if it be above standard, he  receives a pro  rata increase of payment; whereas, if it be
 below standard, he  is  subjected to a  corresponding deduction in price.   The opium, on its
 arrival  at  the Ghazeepore factory, is  turned  out of the  confined earthen pots in which it is
 received, and is weighed  in wide tin vessels  called tajiars, care being taken  lhat no larger
 quantity than 10 seers (20 lbs.) is  ever brought to the scale  at a time.  This weighment is
 made under the eye of the gomashta (or of his accredited  agent)  of the kotee to which the
 opium belongs, and  in  the case of the neighbouring  or "home" kotees, the cultivators  attend
 in person with their  produce.  This weighment is verified by an European officer stationed
 at a check-scale in another room, and  the tagar with its contents  passes*on at  once to a table,
 at which are seated  the opium examiner, or an experienced sub-deputy agent,  and the  native
 opium examiner, called  the purkhea.  The  purkhea  now plunges  his  hand  into the centre
 and  to the  bottom of the drug, stirs it about, and  grasps it in various directions to feel for im-
 purities, and then withdraws  a handful, which he manipulates between  his fingers, revealing
 its colour, texture, and mode of fracture, and finally ascertains its aroma.
   He then  throws upon a plate a  small portion as a specimen, and estimates its consistence,
 This estimate is written down on a ticket by the European officer, and it is sent  with the speci-
 men to the laboratory, where a fixed  weight of drug is accurately weighed, evaporated to dry-
 ness in a plate placed on a metallic table heated by steam, and the weight of the residue care-
 fully determined.  It rarely happens that the  purkhea's guess differs from the  actual assay by
 more than one or two grains, and it serves to check the  actual assay in cases of evident mistake
 or accident, which occasionally must occur when a  multitude of delicate operations are rapidly
 carried on.  The number of specimens which leave the  examiner's table daily amounts to little
 short of two thousand.   In the examination which the  drug  undergoes at  this stage, the quan-
 tity or pussewah which it may contain is made the subject of special remark; and a pussewah
 fine  or batta, as it is termed, is levied, proportionate to the quantity apparently present in  the
 drug.  The reason for this is, that  pussewah injures the physical qualities of opium, causing it
 to look black and liquid, whilst at  the same time it gives  to the drug a high assay when tested
 by evaporation.
  The tactus eruditus possessed by the purkhea  is very remarkable; he rarely fails to detect
 even small quantities of the grosser and more tangible impurities, whilst he is no less delicately
 alive to the slightest  variation  in colour and smell.   In the  event of a specimen appearing to be
 adulterated, it is at once set aside to be carefully examined by the opium  examiner, who  makes
 a special report respecting it  for the  information of the agent, who, should he see sufficient
 grounds for doing so, confiscates it,  when the whole of the drug is destroyed, and the cultivator
 gets  nothing for it.  Should the adulterations be less extensive, and the drug such as to  be not
 altogether useless, it is taken at  half price, or  is subjected  to such smaller penalty as the ex-
 amining officer may  think fit to inflict;  and it is employed in making the lewah, or  paste, used
 in forming  the shells of the opium cakes.  The great  probability  of detection,  and the  risk of
 confiscation, act as very efficient checks to the prevalence of adulteration, and  the  quantity of
 opium confiscated yearly is comparatively small.   The nature of the adulterations practised by
 the cultivators is very various.
  The grosser impurities  usually mixed with  the drug to increase  its weight, are  mud, sand,
 powdered  charcoal, soot, cow-dung, pounded poppy petals, and pounded  seeds of  various de-
 scriptions.   All of these  substances are readily discoverable in breaking up the dru<* in cold
 water, removing the  soluble and lighter portions of the  diffused mass by decantation, and care-
 fully examining the  sediment. By this  means impurities of the above nature  usually become
 physically apparent.   Flour is a very favourite article of adulteration, but is readily detected  ;
 opium so adulterated speedily  becomes sour, it breaks with a peculiar short ragged fracture, the
 sharp edges of which are dull, and not pink and translucent as they should be:  and, on squeez-
 ing a mass of the drug after immersion in water, the starch may be seen oozing from its surface.
 l he application of the iodine test, however, furnishes conclusive  evidence of its presence, or
 at least of .that of some  amylaceous compound.  The farina of the boiled potato is not unfre-
 quently made use of; ghee and goor (an impure  treacle) are  also occasionally used, as  being
articles at the command of most of the cultivators.  Their  presence is revealed  by the peculiar
odour and consistence which they impart to the drug.  In addition  to  the above, a variety of
vegetable juices, extracts, pulps, and colouring matters,are occasionally fraudulently mixed with 
White Poppy:—Preparation op  Opium.                1013
the opium ; such are the inspissated juice of the common  prickly pear (Cactus dilenii), the ex-
tracts prepared from the  tobacco plant  (Nicotiana tabacum), the Datura  stramonium, and the
Indian hemp (Cannabis indica), &c.  The gummy exudations from various plants are frequently
used; and of pulps, the most frequently employed are those of the tamarind and of the Bael
fruit (aegle  marmelos).   To impart  colour  to  the drug,  various substances are employed, as
catechu, turmeric, the pounded flowers of the mowha tree (bas6ia latifolia), &c.
   In the case of so complex a substance as opium, it is useless  to look for a single test which
shall reveal at once, with chemical precision, the  purity of the drug;  morphiometry would be
the most accurate test to put in force, but the process would be too tedious and expensive to be
of practical  utility.  Moreover, the colour,  aroma, and texture are the commercial criterions of
the excellence  of  the drug;  and opium rich in  morphia, but deficient in the above qualities
from  careless preparation, would probably be  regarded with suspicion in the  market, despite
its intrinsic narcotic excellence;  and for  this reason, whenever the drug is received deficient in
the above sensible qualities  (as sometimes  arises from careless treatment), but not adulterated
in any way,  it is subjected to a certain fine, and employed only  in making lewah.  The colour
of well-prepared opium is a deep dull brown when viewed  in mass, which becomes a bright
chestnut brown when a small portion of drug  is spread in a thin  layer upon a white surface.
It adheres to the fingers, and draws out to  a  moderate extent, breaking with a ragged fracture;
should  it, however, contain  much  pussewah, its ductility is much  increased, and it is more
glutinous.
   Its smell is peculiar,  and  perfectly sui generis; it is  not unpleasant, and in the recent well-
prepared drug somewhat fruity.  In cold water it breaks down readily into curdy flakes of the
colour of pease soup,  which  gradually subside, leaving the  supernatant  liquid of a deep
brownish-yellow  colour.  When broken under water by the hand, the  drug adheres mode-
rately to the fingers at  first, but is soon  entirely diffused.  Should  it contain gum fraudulently
mixed, this latter adheres pertinaciously to the  hands, and  is with  difficulty removed; and  in
this  manner I  have frequently  detected the presence of  a substance  similar to birdlime, pro-
bably the tenacious juice of the banyan tree (Fiscus indica).  If to a portion of the cold watery
infusion in  a test-tube, a few drops of a solution of diacetate of lead be added, a dirty gray
precipitate (meconate of lead) falls, so  copious as  to equal  nearly in bulk the amount of fluid
in the tube.  Ammonia throws down a  very similar and  almost  equally abundant precipitate,
composed of resin and  the alkaloids, which, on exposure to the air, speedily assumes a black
colour.   Tincture of iodine throws down a  brick-red precipitate, and tincture of sesquichloride
of iron occasions a similar precipitate of somewhat darker colour.  These  tests may be applied
in a few seconds; and the comparative bulk of the precipitates thrown down may enable us to
form  a rude estimate of the amount of opium contained in a given specimen.  In very largely
adulterated  specimens, the evidence  afforded by the above  means  is  sufficiently marked.   A
solution of gelatine for the detection of tannic acid, and strong alcohol for the  precipitation of
gum, form the only other chemical reagents likely to be required.
   AAer  having been duly weighed  into store, the opium receives  but little treatment in the
factory.   It is kept in large wooden boxes,  capable of containing  about 14  mds  (10 cwt.) each,
in which it is (if below the  manufacturing standard) occasionally stirred  up from the bottom,
until  it has acquired the  necessary consistence.   Whilst remaining  in these boxes, it speedily
becomes covered with a thin blackish crust (ulmine), and deepens in colour according to  the
amount of exposure to air and light which it undergoes.   Should the drug be of very low con-
sistence, it is placed in  shallow wooden  drawers, instead of in boxes, in which it is constantly
turned over,  until  its consistence  has approximated to 70  per cent.   From the general store or
malkhana, the drug is exported daily  in quantities equalling about 250  maunds,  for the purpose
of being manufactured or made up into balls or cakes, as they are termed  in the department.
   In exporting opium for this purpose, the officer who performs the duty selects for the most
part opium which is exactly at standard, or very close to it, whilst to compensate for any drug
which may have risen higher than the prescribed consistence, a certain proportion of opium of
low consistence is exported, the consistences of the various proportions of  drugs  selected for
export being determined by a certain number of test assays.  The portions  of drug thus selected
are then weighed  out with exactitude, in  portions of 10 seers (20  lbs.) each, and are thrown
promiscuously into shallow wooden drawers, in which men mix them up  together, rapidly and
thoroughly thrusting their  arms into the drug and kneading it in various directions.  From these
drawers the opium is transferred as mixed  to boxes, all of  which  are of the same size, and from
each of which a specimen is drawn and  assayed.  The mean of the assays of these boxes gives
the average consistence of the export of the day, and serves as a guide as to whether the drug
be of the proper consistence for  caking.   The  above operations are generally completed by
about 4 P.M., and before evening the drug is  removed from the boxes to large wooden vats,
20 feet  long, 3$ feet wide, and  Ij feet deep, situated in the caking-room.  In  these vats it
undergoes a farther kneading and admixture, by men who wade knee-deep through the opium
from one end of the vats  to the other, until their contents  appear to be of uniform consistence.
Two  specimens are, on the following morning,  drawn from each  vat, and  assayed; and should
the consistence have reached the factory standard, caking  immediately commences. 
 1014             VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord.  Papaverace,*:.

   Down either side of the room in which the vats are placed, are ranged the cake-makers, num-
 bering usually about one hundred and  ten  individuals; each man being seated upon a wooden
 stand, and being  furnished with a  brass cup, forming the  half of a hollow sphere, and with
 another tin vessel graduated so as  to  hold a determinate quantity of fluid.   On  the previous
 evening the leaves requisite for forming the shells of the  cakes have been weighed out and tied
 up in bundles of prescribed weight, and-have been damped  to render them supple.  Down the
 centre of the room are placed a certain number of small scales, at which the quantity of opium
 intended for each cake is separately weighed ; and beside  the scales are boxes filled with lewah,
 for the agglutination of the leaves which form the shells of the cakes.  In forming the lewah,
 all opium of inferior  quality  is used, and all the pussewah received  is also employed for this
 purpose;  but  in addition  to these, a considerable quantity of unexceptionable drug is also ex-
 pended.   These  are broken  down in  the washings of the various  pots and vessels which
 have contained opium,  and a  thin semifluid paste is formed,  of such a consistence that 100
 grains of it, when evaporated to dryness at a  temperature of 200° F., shall leave 53 grains of
 residue.
   Matters  being  thus arranged, the cake-maker receives in his graduated measure from the
 lewah box the prescribed  quantity of lewah for making a single cake, and having by his side a
 bundle of leaves previously weighed, he rapidly forms in  his brass cup the lower segment of the
 shell of the opium cake, pasting leaf  over leaf, until the thickness of half an  inch has been
 obtained, and allowing a certain free portion of the most external leaves to hang down all  round
 over the sides of  the brass cup.  This accomplished, a  boy is in waiting with  the  opium to be
 put into the cake, which he has just brought from the caking scales, and which he throws into
 the shell so far prepared to receive it. The cake-maker, holding the opium away from the sides
 of the shell with the  left hand, then tucks in round the sides leaf after leaf, well smeared with
 lewah, imbricating one over the other, until he has completed the entire circle;  the free edges
 of the leaves, which had hitherto hung over the sides of the cup, are now drawn up tightly, and
 the opium  well compressed within its bag of leaves.
   A small portion at  the top now only remains, which is  speedily closed by laying on leaf after
 leaf; and finally the work is completed by the application of a single large leaf, which covers
 the entire exposed half of the cake.   As  thus formed, the well-finished cake is a pretty regular
 sphere, not  unlike, in size and appearance, a 24 lb. shot.  It is now rolled in a  little  finely-
 pounded poppy trash, which adheres to its  surface, is at once placed in a small earthen cup, of
 precisely the same dimensions as the brass mould in which it was made, and is carried out into
 the open air and exposed to the direct influence of the   sun.  It is so exposed for three days,
 during which  time it  is  frequently turned and examined ; and  if (as  is frequently the case) it
 should have become distended and  puffy, it is  at once torn open, the extricated  gas allowed  to
 escape, and the cake  again tightly closed.  On the evening of  the third day it is  placed (still
 contained in its cup) in  the cake-frames, which are formed of open battens, and allow of a free
 circulation  of air about the cakes.  The average number of cakes made by a single man in one
 day  is about 70; but there are cake-makers who will turn out as many as 90 or 100 cakes, be-
 tween 9 A. M. and 3  P.M.  The number of cakes made  daily in the factory, during the manu-
 facturing season, is from 6,500 to 7,000,  and the total number  of  cakes manufactured, in one
 season, has been 426,800.
   By the end of July  the  manufacturing  is  finished, but the  cakes still require  much attention;
 they are constantly turned over in  their cups, and as mildew  collects  on their surfaces, it is
 removed by rolling and rubbing them in dry poppy trash.   They are, moreover, individually
 examined, and those which present weak points are  strengthened  by the application of extra
 leaves; and their appearance  is moreover improved by the application of a single  leaf of the first
 quality, which being of large dimensions, and carefully and equally made, covers the greater
 portion of the  surface  of the cake, and gives to it a smooth and finished appearance.
  By October,  the cakes  have  become perfectly dry to the  touch, and have acquired  considerable
 solidity; and they are now packed in chests, each of which  is furnished with a double tier of
 wooden partitions, each tier presenting twenty square compartments, for the reception of so many
cakes, and in which the cakes are steadied  by means of loose poppy trash, with which all the
 interstices are  filled.
  It might  be  supposed  that so fragile a structure as the poppy petal would  furnish but an inse-
 cure packing envelop; but the shells of the opium cakes  are possessed of more resistance than
 might be imagined, and owing apparently  to some antiseptic property in the  lewah they are
capable (after  once being thoroughly dried)  of  being preserved for a great length of time   For
 three or four months after manufacture the  shells require constant care and attention ; and even
after being packed, any exposure to damp or moisture subjects them to injury.   After a certain
lapse of time,  however, the opium contained  in the cake ceases to  yield any more moisture to
 the shell and this latter acquires extreme solidity.  There are three specimen cakes in the Ghazee-
pore factory which are some fifteen  years old; they are as solid as balls of wood, and may be
thrown from a height  upon a stone floor without injury.
  The above process of manufacture applies to the opium  which is put up for the China market
and which includes the great bulk of the  entire provision.  With the drug intended for internal 
                      White Poppy:—Analysis of Opium.                 1015

consumption, and called abkaree opium, a different process is followed.  The opium intended
for abkaree purposes is brought  to a consistence of 90 per cent, by direct exposure to the sun, in
which state it is as firm and as easily moulded as wax.  It is then formed, by means of a mould,
into square bricks of one  seer weight each, and these are wrapped in oiled Nepaul paper, and
packed in boxes furnished with compartments  for their reception.  The opium put up in this
way has not the same powerful aroma as is possessed by that put up in balls; but  this is its
only deficiency, whilst it has the great advantage of containing a large amountof drug in a very
limited space, and in a state very manageable  for packing.
  The manufacture for the season being finally concluded, six cakes are selected promiscuously
from  the provision, by the magistrate of Ghazeepore, for examination  and chemical  analysis.
Of these, two are forwarded to the opium examiner at Calcutta, two to the examiner of the Behar
agency, and two are reserved for examination by the examiner of the Benares agency.

  The examination which these cakes  undergo has reference to the following points:—

   1. The gross weight of the cake.
  2. The weight of the shell, detached as clearly as possible from the contained opium.
   3. The weight of the opium  contained in the shell.
   4. The condition of the shell.
   5. The physical character of the drug.
   6. Its consistence.
   7. The amount of extract taken up from it by  cold distilled water.
   8. The quantity of morphia present.
   9. The quantity of narcotine present.
  The following table will show the chemical results of the examination of the opium of the
Benares agency from 1845 to 1849:—
Season.	Residue from 100 grs. ex-posed to a temp. 200° F.	Extract taken up by cold dis-tilled water from 100 grs.	Morphia per cent.	Narcotine per cent.
1845—46. Average . .	73 75	52.33 50.26	2.76 2.20	5.33 5.20
	74	51.29	2.48	5.26
1846—47. Average ..	72 72	43.25 42.25	2.46 2.30	4.30 4.75 4.52
	72	42.75	2.38	
1847—48. Average . .	71 70	44.43 39.26	2.23 2.17	5.66 5.70
	70.5	41.84	2.20	5.68
1848—49. Average . .	75.5 75.5	47.37 48.62	2.75 3.67	3.85 4.27
	75.5	47.99	3.21	4.06
  A chief chemical feature which distinguishes Bengal opium from that of Turkey and Egypt,
is the large proportion which the narcotine in  the  former bears to the morphia; and this pro-
portion is shown by the above analysis to be constant in  all seasons.  It is a matter of import-
ance to ascertain whether  the treatment  which the juice receives after its collection can influ-
ence in any way the amount of the alkaloids, or of the other principles contained in opium.  In
Turkey it is the custom to  beat up the juice with saliva; in Malwa it is immersed,as collected,
in linseed oil; whilst in Bengal it is  brought to the  required  consistence by mere exposure to
the  air in the shade, though at the same  time all the watery part of the juice that will separate
is drained  off and used, as has already been explained, in making lewah.
  The following are the results which I  obtained  from the analysis of fresh juice, collected in
February,  1850, and from  which none of the  pussewah  was separated.  The analyses have a
special reference to the amount of the alkaloids, morphia, and narcotine, present  in the drug,
no attempts having been made to separate any of the other principles  in a state of purity. 
1016              VEGETABLES.—Xat.  Ord. Papaverace.e.
                                             i.
    Analysis o/2,000 grains of freshly collected juice, subjected to experiment in the day of collection.
                                                                              Grains.
         Morphia........................................    II*
         Nnrcotire.......................................    oz.t
         Other matters soluble in alcohol, codeia. narceia, meconic acid, resin, &c. &c.   521.0
         Drv marc insoluble in alcohol, lignin, caoutchouc, &c. &c............to?n'n
         Water and volatile matter separable at a heat of 2003 Fah...........1210.0

                                     Total.......................2000.0

   In the following experiment, the juice,  instead of being  subjected at once in  its crude state
to analysis, was  exposed in an evaporating basin  to a temperature  of 200° F. until it was
judged to have reached about the factory standard consistence; and of the opium so prepared,
1,000 grains were analyzed.

                                            II.
                                                                              Grains.
         Morphia.......................................    24.9
         Narcotine.......................................    30.9
         Other matters soluble in alcohol, codeia, narceia, meconic acid, resin, &c. &c.   546.7
         Dry marc insoluble in alcohol, lignin. caoutchouc, &c. &c............   215.0
         Water and volatile matter, separable at 200° Fall.................   182.5

                                     Total.......................1000.0

   In Experiment III. a portion of freshly collected juice was placed in an open porcelain  basin,
on the 23d February, and oecaMonally stirred with a glass rod, until it had acquired solidity, no
attempt  being made to separate any pussewah from it.   On the 7th May it was found to have
acquired a consistence of 90.3 per cent, and its analysis gave the following results:—

                                                                              Grains.
         Morphia........................................    26.1
         Narcotine.......................................    3-2.8
         Other matters soluble in alcohol, codeia, narceia, meconic acid, resin,&c. &c.   630.4
         Dry marc insoluble in alcohol, lignin, caoutchouc, &c. &c.   . '........,   213.7
         Water and volatile matter, separable at a heat of 200O Fah...........    97.0
                                     Total................\......1000.0

   In order to be  able to compare these results one with another, we will  suppose, in each case,
the drug to have been reduced  to a similar state  of dryness, by exposure to a heat of 200° F.,
when the composition of the three different specimens will appear as follows:—

                                             I.            II.           III.
                Morphia............   1.405  ....   3.061  ....  2.890
                Narcotine...........  4.012  ....   3.795  ....  3.632
                Matters soluble in alcohol  . . 65.949  ....  66.874  ....  69811
                Dry marc insoluble in alcohol 28.506  ....  26.301  ....  23.665

                          Total.......99.872       100.031         99.998

   The agreement of the results in these  three sets of experiments is tolerably close, except in
the case of the drug subjected 'to analysis  on the day of collection, in which the quantity of
morphia present is  extremely small;  but, as if to compensate for the deficiency to  a certain
amount, the quantity of narcotine present is larger than  in  either  of the other two specimens.
The suggestion which this arrangement  naturally prompts  is, whether it be  possible that nar-
cotine, by parting with  a portion of its  carbon, hydrogen, and  oxygen, during the process of
analysis, or during the changes which occur in the juice  after its extraction from  the plant,  can
be converted into morphia.   The proposition is, however, quite speculative,  and  could only be
satisfactorily demonstrated by a  careful  set of minute  experiments, having  reference  to  the
proportions of all the principles  entering into the composition  of opium, at  different periods,
from the date of the extraction of the juice until the cessation of all fermentative action, which
takes place until the drug has reached a certain degree of spissitude. The results of the second
analysis are worthy of remark;  they seem to indicate that the employment of artificial heat in
bringing the drug rapidly to the required-consistence  is  not detrimental to the narcotic  excel-
lence of the resulting opium ; on the contrary, the experiment, so far as it goes, appears to indi-
cate the very opposite result.  It has  already been stated  that  in  preparing  the drug the culti-
vators diam from it all the fluid portion, which  of course consists of the most soluble principles
o  opium,  dissolved in  dew, or  in moisture absorbed from the atmosphere.  I now propose
alluding more particularly to this fluid, to  which  the name of pussewah  is given,  and which is
brought to  the factory in large quantities, of many gallons at a time, and  of all  consistences,
lrom that of a limpid fluid to that of thick treacle. 
White Poppy :—Manufacture of Patna Opium.
1017
  Recently collected pussewah  is a dark fluid, resembling strong infusion of coffee, and having
a peculiar smell.  It reddens litmus paper strongly; a solution of diacetate of lead causes in
it a most copious gray precipitate  (meconate of lead), and lime water  has  the  same  effect.
Ammonia throws down a copious  precipitate, of a mottled gray colour,  which soon becomes
uniformly black; and copious  dilution with water  likewise occasions in it a deep brown pre-
cipitate.   I found the specific gravity  of some recently-collected  pussewah to be 1.120, the
temperature of the atmosphere  being  83°; and 100 grains, on evaporation to dryness, were
found to yield 30 grains of a brownish-yellow residue, emitting an odour somewhat resembling
that of heated Burgundy pitch.  After pussewah has become concentrated to about one-third of
its original volume,  it acquires  the consistence of treacle; and. as the process of drying goes on
still farther, it  gradually becomes  solid.   During the hot and dry months, this solid residue
acquires  a resinous hardness, becoming brittle,  and breaking with a resinous fracture;  but as
soon as the weather becomes damp it rapidly absorbs moisture from the  atmosphere, becomes
jetty black and  polished on the surface, and acquires a consistence similar to  that of cobbler's
wax.   Pussewah (as might be  supposed) contains some of the most valuable constituents of
opium ; its principal components are meconic acid, resin,  morphia, and narcotine.   From  500
grains of solid pussewah, which on evaporation  to dryness left 88 9 grains of residue, I extracted
12 grains of pure narcotine, but only a  trace of  morphia.   I, however, am inclined to attribute
this latter result to an accident in the analysis;  as in a second analysis of 500 grains of solid
pussewah, which on evaporation yielded  85.5 grains of residue,  I obtained  10.6 grains of mor-
phia,  and 16.9 grains of narcotine.  In order to form an idea of the precise extent to which the
composition of  Bengal opium is affected by the practice of draining from it the pussewah, it is
requisite to ascertain, with  some approach to accuracy, the quantity of pussewah usually fur-
nished by a given amountof opium. The quantity of standard opium received at the sudder factory
of the Benares agency during the season of 1849-50, was  18,191 maunds; whilst the quantity of
pussewah delivered amounted to 100 maunds, being at the rate of one maund of  pussewah to
nearly 182 maunds of drug, the  pussewah containing, on an average, say 50  per cent, of solid
matter.   This pussewah, be it observed, although separated from the drug,  is not lost to the
provision, being employed in  the formation  of the  shells of the cakes; and, as the Chinese
form  a watery extract of the drug for the purpose of smoking, the  whole of the constituents of
the pussewah are thus recovered on boiling the  shells in water, as is practised in China.
   Amongst the thousands of individuals,  cultivators and employes, with whom the factory is
filled during the receiving and  manufacturing seasons, no complaints are  ever heard  of any
injurious effects resulting from the influence of the drug, whilst they all remain quite as free from
general sickness as persons unconnected  with  the  general establishment; in fact, if anything,
more so.   It occasionally happens that a casual visitor to the  factory complains of giddiness
or headache; but the European officers etnployed in the departtnent, who pass the greater part
of the day with the thermometer between 95° and 105° Fah. amongst tons of tbe  drug, never
experience any bad effects from it. The native purkhea sits usually from 6 A.M. to 3 P. M.
daily, with his hand and arm immersed nearly the whole time in the drug, which he  is con-
stantly smelling, and yet he feels no inconvenience from it.  He has informed me that, at the com-
mencement of the season, he experiences usually a sensation of numbness in  the fingers; but I
believe this to be more the result of* fatigue, consequent upon the incessant use of the arm and
fingers, than of any effect of the opium.  In the large caking vats, men are employed to wade
knee-deep through the drug for several hours during the morning, and they remain standing in
it during the greater part of the  rest of the day, serving out the opium by armfuls, their bodies
being naked, with the exception of a cloth about the loins.  These men complain of a sensation
of drowsiness towards the end of their daily labours, and  declare that they  are overpowered
early in the evening by sleep, but they do not complain of the effect as being  either unpleasant
or injurious.  Infants, of a few  months old, may  be frequently seen lying on the opium-be-
smeared floor under the  vats, in which  dangerous position they are left by their thoughtless
mothers, but, strange to say, without any accident ever occurring.  Here  are abundant  facts to
show that the  health of those employed in the opium  factory, and in the manipulation of the
drug, is not exposed to any ri»k whatever, whilst the impunity with which  the drug is handled
by hundreds of individuals, for  hours together,  proves that it has no endermic action, for I am
inclined  to consider the  soporific effect experienced by the vat-traders as  produced through the
lungs, and not through the skin.

   [We  subjoin  the following remarks, by the late Dr. Pereira, on the cultivation
and manufacture of Patna Opium, from a paper published by him in the Pharma-
ceutical Journal for Nov. 1851.'—Ed.]

   The India  section of the Great  Exhibition contained a most  complete collection
of specimens, drawings, and  implements illustrative of the cultivation and manufac-
t Pharm. Journ. vol. xi. p. 205. 
1018            VEGETABLES:—Nat. Ord. Papaverace,e.
ture of Patna opium.   Unfortunately, however,  no description  of  the  processes
accompanied the illustrations, and therefore I have been obliged to obtain intorma-
tion on this subject from various sources.   The drawings which were sent over were
fifteen iu number.   Several  of them, however, rather illustrated the general pro-
cesses of agriculture followed in India, than anything peculiar to  the cultivation ot
the poppy.   The  first of the series represented  a native engaged in thinning and
weeding the poppy plants.  " The poppy," says Mr. W. B. Johnson" requires a good
rich, dark soil, well prepared with  manure, and divided into small oblong plots, ot
about six by four feet, for the convenience of weeding and patching.  The sowings com-
mence early in Xovember.   The day the seed is sown, the land is well watered;  on
the next  day, the  ryot breaks  all the lumps  with  his khoorpu.  Theplant soon
shoots up, and, when about six inches high, it is thinned and weeded; it is kept well
watered until the capsules are nearly ripe, and the petals falling off._ The watering
then depends upon the state of the weather:  if mild, the irrigation is continued; if
there should be  strong winds, it is discontinued, for fear of (the capsules?) being
blown off."   " The poppy," according to  Mr. Impey, "takes three months  and a
half to arrive at perfection, at least to the  transitory and half-ripe  state, between the
fall of the petal  and the dehiscing  of the pericarp, which is the period most favour-
able to the extraction of the juice; and it grows to the height of  four feet and  up-
wards when well attended to.  Its erect stem is divided into from four to fourteen
branches, which strike off at various heights, the lowest usually two and  a half feet
from  the ground.   The capsule, in a full-grown state, measures frequently three
and a half inches long by two in diameter."
   A second drawing represented a native woman pulling off the poppy petals  for
the purpose of  making leaves  for the envelop  of  the opium  for the China market.
Each cake or ball of opium is calculated to consume five chittacks1 of these leaves.
   Speaking of the cultivation of the poppy in  Malwa, Mr. Impey says :—
   " The petals  and leaves, which are in other districts kept to  form the covering
for the cakes, are  permitted  to  fall off, and not  applied to any  purpose, nor even
sold by the ryot; but poor people gather them, and when a sufficient quantity is
collected  and pounded, dispose of them  at six  rupees per maund  to the Buniahs
and opium-dealers, who require them for packing and wrapping the cakes."
   The next operation  is  that of tapping or bleeding the poppy  capsules.  This is
effected  by making a series of parallel  wounds  in the exterior surface of the  cap-
sule with the instrument called a nushtur.  This consists of  several (three, four, or
five)  heart-shaped lancets or blades, tied together with some cotton thread.   In  one
of these nushturs or incising instruments there were three lancets, while in another
there were four, in both cases bound  together  by cotton.  Mr. Johnson says  that
the wounds in  the capsules ought to be made diagonally, in order to prevent  the
juice  falling off in  the night, when  the  dews are heavy;  and Mr. Impey states
that  in  Bengal  they are made so.  But in some cases the incisions are made per-
pendicularly.   Speaking of the nushtur,  Mr. Impey states  that  so much  only of
the points is allowed to protrude " as is actually necessary, so that no discretion or
latitude in manipulation is left to the labourer; the length of the point which pro-
trudes externally is one-twelfth of  an inch, and the distance between each blade is
one-eighth of an inch.  The area of  the  beegah  is at this time imaginarily divided
into three or four compartments, and the  labour  apportioned accordingly, the dif-
ferent processes of  bleeding or gathering the juice going  on  separately in each,
when the previous one has been finished; three men are employed, and  in this  way
each plot  is bled every three or four days.   Twelve days are required  to complete
the operation, so that each  capsule becomes wounded three, and occasionally  four
and six times, if the heads are large;  but this is  not of frequent occurrence.
    " The mode of wounding the capsule  is as follows :  Being depressed, and  held
almost horizontally, to admit of greater facility and steadiness in cutting, the inci-
1 A chittack, or chitak, is equal to 1 oz. 17 dwts. 12 grs. English troy weight. 
              White Poppy:—Manufacture of Patna Opium.         1019

sions  are  made longitudinally, and from below upwards, about 3 P. M., or iu the
hottest part of the day, and after  the collections from former incisions  have termi-
nated.  A small  quantity of white milky juice exudes almost  immediately upon
the incision being made, of the consistence of cream, on the surface of  which after
a short time a slight pellicle is formed by the power of the  solar  rays.  The object
of making the  incisions at  this  hour is to obtain this result.   By the continued
force of the solar  influence, a greater degree of evaporation and  inspissation takes
place  (but not sufficiently to  close the orifices of the wounds), which prevents  the
juice falling off  the capsule, although, when  the night dews are heavy,  or the juice
very plentiful, this cannot altogether be avoided.   The greatest exudation occurs in
the night-time, from the dew  washing and clearing the incisions,  and favouring the
escape of the juice. During the night, the juice continues to ooze out gradually,  and
in the morning it is fit for removal.  By this time it has altered its appearance.  In-
stead  of the white milky character which it had before, it assumes a thick gummy
consistence, and exhales a powerfully narcotic smell;  it is much  darker, of a light
drab colour, and streaked with  deeper shades of the same and red and black striae,
the latter known as pushed—a term, as the meaning implies (perspiration or exuda-
tion), literally applicable to the whole mass, but used to denote this especial appear-
ance (see ante, p.  1017).  The nature of the juice is perhaps best understood by
the native name applied to it in Central India,  viz. (Anglice) slime."
   A  third drawing represented the natives engaged  in scraping off  the exuded
juice.  "Scraping, the next  process," says Mr. Impey, "is commenced on the fol-
lowing morning at sunrise, and executed with rude blunt  iron scrapers, resembling
a cleaver in miniature.   A small piece of cotton soaked in linseed oil  is stuck on
the upper part of  the blade, and both the thumb and  edge of the scraper are occa-
sionally smeared with it, to guard against  the glutinous effects of the juice,  which
would otherwise adhere strongly to the fingers.  Towards the point of  the scraper
the most pure juice is gathered,  for there the first scrape  is made; the second is
done more with  the heel of the instrument, near the handle, and the juice is much
lighter in colour.  It  is during this operation that the first sophistication occurs,
the scraper being carried heavily over the capsules, taking with it a considerable part
of the beard or  pubescence.  The manner in which scraping is performed is by
grasping the  capsule between the thumb and forefinger of  the left hand, inclining
it gently as in bleeding; the  thumb of the right hand  being then placed on the top
of it, the scraper is drawn briskly upwards, almost similar to the making of a pen.
This is repeated twice; every head  is of course submitted to the process, and each
is considered  to yield a weight of juice equivalent to about  15  grains troy.  In
full-grown fruitful fields, each man will collect upwards of half a pound of chick
per day,  at least, by 10 A. M.,  by which  time this part of  the work  is  over."
   Dr. Butter, in his account of the preparation of opium for the China market,
observes  that "the goodness of  the soil, and the management of  the  irrigation, are
circumstances which powerfully affect  the  strength of the juice  at the time of its
collection; but a third agent, still less amenable than these to control, now  comes
into play, the precipitation of dew on the  surface of the capsule.   When  a current
of wind, or a cloudy sky, prevents the formation of dew, it is found that the scarifi-
cations made in the capsule about  the middle of the preceding  day are sealed up
by the slight oozing of juice which had immediately followed the incisions, and the
quantity  of opium obtained is small.   When, again, the dew is abundant, it washes
open the wounds in the capsule, and thus facilitates the flow of the milk, which in
heavy dews is apt to drop off the capsule entirely, and be wasted.   But when the dew
is in moderate quantity, it allows the milk  to thicken  by evaporation, and to collect
in irregular tiers (averaging one grain of solid opium from each quadruple incision),
which on examination will be found to have  a greater consistency,  and  a 'rose-red'
colour towards the external surface,  while  the interior is  semifluid, and of a 'red-
dish-white' colour.  This inequality of consistence constitutes   the grain of raw
opium, of which I shall  have to speak hereafter. 
1020           VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Papaveraceje.
   "In the collection of these drops of half-dried juice, it is very apt to get mixed
with the dew, which, in the earlier  hours of collection, continues to besprinkle the
capsules, and which here does  a double mischief—first, by retarding the inspissation
of the general mass of the juice ; and, secondly, by separating its two most remark-
able constituent parts—that which is soluble, and  that which is insoluble  in water.
So little aware, or so reckless,  even under the most favourable construction of their
conduct, are the koiris, of  the injury thus caused by the dew, that many of them
are in the habit of occasionally washing their scrapers with water, and of adding
the washings to the collection of the morning.   In Malwa, oil is used for this pur-
pose, to the irremediable injury of the flavour of the opium.   On examining  the
juice thus mixed with  water, it will be found  that it has separated, as above men-
tioned, into two parts, a fluid, and a more consistent portion ;  the latter containing
most of the resin, gluten,  caoutchouc, and other  less  soluble constituents of opium,
with part of  the super-meconiate of morphia; and the former containing  the gum,
some resin, and much of the super-meconiate of morphia, and much of the  colouring
principle, which, though pale  at  first, is  rapidly affected by light, and acquires  a
very deep 'reddish  or  blackish brown' colour.   Many koiris are in the habit of
draining off this fluid  portion into a separate vessel, and of bringing  it, under the
name of paseicd, for sale, at half the price of Opium, to the Benares agency, where
it is used as lewd (paste for the petal envelops of the cakes).  Others, after allowing
the soluble principles to become thus changed into an acescent, blackened, sluggish
fluid, mix it up with the more consistent part of their opium, and bring the whole
for sale in this mixed  state;  the consequence of which is, that they are  subjected
to a penalty, called  battd upon pasiwd, and regulated by the estimate of the opium-
examiner of the quantity  of pasiwd contained.  This penalty is the  only efficient
check upon this most pernicious practice of the koiris, for on the generality of the
gomdshtas it is difficult to impress the necessity of  their looking after the koiris
during the collecting season."
   Mr. Impey, alluding to the practice  in Malwa,   says:  " When  the  capsules
crack and turn brown they are pulled off the stalks, and the seed shaken  out;  the
heads are theu thrown  away.  In poor districts,  where the people cannot afford the
indulgence and luxury of opium  for  smoking  and  chewing, the poppy heads are
made into a decoction, and the liquid drunk in its stead.   This liquid,  from  the
Persian name of the capsule, is termed ' Post.'   But another and more useful ap-
plication of the capsules is also exercised ;  they  are  ground into fine powder, and,
like the leaves, sold, under the name of boosa, to the retailers, and sprinkled  over
the  buttees of opium, both to prevent their  adhesion and to form a  covering for
them.
   "The seeds are a very useful part of the plant, and very  plentiful.  From two
to five maunds are procurable from a beegah, which  obtains ready sale at  12 to 16
seers for a rupee; a very small quantity being  required for seed, the  rest is con-
verted into oil, which,  according to the native mode  of expression, gives  one-third
'in weight.   According to  Dr. O'Shaughnessy, it yields 56 per 100.  It is of a pale
yellow  colour, clear, burns well, but is not adapted  for  lamps, on account of the
smoke and smell which it gives out.   The oil is very cheap, selling at eight seera
per rupee; and the refuse  is an extremely wholesome and nutritious food  for cows,
termed here Khari; it sells at the low rate of eight annas per maund.   Lastly, the
stalks, which might be made use of for firewood, are left in the ground untouched
and unheeded."
   The juice  which is scraped off the poppy-heads  is collected in shallow earthen
pans, and is  removed  in  these from  the fields.   A fourth drawing represented a
native engaged in this  operation.
   A fifth represented two natives engaged in manipulating the opium, with a view
to its introduction into the earthen vessels or bottles  (called gumlahs).  The lower
half of each is surrounded  with wicker-work, to protect the vessels.   The native
dealers  judge of the  consistence of opium by the feel.   Dr. O'Shaughnessy says 
             White Poppy:—Smyrna and Constantinople Opium.     1021

that the opium brought to the factories contains from 64 to 68 per cent, of solid
matter, but that by  evaporation it reaches the consistence of 70—the standard of
the factory for the Chinese investment.
   Dr. Butter observes,  that " in the Benares shells the liwd,  or paste  for uniting
the poppy  petals, remains  visibly interstratified with them, dark coloured, and te-
nacious ; while in the Behar it is in a great measure absorbed by the petals, which
are apparently in intimate contact with each other, and is not to be distinguished
from  them."  He farther observes that " any strong cheap mucilage or farinaceous
paste, or perhaps some indigenous imitation of birdlime, would answer for the inner
portion of  the shell; and an exterior coating of a resinous, waxy, or oily nature,
impervious to water, would defend this from the moisture of the air."  In reference
to the shape of the cakes, he says :   " The shape ought to be as nearly spherical as
possible, that being  the  geometrical form  which, under  the smallest surface, con-
tains  the greatest quantity  of matter, and which, consequently, affords the least
Bcope for the extrication of air, and ultimate injury to the shape of the cake when
that air escapes.  Greater attention to boring the earthen cups in which the cakes
are dried perfectly hemispherical, instead of parabolical, as they now  are, would con-
tribute  to the desired sphericity."
   Description.—In commerce,  several varieties of opium are known.  The prin-
cipal  kind, however,  is that brought from Smyrna.   But the recent events  which
have  occurred in China will probably throw a considerable quantity of Indian opium
into European commerce.
   1.  Smyrna Opium (Opium Smyrnseum).—This is the Turkey or Levant opium
of commerce.  It occurs in irregular rounded or flattened masses of various sizes,
rarely exceeding  two lbs. in  weight, enveloped in  leaves, and usually surrounded
with  the reddish capsules of some species of Rumex (R. orientalis, according  to
Koch ;x but R. Patientia, according to Merat).a  Some of the flat cakes are  with-
out the capsules,  and somewhat resemble  Constantinople opium.  When first im-
ported,  the masses  are  soft, and of a reddish-brown colour; but, by keeping,
they  become hard and blackish.   Its lustre is waxy;  its odour is strong and un-
pleasant ; its taste is bitter, acrid, nauseous, and  persistent.   M. Guibourt regards
the masses  as being made up of agglutinated tears, and on this account as being
the purest met with.  It it,  however, frequently  found largely adulterated.  From
one sample, weighing 10 ounces, I obtained 10 drachms of stone and gravel.   Not-
withstanding occasional  frauds of this  kind, Smyrna  opium  affords the best com-
mercial opium.  It yields more morphia and meconic acid than either Constantino-
ple or Egyptian opium.8   The quantity of morphia which can  be obtained from it
is, perhaps, on the  average,  about eight  per cent.   Pelletier,4 in an operation on
about two ounces of this opium, procured  a quantity of morphia equal to 7.08 per
cent.   From a pound, he calculates that eight or nine per cent, could be obtained.
On an average 12 per cent, of hydrochlorate of  morphia may be procured from it.
Dr. Christison obtained two  drachms of narcotine  from  half a pound of the best
Turkey opium ; hence, we may estimate the quantity at about four per cent.   Hy-
drochlorate of morphia, prepared by Gregory's process from Turkey opium, contains,
according to Dr. Gregory,5 one-twelfth of codeia.   Merck6 examined five kinds  of
Smyrna opium;  from the  worst  he  procured 3  to 4 per cent, of morphia; from
the best 13 to 13.5  per  cent.  In the  latter variety, he found 0.25 per  cent,  of
codeia.7
  2.  Constantinople Opium (Opium Bizantinum  seu  Constantinopolitanum).—
I am indebted to  Professor Guibourt for an authentic sample of  this.  His descrip-
tion of it  is  as follows:  "There  are  two  sorts of it;  one in very large irregular
 ' T. W. C. Martius's Pharmakogn. S. 322.              2 Diet. Mat. Mid. t. v. p. 50.
 • Berthetnot, Journ. de Pharm. xxiv. 411.              * Ibid. xxi. 572.
 » Ibid. xxi. 246.                                  * Pharm. Central-Blatt fur 1S36, S. 491.
 1 [Smyrna opium rasped, then mixed with common filtered water and allowed to remain in the liquor.
iehls a solution which powerfully retards the putrefaction of any animal matter  placed therein.  Dr.
'ereira, in Pharm. Journ. vol. xi. p. 135.—Ed.] 
 1022           VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Papaverace*:.

 cakes, which are flattened like the Smyrna opium.   This is of very good quality.
 The other is in small, flattened, regular cakes, of a lenticular form, from two to two
 and a half inches in diameter, and covered with a poppy leaf, the median nerves of
 which divide the disk into two parts.   It  has an odour  similar to the preceding
 kind, but more feeble; it blackens and dries in the air. It is more mucilaginous than
 Smyrna opium."   To this account  I may add that the cakes are never covered
 with the Rumex capsules, as those of Smyrna opium are.   Berthemot describes two
 kinds of it;  one soft, the other hard and brittle.   Constantinople opium is inferior
 to the Smyrna kind, but superior to Egyptian opium. Professor Guibourt says that
 this kind of opium yields only half the  morphia procurable from the Smyrna opium.
 Berthemot also states that, though  it yields more morphia than  the Egyptian opium,
 it  gives less than the Smyrna kind.   This, however, does not agree with the expe-
 rience of Mr. Duncan, of  Edinburgh,  who  has never failed to  obtain an  extraor-
 dinary quantity  of hydrochlorate of morphia from it.   From an experiment of
 Dr. Christison'?, he calculates the  quantity of hydrochlorate of morphia obtainable
 from it  at 14 per cent.1   Merck2 procured  15 per cent,  of pure morphia,  but
 scarcely a  trace of codeia.  It is obvious, therefore, that Constantinople opium is of
 unequal quality.  It  is probable that opium of unequal qualities, and produced in
 several parts of the Turkish empire, is carried to the capital, and, being  exported
 from thence, bears the name of  Constantinople opium.
   3. Egyptian Opium (Opium jEgyptiacum).—It occurs in round flattened cakes
 of about three inches diameter, covered externally with the vestiges of some  leaf.
 It is usually very dry.  It is distinguished from  the two preceding varieties by its
 reddish colour, analogous  to that of Socotrine or hepatic aloes.   Some very inferior
 qualities are  sometimes offered for sale, and which appear to the sight and touch to
 be largely  adulterated.  By keeping, it does not  blacken like the other kinds; its
 odour is less strong, and somewhat musty.  Guibourt says, that by exposure to the
 air it becomes soft.   Egyptian opium is for the most part  inferior to either of the
 preceding  kinds; but its quality is  by no means uniform.  Some kinds  become
 damp by keeping.  Guibourt tells us it -yields only five-sevenths of the morphia
 obtained from Smyrna opium.  Berthemot also states that it contains less morphia
 than either of the preceding kinds of opium,  and that the morphia is more mixed
 with  narcotine.   He farther adds that  the morphia which it yields is purified with
 great difficulty.   The  watery infusion of Egyptian opium  has a distinct  odour of
 acetic acid.   Dr. Christison obtained about 10| per cent, of pure white hydrochlo-
 rate of morphia from  it, which, he says, is about the quantity procured from good
 Turkey opium.  Merck3 procured only from 6 to 7 per cent, of morphia, but much
 meconic  acid.
   4.  Trebizond Opium (Persian  Opium).—Some years since a quantity of opium
 was imported into this country from Trebizond, in the form of cylindrical sticks,
 which, by pressure, have  become  somewhat angular.  Their  length is about six
 inches;  their diameter  about half an inch,  a little more or less.  Each one is
 enveloped  in a  smooth shiny paper, and tied with cotton; its colour is similar to
 that of Socotrine aloes.  It has the opiate odour stronger than that of the Egyptian
 kind, but less than Smyrna opium, and mixed somewhat with a musty odour;  its
 taste is intensely bitter.  It is commonly termed in commerce Persian opium, but
 the specimens I received came from Trebizond.  It is a very inferior kind.   Merck4
 could obtain  no morphia from it by the ordinary mode of  proceeding.  -He,  how-
 ever, afterwards succeeded  in obtaining about 1  per cent.   It gave only a trace of
 narcotina.  There must, I  suspect, be some error in these statements, as this opium
 is certainly richer in morphia than  is here stated.
  5. Indian  Opium (Opium Indicum).—Three varieties of Indian  opium are
known in commerce, viz: Malwa, Benares, and Patna Opium.   As the two latter
i Journ. de Pharm. xxi. 547.                       2 Pharm. Central-Blatt fur 1836 S 491
 Op. supra «i. _                               . Pkarmm Central-Blatt fur 1836; s! JA'. 
White Poppy:—Indian Opium.                  1023
kinds are  undistinguishable,  I shall include them  under one  head  of  Bengal
Opium.
  a. Bengal Opium (Benares and Patna  Opium).—Its preparation is fully de-
scribed by  Dr. Butter.1   I have been kindly furnished with samples of the Benares
and  Patna  kinds, of the growth of the years 1835—36, and  1837—38,  by Mr.
Maitland, of the India House.
  Bengal opium is imported  in balls, each weighing about three lbs. and a half,
and packed in chests, each  containing about forty balls.  The balls are hard, round
like  cannon-balls, and about the size of a child's head.  Externally, each ball is
made of  poppy petals, firmly agglutinated by a paste called letvah, to form a firm
but laminated envelop weighing about 14 oz.   On cutting through-this,  the opium
is found  to be quite soft, homogeneous, apparently quite pure, and to  have the con-
sistence of a soft extract.  Its colour is blackish-brown.  It.s odour and taste are
strong, and purely  opiate.   On exposure to the air  this opium speedily becomes
covered with mouldiness.   Both Buhar or Patna and Benares Opium are exported
from Calcutta.   Bahar  and Benares  are the only districts of  Bengal where opium
is produced.  Benares  is  most valued by the Chinese (Butter).  Farther  experi-
ments are required, ere  we can speak with confidence  as to the percentage quantity
of morphia and  narcotina obtainable  from Bengal opium.   Dr. Smytten3 procured
only 2 j  or 3 per cent, of morphia.   But  from  some experiments which  I  have
made, I consider this quantity to be considerably below the truth.   Mr. Morson
informs  me  that Benares opium  contains  rather more than  half the quantity of
morphia contained in good average Turkey opium.
   Garden Patna  Opium.—For a sample  of this opium  I  am  indebted  to Dr.
Christison.   It is imported in square  cakes  (inclosed  in thin plates of mica), about
three inches in length and breadth, and one inch thick.  It has the appearance, as
Professor Guibourt  describes it, of a  well-prepared, shiny, dry, pharmaceutical ex-
tract.  Its colour is blackish-brown.   Its odour is less powerful than that of Smyrna
opium.
  In the first edition of this  work, I described this kind of opium as fine  Malwa
opium.   The following extract of a letter which I  received from Dr.  Christison
will explain the  cause of this  error:  "The  common ball opium of Patna and Be-
nares (which are all but identical) was long known in  India to be inferior in quality.
During  the inspectorship of Mr.  Fleming, of Barrochan, he instituted inquiries,
along with his assistant, Captain Jeremie, as  to  the  causes of its inferiority, and,
among other reasons, was led to suppose it owed its softness, tarriness, and general
low quality, to the 'ryots'  storing  the juice  in bottles till it  accumulated to  a suffi-
cient extent to be made up, and to fermentation consequently taking place.   Means
were therefore taken to  get this juice before being long kept, and it  was made up
into square  cakes, of which I  sent you one under the incorrect  name  of  Malwa
opium—the name by which I  got it."  Mr. Fleming subsequently recognized the
cakes in Dr. Christison's laboratory with his official stamp on them.   Dr. Christi-
son obtained 9.5 per cent, of muriate of morphia (snow-white) from it, a consider-
able  portion of narcotine, and  so large a proportion as one-twelfth or 8 per cent, of
codeia.
  This I presume is the opium employed by  Merck8 under the name of Bengal
opium, and which, he says, was inclosed in  plates  of mica.  In  100 parts, he found
morphia  8, narcotine 3, codeia 0.5, thebaina 1, meconine traces, and porphyroxin
0.5.   Another sample of Indian opium, in round balls of half a pound each, and of
the  consistence of  Calabrian  extract of  liquorice,  yielded  him  10 per cent, of
morphia.*
  (3.  Malwa Opium.—A few  years since, this ranked among the inferior kinds of
 1 On the Prepar. of Opium for the China Market, in Journ. Asiat. Soc. of Beng. v. 165, 1836.  [See al:
the tiuthor's account of the manufacture, ante, p. 1018.—Ed ]
 * Trans, of the Med. and Phys. Soc. of Calcutta, vi.
 * Berl. Jahrb. xxx vii. 289, 1837, and Brit. Ann. of Med. July 21, 1837.
 4 Pharm. Central-Blatt fur 1836, 493. 
1024           VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Papaverace*:.
Indian opium, but it has been gradually rising in value, and is now highly esteemed.
I have received two  varieties of opium under this  denomination.  They  were
brought to me from India by former  pupils of mine.
  aa. One kind consists of a round flattened cake or ball, weighing ten ounces.  It
seems to have been  packed  in  a  coarse kind of dust, composed of broken poppy
petals.  Its  consistence  is about that of moderately firm Smyrna  opium.   When
cut into, it presents a homogeneous texture.   Its colour is dark brown; its odour
similar to that of Smyrna opium.
  0,3. The other kind (described in the first edition of this work as  inferior Malwa
opium) is in flattened cakes without  any exterior covering.   It  is dull, opake,
blackish-brown,  externally;  internally, somewhat darker and  soft.  Its odour is
somewhat like that of Smyrna opium, but less powerful, and combined with a slight
smoky smell.   Guibourt says it yields as much extract as Levant opium;  but its
insoluble residue wants  the  vinous odour and glutinous  consistence of  the latter.
It furnishes  only one-third  the quantity of morphia  yielded  by Smyrna  opium.
From common  Malwa opium Dr. Smytten  procured only from 3 to 5 per cent, of
morphia;  but, from fine samples,  from 7f to 8 per cent.
   Mr. E. Solly1 states that he found  "occasional minute cavities full  of  a  pale-
yellow oil,"  in a specimen of Malwa opium.   This opium yielded him 80 percent.
of soluble matter.
  y.  Cutch  Opium.—Under this name I have received from  Bombay a small cake
of opium, rather more than an inch in diameter, and apparently enveloped by the
remnants of leaves.   Its odour is much less powerful than that of  Smyrna opium.
   5. Kandeish Opium.—In round flattened cakes, weighing about half a pound
each.  It is nearly  black, is hard, brittle, and presents  a gritty or granular frac-
ture.   It yielded Mr.  E. Solly3 72 per cent, of soluble matter, and about 7 per
cent, of morphia.
  6. English Opium (Opium Anglicum).—It is in flat cakes or balls, enveloped
with leaves.   It resembles  fine Egyptian opium more than any other kind;  its
colour is  that of hepatic aloes;  it  has a  moderately  strong opiate odour.3  Mr.
Hennell procured from 700  grains of English  opium, prepared by  Messrs. Cowley
and Staines, 53  grains, or 7.57 per cent of morphia; while from the same quantity
of Turkey opium he  obtained  only  48 grains, or nearly 7 per cent, of morphia.*
Mr. Morson,5 from  20 oz. avoird. of  the  same British  opium, procured only 384
grains, or about 4.4 per cent, of morphia, and 222  grains, or about 2.53 per  cent.
of narcotina.  Probably the morphia obtained by Mr.  Hennell was not freed  from
narcotina.   Mr. Young declares British opium to be stronger than  the commercial
opium; six  ounces  of the former  being equal to eight of the  latter.6
  7. French Opium  (Opium Gallicum).—I have not seen any samples of  this.
Pelletier7  describes it as being of a deep reddish-brown colour, and brittle when dry.
Its  taste was somewhat different from that of Smyrna opium.  It left a less insoluble
residuum  than Eastern opium.  Pelletier procured more morphia from it than from
Smyrna opium.  In an experiment on about two ounces of each, he obtained about
10.38 per cent, from the former, and only 7.08 per cent, from  the  latter.   It con-
tained no narcotina.  He obtained sensible traces of codeia,  but none of narceine,
meconine, or thebaina, perhaps because the quantity of opium experimented on was
too small. The disappearance of one immediate principle (narcotina), and the aug-
mentation of another (morphia)^  caused  by climate, are  interesting facts.  Petit8

 i Proceedings of the Committee of Commerce  and Agriculture of the Royal Asiatic Society, p. 141, Lond.
 2 Op. supra cit.
 3 I must refer those interested in  the cultivation of the poppy, and production of British opium, to the
papers of Mr. Ball, in Trans. Soc. of Arts, xiv. 253; of Mr. Jones, Ibid,  xviii. 161; of Mr  Young  Ibid
xxxvii. 23;  of Messrs Cowley and Staines, Ibid. xl. 9; and of the Rev. G. Svvayne, Quart Journ. vols.
viii. and ix.
 4 Trans. Soc. Arts, xliii. 57.                                 < Ji,vj. 1. 25
 ■ Duncan, Suppl. to the Ed. Disp. p. 81.                         1 Journ.de Pharm xxi  570.
 8 Ibid. xiii. 183. 
White Poppy :—Commerce op Opium.
1025
got from 16 to 18 per cent, of morphia; and Caventou (quoted by Christison) ob-
tained from 22 to 28 per cent, from  French  opium; but, I presume, the morphia
was very impure.
  8.  German Opium (Opium Germanicum).—Biltz, of Erfurt, obtained from in-
digenous German opium 16J and even 20 per cent, of morphia, where the opium
had been procured from  the P.  somniferum,  a. nigrum;  and between 6}  and  9i
narcotina.  But from opium made from P. somniferum, /3 album, he got conversely
6.8 per cent,  of morphia, and 33 per cent, of narcotina.
  Commerce of Opium.—The quantities of opium on which duty was paid during
six  years, were as follows :—*

                In 1834 ......27,253 lbs.   In 1838 ......30,824 lbs.
                  1835......30,398         1839 ......40,784
                  1836......39,553         1840......45,589
                  1837 ......36,S33         1841 ......37,960

  Since August 13, 1836, the duty has been Is. per rfe ; previous to that, and from
1828, it was 4s.  per lb.   Of  the above quantities, the greater part was imported
from  Turkey.   The quantity  of opium produced in  Hindostan is enormous.   In
Patna and Benares  its cultivation is  a monopoly in the hands of government;  and
a revenue  is  derived from the Malwa  opium, by a system of passes  on shipment
from  Bombay.   Of  the whole quantity raised in Hindostan, it is* calculated that
about two-thirds have been sent to Canton, and the  remainder  to the Eastern  Is-
lands.2  The following/table  is  from Mr. R. Montgomery Martin's Statistics of the
 Colonies of the British  Empire, London, 1839 (p.  366).
Estimate of Quantity and Total Value of Indian Opium consumed in China during the
                        years ending in 1832—33.
Years.	Patna.	Benares. Malum,.		Total.	
	Chests.	Chests.	Chests.	Chests (of one pecul, or about 133£ lbs. avoird.)	Amount in Spanish Dollars.
1827—28 1828—29 1829—30 1830—31 1831—32 1832—33	4006 4831 5564 5085 4442 6410	1128 1130 1579 1575 1518 1880	4401 7171 6857 12100. 8265 15403$	9535 13132 14000 18760 14225 23693$	10.4 25,075 12,533,215 12,057,157 12,904,263 11,501,584 15,352,426
  All the world knows that these enormous quantities of opium were smuggled into China (by
the connivance of the local authorities) for the purpose of smoking. The vessels anchored at Lin-
tin, about seventy miles from Canton, and delivered the opium to the boats of the Chinese buyers.
" Malwa opium is considered by the Chinese as having a higher touch, but not so mellow nor so
pleasant in flavour as the Patna opium.  The smokable extract, which each quantity of opium
contains, is thus intimated by the Chinese—(who use  opium as we do wine or spirits) : Patna
and Benares opium 45 to 50 touch—average 48; Malwa 70 to 75—average 72$ ; Turkey  53 to
57—average touch 55.'3   The smokable extract here referred to, is an  aqueous extract of opium
prepared by the Chinese.  A detail of the important events which have resulted from the active
and extraordinary steps taken by this remarkable people to put a stop to the trade in opium,
would be out of place in this work.   Suffice it to say that, in 1839, no less than 20,283 chests
of opium, valued at nearly £3,000,000 sterling, were delivered up to the Chinese, and  by  them
destroyed by immersing the opium in water with lime and salt, and, when the whole  had be-
come a fetid mud, allowing it to escape into the river.4
   Composition.—Few substances have been  so repeatedly submitted  to chemical
investigation as opium.  The mere reference to the different labours which have
  1 Trade List.
  * Evid. taken before the Committee of the House of Lords on the Affairs of the East India Company,No
646, 1830, p. 25.
  » R. M. Martin, op. supra cit. p. 366.
  4 See Asiatic Journal, vol. xxx. part. ii. p. 310;  also Parliamentary Reports on the Trade with China
No, 359, lv40; and Corresp. relating to China, 1840.
       vol. ii.—65 
1026
VEGETABLES.—Xat.  Ord. Papaverace^e.
been bestowed on  it, would occupy more space  than I can devote  to the subject.
I must, therefore,  content myself with brief notices of the most  important epochs
in its chemical history, and a reference to some of the analyses which have been
made of it.
  In 1803 Derosne1 discovered narcotina.  In 1804 Sertiirner3 announced  the exist-
ence of meconic acid and morphia.   Seguin3 appears to have discovered them about
the same time.   Robiquet* confirmed these discoveries  in 1814.  In 1826 meconine
was discovered by Dublanc Jeune, and again, in 1830, by Couerbe.5 In 1832 Pel-
letier6 discovered narccina; and, in the same year, Robiquet7 announced  the exist-
ence of codeia.   In 1837 Merck8 announced the existence, in opium, of a new sub-
stance, which he called porphyroxin ; but his statement requires confirmation.
  Analyses  of opium have been published, in 1800 by Bucholz,9 in 1804 by Ser-
tiirner, in 1814 by Seguin, in  1817 by Braconnot,10 in 1818 by Buchner,11 in 1819
by John,1* in 1823 by Pfendler,13 in 1824 by Lindbergson,14 in 1826 by Merck,"
in 1826 by Geiger,16 in 1831  by Biltz,1? in 1832 by Pelletier,18 in 1834 by Schind-
ler,19 and in 1836 by Mulder.20
Mulder's Analysis.	Smyrna Opium.				
	1	2	3	4	5
	10.842 6.S08 0.678 6.662 0804 5.124 2.166 6.012 3.582 25.200 1.042 19.086 9.846 2.148	4.106 8.150 ' 0.834 7.506 0.846 3.968 1.350 5.026 2.028 31.470 2.896 17.098 12.226 2.496	9.852 9.360 0.84 8 7.684 0.314 7.620 1.816 3.674 4.112 21.834 0.698 21.068 11.422 0.568	2.842 7.702 0.858 9.902 0.380 7.252 4.204 3.754 2.208 22.606 2.998 18.496 13.044 2.754	3.800 6.546 0.620 13.240 0.608 6.644 1.508 3.206 1.834 25.740 0.896 18.022 14.002 3.332
7. Fat............ 9. Resin..........					
10. Gummy extractive . . .					
12. Mucus..........					
13. Water..........					
Loss ..........					
					
Smyrna Opium ....	100.000	100.000	100.000	99.000	99.998
 i Ann. de Chim. xiv. 257.                      2 Trommsdorff''s Journ. 1805, Bd. xiv. 1, S. 47.
 3 Ann. de Chim. xcii. 225; and Ann.de Chim. et. Phys. ix. 282. * Ibid. v. 275
 * Ibid. I 337.                                      « i0id. 1.262.
 ■ Ibid. h. 259.                                     « Pharm. Central-Blatt /air 1837, S. 342.
 » Trommsdorff1 s Journ. vni. S. 24.                     "> Journ. de Phys lxxxiv  225
» Quoted by Schwartze, Pharm. Tab.                   « Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem ii 1244
" Chem. Abhandl. ub. d. Opium, Wien, 1823.              » Gmelin, op. supra cit.
                                               16 Ibid.
» Ibid.
" Pharm. Central-Blatt fur 1631, S. 757
a Pharm. Central-Blatt fur 1834, S. 751.
Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. 1. 240.
Ibid, fur 1837, S. 574. 
White Poppy:—Composition of Opium.                 1027
Schindler's Analyses.				Biltz's Analyses.			
j		Constanti-nople Opium.	Egyptian Opium.	Morphia .... Narcotina .... Meconic acid (im-Bitter extractive Albumen .... Balsamic matter Caoutchouc . . . Gum with lime . Sulphate of pot-Lime, iron, alu-mina, and phos-phoric acid . . Woody fibre . . Ammonia, vola-tile oil, and loss	Oriental Opium.	Indigenous Opium.	
Narcotina .... Narceine .... Meconine .... Meconic acid . . Bassorin, caout-chouc, fat, and lignin ..... Salts and vola-Lime& magnesia Alumina, oxide of iron, silica, and phosphate of lime . . Brown acid, so-luble in alcohol and water . . . Brown acid, so-luble in water; gum and loss .	Smyrna Opium.					From tt. nigrum.	From 8- album.
	10.30 1.30 0 25 0.71 0.08 4.70 10.93 26.25 3.60 0.47 0.24 1.04 40.13	4.50 3.47 0.52 0.42 0.30 4.38 8.10 17.18 3.60 0.42 0.22 0.40 56.49	7.00 2.68 -[90.32]		9.25 7 50 13.75 22.00 7 75 20.00 6.25 2.00 125 2.00 1.50 3.75 3.00	20.00 6.25 18.00 850 4.75 17.50 7.65 10.50 0.85 2.25 1.85 O.bO 1.10	6.85 33.00 15.30 11.00 2.20 13.00 6.80 4.50 1.10 2.00 1.15 1.50 1.60
Total . . . . ' 100.00		100.00	100.00	Total . . .	100.00 1 100.00		100.00
   The following substances may be regarded as the constituents of opium :  Morphia
narcotina, codeia,  narceia, meconine, thebaina, or paramorphia, pseudomorphia ?
meconic acid, brown acid extractive, sulphuric acid, resin, fat oil, gummy matter
caoutchouc, albumen, odorous principle (volatile oil ?), and lignin.
  1. Volatile Odorous Principles (Volatile Oil?).—The distilled water of opium has the
peculiar odour of this drug, and by keeping deposits  a ropy substance.  Hitherto, however all
attempts to isolate the volatile odorous principle of opium have failed, and its nature, therefore
is as yet unknown.   Nysten1 swallowed two ounces of the  distilled water without any sensible
effect; and Orfila injected  a like quantity of  it into the jugular vein of a dog without appa-
rently causing any inconvenience  to the animal.  The volatile principle cannot, therefore  pos-
sess much activity;  but Nysten concludes that " the distilled water of opium, strongly saturated
with the aromatic principle, is capable of producing drunkenness and sleep, when  taken  in a
strong dose."
  2. Morphia.—(This will be described hereafter.)
  3. Codeia (Codeine).—So called from xdSim, a poppy head.  It is a white, crystalline solid,
soluble in cold, and still more so in boiling water.  It is soluble in alcohol and ether.   It is inso-
luble in a  cold weak solution of potash.  If more codeia be added to boiling water than this
liquid can dissolve, the excess melts and forms an oily layer at the bottom of the vessel ■ and
by cooling, a crystalline mass is obtained.  It reacts as an alkali on test papers, and unites with
ncids to form crystalline salts.  From morphia, codeia is distinguished by its not becoming blue
on  the addition of a persalt of iron.  It is  also  said not  to redden nitric acid  like  morphia
(Turner).   All the specimens of codeia which I have met  with  became orange yellow on the
addition of nitric acid.   Moreover, ammonia does not precipitate it from its very diluted solution
in hydrochloric acid, on account of its solubility in water; and this affords a means of separating
morphia from codeia.   The separation may be more easily effected by ether, which readily dis-
solves codeia; or by alkalies (potash or soda), which dissolve morphia, but leave codeia. From
meconine  it is distinguished  by its aqueous solution possessing marked alkaline properties as
manifested by its  action on  test papers.   Tincture of nutgalls produces a copious  precipitate
(tannate of codeia) in solutions of codeia.
  [We have, like the author, observed that codeia and its salts acquire an orange yellow colour
on the addition of nitric acid, and farther that it decomposes iodic acid  like  morphia  and  sets
free iodine.   The specimen  examined was  considered  to be pure, although  it is  possible  that
traces of morphia may be retained, and account for the reactions observed.  Codeia is so soluble
in water that the solution has a strong alkaline reaction.  It readily yields well-defined prismatic
crystals by the evaporation  of its aqueous solution.  These  are larger, but have the same form
t Orfila, Toxicol. Gin. 
 1028             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Papaverace^.

 under the microscope as those of morphia, viz. quadrangular  prisms.   When strong sulphuric
 acid is added to codeia it is somewhat reddened.  On dropping into this mixture one drop of a
 solution of bichromate of  potash there is an immediate decomposition, with change of colour,
 the liquid becoming rapidly green, from the liberation of green  oxide of chrome.  In  this respect
 codeia resembles morphia.  In fact, the chief chemical difference is that  pointed out by the
 author, viz., the non-coloration on the addition of a persalt of iron."—Ed.]
                                                   +
   Anhydrous codeia consists of C^H^NO5, Symbol Cd.   It, therefore, contains an atom less of
 oxygen than morphia does.  [There is  the same relation  between the formula? of  Morphia and
 Codeia as between those of Cinchona and Quina.—Ed.]   Its  atomic weight is 284.   Crystal-
 lized in ether it contains no water;  but crystallized  in water  it retains two atoms of water of
 crystallization.
   The salts of codeia  have not been much studied.  The  nitrate readily crystallizes.  The tan-
 nate is insoluble in water*.  The double hydrochlorate of morphia and codeia is the salt atone time
 sold as hydrochlorate of morphia, by those  who  prepared it  by Gregory's  process.  Hence it
 has been termed by the  French pharmacologists sel de Gregory.
   The effects of codeia and its salts have  been  imperfectly examined by Kunkel, Gregory, Bar-
 bier, and Magendie, but  the results are very conflicting.   Kunkel1 says it is a local irritant, be-
 comes absorbed, excites the circulation,  and  produces convulsions;  but that none of the  animals
 on which the codeia  was tried  were either stupefied or paralyzed.   Magendie,2 however, says
 it causes sleep, and when  exhibited in large doses, stupor.  He considers one grain of codeia
 equivalent to half a grain t)f  morphia ; two grains excite nausea and vomiting.   Barbier3 also
 states that it produces sleep.  Dr. W. Gregory4 says that,  in doses of five or  six grains, it causes
 an excitement like that of intoxication, followed in a few hours by depression, nausea, and some-
 times vomiting.   Magendie proposes to use it as a substitute for morphia, to procure sleep and
 allay pain, in doses of from one to three grains.  A syrup of codeia (composed of codeia grs xxiv;
 distilled water f^iv;  sugar ^viij) has been used in hooping-cough.  The  dose  for a  child of
 about seven years of  age is a  teaspoonful.  It has been given in irritation  of the gastric  mucous
 membrane.5
   4. Narcotina (Narcotine). — So called from vap.aniH.Qc, narcotic.   The greater part of the nar-
 cotina of opium is in a free state, as it is removable by ether without the  aid of either acids or
 alkalies.   It is a white, inodorous substance, crystallizing in prisms, which are fluted or striated
 —distinguished  from  morphia by being insipid, very soluble in etlier, insoluble in alkalies, hy
 its not becoming blue on the addition of the sesquichloride of iron,  by its not decomposing iodic
 acid, and, when quite pure, by its not yielding  a brown  colour when  treated by chlorine and
 ammonia.  Heated on paper  over a candle  it gives a greasy-looking stain to the paper.   Nitric
 acid dissolves it, and  acquires an orange tint.  [Sulphuric acid turns it  yellow, and on adding
 bichromate of potash  green oxide of chrome  is slowly set free.—En.]  It does not affect vegeta-
 ble colours, and  by this character is readily distinguished  from both morphia and codeia.  It is
 insoluble in cold water, but dissolves in 400 parts of boiling water—in 100 parts of cold alcohol
 —or in 24 parts of boiling  alcohol.  The volatile oils also dissolve it; it is soluble in ether.   It
 consists of C^H^NO14.   The  salts of narcotina have been  but little examined.  They are more
 bitter than those of morphia, redden litmus, and are precipitated from their solutions by infusion
 of nutgalls and by the alkalies.  The hydrochlorate is  crystallizable.   Both this and the  sulphate
 are very soluble in water.
   [Orfila  has suggested  a test for narcotina, which  produces very striking results.  If to  the
 mixture of strong sulphuric acid and narcotina, a small  fragment of nitrate of potash  or any
 nitrate, be added, the  liquid speedily acquires a deep  blood-red colour.   Morphia treated in  the
 same way gives a dingy brown or olive green colour.  Conversely, a mixture of narcotine and
 sulphuric acid has been  proposed  as a test  for nitric acid or  a nitrate.   It  is the  nitric acid
 which here operates,  and the  presence of a trace of nitric acid in  sulphuric acid may be often
 revealed by the  fact that when  the latter is added to narcotina it acquires a reddish tint —Ed]
   Narcotina is extracted  from the residue of the opium which  has been subjected  to the action
<ff cold water.   This  is treated  with water  acidulated with either  acetic or hydrochloric acid,
and  to the filtered  solution ammonia is added.   The precipitate treated with boiling  alcohol
yields narcotina, which is deposited as the liquor cools.   Narcotina may be separated from mor-
phia by ether, which  dissolves the narcotina, but leaves the morphia, or by a solution of potash,
which dissolves  the morphia,but leaves the narcotirra, or by the cautious addition of weak acetic
acid, which  dissolves the morphia, and, unless the acid be greatly in excess, does  not dissolve
the narcotina.
   When narcotina was first discovered  it was said to be the stimulant principle of opium ; and
Magendie states, a grain  of it,  dissolved in olive  oil, produced the death of a dog in twentv-four
hours, while twenty-four times this quantity  was given, dissolved in acetic acid, with impunity.
Orfila, at one time, declared it was inert,  then that it acted like morphia, and subsequently that

  1 Journ. de Chim. Mid. ix. 223.                                     ,  „     ,  .
  » Journ. de Chim. Mid. x. 214 and 337.                               \  n'tV.Z' 6me'  6lL 87"
  * Journ. de Pharm. xxiv. 144.                                        JOta- p'lily- 
White Poppy :—Constituents op Opium.
1029
its operation was remarkable and  peculiar.  Bally asserts that, in a solid state, it is inert; for
129 grains may be given, at one dose, without exciting any obvious effect.  The  truth is, I be-
lieve, that narcotina possesses but little activity;  and I presume, therefore, that the first experi-
menters with it employed an impure substance.  Dr. Roots gave gradually increased doses of it,
up to a scruple, without  the least  injury.  The  bitterness of its sulphuric solution led him to
employ it in intermittents, as a substitute for disulphate of quina.  More recently, attention has
been drawn to it in India, by Dr. O'Shaughnessy,1 as an Indian indigenous substitute for quina;
and nearly 200 cases of intermittent and remittent fevers, treated by it with success, have been
published.
   [The proportion of Narcotina contained  in the  different varieties of opium is, according to
Dr. O'Shaughnessy, for 100 parts of Bengal Opium,  3 parts, the same for M^lwah  opium, while
Turkey opium yields only one per  cent, (from notes).—En.]   One of tile products of the oxida-
tion of Narcotine is Opianic acid ; of the mode of procuring and properties of which we subjoin
the following  remarks, from  the author's notes.                     •
   Opianic Acid.—This substance is most readily obtained, according to Liebig and Wohler, by
the oxidation  of narcotine in the following manner:  Dissolve narcotine in an excess of dilute
sulphuric acid, add to the solution  finely powdered  binoxide of manganese, and apply heat.  It
will soon assume a  yellow saffron-like colour, and  evolve carbonic acid gas.  Heat to boiling,
which is to be kept tip until no more carbonic acid  gas escapes.  Both the manganese and sul-
phuric  acid must be in excess; test for these, and then  filter whilst boiling.  In cooling, the
fluid  will nearly wholly congeal, and form a magma of fine needle-like crystals of opianic acid.
The mass is to be placed on a filter to allow the  yellow-coloured flux! to pass off;  wash several
times with cold water, press as firmly as possible, and remove impurities by treating  with ani-
mal charcoal, and repeated recrystallization from boiling water.
   Opianic acid crystallizes in very small shining silky prisms of indefinite form.   It is but slightly
soluble in cold water, but more so in  hot; so that a saturated  solution, in cooling, nearly wholly
crystallizes, like a solution of benzoic  acid.  It  is  also soluble in  alcohol.  It reacts as an acid
though it has  but a faintly sour and bitter taste.  It readily melts, and forms a clear oil, which
crystallizes on cooling, but remains amorphous if heated beyond the point of melting.  It does
not  appear to  be  volatile, although it may be  distilled  over, a circumstance  referable to its
adhesion to the sides of the retort.  Heated in the air  it emits an aromatic odour (similar to
narcotine, which  it resembles in  combustion),  with a vivid flame and deposition of carbon.
Opianic acid expels carbonic acid,  and forms soluble salts, with bases.  The salts of silver and
oxide of lead  crystallize in thin shining prisms and flakes.  It contains  no nitrogen.2
   5. Narceine (Narceina).—So called from va^xn. stupor.  It is a white, inodorous solid, crys-
tallized  in  long, fine, silky needles, radiating  in tufts from a centre, with  a slightly bitter, and
even somewhat metallic, taste.  It dissolves in 230 parts of boiling water, or 375 parts of water
at 60°.   It fuses at about 198°, and  at a  higher  temperature is  decomposed.   Narceine has
several very striking  properties by which it is distinguished  from other substances.  The first
of these deserving of notice is the  action of mineral acids  on it.  Thus the sulphuric, nitric, and
muriatic  acids, so  diluted  with  water that  they cannot  alter the  elementary composition of
narceine, give this substance a fine light-blue colour, immediately on coming in contact with it.
This alteration of colour  does  not  appear to depend on any change in  the elementary compo-
sition of narceine, since, by saturating the  acids  with ammonia, the  narceine is precipitated
unchanged.   When much water is added, the blue colour disappears.   Another peculiar trait
of narceine is, that it forms  a  bluish compound  (iodide of narceine)  with iodine;  heat and
alkalies destroy the colour.   These characters  are sufficient to distinguish narceine  from all
other known  substances.  In addition, I may add  that it  does not form a  blue colour with the
sesquichloride of iron, as morphia  does.
   Narceine was at first  supposed  to be a vegetable alkali;  but  as it does not affect  vegetable
colours, nor combine with nor saturate  acids, it is now regarded as a neutral principle.  Narceine
is composed of C^H^NO12.
   Two grains have been several times thrown into the jugular vein of a dog, without producing
any appreciable effect.   It is presumed, therefore, to be inert.
   6. Meconine—So called  from iamw, a poppy-   It is a  white, crystalline, odourless solid.
 Its taste, which at lirst is  scarcely perceptible, is afterwards sensibly acrid.   The crystals are six-
 sided prisms, with dihedral summits.   It fuses  at  194°, and  becomes a colourless, limpid fluid.
 At a higher  temperature it  may be  distilled.  It dissolves  in 265 parts of  cold water, or in
 eighteen  parts of boiling  water.   It is soluble in alcohol and in ether.   It is distinguished from
 morphia  and  codeia by its not possessing alkaline  properties.  From morphia it  is farther dis-
 tinguished  by its great fusibility,  its  greater solubility in  water, and its  not becoming blue on
 the  addition  of sesquichloride of iron.   Cold sulphuric  acid dissolves meconine, the solution
being limpid  and colourless.   If heat be applied, the  liquid becomes dark.  If the quantity of
 sulphuric acid be small in proportion to that of meconine, the liquid assumes a  green  colour.
 If chlorine gas be  passeil over fused  meconine, the latter becomes blood-red, and on cooling
1  Brit, and For. Med. Rev. vol. viii. p. 263.
* Journ. far prakt. Chemie, xxvii. pp. 97, 98. 
1030
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Papaverace;e.
forms crystals.   The compound thus formed is composed of chlorine and some organic base: if
the first be  removed  by oxide of silver, a white acid is obtained, which Couerbe calls mechloic
acid (C14H7010).  By the action of nitric acid on meconine we obtain hyponitromeconic acid, com-
posed of one atom of meconine and half an atom of hyponitrous acid.   Meconine is remarkable
for not containing nitrogen.   Its composition is C10H5O*.
  A grain dissolved in water, and injected into the jugular  vein of a dog, produced no remark-
able effect.  Farther experiments, however, are required before we  can  positively declare it to
be an inert substance.
  7. Thebaina (Paramorphia).—So  called from Thebes, an ancient city of Egypt.   It is a
white, crystalline, fusible solid, having an acrid, styptic taste, very soluble in alcohol and ether,
but hardly at all soluble in water.  It possesses alkaline properties,and dissolves in weak acids.
From these solutions it is precipitated by alkalies.   An excess of alkali cannot dissolve it, unless,
indeed, the alkaline solution  be very concentrated.  It fuses at 302°, but does not volatilize at
any temperature.   It  is distinguished from  morphia  by not becoming blue on the addition of
the perchloride of iron, and by not forming crystallizable salts with acids.   From codeia it differs
in not crystallizing in large crystals, and in not forming crystallizable  salts.  With meconine
and narceine it has no analogy, and  from  them it is distinguished by  the want of the  peculiar
properties which characterize these  bodies.  It resembles narcotina more  than any other sub-
stance, but is distinguished by the crystals being  shorter or granular, and  wanting the pearly
brilliancy possessed by those of narcotina; by its acrid taste; by its fusibility at 302°; by its
greater solubility in alcohol;  and by nitric acid when dropped  on it converting it into a substance
like a soft resin, before dissolving it.  Pelletier considered  it  to  be isomeric with morphia;—
hence he called it paramorphia.  According  to Dr. Kane's  analysis, it consists of  C^H'^O3;
and  its atomic weight is 202.  Couerbe's analysis gives another atom  of oxygen.  The last-
mentioned chemist says that, by fusion, the crystals lose two atoms  of water.  Magendie  states
that one grain injected into the jugular vein, or placed in the pleura,  acts like brucia or strychnia,
and causes tetanus and death in a few minutes.
  8. Pseudomorphia.—This is  a substance which Pelletier has occasionally met with in
opium.   It is a whitish solid, which, like morphia, dissolves in caustic alkalies, is reddened by
nitric acid, and made blue by contact with  the sesquichloride of iron.  But it does not decom-
pose iodic acid, and cannot form salts with acids.  It  consists  of C27H18N014.   It is not poison-
ous; at least, nearly eight grains, given to a rabbit, produced no  effect.   Pelletier  thinks that
pseudomorphia  must be some  combination of morphia, in which  this  substance  has lost its
poisonous properties.
  9. Porphyroxin ?—This  name has  been given  by Merck1 to  a  supposed new principle
found in Bengal opium.  It is described as  crystallizable, fusible,  soluble in alcohol, ether, and
weak acids.  Alkalies precipitate it  from  its acid solution.  Farther experiments are required
to determine its existence and precise nature.
  10.  Resin—Brown, insipid, inodorous, softened by heat, insoluble  in water and ether, but
soluble in alcohol and in alkaline lyes.  Nitrogen is a constituent of it.
  11.  Extractive.—The substance usually denominated the extractive of opium  is probably
a heterogeneous body.   It is  brown  and acid, and has been supposed to be one  of the active
principles of opium.  The reasons for this opinion are the following:   In the first place, it has
been asserted that after the morphia  has been separated from an infusion  of opium by magnesia,
the filtered  liquor gives  by evaporation an extract which  produces the same kind of narcotic
effect that opium does.2   Secondly, the effects of the known active principles of opium are not
sufficiently powerful to authorize us  to refer the whole of the active properties of opium to them.
Thus, on  an average, 100 parts of opium yield from 8 to  10 parts  of  morphia  (the  most
active of tbe known constituents of  opium), and, therefore, if this alkali were the only active
principle, it ought to be 10 or f2 times as powerful as opium is.  Now we know that morphia
is but little, if at all, more active than opium, and, therefore, this last mentioned substance  either
contains some other active principle, or the activity of morphia is surprisingly increased by the
principle or principles with  which  it is  naturally in  combination.  Butter3 says the insoluble
residuum  possesses considerable narcotic  qualities.
  12.  Fatty Matter.—Yellow or brownish.  Probably  colourless when  pure.  It reddens
litmus, and  unites with alkalies  to form  soaps, from which acids  disengage  it apparently
unchanged.
  13.  Meconic Acid.—Hitherto found in the poppy tribe only.  It is usually procured from
meconate of lime  by acting on it, in  hot water, with hydrochloric acid.  The  meconic acid
crystallizes on cooling.  The formula of the anhydrous acid is C14H0U.   The crystallized acid
contains 9 equivalents of water; and  the acid dried at 212° contains 9 equivalents of water.  [The
symbol of meconic acid is Me.   The formula of the anhydrous acid is C14HO"=Me ; of the acid
dried at 212°, CI4HO"=.\Ie-f-3 aq.; of the crystallized acid, C14HOn+3HO-f6aqLMe+9aq.
It is admitted by chemists  to be a tribasic acid.—Ed.]  When pure it is in the form of white,
1 Pharm. Central-Blatt fur 1837, S. 342; and Brit. Ann. of Med. ii. S2.
8 Berzelius, Traiti de Chim. t. v. p. 136; and t. vi. p. 152.
* Op. supra cit. 
TABULAR VIEW  OF THE  PRINCIPAL CHARACTERS  OF THE CRYSTALLINE  PRINCIPLES  OF OPIUM.
Characters.
Taste...............

Fusibility............
Fusibility in Boiling Water . .

              Cold Water . . .

              Boiling Water .
              Cold Alcohol . .
Solubility in { Boiling Alcohol
              Cold Ether . . .
              Potash or Soda Lye . . .

Basic quality \ i"™ ™ fesi PaPer • ■
     *     J I Sahfiabiitty.......

Action of Nitric Acid.........

Coloured blue by Hydrochloric Arid . .
Coloured blue by Sesquichloride of Iron
Coloured blue by Iodine  .........

Decomposes Iodic Acid.........■

Precipitated by Infusion of Nutgalls . .
Whenfused, reddened by Chloric Gas . .
Composition................
Equivalent.................
Water of Crystallization.........
Poisonous.................
Morphia.
Pseudomorphia.
Very bitter

Fusible
Infusible
 (Insoluble, or
 I   nearly so
Soluble in'lOOpts.
Soluble in 10 pts.
Soluble in 30 pts.
Scarcely soluble

Soluble

Alkaline
Salifiable

Reddened:  solu-
 tion red

       Not
Coloured blue
       Not
Decomposes
 Iodic  Acid
Precipitated
       Not
    C35IIMN'0!
       292
2 atoms
Poisonous
Infusible?
Infusible

Almost insoluble I

Less soluble than )
  in water       )

Soluble          \

        ?
Not salifiable

Reddened

      Not
Coloured blue
    C"H,8.\T10"
        306
         ?
 Not poisonous

  %*% I have had no
opportunity of veri-
fy iiicj the statements
in this column.
Codeia.
Bitter
Fusible at 302°
Fusible
Soluble in 80 pts
Soluble in 17 pts

Very soluble

Insoluble in the )
  cold lye     )
Alkaline
Salifiable

Solution not red i

      Not
      Not
      Not
      Not
Precipitated
      Not
  C3sH'<0N'Os
      284
2 atoms
Poisonous
Narcotina.
 (Insipid:  the i
 (  salts bitter<
Fusible at 338°

Insoluble
Very  slightly
  soluble
Soluble in 100)
  parts        >
Readily soluble )

Insoluble, or
  nearly so

Neutral
Salifiable

Made  yellow: \
solution yellow j

      Not
      Not
      Not

      Not

Precipitated"
       Not
  C"H2JN'0'»
       410
3 or 4 per cent.
Inert?
    Thebaina.

Rather acrid and i
  metallic       '
Fusible at 2260
Very slightly so-
  luble

Soluble in 10 parts
Still more soluble
Very soluble
Insoluble, unless]
  the lye be very !
  concentrated    '
Alkaline
Salifiable?
Gives it a resin- )
 ous appearance,>
 and dissolves it  1
       Not
       Not
       Not

       Not
       Not
   C«H'«N'0'
       202
1 atom
Poisonous
Narceine.
Slightly bitter
Fusible at 1980
Fusible
Soluble in 375 pts

Soluble in 230 pts,
Soluble
More soluble
Insoluble
Neutral
Not salifiable
Coloured blue  )
  by dilute acid J
Coloured blue
       Not
Coloured blue
      Not
       ?
      Not
  C*HMN'0,J
      298
       ?
Inert?
Meconine.
Rather acrid.
Fusible at 1940
Fusible.
Soluble in 206 pts.

Soluble in 19 pts,
Soluble.
Soluble.
Soluble.

Soluble.

Neutral.
Not salifiable.

Solution yellow.

      Not.
      Not.
      Not.
      Not.
Blood-red.
    Ci0H»O4
     97 (?)
None.
Inert? 
1032             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Papaveraceous:.
 transparent, micaceous scales, which are soluble in four times their weight of boiling water.   But
 at this temperature water decomposes it: carbonic acid is evolved, and a solution of komemcacid
 (C>2H20M-2 aq.) is obtained.   Cold  water dissolves a smaller quantity of meconic acid.  Alco-
 hoi is also a  solvent for meconic acid.  By the dry distillation of meconic acid it loses carbonic
 acid and water, and becomes pyromeconic acid (C10H3O5+aq-)-                    ....
   The characteristics of meconic acid are as follows:  1st. It reddens the neutral sesquisalts of iron,
 forming the meconate of the sesquioxide of iron.  Alkalies, protochloride of tin, and nitric acid, as-
 sisted by heat, destroy this red colour.   A solution of corrosive sublimate, which destroys the
 red colour of sulphocyanide of iron, does not decolorize a red solution of meconate of iron.  2dly.
 It forms  with a  weak  solution  of ammoniated sulphate of copper, a green precipitate (meconate of
 copper).   3dly. It  yields  white precipitates (meconates) which are soluble  in  nitric acid, with
 acetate of lead, nitrate of silver, and  chloride of barium.   The acetates  which, like meconic acid,
 redden the sesquisalts of iron, and might, therefore, be confounded with it, do not occasion pre-
 cipitates  with the salts of lead  and of barium.   [Besides, the meconate of  lead is insoluble in
 acetic acid—Ed.]  4thly. It is not reddened by chloride of gold, which reddens hydrosulphocy-
 anic acid and the sulphocyanides.
   It deserves especial notice that many substances enjoy equally with meconic acid the power
 of communicating a red colour to the sesquisalts of iron.  The following  are some of them:
 the acetates, hydrosulphocyanic acid,  and the sulphocyanides, the saliva of man and of the sheep, the
 urine of man (frequently), infusion of white mustard, komenic, pyromeconic, and indigotic acids, ihe
 liquid obtained by the action of hydrochloric acid on detonating silver, the decoctions of Cetraria
 islandica and of Gigartina Helminthocorton.
   Meconic acid is believed to be  an inert substance.  Sertiirner swallowed  five grains of it
 without observing any effect.  Sommering gave ten grains to a dog; Feneglioand Blengini gave
 eight grains to  dogs, crows, and frogs, and four grains to  various men; in all cases no effects
 were observed.1  Combined with bases it doubtless modifies  their action.  Meconate of soda,
 however, is not  active, as Sertiirner asserted.  It is supposed that the effect of the morphia in
 opium is modified  by its combination with meconic acid.  I have already  mentioned that this
 acid is said to bean antidote in cases of poisoning by corrosive sublimate. If, however, the state-
 ment be true,  the  fact is of little practical  value, on account of the scarcity of tbe  acid; for
 neither opium nor laudanum can be  given in quantity sufficient to neutralize  the effect of this
 salt, without  proving  deleterious.  Moreover, we have other good  and easily accessible anti-
 dotes.  Anthelmintic properties have been ascribed to the acid and some of its salts.
   Chemical Characteristics.—Litmus paper is reddened by a watery infusion of
 opium (or tincture  of opium  diluted with water), owing to a free acid (meconic).
 Sesquichloride of iron gives it a deep red colour (meconate of iron).  Acetate and diace-
 tate of lead occasion a copious gray  precipitate (meconate and sulphate of lead, with
 colouring matter), which,  treated by sulphuric acid or sulphuretted  hydrogen, yields
 free meconic acid.   Chloride of barium also causes a precipitate (meconate and sul-
phate of baryta).   Ammonia renders the infusion turbid (precipitated morphia and
 narcotina).   Tincture of nutgalls  causes  a precipitate  (tannaies  of morphia and
 codeia).   Nitric  acid  communicates to the infusion a red colour (oxidized ?  mor-
phia).   Iodic acid  and starch  cause, after  some hours, a blue precipitate (iodide of
 starch).   This last test  does  not always  succeed.   Chloride of gold causes a deep
 fawn-coloured  precipitate.
   Application to Mkoico-legal Purposes.—On examining  the  alimentary  canal of persons
 destroyed by opium, it not unfrequently happens that no  traces of the poison can be  obtained.
 I have met with several  instances  of this, and others are referred to by Dr. Christison.2 Either,
 therefore, opium is rapidly absorbed, and its unassimilated parts are thrown out of the system
 by the excretories, or the constituents of this substance are digestible and assimilable.
   The characters available for  the detection of opium are twofold, physical and chemical.
   1. Physical Chabactehistics.—Whether in  the solid state, or dissolved in water or spirit,
 opium possesses three physical properties, by one or more of which  it may be frequently
 recognized.   These are, a more or less brown colour, a remarkable and peculiar odour, and a bitter
 taste.  Of these the  odour is the only characteristic one.  In the alimentary  canal it is  strongest
 when the stomach  is just opened, or when the opiate liquor is just reaching the boiling point
 Other odours, however, frequently mask it.  The analogy between the odours of lactucarium
 and opium deserves notice.
  2. Chemical CHAnACTEinsTics.—The chemical tests of opium are  those for meconic  acid
 and morphia above mentioned.  In a case of suspected poisoning, the stomach and duodenum
 (cut into small  pieces) with their  contents, are to be digested in  distilled water,  and the solu-
 tion filtered successively through a sieve, muslin, and paper.   A  little acetic acid added to the
1 Richter, Ausf. Arzneim. Bd. ii. S. 616.
2 O71 Poisons. 
White Poppy :—Poisoning by Opium.
1033
water coagulates any caseum, and is thought to facilitate the solution of the morphia.  Its pre-
sence in large quantity is objectionable, on account of the red colour produced by the action of
the acetates on  the  ferruginous salts; this resembles the colour developed with these salts by
meconic acid.
   a. Application of Trial T'ests.—To a small  portion of the filtered liquid apply the following
tests:—
   1. A few drops of tincture of chloride of iron, which produces a red colour (meconate of iron)
in an opiate solution.
   2. Apply excess of strong nitric acid, which also reddens (oxidizes? morphia) opiate liquors.
   3. Add iodic  acid and  starch, and set aside for twenty-four hours.  Blue iodide of starch is
sometimes formed if morphia be present (unless, indeed, the quantity be  very minute).—The
fallacies of these tests have been already stated (see Morphia).
   The success or failure of these tests  is not to be considered as absolutely decisive as to the
presence or absence of opium.
   0. Separation of the Morphia and Meconic Acid.—Add to  the  filtered  liquor  a considerable
excess of a solution  of acetate of lead, and set aside in a tall vessel for the precipitate (meconate
and sulphate of lead, with coltmring matter) to subside, leaving a clear liquor (acetates of morphia
and lead, &c).   Pour off the latter, and collect the precipitate on a filter.   Before  adding the
acetate of  lead, it may  be sometimes necessary to evaporate the liquor, in a  water-bath, to the
consistence of  syrup, which is to be digested and boiled  in alcohol, and  the alcoholic tincture
evaporated, and the residuum dissolved in  water.  To the filtered solution add the acetate of
lead.  This complication of the process is not usually necessary.  Farthermore, by boiling with
water, meconic acid is decomposed.
   The above-mentioned clear liquor and the lead-precipitate are then to be tested (the first for
morphia, the second for meconic acid), as follows:—          '
Proceeding with the lead-precipitate  (meconate
 and sulphate of lead, and colouring matter).
  Suspend the  lead-precipitate in water con-
tained in a conical  glass, and  pass a stream of
sulphuretted  hydrogen  through it, to convert
the lead  into  a  sulphuret, which  is  to  be  re-
moved by filtration.  The clear  liquor is then
to  be gently  heated (to expel  the excess  of
sulphuretted hydrogen), and, if necessary, con-
centrated by evaporation. Or add a few drops
of diluted  sulphuric acid  to  the meconate of
lead, by which an insoluble sulphate of lead
is formed, and meconic acid  held in solution.
Boiling decomposes the  meconic acid.  The
tests for meconic acid are  then to be applied,
viz:—
  a. Tincture of chloride of iron.
  6. Ammoniacal sulphate of copper.
  f. Chloride  of gold.
  d. Acetate of lead.
2. Proceeding with the clear liquor (solution of
      the acetates of morphia and lead).
   Place the clear  liquor in a conical glass, and
pass through it a stream  of sulphuretted hy-
drogen, to precipitate the lead, and then filter.
Then boil the filtered liquor, and, if necessary,
concentrate  by  evaporation.   To   the clear
liquor apply the tests for morphia, viz :—
   a. Strong nitric acid in excess.
   6. Iodic acid  and  starch (several hours may
     be necessary for the success  of this test )
   c. Tincture of chloride of iron  (this test will
     only succeed with  solid morphia, or very
     concentrated solutions).
   d. Ammonia.
   e. Infusion of nutgalls (this test will  not an-
     swer if much free acid be in the liquor).
  /. Chlorine, and afterwards ammonia.
   Dr. Christison observes, that " It will often happen, in actual  practice, that the only indication
of opium to be procured by the process consists in  the deep red colour struck by permuriate of
iron with the meconic acid.  Now, will this alone constitute sufficient proof of the presence of
opium?   On the whole, I am inclined to reply in the affirmative.''  I regret I cannot  agree
with him in this conclusion, since several other substances produce the same colour, and three
of these are very likely to be met with in the alimentary canal, namely, the acetates (thus
acetate of ammonia or acetate of potash administered medicinally), mustard and saliva,   [ft is
also to be remarked that the colour of the acetate of'iron is not destroyed by a solution of corro-
sive sublimate.—Ed.]  In  regard  to saliva, he remarks: "It  is seldom  possible to procure a
distinct blood-red coloration from the saliva, except by evaporating a  large quantity to dryness,
and  redissolving the residue in a  small quantity of water; and I question whether it can be
separated at all after the saliva is  mixed with  the complex contents of the stomach."  I am
sorry again to be at issue with so high an authority, but  our results  being discordant, it is but
right 1 should state my experience.   In a  large majority of cases, I find saliva is distinctly and
unequivocally reddened by the persalts of iron.  In some few  cases  only have I observed this
test indistinct.   I have several times obtained from the stomachs  of subjects in the dissecting-
room a liquor which reddened the  salts of iron."
   KsTIMATION  OF THE PURITY AND  STRENGTH  OF OPIUM.—Opium  is brought
into the  market of very unequal degrees of purity,  in  consequence  of its having
been subjected to  adulteration; and partly, perhaps, from the employment of dif- 
1034              VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord. Papaverace;e.

ferent methods of preparation.   Moreover, its consistence is by no means uniform;
that of some  kinds being quite soft (as  the  Patna  and  Benares), and of  others
quite hard (as some of the Egyptian opium).   As this difference  depends on the
presence  of unequal  quantities of water,  an  obvious  variation of  strength  is  the
consequence.   Moreover, the  quantity of  morphia  in good opium of  different or
even of  the  same  localities is by no means constant.   Farthermore, opium, from
which the morphia has been extracted, has been fraudulently introduced into com-
merce.1   It is highly desirable, therefore,  to  have  a ready, easy, accurate, and pre-
cise method of determining the purity and  strength  of opium.   I regret to state
that such a method is still a desideratum.
  1. Of the Estimation of the  Water.—This will be  readily judged of by the consistence,
but still better by observing the loss on drying a given weight of the opium at 212°.
  2. Of the Detection of Foreign Bopies.—A physical examination  of opium  will  fre-
quently detect impurities (as leaves, bullets, stones, fruit, &c).   If a decoction of the suspected
opium  be made and strained, various  foreign matters are left  on the sieve.  In this way, I
obtained 10 drachms of small stones and  gravel from 10 ounces of opium.  On another occa-
sion I detected  a gelatiniform substance, which was insoluble in both water and  alcohol, in an
opium  (Egyptian?), the tincture of which could  not be rendered  clear by filtration. A decoction
of opium, when cold, should not  give a  blue precipitate (iodide of starch) on the addition of
tincture of iodine; if it do, the presence of starch or flour is obvious.
  3. Of the Estimation of the Quantity of Morphia in Opium.  (Morphometry.)—This
is a subject of no slight difficulty.  A remark connected with it, which deserves  notice, is that
there is no constant ratio between  the quantity of morphia in a given sample of opium and
that of any other constituent.   Berthemot,2 however, is of opinion that it is in the ratio of  that
of the meconic  acid.   The correctness of  this opinion is not borne out by my own observation,
and was positively denied by Robiquet.3   It follows, therefore, that the extraction of the mor-
phia is the only true morphiometrical method of proceeding.  Several methods of effecting this
have been proposed.
  a. Process of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia.—" A solution of 100 grains, macerated twenty-four
hours in two fluidounces of water, filtered, and strongly squeezed in a cloth, if precipitated by
a cold  solution  of half an ounce of carbonate of soda in two waters, and heated till the preci-
pitate shrinks and fuses, will yield a solid mass on cooling, which weighs, when dry, at least 11
grains,  and, if pulverized, dissolves entirely in solution of oxalic, acid."—Ph. Ed.  1839.   This
is a modification of the process for procuring disulphate of quina, and of estimating the quality
of yellow bark. The fused mass obtained by  the process is morphia, narcotine, and resinous
extractive.  From the trials I have made of this  process, I am inclined  to speak very doubtfully
of its value.  Morphia is soluble in a solution of carbonate of soda, and, therefore, variations in
the degree of heat applied  to the liquor,  as well as in the time during which it is subjected to
heat, will be attended with corresponding variations in the results.  Nay, if  the heat be main-
tained too long, the  whole of the morphia will be dissolved !  Hence,  therefore,  to prove  suc-
cessful, this process requires more  precautions than  the directions of the College would lead one
to  imagine.
  0. Thiboumary's process.—Prepare an aqueous extract of the opium to be examined, and dis-
solve it in water.  Add ammonia to the boiling liquor [taking care not to add much excess],
and, when cool, filter.   Wash  the precipitate  on the filter  first with  cold water, then with
proof spirit, and afterwards dry it.   Then boil it with animal charcoal in  rectified  spirit, and
evaporate  the filtered  liquor, by which crystals of morphia are procured.4—The following modi-
fications  of the process  will be  found  valuable:  After the precipitate on the filter has been
washed with water, dry it, mix it with proof spirit, and add drop by drop acetic acid  until the
solution slightly reddens litmus.  By this means the morphia,  and not the narcotina, will be
dissolved.   Precipitate the morphia from  the filtered solution by ammonia.   This perhaps is
the best process for determining the goodness of opium at present known.
  y. EerthemoVs process.—To a filtered infusion of opium add chloride of calcium, boil, filter (to
get rid of  the meconate and sulphate of lime), and  evaporate to  the consistence of syrup.   The
residuum  should form a granular crystalline mass (principally hydrochlorate of morphia), which
is to be separated from the mother-water, and  purified by resolution  in water.5  This  is an
application  of  Gregory's process, hereafter to be described.   It appears to be an objectionable
method, as a considerable portion of the morphia will be left in  the mother-liquor.
  5. Couerbe's process.—Boil an infusion of opium with lime (which dissolves the morphia), and
filter through paper.  Saturate the filtered liquor with an acid, and  precipitate the morphia by
ammonia.  This, perhaps, is the most speedy process for the detection of opium.
i Journ. de Pharm. xxiv. 325, 446; xxv. 297; also Journ. de Chim. Mid. iv. 2nde Ser. pp. 335 432.
3 Journ. de Pharm. xxiv. 445.                                    ' Ibid. p. 43S.
' Journ. de Chim. Mid. iv. 405, 2e Ser.                            * Journ. de Pharm. xxiv. 448. 
             White Poppy :—Physiological Effects of Opium.         1035

  [As a summary of the characters of good opium we subjoin the following paragraph, which
we find among the author's notes:—
  1. Treated with  cold water, it ought to completely divide itself.  The extractive matter
should be dissolved, and the resinoid matter should be separated.
  2. The liquor, which is at first turbid, should become clear by repose, and assume a more or
less deep brown colour.
  a. It should give a wine-red colour with persalts of iron (meconic acid).
  b. It should give a whitish  precipitate with chloride of calcium by the aid of heat (meconate
and sulphate of lime).  The supernatant liquor, filtrated and concentrated by evaporation,
should deposit crystals of muriate of morphia.
  c. It should give with ammonia dropped into the boiling liquor a precipitate, especially after
cooling, consisting of coloured morphia mixed with  resin, narcotine, and a little meconate of
lime.
  Some of the peculiar ingredients of opium are not  discoverable in the infusion or decoction;
such as narcotina, codeia, meconine, narceine, and thebaina.—En.]
   Physiological Effects,   a.  On Vegetables.—The effects of opium  on  plants
have been principally examined by Marcet1 and Macaire.2   The latter writer states
that the stamens' of the  barberry (Berber is vulgaris) and the leaves of the sensitive
plant lost their contractility, and soon died, when  the stems of these vegetables were
immersed in an aqueous solution of opium.  But  I have tried this experiment with
a different result.   I immersed a flowering stem of the barberry in water, to which
the tincture of opium had been added.   In thirty hours, I could not perceive any
effect on the plant.  The stamens, even in the overblown flowers, still retained their
contractility.  Charvet states that he watered  a sensitive  plant with  a moderately
strong infusion of  opium forty-eight days, without affecting the irritability  of the
plant.   By immersing a portion of Chara in a  solution of opium the circulation  of
this plant becomes slower, is soon suspended,.and  is ultimately  stopped.3
   0.  On Animals  generally.—The operation  of  opium on  animals has repeatedly
been the subject of  physiological investigation.    An  abstract of a considerable
number of experiments made by various individuals has been published by  Wibmer.*
The most complete and extended series of experiments is that made by Charvet5 on
the different classes of animals, for the purpose of  determining its  comparative
action.  While on all it has been found to act as  a poison, its  effects  are observed
to vary somewhat, according to the degree of development of the nervous system.
   In tlie invertebrated animals opium causes weakness or paralysis of the contractile
tissues, with gradual sinking, and death.   Thus, in the polygastrica and  the  anne-
lides, it first accelerates  the  animal movements, but afterwards paralyzes them.
Now,  in the lower invertebrata, a central nervous apparatus  is  altogether wanting;
while in the higher animals of this class it is not  sufficiently developed to exercise
that  influence over the whole  individual which we observe it to possess in the ver-
tebrated classes.
   In  the ccrtebrated animals, we have a high development of the central organs of
the nervous system, and a consequent increase in  the  number of symptoms caused
by opium.   Thus, in fishes,  amphibials, and reptiles, we observe, in addition to the
weakened and paralytic condition of  the  contractile tissues, convulsions.   In fish,,
the convulsive contractions bend the body laterally;  whereas, in the other verte-
brata, the superior  dorsal muscles are  affected, and  hence the head and  tail are
ekvated   These differences obviously depend  on  the disposition of the muscles.
Proceeding iu the  ascending order, we observe in birds and mammals, besides the
paralysis and convulsions, stupor.   The last-mentioned symptom, however,  is prin-
cipally manifested in the  highest of  the  mammals, man ; that  is, in that  animal
which has the most highly developed brain;  while, in some  of the lower mammals,
as the ruminants, it is scarcely observed; and even in the carnivora, as dogs, it is
very slight.   It is somewhat remarkable that the  stupor is more manifest in birds

  l Ann. de Chim. et Phys. xxix. 20.                 a Ibid, xxxix. 213.
  » Meyen, Report on the Progress of Vegetable Physiology during the year 1837, translated by W. Francis,
p.14, Lond.1«39.
  * Wirk. d. Arzneim. u. Gifte, Bd. iv. S. 74, et seq.     • De PAction eomp. de VOpium, Paris, 1826. 
1036
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Pai-averaceje.
than in the lower mammals.   Moreover, it is not undeserving of notice that the
operation of opium on the different races of man is not uniform.   On the negro,
the Malay, and the Javanese, it more frequently acts as  an excitant, causing  furi-
ous madness, or delirium and  convulsions.   Are  we to  ascribe the less frequent
occurrence of these svmptoms in the Caucasian variety to  the greater  development
of his brain ?   In conclusion, then,  it appears  that the effects of opium on the ani-
mal kingdom have a relation to the  degree of development and  influence of the
nervous system.
  y. On Man.—I propose to examine the effects of opium under three  heads or
subdivisions : first, the effects of one or a few doses employed medicinally; secondly,
the effects of the habitual employment of opium, either by chewing or smoking it;
and thirdly, its effects on the different systems of organs.
  1. Effects of one or a few doses.—We  may consider these  under three degrees
of operation.
  First degree of operation.—In small doses, as from a quarter of a  grain to one
grain, opium generally acts as a stimulant, though in this respect the symptoms are
not uniform.   Usually, the vascular system is  somewhat excited, and a sensation of
fulness is experienced about the head.   Dr. Crumpe1 took one  grain of opium when
his pulse was at 70,  and the alteration in  the number of beats was as follows:—
In.....2	5	10	15	20	25	30	35	40	45	50	55	60 minutes.
Pulse beat 70	74	76	76	74	74	74	72	72	70	70	70	70
  The excitement in the cerebral vascular system  is accompanied by alterations in
the condition of the nervous functions.  The mind is usually exhilarated; the ideas
flow more quickly;  a pleasurable or comfortable condition of the whole system is
experienced, difficult to describe; there is  a  capability of greater  exertion than
usual.   These symptoms are followed by a diminution of muscular  power, and of
susceptibility to the impression  of external  objects; a desire  of repose is experi-
enced, with a tendency  to sleep.  While these effects are taking place, the mouth
and throat become  dry, and hunger  is diminished, though the thirst is increased;
and  slight constipation  usually follows.  Such are  the ordinary effects of a  small
dose of opium on persons unaccustomed to its use.   By repetition, however, its in-
fluence becomes considerably diminished; and those, therefore, who resort to it for
the purpose of producing a  pleasurable excitement, are obliged to augment the dose
to keep up an equal effect.
   Second degree of operation.—Given in a, full medicinal dose (as from two to four
grains), the stage of excitement is soon followed by that of depression.   The pulse,
which at first is increased in fulness and frequency, is afterwards reduced below  the
natural standard.   The effect of two grains and a half on Dr. Crumpe (when his
pulse was beating at 70) was as  follows:—2
In.....5	10	15	20	25	30	35	40	45	50	55	60	75	90 minutes.
Pulse beat 74	74	74	76	78	SO	72	70	64	64	66	70	70	70
The skin becomes hot; the mouth and throat dry; the appetite diminished • the
thirst increased; and frequently nausea, or  even  vomiting, is induced.   The symp-
toms of excitement soon pass away, and a state of torpor succeeds; the individual
seems indisposed to exertion; the muscular system appears enfeebled •  the force of
external  impressions on the organs of the  senses is  diminished;  and 'the ideas be-
come  confused.   This  state is followed by an almost  irresistible desire  of sleep
which is  frequently attended by dreams—sometimes of a  pleasing,  at  others  of a
1 Inq. into the Nat. and Prop, of Opium, p. 33,1793.
Op. supra cit. p. 85. 
              White Poppy:—Physiological Effects of Opium.         1037

frightful nature.   These effects are usually succeeded by constipation (which may
continue for several days), by nausea, furred tongue, headache, and listlessness.
   Third degree of operation ;  poisonous effects of opium.—Dr. Christison  has so
briefly summed up the effects of a poisonous dose of opium,  that  I  cannot do better
than  quote his  statement: " The  symptoms  of poisoning  with  opium, when  it is
administered at once in a dangerous dose, begin with giddiness and stupor, generally
without  any previous stimulus.   The stupor rapidly increasing, the person becomes
motionless and  insensible to external  impressions;  he  breathes very slowly, gene-
rally lies quite still,  with his eyes shut and the pupils  contracted; and the whole
expression of the countenance is that of a deep and  perfect repose.   As the poison-
ing advances,  the features become ghastly, the  pulse feeble and  imperceptible, the
muscles exceedingly relaxed, and, unless assistance  is speedily procured, death en-
sues.  If the person recovers, the  sopor  is succeeded  by  prolonged  sleep, which
commonly ends in  twenty-four or thirty-six hours, and is followed by nausea, vomit-
ing, giddiness, and loathing  of  food."
   2. Habitual  use of Opium.—Of those  who habitually employ opium  as  an in-
toxicant, some chew or eat it;  others smoke it.
   Opium-eating.—The ill  effects of opium-eating have been  described  by  most
travellers in  Turkey and Persia, where  this practice is  carried  to  a greater extent
than in  any other part of the world.  In the writings of Dr.  Russell,1 Chardin,2 the
Baron de Tott,3 Pouqueville,4 and  Madden,5 will be found notices  of  these effects.
The following extract is from one  of the latest accounts,  that of Dr.  Oppenheim:—6
   "The  causes leading to the use of opium are  many, and among them  may be reckoned the
following: long-continued diarrhoea, as a remedy for which opium 'is used in the first instance,
and its use afterwards continued from habit; chronic  coughs, in which opium is also used as a
popular remedy;  habitual drunkards also frequently'have recourse to opium  as a new stimulus,
after they have  abjured wine in some fit of repentance.   Persons  holding high offices or dig-
nities in  the state have also recourse to opium, when the  preservation of their character forbids
them the use of wine; some very strict believers also take opium  as a restorative iu cases of
great exertion, as the  Tartars (couriers), who travel with astonishing celerity.  Opium-eaters
generally begin with doses of from half a grain to two grains, and gradually increase the quan-
tity till it amounts to two drachms, and sometimes more, a day;  they usually take the opium in
pills,  but avoid drinking any water after having swallowed them, as this is said to produce vio-
lent colic;  to make it more  palatable, it is sometimes  mixed with syrups or thickened juices;
but in this form it is less intoxicating, and resembles mead ; it is then taken with a spoon, or is
dried in  small cakes with the words Mash Allah, the " work of God," imprinted on them.  The
effect of  the opium manifests itself  one or two hours after it has been taken, and lasts  for five
or six hours, according to the dose taken ami the  idiosyncrasy of the subject.   In  persons accus-
tomed to take it, it produces  a high degree of animation, which the Theriaki (opium-eaters)
represent as the acme of happiness.
   " The  habitual opium-eater is  instantly recognized by his appearance.   A  total attenuation of
body, a withered, yellow countenance, a lame gait, a bending of the spine, frequently to such a
degree as to assume a circular form, and glossy, deep sunken eyes, betray him at the first glance.
The digestive organs are in the highest degree  disturbed, the  sufferer eats scarcely anything,
and has  hardly one evacuation in a week; his mental and  bodily powers are destroyed, he is
impotent.  By degrees, as the habit  becomes more confirmed, his strength,continues decreasing,
the craving for the stimulus becomes even greater, and, to produce the desired effect, the dose
must  constantly be augmented.   When the dose  of two or three drachms a  day  no longer pro-
duces the beatific intoxication  so  eagerly sought by the Opiophagi, they mix the opium with
[corrosive] sublimate, increasing  the quantity till  it reaches  to ten grains a day; it then acts
as a stimulant.  After long indulgence the opium eater becomes  subject to nervous or neuralgic
pains, to  which opium itself brings  no relief. These people seldom attain the age of forty, if
they  have begun  to use opium  at  an early  age.  The fasts in  the month of Ramasan are for
them  fraught with the most dreadful tortures, as  during the whole of that month they are not
allowed to take anything during the day. It is said that, to assuage their sufferings, they swallow
before the  morning prayer, besides the  usual dose,  a certain  number of other doses,  each
wrapped   up in  its  particular  paper, having   previously  calculated  the  time when  each
  1 Nat. Hist, of Aleppo, i. 126, 1794.               a Voy. en Perse et autres Lieux de I'Orient.
  3 Mim. sur les Turcs et les Tart. 1785.             4 Voy. en Morie, en Constant t. ii. p. 123, 1805,
  » Travels in Turkey, &c. vol. i.  p. 23, 1829.
  ■ Ueber d. Zust. d. Heilk. u.Hber d. Volskrankh. in d. Europ. u. Asiat.-Turkei. Hamb. 1838. Als i Brit.
and For. Med. Rev vol. iv. p. 394. 
1038            VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Papaverace^e.

envelop shall be unfolded, and allow the pill to produce the effects of their usual allowance.
When this baneful habit has become confirmed, it is almost impossible to break it off; the torments
of the opium-eater, when deprived of this stimulant, are as  dreadful as his bliss is complete
when he has taken it;  to him, night brings  the torments of hell; day, the bliss of paradise.
Those who  do  make the attempt to discontinue  the use of opium, usually mix it with wax,
and daily diminishing the quantity of the opium, the pill at last contains nothing but wax."
   For an account of the effects produced on English  opium-eaters, I  may refer to
the well-known confessions of Mr. De  Quincey,1 and of the late Mr. S. T. Cole-
ridge.3   Numerous instances of the enormous quantities of opium which, by habit,
may be taken with impunity, have been published.   Dr. Chapman3 tells us that he
knew a  wineglassful of laudanum to be given several times in  twenty-four hours.
" But what is still  more extraordinary," says this author, " in a case of cancer of
the uterus, which  was under the  care  of  two highly  respectable  physicians (Drs.
Monges  and La Roche) of Philadelphia, the quantity of laudanum was  gradually
increased to three  pints, besides a considerable quantity of solid  opium in the same
period."   Pinel mentions  a lady who required 120  grains of  opium to give her
ease in cancer of the uterus.
   Some  doubt  has  been  entertained as to  the alleged injurious effects of opium-
eating on the health, and its tendency  to shorten life; and it must be  confessed
that in several known cases which have occurred in this country no ill effects have
been  observable.   Dr. Christison4 has  given abstracts of eleven cases, the general
result of whose histories  " would rather  tend  to throw  doubt over the  popular
opinion."   A  few years  ago, a Life-Assurance Company, acting on  this  general
opinion,  resisted payment of  a sum of  money, on the ground that the insurer (the
late Earl of Mar)  had concealed from  them a  habit which tends  to  shorten life.
But the  case was ultimately compromised.    Dr.  Burnes5 asserts  that the  natives of
Cutch do not suffer  much from opium-eating.
   In those cases of  disease (usually cancerous) in which enormous doses of opium
are taken to alleviate pain, I  have usually observed constipation produced;  but Dr.
Christison says, "constipation is by no  means a  general effect of the continued use
of opium.   In some of the cases mentioned above, no laxatives have been required;
in others, a gentle  laxative  once  a week is  sufficient."
   In 1841, an opium-eater, aged 26, was admitted into the London Hospital.  He was accus-
tomed to take two or two and  a  half drachms of solid opium daily.  He originally began its
use to relieve the attacks of angina pectoris.   He was now most anxious to leave off this habit;
though the difficulty of doing so was extreme.   It did not diminish, but, according to his asser-
tion, augmented his appetite; for, after each dose, he ate voraciously.  At first,  when  he com-
menced its use, it caused dryness of the mouth  and throat, and constipation, but latterly his
bowels were regular, as before he commenced the use  of this drug.  His  pulse ranged from 88
to 96. His urine was  somewhat less than natural.  The condition  of his skin varied ■ in
general it was dry, but occasionally was covered with profuse perspiration.  He described the
effect of  the opium on  his mental faculties as those of  calmness, comfort, and serenity.  Under
its use he was able to support great bodily and mental fatigue.  He never experienced the
exhilarating and pleasurable sensations described by De  Quincey.  His  feelings  when not
under the influence of opium, were most distressing.  Mr. Davies (an  intelligent pupil) de-
scribed his condition  at this time as follows:  Eyes hollow, dark, and sunken; features haggard :
hands trembling; voice and manner anxious ; mouth parched ; appetite wanting; sleeplessness.
Unable  to sleep for  want of his  accustomed dose, he used  to pace the ward of'the hospital at
night almost frantic,  though quite sensible of his miserable condition, and anxious to abandon
the practice.
   [There is great reason to believe that the practice of opium-eating is very common in this
 country among the  lower as well as  the middle classes.  The consumption of opium is very
great, and wholly disproportioned to the quantity required for medicinal purposes   From an
official report  just  published  (July, 1853),  it appears that  during the  last five  months the
enormous quantity of 63,354 lbs. of  opium have been imported into this country • the ouantitv
for the last month was 9,699 lbs.—Ed.]                                   j '     i     }
    Opium-smoking.—I have already referred to the enormous quantities of opium
1 Confessions of an English Opium-eater.
2 Cottle's Early Recollect, of the late S. T. Coleridge, vol. ii. p. 149  et seq Lond 1837
3 Elem. ofTherap. ii. 199.                             '   '    *'     \ r- '„,    n .
1 Sketch of Hist, of Cutch, p. 9, Edinb. 1839.                               i Teat- on Poisons. 
             White Poppy:—Physiological Effects of Opium.        1039

consumed in China  and the islands of the Indian Archipelago by smoking.  The
smokable extract, called chandoo,is made into pills about the size of a pea.   "One
of these being put  into the small tube that projects from the side of the opium-
pipe, that tube is applied  to a lamp, and the pill being lighted, is consumed at one
whiff or inflation  of the  lungs, attended  with a whistling noise.   The smoke is
never  emitted  by the mouth,  but usually receives vent through  the  nostrils, and
sometimes, by adepts,  through  the passage of the ears and eyes."1   The residue in
the pipe is called Tyechandoo, or fecal  opium, and is used by poor  persons  and
servants.
   The mode of using  the pipe has been depicted by Mr. Davies.3  Some details
respecting the mode  of smoking opium have been given by Dr. Hill.3
   In the first edition of this work, I stated that though the immoderate practice of
opium-smoking must be highly detrimental to health, yet that  I believed  the state-
ments of Medhurst,* and  others, applied to cases in which this practice was carried
to excess;  and I observed that an account of the effects of opium-smoking by an
unbiased and professional witness was a desideratum.   My opinion was founded on
the statements of Botta5 and Marsden.8 The latter, a most accurate writer, observes
that " the Limun and Batong Assei gold-traders, who are an  active and  laborious
class of men, but yet  indulge as freely in  opium as any others whatever, are, not-
withstanding, the most healthy and vigorous people to be met  with on the island."
This desideratum has been recently supplied by Mr. Smith,7 surgeon, of Pulo Pe-
nang,  whose statements  fully  confirm my  opinion.  For  though  the practice  is
most destructive to those  who  live in  poverty and distress, and who carry it to ex-
cess, yet it does not appear that the Chinese, in easy circumstances, and  who have
the comforts of life  about them, are materially affected in respect to longevity, by
the private addiction to this vice.  "There are many persons," observes Mr. Smith,
"within my own observation, who have attained the age of sixty, seventy, or more,
and  who are well known as habitual opium-smokers for more than thirty years past."
   The first effect of this drug on the Chinese smokers is to render them more loqua*
cious and  animated.  Gradually,  the  conversation drops, laughter is  occasionally
produced by the most trifling  causes,  and to these effects succeed  vacancy of coun-
tenance, pallor, shrinking of the features,  so that the smokers resemble people con-
valescing from fever, followed by deep sleep for half an hour to three or four hours.
An  inordinate quantity causes headache, vertigo, and nausea.  The  Malays are
rendered outrageous and quarrelsome by the opium-pipe.
   It is extremely difficult to discontinue  the vice of opium-smoking, yet  there are
many  instances of its  being done.  The continuance of this  destructive practice
deteriorates the physical  constitution  and moral  character of  the individual, espe-
cially among the lower classes. Its powerful effects on the system  are manifested
by stupor, forgetfulness, deterioration of the mental faculties, emaciation, debility, sal-
low  complexion, lividity of  lips and eyelids, languor and  lacklustre of the eye, ap-
petite  either destroyed or  depraved, sweetmeats or sugar-cane being the articles that
are most relished.  " In the morning,  these creatures have a most wretched appear-
ance, evincing  no symptoms of being refreshed or invigorated by sleep, however
profound.  There is a remarkable dryness or burning in the  throat, which urges
them to repeat the opium-smoking.  If the dose be not  taken at the usual time,
there is great prostration, vertigo, torpor, discharge of water from the  eyes, and in
some an involuntary discharge  of  semen, even when wide awake.  If the  privation
be complete, a still more formidable train of phenomena takes place.  Coldness is
felt over the whole body, with aching pains in all  parts.  Diarrhoea occurs; the
most horrid  feelings of wretchedness  come on;  and, if the  poison be withheld,

  ' Marsden, Hist, of Sumatra,  3d ed. p. 278.                   * The Chinese, vol. ii. p. 459.
  » The  Times newspaper for Dee. 3, 1841.                      4 China, 1838.
  • Froriep's Notizen, xxvi.                                ' Op. supra cit. p. 278.
  ' Lancet, February 19, 1842. 
1040             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Papaveraceje.
death  terminates  the victim's existence."   The offspring of  opium-smokers are
weak,  stunted, and decrepit.                                                    .
   [Dr. Eatwell's paper on  opium contains some remarks on the subject of opium-
smoking, which  we here subjoin.—Ed.]
  "It has been too much the practice with narrators, who have treated on the subject, to content
themselves with drawing the sad picture of the  confirmed opium  debauchee, plunged in the
last state of moral and physical exhaustion, and having formed the premises of their argument
of this  exception, to proceed  at once to involve the whole practice in one sweeping condemna-
tion. But this is not the way in which the subject can be treated; as rational would it  be to
paint the horrors of delirium tremens, and upon the evidence to condemn at once the entire use
of alcoholic liquors.  The question for determination is, not what are the effects of opium used
to excess, but  what are its effects on the moral  and physical constitution  of the mass of the
individuals who use it habitually, and in  moderation, either as a stimulant  to sustain the frame
under fatigue, or as a restorative and sedative after labour, bodily or mental. Having passed three
years in China. I may be allowed to state the results of my observation ; and I can affirm, thus
far, that the effects of the abuse of the drug  do  not come very frequently under observation ;
and that, when cases do occur, the  habit  is  very frequently found to have been induced by the
presence of some painful chronic disease, to escape from the sufferings of which the  patient
has fled to this resource.  That this is not always the cause, however, I  am perfectly ready to
admit;  and there are, doubtless, many who indulge in the habit to a pernicious extent, led by
the same morbid impulses which induce  men to become drunkards in  even the most civilized
countries ;  but these cases do not at all events come before the public eye. It requires no laborious
research in civilized England to discover evidences of the pernicious effects of the abuse of alco-
holic liquors;  our open and thronged gin  palaces, and our streets, afford abundant testimony on
the subject; but in China this open evidence of the evil effects of opium is at least wanting. As
regards the effects of the habitual use of  the drug on the mass of the people, I must affirm that
no injurious results are visible. The people generally are a muscular and well-formed race, the
labouring portion being capable of  great and prolonged exertion under a fierce sun, in an un-
healthy climate. Their disposition is cheerful and peaceful, and quarrels and brawls are rarely
heard amongst even the lower orders; whilst in general intelligence they rank deservedly high
amongst orientals.   Proofs are still wanting to show that the moderate use of opium produces
more pernicious effects upon the constitution than does the moderate use of spirituous  liquors,
whilst at the same time it is certain that  the cotisequences of the abuse of  the former are less
appalling in their  effects upon the victim, and less disastrous  to society at  large, than are the
consequences  of the abuse of the latter.  Compare the furious  madman, the subject of delirium
tremens, with the  prostrate  debauchee, the  victim of opium ; the violent  drunkard with the
dreaming sensualist  intoxicated with opium ;  the latter is at least harmless to all except to his
wretched self, whilst the former is but too frequently a dangerous nuisance,  and an openly bad
example to the community at large."
    4.  Action of  Opium  on the Different Organs.—In discussing this subject, it
will be convenient to consider the organs arranged in  groups or systems devoted to
some common functions.
   a. On  the Cerebro-spinal System.—Taken in small or moderate  doses, opium first
produces  excitement of the vascular system of  the  brain,  accompanied with corre-
sponding excitement in the cerebro-spinal functions, as already  stated.   This state,
however, is  succeeded by that of depression. The effect of opium-eating and opium-
smoking on  the  intellectual faculties has been already described.   In large  or poi-
sonous doses the leading  symptom is sopor; that is, a state analogous  to  profound
sleep,  from which the patient can be roused, though with difficulty.   In the  latter
stage of poisoning this symptom  is succeeded  by coma—that is, profound  sleep,
from which  the patient cannot be roused.  Sopor is usually accompanied either with
actual paralysis  of the muscular fibres, or with a diminished power almost amount-
ing to it; both of which states  doubtless arise from the same  condition  of the
cerebro-spinal system which produces sopor or coma.  This state is usually  supposed
to be sanguineous (venous) congestion.  The pupil is usually contracted—a circum-
stance deserving of especial notice.   In  some cases there is delirium in  the place of
sopor or coma, and convulsions instead  of paralysis.   These are to be regarded as
exceptions to the general rule,  and  are  accounted for,  pathologically, by supposing
that they depend on a state of irritation  or excitement  set up in  the nervous centres,
and which usually, though  not  invariably, terminates in congestion.  Another effect
of opium is  diminished sensibility.   Thus, the whole body becomes less susceptible 
White Poppy :—Physiological Effects.
1041
 of painful impressions; in dangerous  and fatal  cases, the eyes  are insensible to
 light—the ears to sound.  This state has been accounted for by supposing that the
 functions of the sensitive nerves are diminished or suspended by the congested con-
 dition of the brain.
   From these effects of opium on the cerebro-spinal  system the following inferences may be
 drawn:—
   I. That it is an objectionable agent in apoplexy, phrenitis, and paralysis.1
   2. That under proper regulations it is a remedy which maybe used to stimulate the cerebro-
 vascular system, to promote sleep, to diminish inordinate muscular contraction, to diminish the
 sensibility of the body, and thereby to alleviate pain.
   f3. On the  Digestive System.—The usual effects of opium on the organs of diges-
 tion are  the  following :  It diminishes secretion and exhalation from  the whole
 canal;  thus it causes dryness of the mouth and throat, and diminishes the liquidity
 of the stools; it excites thirst, lessens  hunger, checks the digestive process  (for in
 some animals poisoned by  opium, food which they had taken  previously has been
 found in  the stomach unchanged); and in some cases it excites vomiting.    Mr.
 Kerr9 tells us  that, in the famine  which  prevailed  in the East Indies in the year
 1770, opium was purchased by the unhappy  sufferers, at extraordinary  prices, to
 allay the cravings of hunger, and to banish the dreadful prospect of death.  The Tar-
 tar couriers, who  travel immense distances in a short period of time, take opium only
 during the journey,  to support them.   It diminishes  the sensibility and contractility
 of the digestive organs; hence  the  difficulty, in  severe cases of  poisoning, of pro-
 ducing vomiting.  The constipation  which follows the use of opium depends partly
 on the same cause,  and in  part  also on the diminished excretion of bile,  and  dimi-
 nished secretion from the gastro-intestinal mucous membrane.   Sproogel3 found  the
 choledic ducts of animals,  to which opium had been given, filled with bile;  yet it
 had  not  passed into the intestines, for the feces were scarcely tinged by  it,  but
 had  the appearance which  we observe them to have in jaundiced patients.
   From these effects of opium on the digestive organs, we may draw the  following infer-
 ences :—
   1.  That in diminished secretion  from  the gastro-intestinal membrane, in extreme thirst, in
 loss of appetite  and weak digestion, in obstinate costiveness, and  in diminished excretion of
 bile,  opium is an objectionable remedy.
   2.  That under proper regulations opium  is an admissible remedy for the following pur-
 poses:  To diminish excessive hunger;  to allay pain, when  unaccompanied by inflammation;
 to diminish the sensibility of tbe digestive organs, in cases of acrid poisoning, and in the pas-
 sage  of biliary calculi;  to produce relaxation  of the muscular fibres of the alimentary canal (in
 colic  and diarrhoea), and of the gall-ducts (in the passage of calculi), and to  diminish excessive
 secretion from the intestinal canal, in diarrhoea.
   By continued use (as by opium-eaters)  this  drug frequently ceases  to  cause
 dryness of the mouth, to  pall  the  appetite, or to confine the bowels, as I have al-
 ready mentioned.
   y.   On the  Vascular System.—Opium certainly influences the movements of the
 heart and  arteries;  but the effect is by no means uniform, since  in seme cases  we
 see the pulse increased, in  others diminished in frequency; and a like variation is
 noticed in its fulness.  Moreover, these  variations occur in the same case at differ-
 ent stages.  From Dr. Crumpe's experiments, before   referred to,  it  appears  that,
 after the  use of a moderate dose of opium, the frequency of the pulse  is  first  in-
 creased, and then  decreased.   The diameter of the artery, and the force and regu-
 larity with which the  pulsations are effected, are properties of the pulse, readily,
 but by no means uniformly, affected by  opium.  To a certain extent  we perceive a

  1 [We subjoin a note by the author in reference to the contraindications for the use of opium in certain
 forms of hysteria.__Kd.]  I have seen, in two capes, seriuus effects follow tlie use of small doses of opium
 in hysteriu.  Both putitnta were females at or about the age of twenty, weak and thin, and subject to
hysteria.  In the  first, there wis insensibility apparently of an hysterical kind.  The patient had several
fits. On her recovery from these she complained of headache, and there was great irritability.  Only
one grain of opium was administered, but this caused sopor and death.
 * Med. Obs. and Inq. vol. v. p. 321.
 * Quoted by Christen, Opium hist chem. and pharm. invest, p. 66, lr.U.
       VOL. II.—6t> 
1042            VEGETABLES —Nat. Ord. Papaverace^e.
relation between the condition of the pulse and that of the cerebro-spinal functions.
Thus, when convulsions occur, we usually have a hurried pulse—whereas, when
sopor or coma supervenes, the pulse becomes slower or weaker, or both, than natural.
But these conditions are by no means uniform.   A frequent pulse, with a feverish
condition of the body,  are common  consequences of  the use  of small  or  mode-
rate doses of opium ;  and in poisoning by this drug, a quick pulse, even though no
convulsive  movements  are observed, is  by no  means  rare.   A  poisonous dose of
opium usually enfeebles the  pulse, sometimes makes it fuller, often renders it ir-
regular, and towards death always  renders it feeble, aud often imperceptible.   We
can easily believe that the muscular fibres of the heart must experience, from the
use of a large dose of opium, a diminution of power in  common with other muscu-
lar fibres, and hence the contractions  become weaker.   It is also  probable that the
contractile coat of  the  arteries and capillaries equally  suffers.   Now Wirtensohn1
supposes that  the fulness of the pulse sometimes observed in poisoning by opium,
arises from  the insufficient power  of  the  heart to propel the blood through this pa-
ralyzed or weakened capillary system.  The accumulation  of blood observed  in the
large venous trunks and cavities of the right side of the heart  is supposed to arise
from the obstruction experienced to its passage through the pulmonary vessels.
  In attempting to lay down indications and contraindications for the use of opium as a remedy
for morbid conditions of the circulation,  two  difficulties present  themselves: first,  the same
condition  of  the vascular system  may be induced  by  various and even  opposite causes, for
some of which opium  may be  an  appropriate  remedy, while for others it  may prove an inju-
rious agent: secondly, the effects of opium on the circulation are not  uniform, and hence not to be
relied on.  The following conclusions, therefore, are submitted with considerable  hesitation as
to the universality of their  application:—
  1.  That in increased activity of the vascular system with considerable power, or with dimi-
nished secretions and exhalations, and in morbid conditions of the  vascular  system with a tend-
ency to sopor or coma, opium is an objectionable remedy.
  2.  That in  vascular  excitement with great diminution of power, as after  hemorrhage, and in
various morbid conditions of the pulse attended with acute  pain, spasm, or profuse secretion
and exhalation, but without visceral inflammation, opium often  proves  a serviceable agent.
   8.  On the Respiratory System.—In studying the effects of opium on  the respira-
tion, we must remember that the  mechanical  part of this function is effected by
muscular agency; and as the contractility of the muscular fibre is powerfully influ-
enced by opium, so  the  respiratory movements are also necessarily modified.  Oc-
casionally, the primary effect is a slight increase in their frequency;  but the secondary
effect is almost always of an opposite kind, the respiration being slower than usual;
and when coma is present, the breathing is usually gentle,  so as scarcely to be per-
ceived; but in some cases it  is stertorous.   In  fact, a paralytic  condition of the
respiratory muscles  takes place,  in consequence of which inspiration becomes gradu-
ally  more and more difficult, until eventually asphyxia is induced, which is usually
the immediate cause of  death.   Another  effect ascribed  to opium  is, that it checks
the arterialization of the blood, by diminishing the supply of nervous agency, without
which the decarbonization or oxygenization of this fluid cannot take  place.   It is
difficult,  however, to distinguish  the consequences of this effect  from  those of as-
phyxia produced by paralysis of the respiratory muscles.
   The third point of view under which we have to examine the influence of  opium
on the respiratory system  is, its effect on the membrane  lining  the trachea and
bronchial tubes and cells.   In the first place, it diminishes the sensibility of this,
in common  with other parts of the body; and, secondly, it checks exhalation and
mucous secretion.
  A  knowledge of these effects of opium on the organs of respiration  leads to the following
conclusions:—
   1.  That this agent is contraindicated in difficulty of breathing arising from a deficient supply
of nervous energy, as in apoplectic cases;  that  it is  improper where the venous is imperfectly
converted into arterial  blood; and, lastly, that it is  improper  in the first stage  of catarrh anff
1 Quoted by Barbier, Traiti Elm. de Mat. Mid. t. ii. 2me ed. 
             White Poppy:—Physiological Effects of Opium.         1043

peripneumony, both from its checking secretion, and from its  influence over the process of ar-
terialization.
  2.  That in cases of poisoning by opium, artificial  respiration is indicated to prevent asphyxia.
  3.  That opium may, under proper regulations, be useful to  diminish the contractility of the
muscles of respiration, or of the muscular fibres of  the air-tubes, as in spasmodic asthma;  to
diminish the sensibility of the bronchia, in the second stage  of catarrh, and thereby to allay
cough by lessening the influence of the cold air; and lastly, to counteract excessive bronchial
secretion.
   £.  On the Urinary System.—Authors are  not agreed as to  the  effect  of  opium
on the  kidneys;  some asserting that  it  increases, others that it diminishes, the
quantity of urine secreted.   Thus, Dr. Michaelis1  asserts that, in giving opium in
venereal cases, he has sometimes found the secretion of urine exceeding in quantity
all the fluids drank.  It cannot,  however, be doubted that in  most cases  a moderate
quantity of opium diminishes the excretion, while at  the same time it  makes  this
fluid turbid and thick.  This does not, however, prove that the  kidneys are the parts
affected.   Sproegel2 tells us, that when he gave  two scruples of opium  to dogs, no
urine was passed  for two  days;  and, under  the influence of two drachms  of  this
medicine, the urine was retained for three days.   But dissection  showed that the
kidneys had not ceased to secrete urine, since the bladder was found distended with
this secretion,  and its parietes without the least sign of contractility on the applica-
tion of nitric acid ;  so  that  it would appear  the non-evacuation of the urine  was
referable to the insensible and paralyzed  condition of  the vesical coats,  and  not to
the  diminished urinary secretion.  Charvet3 has also noticed in dogs, cats, and hares,
that the urinary bladder was distended.  As, however, in man, opium  usually in-
creases the cutaneous exhalation, while in other mammals this effect was not observed,
we must be careful  in transferring our conclusions  with respect to the influence of
opium on one  order of animals to another order.  But I ought to add  that Welper,
of Berlin, always found the bladder filled with urine both in man and animals.   In
some morbid conditions  of system, opium certainly checks  the urinary secretion.
This is decidedly the case in diabetes.*
   The  ureters and  bladder have their  sensibility  and  contractility diminished by
opium.   With respect to the effect on the first of  these parts, the statement seems
proved by the well-known beneficial influence of opium in cases where calculi are
descending along these tubes. The acute pain is frequently relieved, and the ureters
relaxed, so that large calculi are sometimes allowed to descend from the kidneys
along them.
   Besides the observations  of Sproegel, before  referred to, we have other evidence
of the paralyzing and benumbing effect of opium on the bladder.   In  some cases of
poisoning by this substance the bladder has  been  found  to  be unable  to contract
on its contents.   In some other instances the  sphincter  of the  bladder  has been
paralyzed, and in consequence the  urine was voided  involuntarily.5   Barbier has
also noticed the same thing, and quotes  the  experience of Dr. Bally to the same
effect.   The effect of morphia on the bladder is more marked than that of opium.
  These remarks on the effects  of opium on the urinary organs lead  to the following conclu-
sions:—
   1.  That in diminished sensibility or contractility, or both, of the ureters or bladder, the use of
opium is objectionable.
  2.  That, under proper regulations, opium may be a valuable  remedy to dull the  sensibility of
the pelvis of the kidney, in cases of  renal calculi; to allay pain and produce relaxation of the
ureters when  calculi are  passing along these tubes; and, lastly, to diminish irritation of the
bladder, whether produced by cantharides or other causes.
   f.  On the Sexual System,  aa.   Of Men.—Opium  has long been  celebrated as
an aphrodisiac; and we  are  told  that the Japanese, Chinese, Indians,  Persians,
Egyptians, and Turks,  use it as  such.   Among other symptoms of excitement  pro-

  1 Med. Comm. i. p. 307, 1784.                        2 Cited by Christen, op. supra cit. p. 68.
  ■ Op. supra cit. p. 221.
  • Prout, Inq into the Nat. and Treat, of Affect, of the  Unn. Org p. 74, 2d ed.
  » See Lond. Med. and Phys. Journ. xxviii. fcO; xxxi. 193; and Lond. Med. Rev. foi 1811, p.371. 
1044            VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord. Papaverace.e.
duced by the habitual use of large doses of opium, it is not improbable that there
may be a heightened condition of the venereal  feelings, in  consequence  ot  an in-
creased determination of blood to that part of the brain supposed to be devoted to
the sexual function, which part the phrenologists assert to be the cerebellum.  More-
over, it is said  to produce erection ;  and in support of this statement the following
strange story is told : « Turcae ad Levenzinum, 1664, contra Comitem Lud. Souches
pugnantes, opio exaltati, turpiter C3esi et octo mille  numero occisi mentulas  ngidas
tulere."*   Cabanis2 adopts this story, and ascribes the above-mentioned condition to
the convulsive  movements, which affect the body in articulo mortis  and not to an
aphrodisiac operation.  The effect alluded to, if it really does take place, is probably
to be referred to the accumulation of blood in  the erectile  tissues, arising from  a
disordered state of the circulation.  Impotence is ascribed by some to opium-eating,
and is a more probable effect.  I am  unacquainted with any facts on which to ground
any well-founded opinion as to the power of opium to diminish or increase the sper-
matic secretion.
   r3^.  Of Women.__We have little positive information as to the effects of  opium
on the  reproductive organs of women.   It is said that the catamenia, lochia, and
secretion of milk  are unaffected by it, but  that it causes intumescence of the nip-
ples.   Under its use the milk acquires a narcotic property.  Farthermore, at times,
it has appeared to have an injurious effect on the foetus in utero.3  Opium appears
to act on the uterus as on most other contractile parts of the body; that is, it dimi-
nishes the contractility and sensibility of this viscus.
  From  these observations it follows:—
   I.  That wet-nurses and  pregnant women must employ opium with great caution, as its use
by them may endanger the life of the child.
  2.  That opium may be employed to allay pain, spasm, and morbid irritation  of the sexual
organs in either sex; and that its use in  the female is  not likely to be attended with retention
of the uterine or  mammary secretions.
  3.  That the influence of opium on  the venereal appetite is not sufficiently and satisfactorily
determined to permit us to make any  practical application of it.
   r.  On the Cutaneous System.—Considered as an  organ of sense, the  cutaneous
system  is affected  by opium  in an analogous way to the other organs of sense; that
is, its sensibility is diminished.   But the skin has another function—that of excre-
tion, and which does  not appear to be at all diminished, nay, to be increased, by the
use of opium;  one of the usual effects of this medicine being perspiration, which  is
in some cases attended with  a prickling or  itching of the skin, and occasionally with
an eruption.   In  fact, taken medicinally,  opium is  a powerful  sudorific, and often
proves so even when acting as a poison.   "In a fatal case, which I examined judi-
cially," says Dr. Christison,  " the sheets were completely soaked to a considerable
distance round the body."
   From these remarks it follows:—
   1. That opium is not likely to relieve loss of feeling or excessive perspiration; but  may, on
the other hand, under some conditions of the system, prove injurious.
   2. That opium is  adapted to the relief of pain  or excessive sensibility of the skin, and for pro-
voking perspiration; but the propriety of its use for these purposes must be determined by refer-
ence to  the condition of the system generally.   Experience  proves that when the  skin is  very
hot, and especially if it be also dry, opium is seldom Beneficial, but often hurtful.
   0.  Topical  Effects.—The local effects of opium are, compared with the general
effects,  very slight.  Applied to the  eye, the internal membrane of the nose, urethra,
cutis vera, wounds or ulcers, it first causes pain, a sense of heat, and inflammation;
but  these effects subside, and are followed by a weakened or a paralytic condition
of the sensitive and  motor nerves.   Several physiologists  have proved that opium
causes a local  paralysis of the nerves;  and Muller4 has  shown  that  the narcotic
action is not propagated from the trunk of a nerve to its branches.  Crumpe5  showed
that, at the end of thirty minutes, the eye to which  opium had  been applied was
* Christien, op supra cit. p. 53.                    « Rapp. de Phys. et du Morale de VHomme
» F. H. Ramsbotham, Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xiv. p. 84.  * Phys. by Baly vol. i p 630
* Op. supra cit. 
White Poppy:—Modus Operandi of Opium.             1045
somewhat less  susceptible  of the action of  alcohol.   Scarcely any obvious  effect
results from the application of opium to the ordinary integument, on account of the
barrier presented by the cuticle.   Employed endermically the effects are much more
powerful.
   Post-mortem Appearances.—The most  important  appearances  are those ob-
served in the nervous system ;  such  as turgescence of vessels, effusion of water or
of coagulable lymph, and occasionally, though rarely, extravasation of blood.
   Whenever redness of the digestive canal is observed, I believe it is referable to
the use of some irritants (such as spirits, ammonia, or emetics} taken either with or
after the  use of opium.
   Modus Operandi.—Under this head, I propose to examine several points not
hitherto noticed, which  involve the theory of the operation of opium on the system.
   1. The Odorous and Active Principles of  Opium are absorbed.—This assertion
is proved by the following  facts :—
   a. The odour of opium is sometimes recognizable in the secretions and exhalations; thus, it is
well known that the opiate odour is frequently detected in the breath of persons poisoned by
this drug; and Barbier1 states it may be also noticed in the urine and sweat.
   B. The  secretions, in some cases, appear to possess narcotic properties.   Barbier mentions the
case of an infant who was thrown into a state of narcotism of several hours' duration, in conse-
quence of having sucked a  nurse who had previously swallowed a dose of laudanum to relieve
a cramp of the stomach.
   y. Barruel  asserts that he detected morphia in the blood and urine2 of a person under the in-
fluence of a poisonous dose of  laudanum.   As, however, these results  have not been obtained
by Dublanc or Lassaigne, the statement is not to be absolutely relied on.
   2. The Constitutional  Effects of  Opium depend in great part, if not wholly, on
the absorption of its  active principles.—The  facts  on which  this assumption  rests
are: —
   et. The  active  principles of opium are absorbed.
   0.  The constitutional effects of it are found to be proportionate to the absorbing powers of
the  part.
   y. The  effect of opium, when thrown into the jugular vein, is similar to, though more power-
ful than that  produced by its application to other parts of the body.
   J. "The narcotic action does not react from a particular point of a nerve on the brain.''3
   3.  The  Essential  and Primary Operation of Opium is on the Nervous System
(the Brain  and  Spinal Cord chiefly).—This  axiom  is proved by reference to the
already-described effects of opium.    An  examination of  them  shows that—
   a. The most important effects of opium are direct and obvious lesions of  the nervous func-
tions.
   0. The  other effects of opium appear, for the most part, to be secondary;  that is, they arise
out of the nervous lesions just  referred to.
   4.  Opium  acts on tlie  Nervous  System as an Alterative.—There are but three
kinds of changes, compatible with life, which  medicines can effect in the vital actions
of an organ; viz. an increase, a diminution,  or an  alteration of activity u  A change
in the intensity or energy merely of the "vital actions of IhlTnervous system would.
not give  a satisfactory explanation of the effects of opium.   We are obliged, there-
fore, to assume that  opium changes  the quality of the  actions.   This is what is
meant  by the term alterative.
   The inquiry into the nature and kind of influence exercised by opium over the system, pre-
sents an extensive field for speculation  and  hypothesis  Galen4 declared opium to be cold in
the  fourth degree, and his  authority long  prevailed  in the schools.  It was first opposed by the
iatro-chemists, who  declared opium to be  of a hot nature5  Some, however, adopted a middle
course, and asserted  that it possessed both hot and cold particles.6   Tlie iatro mechanists en-
deavoured to explain the operation of opium on mechanical principles.  By some, expansion, by
others condensation of the blood, was supposed to be produced by the mechanical properties of
 l Traiti Eh'm. de Mat. M'd. ii. 732, 2d ed.
 » On one occasion I at first supposed that I had detected morphia and meconic acid in the urine of a man
loisoned by opium ; for both nitric acid and the sesquisalts of iron gave a red colour to this secretion.  I
lave since found, however, that the urine of healthy individuals often yields the same results.
 • MQller, Phys. by Baly, i. 631.                     4 De Simpl Med. Facult. lib. viii.
 » Wedelius, Opiologia, cap. vi. p. 26, 1682.            • See Crumpe, op. supra cit. p. 91. 
1046             VEGETABLES —Nat. Ord. Papaverace.e.

the opiate particles acting on the nerves.1  Dr. Cullen2 considered opium to be a sedative, and
referred its effects to its power of " diminishing the mobility and in a certain manner suspend-
ing the motion of the nervous fluid.'' Several later writers, Barbier,3 for example, also call opium
a sedative.  Brown4 declared it to be a stimulant, and his opinion has been adopted by Crumpe,5
Murray,6 and  Dr. A. T. Thomson,7  in this country, and of course by the continental Brunonians,
as well  as by the partisans  of the Italian  theory of contrastimulus8  Fontana9  ascribed  the
operation of opium to changes which it induces in the blood.  Mayer10 declared opium  to be
both stimulant and sedative; viz. stimulant to the nerves and vascular system, but sedative to
the muscles and digestive organs.  Lastly, Orfila11 asserts that " opium, employed in strong doses,
ought not to be ranked  amons; the narcotics or the stimulants ;  it exerts a peculiar mode of action,
which cannot be designated  by any of the terms at this moment  employed in the  Materia Me-
dica.''  These examples, selected out of many opinions, will be sufficient  to prove how little is
really known  of the real  action  of opium ; and I believe we shall save ourselves much time
and useless speculation by at once  confessing our ignorance on this point.
   5.  The operation of Opium, compared with that  of other  cerebro-spinants or
narcotics, is  distinguished by both positive and negative characteristics.—The symp-
toms constituting the  positive characters  are  relaxation  or  paralysis  of  the con-
tractile tissues, a  tendency to  sleep or stupor, a contracted pupil, and constipation.
The symptoms whose absence furnishes the negative characters, are tetanic convul-
sions,  delirium or inebriation, dilated pupil, syncope,  gastro-intestinal irritation,
and topical numbness.
  These are the general characteristics of the opiate medication.   To some of them, occasional
or perhaps frequent exceptions exist.
  I have already pointed out the distinguishing effects  of hyoscyamus, belladonna, and stramo-
nium.  The topical numbness caused by aconite distinguishes its operation from that of opium.
Moreover, in three cases of poisoning by this substance, which came under my notice, there was
no stupor.  Tobacco and  foxglove enfeeble the vascular system, causing syncope;  and they also
produce gastro-intestinal  irritation.   Farthermore, they have  not that tendency to induce sleep
which we observe after the  use of opium.   The speedy operation, short period  of influence,
and, usually, the presence  of convulsions distinguish the operation of hydrocyanic acid.   Indian
hemp induces a cataleptic state.12  Vinous liquids cause their  well-known peculiar inebriation.
Their effects in  small doses agree to a  certain  extent with those  of small doses of opium;  but
they are not equally available as antispasmodics.  The peculiarities of the operation of conia
have been pointed out.
   Uses.—Opium is undoubtedly  the most important and valuable remedy of the
whole  Materia Medica.  For other medicines  we have  one  or more  substitutes;
but for opium none, at least in the large majority of cases in which its peculiar and
beneficial influence is required.  Its good effects are not, as is the  case with  some
valuable  medicines,  remote and  contingent, but they are immediate,  direct, and
obvious;  and  its operation is not attended with pain  or discomfort.   Farthermore,
it is applied, and with  the greatest success, to the relief  of maladies of every day's
occurrence, some  of which are attended  with  the  most acute  human suffering.
These  circumstances, with others npt necessary  here to enumerate,  conspire  to give
to opium an interest not  possessed  by any  other article of  the  Materia  Medica.
   We employ it  to  fulfil various  indications;  some  of  which have been  already
noticed.  Thus we exhibit it,  under certain regulations, to  mitigate pain, to allay
spasm,  to promote sleep, to  relieve nervous restlessness,  to produce  perspiration,
and to  check profuse mucous discharges from the bronchial.tubes and gastro-intes-
tinal canal.    But experience  has  proved  its value in relieving some  diseases in
which  not one of these indications can be at all times distinctly3traced.
   1. In Fevers.— The  consideration of the use  of  opium in fever presents peculiar
difficulties.   Though certain  symptoms  which  occur in  the course of this  disease,
are, under some  circumstances, most advantageously treated by opium yet  with
  i See an account of these opinions by Tralles, Usus Opii  Sect. 1. 1757
  2 Mat Med. ii. 225.                             ' 3 Trait;. in'm ,»„ -ht^. h»-j  ■•  n  ,  , ,
  * Elementa Medicine                             . oTluvra^it      ' M *' "' ™° *d"
  6 Syst. of Mat. Med. and Therap. Edinb.              i Elem  of Mat  ani Tl

vol.^ii"  m.'aXx' °D thC ^^ °Perandl °f °PiUm' by Mr' Ward' in'the 'Lond- MeTand Phys. Journ.
  * Treat,  on the Venom of the Viper, iii. 199.
 10 Quoted by Orfila, Toxicol. Gin.                    u jj^
 13 See Dr. O'Shaughnessy, On the Prep, of the Indian Hemp. Calc. 1S39. 
White Poppy:—Uses of Opium.                  1047
one or more of these symptoms present, opium may, notwithstanding, be a  very
inappropriate remedy.   The propriety or impropriety of its use, in such cases, must
be determined by other circumstances, which, however, are  exceedingly difficult  to
define and characterize.   It should always be employed with great  caution, giving
it in small doses, and  carefully watching its effects.   The symptoms for which it
has been resorted to are, watchfulness, great restlessness, delirium, tremor, and diar-
rhea.   When watchfulness and great  restlessness  are disproportionate, from first
to last, to the disorder of the vascular  system,  or of  the constitution at large;  or
when these  symptoms continue after excitement of the vascular system has  been
subdued by Appropriate depletives, opium frequently proves a  highly valuable re-
medy; nay, the safety of the patient often  arises from its judicious employment.1
The same remarks also  apply to the employment of opium for the  relief of  deli-
rium ; but it may be added that, in patients who have been addicted to the use of
spirituous  liquors, the  efficacy  of opium in  allaying delirium is greatest.  Yet I
have seen opium fail to relieve  the delirium of  fever, even when given  apparently
under favourable circumstances ; and I have known opium restore the consciousness
of a delirious patient, and  yet  the case has  terminated fatally.   If  the skin  be
damp, and  the  tongue moist, it  rarely, I think, proves  injurious.   The absence,
however, of these favourable  conditions by no means  precludes the  employment of
opium; but its efficacy  is more doubtful.   Dr. Holland8 suggests that the condition
of the pupil may serve as a guide in some doubtful cases;  where it is  contracted,
opium being contraindicated.    A similar suggestion with respect to  the use of bel-
ladonna was made by Dr. Graves, to which I have offered some objections.  When
sopor or coma supervenes  in fever, the use  of opium generally proves injurious.
Recently, the combination  of opium and emetic tartar has been  strongly recom-
mended  in fever with much cerebral disturbance, by Dr. Law3 and Dr.  Graves.4
   2. In Inflammatory Diseases.—Opium has long  been  regarded  as an objection-
able remedy in inflammation ; but it is one we  frequently resort to, eitlrer for the
purpose  of palliating particular  symptoms, or even as a powerful auxiliary antiphlo-
gistic remedy.   The statement  of Dr.  Young,5 " that  opium was  improper in  all
those diseases in which bleeding was necessary," is, therefore, by no means correct
in a very considerable number of instances.   The objects  for which opium is usually
exhibited in inflammatory diseases are to mitigate excessive pain, to  allay spasm, to
relieve great restlessness, to check  excessive secretion, and to  act as an  antiphlo-
gistic.   In employing it as an anodyne, we are  to bear in mind that  it is applicable
to those cases only in which the pain is disproportionate to the local  vascular ex-
citement; aud even then  it must be employed with  considerable caution ; for to
" stupefy the sensibility to pain, or  to suspend any  particular disorder  of function,
unless we can simultaneously lessen or remove  the causes which create it, is  often
but to interpose a veil between  our judgment and the impending danger."6  As  an
antiphlogistic, it is best given in conjunction with calomel, as recommended by Dr.
R. Hamilton, of Lynn.7  The practice, however, does not prove equally successful
in all forms of inflammation.   It is best adapted  for the disease  when it affects
membranous parts f and  is much less beneficial in  inflammation of the parenchy-
matous structure of organs.   In gastritis  and enteritis the use of  opium has  been
strongly recommended by  the  late Dr. Armstrong.9  After bleeding  the  patient
to syncope, a full opiate (as 80 or 100 drops of the tincture, or three grains of soft
opium) is to be administered; and  if the stomach  reject it, we may give it by  in-
jection.   It acts on the skin, induces quiet and refreshing sleep, and prevents what
is called the hemorrhagic reaction.  If the urgent  symptoms return when the pa-
tient awakes, the same mode  of treatment is to  be followed, but combining calomel

  1 See some interesting observations on this subject, by Dr. P. M. Latham, Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. x. pp.
 11, 12.
  a Med. Notes and Reflect, p. 427, 2d ed. 1S40.               » Lond. Med. Gaz. xviii. 5.1^, 694.
  • Ibid. xx. 538.                                     * Treatise on Opium, p. 169, Lond. 1755.
  « Holland, op. supra cit. p. 424.                         ' Ed.-Med. Comm-nt. ix. 191.
  » See Brachet, De I'Emploi de I'Opium dans les Phlegm,  des Membr. muq. ser. etjibr. 1p2s.
  • Transactions of the Association of Apothecaries, 1623. 
1048
VEGETABLES —Nat. Ord. Papaverace^e.
 with the opium.   A third venesection is seldom required.   In peritonitis, the same
 plan of treatment is to be adopted; but warm, moist applications are on no account
 to be omitted.   Of the great value of opiates in puerperal fever, abundant evidence
 has been adduced by Dr.  Ferguson.1   In  cystitis, opium, preceded and accompanied
 by bloodletting  and the warm bath, is a valuable  remedy; it  relieves the scalding
 pain, by diminishing the sensibility of this viscus  to the presence of  the urine,  and
 also counteracts the spasmodic  contractions.   In  inflammation of the walls of the
pelvis of the kidney, and  also of the ureters, especially when brought  on by the
 presence of a calculus, opium is a most valuable  remedy; it diminishes  the sensi-
 bility of these parts, and  prevents  spasm ; farthermore, it  relaxes the ureters,  and
 thereby facilitates the passage of the calculus.  In inflammation of the gall-ducts,
 produced by calculus, opium is likewise serviceable ;  but, as in the  last-mentioned
 case, bloodletting and the  warm bath should be employed simultaneously with it.
 In inflammation of the mucous membranes, attended with increased secretion, opium
 is a most valuable remedy.  Thus, in pulmonary catarrh, when  the first stage of
 the disease  has  passed by, and the mucous secretion is fully established, opium is
 frequently very  beneficial; it diminishes the sensibility of the  bronchial membrane
 to cold  air, and thereby prevents cough.   In  severe forms of the  disease, blood-
 letting ought to be premised.  Given at the  commencement of  the  disease,  Dr.
 Holland3  says that twenty or  thirty drops of laudanum will  often  arrest it alto-
 gether.   In diarrhoea, opium, in mild cases, is often sufficient of  itself to cure  the
 disease;  it diminishes the  increased muscular contractions  and increased sensibility
 (thereby relieving pain), and at the same time checks  excessive secretion.  Aro-
 matics and  chalk are advantageously combined with it.   In  violent cases, blood-
 letting  should precede or  accompany  it.   Mild  or English  cholera, the  disease
 which has been  so long known in  this country, and which  consists in  irritation or
 inflammation of the mucous lining of the stomach, is  generally most successfully
 treated by the use of opium ; two or three doses will, in slight cases, be  sufficient
 to effect a cure.   When opium fails, the hydrocyanic acid is occasionally most effect-
 ive.   In dysentery, opium has been  found  very  serviceable;  it is  best  given in
 combination with either  ipecacuanha or calomel.  I  have already stated that, in
 inflammation of the parenchymatous tissues of organs, the  use  of opium is less  fre-
 quently beneficial, but often injurious.  Thus, in  inflammation of the cerebral sub-
 stance, it is highly objectionable, since  it increases the determination of blood to
 the head, and disposes to coma.   In peripneumonia, it  is for the most part  injuri-
 ous; partly by its increasing the febrile  symptoms, partly by  its  diminishing  the
 bronchial secretion, and probably, also, by retarding the arterialization of the blood,
 and thereby increasing the general disorder of system.   It must be admitted, how-
 ever, that there  are circumstances under which its use, in this disease, is justifiable.
 Thus, in acute  peripneumonia, when  bloodletting has  been carried  as far as the
 safety of the patient will admit, but without  the subsidence of the disease  I have
 seen the repeated use of opium  and calomel of  essential  service.   Again, in the
 advanced stages of pneumonic  inflammation, when  the  difficulty of  breathing  has
 abated, opium is sometimes beneficially employed  to  allay gainful  cough, and pro-
 duce sleep.   In inflammation of the substance of  the liver, opium is  seldom benefi-
 cial ;  it checks the excretion, if not the secretion,  of bile, and increases costiveness.
 In rheumatism,  opium frequently evinces  its  happiest  effects.   In  acute forms of
 the disease  it is  given in combination with calomel,  as  recommended by  Dr R
 Hamilton—bloodletting being usually premised.   From half a grain to two grains
 of opium should be given  at a  dose.   Dr.  Hope3 recommends gr  vii or e? x of
 calomel to be combined with  each dose  of  opium.  It is not necessary  or even
 proper, in ordinary cases,  to affect the mouth by the calomel;  though to this state-
 ment exceptions exist.   The use of mercury  may even,  in some cases, be obiection-
 able; and in such, Dover s powder will be found the best form  of exhibition.  This

  1 Essays on the most Important Diseases of Women. Part i 1ftSQ            < /-,
  ' Lond. Med. Gaz. xix. 815.                  '                     °*- suPra «*«• P- 421. 
White Poppy :—Uses of Opium.
1049
plan of treatment is well adapted for the diffuse or fibrous form of acute rheuma-
tism ;  but it does not prove equally successful in the synovial forms of the disease.
It is also valuable in chronic rheumatism.
   3. In Diseases of the Brain and Spinal Cord.—In  some cerebro-spinal diseases
great benefit arises from the use of opium ; while in other cases  injury only can
result from its employment.   The  latter effect is to be expected in inflammation of
the brain,  and in apoplectic cases.  In  other  words,  in those cerebral maladies
obviously connected with,  or dependent on, an excited  condition  of the vascular
Bystem of the brain, opium acts  injuriously.  But there are  many disordered con-
ditions of the cerebro-spinal functions, the intensity of which bears no proportion
to that of the derangement  of the vascular  system of the brain; and there are
other deviations  from the  healthy functions  in  which  no change in the cerebral
circulation can be detected.  In these cases, opium or  morphia frequently evinces
its best effects.   In insanity, its value has been properly insisted on by Dr. Sey-
mour.1  He, as  well  as Messrs. Beverley and Phillips, employed the  acetate of
morphia.   Its  good effects  were  manifested rather  in the low,  desponding,  or
melancholic forms of the  disease,  than in the excited  conditions; though I  have
seen great  relief  obtained in  the  latter form  of  the  disease  by  full doses.
Opium is  sometimes  employed  by  drunkards  to relieve intoxication.  I  knew
a medical man addicted to  drinking, and  who, for many years,  was accustomed
to take a large dose of laudanum whenever he was intoxicated and  was called to
see a patient.  On one occasion, being more than  ordinarily inebriated, he  swal-
lowed  an excessive dose of laudanum, and died in a few hours of apoplexy.
   In delirium tremens, the efficacy of opium is  almost universally admitted.   Its
effects, however, require to be carefully watched; for large doses of it, frequently
repeated, sometimes hasten  coma  and other bad symptoms.  If there be  much
fever,  or evident marks of determination  of blood to the h§ad, it  should be  used
with great caution, and ought to be preceded by loss of blood,  cold applications to
the head, and other antiphlogistic measures.  Though opium is to be looked on as
a chief remedy in this disease, yet  it is not to be regarded as a specific.   Dr. Law2
speaks in high terms of its  association with emetic tartar.   I  have  before no-
ticed the use of opium in  alleviating  some of the  cerebral symptoms which  occur
during fever.
   In spasmodic and convulsive  diseases opium  is  a most important remedy.  In
local spasms produced by topical irritants, it  is a  most valuable agent, as I  have
already stated; for example, in spasm of the gall-ducts or of the ureters,  brought on
by the presence of calculi; in colic, and  in painful spasmodic contractions of the
bladder, or rectum, or uterus.  In  spasmodic stricture  opium is sometimes useful.
In genuine spasmodic asthma, which probably depends on a spasmodic condition of
the muscular fibres investing the bronchial tubes, a full dose of  opium generally
gives temporary relief;  but the recurrence of the paroxysms is seldom influenced
by opium.   There are several reasons for believing that one effect of narcotics in
dyspnoea is to diminish the necessity  for respiration.   Laennec3 states that when
given to relieve the extreme dyspncoa of mucous catarrh, it frequently produces a
speedy but temporary cessation of  the disease; and if we explore the  respiration by
the stethoscope, we find  it  the  same as during  the paroxysm—a proof that the
benefit obtained consists simply in a diminution  of the necessity for respiration.
That the necessities of the system for atmospheric air vary at different periods, and
from different circumstances, is sufficiently established  by the experiments of Dr.
Prout;4 and it appears that  they are diminished  during sleep, at  which time, ac-
cording to Dr. Edwards,5 the transpiration is increased.   Moreover, the phenomena
of hybernating animals also bear on this point;  for during their state  of torpidity,
or hybernation, their respiration is proportionally diminished.
• Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. ix. p. 114 ; and Med.-Chir. Trans, vol. xix. p. 167.
* Lond. Med. Gaz. xviii. 538 and 694.
* Treat, on the Diseases of the Chest, by Forbes, pp. 77 and 99, 1827.
• Ann. of Phil. ii. 330; and iv. 331.                  * De I'Infl. des Agens Physiq. p. 321, 1824. 
1050
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Papaverace^e.
   In the convulsive diseases (chorea, epilepsy, and tetanus) opium has been used, but
with variable success;  in fact, the conditions of system under which these affections
occur, may be, at different times, of an opposite  nature;  so that a remedy which ia
proper in one  case is  often improper in another.  In  tetanus, opium  was at  one
time a favourite  remedy, and is  undoubtedly at times  a remedy of  considerable
value.  But it is remarkable that the susceptibility of the system to its influence in
greatly diminished during tetanus.  I have already referred to the enormous  quan-
tities which may, at this time, be taken with impunity.   In 128 cases noticed by
Mr. Curling,1 opium in various forms, and in conjunction with other remedies,  was
employed in 84 cases; and of these, 45 recovered.  Notwithstanding, however, the
confidence of the profession in its efficacy is greatly diminished.
   Lastly, opium occasionally proves serviceable in several forms of headache, espe-
cially after loss of blood.  I have seen it give great relief in  some cases of what are
commonly termed nervous  headaches; while in others,  with  apparently the- same
indications,  it has proved  injurious.   Chomel2  applied, with  good effect, opium
cerate to a blistered surface of the scalp, to relieve headache.
   4.  In Diseases of the Chest.—In some affections of  the heart and of the organs of
respiration opium is beneficial. I have already alluded to its employment in catarrh,
peripneumonia, and  spasmodic asthma.   In the first of these maladies caution is
often requisite in its use.   " In an aged person, for example, suffering under chronic
bronchitis or catarrhal influenza—and gasping, it may be, under the difficulties of
cough and  expectoration—an opiate,  by  suspending these very  struggles, may
become the  cause of danger and death.  The effort here is needed for  the recovery
of free respiration; and if suppressed too long, mucus accumulates in the bronchial
cells, its extrication thence becomes impossible, and breathing ceases altogether."8
   5.  In Maladies of the Digestive Organs.—I  have  already referred to the  use of
opium in gastritis, enteritis,  peritonitis, diarrhoea, dysentery,  colic,  the passage of
gall-stones, and in hepatitis.   With respect to the use of opium in hepatic affections,
I am disposed to  think, with Dr. Holland, that, with the exception of the painful
passage of a gall-stone through the ducts, there is scarcely a complaint of the liver
and its appendages " where opium  may not be said to be hurtful, though occasionally
and indirectly useful whencombined with other  means."*   In poisoning  by acrid
substances opium is used with advantage to lessen the susceptibility of the alimentary
canal, and thereby to diminish the violence of the operation  of these local irritants.
Cantharides, all the drastic purgatives, when taken in excessive doses (as elaterium,
colocynth, gamboge, scammony, and  croton  oil  or seeds), and Arum maculatum,
may be mentioned as examples of the substances alluded to.   Besides the above-
mentioned  beneficial operation,  opium  allays the spasmodic  contractions of the
bowels, relieves pain, and checks inordinate secretion and exhalation.
   In poisoning by corrosives (the strong mineral acids and alkalies, for example),
opium diminishes the sensibility of the  alimentary canal; it cannot, of course,
alter the chemical influence of the poisons, but  it may prove useful by allaying the
consequences of inflammation.
   As meconic acid is  said to  be an antidote in cases  of poisoning by corrosive  sub-
limate, opium, in  full  doses, may perhaps  be administered with some advantage,
when other antidotes cannot be procured.
   In poisoning by  the preparations  of arsenic, of  lead, and of copper,  opium is
sometimes found  useful.
   6.  In maladies of the urino-genital apparatus opium is a most valuable remedy.
It  mitigates pain, allays spasmodic  action, checks copious mucous secretion, and
diminishes irritation.   Its use for one or more of these purposes in nephritis, cystitis,
the passage of urinary calculi, and spasmodic  stricture,  has been  already pointed
out.  In irritable bladder it is an invaluable remedy, especially in conjunction with
1 Treat, on Tetanus, p. 151, 1836.
* Holland, op. supra cit. p. 425.
' Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. i. p. 156.
* Op. supra cit. p. 429. 
White Poppy:—Uses of Opium.                  1051
liquor  potassae.  In irritation and various painful affections of the uterus, and in
chordee, the value of opium is well  known.  In  the treatment of the phosphatic
diathesis it is the only remedy that can  be employed, according  to Dr. Prout, to
diminish the unnatural irritability of the system.
  Of all remedies for that hitherto intractable  malady, diabetes, opium has been
found to give the most relief.1   Under its use the specific gravity, saccharine quality,
and quantity of urine have  been diminished.  It has  not, however, hitherto suc-
ceeded in permanently curing this disease.   Dr. Prout has also  found it serviceable
when there is an excess of urea in the urine.2
  7.  As an Anodyne.—To relieve  pain  by dulling the sensibility  of the body,
opium  is, of all substances, the most useful, and the  most to  be relied on for inter-
nal exhibition.   We  sometimes  use  it to alleviate  the pain of inflammation, as
already mentioned; to diminish spasm and the sensibility of  the part in calculi of
the gall-ducts, in the ureters,  and even when in the  urinary  bladder; to relieve
pain iu the various forms of scirrhus and carcinoma, in  which  diseases opium is our
sheet-anchor; to allay the pain  arising from the presence  of foreign  bodies in
wounds; to prevent or relieve  after-pains;  to diminish the pain of menstruation ;
and, lastly, as an anodyne in neuralgia.   As a benumber  or topical anodyne it is
greatly inferior to aconite.   Hence, in neuralgia, the latter is  much more successful
than opium.   (See Aconitum.)
  8. In Hemorrhages.—Opium is at times serviceable to obviate certain ill  effects of
hemorrhages; as when there is great irritability attended with a small and frequent
pulse,  and  also to relieve that  painful  throbbing about the head so often  observed
after large  evacuations  of blood.   In  or immediately after uterine hemorrhage the
use of opium  has been objected to, on the ground that it  might  prevent  the con-
traction of the womb;  but where the employment of opium is otherwise indicated,
this  theoretical objection deserves no weight.  In  bronchial, hemorrhage  it is at
times  a valuable  remedy, and  may  be associated  with acetate of lead (notwith-
standing the chemical objections to the mixture) with good effect.
  9. In Mortification.—When mortification is attended with  excessive pain, opium
is resorted  to.   In that kind  of  mortification called gangrsena senilis, which com-
mences without any visible cause, by a small purple spot on the toes, heels,  or other
parts of the extremities, and which sometimes arises  from  an  ossified condition of
the arteries, Mr. Pott3 strongly recommended opium, in conjunction with  a stimu-
lating  plan of treatment, and experience has fully proved its  great efficacy.
   10.  In Venereal Diseases.—Opium it; frequently employed iu venereal diseases to
prevent the action  of mercurials on the bowels during salivation;  also to allay the
pain  of certain  venereal  sores, and venereal diseases of the bones.  By some it
has,  in addition, been employed as an anti-venereal remedy;  and,  according to  Mi-
chaelis4 and others, with success.  Moreover, it  is stated by  Dr. Ananian, who
practised at  Constantinople, that  those persons who were  in the  habit of taking
opium rarely contracted the venereal disease.   But opium  possesses  no specific
anti-venereal powers.5  It has appeared to  me, on  several occasions, to promote the
healing of  venereal sores.
   11.  In various forms of ulcers, and in granulating wounds, the efficacy of opium
has been satisfactorily established  by Mr. Skey.6   Richter7 and  others" had already
noticed its good  effects;  but their statements had attracted  little attention.  Mr.
Grant,0 in  1785, pointed out the  efficacy of opium in the treatment of foul ulcers,
attended with a  bad discharge, and much pain.   He  ascribed these symptoms to
"morbid irritability," which the  opium removed.   Its use is prejudicial  in ulcers
1 See Prout, Inq. into the Treat, of Diabetes, &c. p. 74, 2d ed. 1825.
» Inq. into the Treat, of Diabetes, tec. p. 54, 2d ed. 1825.
3 Chir. Obs. 1775.                                 * Med. Communications, vol. i.
1 Pearson, Observ. on the Effects of Various Art. of the Mat. Med. in Lues Ven. p. 57, 1S00.
• On a new Method of Treatmtnt employed in the Cure of various forms of Ulcer and  Granulating
founds, Lond. 1837.
' Comm. Soc. Scient. Gott. vol. xv.                   " See Ploucquet s Lit. Med. iv. 214, 1309.
* Lond. Med. Journ. vi. 5, and 130. 
1052            VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord. Papaverace^e.

attended with inflammation, in the florid or sanguineous temperament, and in child-
hood.   But in the chronic or callous ulcer, in the so-called varicose ulcer, in recent
ulcers (from wounds), in which granulation proceeds slowly, or in other cases, the
efficacy of opium, administered in small doses (as ten drops  of laudanum  three
times  daily), is most  manifest, especially in elderly persons, and in those whose
constitutions have been debilitated by disease, labour, spirituous liquors, &c.   It
appears to promote the most genial warmth, to give energy to the extreme arteries,
and thereby to maintain an equal balance of the circulation throughout every part
of  the body, and to animate the dormant energies of healthy action.
   12. The external application of opium is comparatively but little resorted to, and
for two reasons:  in the first place, its topical  effects are slight; and secondly, its
specific effects on the brain and general system are not readily produced through the
skin.  Aconite and belladonna greatly exceed opium in  their topical effects.   The
following are some of  the local uses of  opium:  In ophthalmia, the wine of opium
is dropped into the eye when there is excessive  pain (see  Vinum Opii).  In painful
and foul sores, opiates are used with occasional good  effects.   Mr. Grant1 applied
the tincture twice a day, in an oatmeal poultice, to irritable sores. Opiate frictions
have been employed as topical anodynes, and to affect the general system.   Thus,
in chronic rheumatism and sprains, the opium liniment proves a useful application.
In  maniacal  delirium, as well as some other  cerebral  disorders, Mr. Ward2 em-
ployed, with apparently beneficial  effects, opiate frictions;  for example,  §ss of
opium, mixed with gr. iv of camphor, 9iv of lard, and 5J of olive oil.  In neuralgic
affections, an opiate cerate, or finely powdered hydrochlorate  of morphia, applied to
a blistered surface, occasionally gives relief.  In gastrodynia, it may  be  applied in
the same way to the epigastrium (Holland).   In gonorrhoea and gleet,  opium in-
jections have been used.   In spasmodic stricture, diseases of the prostate gland, and
in gonorrhoea to prevent chordee, an opiate suppository is a useful form of employing
opium, especially where it is apt  to  disagree with the stomach.  In nervous  and
spasmodic affections (as some forms of asthma), the endermic application of opium
or morphia, applied along the course of the spine, is often singularly beneficial, when
all methods  of depletion  and  counter-irritation  have proved  utterly unavailing
(Holland).  In toothache, opium is applied to the hollow of  a  carious tooth.   Dr.
Bow3  speaks in  the highest terms  of  the efficacy  of the external application of
opium in inflammatory diseases, "but especially bronchitis and croup.
   Administration.—Opium  is given, in substance, in the form of pill, powder,
lozenge, or electuary.   The dose is subject to great variation, depending  on the age
and habits of  the patient, the nature of the disease, and the particular  object for
which we wish to employ it.   In a general way, we consider from an eighth  of a
grain to half a grain a small dose for an adult.   We give it to  this extent in per-
sons unaccustomed to  its use, when we  require its stimulant effects, and in mild
catarrhs and diarrhoeas.  From half a grain to two grains we term a  medium dose,
and employ it in  this quantity as an ordinary anodyne and soporific.  From two to
five grains we denominate a. full or large dose, and give it to  relieve excessive pain,
violent spasm, in some  inflammatory diseases after bloodletting, in tetanus, &c.
These are by no means to be regarded as the limits of the use of opium.   Opium
pills (pilulse opii) may be prepared either with  crude or  powdered  opium.   The
latter  has  the advantage  of a  more  speedy operation, in consequence of its more
ready solution in  the gastric liquor.   Employed as a suppository, opium  is used in
larger doses than  when given by the stomach.  Five grains, made into a cylindrical
mass with soap, may be introduced into the rectum, to allay irritation in the urino-
genital organs.
  Antidotes.—In a case  of poisoning by opium, the first indication is to remove
the poison from the stomach, the  second is to neutralize  any of it which  may be
retained in the system, and the third is to obviate its injurious effects.
1 Op. supra cit.
» Lancet, March 18, 1837.
2 Med. and Phys. Journ. vol. i p. 440, 1799. 
White Poppy :
:—Antidotes in Poisoning by Opium.
1053
  1. Use of Evacuants.—Until other and more powerful evacuant means can be
obtained, we should have recourse to tickling the throat with the fingers, or with a
feather dipped in oil.   As domestic emetics, mustard or salt may be exhibited.  A
dessertspoonful of flour of mustard, or a tablespoonful of salt,  may be taken, stirred
up in a tumblerful of water.   The  stomach-pump is, however  the  best  means of
evacuating the contents of the stomach, and, when it can be procured, should always
be preferred. The emetics usually resorted to are the sulphates of zinc and copper;
the first is preferred.  It  should be given in doses of from one to two scruples.  The
dose of sulphate of  copper is  less—from  five grains to fifteen.  Ipecacuanha or
tartar emetic may be resorted to when the other means are not  at hand.   Clysters
containing  fifteen or twenty grains  of tartar emetic may be administered;  or, in
extreme cases, a solution of one or two grains of this salt may be injected into the
veins, taking care to prevent the introduction  of air.
  2. Use of Chemical Antidotes.—There are no known agents which completely
destroy the activity of opium by their chemical properties, and which can be  re-
sorted to in these cases.   Infusion of galls, however, is regarded as the best, though
an imperfect antidote.  Magnesia, as well  as iodine and chlorine, have also  been
recommended.
  3.  Use  of Therapeutical Means  to obviate the Effects.—The following are
the principal means which have been found efficacious:—
  o. Rousing the patient, by exercising him  up and down  a  room between two
men.  It may sometimes be necessary to continue this for  several hours.—/3.  Cold
affusion. Cold water  dashed over the head and chest  is  an  exceedingly valuable
agent.  It often  assists the operation of emetics.   Dr. Boisragon1 recommends the
alternation of impression, with hot  or cold water, and at different parts of the sur-
face of  the body.—y.  Irritants. The application  of irritants to the body is also
sometimes a useful practice; thus blisters  and sinapisms to the feet.—8.  Venesec-
tion. Bloodletting is sometimes necessary;  but it can be safely practised only after
the opium  has been withdrawn from the  stomach.  Orfila says that  under  these
circumstances it never increases but in most cases materially relieves the symp-
toms.—s. Stimulants. Ammonia, camphor, musk, coffee, and other  stimulants, are
sometimes used  with advantage.—f.  Vegetable acids.  Orfila has found the vegeta-
ble acids to be the best  anti-narcotics.   For  this purpose, drinks of  vinegar and
water,  lemon-juice,  or cream of tartar  and water,  should be given every ten
minutes.   These agents, however, should not be resorted to till the poison has been
evacuated from the stomach.—*?. Artificial respiration.  As a last resource this  is
on no  account  to be omitted.  Death has on several  occasions been apparently
averted by it.  An interesting case, in which it was successfully practised, was pub-
lished many years ago by Mr.  Whately.3   Natural  respiration was extinct when it
was begun.   In another successful case, related by Mr. Smith,3 artificial respiration
was kept up for  four hours and a half (with an interval of an hour).   When it was
commenced there was no pulse at the wrist, and  only a slight  irregular  action of
the heart, indicative  that life was not quite extinct.  A third case, also  successful,
is that  of an infant  ten days old, which had taken  twenty-five  or  thirty  drops of
laudanum  intended  for  the mother, and  had lost the  power of deglutition, was
comatose, and had several convulsions.  Artificial respiration  was sustained for two
or three hours.4—[0. Electricity and electro-magnetism have also been  successfully
employed of late years in several cases  of poisoning  by opium.   This agent has
been found effectual  in keeping roused, children that are labouring under the effects
of narcotic poison.—Ed.]
  Preparations.—In noticing the preparations of the poppy employed in medi-
cine, I shall  arrange them under three heads: 1st, Preparations of poppy-heads;
2dly, Of opium; 3dly, Of morphia.
» Lond. Med. Gaz. March 6, 1840.
* Med.-Chir. Trans, xx. 66.
2 Med. Obs. and Inq. vi. 331.
' United States Dispensatory. 
 1054            VEGETABLES —Nat. Ord. Papavlrace^e.


                           a. Preparations of Poppy-Heads.

    1- DECOCTUM PAPAYERIS, L E. D.;  Decoction of Poppy; Poppy Fomentation.—
 (Poppy-heads,  sliced, giv; Water Oiv.  [Oiij, E. Z>.]   Boil  for a  quarter  of an
 hour [ten minutes, D.J and  strain.)—The seeds contribute,  by their oleaginous
 properties, to the  emollient quality of the  decoction.  This preparation forms  a
 common fomentation, which  is applied to bruised, inflamed, excoriated, tender, or
 swollen parts;  to the eye in ophthalmia, to the abdomen in enteritis, peritonitis, to
 tender ulcers, &c.   In cancer and other painful affections of the uterus, it is thrown
 into the vagina as a soothing remedy.
    %. STRUTS PAPAVERIS, L.  E.;  Syrup of  White Poppies.—(Poppy-heads, with-
 out the seeds,  lb. iij [lb.  iss. E.J, Sugar [pure, E.~\ lb. v.  [lb. iij, E.];  Boiling
 Water, Cong. v. [Oxv. E.J,  [Rectified Spirit, %v, L.~]   Boil down the capsules in
 the water to two gallons, and  strongly express the liquor.   Again  boil  down the
 strained liquor  to four pints, and filter while  hot.  Set it by for twelve hours that
 the dregs may subside;  then boil down the clear liquid to two pints, add the sugar
 and dissolve it;  lastly, mix in  the spirit, L.—The  Edinburgh Pharmacopeia di-
 rects the poppy-heads to be first macerated in water  for  twelve hours;  then  to boil
 down to five pints, and strain and  express strongly through calico.   Again to boil
 down to Oiiss, add  the sugar, and dissolve with the aid of heat.)—Syrup of pop-
 pies, especially if too thin, is very liable to ferment, and then contains spirit or
 acetic acid, or both, and is of course  ill adapted for medicinal use.  To check these
 changes,  it should be carefully made with spirit, according to  the directions of the
 London College, taking care that it has the proper consistence, and keeping  it in a
 cool place.  Occasionally, a mixture  of treacle and laudanum,  or of syrup and ex-
 tract of poppies, has been  substituted; but this fraud is  highly dangerous, and has
 on several occasions  proved fatal to children.1  Syrup of poppies is narcotic, seda-
 tive, and anodyne, and is commonly  employed as the infant's opiate.   It mitigates
 pain, allays spasm and troublesome cough, and promotes sleep.   Even in the adult
 it is sometimes  used for these purposes.  It forms a useful adjunct  to pectoral tinc-
 tures.   Over ordinary opiates it has the positive advantages  of a less disagreeable
 taste, and the supposed one  of being  less likely to create  nausea and headache.
 Even when properly prepared, its  administration  to infants  requires the greatest
 caution, on account of their known susceptibility to  the  influence of opiates.  " I
 have been informed," says Dr. Montgomery,  " of more  than  one instance in which
 a teaspoonful has been known to prove fatal to a healthy child."__The dose  of it
 for an infant of three or four months old, is f 3ss; for adults, from  f 3ij to f 3iv.

   I EXTRACTUM PAPATERIS, L. E. j Extract 0//%^.-(Poppy:heads, without the
 seeds, bruised  gxv; Boiling [distilled, Z,.] Water, Cong. j.   Macerate for twenty-
 four hours; then  boil down to four  pints, and  filter the liquor while  hot-  lastly
 evaporate to a proper consistence [by the vapour bath, E.J)—Anodyne and soporific!
 It  appears to me to produce effects similar to those  of opium, for which it is fre-
 quently substituted, on the supposition that, while it allays pain  and  promotes sleep,
 it  is less liable to occasion nausea, constipation,  headache, or  delirium   If  it be
 prepared from adecoction, instead of an infusion of poppy-heads, as directed in the
 pharmacopoeias, it will contain a considerable quantity of inert mucilaginous matter
 —Dose, gr. ij to 9j.                                             &

                             b. Preparations of Opium.
  1  PILUL1 OPII sive THEBAIC, K;Opium  Pills.-(0Vinm one part; Sulphate
of Potash threeparts; Conserve of Red Roses one part.   Beat them into a pVoper
mass, which is to be divided into five-grain pills.—It is to be observed that this pill
contains twice as  much opium as the opiate  pill of the  last  Latin edition of this

       ' See the cases referred to by Dr. Montgomery, in his Obs. on the DuU^n~Pha~rmTviZ 
                  White Poppy:—Preparations of Opium.              1055

pharmacopoeia, E.)—Employed as an anodyne and soporific.—Dose, one or two pills
(t. e. gr. v to gr. x).  The sulphate of potash  serves  to  divide  the opium.   One
pill of five grains contains one grain of opium.

  2. PILULE SAPONIS COMPOSITE, L. D. [U. S.]; Compound Soap Pills.—(Opium
powdered; Liquorice, powdered, each 3U >  Soft Soap 3vj-   Beat  them together
until  incorporated, L.—Opium,  in fine  powder,  §ss; Castile  Soap Jij; Distilled
Water 3ss, or as much  as is sufficient.   Reduce the soap  to a fine powder, add the
opium and water, and  beat the mixture  into a mass of a uniform  consistence, D.
\U. S.J)—Employed as an anodyne  and soporific.—Dose, gr. iij to gr. x.   Five
grains contain one  grain of opium.   [Two and a half grains U. S. contain  gr. i
opium.]   The soap  enables the pills to dissolve  readily in the juices of the stomach.
From gr.  v to 9j are sometimes used as a suppository.

   S. PILCLiE  CALOMELANOS ET OPII, E.  (See Index.)
   4. PILULE  PLOT OPIATE, E.   (See Index.)
   5- TROCHISCI OPII, E.;  Opium Lozenges.—(Opium  JJij ; Tincture of Tolu  |ss;
Pure Sugar, in fine  powder, £vj; Powder of Gum-Arabic,  and Extract of Liquorice,
softened with boiling water, of  each 3v.   Reduce  the opium to a fluid extract by
the formula [given  for extract of opium] ; mix  it intimately with the liquorice pre-
viously reduced  to the consistence  of  treacle; add the tincture; sprinkle the  gum
and sugar into the mixture, and  beat it into a proper mass, which is to be divided
into lozenges of  ten grains.)—In London, the manufacture of lozenges is practised
as  a distinct trade   The opium lozenges of the shops usually contain  each about
one-eighth of a grain of  opium.    Lozenge-makers  employ a much  smaller proportion
of gum.   The tincture of tolu, which they use, is much more concentrated than that
of the shops, the spirit of which  is objectionable.   Opium  lozenges are used to  allay
troublesome cough.

   6, PULVIS  CRETE COMPOSITUS CUM OPIO, L.;  Pulvis Cretse  Opiatus,E. D.;  Com-
pound Powder of Chalk with Opium.—(Compound Powder of Chalk  ^viss [Jvj, E.;
giv, 3v'j> -£*•] 5  Powder  of Opium 9iv  [3J, D.J   Triturate  them together thoroughly
[and pass through a fine sieve,  D.J)—Astringent and narcotic.    Employed in  diar-
rhoea.—Dose for adults, 9j to 9ij ; for children,  grs. ij to grs. x, according to  their
age.   Forty grains  of  this powder, prepared according  to the London or Dublin
Pharmacopoeia, or thirty-seven  of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, contain one grain
of opium.
   7. CONFECTIO OPII, L-  [U. S.]j  Electuarium Opii, E.; Confection of Opium;  Phi-
Ionium1 Londinense; Philonium Romanum.—(Opium, powdered, 3vj j  Long  Pep-
per 3j; Ginger ^ij; Caraway 3iij; Tragacanth, powdered, 3'j ;  Syrup f^xvj.  The
London College directs  the dry ingredients to be  kept mixed in the  form of a very
fine powder,  and the syrup  to  be  added  when  the confection is to  be used.   The
Edinburgh College  adopts the following formula:  "Aromatic Powder |vj; Senega,
in fine powder,  ^iij; Opium, diffused  in a little Sherry, fss; Syrup of Ginger Ibj.
Mix them together, and beat into an electuary.")—Aromatic and narcotic.  Employed
iu flatulent colic and diarrhoea;  in  the latter complaint usually as an adjunct to the
  1 The ancient philonium was a famous electuary of the opiate kind.  It was called Philo's antidote,
after Philo, of Tarsus, its inventor, who lived, it is supposed, in Augustus's time. The composition of the
Philonium, described in Greek elegiac verses, is preserved and explained by Galen, De med. comp. sec. loc.
lib. ix. 4. The terms of the receipt are enigmatical, and may amuse some readers : we give the substance :
"Take of the yellow and fragrant hair of the divine Crocus, whose blood glitters in the fields of Mercury;
as many drachms as a man has senses ; of the Euboean Nauplian, a drachm; of the slayer of Mencetiades,
as preserved in the bowels of sheep, the like quantity ; add twenty drachms of white flame, and twenty of
the bean of the wild animal of Arcadia; a drachm of the root (falsely so called) which grows in the land
famous for the Pisrean Jove; take twice five drachms otirior, written with the masculine article prefixed ;
and mingle all with the production of the daughters of the bulls of Athens." Galen interprets this curious
medico-poetical farrago, which, without his aid, would certainly be not a little obscure, as implying the
admixture of saffron, pyrethrum, euphorbium, white pepper, hyoscj-amus, spikenard, opium, and Athenian
honey   It is, moreover, stated in the verses, that the pains for which this ,"«>* tuotun was most service-
able, were thoBe of colic, of the liver, dysuria, and stone.—(Dr. Wm. Cummin, Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xvii.
p. 990.) 
 1056            VEGETABLES.—Xat.  Ord. Papaveraceje.

 chalk mixture.—Dose, gr. x to 3j.—The Dublin preparation of the older  pharma-
 copoeias contained gr. j of opium  in  about  twenty-five grains of confection.  The
 London preparation is  somewhat  weaker, and contains gr. j  of opium  in  perhaps
 thirty-six grains.  The Edinburgh preparation is still weaker ; forty-three grains of
 it containing about one  grain of opium—[The  U. S. Pharm. directs Opium m
 powder four drachms and a half; Aromatic  Powder six ounces;  Clarified Honey
 fourteen ounces.   Rub the opium  with the aromatic powder ; then add the honey,
 and beat  them together until thoroughly mixed.   About  thirty-six grains contain
 one of opium.]
   8. EMPLASTRUM OPII, L. E. D.;  Plaster of Opium.—(Extract of Opium |j ; Pre-
 pared Resin of the Spruce Fir aij ; Plaster of Lead |viij ; Boiling Water f Jj.  Add
 the resin  of the  spruce fir, the opium, and the water, to the melted plaster, and with
 a slow fire boil down until all unite into a  proper consistence, L.—The Edinburgh
 College omits the water.   The  formula  of the Dublin College is as follows: Of
 Opium, in very  fine powder, |j ;  Resin Plaster §ix.   Melt the plaster by steam or
 water bath, add the opium by degrees, and  mix thoroughly.   [The U.  S.  Pharm.
 directs Opium in powder  two ounces ;  Burgundy Pitch three  ounces; Lead Plaster
 a pound;  Boiling Water  four fluidounces.  The process is similar to the above.]—
 Employed as a tonic anodyne in rheumatism, lumbago, and neuralgia.  Its powers
 are very slight,  or even equivocal.
   9. EXTRACTUM OPII, L.  [U. S.] ; Extractum Opii, E. ; Extractum Opii aquosum,
 D.; Extract of Opium.—(Opium, sliced, Ibiss [Ibj, E. D. U.  S.~\ ; Water [distilled,
 Ov, L.J [Ovj, D.J [Ov, U. S.~\  Add Oiiss  of the water to the opium, and macerate
 for twenty-four  hours, stirring occasionally with a  spatula, then strain.  Macerate
 what is left in the remaining water for  twenty-four hours, and strain.   Lastly, evapo-
 rate to a proper consistence, L.—The Edinburgh  College digests five times suc-
 cessively; each  time  in  a  pint  of water, and for twenty-four hours  each  time.
 Filter the successive infusions as they are made, passing  them through the same
 filter;  unite and evaporate them  in the vapour-bath to the due consistence.  [The
 U.  S. P.  follows the Edinburgh.]—The Dublin  College digests  the water in like
 manner, but  in  successive quarts.)—When opium is  digested in  water, this fluid
 takes up the odorous principle, the salts of morphia and .codeia, the narcotina, the
gum, the  extractive, and  some of  the  resin.  A portion of morphia  is frequently
found in the dregs.  Moreover, a  portion of the oil is found in the solution.   By
concentration, the odorous principle  is dissipated, and the  resin and the oil, com-
bined with and  in part saturating the narcotina, are separated.   These  matters
would  be more completely got rid of by redissolving the  extract  in water.   The
removal of these inert principles, as well as the impurities of  opium and the conse-
quent concentration of  the active  constituents  of this substance, must, of course,
render the  extract  a more  powerful preparation  than ordinary  opium.    Good
opium yields more than half its weight (from 60 to 70 per cent.) of extract, which,
therefore,  should  be at least one-third more active than crude opium.  It is usually
believed to operate with less disturbance to  the  general system than  the ordinary
preparations of opium.   It is employed  as an anodyne, sedative, and soporific, in
cases where crude opium or its tincture disagrees.—The dose of it is from  gr. \ to
gr. iij or gr. iv.
  Liquor  Opii Skdativus.—Mr. Battley, some years since, assured  me that the only ingre-
dients employed in the preparations of his liquor opii sedativus were opium, water, and heat.
It appears to contain somewhat less meconic acid than the ordinary tincture of opium.  Pro-
bably this and  some other principles of opium are got rid of by successive evaporations and
solutions.  Perhaps an aqueous solution of the watery  extract of opium, with the addition of a
little spirit to preserve it, would be a convenient substitute.
  10. TINCTURA OPII, L. E. D. [U. S.] ;  Tincture of Opium ;  Laudanum.—(Opium,
powdered, 311J;  Proof Spirit Oij; [Diluted Alcohol, U. S.]   Macerate for  seven
[fourteen, If. >S'.] days, and filter, L. [fr  S.J— The proportions used by the Dublin 
White Poppy:—Preparations op Opium.              1057
College are also ^iij of Opium, and Oij of Proof Spirit.  The Edinburgh College
directs—" Opium, sliced, ^iij ;  Rectified  Spirit Oj  and  f^vij ;  Water  f^xiiiss.
Digest the opium in the water at a temperature  near 212° for two hours; break
down the opium with the hand; strain  and express the infusion;  macerate the
residuum  in the rectified spirit for about twenty hours, and then strain and express
very strongly.   Mix the watery and spirituous infusions, and filter.—This tincture
is not easily obtained by the  process of percolation; but when  the opium is of fine
quality, it may be prepared thus: Slice the  opium finely;  mix  the  spirit and
water; let the  opium  macerate in fourteen fluidounces  of the mixture  for twelve
hour3, and then break it down thoroughly with the  hand; pour the whole pulpy
mass and  fluid into a percolator, and let the fluid part pass through, and  the rest
of the spirit without packing the opium in the  cylinder, and continue the process
of percolation till two  pints  are  obtained," E.)—The  percolation  process of the
Edinburgh College is  unnecessary and troublesome, and will, I suspect, be rarely,
if ever, adopted by laudanum preparers.   Tincture of opium is of a deep brownish-
red colour, with the  peculiar odour and taste of opium.   Its  sp.  gr., according to
Mr. Phillips,1 is 0.952.   Nineteen minims of it contain about  one grain of opium.
Proof  spirit dissolves the same constituents as water, but it  takes up a  large pro-
portion of narcotina, resin, and oil.  I have repeatedly prepared morphia from the
insoluble  residue left behind  in the preparation  of the tincture.
   [Some  difference of opinion exists respecting the real strength of the Tincture of
Opium of the Pharmacopoeias.  In the translation of the last edition of the London
Pharmacopoeia,* Mr. Phillips states that  nineteen minims contain, or are equiva-
lent to, one grain  of solid opium, and  he describes the ordinary dose as from ten to
sixty minims.   Mr. Squire, in his translation of  the  three Pharmacopoeias,  states
that the tincture of opium is of the same strength in all, and that " one grain of
powdered opium is employed to  produce  thirteen minims of  the  tincture."  Dr.
Christison says : "The Tinctura Opii, commonly called laudanum, is made by all
the Colleges with such proportions of the opium and spirit, that about  thirteen
minims and a half, or about twenty-five drops, contain the active part of one grain
of opium.  But the  London tincture may be sometimes sixteen per cent, stronger
than the others, as dry opium is directed to be used.   The tincture of the shops is
very often adulterated.   Good tincture should leave, when thoroughly dried  up in
the vapour-bath, from seventeen to twenty-two grains of  residuum  for every fluid-
ounce; but I have several times found it so low as ten or seven only."  The dose,
according to Dr. Christison, is from fifteen to forty-five minims.
   This question has  been recently examined by Dr.  Garrod, with results differing
from those stuted in the text.  Dr. Garrod did  not find that the  undissolved por-
tion, after maceration for the tincture, yielded any morphia.   It yielded an abund-
ance  of  narcotine and meconic acid.    The residue, given  internally,  in  doses
varying from one to thirty grains, was found  to be quite  inert.   Should  traces of
morphia be left after the  ordinary process  of preparing the tincture of the  London
College, Dr. Garrod does not believe that  this would  make any appreciable differ-
ence in the strength  of  the  preparation.   He  considers " that the  Tinctura Opii
contains the active matter of  the whole of the drug used in its formation;  and there-
fore about twelve minims of tincture of opium  possesses all the activity of one grain
of crude  opium, assuming that it loses only twelve  per cent, in  the drying.  If
dry opium is taken for comparison, one grain is contained  in about thirteen and  a
half minims;  and therefore one  fluidrachm  of tinctura opii  contains five  grains
of the drug, or four and a half grains (according as it is compared with dry or moist
opium), in place of three grains."
   " In the Edinburgh preparation, the  amount of tincture containing  a grain of
opium is about thirteen and a half minims ; for the opium is ordered  in the  same
proportion, but not previously reduced to powder or dried.   In  the Dublin pre-

    1 Transl. of the Pharm
       vol. ii.—67
3 Pharm. Lond. 1851. 
1058            VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Papaverace/e.
 paration the opium is ordered to be  coarsely powdered, but Avoirdupois weight is
 used in place of Apothecaries',  which makes the strength of the tincture such that
 twelve minims and three-quarters contain one grain of opium. i
   It follows from  this statement, that when  tincture of opium  is properly made,
 and the directions of the London Pharmacopoeia are strictly carried out, the strength
 of the tincture is  much greater than it has been  hitherto  supposed  to  be.   One
 fluidrachm will represent a dose of five grains, instead of three grains of  opium, as
 stated by Mr.  Phillips.  The purity of the opium,  its comparative strength in mor-
 phia, the  strength of the  spirit used as a  solvent, and the period of maceration,
 will, however, materially affect the result.  According to our observation, the state-
 ment of Dr. Christison, that the quantity of soluble matter taken up is  subject to
 great variation, is correct;  and unless it be assumed that the morphia is constantly
 in the same proportion in every sample of opium,  and that the whole of the mor-
 phia is invariably taken up by the  proof spirit, the tincture must necessarily vary
 in its strength.  A practical solution of this question would be obtained by observ-
 ing whether the effects of a grain of opium are really obtained by the administra-
 tion of twelve or thirteen minims of an average tincture.—Ed.]
   Tincture of opium is a powerful and valuable anodyne and soporific.   Its employ-
 ment is to be preferred to that of solid opium where a more immediate effect is
 required.   Moreover, in administering opiates to children, the facility of adjusting
 small doses of it presents a great advantage over solid opium.   The dose of it, like
 that of solid  opium, must vary according to  several circumstances.   For an adult
 it varies from "Ix to f3J.   To children it must be  given with the greatest caution.
 I have seen a  powerful effect produced  in an infant by one drop.   In infants ex-
 hausted by illness and of a delicate constitution, one minim might cause death.
   [11. TINCTURA OPII ACETATA, U. S.   Acetated  Tincture  of Opium.—(Take  of
 Opium  two ounces;  Vinegar twelve fluidounces;  Alcohol  half  a  pint.   Rub the
 opium with the vinegar;  then add  the alcohol, and, having  macerated for .fourteen
 days, express,  and filter through paper.)—This preparation  was introduced into the
 pharmacopoeia as a substitute for Black Drop.   The dose is  "Ix.

   12. TINCTURA OPII CAMPHORATA, U. S.   Camphorated Tincture of Opium.  Pare-
 goric Elixir.—(The formula for this preparation of the British Colleges has been
 given at  page  404, under the name of Tinctura Camphorse Composita.  That of
 the U. S. Pharm.  is Opium, in  powder, Benzoic Acid, each a drachm; Oil  of
 Anise a fluidrachm; Clarified  Honey two  ounces; Camphor two scruples;  Di-
 luted  Alcohol  two pints.  Macerate for fourteen  days, and filter  through  paper.
 About two grains of opium are contained in the ounce.   For its uses  see p. 405.)]
   13. ENEMA  OPII, L.; Enema Opii vel Anodynum, E.;   Opium  Clyster__(De-
 coction  of Starch  fgiv;  Tincture  of Opium  nixxx.   Mix, L.— The Edinburgh
 College uses 3ss of Starch ; f3ss to f£j of Tincture of Opium; and fgij  of Water.
 The starch is boiled in the water, and the tincture added when the mucilage  is  cool
 enough for use.)—The formula  of the London  College is, in my opinion  to be pre-
 ferred to  that of the Edinburgh  College;  but it  maybe  sometimes necessary to
 double or treble the quantity of tincture employed.  In  the passage of renal cal-
 culi m nephritis irritation or inflammation of the  bladder, uterus, or prostate gland,
 in dysentery, and painful affections of the large intestine, the opium clyster  is most
valuable.                                                         J

   14. LINIMENTUM  OPII, L. E.; Linimentum  Opii vel Linimentum Anodynum, D.;
 Linonent of  Opium.-(SoaV Liniment f^vj ; Tincture of  Opium fgij [of each
fjj, D]   Mix, ^-Castile Soap gvj;  Opium giss;  Camphor giij;  Oil of Rose-
mary f5xj; Rectified Spirit Oy    Macerate the soap and opium in  the spirit for
three days; filter, add the oil and camphor, and agitate briskly, E.)—Emploved as
an anodyne in rheumatism, neuralgic pains, sprains  &c.
i See Pharm. Journ. for 1851, p. 250. 
WniTE Poppy:—Preparations of Opium.             1059
   15. VINUM  OPII, L. E.  D.,  U. S.;  Laudanum Liquidum Sydenhami,  Ph. L.
1720;  Tinctura Thebaica, Ph. L. 1745;  Wine of  Opium.—(Opium giij, E. D.)
[Extract of Opium giiss,  L. (|ij, fr £.)]; Cinnamon, bruised; Cloves, bruised,vof
each 3iiss [3J, U. £.]; Sherry Wine Oij ; [Wine Oj, fr #.]  Macerate for seven,
[fourteen, D. (fr £.)] days, and filter.—The Dublin College omits the spices.  Its
effects are  similar to those of the  tincture of opium, but its taste and  smell are
more agreeable.  It was  recommended by Mr. Ware1 as an application  to  the eye
in ophthalmia;  and experience has fully proved  its efficacy where  there is much
scalding pain, lachrymation, and intolerance of light.  When first applied, it causes
a sharp pain  and a copious flow of tears, but these effects soon subside, and are fol-
lowed by a considerable abatement of the former sufferings.—For internal use, the
dose is gtt. x  to f3J.

   16. TINCTURA OPII AMMONIATA, E.;  Ammoniated Tincture of Opium—(Benzoic
Acid and  Saffron, chopped, 3vj of each; Opium,  sliced, gss;  Oil of  Anise 3j;
Spirit of Ammonia Oij.   Digest for seven days, and  filter.)—Employed as a power-
ful diffusible  stimulant and antispasmodic in  hooping-cough  and  other spasmodic
affections.  Each drachm and a quarter contains about a grain  of opium.—Dose,
f3ss to f3J.

   17. ACETUM  OPII, E.  D. (U. S.);  Vinegar  of Opium.—(Oomm  |iv; Distilled
Vinegar fgxvj.   "Cut the opium into small fragments, triturate  it into a pulp with
a little of the vinegar, add  the rest of  the vinegar,  macerate in  a closed vessel for
seven days, and agitate occasionally.   Then strain and  express strongly, and filter
the liquors," E.—The Dublin College uses one ounce and a half of Opium to one
pint of Dilute Acetic  Acid;  macerates for seven days in a close vessel, with occa-
sional agitation; strains, expresses, and filters.)—Vinegar dissolves all the  principles
of opium soluble in water, and is better adapted for  holding in solution the narco-
tina and the resinous matter of opium.  It cannot,  of course, effect any change in
the sulphate  of morphia contained  in opium.   Whether any acetate of morphia  is
formed at the expense of the meconate of morphia has not been satisfactorily proved.
The  effects of vinegar of opium do  not appear to be precisely those of ordinary
opium.  It is believed  to possess the anodyne, sedative, and soporific qualities of
opium, without being apt to excite the disagreeable effects (nausea, headache, con-
stipation, and general disorder of system), which sometimes result from the ordinary
preparation of this drug.   Hill8 says that Le Mort observed a very odd effect from
this preparation, " which  was, that it often brought on suppressions of urine."  Dr.
Montgomery3 has seen one instance of this effect; and Dr. Thomas Beattie4 has re-
marked the same result from the Black Drop.   This  paralyzing effect on the  bladder
is doubtless referable to the  morphia, which seems to  acquire, in this preparation, in-
creased activity.  Vinegar of opium is employed as an anodyne, sedative,  aud sopo-
rific.   Dr.  Montgomery observes that he has found this  preparation of  opium de-
cidedly superior to every other in relieving the agony of cancer uteri, and procuring
rest at night."   The  same authority states  that twenty drops  are  equivalent to
thirty of the  common tincture of opium.—Dose, gtt. vj to gtt. xxx.
   [The U. S. Pharmacopoeia directs Black Drop (Acetum Opii,  U. S.) to be pre-
pared as follows :  Take Opium, in coarse powder, eight ounces; Nutmeg, in coarse
powder, an ounce  and a half; Saffron half an ounce; Sugar  twelve ounces; Dis-
tilled Vinegar a sufficient quantity.   Digest  the Opium, Nutmeg, and Saffron with
a pint and a half of Distilled Vinegar, on a sand-bath, with a gentle heat, for forty-
eight hours, and strain.  Digest the  residue with  an equal quantity of Distilled
Vinegar in the same manner  for twenty-four hours.  Then put the whole into  a
percolator, and pass and  repass until the  liquid is  clear.   When filtration ceases,
pour on Distilled Vinegar to make three pints.  Lastly, add the Sugar by means of
a water-bath,  evaporate to three pints and four fluidounces.—Dose,  itlx.]
i Remarks on Ophthalmy, p. 20, 1780.                    a Hist, of the Mat. Med. p. 784, 1751.
* Observ. on the Dubl. Pharm. p. 451, 1830.                 « Dubl. Hosp. Rep. vol. v. p. 185. 
1060             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Papaveraceje.

  Black Drop.__Acetum Opii may be regarded as the officinal substitute for a celebrated quack
medicine called  the  Black Drop, or The Lancaster or Quaker's Black Drop, the method of pre-
paring which has been described by the late Dr. Armstrong.  In this preparation, verjuice (juice
of the wild crab) is employed instead of vinegar.   But there are several sources of uncertainty
in the process.
  Dr. Porter's solution of opium in citric acid has never come into general use.

  18. UNGUENTUM GALLA  COMPOSITUM.   (See Index.)

  19. TINCTURA  CAMPHORS COMPOSITA.   (See Index.)

  20. PILULE STYRACIS COMPOSITE.   (See Index.)

  21. PULVIS  IPECACUANHA COMPOSITUS.  (See Index.)

  22. PILULA IPECACUANHA  COMPOSITA.  (See Index.)

  It PCLTIS KINO  COMPOSITUS.   (See Index.)

  U. ELECTIARIUM CATECHU.  (See Index.)


                             c. Morphia and its Preparations.

  1. MORPHIA,  D.;  Morphina, Morphine, Morphium.—So  called  from  Morpheus,
the  god  of  sleep.   Wedelius, Fr. Hoffman, and  Neumann, speak of a  crystalline
salt  obtained  from  a solution of opium;  but they formed no correct notion of  its
nature.   The magistery of opium, noticed by Ludwig, in 1688, may, perhaps, have
been morphia.
   Morphia is peculiar to the poppy tribe.   It exists in opium  in combination with
meconic  and sulphuric acids.   Doubts, indeed, have  been  expressed with respect
to its independent existence in opium, some  chemists having suggested that it was
a product rather than an educt;  but it is now satisfactorily proved  that there are
no grounds for the supposition that it is a product.
   [The Dublin College alone now admits morphia amongst its pharmaceutical pre-
parations.  The directions for preparing it are as follows:—
  Take of Turkey Opium, cut into thin slices, Ibj; Distilled Water Ovj ;  Chloride of Calcium
^vj ; Prepared Animal Charcoal as much as is sufiicient.  Macerate the opium for twenty-four
hours with a quart of the water, and decant.  Macerate the residuum for twelve hours with a
second quart of the water, decant, and repeat this process with the rest of the water, subjecting
the insoluble residuum to strong expression.  Let the decanted solutions  and expressed liquor
be evaporated by a steam or wsterhent to the bulk of one pint, and then passed through a
calico filter.   Pour in now tbe chloride of calcium, first dissolved  in  four ounces of distilled
water, and then  proceed with the evaporation until the solution is so far concentrated that, upon
cooling, nearly the whole of it  becomes solid.  Let this solid matter be enveloped in a couple
of folds of strong calico, and  subjected to powerful pressure,  the  dark  liquid  which  exudes
 being reserved for subsequent use.  The squeezed cake is now to be acted upon with about
 half a pint of boiling water,  and the whole being thrown upon  a  paper filter, the precipitate
 must be well  washed.  The  filtered solution  having been  evaporated as  before,  cooled and
 solidified, the  residue is to be again subjected to expression.  If the product be not quite white,
 this process should  be  repeated a  third  time, the liquid forced out during expression being
 always preserved.  Let the  squeezed cake be dissolved in six  ounces of boiling water, and,  if
 necessary, cleared by filtration through prepared animal charcoal, the  portion of it soaked by
 the  filter being carefully washed out of it; and to the solution thus obtained let water of  am-
 monia be added, in slight excess, and let  the crystalline  precipitate, which forms  when the
 liquor has cooled, be collected on a paper filter, and washed with cold  distilled water until the
 washings cease to give a precipitate upon being dropped into an acid solution of nitrate of silver.
 Lastly, let the filter be transferred to a porous brick, in order that the morphia it contains may
 become dry.
   The liquids separated by expression from the muriate of morphia in the preceding process,
 having been diluted with water, so as to occupy the bulk of four ounces, and then supersaturated
 slightly with ammonia, let the precipitate which forms be collected, after  the lapse of six hours,
 on a filter, and washed  with  a little  cold water.   This, if redissolved in dilute muriatic acid,
 boiled with a little animal charcoal, and filtered, will, upon cooling, afford a crystalline deposit,
 from which, when pressed, dissolved in water, and supersaturated with ammonia, an additional
 quantity of morphia  will be  procured.—Ed.] 
                  White Poppy:—Preparations op Morphia.             1061

  The following directions for preparing morphia were given in the former London
Pharmacopoeia.   No directions are given in that for 1851.
  Take of Hydrochlorate of Morphia ^j; Solution of Ammonia £v; Distilled Water Oj.   Add
the  Hydrochlorate of Morphia, first dissolved  in a pint of water, to the solution of Ammonia
with an ounce of water, shaking them  together.   What is thrown down wash with distilled
water, and dry it with a gentle heat.
  [The U. S. Pharmacopana adopts a method  recommended several  years ago by Dr.  Staples,
of Philadelphia.   The formula is:   Take of Opium, sliced, a pound ; Distilled  Water, Alcohol,
each a sufficient quantity;  Solution  of  Ammonia six fluidounces. The Opium  is to be mace-
rated and worked with the water;  the infusion  evaporated to six pints and filtered; then five
pints of  Alcohol are to  be added, and three fluidounces of Solution of Ammonia mixed  with
half a pint of Alcohol.   Twenty-four hours afterwards the remainder of the Ammonia  and the
same quantity of Alcoliol are  to be added.   By rest the crystals deposit.   The  Alcohol serves
the purpose of suspending the colouring principles of the Opium, and renders the crystals purer.
To purify them they may be dissolved in hot  alcohol, and filtered through animal charcoal.]
   In this process the ammonia unites with the  hydrochloric acid, and the morphia
being set free is precipitated.
   Pure  morphia  presents itself  under  the form  of transparent  crystals,  whose
primary form is  the right  rhombic  prism.   On turmeric paper, as well as on red-
dened litmus paper, morphia has  an  alkaline  reaction.   Notwithstanding that it is
insoluble, or nearly so, in cold water, it  has a  distinctly bitter  taste.  Boiling water
dissolves a little more than one-hundredth part of morphia.  It dissolves in 40 parts
of  cold  anhydrous alcohol, and 30 parts of  boiling alcohol; but it is insoluble, or
nearly so,  in ether.   It is soluble  in  the  oils  (fixed and volatile), in solutions  of
potash and soda, and also, but in much  smaller quantity, in solution of ammonia;
lastly,  it  readily dissolves in  sulphuric,  hydrochloric, and acetic acids.   When
heated,  the crystals lose their transparency and  water of crystallization ; a strong
heat causes  them to  enter into  fusion, in  which state they form a  yellow liquid
similar  to  melted sulphur, and which becomes  white  and  crystalline on cooling.
Heated in the open air, it  burns like  resin, and leaves a carbonaceous residuum.
    The following are the chief characteristics of morphia:—
   1. Nitric acid  reddens morphia or its salts (the chlorate excepted, according  to Dumas), and
forms with them an orange-red solution, which  is much darkened by excess of ammonia, and
 which becomes  yellow after a little time.  By the prolonged digestion of morphia in nitric acid,
we obtain oxalic acid.—Fallacies.  Nitric acid produces a red colour with several other bodies,
 as  brucia, commercial strychnia, several volatile oils  (as oil of pimento and oil  of cloves)  some
 resinous substances, infusion of cloves or of pimento, &c.
   2. Iodic acid is  deoxidized  by morphia, iodine being set free.  Hence, when this alkali is
 added to a solution of iodic acid, the liquor becomes reddish-brown, and forms a blue compound
 (iodide of starch) with starch.  Fallacies.—Sulphuretted Jiydrogen, sulphurous acid, phosporous
 acid, sulphocyanide of potassium, sulphosinapisin, and some other agents, have a similar  effect
 on iodic  acid.
   3. Neutral sesquichloride of iron dropped on crystals of morphia renders them  blue.  The
 same effect is produced on solution of salts of morphia when concentrated.  The nature of the
 blue compound is  not perfectly understood.  Possibly part of the morphia is oxidized, and the
 compound thus produced  unites with some oxide of  iron (morphite of iron).  If  water in excess,
 or  acids, or alkalies, be added to the blue compound,  the colour is destroyed.—Fallacies. Tannic
 and gallic acids  with a little  water, and infusion of  cloves or of pimento, also  form blue com-
 pounds with sesquichloride of iron.
   4. The alkaline  carbonates  occasion a white precipitate (carbonate of morphia) in solutions of
 the soluble morphitic salts.
   5. Solution of ammonia precipitates  morphia from  its solution  in  acids.  A considerable
 excess of ammonia redissolves the precipitate.  In very dilute  solutions, ammonia occasions no
 precipitate until heat be applied to drive off the excess of alkali.
   G. Infusion of nutgalls, or a solution of tannic acid, causes a precipitate (tannate of morphia) in
 neutral solutions of the morphitic salts.  The  precipitate is soluble in acetic acid.
   7. An alcoholic  solution of carbazotic acid causes no precipitate  in an alcoholic solution of
 morphia.
   8. If a solution  of chlorine be  mixed  with a  solution of morphia, or  its  salts, and then am-
 monia added, a  dark brown colour is developed.
   [9. If  to a mixture of morphia  and concentrated  sulphuric acid a drop of bichromate of
 potash be added, green oxide of chrome is set free.—En]
    10. A very sensitive  test of the presence of morphia or its salts  in solution is, to add a 
1062
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Papaverace^e.
drop or two of chloride of gold; a yellow precipitate falls, which on  shaking is taken up; and
if a drop of Liq. Potassa be now added, it assumes various hues (according to the manipulation)
first greenish, then bluish, then violet, and finally purple.  The presence of morphia  may be
detected in a dilute coloured  solution  of opium, by simply dropping  in  the gold and  potash
without disturbing them ; in the course of a few seconds, by placing a piece of  white paper at
the back of the vessel, purple clouds or streaks will be distinctly seen following  the gold as it
falls; the gold, in each instance, yields  up its chlorine and is reduced ; sometimes a blue black
precipitate (oxide) is formed, varying according to the strength of the solution operated on.
   The composition of morphia is,  according to Regnault,1 as  follows:—
Carl>on  .
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Oxygen .

Morphia
Atoms.
.  35
.  20
   1
Eq.Wt.
 210
  20
  14
  43

 292
Per.Cent.
  71.91
  6.a5
  4.SO
  16.44
100.00
             Atoms.   Eq.Wt.   PerCent.
Morphia..... 1      292      94.2
Water......2       18       5.8
Cryst. Morph. . .  1      310     100.00
.+
Formula C^H^NO6 : Symbol M.
   The morphitic salts are, for the  most part, crystallizable.  When pure, they are
colourless.  They have  a bitter  taste.
   The following characters  of the  acetate and  hydrochlorate of morphia are given
in the London Pharmacopoeia for  1851.
  Acetate of Morphia  (Sal ex Opio  prppparatus Crystalli).—Soluble in  water  and in rectified
spirit, and, when the spirit is distilled from  it, yields crystals, which are totally destroyed by
heat.  On the addition of Nitric acid, morphia becomes first red, and afterwards yellow.  Tinc-
ture of sesquichloride of iron gives it a blue colour. Chlorine and [afterwards] ammonia being
added to its salts, they are rendered  of a brown colour, which is destroyed when more chlorine
is added.  Morphia is precipitated from its salts by solution of potash, which, added in  excess,
redissolves it.
   [Adulterations.—Morphia is  found contaminated with  narcotina, codeia, and
the colouring  or resinoid matter of  opium.  Narcotina is  best distinguished by the
action of  solution of caustic potash, which dissolves morphia but does not  act  on
narcotina or codeia.   Ether may be substituted, as this  scarcely dissolves morphia,
whereas it dissolves codeia and  narcotina.   The colouring or resinoid matter is de-
tected by the  colour of the morphia.   If ammonia be  added to a solution of hydro-
chlorate of morphia and codeia, the morphia is precipitated and  the codeia left in
solution.   It  is obvious that the process adopted by the Edinburgh College  yields
muriate of morphia contaminated with codeia.—Ed.]
   The precise relation which the effects of morphia and  its  salts  bear to those of
opium, is a point on which  the  profession is by no means agreed.   Some  recent
writers3 declare that, after having carefully compared the effects of the morphia salts
with  those of opium, they can discover  no  difference between them;  but my own
limited observation  of the effects of these salts induces me to agree with those who
admit the similarity, but not the  identity, of the effects of these substances.  Charvet8
could observe no difference between them  in their action on  the invertebrata.  But
on the higher classes of the vertebrata there were obvious differences.   The  effects
of morphia on man  are  in several respects different  from those  of opium, but they
appear to want uniformity; that is, the same results have not been  arrived at by
different experimenters.  This may in some cases at least be ascribed to the employ-
ment of morphia contaminated  with some  other  principles  of opium.   In  small
doses,  as from a  quarter of a grain  to one  grain, acetate of morphia causes a feeling
of distension  or fulness about  the  head,  some  disturbance of  vision oftentimes
headache, giddiness and  somnolency, or actual sleep, which, however  differs from
ordinary sleep, and  is often more or less disturbed.   The  pupils are  usually con-
tracted.   Orfila  says  this  occurs  in nineteen  out  of twenty cases.   However in
some instances dilatation has been  observed, and in others the pupil  was natural.
The pulse  is generally slow and  small, though sometimes  it  is more frequent, and

  1 Pharmaceutisches Central-Blatt fUr 1S38, S. 486.
  2 Trousseau and Pidoux, Traiti de Thirap. i. 161,1836.
De VAction Comp. de VOpium, 1826. 
                White Poppy :—Preparations op Morphia.            1063

occasionally is soft and full.   Itching of the skin  is  frequently noticed, or  even a
cutaneous eruption is by no means uncommon.  Grain doses readily excite gastric
uneasiness, nausea, and vomiting. One remarkable symptom often caused by acetate
of morphia, especially in men, is a difficulty in voiding  the  urine, and which ap-
pears to depend on a weakened or paralytic condition of the bladder.   Bally1 lays
great stress on this  last-mentioned  symptom, especially when  a full dose of mor-
phia has been taken.  When  these effects subside, loss of appetite, muscular feeble-
ness, and constipation  are  left behind.  WThen the dose is  increased, the  effects
become somewhat  alarming.   Great cerebral excitement is  produced, vision is  dis-
ordered and obscured, there is singing in the ears, and the patient, when lying hori-
zontally, experiences sudden  convulsive  movements, like  those produced  by the
electric shock.   When  a  fatal dose has  been swallowed, the stomach sometimes
manifests irritation,  but this is soon followed by great disorder of the cerebro-spinal
Bystem, which  ultimately assumes an apoplectic  character.   The  sight  becomes
dim, excessive weakness is experienced, gradually all consciousness is lost, and coma
supervenes, attended usually with contracted, though sometimes with dilated pupils,
coldness of the surface,  frequent and small pulse, hurried stertorous respiration, and
occasionally  with  convulsions.  Before insensibility comes on, as well as when it is
subsiding, there is itching of  the skin.   Difficulty in passing the water is also ex-
perienced, in consequence of  the paralyzed state of the bladder. Not unfrequently,
lividity of skin is observed.
   The effects of morphia and its salts appear to be identical in their nature.  The
soluble salts  (as the hydrochlorates) are more constant and certain in their opera-
tion than uncombined morphia, in consequence, probably, of the difficult solubility
of the latter.
   In comparing the morphitic salts with  opium, we observe  that they are  less
stimulant, and less disposed to cause sweating, constipation, headache, and dryness
of the tongue.  The feelings  which they excite are less agreeable, and hence they
are not adapted to be substituted for opium  by the eaters of this drug.  They more
readily affect the bladder than opium.
   Uses.—We employ morphia, or its salts, in  preference to opium, when our object
is to make applications  to the denuded dermis (endermic medication).  They are
employed in  this way for the  purpose of alleviating violent neuralgic pains, and  to
relieve the excessive endermic operation of strychnia.  Gastrodynia and obstinate
vomiting  are sometimes relieved by the endermic application  of morphia  to the
epigastrium ; and violent headache by the application of this remedy to the temples.
Occasionally, this  mode of administration is adopted when we wish to bring the
general system under the  calming and  sedative influence  of morphia, and where
from some cause its  exhibition  by the mouth is objectionable.   Some cases  of
maniacal delirium may  be treated with advantage this way.
   The  morphia salts  are given internally in cases  where  we wish to obtain the
anodyne, soothing, sedative, soporific, and antispasmodic qualities  of  opium,  and
where this drug is objectionable on account of its tendency  to excite certain injuri-
ous  effects already referred to.  In all cases  where  both opium  and the morphia
salts arc equally admissible, I prefer the former, its effects being better known and
regulated; moreover, opium is to be preferred as a stimulant and  sudorific, and for
suppressing excessive mucous discharges.
   Administration.—The salts are given internally, in  a substance or solution, in
doses of from one-eighth to one-fourth of a grain, or beyond this.   I have given  in
insanity two  grains of muriate of morphia at a dose.  For  endermic use  they are
to be finely powdered, and applied to the extent of a grain  or a grain and a half at
a time.
   2.  MORPHINE ACETAS, L.  E. D.  [U. S.]; Acetate  of  Morphia .—This  salt  was
formerly directed  to be prepared by the London College as follows:—
1 MCm. de VAcad. Roy. de Mid. i. 99, 
1064            VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Papaverace^e.
  Take of Morphia 3vj;  Acetic Acid  f^iij; Distilled Water fgiv.  Mix the  Acid with the
water, and pour them upon the morphia to saturation.  Let the liquor evaporate with a gentle
heat, that crystals may be  formed.
  In this  process, the acetic acid saturates the  morphia, and the solution by eva-
poration yields crystallized acetate of morphia.
  The following are the directions of the Edinburgh  College :—
  " Take of muriate of morphia any convenient  quantity.  Dissolve  it in fourteen times its
weight of warm water, and, when the solution is cool, add aqua ammonite gradually, and with
constant agitation, until there is a permanent but faint odour of ammonia in the fluid.  Collect
the precipitate on a calico filter, wash it  moderately with cold water, and dissolve it by means
of a  slight  excess of pyroligneous acid,sin twelve parts of warm  water for every part of mu-
riate of morphia that was used.   Concentrate the solution  over the vapour-bath, and set aside
to crystallize.  Drain and squeeze the crystals, and dry them with  a gentle heat.  More acetate
of morphia may be obtained on concentrating the mother liquor."
  In this  process, the ammonia decomposes  the muriate of morphia, and the pre-
cipitated morphia is afterwards dissolved in  diluted pyroligneous (acetic) acid.   In
the Pharmacopoeia of the Dublin College the following process is given :—
  " Take of Morphia, in fine powder, gj; Rectified  Spirit  ^viij; Acetic Acid of commerce
(sp. gr. 10.44) f^ivss, or as much as is sufficient.   Pour the spirit on the morphia, and, apply-
ing heat, gradually add the acetic acid until a neutral  or slightly acid solution is obtained.  Let
this be evaporated to the consistence of  syrup by a steam  or water heat, and then set by for a
few days until it solidifies.  In operations on the great scale, it will be worth while to remove
the spirit by distillation."
  [Morphia  (freed from  Narcotina) §j; Distilled  Water  Oss; Acetic Acid, a suf-
ficient quantity,  U. S.   Proceed as directed by L.  P.~\
  Acetate of morphia is usually prepared by evaporating its solution to  dryness by
a gentle heat.   Obtained in  this way, it is amorphous.   It is  difficult to  obtain  it
pure, as it readily undergoes decomposition,  when its solution is evaporated, and  is
converted into  a mixture of morphia, neutral acetate,  and the superacetate  of
morphia.  Hence, as met with  in  commerce, it is  imperfectly soluble  in  water,
unless a few drops of acetic acid be added.   It  is usually slightly coloured.   Its
crystals, when pure, are colourless and radiating.  The following is the composition
of  this salt :—
                                    Atoms.     Eq.Wt.       PerCent.
                    Morphia........ 1         292           82.95
                    Acetic acid......1          51           14.5
                    Water......... 1           9           2.55
                    Acetate of Morphia   . 1         352          100.00
   Crystallized acetate of morphia is
  Very readily dissolved in water.   Its  other properties are such as have been stated of mor-
phia, Ph. L.
   It is less soluble in alcohol than in water.
   The Edinburgh  College  gives  the  following  characters of the purity  of this
salt:—
  One hundred measures  of a solution  of ten grains in half a fluidounce of water and five
minims of acetic  acid, heated to 212°, and decomposed by  a  faint excess of ammonia, yields by
agitation a precipitate which, in twenty-four hours, occupies  15 5 measures of the liquid.
   The dose of  this and the  other morphitic salts has been already mentioned.

   [3. LIQUOR 3I0RPHLE ACETATIS, L.;  Morphise Acetatis  Liquor, D.—(Solution of
Acetate of Morphia.   Take of Acetate of  Morphia  ^iv;  Acetic Acid  n\,xv;  Dis-
tilled Water Oj; Proof Spirit Oss.   Mix and  dissolve, L.   The dose of this solu-
tion is from nivj totrLxv.)—[Take of Acetate of Morphia eighty-two grains; Rectified
Spirit  five fluidounces;  Distilled Water fifteen ounces.   Having added  the spirit
to the water, dissolve the acetate of morphia in the  mixture;  and, if the solution
is not quite clear, pass it through a paper filter.—D.]

   4- 3I0RPHLE  HYDROCHLORAS, L.;  Morphise Marias, E. D. [U. S.]; Hydrochlorate
or  Muriate of  Morphia.—In the last London  Pharmacopoeia this salt  is placed in 
White Poppy:—Preparations of Morphia.              1065
the  Materia Medica as Sal ex  opio preparatus Crystalli.   In the former edition,
it was directed to be prepared as follows:—
  Take of opium, sliced, lb. j ; Crystals of  Chloride of Lead 3*ij. or as much as maybe suffi-
cient; Purified Ajiimal Charcoal 3"iiiss; Hydrochloric  Acid; Distilled Water; Solution of Am-
monia, each as much as may be sufficient.   Macerate the opium in four pints of distilled water
for thirty hours, and  bruise it; afterwards digest for twenty hours more, and press it.   Mace-
rate what remains again, and  a third time, in water, that it may become free from taste, and as
often bruise and  press it.   Evaporate the mixed liquors, with a heat of  140°, to the consistence
of a syrup.  Then add  three pints of distilled water, and,  when all the impurities  have sub-
sided, pour off the supernatant liquor.   Gradually add to this two ounces of chloride of  lead, or
as much  as may be  sufficient, first dissolved in four pints of boiling distilled water, till  nothing
farther is precipitated.  Pour off the  liquor,  and wash what remains frequently with  distilled
water.  Then evaporate the mixed liquors as before, with  a gentle heat, that crystals may be
formed.  Press these in a cloth, then dissolve them in  a pint of distilled water, and digest, with
an ounce and a half of animal charcoal, in a heat of 120°, and strain.  Finally, the charcoal
being washed, evaporate the  liquors  cautiously, that  pure  crystals  may be produced.  To  the
liquor  poured off from the  crystals first separated, previously mixed  with a pint  of water,
gradually drop  in as much solution of ammonia, frequently shaking it, as may be sufficient to
precipitate all the morphia.   To this, washed with distilled water, add hydrochloric acid, that
it may be saturated; afterwards digest it  with two  ounces of animal  charcoal, and strain.
Lastly, the animal charcoal being thoroughly washed, evaporate the liquors cautiously, that pure
crystals may be produced.
   Water extracts from  opium the  meconate  and sulphate of morphia and codeia ;
a part of the narcotina,  of  the meconine, of the  narceine, and  of the thebaine;
the  brown  acid extractive; and a part of the resin,  aud of fat oil.   When chloride
of lead  is added to infusion of opium,  meconate, with a little sulphate of  lead, and
some  resinous colouring matter, are precipitated, while  the hydrochlorates of mor-
phia and of codeia are  left in solution.   A solution of the impure crystals  is then
decomposed by ammonia,  by  which the morphia is precipitated, while codeia and
hydrochlorate  of ammonia are left  in solution.   The morphia is dissolved  in  hydro-
chloric  acid, and  the solution of the hydrochlorate decolorized by charcoal.
   The Edinburgh College follows  Gregory's  process.   Their directions for prepar-
ing  this salt are as follows :—
   "Take of Opium gxx; Water  Oviij ; Muriate  of  Lime gj,  or  a  slight excess.—Macerate
the opium in fragments for twenty four hours in two pints  of water, and separate the infusion,
 squeezing well the  residue.  Repeat the maceration  successively with two pints more of  the
 water till the whole is made use of.   Concentrate the whole infusion over the vapour-bath to
one  pint, and  add the muriate of lime dissolved in four fluidounces of water.  Set  the whole
 aside to  settle; pour off the liquid;  wash the sediment with a little water, adding the washings
 to the liquid.  Evaporate  the  liquid  sufficiently in the vapour-bath for it to solidify on  cooling.
 Subject the cooled mass to a very strong pressure in a cloth ; redissolve the cake in a sufficiency
of warm distilled water; add a little powder of white marble, and filter; acidulate the filtered
 liquor with a very  little muriatic acid; and concentrate a second time in  the  vapour  bath for
crystallization.   Subject  the  crystals a»ain to  very strong pressure  in a cloth.  Repeat  the
 process of solution, clarification by marble and muriatic acid, concentration and crystallization,
 until a snow-white  mass be obtained.
   "On the small scale, trouble  and loss are saved  by decolorizing the  solution of  muriate
of morphia by means of a little purified  animal  charcoal after two  crystallizations.   But on
 the large scale, it is better to purify the salt by repeated crystallizations alone, and to  treat all
 the expressed fluids, except the  first, in the same way with the original solution of impure mu-
 riate of morphia.  An additional  quantity of salt may often be got from the  first  dark  and re-
 sinous fluid obtained  by expression,  on merely allowing it to remain at rest for a few  months,
 when a  little muriate of morphia may  be deposited in an impure condition.
   " The  opium which yields the largest quantity of precipitate by carbonate of soda, according
 to the formula in p. 1034, yields muriate of morphia not only in the greatest proportions, but
likewise with the fewest crystallizations."
   Id this process,  the changes  are analogous to those before described  for the pro-
cess of  the London Pharmacopoeia, that meconate  and sulphate of lime, instead of
meconate and sulphate  of lead, are produced.
   The  Dublin College gives the following directions :—

   " Take of Morphia, in fine powder. Jj;  Pure Muriatic  Acid f£ivss, or a sufficient quantity;
Distilled Water 3 iiss. Mix the acid with the water;  heat to about 200°, and add the morphia, con- 
1066            VEGETABLES— Nat. Ord. Papaveraceje.
stantly stirring,so that a solution may be formed having a slightly acid reaction.  Set this to cool
for 12 hours, and let the crystals, which separate, be drained of the liquor  which  surrounds
them, and dried on  blotting-paper.  The decanted  liquor will,  by  farther  concentration and
cooling, give additional crystals."
   Another, and, as it is believed, a greatly improved  method of obtaining morphia
has been recently suggested by Mohr.1   It consists in adding, to a concentrated in-
fusion of opium, milk of  lime, prepared with a quantity of dry lime, equal to the
fourth part of  the  weight  of  the  opium.   The mixture is heated till it boils,  and is
filtered while hot through linen.   The filtered  liquor has  a light brown  yellow
colour.   While still hot, it  is mixed with pulverized  sal ammoniac in excess; the
lime is  saturated  by the muriatic  acid  of the sal  ammoniac, and  the ammonia of
the latter is set free, and the morphia  precipitated.   In  this way crystallized mor-
phia may be obtained without  the use of alcohol.
   Pure  hydrochlorate of  morphia  crystallizes in plumose, acicular  crystals.   It is
colourless, odourless,  bitter, soluble in from 16 to 20 parts of  cold water, but less
of  boiling water.   When its saturated boiling solution  is  allowed to cool, it con-
geals to form a crystalline mass.   It  is  soluble in alcohol.   By heat, it is decom-
posed and totally dissipated.   Nitric acid reddens  it.  Sesquichloride of iron with
an alkali colours it blue.
   The air-dried crystals are thus composed :—
                                          Atoms.       Eq.Wt.       PerCent.
           Morphia..................1          292           76.24
           Hydrochloric acid.............1           37          9.66
           Water....................6           54           14.10
           Crystallized  Hydrochlorate of Morphia  1          383          100.00

   According to the London  College, crystallized hydrochlorate of morphia should be
   Soluble in  water and in rectified spirit.   What is precipitated from the aqueous solution by
the nitrate of silver is not entirely dissolved either by ammonia, unless added in excess, nor by
hydrochloric  acid, nor by nitric acid.  It answers in other respects to what is  stated above of
the acetate of morphia.
   The  Edinburgh College gives the following characters  of its purity  :—
   "Snow white; entirely soluble ; solution colourless;  loss of weight at 212° not above 13 per
cent.; one hundred measures of a  solution of 10 grains in half a fluidounce of  water heated to
near 212°, and decomposed with agitation  by a faint excess of  ammonia, yield a precipitate
which, in twenty-four hours, occupies 12.5 measures of the liquid."
   On the above, I would  merely observe that Mr.  Sandall2 found that the quantity
of  water which this salt loses by drying varies from  9.20 to  14.33  per cent.   The
effects,  uses, and  doses of this,  as well  as the other morphitic  salts, have been
already  described.

   5. LIQUOR MORPHLE HYDROCIILORATIS, L-;  Morphise Muriatis Solutio, E.; Mor-
phise Muriatis Liquor, 1).;  Solution  of Muriate of Morphia.—(Take of Hydro-
chlorate of Morphia 5iv;  Distilled Water Oj ; Proof  Spirit Oss.  Mix and  dissolve,
L— Muriate  of Morphia Jiss;  Rectified Spirit fgv;  Distilled Water f^xv.   Mix
the spirit and  water, and  dissolve the muriate of morphia in the mixture  with the
aid of a gentle heat,  E. D.)—About one hundred and six minims of this solution
contain  one grain of muriate of morphia.—The  dose is from ^lx,  gradually in-
creased  to f3ss.

   6.  TROCHISCI MORPELl, E.  ;  Morphia Lozenges.—(Muriate of  Morphia  9j;
Tincture of  Tolu gss;  Pure Sugar gxxv.   Dissolve  the muriate  of  morphia in a
little hot water; mix it and  the tincture of tolu with the sugar; and, with  a suffi-
ciency of mucilage, form a proper mass for making lozenges ; each of which  should
weigh about fifteen grains.;—Each lozenge  contains  about one-fortieth of a grain of

  I Athenmum for 1S40, p. 772 ; Report of the Tenth Meeting of  the British Association. Lond. 1841 : and
Berlinisches Jahrbuch, Bd. xliii. S. 416.                                       '         '
  2 Lond. Med. Gaz. xxii. 186. 
              Bloodroot:—Composition; Medical Properties.         1067

muriate of morphia.  The morphia lozenges of the shops usually contain each oue-
twcnty-fourth of a  grain  of muriate of morphia.—This  is an  agreeable mode of
employing morphia, especially in pectoral affections.

  7- TROCHISCI  MORPHLE  ET  IPECACUANHA,  E-;  Morphia and Ipecacuanha  Lo-
zenges.—(Muriate of Morphia 9j ; Ipecacuan., in fine powder, 5J ; Tincture of Tolu
f^ss ; Pure Sugar 3"xxv.  Dissolve the muriate in a little hot water;  mix it with
the tincture and the ipecacuan. and sugar; and, with a sufficiency of mucilage, beat
the whole into a  proper mass, which is to be divided into fifteen-grain lozenges.)—
Each lozenge contains about  one-fortieth  of a grain of  muriate  of morphia, and
one-thirteenth of a grain of ipecacuanha.   Useful to allay tickling cough.

  8. MORPHIiE SULPHAS [U.  S.]; Sulphate of Morphia.—This  salt, though not contained in
the British pharmacopoeia, is occasionally used in. medicine.  It  is crystalline, and readily soluble
in water.   It consists of 1 atom sulphuric acid=40, 1 atom morphia—292, and 6 atoms water=54.
One of these atoms of water is an  essential constituent of the salt, and cannot be removed with-
out destroying the salt.  The  other 5 atoms are the water of crystallization.   The dose of  it is
the same as the other morphitic salts.
  9. [THE LIQUOR  MORPHIiE  SLLPHATIS, [U. S.]   Solution of Sulphate of Morphia
is made in the proportion  of one grain  to the ounce of water.   Dose, f3J to f3u-]


   [338. SANGUINARIA CANADENSIS, £»,«-BLOODROOT.
                           Sex. Syst. Polyandria, Monogynia.
                            (Sanguinaria, U. S. The Root.)

  Gen.  Char.— Calyx  pentaphyllous,  deciduous.   Petals eight.   Stigma sessile,
two-grooved.   Capsule superior, oblong, one-celled, two-valved, apex attenuated.
Receptacles two, filiform, marginal (Nuttall).
   Sp. Char.—Root  tuberous, horizontal,  giving  out a  reddish and a very acrid
lactescent  sap.   Leaves solitary, radical, reniform  and lobed.   Scape  naked, one-
flowered, sheathed at base.  Petals variable in number.   April.  Perennial.
  This  plant is  called  Bloodroot,  from the  red  colour of its root, which,  when
wounded, pours out  a quantity of red viscid juice.   The same issues from the stalks
of the leaves and flowers,  but to a  less amount.   It is also known by the name of
Puccoon.   It grows throughout  the United States, appearing in open woods at an
early period  of the spring, which it highly ornaments by its handsome white flowers.
  The root is horizontal, from an inch to two inches in length, and half an inch in
diameter, thicker at the summit, terminating abruptly as if bitten off (prsemorse),
fleshy, succulent, and beset with slender red fibres or radicles.  It is taken from  the
ground during the  summer, and when dried becomes dark-brown  externally, con-
tracted, wrinkled, somewhat twisted.   It breaks with  a   short,  waxy fracture, pre-
senting  an  orange-red colour upon the fractured surfaces.  Its odour is  feebly
narcotic, disagreeable, but lost in a measure by drying.   It taste is acrid and bitter.
  Tbe powder is grayish-red.
  Composition.—No detailed  account of the constituents of this  root has been
presented, but Dr. Dana of  New York  has  obtained from it an  alkaline substance,
which is probably the active principle of the root.
  Sanguinaiiina (Dana).—This principle is obtained by digesting the finely-powdered root in
absolute alcohol, and adding to the solution ammonia, so long as  a precipitate is thrown  down.
This is boiled  in water with animal charcoal, and filtered ; what remains on the filter is digested
in alcohol, and dried by evaporation. A white pearly substance  remains.  It has an acrid taste,
renders the yellow of turmeric brown, and changes the infusion of purple cabbage green.  It is
sparingly soluble in water, but soluble in ether and alcohol. With tincture of galls it affords a
precipitate soluble in alcohol,  but insoluble in ammonia.  It combines with acids and forms salts,
which all present some shade of red, crimson, or scarlet  of great intensity of beauty. (Smith,
in Journ. of Philada. Col. of Pharm. vol. iii. p. 95.)
  Medical  Properties.—No  experiments  upon animals have  been  made with
Bloodroot  to determine the effect it is capable of producing.   It  is stated that 
1068           VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Menispermace;e.

farriers sometimes give it to horses, in order to produce sweating, and facilitate the
shedding of their hair.   (Downey's  Essay, p. 30.)
   On man it  produces effects which are characterized  by considerable energy.  In
1803, Sanguinaria was  made the subject of an Inaugural Essay, by Dr. Downey,
of Maryland,  which appears  to  be  the first attempt  to determine  its operation.
Twenty grains of the recent root, and eight  grains of the alcoholic and watery ex-
tracts,  induced nausea  and vomiting, with more  or  less  sensation of warmth and
heat in  the stomach, acceleration of  pulse, and  in several experiments, a slight de-
gree of headache.   An acrimonious  impression was uniformly made upon the fauces,
and in several instances  it acted on the bowels.   The leaves are endowed with simi-
lar powers, and  the seeds exert  a marked power over the brain and nervous sys-
tem, occasioning  torpor, languor, disordered  vision,  and dilatation  of the pupils.
These statements have been  confirmed by subsequent investigation, and consequently
Bloodroot must be regarded as  a stimulant, acrid emetic, and narcotic; a diapho-
retic effect when  produced  must be accessory to  these effects.   In large doses, the
"emesis is violent, there is  a burning sensation in the stomach, faintness, vertigo,
dimness of vision, and alarming  prostration." (United States Dispensatory.)   The
disease in which it has been employed are those of the lungs, as pneumonia, catarrh,
phthisis, croup, &c.   It  has also been used in rheumatism and in jaundice, but in
the latter  disease must  be a remedy of questionable propriety.  It was known to
Dr. Shoeff, who speaks of the employment of a decoction in gonorrhoea.
   The mode of exhibition is in powder, the dose  as an emetic being 20 grains; the
form of pill is preferable, on account of the acrimony.   As a stimulant and  alter-
ant, doses of 5 grains may be given  every 3 or 4 hours.  The infusion or decoction
may be made  in the proportion of Jss to Oj of water.—Dose, f^ss to f§i.
   TINCTURA SANGUINARY, [U.S.] Tincture of Bloodroot—Bloodroot, bruised, four
ounces; Diluted Alcohol two pints.   Macerate for fourteen days, and filter through
paper or prepare by displacement.   Dose, f'5ss to f3J.   As an emetic, f^ss.]


Order LXXXVI.  MENISPERMACEIE,  De  Candolle.—THE

                          COCCULUS  TRIBE.

                              Menispermeje, Jussieu.

  Charactehs.—Flowers (by abortion?) unisexual, usually dioscious, very small.  Floral integu-
ments in one or several rows, each of which consists of three or four parts, hypogynous, decidu-
ous.  Petals sometimes absent.   Males; stamens monadelphous, or rarely distinct- sometimes
equal in number, and opposite to the petals; at other times three or four times as many • anthers
adnate, turned outwards, or inserted on the apex of the  filament.  Females;  ovaries sometimes
numerous, each  with one style cohering slightly at the  base;  sometimes solitary, crowned with
many stigmas, internally many-celled, and,  therefore, consisting of many carpels  soldered to-
gether.   Drupes usually berried, 1-seeded, oblique or lunate, compressed.  Seed of the  same
shape as the fruit; embryo curved or turned in the direction of the circumference; albumen 0,or
small and fleshy; cotyledons flat,  sometimes lying face to face, sometimes distant from each other,
and lying in two cells of the seed !; radicle superior, but  sometimes appears inferior, when the
apex of the fruit is, by the mode of growth, contiguous with the base.—Sarmentaceons flexible
lough shrubs.  Leaves alternate,  simple or rarely compound, mucronate.  Flowers small usually
racemose. (De Cand.)                                                      '
  Properties.—The roots of several species are bitter and tonic;  the seeds of some of them
are narcotic. 
Calumba Plant:—History; Botany; Preparation;  Description.  1069
339.  COCCULUS PALMATUS,  De Candolle, L. E.-THE  CALUMBA
                                  PLANT.
                          Menispermum palmatum, Lamarck.
                            Sex. Syst. Dioecia, Hexandria.
                              (Radix, L.—Root, E. D.)
                                 [Columba, XJ. S.]

  History.—Franciscus Redi,1 in 1675, is  the first writer who  mentions the root
of this plant; he praises it as an alexipharmic or antidote for poisons.   Cartheuser
afterwards examined it; but Dr. Thomas Percival3 gave the best account of it.
This root has been known by various names—such as Calumba, Colombo, Calomba,
and (Jolomba.  Its native country and history were long involved in obscurity.   In
1830, Dr. Hooker3 published a complete description of both the male and female
plants.   The root was at first supposed to come from  Colombo, a town of Ceylon,
and from which it was said to derive its name.  But it is now known to be the pro-
duce of Mozambique.  Its English name, Calumba, is  derived from the Portuguese
word Kalumbo, the o in  which is mute.*
  Botany.  Gen. Char.—Flowers unisexual, (always?) dioecious.   Calyx  of  12
sepals in four series, with 2, 3, or more close-pressed  bracteoles.  Males; stamens
6, or rarely  3, opposite  to  the inner sepals, distinct; anthers 2-celled,  terminal,
dehiscing vertically; filaments either filiform with the  anther cells  horizontal, ap-
proximate, and each externally 2-lobed, or thickened at the  apex with the cells di-
varicating downwards, and separated by the connective.  Females; ovaries 3, 6, or
numerous.  Drupes 1 to 6, or numerous, 1-celled, I-seeded.   Peduncles axillary or
rarely lateral; males usually many-flowered; females  generally few-flowered, with-
out bracts, or with very small ones if present (Lindley).
   Sp. Char.—Leaves cordate at the base, 5- to 7-lobed; lobes quite entire, acumi-
nate, somewhat  hairy.    Stems and  ovaries clothed  with
glandular hair.   (De Cand.)                                     Fig-  417.
   Root perennial,  of several fasciculated,  fusiform,  fleshy
tubers, with  a  brown warty epidermis;  internally deep yel-
low, odourless,   very  bitter.   Stems  annual,  herbaceous,
twining, beset at the  lower part with long glanduliferous
hairs: of the  males,  simple;  of the females,  branching.
Leaves alternate, nearly  orbicular, wavy on the margin, with
long hairy footstalks.   Racemes  axillary, solitary; in the
male plants compound.   Flowers small, green.   Fruit dru-
paceous  or  berried, about the size of a  hazel-nut,  densely
clothed with long spreading hairs, tipped with a black oblong
gland.5
   Hab.—Thick forests on the  shores  of Oibo and Mozam-   ^ri
bique, as well as inland for 15 or 20 miles.                    Cocculus palmatus.
   Preparation op the Roots.—The natives never  culti-       (Maie plant.)
vate the  plant,  the spontaneous  produce being  sufficient.
The roots are dug up in  March (the hot season), the offsets from the main root are
cut in slices,  strung on cords, and hung up to dry in the shade.   It is deemed fit
for commerce when, on exposure to the sun, it breaks  short; and of a bad quality
when it is soft or black.
   Description.—Calumba  or Colombo root (radix calumbse) is met with in flat
circular or oval pieces, of from half an inch  to three inches in  diameter, and from
one to three or four lines thick.  It occurs also in cylindrical pieces of from  one to
two inches long.   The epidermis covering the sides of the pieces is of a yellowish-
i Exp. circa varias res nat. p. 179.                  2 Med. Essays, vol. ii. p. 3, 1773.
• Bot Mag 2970—71.                            4 Berry, Asiatic Researches, x. 385.
• Bojer, in Hooker's Bot. Mag. tt. 2970—71. 
1070
VEGETABLES.—Nat.  Ord. Menispermace^e.
gray or brownish colour, smooth,  or  irregularly rugous.   The  transversal  surfaces
are  of a  greenish or grayish-yellow colour, depressed in  the middle from the great
shrinking of the medulla in the drying process, and consist of three or four con-
centric  layers.   The outer or cortical portion varies in thickness, but  is usually
about two or three lines thick.  It is separated from  the ligneous portion  by a dark-
coloured  layer, not exceeding a hair in thickness.  The internal or medullary por-
tion is light, spongy, and shrunk.   The odour of calumba  is faint, but  somewhat
aromatic;  the  taste  aromatic,  and very bitter.   In  the  larger and thicker pieces
small holes are occasionally observed, which have been made for the convenience of
drying.   On account of the  starch which it contains, the  root is readily attacked
by insects.
  I  am indebted to Mr. N. B. Ward for a  sample of  calumba root cultivated at the
Mauritius.   It is deficient in  the  bright  greenish-yellow tint  of the  Mozambique
calumba.
  Commerce.—In the year 1838, duty (2d. per lb.) was paid on 19,805 lbs., and
in 1839,  only  on 9384 lbs. of calumba.
  Composition.—The more recent analyses of Calumba root are those of Planche1
and  Buchner.2
Bitter matter.............	Planche.	Buchner.
	13 6 0 a trace. 0 9 33 0 89 0	10 to 12.2 0 5.0 0.0 0.2 3.8 to 4.7 30 to 35 17.4 12.6 9.8 7
Animal matter, soluble in water and not in alcohol		
		
		
		
		
		
		
		
		
	100 1fin	
		
  1. Odorous Principle (Volatile Oil?).—The odour of the root is  supposed  to depend on a
volatile  oil, traces of which were procured by Planche.  The distilled water of the root pos-
sesses the odour of the latter.
  2. Calumbin (Bitter Principle).—A crystallizable, odourless, very bitter, neutral substance,
extracted from Calumba root by Wiitstock.3  Its crystals are rhombic  prisms. It is fusible- very
slightly soluble in water, alcohol, ether, and volatile oils.  Boiling rectified spirit dissolves about
l-40th  of its weight.  It  dissolves in acids and alkalies, its best solvent being acetic acid.  It
is unaffected by metallic  solutions, and by infusion of nutgalls.  Sulphuric acid  dissolves it,
assuming first a yellow, then a red colour.  Its composition,according to Liebig, is carbon 65 45!
hydrogen ti.18, oxygen 28-37;  or C^IFO4.                                            '
  Planche describes the active principle of calumba as a yellow bitter matter  soluble in water
and alcohol, and yielding no precipitate either with the salts of lead or infusion of galls.
  3.  Starch.—This constitutes about one-third by weight of the root.  It renders  The root an
easy prey to insects.   The structure of the starch particles  has  been described by Payen4
These bodies are remarkable by their gibbosities, and by the hilum being found on the largest
part of the particles.

  Chemical  Characteristics—If the root be moistened with water and then
touched with tincture of iodine, it becomes black.  A  decoction of the root when
cold, forms with a  solution of iodine a blue colour (iodide of starch)    Sulphate  of
iron, emetic tartar, and  gelatine, produce no obvious change in an infusion  of
calumba, showing the absence of tannic and  gallic acids.  Litmus detects no  free
acid   Infusion of nutgalls causes in the infusion of calumba a precipitate (tannate
1 Bull, de Pharm. iii. 189.
3 Ibid.1830, S. 517.
* Pharm. Central-Blatt far 1831 S 429
 Ann. Scient. Nat. Botany, July 1638, p. 20. 
  Calumba Plant:—Adulteration;  Physiological Effects; Uses.   1071

  Adulteration.—The  root  of  Frasera Walteri, called the American or false
calumba,  has been  occasionally substituted  for calumba root on  the continent.
Such a fraud would not be practicable in England, at least to any extent, as the
appearance of the root is quite dissimilar to that of the genuine calumba.   It is
distinguished chemically from  the  latter by three characters:  1st, it undergoes no
change of colour when touched with tincture of iodine,  showing that it contains no
starch; 2d, it becomes  blackish-green on the  addition of sulphate  of iron ; 3d, it
yields a precipitate with a solution of gelatine.  The two last characters indicate
the presence of tannic acid.
  Physiological Effects.—Calumba is an excellent tonic,  promoting the appe-
tite, assisting the  digestive process, and  improving the  quality of the  secretions
from the  gastro-intestinal  mucous  membrane.   It is not a stimulant; for  Dr. T.
Percival took a scruple of it on an  empty stomach, but  did not observe that  it  had
the  least  effect  on the  regularity, fulness, or velocity  of the pulse.   In another
experiment, he swallowed  half a drachm; in ten minutes his  pulse was fuller and
slower by three beats, and continued  so for three-quarters of an hour.  In  conse-
quence of the quantity of starch and gum which it contains,  it is sometimes termed
a mucilaginous or demulcent tonic.   Cetraria  islandica aud Simaruba bark agree
with calumba in this circumstance.   But  from them, as well as from quassia, it is
distinguished by its aromatic properties.   In  some respects (i. e. in its tonic and
aromatic qualities) it  approximates to rhubarb, but is devoid of the purgative and
astringent  properties  of the latter.  Its want of astringency distinguishes it from
the astringent tonics (as cinchona).  Full doses of  it, in the form  of powder, given
when the  stomach is very irritable, cause vomiting.  It does  not appear either to
constipate or relax the bowels.   We are not acquainted with  the effects of excessive
doses of it.   Poisonous properties have been assigned to it by Buchner,1 who states
that Hartl, one of his pupils,  applied  a  grain of the ethereal extract of calumba,
deprived of wax by repeated solution in water, to a wound in  the leg of a rabbit,
and that it proved fatal in  ten hours.
  Uses.—Calumba is one of  our  most useful stomachics and tonics.   Its great
value consists in  its not being apt, like other and more powerful tonics, to  create
nausea, sickness, febrile  disorder, or headache, so that it is tolerated  when other
remedies of this class would be immediately rejected.   Indeed, on  many occasions
it evinces a positive power of checking vomiting.   SchwilgueV in  order to test its
anti-emetic qualities, gave it when vomiting had commenced  after the use of emetic
tartar and ipecacuanha.    It frequently arrested the vomiting.  He  also gave it in
conjunction with  these  emetics, and  observed  that the  vomiting  occurred more
slowly than usual, and was milder.   Probably it owes these  valuable properties to
a combination of  circumstances; such  as  its freedom from acidity and astringency,
the large  quantity of starch which it  contains (from which  it acquires demulcent
properties), and the peculiar operation of its  bitter principle.  The following  are
the principal uses  to which it has been applied:—
  1.  In a languid state of the stomach, with general debility, attended with want of
appetite, indigestion, nausea, and flatulence, experience has fully established  the
value of calumba,  and has proved the justice of the encomiums passed on it by Dr.
T. Percival.  It is of all tonics the least likely  to  disagree with the stomach.   In
the stage of convalescence after an  attack of fever, the  infusion of  calumba is an
excellent preparative for  the more powerful  tonics (infusion of cinchona and disul-
phate of quina).   In those forms of  dyspepsia attended with great acidity of stomach,
it may be given with advantage in combination with bicarbonate of potash.
  2.  To allay vomiting, when  not dependent  on  inflammatory conditions of  the
stomach, calumba  is often highly serviceable;  as in bilious  vomiting, in the sick-
ness which so frequently attends pregnancy, and dentition.   Even vomiting arising
from renal calculi  or diseased kidney has  been somewhat palliated by calumba.   I
i Toxikol. S.229.
8 Mat. Mid. ii. 374. 
 1072           VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Menispermaceje.

 have seen the most satisfactory results from the combined use of infusion of calumba
 and effervescing draughts (composed of citric acid and bicarbonate of potash) in
 those occasional  attacks of  vomiting especially  observed in  delicate females, and
 which are commonly termed bilious  attacks.   By this treatment the violence and
 continuance of the vomitings have been diminished, and the continued employment
 of calumba has reduced the  frequency and in some cases prevented the occurrence
 of future attacks.
   3.  In diarrhoea and dysentery, where tonics are admissible, as in the later periods
 of these diseases, when the inflammatory symptoms have subsided, and  in habitual
 diarrhoea, calumba often proves serviceable.  In Germany, it  is denominated Ruhr-
 wurzel (i. e. dysenteric root).
   Administration.—Calumba is administered in  the form of powder, infusion,
 or tincture.   The dose of the powder is from gr. x  to  3ss.   The infusion  is the
 most eligible form of exhibition.
   1. INFUSUM CALUMBjE, L. E. [U. S.]; Infu-svm Colombse, D.;  Infusion of Calumba.
 —(Calumba, sliced [in coarse powder, E. D.J 3v [gss, E.  (U. S.); 3"j, D-~\ ', Boiling
 [distilled, £.] Water [Cold  Water, E. D.~] Oj [3ix,  D.J   Macerate for two hours
 in a lightly  covered  vessel, and strain, L. D.—" Triturate  the calumba  with a
 little of the water, so  as to moisten it thoroughly, put it into a percolator, and
 transmit cold water till f^xvj of infusion  be  obtained,"  E.)—The facility with
 which this preparation undergoes decomposition is ascribed  by Planche  to the sub-
 stance which he terms animal matter.—Dose of  the infusion, f^j to f'ij.  It may
 be conjoined with alkalies or chalybeates, without injury or obvious change.  [In-
 fusion of calumba becomes muddy by allowing it to stand on the dregs.—Ed.]
   2. TINCTURA CALIMILE, L. E.;  Tinctura  Colombse, D.;  Tincture of Calumba —
 (Calumba, sliced [in small fragments;  if by percolation  in  moderately fine powder,
 E.J Siij [Sv, ZA] [Jiv, U. S.J,  Proof Spirit [Diluted Alcohol, U. S.] Oij.   Mace-
 rate for seven days [fourteen, D.J and filter.—"Express  the residuum  strongly, and
 filter the liquors. This tincture is much more conveniently prepared by the process
 of percolation, allowing the  powder  to  be soaked with a little of the spirit for six
 hours before putting  it into the percolator," E.—An excellent adjunct to bitter
 infusion and effervescent medicines, when  given  to check  vomiting.—Dose, f3j
 to f3ij.


 340. ANAMIRTA COCCULUS, Wight and Amoti, E.—THE  COCCU-
                       LUS INDICUS  PLANT.
                           Sex. Syst.  Dioecia, Monadelphia.
                                   (Fruit, E.)

   History.—" According to Sprengel,1 the fruit  now  usually called Cocculus in-
 dicus was  introduced by the Arabians, and was described by Avicenna and Serapion
 under the name  of Maheradsch."*  In my copy,  however, of  the Latin  translation
 of Avicenna,3 the word Maheradsch does not occur,  but Mahezeheregi,  or Maheiz-
 hera,* is said to intoxicate fish.   Nor can I find it in Serapion.   Cocculus indicus is
 sometimes termed the Levant nut, or bacca orientalis.
   Botany.   Gen. Char.—Floicers dioecious.   Calyx of  6 sepals in a double series,
with 2 close-pressed bracteoles.   Corolla 0.  Male: stamens  united  into a central
column dilated at the  apex;  anthers numerous, covering the whole globose apex  of
the column.   Female : flowers unknown.   Drupes 1 to 3, 1-celled, 1-seeded.   Seed
globose, deeply excavated at the hilum;  albumen fleshy;  cotyledons very thin  di-
verging—Twining plants, with a corky bark.   Leaves more  or less  cordate-ovate.
Flowers in lateral compound racemes (Wight and Arnott).
Venet 15t>4.                              4 Lib. 2ndus, tr. 2ndus, cap. 488. 
Cocculus Indicus Plant:—Description;  Commerce; Composition.   1073
   Sp. Char.—The only species.
   A strong climbing shrub.   Bark deeply cracked, ash-coloured.   Leaves stalked,
large (from 8 to 12 inches long); petiole a little shorter than the leaves.
   Hab.—Malabar, and Eastern  Islands, &c. of India.
   Description.—As met with in commerce,  Cocculus indicus (also called Cocculus
levanticus seu piscatorius) has considerable resemblance to the  bay berry  (bacca
lauri), but is scarcely so large as  the latter.   It consists externally of a dried, thin,
blackish-brown, rugous, acrid, and  bitter layer, which envelops a thin, bivalved,
white, ligneous shell  (endocarp).   In the middle of this shell arises  a central pla-
centa, which is contracted at its base,  but enlarged and divided into two cells supe-
riorly.   Between this placenta and the shell is an oleaginous, yellowish, very bitter
nucleus (seed), of a semilunar form.  This nucleus never wholly fills the cavity of
the shell—at least in the Cocculus indicus of commerce; for  by keeping, it gradually
becomes atrophied, and in old samples it is not uncommon  to find the shell  almost
empty.   This change is observed also in other oleaginous seeds.   By  this character
alone  Cocculus  indicus may be  instantly distinguished from  the bay berry.  The
Edinburgh College requires that—
   "The kernels should fill at least two-thirds of the fruit."
   Commerce.—Cocculus indicus is  imported in bags from Bombay, Madras, and
Ceylon.  I am not  acquainted with  any official returns of the quantity annually
brought over.   From a druggist's private books I find that, in 1834, about 2,500
bags entered;  and this probably is much below the quantity  imported.    The greater
part is consumed  for illegal purposes—principally for adulterating  beer and ale,
though this practice is prohibited by the legislature, under a penalty of £200 upon
the brewer, and £500 upon the seller of the drug.
   Composition.—Cocculus  indicus was  examined in 1811  by Boullay,1 and  in
1834  by Pelletier and  Couerbe.3   The  results  obtained  by the last-mentioned
chemists  were as follows:—
            Analysis of the Shell.
   1. Menispcrmin.
   2. Paramenispermin.
   3. Yellow alkaline matter.
   4. Hypopicrotoxic acid.
   5. Wax.
   6. Starch.
   7. Chlorophylle.
   8. Resinous matter.
   9. Gum.
  10. Fatty matter.
  11. Inorganic substances (as those of the nucleus
with the addition of copper).
           Analysis of the Nucleus.
   1. Picrotoxin.
   2. Resin.
   3. Gum.
   4. A fatty acid substance.
   5. An odorous matter.
   6. Malic acid.
   7. Mucus.
   8. Starch.
   9. Lignin.
  10. Waxy matter.
  11. Inorganic substances (nitrate and sulphate of
 potnssa, and chloride of potassium), by incineration
 carbonates of potash, and  of lime, manganese, and
 iron.

   1. Picrotoxin (Picrotoxic Acid).—At first, it was supposed to be an alkaline substance, and
 was termed picroloxia.   It is a white, crystalline, intensely bitter substance, usually crystallizing
 in needles, but sometimes in  silky flexible filaments or transparent plates, or granular crystals.
 It is soluble in 150 parts of water at 57° F., in 25 parts of boiling water, in a third of its weight
 of alcohol, and in less than half its weight of ether.  It is insoluble in the fixed and volatile oils,
 but is  soluble in acetic acid.  It does not combine with acids, but forms combinations with
 alkalies.  It seems, therefore, to be an  acid, though a feeble one.  It consists of C^rTO5.  The
 poisonous properties of the nucleus (seed) of cocculus indicus depend  on picrotoxin.  [Dr.
 Glover has recently experimented on  the properties of  this  substance, and has  published an
 account of his experiments in the Lancet.3  According to the analysis of Dr. Francis, it contains
 nitrogen, and it consists in 100  parts of carbon  60.26, hydrogen  5.7U, nitrogen 1.30, oxygen
 32.74.—En.]
  2. Mknispkrmia (Menispermina; Menispermine).—This  is  an opake, white, crystalline  sub-
 Stance, soluble in alcohol-and ether, but insoluble in water.  It fuses at 2 IS0 F., and at a higher
temperature is decomposed, leaving an abundant charcoal.  It dissolves in. and saturates acids;
and from these solutions alkalies precipitate it.  Concentrated sulphuric acid has little action on
it- hot nitric acid converts it into a yellow resinous substance, and oxalic acid.   It is composed,
1 Ami. de Chim. lxxx. 209.
» Lancet, Jan. 11, 1851, p. 47.
      VOL. II.--68
Ann. Chim. et de Phys. liv. 181. 
1074           VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord. Menispermaceje.

according to GayLussac, of C18H12XO-.  It does not appear to have any marked action on  the
animal economy.
  3. Paramkmspermia (Paramenispermina; Paramenispermine).—This is a crystalline  solid,
insoluble in water,scarcely soluble in ether, but dissolving readily in alcohol.   It is fusible and
volatile, and may be sublimed unchanged. It does not saturate acids, and, therefore, differs in
this r^pect from the preceding substance.  Notwithstanding  this, however, its composition is
the  same.
  4. Hypopicrotoxic Acid.—This acid is an amorphous, brown solid, insoluble in water (cold
or boiling), insoluble in ether, soluble in alkalies, and precipitable from  its solution in them by
the  mineral acids.  It is composed of, carbon 64.14, hydrogen 6.09, oxygen 29.77. This compo-
sition approximates to that of picrotoxin.
  The yellow alkaline matter of the shell has been scarcely examined.
  Boullay1 mentions a crystalline substance which he calls rnenispermic  acid;  but its properties
require farther examination 2
  Chemical Characteristics.—Iodine colours the nucleus brown.  The cold
watery infusion  of the  whole fruit is slightly acid, and produces a dark precipitate
with the sesquichloride of iron.  Infusion of galls also occasions a precipitate.
  Physiological Effects,   a.  On Vegetables.—A  solution of the  aqueous ex-
tract of Cocculus indicus killed a haricot plant in twenty-four hours.3
  £.  On  Animals generally.—It is poisonous to all animals;   at least it has been
found to be poisonous  to dogs, goats, cows, crocodiles,  birds, and  insects.   Goupil4
considered it to be a local irritant; but the correctness of this  opinion is denied by
Orfila.5  When introduced into the stomach its irritant effects  were confined to the
production of nausea and vomiting.   It acts on  the cerebro-spinal system, causing
staggering, trembling,  tetanic convulsions, and insensibility.   Goupil states that
all  fish which eat it die—roach being killed very easily, barbel  with more difficulty.
" The barbel," we are  told, " is, of  all fish, that whose  flesh  the most frequently
occasions accidents in those animals who eat it;  probably because these fish, taking
a longer time to die, the poison is longer subjected  to the action of the digestive
juices, and a considerable quantity of it is consequently absorbed."  Orfila  says,
Cocculus indicus acts like camphor on the nervous  system, and  principally on the
brain.
  y.  On Man.—Its effects on man  have not  been accurately ascertained.   Hill8
says, three or four grains of it have brought on nauseas and  faintings.   It is fre-
quently added to malt liquors, for the purpose of increasing their intoxicating powers;
but, from some accounts which I have received from an Excise  officer, who has been
repeatedly subjected to the  influence of beer thus adulterated, its action  appeared
to be rather  on the voluntary muscles than on the intellectual powers.
  The operation of Picrotoxine is analogous to, though stronger than, that of Coc-
culus indicus.   Ten  or twelve  grains, given by the mouth, are  sufficient to kill a
dog.   A grain and a half, injected into the jugular vein  of a dog, killed the animal
in twenty minutes.
   Uses.—Cocculus indicus is rarely employed in medicine.   It has, however, been
used as an external application, in the form of powder  or ointment,  to destroy pedi-
culi (hence the Germans call these fruits Ldusekomer, or louse-grains).   It has
also been employed in  some obstinate skin diseases, as  porrigo; but its use requires
caution, especially where the skin is not entire, on account of the danger of absorption.
Notwithstanding the severe prohibitory  statutes against the employment of Cocculus
indicus in brewing, I have reason to believe that it is extensively used • but being
employed in the form  of a  solution of the extract, the form is not easy of detection
Mornce? gives full directions for its employment.  In the manufacture of porter, this
                                                                               s of
                                                                             thof
liquor;" ana ne adds,  » tnat it prevents  second fermentation*in  bottled  beer, and
consequently the  bursting of the bottles in warm climates."
i Journ. de Pharm. xiv. 61.                     2 «,.„ r,„..„   ,   „, .
» Marcet, Ibid. xxix. 215.                       4 o™t«iS  n>"Jnn±Ch.im; et PA^' xxx- m-
. Ibid                                      « tiu„ted by Orfila, Toxicol. Gin.
' Treatise on Brewing.                          HlSt' °S "" Mat- Med. 
            Pareira Brava :—History;  Botany; Description.        1075

  Antidote.—In poisoning by Cocculus indicus, or picrotoxin, remove the poison
from the stomach as speedily as possible.   No cheniical antidote is known, though
acetic acid has appeared to give relief.  The symptoms must be combated on general
principles, no peculiarities  in the treatment being known.   As  a last resource, try
artificial respiration.
  UNGUE.YTDI COCCULI, E.;  Ointment of  Cocculus Indicus.—(Take any convenient
quantity of Cocculus indicus, separate and preserve the kernels;  beat them well in
a mortar, first  alone, and  then  with a  little axunge, and  then add axunge till it
amounts, altogether, to five times  the weight  of the kernels.)—Used to destroy
pediculi.
  Jager1 has an ointment of picrotoxin (composed of gr. x of picrotoxin and 3j of
lard) in obstinate forms of porrigo.


341.  CISSAMPELOS PAREIRA, Linn. E. D.-PAREIRA BRAVA,
                          OR VELVET LEAF.
                           Sex. Syst. Dioecia, Monadelphia
                              (Radix, L.—Root, E. D.)

   History.—The root of this plant was first mentioned  by  Piso2 in 1648, under
the name of Caap6ba.   It was introduced into Paris, in 1689, by M. Amelot, the
French ambassador  at Portugal.3
   It is usually termed  Pareira (Parreyra) brava, which means, literally, wild vine,
on account of its supposed resemblance to the root of the wild vine.   The Germans
call  it Grirswurzcl (i. e. gravel  root), on  account of its beneficial effects in stone or
gravel.
   Botany.  Gen. Char.—Dioecious.  Male: sepals 4, in a double series.   Petals
4, united into a cup-shaped corolla, with usually an entire margin.   Stamens  united
into slender columns dilated at  the apex, bearing  two 2-celled  anthers opening hori-
 zontally; cells placed end to end, and forming a 4-lobed, 4-celled annulus round the
 top of the  column.   Female:  calyx of 1! lateral sepal.   Corolla of 1! petal in front
 of the sepal.   Ovary solitary.  Stigmas 3.   Drupe obliquely reniform ;  but com-
 pressed, wrinkled round its margin.  Seed solitary uncinate;  embryo long,  terete,
 inclosed in a fleshy  albumen.   (Wight and Arnott.)
   Sp. Char.—Leaves peltate, subcordate, ovate-articulate;  silky-pubescent beneath.
 Female racemes larger than the leaf.  Berry hispid. (De Cand.)
   A climbing  shrub.   Root woody, branching.    Stem round, smooth, or with close-
 pressed  down.   Leaves aristate at the point, when full-grown  smooth above,  under-
 neath covered  with  silky pubescence (hence called velvet leaf), but not truly downy.
 Flowers small, yellow.   Berry  scarlet, round or reniform,  hispid.
   Hab.—West India Islands and Spanish Main.
   Description.—The root of Cissampelos Pareira, commonly termed pareira
 brava (radix pareirse bravse), is sometimes  imported under the name of abuta or
 butua root (radix butse).  Von  Martius says that, in the Brazils, Cissampelos Pareira
 is called Butua or Capeeha.  Pareira brava occurs in more or less cylindrical  pieces,
 sometimes flattened  or bluntly angular.   Some of the pieces are as thick as a  child's
 arm—their length often a foot  or more.  Externally, they are covered with a dark-
 brown rind or cortex, which is furrowed  longitudinally, and wrinkled transversely.
 The wrinkles have very much the appearance of large, transversely elongated lenti-
 cellse.   The surface of the  transverse  section  of the root is  of a yellowish-gray
 colour, and presents a  number  of concentric circles (the annular layers), traversed
 by numerous radiating lines (medullary  rays);  between these  lines  are triangular
 bundles of woody fibres and ducts—the  latter are large, and being cut transversely,

       l RusCs Mag. Bd. xiv. St. i. S. 105.                       s Hist. Sat. Brasil. 91.
       ' Murray, App. Med. i. 499. 
1076           VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Menispermace^e.

constitute the  numerous holes or apertures presented by the cut surface.   The
circles or layers occasionally assume a very eccentric appearance.
  The number of concentric circles varies with the age of  the  root.   The fracture
of the root is coarsely fibrous.   The  taste is  sweetish, aromatic, afterwards bitter
and unpleasant.  It has  no odour.                                            . .
  Substitution.—The  pareira brava of commerce yields  most unequal quantities
of extract.  This circumstance, as  well  as some variation in the appearance of the
pieces, leads to  the belief that the roots (and  stems?) of more  than one plant,
are sold under this name.   A  sample of a supposed spurious root,1 yields " only a
very minute quantity of  the extract; and the decoction prepared from it,  according
to the usual formula, has only  a slightly bitter taste, instead of the strong bitter of
the decoctions"  of the true root.  A piece of this supposed spurious root presents
an appearance of medulla, and  is covered externally with a  lichen ; whence it would
appear to be a portion of a stem.
  Composition.—Pareira brava has been  analyzed by Feneulle,9 who found  the
constituents to  be, a soft resin,  a yellow bitter principle, a brown colouring principle,
vegeto-animal matter, fecula, super-malate of lime, nitrate  of potash, and  some am-
moniacal and mineral salts.  More recently, Wiggers3 has announced  the discovery
of a  new vegetable alkali,  which he calls cissampelin, in this root.
  1. Feneulle considers the  yellow bitter matter to be the active principle of the root.  It
is described as being soluble in both alcohol and water.  From its solution it was precipitated
by tincture of nutgalls as well as by diacetate of lead.   In these properties it appears to agree
with cathartine ;  but it is, probably, a mixture of several substances.
  2. The properties of cissampelin have not been described. Wiggers  says it is a strong,
saline base, soluble in ether and in acetic acid.  From  its acetic solution it  is precipitated by
carbonate of soda.
  Chemical  Characteristics.—The presence of starch in the root is  shown by
iodine.   An infusion of  the root yields  a precipitate on the addition of infusion of
galls, and is rendered brown by the sesquichloride of iron.
   Physiological Effects.—I am  unacquainted with any experiments made to
determine the effects  of  this root in the healthy  state of the body.   From its taste,
botanical affinities, and effects  in diseases, it appears to possess a tonic power, and
occasionally to  act  as  a  diuretic.   Farthermore, its  efficacy in  certain maladies of
the urinary organs induces us to ascribe  an almost specific influence to this root over
the mucous membrane lining the urinary passages..  It  certainly does appear to have
the power  of altering the quality of the urinary  secretion.   Large doses prove
aperient.
   Uses.—It was originally introduced into medicine as a lithontriptic.  Its powers
in this way were at one  time highly vaunted, and Helvetius even  went so far as to
assert that calculi, the size of an olive, had disappeared under its use,  and that the
operation of lithotomy was no  longer necessary!  We  now employ it  almost solely
in discharges from the urino-genital mucous membrane.—It has been used in gonor-
rhoea, leucorrhcea, and chronic inflammation of the bladder.  In the latter of these
diseases, Sir. B. Brodie* states  that he  has seen more  good done by this root than
by the Uva-ursi.  "I am  satisfied," says this eminent  surgeon, "that  it has a great
influence over the disease  which is now under consideration, lessening very materi-
ally  the secretion of the  ropy mucus, which is  itself  a very great evil,  and, I be-
lieve, diminishing the inflammation and irritability of the bladder also."  He recom-
mends  it  to be taken  in the form of a concentrated decoction,  to which may be
added some tincture of hyoscyamus;  and in these cases in which there is a deposit
of the triple phosphates, muriatic or diluted nitric acid may be added.
   Administration.—The powder has been given in  doses of from half a drachm
to a drachm.   But the infusion or decoction, to which some extract has been added,
is to  be preferred.   A tincture or essence has been prepared by digesting one part of
i See Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xviii. p. 902; and vol xix n ats         o  T     j t»,     ■■  .«.
' Berl.Jahrb.xl.2'23, 1S36.            w vol. xix. p. 83o.         * Journ. de Pharm. vn. Wi
Lond. Med Gaz. i. 300. 
Winter's Bark Tree :—History; Botany.            1077
the root in five parts of rectified spirit.   It is  reputed diuretic and  anticatarrhal.
Its dose is f3j.

   1.  DECOCTUM PAREILE, L.;  Decoction of Pareira.—(Pareira, sliced, 3x; Dis-
tilled Water Oiss.   Boil to a pint and strain.)  [Narcotics, especially hyoscyamus,
and alkalies or acids, may be added  to this decoction as occasion  may require.  A
stronger decoction than this is recommended by Sir Benjamin Brodie, who  employs
§ss of the root to Oiij of water, to  be gently boiled down to one pint.   Eight to
twelve ounces of this should be taken daily.   This is certainly a more effective pre-
paration than that of  the Ph. L.—Ed.]

   2. INFUSUM PAREIRA, E. D.;  Infusion of Pareira Brava.—(Pareira 3vj ;  Boil-
ing Water Oj.   Macerate  for  two  hours  in a lightly covered vessel, and strain
through calico, E.)—Dose, f^j to f^iij.   It will  be advisable to increase the strength
of this infusion by the addition  of some extract of pareira to it.  The Dublin Col-
lege orders 3ss of  the bruised and torn root, to %\x of boiling water, and macerates
for one hour.

   I EXTRACTUM PAREIRA, L. E.; Extract of  Pareira Brava.—(Prepared as Ex-
tract of Hajmatoxylon [as Extract of Liquorice-root, E.J)—Dose, gr.  x. to  3ss.  It
is usually given in conjunction with  the  infusion or decoction.
                OTHER MEDICINAL MENISPERMACE^3.

  The student must not confound Pareira brava with the Pareira bark belonging to Strych-
nacea?, and before noticed, nor with the Pareira medica, Lindley,1 a menispermaceous plant,
whose root is employed by the Cingalese as a stomachic.



  Order LXXXVII. MAGNOLIACE^, De Candolle.—THE

                          MAGNOLIA  TRIBE.

                      Magnoliace^b and Winterace.b, Lindley.

  Characters.—All the parts of the flower disposed in ternary number.  Sepals 3 to 6, decidu-
ous.  Petals 3 to  27, in many series, hypogynous.  Stamens numerous, free, inserted on  the
torus beneath the ovaries; anthers adnate, elongated.   Ovaries numerous, inserted on the torus
above the stamens, generally disposed like a spike, monostylous ; styles short; stigmas simple.
Carpels as many as the ovaries, 1-celled, 1- or many-seeded, capsular, and dehiscing by a supe-
rior chink ; or capsular bivalved, dehiscing by an  inferior chink; or follicular: or somewhat
fleshy and indehiscent; or, lastly, samariform, aggregate, or partially united into a loose or dense
strobile.   Seeds attached to the internal angle of the carpels ; albumen fleshy; embryo straight,
small, inferior.—Elegant trees or shrubs.  Leaves alternate, pinnatinerved.  Flowers conspicuous,
often powerfully odoriferous.  (De Cand.)
  Properties.—Bark tonic and aromatic.  The same  properties are possessed by some of  the
fruits.  The flowers by their odour readily occasion nausea, headache, and faintness.


342. DRIMYS  WINTERI, De Candolle.—WINTER'S BARK  TREE.

                             Wintera aromatica, Murray.
                          Sex. Syst. Polyandria, Tetrasynia.

  History.—William Winter, captain of one of  the ships which accompanied  Sir
Francis Drake, in  the  year 1578, to the Straits of Magellan, returning in  1579,
brought the bark of some trees, which he had cut down there, to Europe.   From
this circumstance  Clusius3 called  it Winter's bark (Winteranus cortex).  It was
afterwards confounded with Canella bark.
  Botany.   Gen. Char.—Carpels congested,  baccate, many-seeded.    Filaments
thickest at the apex; cells of the anther separate.  (De Cand.)

        t Fl. Med. 370.                                s Exot. lib. iv. cap. i. p. 75. 
1078
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Magnoliace.e.
  Sd. Char—Zeaww oblong, obtuse, glaucous beneath.  Peduncles simple, approxi-
                    mated,  or very short, divided into elongated pedicels.  (De
     Fig. 418.        Cand.)
                       A large forest free.   Branches often tuberculated trom the
                    scars of the old footstalks.   /SepaZs 2 to  3, green.   Petals 7,
                    milk-white.  Fruit ovate.1
                       Hab—Straits of Magellan, Chili, Peru,  New Grenada.
                       Description.—Winter's bark (Cortex Winteri seu Winter-
                    anus) occurs in quills or rolled pieces, commonly a foot long,
                    one or two inches in  diameter, and two or three lines thick.
                    Its colour externally is pale-yellowish, or dull reddish gray,
                    with red elliptical spots;  internally, it is reddish-brown.   Its
                    odour is aromatic, its  taste  warm and pungent.  The charac-
                    ters by which it is distinguished from Canella bark have been
  Drimys Winteri.  •«  already pointed out.   Its infusion is darkened by the salts of
                    iron.
  Composition.—Winter's bark  has been analyzed  by M. Henry,3 who found its
constituents to be resin,  volatile  oil, colouring  matter, tannin,  acetate  of potash,
chloride of potassium, sulphate of potash, oxalate of  lime, and oxide of iron.
  1. Volatile Oil (Oleum Corlicis  Winteri).—Pale-yellow, lighter than water, with a very hot
and acrid taste.   By standing it  is separated into two  parts ; one (the most abundant part) a
greenish-yellow liquid; the other (heavier, but  lighter  than water) white, and of a fatty con-
sistence.
  2. Resin.—Reddish-brown, and almost odourless.  Its taste is at first feeble;  then acrid and
persistent.
  Physiological Effects  and Uses.—Stimulant, aromatic, and tonic.  Its uses
are similar to  those of cinnamon and canella alba.  Winter employed it in scurvy.
It is seldom employed.—Dose, 3ss or 3J-
419.
                     MAGNOLIA GLAUCA, Linn.

                             (Magnolia, V. S. Sec. List.)

  This is usually a small tree, the height of whichvaries from 10 to 30 feet, branch-
ing, with a smooth, glaucous, whitish bark.  The leaves are from three to five inches
long, and an inch and a half to two inches wide, nearly elliptical, rather acute, some-
times obtuse,  shining green above,  very glaucous  beneath, and  when  young, the
under surface  clothed with a glaucous, silky pubescence.   Petioles three-quarters of
                                              an  inch  long.   Floicers very  fra-
                                              grant, on thick, clavate, pubescent
                                              peduncles, about half  an inch  in
                                              length.    Sepals  oblong,  concave,
                                              roughish, dotted,  as  long  as  the
                                              petals.   Petals white, an  inch or
                                              an  inch  and a half long, obovate.
                                              Stamens numerous; filaments short,
                                              with the point extending above the
                                              adnate anthers.   Ovaries collected
                                              in an ovoid cone; styles very short,
                                              recurved.  Carpch opening longi-
                                              tudinally.   Seeds obovate, covered
                                              with a purple fleshy arillus, falling
                                              out of the carpels when  mature,
lander's Med. Obs. and Inq. vol. v. p. 41.
2 Journ. de Pharm. t. v. p. 489. 
American Poplar Tulip Tree.
1079
and hanging for some time by a long filiform funiculus.   (Darlington, Flora Ces-
trica.)   Sex. Syst.  Polyand. Polygyn.
  This plant is abundant along the Atlantic coast, from  Massachusetts to Florida,
where it frequents thick  swamps and morasses; it does not  grow spontaneously in
dry and argillaceous ground unless  transplanted.  It is readily detected when in
bloom by the rich perfume of its handsome white flowers;  this occurs in May and
June.   The glaucous leaves and white shining bark at other seasons serve to dis-
tinguish it  from the trees with which it grows.  In  the Southern States it is called
 White Bay and  Sweet Bay.  The bark is taken off during the spring and summer.
When dried, it is in pieces several inches in length, and an inch or two broad, some-
what rolled, light;  ashen, smooth  and silvery externally, white and fibrous inter-
nally.   It  has  an aromatic odour, which  is impaired by time, and a  taste warm,
pungent, and bitterish.   The bark of the root has similar  sensible properties, and is
regarded as being superior to that of the trunk and branches; it is rough externally.
No detailed account has been given of its chemical composition; it is probable that
an active principle,  similar to Liriodendrine, found in the M. grandiflora, by Mr.
Stephen Procter (Am. Journ. of Pharm. vol.  xiv.  p. 95), is also to be found in this
species.   Magnolia  is  tonic and  diaphoretic in its effects on the animal economy,
and may be used in cases where these effects are available.  Its employment has
been beneficial  in the treatment of chronic rheumatism, and has proved serviceable
in arresting the paroxysms of intermittent fever.  The dose is 3ss to 3j> in powder;
or a decoction may  be made in the proportion of  3j fco Oj.—Dose, 3j or  3'j-  -A-0
infusion in brandy is sometimes-used  in rheumatism.
   The M. ACUMINATA,  Cucumber Tree,  officinal  in U. S. Pharm., is a large tree,
inhabiting  the mountainous districts  of the United States;  and the M. tripetala
(Umbrella  Tree), also officinal, is a much  smaller tree.   The bark of both affords the
officinal dru,g in common with the preceding.  The  uses are  the same.
   The Magnolia grandiflora is deserving  of a similar  rank.   Mr. S.  Procter
(op. cit.) found  the bark to contain  green resin, volatile  oil, and a peculiar crystal-
lizable principle analogous to Liriodendrine, an acid precipitating  the salts of iron
green, and salts.


LIRIODENDRON  TULIPIFERA, Linn— AMERICAN POPLAR
                              TULIP TREE.
                           (Liriodendron,  V. S. Sec.  List.)

   This  tree is one of the handsomest peculiar to the United  States.  Its  height
varies from 60  to 100 feet, and it is often four or five feet in diameter.   In the old
trees the branches  are  spreading  at the summit, and frequently of great height
without branches; in the young trees the branches are in the form of a cone.  Buds
large, compressed, obovate.  Leaves three to five inches long,
and four to six inches  broad, nearly quadrangular  in their         Fig.  420.
outline, smooth, shining green above, paler beneath, rounded
or subcordate  at base, with a short, diverging, acuminate
lobe (sometimes two) on each side, and the broad central
lobe emarginately truncated.   Petioles two to three  inches
long.  Flowers large, campanulate, each with two caducous
bracts at base.   Sepals obovate-oblong, concave, pale yellow-
ish-green, as long as the petals, spreading, and at length re-
flexed, deciduous. Petals lance-obovate, mostly obtuse, green-
ish-yellow, stained  with reddish-orange  below the middle.
Stamens in a simple series, shorter than the petals; filaments
with a  lance-ovate  point extending  above the long  adnate
anthers.    Ovaries  closely imbricated;  stigmas  sessile,  re-
curved.   Carpels two-celled, samara-like,  with a lance-oblong
 
1080           VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Ranunculace.e.
wing at apex, incurved at base, with a prominent internal ridge, imbricated in a
cone upon a slender fusiform receptacle; one of the cells frequently obliterated, and
both  seeds often abortive.  (Darlington, Flor.  Cest.) Sex. Syst. Polyand. Polygyn.
It is called Tulip Tree on account  of its numerous large, showy, orange-coloured,
tulip-shaped flowers.   According to Michaux, the northern limit of thistree may bo
placed  at  the southern extremity of  Lake  Champlain, lat. 45°, and it  seldom is
found east of the Connecticut River.   It is found abundantly through the Middle
and Southern States, requiring a rich, not too moist, soil.
   The  bark of the trunk and larger branches is very rough, and covered  with dead
epidermis, which is very much split and divided; upon the smaller branches it is
smooth, and of a deep ashen hue.  It is brought into  the market in pieces of three
or four  inches long, deprived of epidermis,  and of a yellowish-white colour, light,
fibrous,  and easily broken ; the odour is somewhat aromatic; the taste pungent, aro-
matic, slightly camphorous,  and bitter.   The  article obtained from the root has
similar  sensible properties, but browner externally and rougher.
  A peculiar principle (Liriodendrine) has  been obtained  from this bark by the
late Prof. Emmet, of the University of Virginia (Journ. of Phil. Col. of Pharm,
vol. iii.  p. 5).  It is a crystalline solid, bitter and inodorous at 40°, fusible at 180°,
and volatile at 290° F.   When carefully heated in a  glass tube closed at one end,
it gives off a white vapour, which condenses again, without signs of  crystallization.
It is not acid or alkaline.   Its discoverer regarded it  as a substance analogous  to
camphor.
  The medical properties of Liriodendron are those of a stimulant  and  tonic;  in
large doses it is diaphoretic,  and is also stated to be diuretic.   As a febrifuge it has
been employed by a number of American physicians; but as it  is  stimulant, and
apt to sicken the stomach, or to act upon the bowels, the condition of the organs is
to  be strictly inquired into, and the system prepared for its employment. Dr. Young
regarded it as also beneficial in hysteria, and as an anthelmintic.  The dose in sub-
stance is 9j  to 3ij-   In this form it acts with most power.   As it yields its virtues
to  water and alcohol, it may be exhibited either in infusion, decoction, or tincture.
There are no officinal preparations.
                  OTHER  MEDICINAL  MAGNOLIACEiE.

  Illicium anisatum is an evergreen tree, growing in Japan and Cochin-China.  Its fruit con-
stitutes the star-anue (anisum stellalum) of the shops.  It consists of a variable number (usually
six to twelve) of hard woody follicles, disposed in  a  star-like form, each containing an oval
reddish seed.  It has the odour of common anise  (Pimpinclla Animm), but somewhat sweeter.
By distillation it yields the oil of star-anise (oleum badiani), which closely resembles, and is often
substituted for, the oil of common anise; but it congeals less readily than the  latter.  Star-anise
is aromatic and carminative.  Both the fruit and the oil are employed by liqueur-makers.  As
regards its effects it might be substituted for common anise.



Order LXXXVIII. EANUNCULACE^E, De  Candolle.—THE

                          CROWFOOT TRIBE.

 . Characters.-^ 3 to 6, hypogynous deciduous, generally imbricate in estivation, occa-
sionally valvate or duphcate  Petals 3 to 15, hypogynous, in one or  more rows, distinct, some-
times deformed  Stamens definite or indefinite in number, hypogynous : anthers adnate  Carpels
numerous seated on a  torus, 1-celled or  united into a single many-celled pistil; ovary one ot
more seeded, the ovules adhering to the inner  edge; style  1 to each ovary, short simple   Fruit
either cons.sting of dry akenia, or baccate with one or more seeds, or follicular with one or more
valves, -^albuminous; when solitary, either erect or pendulous ; embryo minute ; albumen
corneous-Herbs, or very rarely shrubs.   Leaves alternate or opposite, generally much d v2!l
with the petiole  dilated and forming a  sheath half clasping Se stem"  &$£ c^caSly
present.  Hairs, if any, simple.  Inflorescence variable.  (Lindley.)                ^^sionany 
Black Hellebore :—History.                   1081
  Properties.—Mostly poisonous.  Acridity is the prevailing quality, conjoined, in a consider-
able number of instances, with a narcotic quality. Several of the species are topical benumbers.


   343. RANUNCULUS ACRIS, Zmn-UPRIGHT  MEADOW
                               CROWFOOT.
                           Sex. Syst. Polyandria, Polygynia.

  Botany.    Gen. Char.— Calyx of 5 sepals;  sepals not  separate at the  base, de-
ciduous.   Petals  5, rarely 10, with nectariferous scales at  the base.   Stamens and
ovaries numerous.  Caryopsides ovate, somewhat compressed, terminating in a short
niucro or horn, scarcely larger  than the seed, smooth, striated or tuberculated, ar-
ranged in a  globose or cylindrical head.  (De Cand.)
  Sp. Char— Calyx spreading.  Flower-stalks round and even.  Leaves  in  three
deep-loped and cut segments; those of the uppermost linear  and entire.   Stem
erect, covered with close hairs.1
  Perennial.   Flowers yellow.   Petals with a scale at the base.
  Hab.—Indigenous;  very common in  meadows and pastures.   Flowers in June
and July.
  Composition.—Not analyzed.  Its  acrid  principle  is  either very volatile, or
readily undergoes decomposition, as, by drying, the plant loses its acridity.
  Physiological Effects.—A powerful acrid.  Inflammation  of the palm of the
hand  has been produced by pulling it up and carrying it a  little distance.3  Wither-
ing3 says it easily blisters the skin.   Orfila4 has shown, by experiments on animals,
its powers of causing inflammation of the tissues to which  it is applied.
  Uses.—It has been applied as a rubefacient and epispastic, but is far inferior to
cantharides and mustard, on account of the  uncertainty of its operation.


  344.  RANUNCULUS FLAMMULA, Linn.-LESSER  SPEAR-
                          WORT  CROWFOOT.
                          Sex. Syst. Polyandria, Polygynia.

  Botany.    Gen. Char.—See Ranunculus acris.
  Sp. Char.—Leaves  ovate-lanceolate, bluntish stalked.   Stem- reclining.   Root
fibrous.   Seeds smooth.  (Smith.)
  Perennial.   Leaves nearly entire, subserrate.  Floicers  bright gold colour.
  Hab.—Indigenous; sides of lakes and ditches abundant.
  Physiological  Effects and Uses.—Similar to those of Ranunculus acris.


345. HELLEBORUS NIGER,  Linn., L. E -BLACK HELLEBORE,
                        OR  CHRISTMAS  ROSE.
                           Sex. Syst. Polyandria, Polygynia.
                          (Rhizoma et radix, L.—Root, E.)
                                [.lelleborus, U. S.]

  History.—According to Sprengel,5 this is  the plant called by the Abbess Hilde-
gard,  Christiana.
  It must not be confounded with the ixxifiopoe pixac (black hellebore) of Diosco-
rides,6 which, according  to  Dr. Sibthorp,7 was the plant  which  he  has  described
and figured under the name of IMleborus officinalis.  Hippocrates employed helle-
bore in medicine.   Melampus employed it with  great  success, in the treatment of
i Smith, Eng. Fl.                                 i Curtis, Fl. Lond. vol. i.
» Arrang. of Brit. Plants, iii. G81.                     4 Tox. Gin.
* Hist. Ret Herb. i. 226.                            « Lib. iv. cap. 151.
1 Fl. Grceca. 
1082            VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Ranunculace^e.
madness, 1,400 years before Christ.  His use of it is the earliest instance on record
of the use of a purgative.1  It has  been called  after him melampodium—a term
which has  also been applied to Helleborus niger.
   Botany.   Gen. Char.— Calyx persistent, of 5 sepals; sepals roundish, obtuse,
large, usually green.  Petals 8 to 10, very short,  tubular, narrow, and nectariferous
beneath.  Stamens 30 to 64. Ovaries 3  to 10.  Stigmas terminal, orbicular.  Cap-
sules coriaceous.   Seeds in a double row, elliptical, umbilicated.  (De Cand.)
   Sp. Char.—Leaves radical, pedatisect,  quite smooth.   Scape leafless, one- to two-
flowered, bracteated.  (De Cand.)
   Rhizome several inches  long, tuberculated, horizontal,  scaly, blackish-brown ex-
ternally, white internally, with  many dependent, long, simple root-fibres.  Leaves
on cylindrical stalks from 4 to 8 inches long; lobes ovate-lanceolate, serrate near
the point.  Scape shorter than the petiole.  Sepals ovate or roundish, large, white,
slightly tinged with pink, eventually becoming green.  Petals green, tubular, shorter
than the stamens.  Follicles many-seeded.  Seeds black, shining.
   Hab.—Sub-alpine,  woodland regions  in  the midland  and  southern  parts  of
Europe.
   Commerce.—Hellebore  root is  imported  in  barrels and bags  from  Hamburg
usually,  but  sometimes from Marseilles.
   Description.—The root met with in  commerce under  the name of black helle-
bore root (radix hellebori nigri, seu radix melampodii) consists of two  parts—the
rhizome or rootstock, and the fibres which arise from it.   The rhizome  is half an
inch or less  thick, several inches long, horizontal or contorted,  knotty, with trans-
verse ridges and slight longitudinal  stria).   The fibres  are numerous, cylindrical,
dark  brown  externally, internally whitish or  yellowish-white, with a central paler
cord.  The odour  is very feeble, and  scarcely perceptible, but has been compared
to that of senega root.   Its taste is slight at first,  then  bitterish,  acrid,  and
nauseous.
   Substitution.—It is probable that the roots of  Helleborus viridis and foztidus
are sometimes  substituted  for, or intermixed with, black  hellebore  root.   This
practice certainly occurs on the continent.  The root of Actsea spicata (sometimes
called radix  hellebori nigri falsi) is also  said  to be occasionally substituted for  the
genuine root; its stronger fibres, when  cut transversely, present the form of a cross.
As far as I have observed, the roots, sold in this country  as  black hellebore, have
a very uniform appearance, and from this I  have  not  had  reason to suspect any
intermixture of other roots.
   Composition.—Vauquelin3 analyzed  the  root  of Helleborus  hiemalis.  This
analysis is quoted by  Soubeiran3 as the analysis of black  hellebore root.  Feneulle
and Capron*  analyzed the black hellebore root.
     Vauquelin's Analysis.
Very acrid oil.
Extractive.
Starch.
Vcgeto-animal matter.
Sugar.
Lignin.
Root of Helleborus hiemalis
Feneulle and Capron's Analysis.
Volatile oil.
Fatty oil.
Volatile acid.
Resinous matter.
Wax.
Bitter principle.
Ulmin.
Gallate of potash.
Ammoniacal salts.
Root of Helleborus niger.
  Acrid Oil, Vauquelin;  Soft Resin, Gmelin ; Helleborin.-This substance is odourless, has an
acrid taste, and  is soluble  in  spirit.  Vauquelin  ascribed the activity of hellebore to it   Fe-
neulle and Capron on the other hand, ascribe it to a combination of fatty oil and volatile acid.
Probably the two latter correspond to the acrid oil of Vauquelin.

  Physiological Effects, a. On Animals.—Given  by the mouth  to the car-
1 Le Clerc, Hist, de la Mid. p. 27, 1729.
' Xouo. Traitt de Pharm. i.
2 Ann. de Museum, viii. 87.
* Journ. de Pharm. viii. 503. 
               Black Hellebore:—Uses; Administration.            1083

nivora (as dogs), it causes vomiting, frequently purging and griping.   In excessive
doses it  produces gastro-enteritis.  If the oesophagus be tied, to prevent the ejec-
tion  of the root from the stomach, it causes staggering, weakness or paralysis of the
hind extremities, insensibility, and death.  Similar effects  result from its applica-
tion  to a wound.1   Orfila states, when the animals survive a few hours,  inflamma-
tion  of the rectum is a constant occurrence;  whereas, Vicat2 says it causes inflam-
mation of all the intestines, except only the rectum.  The latter statement is entirely
erroneous.
   (3.  On Man.—Black hellebore is a local irritant, drastic purgative, and emmena-
gogue.   Given in small doses, it increases the secretion aud  peristaltic  motion of
the intestines, and acts as a  stimulant to the pelvic circulation, thereby promoting
the  menstrual  and  hemorrhoidal discharges, and, by its influence over the  portal
circulation, contributing probably to increase  the hepatic secretion. Large doses act
as a drastic purgative, and frequently also occasion  sickness.   They produce a more
manifest influence over the pelvic vessels, often cause cold sweats, and  lower  the
strength of the pulse.  In an excessive or poisonous dose it acts as a narcotico-acrid
poison, and causes vomiting, purging, burning pain in the stomach and  intestines,
cramps of the lower extremities, cold sweats, faintness, paralysis, insensibility,  and
death.   The fresh root applied to the skin produces rubefaction and vesication.
   As a drastic purgative it is allied to colocynth, from which its narcotic operation
and its greater influence over the pelvic organs distinguish it.
   Uses.—Black hellebore, though greatly esteemed by the ancients, is but little
employed by the moderns.  It is adapted for torpid, phlegmatic individuals, especi-
ally when the pelvic circulation  is languid.   On the other hand, in easily excitable
persons, and where  any irritation of the pelvic organs  (especially the uterus  and
rectum) exists, it proves injurious.
   1. In affections of the nervous system, especially mania, melancholia, and epilepsy,
it has long been celebrated, and, under the above-mentioned conditions, at times
 proves serviceable.
   2. As an emmenagogue, it was greatly esteemed by Dr.  Mead,3 and is  still much
valued by some practitioners.   He gave two teaspoonfuls of the tincture in a glass
of warm water  twice a day.   The remarks  already made will  readily suggest the
 class of  cases to which it  is applicable.
   3. In dropsy, its  drastic operation renders it useful.  Farthermore, when this dis-
 ease depends on, or  is connected with, a languid state of the portal circulation, black
hellebore  proves farther  useful by the  stimulus  which  it communicates  to  the
 hepatic vessels.
   4. Lastly, black  hellebore  has been  used in chronic skin diseases, and  as an
 anthelmintic.
   Administration.—The dose  of powdered hellebore is from grs. x to 9j,  as a
 drastic purgative.   When we require a  milder  effect, we  may give  it in doses of
 grs. iij to grs.  viij.   It has also been  given in decoction;  but the tincture is the
 most frequently employed preparation.
   TINCTURA HELLEBORI,  L.  [U.  S.] ;  Tincture of Black Hellebore.—(Hellebore,
 bruised, jv. pjiv, U. S-~\;  Proof Spirit [Diluted Alcohol,  U. S.] Oij.  Macerate
 for seven days,  aud  strain.)—Dose, f3ss to  f'3j.   Principally employed as an em-
 menagogue.

   1 Orfila, Toxicol. Gtn.; Schabel, quoted by Wibmer,  Wirk. d. Arzneim. u. Gifte, Bd. iii. 11.
   « Hist, des Plant. Vin. de la Suisse, p. 69.                             * Works, p. 563, 1762. 
1084
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Ranunculace*:.
         346. DELPHINIUM  STAPHYSAGRIA,  Unn. L. E.—
                               STAVESACRE.
                             Sex. Syst. Polyandria, Trigyrria.
                                (Semina, I,.—Seeds, E.)

   History.—Hippocrates employed stavesacre in  medicine.   Sibthorp1 found the
plant growing in Crete and Zante, and identified it with the  otafyis  dypi'a of Dios-
corides.3
   Botaxy.   Gen. Char.— Calyx deciduous, petaloid, irregular; the sepals elongated
at the base into a  spur.   Petals 4, the two upper  appendiculated within the spur.
(De Cand.)
   Sp. Char.—Spur  very short.   Bractlets  inserted at  the base  of the  pedicel.
Petioles pilose.   Pedicels twice  as long as the flower.  (De Cand.)
   A stout herb, one or two feet  high.   Stem and  petioles  hispid, with  soft hairs.
Leaves broad, palmated,  stalked, 5  to 9-cleft.   Racemes lax.  Flowers bluish or
purplish.   Capsules 3, large.
   Hab.—South of Europe, the Levant, and the Canaries.
   Description.—Stavesacre seeds [semina staphisagrise seu  staphidis  agrise) are
irregularly  triangular (sometimes quadrangular), slightly arched,  blackish-brown,
and wrinkled.  They contain a white and oily nucleus.   Their odour is slight  but
disagreeable;  their taste bitter, very acrid, hot, and nauseous.  Iodine  colours the
seeds brown.   Their  watery infusion is darkened by sesquichloride of iron.  Infu-
sion of nutgalls renders it turbid.
   Composition.—Stavesacre seeds were  analyzed in  1820  by Brandes,3 and in
1821 by Lassaigne and Feneulle.4
           Brandes's Analysis.
Delphima..................  8.10
Fatty oil..................  19.10
Waxy substance..............  1.40
Gum.....................  3.15
Starch....................  2 40
Woody fibre................  17.2D
Phytocol with salts............30 67
Vegetable albumen  ............  3.70
Sulphates and phosphates of lime, potash,
  and magnesia...............  5.77
Water  ...................10.00
Stavesacre Seeds,
100.49
   Lassaigne and FeneulWs Analysis.
Malate of delphinia.
Volatile oil.
Fatty oil.
Brown bitter matter.
Yellow ditto.
Uncrystallizable sugar.
Gum.
Woody fibre.
Animal matter.
Albumen.
Mineral salts.

Stavesacre Seeds.
  1. Delphinia (Delphina ; Delphine; Delphinum).— As usually met with, this is a white odour-
less powder.  Its taste is extremely acrid and very bitter.   It fuses at 248° F.   It is scarcely
soluble in water whether hot or cold, but dissolves in ether,and still better in alcohol.  Its alco-
holic solution reacts as an alkali on test paper.  It is not crystallizable. though its texture is said
to be crystalline, when  the powder is  moistened.  It saturates acids, forms «alts which are
acrid, very bitter, and difficultly crystallizable.  From  its solution in acids, it is precipitated by
alkalies.  Its composition is C^fl^NO2.  Its atomic weight, therefore, is 211   Couerbe5 says
that, as usually procured, it is not absolutely pure, but  contains a resinous matter, and an acrid
resin which he calls staphysam.
  2. Volatile Acid (Delphinic Acid?) -Discovered by Hofscbl&ger." It is white, crystalline,
volatile at a low temperature, and in small doses is a  powerful emetic.

  Physiological Effects —The activity of  stavesacre  seeds  depends partly on
the delphinia and partly on the volatile acid.   The powder of the seeds readily ex-
cites  nausea, vomiting, and purging.   Orfila'' has  shown  that on dogs  it acts first
as an acrid and afterwards as  a narcotic poison.  Its operation appears  to be similar
to cebadilla.
  UsEs.-Stavesacre seeds  have been used to destroy pediculi; whence the Germans
I Prodr. Fl. Graca, i 372.
1 Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. ii. 1240.
1 Journ. de Pharm. xiii. 365.
' Toxicol. Gen.
2 Lib. iv. cap. 156.
4 Ann. de Chim. et. de Phys. xii 35a
• Ann. Chim. et de Phys. 1 2 
Monkshood:—History; Botany.
1085
term them Lausesaamen, or louse-seeds.   For this purpose they are employed in the
form of ointment or acetous infusion.   They  have also been  administered  inter-
nally (in doses of from three to eight grains) against worms,  and externally in the
form of decoction (prepared by boiling gj of the seeds in Oij of water) in invete-
rate itch.
   Antidote.—See Veratrum album.
   DELPIIINIA.—Four grains of delphinia dissolved  in  a drachm  of rectified  spirit
produce, when rubbed on the skin, a sensation  of  burning and  prickling, with  tin-
gling and slight redness.  Taken internally, in doses of half a grain, it sometimes
acts slightly on the bowels, and increases the flow of urine.  In  larger doses, as a
few grains, it  gives rise to sensations of  heat and tingling in various parts of the
body.1   The diseases in which it is chiefly  successful  are neuralgic cases.  It  has
also been used in rheumatic affections with some benefit.  It is employed externally
in the  form of ointment or alcoholic solution.   The unguentum delphinise consists
of 3ss of delphinia, 3j of olive oil, and  3j of  lard.  The sclutio delphinise, com-
posed of 3j of delphinia dissolved in f§ ij of rectified spirit, is an excellent embro-
cation.   Internally, delphinia is given in the form of pills.   The  pilulse delphinise
consists of gr. j of delphinia; grs.  xij extract of hyoscyamus; and the same quan-
tity of extract of  liquorice.  Divide the  mass into twelve pills, one of which may
be taken every three hours (Turnbull).


     347.  ACONITUM NAPELLUS, Linn., L. E. Z).-COMMON
                  WOLFSBANE,  OR MONKSHOOD.
                           Sex. Syst. Polyandria, Trigynia.
             (Folium recens et exsiccatum; Radix, L.—Leaves, E.—The  Root, D.)

   History.,—The ancient history of Aconite is involved in great obscurity.   The
Greeks make frequent reference to a most virulent poison which they term axovitov.
Theophrastus2 is  the earliest writer who  speaks of it.   As Aconitum Napellus  is a
virulent poison, and is a native of Greece, where it is  known at the present day as
axovitov,3 it would at first appear probable that  our  common  aconite was the plant
referred to by the ancient Greeks.  But  the characters of it as given by Theophras-
tus quite preclude this supposition; and  I believe  no one has been able to identify
satisfactorily the  plant  described by this ancient naturalist.4   Dioscorides5 has no-
ticed two kinds of axovitov.
   Botany.   Gen. Char.— Calyx petaloid, irregular,  deciduous,  or withering;
upper sepal concave, helmet-shaped.   Petals 2, superior (nectaries), on long stalks,
expanded at the apex into a  bag hidden beneath the helmet.  (De  Cand.)
   Sp.  Char.—Flowers densely spiked or  loosely panicled.   Helmet  semicircular,
rarely boat-shaped.  Bag of the petals  somewhat conical.   Spur short, thick, in-
clined.  Whigs of the stamens cuspidate or evanescent.  Lobes of the leaves cuneate
pinnatisect.    Ovaries 3, rarely 5, smooth or pilose.  (De Cand.)
   Perennial herb.  Root tapering.  Stem simple.    Flowers blue.—This species is
subject to great variation in  the dense or loose  condition of the inflorescence, in the
form of the helmet, the colour and size  of the  flower, the breadth and the number
of slashes of  the leaves, the downiness of the parts of the plant, and the condition
of the stem.   De Candolle6 admits no less than twenty-nine varieties.
   Hab.—Europe.   It  is placed  among indigenous plants, but  it is a  doubtful
Dative.
  The Dublin College directs the root to be used.
  The London College directs the root (radix)  as well  as the leaves (folia)  to be employed.
  The Aconitum Napellus is one of the most active species of the genus, and no good evidence
1 Turnbull, Treat, on Painful and X(rv. Diseases, p. ?-. 1837.              a Hist. Plant, ix. 16.
* Prod. Fl. Grcecce, i. 372.                * Consult J. E. F. Schultze, Toxicol. Vet. p. xiii. 17S3.
• Lib. iv. cap. 77 and 78.                                           s Prodr. i. 02. 
1086            VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord.  Ranunculacea
has yet been adduced  to prove its inferiority to the A. paniculatum var. y Storkianum, which
Stork published as A. Napellus officinalis, and which was formerly adopted as the officinal plant.
  Moreover, the roots of A. panindatum are not found in commerce, nor is the plant grown
(except in botanical gardens) in this country; so that druggists and  apothecaries could not if
they would have obeyed the former directions of the London and Dublin Colleges.
   Description.—Aconite  root (radix aconiti), when fresh,  consists of a tapering
rootstock,  placed perpendicularly, or nearly so, in the earth, and of numerous cylin-
drical fleshy fibres arising from it.  At its upper  and  thickest part the rootstock
seldom  exceeds the thickness of  the finger; inferiorly it is attenuated and filiform.
Sometimes two or three rootstocks are conjoined.   In the latter case the root has a
palmated appearance.  Its total length is three or four or more  inches.   Its  colour,
as well  as that of the fibres, is externally coffee-brown;  its odour  is earthy.  Inter-
nally, it is white and fleshy.  Its taste is bitter; but after  a few minutes a remark-
able numbness and tingling is perceived on the  lips, tongue,  and fauces.   By dry-
ing, the root shrivels, and becomes darker  coloured.  The  root should be gathered
in the  spring, just  before  the  leaves appear.  The leaves (folia aconiti),  when
chewed, have the same taste, and produce  the  same feeling of numbness.
   Composition.—No complete  analysis either of  the root or  the leaves of Aconi-
tum Napellus has been made.   The  following are the constituents of the  root of
A. Lycoctonum,  according to Pallas:1  a black oil, a green fatty matter, a substance
having  some analogy with the vegetable alkalies [impure  aconitina?], vegetable
albumen, starch, lignin, and some  salts.
   The leaves of  Aconitum medium Schradcri were analyzed by Bucholz.2
   Both Brandes and Peschier announced the existence  of a peculiar alkali (aconi-
tina) in aconite.  Their statement was confirmed, in  1825, by Pallas,3 and, in 1832,
by Geiger and Hesse.4   Peschier  also asserted that aconite contained a peculiar
acid (aconitic acid).  His assertion has  been substantiated by L. A.  Buchner, Jr.5
It has been since ascertained that the  same acid is developed by the action of  heat
on citric acid.   Most chemists have admitted the existence of a volatile acrid prin-
ciple in aconite,  but it has not hitherto been  isolated.
  1. Aconitina.—See post.
  2. Volatile Acrid  Principle—This principle, though admitted  by several  chemists, has
not been isolated   Geiger6 submitted the fresh herb of Aconitum Napellus, with water, to dis-
tillation,  and obtained a liquor having an  acrid taste, an unpleasant odour, and  whose emana-
tions affected the eyes.   May not this volatile principle be  the product of the decomposition of
aconitina?  The following circumstances favour this suggestion : 1st. The  fresh herb and root
have little odour ;  2d. The local effect of aconitina is similar to that  of the root and leaves;
3d. Aconitina, when mixed with the other constituents of the plant, readily undergoes decom-
position, so that considerable nicety of manipulation is required in  the extraction of it; and Mr.
Morson tells me he has sometimes failed to obtain it.
  3. Aconitic Acid—In the evaporation of the juice of aconite, octahedral crystals of aconi-
tate of lane are frequently deposited.  From these L.  A. Buchner obtained the acid.  The acid
also exists in Equisetum fluviatile, and may be formed by the action of heat on citric acid  As
obtained from aconite it  is  scarcely crystalline, merely forming warty elevations  It is white,
permanent  in the  air, odourless, very sour, and is  very soluble in water, alcohol, and etlier.
When heated it fu.es, and at the same  time  undergoes decomposition;  but  does not yield
fumar.c acid.  From the latter  acid it  is distinguished by its greater fusibility and solubility:
from maleic acid by its forming indistinct crystals, and not yielding fumaric acid by heat. The
anhydrous acid, as  found in aconitate of silver, consists of C4H'03
  4. Fatty Oil.—This is, extracted from the root  by alcohol.  It  is dark coloured.   All the
specimens of ,t, which I have obtained, possess a powerfully benumbing property rfrom the
presence of aconitina ?J.                                                '  J L
   Physiological Effects.—Hitherto, I have met with no  clear and accurate ac-
count of the effects  of aconite, and  some of them appear to  me to have  been entirely
overlooked.                                                                       J
  a. On Animals.—If a small quantity of the soft, alcoholic extract of the root of
aconite  be introduced into a wound (as into the cavity of the peritoneum) in a dog,

  1 Journ. de Chim. Mid. i. 192.                            . rm„,.   T,  ,. , „,
  3 Op. supra cit.                                        t <*™hn  Handb. d. Chem. ii. 1241.
  • Pharm. Central-Blatt fur 1838, S. 439.                    . i™™^, ^T' MU' * 4M" 
Monkshood :—Physiological Effects.
1087
it usually causes vomiting (sometimes of a stercoraceous character), diminishes the
force of the circulation, weakens the muscular system so as sometimes to cause the
animal to stagger in walking, and destroys common sensibility of feeling, without
causing stupor.   A dog under the influence of not too strong a dose, will sometimes
follow its owner round the room, recognize him by wagging his tail when called, and
yet be totally insensible to pinching, pricking with needles, &c.  Convulsions do
not usually occur until  a short  period  before  death, and they are then commonly
slight, and rather to be  termed  spasmodic movements.   I have  repeatedly demon-
strated these effects to the  pupils  attending my lectures.
   The following is a notice of one experiment :—
  March 31, 1837.  London Hospital.  Present, Mr. Adams, and several medical students.—
A small portion of alcoholic extract of aconite was introduced  into the peritoneal sac of a strong
dog, which had been kept fasting for some hours.  In a few minutes he was evidently affected.
He was less capable of supporting himself, and leaned against a wall.  In ten minutes was
insensible to the pain caused by  the introduction of pins into his legs, paws, body, tail, nose,&c.
His sight, however, was unaffected; at least, he winked as usual, when attempts to strike him
were feigned.  Was not paralytic, for he walked, though not  firmly.  He recognized several
individuals,and wagged his tail when  spoken to. He made violent attempts to vomit.  He then
lay down, became apparently weaker, and died without a single convulsion.   At one period,
the action of the heart was slower  than usual, and  the  first  and  second  sounds of the heart
were unusually clear and distinct.   Subsequently, the circulation was quickened.  Respiration
was not disordered ;  nor were the bowels affected.
   I have subsequently found that, if a  large quantity  of alcoholic extract be used,
the loss of feeling is not so well marked;  for death succeeds in so short a period of
time that the loss of feeling, as distinguished by the insensibility immediately preced-
ing death, is not well observed.  For the same reason, rabbits do not answer well for
demonstrating these effects;  and the weakness (paralysis?) of the hind extremities,
and spasmodic movements, are much more marked  iu them  than  in dogs.  I can dis-
tinguish no difference between the effects of Aconitum Napellus on rabbits, and those
 of Aconitum ferox on the  same animals.1 On opening  the bodies of dogs killed by
 aconite immediately after death, no pulsations of the   heart are  visible.—Want of
 space compels me to abstain from entering into  any details  respecting the experi-
 ments made on animals with aconite by  Wepfor,3 Sproegel,3 Viborg,4 Brodie,5 and
 Orfila.6
   p.  On Man.—The topical effects are peculiar, and most remarkable.  If a leaf or
 a small portion of the root be chewed, or a few drops of the alcoholic tincture of the
 root be applied  to the lips, there  are produced iu a few minutes numbness and  a
 remarkable tingling sensation.   These effects endure for many hours.   If the quan-
 tity taken into  the  mouth be somewhat  larger, the palate and  throat are affected.
 To me,  the sensation appears as  if the velum and soft palate were elongated, and
 rested on the dorsum of the tongue.   To relieve this,  frequent attempts  are  made
 to swallow.
    When small and repeated doses of the alcoholic tincture of the root are  taken
 internally,  they cause  a sensation of heat  and  tingling in the extremities, and
 occasionally a slight diuresis.
    The extract  of  aconite of the shops is  but little to  be relied on.   Many samples
 produce neither numbness nor  tingling when rubbed on the lips and gums.  Stbrck7
 states that it acts as a diaphoretic and diuretic.   These symptoms, however, are by
 no means constantly produced, and, when they occur, are not always clearly refer-
 able to the aconite used.
    In poisonous doses, the effects of aconite are  most remarkable.   The  following
 details of the effects produced  on a family of three  persons were furnished me, a
 ' See the results r.f my experiments on the latter plant, in the splendid work of my friend Dr. Wnllich,
Planta Rariores Asiatica ; also, a detail of my experiments in the Edinb. Journ. of Nat. and Geogr. Sci-
ence, JuW 1S30, p. 235.                             /                  „■,„.,
 » Hist Cic Aq 1733.                       u ibmer, Wirk. d. Arzneim. u. Gtfte, lid. i. S. 33.
 4 /6i'</.'s. 34.                             ' Pnil- Trans, fir K-11, p. ITS.

 ' Essay on the Internal Use of the Thorn-Apple, Henbane, and Monkshood, Lond. 1763. 
1088            VEGETABLES.—Nat.  Ord. Ranunculace;e.
few days after the accident, by one of the sufferers (Mrs. Prescott), and her account
was confirmed by a very intelligent neighbour who witnessed the progress of the
symptoms:—
  In December, 1836, Mr. Prescott, aged 57, residing in the City Road, planted in his garden a
few pieces of horseradish.  On February 5, 1837, he  observed  some green shoots, which he
supposed to be those of horseradish.  He dug up three of  tbem.  The roots (samples of which
were given, and have yielded  me thriving plants of Aconitum Napellus) were tap-shaped and
small.  Perhaps a very small walnut would exceed in bulk that of the whole root.  These roots
were washed, scraped, placed  on a plate with some vinegar, and eaten at dinner (at 2 o'clock),
with roast beef, by Prescott, his wife  (aged 57), and  a child  (aged 5).  It was remarked at
dinner that the root was very mild, and had not the pungency of horseradish.  After the family
had dined, about one root was  left; so that  two had been eaten at dinner, the greater part (per-
haps one or one and a half roots) by the husband.  About three-quarters of an hour after dinner,
Mr. Prescott complained of burning and numbness of the lips, mouth, and  throat, and  which
soon extended  to the stomach,  and was accompanied with vomiting.  The matters ejected were
first his dinner, and afterwards a frothy mucus; but at no time was any blood brought up. The
vomiting was very violent and constant for an hour, and continued  more or less until within
half an hour of his death.   An emetic was swallowed at a quarter past 4 o'clock;  and, there-
fore, the subsequent vomiting may be ascribed, in  part at  least, to this.  His extremities were
cold, but his chest was warm ; the head was bathed in a cold sweat.  His eyes, to use the ex-
pression of his neighbour, were "glaring."  He complained of violent pain  in the head, and
trembled excessively.  The last symptom  might, perhaps, be in part owing to his terror of the
mistake he had committed.  The lips were blue.   His mental faculties  were not disordered;
on this point I made  particular inquiry, and I was assured that he was neither delirious nor
sleepy, but was quite conscious until within two minutes of his death. He had no cramp, spasm,
or convulsion;  the only approach to it was trembling.   He frequently put his hand to his th road,
Though exceedingly weak, he did not lose his power  over the voluntary muscles;  for, within
a few minutes of his death, he was able, with the assistance of his neighbour, to walk to the
water-closet.   His bowels were acted on  once only after dinner, and that on the occasion just
mentioned, which  was about an hour after he had  taken the emetic  and  some castor-oil.   His
breathing was  apparently  unaffected.  On  his return from  the water-closet he was put to bed,
and within a (ew  minutes expired, apparently in a fainting state.   Death occurred about four
hours after dinner.
  Mrs. Prescott was affected in a similar way.  She had  the same burning and numbness of
the  lips, mouth, throat, and stomach, and violent vomiting.  She experienced a curious sensa-
tion of numbness in the hands, arms, and legs; and she lost the  power of articulating, so that
she was unable to tell the address of her son.  Her attempts to speak were attended with uiv
intelligible sounds only.  She  experienced great muscular debility, and was  unable to stand.
In this respect her condition differed from that of her husband, who could both  stand and walk.
She felt stiffness of, and difficulty in moving, her limbs.  She had  no cramps, spasms, or con-
vulsions.   The only approach  thereto was the  stiffness of the muscles when she attempted to
put them in  action, as in her  attempts to wipe her face.   Some of the external senses were
disordered; thus, to use  her own  expression, though her eyes were  wide open, her  sight was
very dim. and surrounding objects were seen indistinctly.  The  hearing was unaffected.  The
sensibility of the body was greatly impaired; her  face and throat  were almost insensible to
touch.  She felt very giddy, but was neither delirious  nor  sleepy.  For the most part she was
conscious, but at times scarcely knew what was passing around  her.  Her body and extremi-
ties were cold.  She was  frequently pulling her throat about, but she knew not why.  Five
or six hours after dinner she began to recover, and her natural warmth returned.  The reme-
dies employed were an  emetic, castor-oil, pediluvia, rum and water, and some " warm" medi-
cine given her by a neighbouring practitioner. The  child was similarly but more slightly
affected, except that she evinced a slight tendency to sleep. Like the others, she was constantly
putting her hands to her throat.1

  Mr. Sherwen2 has published a most interesting case of a  female poisoned by the
alcoholic tincture of  the root.  About five  minutes after  swallowing  it, she was
seized with  a pricking and  tingling  down  her arms and  fingers, and a painful
numbness across the wrists;  the  tongue and mouth next felt  the same,  then the
legs and feet; and in less  than ten minutes  her face  seemed to her feelings to be
swelling, and the throat  growing  tight.   She felt  sick, and made many efforts to
vomit.   Her legs  failed, she  was  almost  blind, but was conscious  of her plight.




re™S.?af ^/i^Ti?*in the DuMn }ournal ^2i^.rs.!TvT^^^3ff 
                             Monkshood:—Uses.                        1089

When seen  by Mr. Sherwen, her eyes were  fixed  and protruded, with contracted
pupils; countenance livid; jaws and fauces rigid; arms  and hands quite cold and
pulseless; the legs and trunk much in the same state; breathing short, imperfect,
and laborious;  while the heart fluttered  feebly.  She was  sufficiently sensible to
tell how the accident occurred.   In an attempt to  administer  an emetic a stron»
convulsion occurred.   Copious vomiting  afterwards took place.  Five hours after
she had taken the  poison the  pulse  was  becoming full, only  58 per minute, and
intermitting.  There was less oppression at  the  praecordia, and the  pupils were
larger.   She eventually recovered.   These cases agree  with the one detailed in  the
Philosophical Transactions.1   Pallas (quoted by Christison) and Degland3 have pub-
lished cases in which  violent vomiting, purging, colic, and abdominal tenderness,
are said to have been produced by aconite [?].
   In  comparing the operation of aconite with  that of other cerebrospinants, we
observe that its most characteristic  topical effect  is numbness and  tingling.  Ap-
plied  to the eye it causes contraction of the pupil.  When  the  root or its tincture
is swallowed, the most  marked  symptoms are numbness  and tingling  of the parts
about the mouth and throat, and of the extremities, vomiting, contracted, pupil, and
failure of the circulation.  The heart appears to be weakened  or paralyzed, and a
state  approaching to asphyxia is produced.   Convulsion or spasm is not constantly
present, and, when it  does take place, is probably  a  secondary effect arising from
the incipient asphyxia.   In neither  of the cases which I have above detailed, nor in
that of Mr. Sherwen, did stupor occur..  Yet in  some recorded instahces it  has
happened.  In sucli it probably depends,  as Mr. Sherwen suggests, on the congested
condition of the venous system of the brain brought on by the failure of the  heart's
action, and  the  consequent accumulation of blood  on  the  right  side  of  the
heart.
   Uses.—A knowledge of the  physiological  effects of aconite suggests  the thera-
peutical uses of this medicine.  A  benumber  is obviously the physiological remedy
for increased sensibility (pain) of the nerves.   As a topical remedy, aconite is most
valuable for the relief of neuralgic  and rheumatic pains.  In  neuralgia, no remedy,
I believe, will  be found  equal to   it.  One  application  of the  tincture produces
Borne amelioration, and, after a few times' use, it frequently happens that  the pa-
tient  is cured.   In some cases the  benefit seems almost magical.   In others, how-
ever,  the remedy entirely fails to give any permanent relief.    Though the  pathology
of this disease be but little understood, yet we  know that the causes of it, and the
conditions under which it occurs, are by  no  means uniform.  We are, therefore,
easily prepared  to believe that while in some cases aconite may prove beneficial, in
others it may be useless.   I do not think that in  any  it  proves injurious.  The
causes of neuralgia  are, however, usually  obscure, and  therefore we are in most
cases not able to determine d priori the probability or the reverse of the beneficial
agency of aconite.  Hence  its  employment must be, for the most  part,  empirical.
I have observed  that, when  it succeeds, it gives more  or less relief at the first ap-
plication.   When  the  disease depends on inflammation, aconite will  be found, I
think, an unavailing remedy.  In  a painful affection of  the nerves of the face,
arising from inflammation of the socket of a tooth, it gave no relief.  In  rheumatic
pains, unaccompanied with local swelling or redness, aconite is frequently of great
service.   In painful conditions of  the intercostal  and other  respiratory muscles,
occurring in  rheumatic individuals,  I  have found  this  remedy  most  valuable.
In one case of   sciatica it  gave partial  relief;  but in most cases in which I have
tried  it, it has  failed.   In lumbago, I have not tried it.  Dr. Turnbull3 states that
a lady was  cured of this disease by the  aconite  ointment.   In acute rheumatism,
its application has not  proved successful  in my hands;  but I  have been informed
of cases  occurring  to  others in which it has been of great service.
i Vol. xxxviii. p. 287.
• See his Treat, on Painf. and Nerv. Dis. ls3/.
   VOL.  11.—09
* Journ. de Chim. Mid iii. 344. 
1090           VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord. RANimcuLACEiE.
   Aconite has been administered internally in  various diseases, principally on the
 recommendation of Storck.1  It has been employed as a narcotic (anodyne) sedative,
 sudorific, resolvent, and diuretic.  The diseases in which it has been employed are
 rheumatism, gout, scrofula, phthisis, syphilis, some skin diseases, scirrhus and cancer,
 intermittents, dropsies, paralysis, epilepsy,  amaurosis, uterine affections, and hyper-
 trophy of the heart.  In the large majority of  these maladies scarcely any practi-
 tioner now believes in its efficacy.   Fouquier gave it very extensive  trials without
 obtaining much relief from it, except as a  diuretic in passive dropsies.   In rheuma-
 tism, it has frequently proved serviceable  when combined with a sudorific regimen.
 I  have seen it give great  relief in  rheumatic pains.  In hypertrophy of the  heart
 it has been recommended by Dr. Lombard,3 on  account of its decidedly sedative
 effects.
   Administration.—The only preparations of  aconite, whose  activity  may be
 relied on, are  the tincture of the root (made with rectified spirit), the alcoholic ex-
 tract, and Morson's aconitina.   The powder is given in doses of one or two grains,
 gradually increased, until some  effects are  produced; but no reliance  can be placed
 on it.   When of good quality, it causes numbness and tingling of the lips and tongue
 a few minutes after its  application to these parts.
   Antidotes.—See the  treatment for  poisoning by "tobacco.   In Mr. Sherwen's
 case3 great benefit was obtained by the abstraction of ten ounces of blood from the
jugular vein.
   1. TINCTURA ACOVITI, L.; Tinctura Radicis Aconiti, D.  [Tinctura Aconiti Radicis^
 U. S.];  Tincture of Monkshood [Tincture of Aconite  Root, U. S.].—(Root of
 Aconite, recently dried and coarsely powdered, ^xv; Rectified  Spirit Oij.  Mace-
 rate for  seven days and strain.)—This  formula is very  nearly that given  by Dr.
 Turnbull.4  Its dose is five drops three  times a day.  It should be employed with
 great caution.   As an embrocation  in neuralgia  and rheumatism it  is invaluable.
 It is applied by means of a sponge tooth-brush, or a  small piece of sponge attached
 to the end of a stick.   Mr. Curtis, of Camden  Town, has suggested to me the use
 of an aconite plaster, prepared by spreading the soft alcoholic extract (obtained by
 evaporating the tincture)  on  adhesive  plaster, in  neuralgia.—[The Dublin College
 gives the following formula for the tincture : Take of Aconite Root, dried and cut
 small, |x;  Rectified Spirit Oj.   Macerate for fourteen  days, strain, express, and
 filter.
   The following are the directions of  the   U. S.  Pharm.: Take of Aconite Root,
 well bruised, ibj ; Alcohol Oij.   Macerate for fourteen days, express strongly, and
 filter through paper.  This tincture may also be prepared  by the process of displace-
 ment in  the following manner : Take of Aconite Root, in  powder, a pound; Alcohol
 a sufficient quantity.   Mix the  aconite root with  a  pint of  alcohol, and allow the
 mixture  to stand for twenty-four hours; then  transfer it to a percolator, and  pour
 alcohol gradually upon  it  until two pints of filtered liquor are obtained.]
   [Fleming's Tincture of Aconite is a more powerful preparation.   As this has ac-
 quired some repute, and has already occasioned several deaths, we subjoin the for-
 mula : Take of Root of Aconitum Napellus, carefully dried and  finely powdered,
 3xvj, troy; Rectified Spirit fgxvj.  Macerate for four days, then pack into a per-
 colator;  add rectified spirit until twenty-four ounces of tincture are  obtained  It
 is beautifully transparent, of the colour of sherry wine, and the taste is slightly
 bitter   Dose  as an anodyne  and  antineuralgic,  five  minims  three  times daily.
 The dose should be cautiously increased.*  A revenue officer lately lost his life from
 merely tasting this tincture, under the supposition that it was wine, or a flavoured
 spirit.—Ed.]                                                     7
   [Mr. Redfern has communicated to  the  author a case of poisoning by tincture of

  1 Essay on the Internal Use of Thorn-Apple and MonkihnnJ ttro  or.-    .„
  » Treat,  on Painf. and Nerv.Dis. p. 91, 1837   Monlcshood> *'63.  « Era. and For. Med. Uev. i. 249.
  • An Inquiry into the Medicinal Properties of the Aconitum Napellus, byT Fleming* M.of ?' 
Monkshood :—Extracts.
1091
aconite, in which the tincture was probably that which is known as Fleming's tinc-
ture.—Ed.]   " The patient was a young man of the age of 21, who had been suf-
fering  from acute articular rheumatism for some days previous to  his admission.
He took five drops of the tincture, three times a day, for two days, without marked
relief.   On  the third day this dose was increased to six drops,  and was ordered  to
be taken with the same  intervals  between  the doses as  formerly.   Unfortunately,
however, these directions were not adhered to, for the first dose  of six drops was
administered at nine o'clock A. M., and the second at eleven.   At twelve o'clock,
the hour of visit of the physicians, the man was found in a  state of extreme restless-
ness, and complaining of great pain in various parts of his body.  To use his own
expression, ' he felt as though his skin were too tight for his body.'   In imploring
relief, he described his sensations as most intolerable.  At  this time there was much
frothing at the mouth, with violent retching at intervals.   The surface of the body
was cold, and bathed in  profuse perspiration, which ran down his face in  streams.
The pulse, though at first 150 in the minute,  fell to between 50 and 60 in a few
minutes, and was  so small and compressible as scarcely  to be felt at the wrist.
Brandy and water was ordered to be given internally in repeated doses, and warmth
was also applied to various parts  of the surface.   In six hours  afterwards the man
had almost wholly recovered, and had lost  all his rheumatic  pains, which never re-
turned.  It may be  stated that in this case, as  well as in three others in which the
same tincture was administered, the dose of four or five drops almost invariably pro-
duced decided effects, viz. tingling and numbness of the limbs, and very generally
relief of the pain."
   I [TINCTURA ACONITI FOLIORUM, U. S.;  Tincture of Aconite Leaves.—T^e  of
Aconite Leaves ^iv;  Diluted Alcohol Oij.   Macerate for fourteen days, express, and
filter through  paper.  This tincture may also be prepared by thoroughly moistening
the aconite leaves in powder with diluted alcohol, allowing the  mixture to stand for
twenty-four hours, then transferring it to a percolator, and gradually pouring  upon
it diluted alcohol until two pints of filtered liquor are obtained.  This preparation
is weaker than the preceding.—The dose is gtt. x—xx.]
   I EXTRACTUM ALCOHOLICUM ACONITI [Extractum  Aconiti Alcoholicum, U. S.];
Alcoholic Extract of Monkshood.—(Prepared by distilling  the spirit from the tinc-
ture, until the consistence of an extract has been obtained.)—It has  been employed
internally in doses of one-sixth of a grain  every three hours.   It should be given
in the form of pills (pilulse aconiti) made  of liquorice powder and syrup.   It may
be also employed externally in the form of ointment (unguentum aconiti), composed
of one part of the extract and two parts of lard (Turnbull), or  spread  on adhesive
plaster.
   [The formula of the U. S. Pharm.  is as follows: Take  of  Aconite Leaves,  in
coarse powder, ibj ;  Diluted Alcohol Oiv.   Moisten the powder with half a pint  of
the diluted  alcohol, and, having allowed the mixture to stand for twenty-four hours,
transfer it  to a percolator, and add gradually the remainder of  the diluted alcohol.
When the  last portion of this has penetrated  the powder, pour in sufficient water
from time to time to keep the mass covered.  Cease to filter when the liquor which
passes begins  to produce a precipitate as it falls  in that which  has already passed.
Distil off the alcohol from the filtered liquor, and evaporate  the residue to the pro-
per consistence.]
   4. EXTRACTUM ACONITI, L. E. [U. S.]—(Fresh Aconite  Leaves  Ibj.   Bruise the
leaves  in a  stone mortar; then press out the juice, and evaporate it, unstrained,  to
a proper consistence, L.—" Take of the leaves of monkshood, fresh, any sufficient
quantity; beat  them into a pulp; express the  juice; subject the residuum to per-
colation with rectified spirits, so long as the spirit ptoses  materially coloured;  unite
the expressed juice and the spirituous infusion;  filter; distil off the spirit, and eva-
porate the residuum in the vapour-bath, taking care to remove the vessel from the
heat so soon as the due degree of consistence shall be attained,"  E.)—An uncertain 
1092            VEGETABLES—Nat. Ord. Ranunculace^e.

preparation.   When of good quality it causes numbness and tingling, within a few
minutes after its application, in  the mouth and lips.  The tincture or alcoholic ex-
tract are, in my opinion, greatly to be preferred to this variable preparation—Dose,
one or two grains at the commencement, and to be gradually increased until  some
obvious effect is produced.
   6. ACONITINA;  Aconitine.—The following directions for making this alkaloid were
given in the former London Pharmacopoeia.   The alkaloid is now, however, alto-
gether excluded :—
  '• Root of Aconite, dried and bruised, Ibij; Rectified  Spirit, Cong, iij ; Diluted Sulphuric Acid;
Solution of Ammonia; Purified Animal Charcoal, each as much  as may be sufficient.  Boil the
Aconite with a gallon of the Spirit for an hour, in a retort with a receiver adapted to it.  Pour
off the liquor, and again boil the residue with another gallon of the Spirit, and the Spirit recently
distilled, and pour  off the liquor also.  Let the same be done a third time.   Then  press  the
Aconite, and, all the liquors being mixed and strained, let the  Spirit  distil.   Evaporate what
remains to the proper consistence of an extract.  Dissolve this in water, and strain.  Evaporate
the liquor with a gentle heat, that it may thicken like a syrup.  To this add of dilute Sulphuric
Acid, mixed with distilled water, as much as may be sufficient to dissolve the Aconitina.  Then
drop in solution of  Ammonia, and dissolve the Aconitina precipitated in diluted Sulphuric Acid
and water, mixed as before.   Afterwards mix in the Animal Charcoal, frequently shaking them
during a quarter of an hour.   Lastly, strain, and solution of Ammonia being again dropped in,
that the Aconitina may be precipitated, wash  and dry it.".
   Aconitina exists in  the plant in combination with a vegetable acid (aconitic acid?).
Alcohol extracts this salt  with  some other  matters.   The  alcoholic extract yields
this  salt to the water, and  on the addition of sulphuric acid a sulphate of aconitina
is formed, which is decomposed  by ammonia, and the aconitina precipitated.  It is
then again  dissolved  by sulphuric acid, the solution decolorized by charcoal, and
the aconitina again precipitated by ammonia.   As  prepared  by Mr. Morson, this
substance presents  the following properties: It is a white, odourless  solid, either
dull and amorphous or somewhat sparkling, and apparently  crystalline.  As it is
usually described as being uncrystallizable, I have carefully  examined a supposed
crystalline mass with the microscope, but I could not detect distinct crystals.  The
fragments appeared like thin plates of chlorate  of potash, and, though  they varied
greatly in shape, the triangular form  seemed predominant.   Heated  in  a tube,
aconitina readily fuses, and  forms  a pale amber-coloured liquid; and at a higher
temperature  it is decomposed.  It is not volatile.  Heated on platinum foil, over a
spirit-lamp, it is  speedily and entirely dissipated.   It is soluble  in  alcohol, ether,
and  the acids.   From its acid  solution it is precipitated by ammonia.   A minute
portion of it  mixed with lard, and applied to the eye, causes contraction of the pupil,
as I have repeatedly seen.    Geiger  and  Hesse state, that  the aconita  which  they
obtained produces dilatation of  the pupil.  Mr. Morson's aconitina is  so powerful
that one-fiftieth of a grain has endangered the life of an individual.   It is the most
virulent poison known, not excepting hydrocyanic acid.
   The  following  notes were formerly appended to  it in the  London  Pharmaco-
poeia:—
  "An alkali  prepared  from  the leaves and root of aconite.   It is very soluble in sulphuric
ether, less in alcohol, and very slightly in water.   It is totally consumed  in the fire, no salt of
lime remaining. This substance, possessing strong power, is not to be rashly employed."
   A spurious aconitina is  found in  the  shops.   It is imported from  France, and
bears the stamp  and label of a celebrated  French chemical firm.  Its colour is
grayish-yellow.   It is inert, or nearly so; at least I have taken one grain of it with-
out perceiving the least effect of  it on the tongue or otherwise.   It is not completely
soluble either in ether or alcohol.   When burnt on platinum  foil, it leaves a calca-
reous residue.   The only genuine aconitina which I have met with is  that manu-
factured by Mr.  Morson, of Southampton Row; and Dr. Turnbull informs me that
he has found none other to possess any medicinal value.   Mr. Skey also found this
to be the case.1
See Lond. Med. Gaz. xix. 185. 
Black Snakeroot :—Botany.
1093
   The effects of this alkaloid are  similar to those of aconite root, but, of course,
much more powerful.  If the ointment, or  an alcoholic solution of this substance,
be rubbed on the skin, it causes intense heat,  tingling, and  numbness, which con-
tinue for  more than twelve or eighteen hours.  A minute portion of an  ointment,
composed of a grain of the alkaloid  to  two drachms of lard, applied to the eye,
causes almost insupportable  heat and tingling, and contraction of the pupil.   This
last effect was shown me  by  Dr. Turnbull; in some amaurotic cases of several years'
standing; the pupils underwent no change when the eye was  exposed  to strong day-
light.   In very minute doses it has caused  heat and  tingling upon  the  surface of
the body, and  sometimes diuresis; but it cannot be  administered internally with
safety.   In one case (an elderly lady), one-fiftieth of a grain had nearly proved fatal.
Satisfied that great insecurity attends its internal use,  Dr. Turnbull tells me he has
long since ceased  to employ  it in  this way, as  the slightest inattention on the part
of the dispenser may be attended  with  fatal results.  The enormous cost (3s. 6c/.
per grain !) of Morson's aconitina limits its use.   I believe that the alcoholic tincture
is a perfect substitute for it; and the experience of others confirms my own observa-
tion.   Of the great efficacy  of  aconitina  in  neuralgic and rheumatic affections, no
one can entertain  any doubt who has submitted the remedy  to trial.1  The follow-
ing are Dr. Turnbull's formulae for using aconitina externally:—
   1. Unguentum Aconitince;  Aconitine Ointment.  (Aconitine  gr. xvj; Olive Oil 3ss;  Lard %j.
Mix.)—It is employed by friction with the finger during several minutes.
   [Dr. Fleming recommends for external  use  the following preparation : Take of Aconitina
gr. xvj; Spir. Rectif. n\, xvj j Lard  ^j.  Rub together and make an Ointment.  One or more
drachms of the tincture may, according to Dr. Fleming, form an excellent substitute for the
ointment in external use ; but, when there is any abrasion of the skin, the use of any of these
preparations is attended with danger.—En.]
   2.  Solulio Aconitina; Aconitine Embrocation.  (Aconitine, gr viij; Rectified  Spirit Sij.   Dis-
solve.)—Used by friction sponge (as a sponge tooth brush).  Care must be taken not to employ
it where the skin is  abraded.


   [348.  CIMICIFUGA RACEMOSA—BLACK  SNAKEROOT.
                          Sex. Syst. Polyandria, Monogynia.
                            (Cimicifuga, U. S.—The Root.)

   Botany.  Gen. Char.—Sepals  four to five.   Petals (or rather staminodia) three
to five, concave or  unguiculate, sometimes by abortion few or none.   Stamens nume-
rous; anthers retrorse.  Style short;  stigma simple.  Carpels one to eight, follicular,
many-seeded.   Perennial herbs.  Leaves  two to  three ternately divided, segments
incisely serrate.   Flowers in virgate  racemes, white.   (Torrey and Gray, Flor. of
North America).
   Sp. Char.—Racemes very long; leaflets  ovate  oblong, incisely toothed;  stami-
nodia slender, two-forked (Ell.  Sk. ii. p. 16).  Root thick and knotted, with  long
fibres.  Stem three to eight feet  high, glabrous, furrowed, leafy near the middle.
Leaves three, ternate; leaflets two  to  three  inches  long.   Racemes  branching, six
to twelve inches  long; pedicels three to four lines in length, bracteate.   Flowers
very fetid.  Sepals  caducous, greenish-white, concave.   Staminodia four to eight.
Carpels globose ovate, glabrous.   Seeds  seven to  eight, compressed and angular.
De Candolle states  that  the flowers  are  sometimes digynous, but we have never
observed more than  a single  ovary  in a flower (T. and  G. op.  cit.  vol.  i. p. 36).
  Hab.—This plant is known  by  the names of Tall  Snob root, Black Snakeroot,
and Rich  Weed.   Its size and  the long white racemes of flowers make it a con-
spicuous ornament of our woods.
  It is abundant  in open woods and on hillsides throughout the United States, from
Canada to Florida.   It flowers  in June and July.
  The root as found in  the shops is composed of a  rough  tuberculated head and
1 See Dr. Turnbull, op. supra cit.; Mr. Skcy, Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xix. p. 181. 
 1094            VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. RanunculacejE.

 numerous radicles, seven inches long, of a black colour externally, white internally.
 The radicles are extremely brittle and liable to be separated.  The odour is feeble
 and earthy;  the taste bitter and astringent, leaving an impression of acrimony upon
 the palate.   The sensible properties depend  upon the time when  the  root is col-
 lected, and the mode of drying and preserving it.  It should be collected late in the
 summer, or in the autumn.
   Composition.—An analysis made by Mr. Tilghman, resulted in the  detection  of
 the  following substances:  Fatty  matter, gum, .starch, resin,  tannin,  wax, gallic
 acid, sugar, oil, black colouring matter, green colouring matter, lignin,  and salts  of
 lime, iron, magnesia, and potassa.   The experiments, however, led to no decided
 conclusion as to the  nature of the active principle.  " The  peculiar bitterness and
 nauseating properties  of the  plant  seemed  more fully developed  in the ethereal
 extract than in any other form."  (Am. Journ. of Pharm. vol. vi. p. 20.)
   Medical Properties.—Considerable variance of opinion has existed with regard
 to the influence this" medicine is capable of exerting upon the animal economy.   By
 the late Professor  B. S. Barton, it is stated to be astringent; he farther informs us
 that " in a putrid  sore throat, which prevailed many years ago in Jersey, a strong
 decoction of the roots was  used  with  great benefit as  a gargle."   Dr.  Mears, who
 tried the medicine upon himself, reports a decided impression upon the brain, evinced
 by a distressing pain in the head and giddiness; it also increased the force and ful-
 ness of the pulse, and produced a flushed condition of the face;  uneasiness of the
 stomach, and violent efforts to vomit were  also  among the symptoms  experienced
 by him (Phil. Monthly Journ. of Med. and Surg. Sept. 18*27).  Dr. Garden had
 previously mentioned the  tendency to affect the brain, which is compared  to digitalis;
 this  writer also states that it operates powerfully upon the secreting organs and ab-
 sorbents, and  that, when exhibited in  large  doses, nausea, vertigo, anxiety,  great
 restlessness, pains  in the extremities, &c. were  occasioned (Togno and  Durand in
 Translation of Manual of Edwards and Vavasseur, p. 339).  Dr. Chapman, speak-
ing of this  article, informs us that he has never been able to discover the astringent
 action in  any great  degree, but that  it is " expectorant, narcotic,  antispasmodic,
 diaphoretic, and in large doses emetic.  Given  so as to affect sensibly  the system,
 we find, first, some nausea,  followed by greater freedom of expectoration, and  more
 or less relaxation of  surface, with slight nervous tremors  and vertiginous affection.
 The pulse during this state is considerably lowered, and is apt to remain so for  some
 time."  (General  Therapeutics.)  In  addition to these views with regard to the
medicine, it may be farther stated that it has been  regarded as  having a control
 over the uterus.  The diseases  to which it has  been applied are as diversified as
 the effects just referred to.   Dr. Garden thought highly of it in phthisis  pulmonalis,
 but that the diagnosis was strictly accurate  cannot be assumed ; the  probability  is
 that it proved beneficial rather in similative cases.   It is not difficult to understand
 how service can be obtained in humoral asthma, catarrh, and analogous affections,
 in which it has been recommended, by a stimulating impression upon  the mucous
 membrane, and the promotion of healthy expectoration.  The evidence  of a favour-
 able action in rheumatism  is of a decided  character.   In  the wards of  Professor
 Dunglison, at the Philadelphia Hospital, it has been used with benefit.   He informs
 us that " when pushed so as to produce catharsis, and  even slight  narcosis, it cer-
 tainly appeared to  be of service  in the acute forms."  (General  Therapeutics and
 Mat. Med. vol. ii.  p. 194.)   In the chronic form, we should expect much more  to
 be accomplished by it.
   In chorea,  it is highly  spoken of.   Several  years  ago, Dr. Young  (American
 Journ. of  Med. Science, vol.  ix.) brought cimicifuga before the  profession  as a
 remedy in  this disease, and his results have to  a certain  extent been verified by
 other physicians.  Professor Wood found  that a case  under his  care yielded  to  it,
 after the failure of purgatives  and  metallic tonics.  The latter  author also  exhi-
 bited it satisfactorily in a case of convulsions occurring periodically, and connected 
Other Medicinal or Poisonous Ranunculace^e.          1095
with uterine disorder.   In these cases, however, its precise  mode of operation is
obscure.
  Black snakeroot may be given in powder, in doses of half a drachm, two or three
times daily.
  The decoction is made by boiling for a few minutes 3j  of  the contused root in
Oj of water.  The dose is gj or |ij, two or  three  times  daily.   This is a better
form than the powder.
  The tincture  may be made with f iv of the bruised root, and Oj of Diluted Al-
cohol.   The dose is  gtt. xx to f5J, two or three times daily.   This  preparation is
adapted to rheumatic cases.


    349. COPTIS TRIFOLIATA, Sahb. —  GOLDEN  THREAD,
                           Sex. Syst. Polyandria, Polygynia.
                              (Coptis, U. S.—The Root.)

  Botany.  Gen. Char.—Sepals  5 to  6, petaloid,  deciduous.   Petals 5  to 6.
 Stamens 15 to  25.   Follicles 5 to 10, on long stipes, somewhat stellately diverg-
 ing, membranaceous, ovate oblong, pointed with the style, 4- to 8-seeded.  Herbs
 with radical, divided, subcoriaceous leaves, and very  slender, extensively creeping
 roots.
   Sp. Char.—Leaves 3-foliate;  leaflets cuneiform-obovate, crenately and mucro-
 nately toothed, obscurely 3-lobed; scape 1-flowered.  Roots consisting of long bright
 yellow fibres, intensely bitter.  Leaves  evergreen;  leaflets about  an  inch long.
 Scape slender,  three to five inches high.   Sepals 5 to  7, oblong,  obtuse, white.
 Petals much shorter than the sepals, yellow at base.   Carpels acuminated with the
 persistent style.   Seeds oblong, black, and shining; raphe very  indistinct.   (Tor-
 rey and Gray, Flor. of North Amer. i.  28.)
  Hab.—This plant is found  in mountain bogs, from  Greenland  and Labrador to
 Pennsylvania.
   The root, which is the officinal portion, is brought into the market in  the dried
 state.  It is filamentous, threadlike, and of a deep golden-yellow colour, very brittle.
 The fibres are usually commingled with the leaves of  the  plant.   By the  Shakers,
 the whole plant appears to be compressed into the square form.   It  has no odour;
 the taste is  bitter  without  astringency.
   This article of the Materia  Medica is ranked among the pure bitters, as  its medi-
 cinal properties appear  solely to depend  upon a bitter extractive matter.   It  may
 be  employed  as  a tonic under circumstances calling for the exhibition of such
 remedies, and may be  ranked with sabattia  and that class of articles, acting as a
 stomachic, improving the  appetite, &c.   It is not as  powerful as gentian, quassia,
 and other pure bitters.   In the treatment of  aphthous sore mouths of children, it
 has been used as an  application in New England.
  The mode of  employment may be in the form of infusion, which  may  be  made
 in the proportion of  |ss to Oj of Water.—Dose, ,fj to Jij.
  A tincture is made by  macerating gj of the Root in Oj of Alcohol.—Dose, f3j
 to fjij.
  The dose of the powder is gr. xx to 3J-  An extract might be prepared.
        OTHER MEDICINAL  OR POISONOUS RANUNCULACE^J.

  1. The leaves of Helleborus  fqjtidus are emetic and purgative.  Tliey have been em-
ployed as a vermifuge against the large round worm (Ascaris lumbricoides).
  2. Helleborus viridis possesses  similar properties.
  3. Aconitum ferox is, perhaps, the  most violent of the  ranunculaceous poisons.  It is a
Nepaul plant, and constitutes the Bish or Bikh poison of that country.  Several years since, I
undertook, at the request of Dr. Wallich, to examine the effects of this plant dn animals. My 
1096            VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Podophylleje.
experiments were made with plants which had been ten years in Dr. Wallich's possession, and
which, therefore, had doubtless lost part of their activity; yet their effects were most energetic
(Wallich's Plantoz Asiatica rariores; and ihe Ebinb. Journ. of Nat. and Geogr. Science, July, 1830,
p. 235), but of the same nature as those of Aconitum Napellus.
  The Delphincm consolida is officinal in the U. S. Pharmacopeia.
           Order  LXXXIX.   PODOPHYLLEaE.—Limh

  Essential Character.—Sepals 3 to 4, deciduous or persistent. Petals in 2, 3, or more rows,
each of which is equal in number to the sepals.  Stamens hypogynous, 12 to 18, arranged in
two, three,  or more  rows; anthers  linear, oval, turned inwards.  Stigma somewhat peltate.
Fruit succulent or capsular, 1-celled.  Seeds indefinite; embryo small.
  Herbs.—Leaves broad-lobed.  Flowers radical, solitary, white (Beck).

      PODOPHYLLUM  PELTATUM, Linn— MAY-APPLE.
                           Sex. Syst. Polyandria, Monogynia.
                           (Podophyllum, XI. S.—The Root.)

  Botany.   Gen. Char.—Sepals 3.  Petals 6  to 9.   Stamens 12 to 18.  Stigma
large, subsessile, peltate.   Berry somewhat fleshy, not dehiscent.   Seeds many.
  Sp. Char.—Stem erect,  2-leaved, 1-flowered; fruit ovate.
  The common  names  by which this plant are known are May-Apple and Hog-
Apple.   It has a large,  horizontal, creeping, perennial root;  the stem is from eight
to twelve  inches high,  naked, with  sheathing  stipules at the base, dichotomous at
the summit, dividing into  two petioles two to four  inches in length, each bearing a
peltate leaf.  The leaf  is  large, hanging, divided  into five to seven lobes,  cuneate,
oblong, dentate, and often  bifid  at the apex.   Flower  solitary in the axil of the
petioles; peduncle recurved, white.   The fruit  is an oval berry, an  inch  and a half
long, smooth, yellowish when  mature, succulent, and pulpy, having a mawkish sweet
taste, edible, but not agreeable.
   Hab.—May-Apple is common throughout the United States, in moist woods and
shady situations along the  banks of  rivulets.   It flowers in May.
  In tbe dried state, the root is found in pieces several inches in length, the thick-
ness of quills; some of them are knotty and  swollen at intervals (jointed), and
beset with  the remains of  the radicals, somewhat corrugated and wrinkled;  exter-
nally the colour is deep brown or blackish ;  internally  dingy white.  The fracture
is short.  _  The entire root has little odour; the taste is sweetish, bitter,  and some-
what acrid.
  The powder is grayish;  it  has somewhat the odour of ipecacuanha.
  Chemical Composition.—Podophyllum has been examined with the view to determine its
constituents. Dr. E. Staples found it to contain resin, starch, and'a peculiar vegetable substance
crystallizable in white silky tufts.   (Togno and Durand, Translation of Edwards and Vavas-
seur's Manual.)  Mr. Hodgson obtained from it also a peculiar principle.  To this the name Podo-
phylline has  been given.
  Podophtlline.  (Hodgson.)—When dry, this substance is in pale brown scales of consider-
able lustre ;  is easily pulverized, is unalterable in the air, and has a strong bitter taste   It is co-
piously soluble  in strong alcoliol, and much more so in boiling than in cold water, the aqueous
solution  retaining  when  cold about a grain to the ounce.  It is soluble to some extent in sul-
phuric ether.  It is readily separated  from water  by muriatic acid, is  coloured red by nitric
acid, and becomes first olive or green, and subsequently purple by sulphuric acid   Exposed to
heat it fuses, blackens,  and dissipates in black smoke.   (Journ. of Phil. Col of Pharm vol iii
275.)  It has not as yet been determined whether this or the resin is the active principle.
   Medical Properties.—May-Apple root is  an  active cathartic, resembling jalap
in its action upon the bowels.   It stimulates the mucifSrous  glands  and exhalants
and occasions watery discharges; in too large quantities, giving rise to tormina   It
is highly spoken of by many eminent writers, who have tested its efficacy   Dr
Eberle (Mat. Med.) says he  very frequently gave it  instead  of jalap, and always
found it active and safe  in  its  operation.   Dr. Burgon regarded it  as slower in its 
Butternut:—Botany; Composition.                1097
operation than the article mentioned, but as leaving the bowels longer in a lax and
soluble  condition. (Med. Recorder, iii. 332.)  The cases to which it is adapted are
of an inflammatory character, especially at the commencement, where brisk purging
is required.   In bilious fever and intermittents, it has been much used throughout
the country.   Combination  with  calomel  or cremor tartar increases  its certainty,
and  at the  same time moderates  its drastic  action.   In overdoses,  it occasions tor-
mina and tenesmus, and hypercatharsis with muco-bloody discharges; it also nause-
ates  the stomach and induces emesis.
  The leaves  of the plant and young shoots are said to be highly poisonous.
  The dose of the powdered root is from ten to twenty grains.

  EXTRACTUM PODOPHYLLT, U. S.   This preparation  is made in the  same way as
the  Extract of Jalap.  It  has the advantage over the crude  medicine of being
given in smaller bulk, and may be substituted for it, or for the extract of Jalap.—
Dose, ten to fifteen grs]


          Order XC.  JUGLANDE^.—De Cand., Und.

  Essential Character.—Flowers diclinous.  Sterile flowers in an ament.  Perianth scaly, ob-
lique, irregularly lobed.  Stamens inserted on the receptacle,  indefinite (three to thirty-six);
filaments short,  distinct; anthers thick, two-celled, bursting longitudinally.  Fertile flowers with a
single or double perianth, the outer four-parted, the inner (when present) of four pieces. Ovary
inferior, one-celled :  ovule solitary,  erect; styles one  to two, very  short or none; dtigmas large,
either two and lacerated or discoid and four-lobed.  Fruit, drupaceous, one-eel led, with four im-
perfect partitions.  Seed four-lobed; embryo large;  albumen none;  cotyledons  fleshy, two-lobed,
wrinkled; radicle superior.
  Trees.— Leuves alternate, unequally  pinnate (Beck).

            JUGLANS  CINEREA, Linn— BUTTERNUT.
                           Sex. Syst. Moncecin, Polyandria.
                      (Juglans, TT. S.—The inner Bark of the Root.)

  Botany.   Gen. Char.—Monoecious.  Sterile flowers;  ament imbricate, scales
mostly five-parted.  Perianth  five  to  six-parted.   Stamens eighteen  to thirty-six.
Fertile flowers; perianth  double,  each four-parted.   Styles  one or two.   Drupe
partly spongy ; nut rugose and irregularly furrowed.
  Sp. Char.—Leaves pinnate; leaflets numerous, lanceolate; serrate rounded at
the base, soft  pubescent beneath; petioles villous; fruit oblong ovate, with a termi-
nal projection, viscid and hairy,  on a long peduncle ;  not  oblong, acuminate,  con-
spicuously  sculptured (Beck, Botany of North, and Mid.  States, 335).
  This plant is the J. cathartica of Michaux.   The  common  names by which  it is
known are  White  Walnut and Butternut.  In some situations it is a large tree, with
numerous branches and a smooth cinereous bark.  The fruit is less rank and strong
than the black walnut, but by age becomes rancid and unpleasant;  it abounds in
oil.   Early in the spring, if the  bark be pierced, there exudes a saccharine juice.
  Hab.—Butternut abounds in Canada and the northern and middle sections of the
United States, in rich bottom lands and  along streams.   It flowers in  May, and the
fruit ripens in September and October.
  The inner  bark, when first separated from the tree,  is of a pure white colour, but
soon begins to change, and  by the time it  becomes dry, is of a deep  brown colour.
It comes into  the  market in pieces, which have a fibrous fracture.   If the epidermis
has not been removed, they are smooth externally.   The inner bark is the officinal
portion ; that from the root is most active.   When in the  fresh state a rubefacient
effect is stated to  be made upon  the skin.   The period for collecting  it is in May.
The  odour  is feeble, and the taste is bitter and pungent.
  Composition.—Mr. S.  Wetherill found  in  this bark fixed oil, resin, saccharine
matter,  lime, and potassa,  a peculiar principle (extractive?), and tannin.  (Cnpub- 
1098             VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Geraniacejh.

liJted Essay).   Dr. Bigelow did not find tannin  by the action of gelatine.   Mr.
Wetherill, however, found a precipitate afforded by standing.
   EXTRACTUM JUGLN'DIS, U. S   Extract of Butternut.—This  is the  officinal pre-
paration,  which is mostly  used.   It  is  made  by displacement from  the bark, in
coarse  powder, by means of water, and evaporating the solution.   It  is of a black
colour, having a caromel-like odour, and bitter astringent taste.   It is  a pretty cer-
tain mild  cathartic, operating without pain or irritation, and evacuating the aliment-
ary  canal without depletion.  For a long time  it has been employed as a purgative
throughout the country, and is one of the articles to which Dr. Rush directed atten-
tion.  Dr.  Barton, in  his  Collections, also speaks highly  of it.   By all the  sub-
sequent writers upon  Materia Medica, it is  noticed as one  of the most valuable
of our indigenous productions.   The cases to  which it is adapted are,  fevers, with
disturbance of the liver and  congestion of the abdominal organs, habitual costive-
ness, and dysenteric affections.   By combination with a mercurial, as blue pill or
calomel, its powers are increased.   The dose is 10  to 30 grains, in pill.    The ex-
tract which is brought in from the  country, and made by decoction, is objectionable,
from the little care taken in its  preparation.
   A decoction is sometimes used, but the taste and the quantity required render it
inferior to the officinal preparation.
         Order  XCI.   GERANIACE^E, De  Cand., Linn.

  Essential Character.—Sepals five, persistent, more  or less unequal, with an imbricate
aestivation; sometimes saccate or spurred at the base.  Petals five (or by abortion four,  rarely
none), unguiculate.  Stamens usually  monadelphous, hypogynous, twice  or thrice as many as
the petals.   Ovary composed of five pieces,  placed round an  elevated  axis, each one-celled,
one seeded ;  ovules pendulous; styles five,cohering round the axis.  Fruit formed of five carpels
cohering round the axis, having a membranous pericarp and terminated by an indurated style,
which finally twists and carries the pericarp, along with it.  Seeds solitary, pendulous; albumen
none.  Embryo curved;  radicle pointing to the base  of the cell; cotyledons foliaceous, convolute,
and plaited.
  Herbs or shrubs.—Stems tumid and separate  at the joints.  Leaves either opposite or alternate
(Beck).


 GERANIUM MACULATUM,  imn.-SPOTTED GERANIUM.
                          Sex. Syst. Monadelphia, Decandria.
                            (Geranium, U. S.—The Root.)

  Botany.  Gen. Char.— Sepals five, unequal.    Petals  five,  equal.   Stamens
alternate, fertile ones larger, and with nectariferous  scales  at the base.  Carpels
with long awns, at length separating elastically from the summit to the base;  awns'
smooth  internally  (Beck).
  Sp. Char.—Root perennial, irregularly gibbous and horizontal, brownish, mottled
with green externally, and greenish-white internally.  From the root spring a num-
ber of radicle leaves and one or more- stems;  these are erect and terete, of a  green
colour, and furnished  with reflexed hairs.  At the height of six, eight, or ten inches
from the ground, the  stem becomes forked; and at the point of division is furnished
with two large petiolate leaves, which are  generally reflexed.  Leaves on the  upper
part of the stem either with very short petioles or sessile.  The peduncles arise from
the dichotomous divisions of the stem, and support two flowers  on short pedicles.
The calyx  consists of five  oval, lanceolate, ribbed, cuspidate segments, plumosely
ciliate at their outer margin, and membranous on the other;  sometimes three  of the
segments only are ciliate.  Petals five, obovate, not emarginate.   Stamens ten, fur-
nished at the base with glands, and terminated by oblong, convex, deciduous anthers
of a purple colour.  Germ ovate.  Style persistent, the  length of the stamens at
first, but afterwards elongated.   Stigmas five.   Capsule containing five seeds  which 
Dogwood :—Botany.
1099
when mature, becomes detached by the elasticity of the awns (Griffith, Am. Journ.
of Pharm. vol. iv. p. 90).
  The common names for this plant are Crowfoot and Crane's bill.  It is a hand-
some plant, of which there  are several varieties, varying in the form of the foliage
and  colour of  the flower ;  these depend upon soil and  situation.   The most usual
colour of the flower is lilac.
  Hab.—The geranium maculatum is common throughout  the LTnited  States,
growing in hedges and borders of damp woods.   It flowers in May.
  In the dried state, the root presents itself in pieces an inch or two in length, and
three to four lines thick,  corrugated, wrinkled, and rough, with a few fibres attached;
externally the colour is brown, internally dingy white.  It breaks with a short frac-
ture.   The odour is feeble,  the taste astringent and bitter.  The powder is gray.
  Chemical  Composition.—From Dr. Staples's analysis, it appears that Geranium
contains  gallic  acid in  large quantity, tannin,  mucilage in a  small proportion,
amadin, red colouring matter, principally in the external covering of the root, resin
in small quantity, and  a crystallizable vegetable substance (Journ. of Phil.  Col.
Pharm. i. 171).
  Medical Properties.—Geranium is an astringent  of some power, and  the
therapeutical uses to which it has been put, are  based upon this action.   It early
attracted the attention of those who  were inquiring into the remedial value of in-
digenous plants, and has been uniformly spoken of by all subsequent writers upon
the same subject.   In its effects  and  range of application it differs not from others
of the same class;  more powerful than some, and less so than others.   In hemor-
rhages and bowel affections, under  the appropriate  pathological  conditions calling
for  their exhibition, geranium may be  administered with advantage.   As  a local
application in  chronic inflammation, ulceration, &c, benefit may equally be expected
from it, as for instance in the form of a gargle where the throat is involved, and in
that of injection in gonorrhoea and leucorrhcea.   The forms of exhibition are varied.
  If the powder be used, the dose is  from 10 to 30 grains.   The decoction is made
by boiling an ounce of the bruised root for a few minutes in a pint of water.   Dose,
i%j  to f^ij.   An infusion may be prepared in the same manner.   A tincture and
an extract may be prepared from it.


  Order XCII. CORNACE.E,  De Cand.—THE  DOGWOOD
                                   TRIBE.

  Essential Character.—Calyx adherent to the ovary ;  limb four  to five-toothed, minute or
four to five-lobed, with a valvate asstivation.  Petals distinct, equal in number to the teeth of
the calyx, and inserted alternately with them into the margin of the hypogynous disk, broad at
the base;  estivation valvate. Stamens four to five, inserted  with the petals, and alternate  with
them ; anthers introrse, mostly cordate. Ovary one-celled, with solitary pendulous ovule in each
cell; styles single.   Drupes baccate with a one to two-celled nucleus, crowned with the remains
of the calyx.  Seeds anatropous.  Embryo nearly the length of the fleshy albumen; the radicle
shorter than the oblong cotyledons.
  Trees or shrubs, rarely herbaceous, with a bitter bark.  Leaves opposite (or rarely somewhat
alternate), mostly entire, exstipulate, pinnately  veined.  Flowers cymose; the inflorescence
sometimes capitate and involucrate, rarely dioecious.   Hairs centrally  affixed.  (Torrey  and
Gray.)

                CORNUS FLORIDA, Xi««.-DOGWOOD.
                           Sex. Syst. Pentandria, Monogynia.
                           (Cornus Florida, U. S.—The Bark.)

  Botany.   Gen. Char.—Limb of the calyx four-toothed, minute.  Petals oblong,
spreading.   Filaments  filiform.   Style subclavate;  stigma  obtuse  or capitate.
Drupes not connate into a syncarpium.   Leaves entire, minutely scabrous, with  the
appressed bicuspidate hairs.   Flowers white, rarely yellow. (T. and G.) 
1100
VEGETABLES.—Nat. Ord. Cornace^.
  Sp. Char.—Leaves of the involucre four, obcordate, or with a callous notch at
the apex; drupes oval; leaves ovate acuminate.
                          Dogwood is a small tree, varying in height from 15 to
                        20 or* 30 feet, rarely attaining  more, with  an irregular
                        growth.   The branches are  numerous and expanded.  It
                        is a conspicuous ornament of the forest in the spring of
                        the year, when the large  leafy involucres are  expanded
                        and resemble showy white flowers diffused in every direc-
                        tion.  AVithin  the involucres are the flowers, in clusters,
                        rather inconspicuous, greenish-yellow.  The leaves are
                        developed after the flowers.  In the fall of the  year they
                        become deep red.   The drupe or berry is bright red when
                        mature.
                          Hab.—This  plant is common throughout the  United
                        States, growing in open woods in moist soil from  Canada
                        to  Florida and Louisiana.   Its growth is modified by the
                        climate; to the south it attains its  extreme size.  In the
     Cornus Florida.       northern sections of the country the  time  of flowering is
                        May, but in the southern it is during March and April.
  The bark of the tree constitutes the  officinal  portion;  that from the root is re-
garded as most efficacious.   It is brought into the market in  pieces slightly quilled,
several inches long, half an inch to two  broad, and  two or three lines thick, of a
grayish-red colour,  breaking with  a  short  fracture, and exposing lighter-coloured
surfaces, mottled with red and white.   The pieces from  the root are rougher exter-
nally and more frequently destitute of  epidermis.  The odour is feeble; the taste
bitter and astringent, with a little aroma.  In the fresh state the taste is a little acrid.
  Chemical Composition.—Dr. Walker,  who analyzed the bark, announced that
it contained gum, resin, tannin, and gallic acid.   To these have since been added, by
Mr. Cockburn (Am. Journ. of Pharm. vol. vii. p. 114), oil, fatty matter, & crystalline
substance, bitter extractive, wax, red colouring matter, lignin and potassa, iron, lime,
and magnesia.  From  his experiments, it appeared that the bitterness alone resided
in the extractive matter, from which the crystalline substance was obtained.
   A principle, to which  the name cornine  was given, was several  years since an-
nounced, but has not been subsequently obtained by analysis.
   Medical Properties.—The article under  consideration  is  a decided roborant,
and hence  has been placed by systematic  writers in the list of  tonics.   By Dr.
Walker it was found to augment the force  and frequency of  the  pulse and to in-
crease the heat of the body.   It also has an astringent effect.  An analogy has been
supposed to exist between its mode of operation and that of cinchona,  but it does
not seem to be possessed of more than  a general invigorating effect.  As a substi-
tute for bark or its preparations, dogwood has been  employed in the treatment of
intermittent fever, and in domestic practice is much used.  Advantage has also been
derived from  it in  the hands of regular practitioners.   The  objection  to its use,
however, is the large doses required, which  disorder the stomach.  As a  mere tonic
it is applicable to the same range of cases  as  other of its congeners.   The recent
bark is  apt to disagree with the stomach and produce pain.
  Dogwood bark may be given in powder, infusion, decoction,  or extract. The dose
in substance is 9j  to 3j.

  DECOCTUM  CORNUS FLORIDA, U. S.;  Decoction of Dogwood Bark.—(Take  of
Dogwood, bruised,  an  ounce; Water a  pint.  Boil  for ten  minutes in a covered
vessel, and strain the liquor while  hot.)—Dose, f^j  to ^iij.
  Two  other  species of Cornus,  the  C. circinata and C.  sericea  have been
placed in the secondary list  of the  United  States Pharmacopoeia.  Both of these
are shrubs.   The bark is in the quilled form.   The  medical properties are nearly
similar to those of the  C. florida.  They are employed in the same way and for the
same purposes.—J. C]
 
1101
              3X   ®f)e  Animal  Sub-Kingbom.

    DiYision  I.  Invertebrata.—InvertcJ>ral Animals.

  Characters—Animals destitute of a vertebral column and an internal skeleton.   Skin some-
times ossified, and thereby forming an external skeleton.  Nervous system not always  evident.
                 Subdivision  I.   ACRITA,  Macleay.

Nervous system indistinct, diffused, or molecular (Owen).1
   class i.   Poriphera,  6?r«^/.—Poripherous  Animals,

  Characters.—Simple, soft, aquatic animals, with a fibrous axis, without perceptible nerves
or muscular filaments, or organs of sense, or any circulating or glandular organs.   Their body is
composed of a soft gelatinous flesh, traversed  internally with numerous ramose, anastomosing
canals, which commence from superficial minute pores, and terminate in larger, open vents?


   350. SPONGIA  OFFICINALIS, Linn. E.-THE OFFICINAL
                                 SPONGE.

                                   (Sponge, E.)

   History.—Aristotle3 was acquainted with the sponges, and notices  the popular
but erroneous  opinion  of their shrinking when attempted to be plucked.
   Zoology.  Gen.  Char.—Body soft, very  elastic, multiform, more or  less  irre-
gular, very porous, traversed by numerous tortuous canals, which  open externally
by  very distinct vents  (oscula),  and  composed  of a  kind of  subcartilaginous
skeleton, anastomosed in every direction, and entirely without spicules (De Blain-
ville).4
  My friend, Mr. J. S.  Bowerbank,5 has recently shown that spicula do exist in the keratose or
homy sponges of commerce.  They are imbedded, to a greater or less extent, in the substance
of the fibre, and  are mostly to be observed in the  larger flattened portions of the fibre, and not
in the finer anastomosing threads.  Mr. Bowerbank has also shown  that the fibre of the true
sponges is solid,  and not tubular, as commonly supposed.8
  Sp. Char.—Masses very large, flattened and slightly convex above, soft, tenacious,
coarsely porous, cracked and  lacunose, especially beneath.   Vents round, and for
the most part  large  (Lamouroux).7
  These characters are insufficient to  distinguish the officinal sponge from numerous  other
allied species- and it  is  tolerably clear, from Mr. Bowerbank"s discoveries, above alluded to,
 i Cyclop, of Anat. art. Acrita.                         3 Grant, Brit. Annual for 1S38, p. 267.
 * Hist. d. Anim. \ib i. c;ip. ix. p. 16, Tolosae, 1619.         ' Man  d'Actmol. p. 529, 1 S31.
 <■ The Microscopic Journal, i. 8.
 • The only tubular sponyr known to Mr. Bowerbank is Spongia fistulans.  This, however, he proposes
to separate from the genus Spongia. and to give it the generic name of Fistularia.
 7 Hist, dts Polyp. Corall. p. 20, 1816. 
1102
ANIMAL SUBSTANCES.
that the  naked eye is  incompetent to distinguish  species of this curious genus, and that the
microscope must be principally, if not wholly, relied on for ascertaining specific characters.
Mr. Bowerbank has recognized three distinct species in the sponges of commerce.
   The animality of sponge is by no means universally admitted ; indeed, a considerable number
of the naturalists of the  present day regard it  as of vegetable origin ; and its position, in a
natural classification of plants, it is said, should be between Algae and Fungi.1  But the recent
observations of Mr. Bowerbank appear to me to be conclusive as to its animality. In one species
of sponge he detected a branched vascular system, with  globules in the vessels analogous to
the circular blood-disks  of the higher animals.  Now, nothing analogous to this has hitherto
been detected in plants.  The sponge derives its food from fhe fluid in which it lives.  The
water (containing the matters necessary for the existence of the animal) enters by the  super-
ficial pores, circulates through the anastomosing canals, and is expelled by the fecal orifices or
vents, carrying along with it particles which separate from the sides of the canals.2
   Sponge adheres to rocks by a very broad  base.   When first taken out of the sea
it has a strong fishy odour.  Its colour varies from pale to  deep brownish-yellow.
It often  contains stony  or earthy concretions (lapides spongiarum), which Bley8
found to consist  principally of the carbonates of  lime and magnesia.  Shells also
are found in sponges.    Various  marine  animals pierce and gnaw it into irregular
holes.
   Hab.—In the  Red and Mediterranean Seas.  Chiefly collected about the islands
of the Grecian Archipelago.
   Collection.—The  inhabitants of  the Greek islands  collect sponge  by diving
for it.   In  their submarine  operations, they carry with them  a knife.   Practice
enables  them to  remain a considerable time under water.4  As  soon as the sponge
is brought on shore, it is squeezed and washed to get rid of the gelatinous matters;
otherwise putrefaction speedily ensues.
   Description.—Commercial sponge (spongia) is the dry skeleton  of the animal,
from  which the gelatinous flesh  has been removed, as just mentioned.  When
deprived of stony concretions, &c.  found in the interior of the mass, it is soft, light,
flexible, and compressible.  When burnt, it evolves an animal odour.  It absorbs
water, and  thereby swells up.  Nitric acid  colours it yellow.   Liquor potassae dis-
solves it;  the solution  forms  a precipitate  on the addition of an acid.   The finer
sponges, which have  the greatest firmness and tenacity,  were formerly called  male
sponge; while the coarser portions were denominated female sponge.
   In 1841,  duty (Qd.  per lb., with an  additional  5 per  cent,  on  the duty) was
paid on 58,931 lbs.  of  sponge.
   In English commerce5 two kinds of sponge are met with, which are respectively
known as Turkey and West Indian.
   a.  Turkey Sponge.—This  is imported from  Smyrna, and constitutes  the  best
sponge of the shops.  It occurs in  cup-shaped masses of various  sizes.   Its texture
is much  finer  than  the  West Indian kind.   Mr. Bowerbank, by the aid of the
microscope, has discovered that it consists of two species of  Spongia, not distin-
guishable from each other by the naked eye.   One of these is characterized by the
presence of a beautiful, branched,  vascular, tissue, which surrounds, in great abund-
ance,  nearly every fibre of its structure, and  is inclosed in an external membrane
or sheath.  In the other and  most  common kind of Turkey spono-e no vascular
tissue has yet been discovered.  The common variety is* called honeycomb sponge.
   $.  West Indian Sponge.—The  principal  source of this  is  the Bahama Islands •
whence it is commonly  known as Bahama Sponge.   Its forms are more or less con-
1 f^,H°88' in the Linn-Trans- voL XviiL pp- 363 and 368 >' als0> Johnson's History of British Zoophytes,
2 Grant, Outlines of Comparative Anatomy, p. 310, Lond 1836
1 Pharm. Central Blatt fiir 1834, S. 273.
   Savary, Letters on Greece, p. 109, Lond. 1788  [Dr. Lefevre, of Rochefort, found that among the Na-
varino sponge divers, accustomed as they were to the practice of diving, there was not one who could
sustain entire submersion of the body for two consecutive minutes.  Tlfe average period of entire  sub-
mersion was seventy-six seconds.—Ed.]                                e  fcww   euiue  buu
  * On the continent, a considerable variety of sponges are known. See Baudrimont in the DV,/  ,». ;> r„
J"rtTi6M.iv'art'Eponse; and Dr'T'w'c"Martius'8 Uhrhuch der Ph*™"™"^z?ol?g£ill£ 
Polypipherous Animals.
1103
vex, with projecting lobes.  Its fibre is coarser.   Its tissue has but little cohesion,
and hence this kind of sponge  is commonly regarded as rotten.  Mr. Bowerbank
states that it consists of  one species only of Spongia.
   Composition.—Well-washed sponge, freed as much as possible from earths and
salts by dilute acids, was analyzed, in  1828, by Hornemann,1 who found it to con-
sist of a substance  similar to  osmazome, animal mucus, fat oil, a substance solu-
ble in water, a substance only  soluble  in potash, and traces of chloride of sodium
iodine, sulphur, phosphate  of lime (?), silica, alumina, and magnesia.   Mr.
Hatchett2 found sponge to consist of gelatine (which it gradually gave out to water),
and a thin, brittle, membranous substance, which possessed the properties of coagu-
lated albumen.
   According to the experiments of Posselt,3 the substance of sponge  is peculiar,
and stands  near the horny substance, from which, however, it is distinguished both
in composition and  properties.   It, nevertheless, is not  a proteine compound, nor
does it contain a trace of such  a body.
   Uses.—The extensive economical uses  of sponge are familiar to every one.   To
the surgeon it  is of great value on account of  its softness, porosity, elasticity, and
the facility with which it imbibes  fluids.   Its  use at surgical  operations and  for
checking hemorrhage is well  known.4   It has also been applied  to wounds and
ulcers for imbibing acrid discharges.5  The sponge-tent is  usually made of com-
pressed sponge impregnated with wax (spongia cerata), and which is called prepared
sponge (spongia prseparata).   It  is prepared  by dipping sponge into melted wax,
and compressing it  between two iron plates till the wax hardens.   It was formerly
much used for dilating  sinuses and small openings, but it  is seldom resorted to
now.
   SPONGIA  USTA; Pulvis spongise ustse ; Calcined or Burnt Sponge.—Formerly in
the Dublin  Pharmacopoeia, and directed  to  be prepared  as  follows : Having cut
sponge into pieces, beat it to free it from little stones; burn it in a closed iron vessel
until it becomes black and friable, and  reduce it to powder.  Preuss0 calcined 1,000
parts of sponge: of  these, 343.848 parts were destroyed by heat.   The  residue
consisted of  carbon and siliceous insoluble  matters,  327.0; chloride of sodium,
112.08 ; sulphate of lime,  16.430; iodide of sodium, 21.422 ;  bromide of magne-
sium, 7.570; carbonate of lime, 103.2; magnesia, 4.73 ; protoxide of iron, 28.720;
and phosphate of lime,  35.0.—Burnt sponge, if good, should evolve violet fumes
(vapour of iodine) when heated with  sulphuric acid in a flask.   It  has been em-
ployed as a resolvent in  bronchocele, scrofulous  enlargement  of  the lymphatic
glands, &c.—Its efficacy is referable to iodine and bromine.   Iodine is now almost
invariably substituted for it.—Dose, 3J to ^\\].   It is given in the form of electuary
or lozenges (burnt sponge lozenges; trochisci spongise ustse.)  [A decoction of burnt
sponge is, when  filtered, colourless.   When treated with starch and  chlorine, it
strikes a blue colour, showing the presence of an iodide.—Ed.]



      class ii.  Polypiphera,  Grant—Polypipherous

                                 Animals,

   The polypipherous animals have received their name from the circumstance of their bearing
tubes called polypes.   They  consist  of two parts, a skeleton and a fleshy portion.  The skeletons
 1 Berl. Jahrb. Bd. xxx. Abt. ii.                             2 Phil. Trans, for 1800, p. 327
 • Annalm der Chemie ii'td Pharmacie, Bd. xiv. Heft 2, p. 192, Feb. 1843.
 4 C White, An Account of the Topical Application of the Sponge in the Stoppage of Hemorrhage, Lond
rea.
 » On the Use of Sponge after Amputations, by Mr. T. Kirklnnd, in the Med. Observ. and Inq. vol. ii. p.
IS, Lond  1701.
 • Pharm. Central-Blatt fiir 1S37, 169. 
1104                     ANIMAL SUBSTANCES.
Fig. 422.
Corallium Rubrum
     vary in their consistence, and also in  their  position relative to the
     soft parts.  They are  soft  and flexible, or hard  and  calcareous.
     They are external and  tubular, or internal  and solid.  The fleshy
     portion  may be, with respect to the skeleton, either external or in-
     ternal.  It  gives origin to fleshy tubes (polypes), each of which, at
     its external orifice, is surrounded by tentacula.
       The calcareous internal skeleton of Corallium bcbhdjt, Lamarck
 y   (Isis nobilis, Pallas; Gorgonia pretiosa, Ellis), is the Red Coral of the
     shops.  It  consists of carbonate of lime principally coloured with
     oxide of iron.  Prepared Red Cowl (Corallium rubrum praparatum)
     was formerly used in  medicine, but it presents no advantage over
     chalk.  Its powder, obtained by levigation, or an imitation of it, is
     still kept in the shops, and is occasionally employed as a dentifrice.
     [According to Witting, 100 grains of red coral yield  the following
     constituents:—

Carbonate of lime..................   83.25
Carbonate of magnesia...............   3.50
Oxide of iron.....................   4.25
Animal gelatine and sand..............   7.75
Loss..........................   1.25

                                       100.00]
  Subdivision II.  RADIATA, Lamarck.—RADIATE  ANIMALS.

  Characters.—Nervous system distinct, composed of filaments and rudimentary ganglia; the
filaments arranged circularly around the buccal orifice (Cyclo-neura).
  No officinal substance is obtained from the Radiata.
Subdivision  III. MOLLUSCA, Latreille.—MOLLTJSKS  OR SOFT
                                 ANIMALS.

                  Malacozoa, Blainville.—Cyclo-Gangliata, Grant.
  Characters.—Inarticulated  animals with a soft  not annulated  skin.   Cerebral  ganglia ar-
ranged circularly around the oesophagus.
      class  in. Conchifera,  z«m«rc^.—Conchiferous
                                 Mollusks,
  Characters.—Acephalous, aquatic mollusks, with a bivalve or a multivalve shell  Organs
of respiration 4 pectinated laminae.   Heart simple.   Impregnation effected without the assistance
of a second individual.
 351. OSTREA EDULIS, Linn.—COMMON  EDIBLE OYSTER.
                         (The shells burnt, of former Ph. Lond.)
                                   [Testa, U. S.]

  History.—Oysters  were greatly admired  by the Romans as a most delicious
article of food1  Those of Britain were much esteemed;  though  they were said to
be inferior to those of Cyzicena (Pliny).8
  Zoology.  Gen. Char—Body compressed, more or less  orbicular.   Edges of
the mantle  thick  non-adherent, or retractile,  and provided with a double row of
short and tentacular  filaments.  The two pair of labial appendices triangular  and
elongated.  A  subcentral bipartite muscle.   Shell irregular, inequivalved  inequi-
1 Pliny, Hist. Nat. lib. xxxii. cap. 6, ed. Valp.
Juvenal, Sat. iv. 
Cephalopoda.
1105
lateral, coarsely laminated.   Left or inferior valve adherent, largest, and deepest;
its summit prolonged, by age, into a kind of keel.   Right or upper valve smallest,
more or less operculiforin.   Hinge oral, toothless.   Ligament somewhat internal,
short, inserted in a cardinal pit, growing with the summit.   The muscular impres-
sion unique and subcentral (Blainville).
  Sp. Char.— Valves ovate-roundish or obovate;  the upper one flat.    Lamellee
of both valves imbricated and undulated (Brandt).1
  Brandt3 has given an elaborate account of the anatomy of the oyster, to which I
must refer the student interested in these details.
  Hab—European and  Indian seas.   Our own coasts furnish some of the finest
kinds.
  Oyster Fisheries.—Oysters  are caught by dredging.   In order to improve
their flavour and size they are laid on beds in  creeks along  shore, where they ra-
pidly improve.  Colchester and  other places of  Essex, as well as some parts of the
coast of Kent, are the nurseries or feeding-grounds for the metropolis.3
  Description.—The officinal parts of oysters are the shells (testse ostrese).    The
hollow halves are  preferred, as they contain more  carbonate of lime.   When cal-
cined, oyster-shell yields  a quicklime, formerly much  esteemed as a lithontriptic.
  Composition.—Oyster-shells have been analyzed by Bucholz and Brandes,4 and
by Rogers.5   The flesh of the oyster has been analyzed by Pasquier.6
  Bucholz and Brandes's Analysis.
Carbonate of lime........  98.6
Phosphate of lime........   1.2
Alumina.............   0 2
Albuminous matter........   0.5

        Oyster Shells.....100.5
         Pasquier's Analysis.
Osmazome...........)
Gelatine............j
Mucus.............i 12.6
Albumen............
Fibrine.............J
Water.............  87.4
Flesh of the Oyster
100.0
   The dietetical properties of oysters have been before noticed.

   TESTtE PHEPARATJl, Testse  Ostreorum  Prseparatse [Testa Prseparata, U. S.];
Prepared Oyster-Shells of former London Pharmacopoeia.—Wash the  shells, first
freed from impurities, with boiling water; then  prepare in  the same manner as  di-
rected for chalk.  The mode of  preparing chalk by elutriation has been already
described.   After oyster-shells have been washed,  boiled,  and crushed,  they are
dried and ground to  an impalpable powder previous  to  elutriation.   In the shops
the substance sold as prepared oyster-shells is in small conical masses.   The prin-
cipal  constituent of  prepared oyster-shells is  carbonate of  lime,  and they there-
fore possess the  same medicinal properties as chalk, already described, and which is
usually substituted for  them.
      class iv.  Cephalopoda,  cuvier.—Cephalopods,

  Characters.—Body inclosed in a bag  (mantle).  Head protruding from the bag. crowned
with inarticulated arms, furnished  with cups  or suckers, and surrounding the mouth.  Eyes
two, sessile.  Mouth with two horny mandibles.  Hearts three.  Sexes separate.
  1 Med. Zool.                                                          2 Ibid. Bd. ii.
  * For details respecting the treatment of oysters in beds, see Spratt's History of the Royal Society, p.
307. " lu the fish-shops, the oysters are laid with their flat  sides uppermost; they would die were it
otherwise.  The animal breathes and feeds by opening its shell, and thereby receiving a new  portion of
water into the concavity of its under-shell.  Oysters, when packed in barrels, should be laid in the same
position. '• Geologists can tell whether oysters were overwhelmed in their.native beds, or rolled away
and sniftered in sliells, by determining their position."  (Paley*s Theology, by Bell, vol. ii. pp. 220—221.)
  * Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. ii. MTT.                      • Silliman's Journal, vol. xxvi. p. 361.
  * Umelin, op. supra cit.
       vol.  ii.—TU 
1106                     ANIMAL SUBSTANCES.
 352. SEPIA OFFICINALIS, ZtVm.-COMMON CUTTLE-FISH.

  The substance called os sepice or cuttlefish bone  is an  oval or oblong calcareous bone (some-
times termed a shell) deposited  in the mantle of the animal.  The common species of sepia
is S. officinalis, Linn.; but S. elegans, Blainville, also yields part of the cuttlefish bone of the
shops.1
  Os sepia has a cellular texture, and is so light as to float on water.  It is cast in considerable
quantities on the shore, and is collected for commercial purposes.   It  was analyzed by John,
who found the constituents to be as follows:—
                                                         Hard upper or  Porous
                                                         outer Portion.   Part.
      Carbonate (with a trace of phosphate) of lime..............  80         85
      Non-gelatinous animal matter, soluble in water with some common salt   7         7
      Gelatinous membrane not soluble in water.................   y         j
      Water, with a traee of magnesia......................   4         4
                                                             100        100

  Reduced to powder it is used as a dentrifice.  It is employed for several purposes in the arts,
as for polishing, for forming moulds for small silver castings, and as a pounce.


    Subdivision IV.  ARTICULATA, Cuvier.—ARTICULATED

                                 ANIMALS.

  Characters.—Skin annulated.  Muscles attached to  the inner surface  of the skin.  Nervous
system of two cords extended along the ventral surface of tlie body, with ganglionic enlargements
at intervals (diplo-neura) ;  the anterior ganglion (brain) placed over the oesophagus.
   class  v.  Annulosa,  Madeay.—Aimulose  Animals,

                            Annelidf.s seu Annelida.
  Characters.—Body more or less elongated.  Skin soft, segmented and annulated.  Articu-
lated members and wings absent.  Blood red.

   353.  SANGUISUGA,  Savigny.—BLOODSUCKING LEECHES.
                                Iatrobdella, Blainville.

   History.—"We have no accurate knowledge  of the  exact period when leeches
either became known to, or were employed by, man ; but this deficiency of informa-
tion is not necessarily referable to their discovery preceding the date of our histo-
rical documents.   It is true that in the common version of our most ancient record,
the Bible,2 this passage occurs: "The horseleech hath two daughters, crying, Give,
give;" but critics are not  agreed as to the  correctness of this translation.   The
word  <lOlukeh,"  or l(Aluka," here interpreted  " horseleech," means, according to
Bochart, destiny  or  fate, either of which terms should,,  according to this writer, be
substituted for that  of horseleech; the daughters  alluded to being  Eden and Hell.
But the Vulgate, Greek, and  Lutheran  translations are all against his  opinion.
Brandt3 has entered into a very elaborate discussion  of  this  subject, from which it
appears that, in  Arabic, the term Aluka  indicates  a  leech, while Aluk  signifies
fate;  the latter  being derived from  Alaka,  to  attach  or hang to, because every
man's fate is supposed to be appended  to  him, just as a leech affixes itself to the
body; so that from  this it appears probable the word " Olukeh" of the Old Testa-
ment really refers to the leeches.  Nay, I think there is some reason for suspecting
that the  Sanguisuga segyptiaca is the species referred to.   The leeches referred to
by Herodotus,* are Bdella  nilotica (Savigny).
2 Prov. xxx. 15.
4 Euterpe, lxviii.
1 Brandt and Ratzeburg, Med. Zoolog. ii. 599.
* Med. Zool. ii. 231. 
Bloodsucking Leeches:—Zoology; Species.
1107
  But admitting that these  animals were known  at  this early period, it does not
appear that they were employed in medicine :  for Hippocrates makes no mention  of
them, though he  notices other modes of drawing blood.   Aristotle  also  is silent
with regard to them.   In the extracts which Crelius Aurelianus has made from the
writings of Diodes,  Praxagoras, Herophilus,  Heraclides,  Asclepiades,  and other
ancient physicians, who lived between the time of Hippocrates and  Themison, no
mention is made of the employment of leeches;  a remarkable fact in favour of the
opinion  that  they  were not at this  period  in use.   In fact,  the founder of the
Methodic sect, Themison, is the first person  in whose works we find  mention  of
leeches being employed therapeutically.1   However, it does not follow that he was
the first who prescribed them,  though our documentary evidence fails in  tracing
back their use beyond his time.
   In the Latin  and Greek languages, the animal has received its name  from its
sucking or drawing qualities.   Thus, the Greeks called it  j3oiKKa, from /3Saa.«,  to
suck;  the  Bomans hirudo, probably from haurio, to draw out; or sanguisuga,
literally signifying  "bloodsucker," from sanguis  and sugo.  It would appear,  how-
ever, that the latter of thesa two Latin terms  is  the  more modern;  for Pliny,8 in
speaking of elephants, says : " Cruciatum in potu maximum sentiunt, hausta,  hiru-
dine, quam sanguisugam vulgo coepisse appellari adverto."
   Zoology.  Gen. Char.—Jaws with two rows of pointed, numerous teeth, which
are mutually  inclined at an  acute angle (Brandt).3
   Body elongated.   Back  convex.   Belly flat.   Extremities  somewhat narrowed,
furnished  with disks  or  suckers; the anterior extremity somewhat  narrower  than
the  posterior one.   Rings from  ninety  to a  hundred.  Eyes  represented by ten
blackish  points.   Mouth tri-radiate.   Jaws  cartilaginous,  armed with numerous
cutting teeth.   Anus small, placed on the dorsum of the last ring.
   Cuvier4 includes all leeches in the genus Hirudo ;  but later naturalists have found it neces-
sary to arrange them  in several  genera.  The leeches employed in medicine have been formed
into a distinct genus, called by  Blainville6 Iatrobdella (from  Jbt^o; and  jSJiXXa, a leech), by Sa-
vigny,6 Sanguisuga.   The latter classical term,  so expressive of the bloodsucking properties of
the genus, I have adopted.  All leeches, it appears, are not provided  with an  apparatus for
perforating the skin of vertebrate animals.  In consequence  of the numerous complaints ad-
dressed to the PreTet de Police, in 1825, that of the leeches sold in Paris some would not bite,
while others caused painful and obstinate  wounds, he consulted the Council de Salubrity, who
deputed MM. Pelletier and Huzard fils, to inquire into the accuracy of the .statements.  One of
the results of the investigation was, that the animal called in France horseleech, and which had
been particularly charged with  causing painful wounds, could not  perforate the human skin,
the teeth of the animal being quite blunt.7  The horseleech  referred to, the reporters declared
to be Hamopcs sanguisorba, Savigny; but Blainville says it was Hamopis nigra.
   Species.—I.  Sanguisuga officinalis, Savigny;  Hirudo provincial is, Carena,
Mem. della lleale Accad.  di  Torino, xxv. 282;   Sanguisuga  meridionalis, Risso,
Hist. Nat. de l'Europe merid. t.  iv.  p. 428;  the  Green Leech.—Back  greenish  or
blackish-green, with  six rusty-red  band-like   [longitudinal] stripes.   Belly olive-
green,  unspotted  (Brandt).—South of Europe.   Those brought to England come
from Bordeaux, Lisbon, and Hamburg.
   Moquin-Tandon8 admits three varieties:—
                a. Dorsal bands interrupted at intervals.
                8 Dorsal bands reduced to  blackish spots.
                y. Dorsal bands united by transverse ones.
   2.  Sanguisuga medicinalis,  Savigny;   Hirudo medicinalis. Linn.  L.  D.;
True English or Speckled  Leech.—Back greenish or olive-green, with  six rusty
red  longitudinal stripes, which are mostly spotted with black.   Belly greenish-yel-
low, spotted with  black (Brandt).—Spots very variable  in size  and number;  in
Borne  cases they are  but few; in  others, are so numerous as  to form the almost

  » Le Clerc, Hist, de la Med. p. 442, nouv. ed. 1729. ' Hist. Nat. viii.10, ed. Valp.
  i Me/t 2.00I ii 231                          4 Rigne Animal, nouv. ed. t in. p 212, 1830.
  » Diet des Sci'tn. Nat. t  xlvii. art. Sangsue.      • Desc. de lEgypte, Hist. Nat. t i. part ui. p. 114.
  ' Journ. de Pharm. t. xi.                     ' Monogr. de lafam. des Htrud.  p. 112. 
1108
ANIMAL SUBSTANCES.
prevailing tint of the belly, the intervening spaces appearing  like greenish-yellow
spots.—Europe, especially the  northern parts.   A native  of England, but rare.
Imported from Hamburg.
  Several varieties of this leech have been described and figured.   One  of the most remark-
able of these  is the flesh-coloured medicinal leech (Sanguisuga medicinalis carnea) described by
Guillez of Paris.  The anterior half of its body is flesh-coloured ;  while the posterior half is of
the usual colour.  The spotted or piebald leech is flesh-coloured, with olive-green spots.1
   These  are the only species employed in medicine in this  country.   Others have
been described and figured by Brandt.3   The following  is a short sketch of the
anatomy of the medicinal leech :—
  The Cutaneous System of the animal consists of a transparent epidermis (which  is thrown
off from the body every four or five  days) and the corium.  The  latter consists of condensed
cellular tissue, composed, according to Brandt, of globules.  Like the epidermis, it shows the parti-
tions into rings.  It contains a number of globules impregnated with a pigment varying in colour
in different places, and which is tbe  source of the colours presented by the surface of the animal.
  It is asserted that the predominant or base  colour is, in part at least,  owing to the  colour of
the soil in which the animals are found.   Dr. J. R. Johnson3 says: " Mr. Baker, a man of some
intelligence, residing in Glastonbury, and who for the last twenty years has been in the habit of
                             collecting large quantities  of leeches for sale, informs me that,
          Fi<*. 423.           at tne Black River, near Glastonbury, they are black, from the
                             peat being of that colour;  at Cook's Comer, they are of a reddish
                             cast,  from the red peat;  while  at Auler  Moor, where, from a
                             deficiency of peat, they penetrate the clay, they are yellow."
                               The Muscular System has  been elaborately described by
                             Brandt,  but can  scarcely be comprehended  without the aid of
                             drawings.  The muscles  of the trunk are arranged circularly,
                             longitudinally, and obliquely; of these, the circular fibres are
                             the most external, and the longitudinal ones the most  internal.
                               The Digestive System consists of a mouth, alimentary tube,
                             anus, salivary  glands,and liver.  The  mouth is placed in the mid-
                             dle of the oval or buccal disk;  its shape  is triradiate;  that is,
                             of three equidistant lines or rays meeting in the centre.  Within it
                             are three white sublenticular jaws (dentiferous tubercles or piercers),
                             which in appearance are cartilaginous ; but Brandt says they con-
                             sist of a strong firm skin, inclosing a muscular mass.   On the
                             free-curved  sharp  margin of each jaw are about sixty small,
                             finely-pointed  teeth.  The ozsophagus  is a muscular tube,  and
                             dilates as it approaches  the stomach; but at its termination it
                             contracts into a small  circular aperture, its whole length not ex-
                             ceeding a quarter of an  inch.  The stomach occupies two-thirds
                             of the length  of the  animal, and  is  divided into about eleven
                             compartments or cells, each of which, from the  second to the
                             eleventh, gives off on  each side a sacal sac, those of the last cell
                             being by far the largest, and extending down by the side of the
                             intestine as far  as  the  commencement of the  rectum.  The
                             stomach consists of three coats, a cellular, a muscular, and a
                             mucous  coat.  Its eleventh cell terminates by a funnel-shaped
                             projection in  the intestine.   The intestine is about an  inch in
                             length;  at  its  upper orifice is a valve, and at its lower end a
                             sphincter;  on  either side of it, for the greater part of  its length,
                             is one of the sacs for the last compartment of the  stomach; on
                             its inner surface are several folds.  It is divided into  small and
Alimentary Canal of the Leech,  large intestine, the lower part of  the latter being called a rectum.
a. CEsophagus.                 The  anu* is not> as we  m'ght anticipate, in the posterior disk,
b, c, d, e,f, g, h, i, k, I, m. Cells  but °n the dorsal surface of the last ring.  Salivary organs have
« rtf,^eKnSr°amaCh'            been described ! they  consist of whitish granular masses placed
*.' Funnel-shaped pylorus.       *round  the oesophagus, into which  tube  the  common salivary
p. Irregularly   expanded  com-  duct opens.   De Blainville, Carus, and  Brandt, speak of a liver.
    mencement of (g)  the small  It is  a brownish mass placed on the  alimentary canal, the ducts
r. Cscal sac of the last cell of the  0Pen.ing \nt0 the stomach  a"d intestine.  The best mode of dis-
    stomach.                  Playing the cells of the  stomach  is  to immerse a leech,  fully
\' ReCfumnteStine-             g°rg  ,T   bl°°d' for a Week in  a saturated solution of corro-
t. Kectum.                    slVe  sublimate.
1 See Brandt and Ratzeburg, Med. Zool.
3 Treat, on the Med. Leech, p. 42,1816.
» Med. Zool. ii. 
The Bloodsucking Leeches:—Medicinal Leech.          1109
Fig.  424.
  The Vascular System consists of four great pulsating vessels, giving off numerous ramifying
branches; but without any heart, commonly so called.   Two  of these are  placed  laterally, a
third  in the median line of the dorsal surface, and a  fourth on the  abdominal surface.  All
these  vessels pulsate (Johnson).   We know very little about the manner in which the blood
circulates.   Brandt  thinks that the lateral vessels must be arteries, on  account of their very
distinct transverse and longitudinal fibres;  the dorsal and venous vessels he terms veins.1 Does
not the dorsal vessel correspond to the vena cava, and  the abdominal vessel to the vena porta,
of higher animals?   Grant,2 however, terms the  dorsal vessel of the annelides an artery.3
  The  Respiratory  System consists  of  small apertures
(called  stigmata or  spiracula)  arranged in  two rows  on the
abdominal  surface, and  occurring at every  fifth  ring.   They
lead  into little  cavities  lined by  mucous  membrane,  and
which have been called air sacs, pulmonary vesicles, mucous bags,
crypta, or lateral vesicles, containing  usually a whitish  fluid.
They are placed on each side  of  the alimentary canal, in the
spaces between the caecal sacs  of the stomach, and are  usually
regarded as organs of respiration. Brandt, however, asserts that
the respiratory function is effected solely by the skin, and that
these vesicles are, in fact, receptacles for mucus secreted by a
neighbouring  glandular  apparatus, which has a  whitish ap-
pearance, and in form  represents a folded  intestine.   This
notion, however, is not  new, but was  held by De Blainville
and Johnson.
   The Nehvous System consists of two parts: one (which we
may compare to the  cerebro spinal axis of the vertebrata) con-
sistsofa chain of ganglia (usually about twenty-three in number)
occupying the mesial line of the abdomen, and connected by a
double nervous cord; the first ganglion (brain) is placed on the
oesophagus,  and  supplies the eyes and neighbouring muscles.
The second part of the nervous system is that lately discovered
by Brandt, and maybe regarded as a kind of sympathetic system.
It consists of three ganglia (connected to the brain by filaments.
and supplying the jaws), and a single nerve connected to them,
and running along the abdominal surface of the stomach in the
mesial line.
   Of the External Senses, three only have been recognized;
jieling, which resides in the external  surface of the body; taste,
apparently  indicated by the fondness of leeches for  certain
fluids (as blood, milk, &c); and vision, effected by ten eyes (in
the form of black  spots) arranged  in  a crescent form at tlie
anterior or cephalic extremity of the animal.
   The  Sexual  System  is double;  that is, each animal is an-
drogynous, or possesses both male and female  organs.  There
is, however, no power of self-impregnation (the contact of two
individuals  being requisite, each acting to the other in a double
capacity of male and female).  The male organs consist of
several pairs of testicles, two vasa defercnlia, two vesicula seminales,
two ejaculatory ducts, and a penis surrounded at its base by what
some have termed a prostate gland.  The penis projects from
the abdominal surface at about one third distant from  the an-
terior extremity.   The female  ohoans consist of two ovaries, two oviducts  (which subsequently
unite into one), a hollow organ (uterus), which opens by a contracted aperture (vagina) exter-
nally at about the twenty ninth ring, or five rings below the penis.
   That leeches are essentially oviparous admits of no doubt;  and we  have now an admirable
account of their development by Professor Weber.4  It appears  that soon after copulation  an
unusual  activity pervades the  ovaries, in consequence  of which some ova (termed by Weber
germs, by Cams yelks) are separated, and pass alon^ the oviduct \o the  uterus, where they stop,
in order to obtain the matters necessary for their development, and their  proper coats.  They
here  become invested with  a serous like membrane, on the  inner  side of which is produced
(either  by  secretion from,  the uterine cavity, or from the  membrane itself)  an  albuminous
whitish mucus, serving in part for the nourishment of the ova, and which  is regarded as a kind
of liquor amnii.  Subsequently, a glutinous fluid is deposited on the outside of ihe  serous coat.
When the ova are expelled  from the uterus, part of this fluid gives a coating to them, while part
is expelled  before and after them.  But  this coat  seems  now distended with  air-vesicles, and
Ventral Surface of the Leech.
     a. Anterior disk.
     6. Posterior disk.
     c. Penis.
     d. Vaginal orifice.
     e. Stigmata.
  1 Med. Zool. t. ii. 249.                                            3 Outl. ofComp. Anat. 440.
  ' Some interesting observations on the vascular system of leeches are contained inKnolz's Nat. Abhandl.
ab. d. Blutegel, Wien, 1820.
 4 MeckePs Archiv for 1828, p. 366.
��/-:+:://:/.4�412:/�/��A 
1110
ANIMAL  SUBSTANCES.
425.
has the frothy appearance of well-beaten white of egg, produced by the violent contraction of
the uterus.
   The animals usually deposit their ova (in their own native waters) in holes or moist places
on the shore, from May to the end of September.  When first expelled, they are somewhat
cylindrical in form, and have a brownish appearance.   The frothy layer adheres very slightly;
but, after lying  in  the water  for a quarter of an hour, the outer surface becomes somewh; t
hardened, forming a kind of pellicle or fine skin.  After some days, a portion of this frothy
covering is converted into a spongy tissue  (spongy coat of the cocoon), covering the capsule of the
ova (cocoon)  wholly or partially.   In this  state, the cocoon  has a brownish, fibrous appearance,
similar to fine sponge, and varies somewhat in its size and  weight;  its longest diameter being
from six to twelve  lines, its  shortest from five to  eight, and its weight from twenty-four to
twenty-eight grains.'
   The ova or germs, which have a lenticular form, evince vital movements ; and very soon we
                              perceive a funnel-shaped tube,  extending from their surface
                              inwards, and which  appears to  absorb the  albumen of the
                              cocoon.  The ovum  goes on enlarging, and becomes some-
                              what elongated, and subsequently the young leech begins to
                              be developed on the exterior part of the ovum, the  aperture
                              of the funnel being the spot where the mouth  of the young
                              animal  is  observed.  The abdominal surface is the first, the
                              dorsal the last to be developed.  When the young leeches
                              have attained a considerable size they pierce their cocoon.
                                 Diseases of Leeches.—The natural duration of
                              the life of leeehes  is not easily determined;  but judg-
                              ing from  the slowness of their growth, and the length
                              of time full-grown leeches  have been preserved, we
                              may necessarily infer that they are long-lived animals.
                              Dr. Johnson thinks that, in their native waters, if
                              they can  always   meet with  an  abundant supply of
                              food, they may live at least  twenty years.   But they
                              are subject  to several diseases, some of which  are epi-
                              demic,  and  of a very destructive kind.  Although  the
                              study of the pathology of this animal  is of consider-
                              able interest in a commercial and even scientific point
                              of view, yet no  practically useful results have hitherto
                              been arrived at, in  regard to the prevention  and treat-
                              ment of the diseases of leeches.   Dr. J. R. Johnson
                              mentions three  diseases  as  common  to this animal:
                              1st.  An ulcer,  seated  in various  parts  of the body,
                              but  more generally affecting the side.   It destroys
                              life in  a few days.   2d. A rigidity and narrowing of
                              one  part, whilst another portion is studded with tu-
                              mours of putrid coagulated blood.  3d. A flaccid ap-
                              pearance of the whole  body^ except the  lips, which are
                              hard, swollen, purple,  and frequently bloody.   These
Diagram illustrative of the internal  diseases are  particularly prevalent durirjc the summer
      anatomy of the leech.       months.  Brostata describes  three epidemic  disorders.
<*• Brain.                         COLLECTION AND COMMERCE OF LEECHES.—Leeches
   B^twenen'these will be observed  may be caught  with the hand, or by a kind of net (de-
     the chain of ganglia of which  scribed by Derheims),  or by the gatherers o-oinw  into
     they form portions.          Aj,____i     .,,    , ',  „   J.     ,b. ,   .    _o    6    .
c. Lateral nr branchial vessels.
d. Folded mucous glands;  each is
   connected by a duct to an  air-
   vesicle
e. Penis, the rounded enlarged base
   of which is supposed to contain
   the prostate gland.
/. Vesiculae seminales.
g. V.isu deferentia.
h. Testicles.
i. Uterus.
fc. Ovarits.
the ponds with naked feet, to which the  leeches  ad-
here ;  or by baits,  especially the  liver of  animals.
The two latter methods are  objectionable;  one, be-
cause it is not free  from danger to  the gatherers, and
the other because it is apt to injure the health of the
animal.   An interesting and graphic  account  of the
leech fishery at La  Brenne, and of the  miserable ap-
pearance  of the fisherman who collects the leeches,
' Brandges'ri,rUae,CBS°vn: " D'" J" R" J°hnSOn'8 FaTther Observations on the Medicinal Leech, 1625. 
The Bloodsucking Leeches:—Mode of Biting.
1111
by allowing them to attach themselves to his legs and feet, has  been published  in
the Gazette des Ilopitaux.  A translation of this  paper is given  in  McCulloch's
Dictionary of  Commerce.  Leeches are  largely imported  from  Hamburg.   The
Hamburg dealers draw their supplies from the Ukraine.   " Having exhausted all
the lakes  of Siberia,  Bohemia, and other more frequented  parts  of  Europe, the
buyers are now rolling gradually and implacably eastward, carrying death and deso-
lation  among the leeches in  their course, sweeping all before them, till now they
have got as far as Pultava, the pools and swamps  about which  are yielding  them
great captures."1  Leeches are sometimes imported  in  bags, but more usually  in
small barrels, each  holding about 2,000, the head being  made of stout canvas  to
admit the air.   The best vessels for preserving these animals are unglazed  brown
pans  or wooden tubs.  The dealers have a notion (and possibly a correct one) that
the leaden glazing is injurious.  These pans should be very little more than half-filled
with soft water (pond, river,  or  rain water).  This  does not require changing  so
often as is commonly supposed.  In very hot  weather, or when the water has become
bloody, or  otherwise  much discoloured, it  should be changed  every day or so;
otherwise, in summer, every four or five days, or a week; in winter, once a month
is believed by large dealers  to be sufiicient.
   The consumption of leeches must be enormous.   Some years ago it was stated that
four principal  dealers in  London imported, on  the average, 600,000 monthly,  or
7,200,000 annually.3  Fee3 says: "It is estimated that 3,000,000 are  annually
consumed  in Paris; and, as the population of Paris is to that of the whole of France
as one is to thirty-three, it follows that, independently of exportation, 100,000,000
are consumed annually, which  is equivalent to three leeches annually for each person.
Now, if we estimate the average price at fifty francs  per thousand, we shall have
the enormous sum of  five millions of francs  paid for this one article of our materia
medica."
   Mode of Biting.—Having fixed on a suitable spot, the animal applies his oval
disk, and firmly fixes it (at first, perhaps, by atmospheric pressure;  then by inti-
mate contact), so  that the anterior end forms an angle with the other portions of the
body.   The three cartilaginous jaws bearing the sharp teeth  are now  stiffened and
protruded  through  the triradiate mouth against the skin, which they perforate, not
at once, but gradually, by a saw-like motion.   Dr.  Johnson* says : " The jaws are
carried from side  to side in  an oblique direction ;" and adds, " their action may  be
seen by presenting to the leech a coagulurn of blood, and when the leech is in the
act of suction, cautiously removing it.   For a few seconds it appears unconscious  of
its removal, which presents  a fair opportunity of observing the oscillatory movement
of each piercer."  The wound is not produced instantaneously, for the gnawing pain
continues  for two or  three  minutes after the animal has commenced operations.
Thus,  then, it appears that the leech saws the skin ; hence the irritation and inflam-
mation frequently produced around the orifices.  The flow of blood is  promoted by
the suction of the animal, which swallows the fluid  as fast as  it is evolved.   During
the whole of the  operation the jaws remain  lodged in the skin.   Iu  proportion^
the anterior cells of the stomach become filled, the blood passes into the posterior
ones;  and  when  the  whole of this  viscus is distended, the  animal falls  off.  On
examination, it will be found  that not a particle of blood has  passed into the in-
testine.
  ' Bremner. Excurs. in the Interior of Russa, vol. ii. p. 408,18 ,9. [In some parts of England, more par-
ticularly in the fennv districts of Cambridgeshire and Lincolnshire, the trade in leeches forms a valuable
branch of business.  The manner in which the leeches are taken is this : Two or three persons, furnished
with lone Doles, enter the marshes with their shoes and stockings off, and continue beating the weeds and
rushes for  some time   The leeches being disturbed by this proceeding, are aroused from their w nted
letharev and impelled by hunger, the effect of long abstinence, seize with avidity the first animal object
thev meet with   The feet and ankles of the leech-catchers being exposed to them, the same are freely
fastened uDon bv the leeches, and they are thence removed and deposited in a basket carried for the pur-
nose of receiving them.  When taken home, they are washed in a weak solution of salt and water, and
when purified are carefully packed  in wet linen cloths, and in this manner are dispatched to the different
leech merchants nnd the various medical establishments throughout the country.]
 S Prkse, Trent,  on Sanguisuct. p. 129, 1822.                     ' Cours. d'Htst. Nat. t. i. p. 21.
  * Treat, p. 112. 
1112
ANIMAL  SUBSTANCES.
   Physiological Effects.—There are two classes of phenomena observed in all
 modes of drawing blood ; one of which has been termed local, the other general.  In
 phlebotomy and arteriotomy, the first is trifling, and of no therapeutic value; and
 we resort to these operations only as means of  affecting  the general system.   On
 the other hand, we obtain  topical effects, both powerful  and useful, from cupping
 and leeching;  hence these are termed  local, while the former  are denominated
 general bloodlettings.   It  must, however, be remembered, that  constitutional or
 general effects are also frequently obtained from both cupping and leeching.
   1.  Constitutional or general  effects of leeching are the same in kind as those  caused
 by the loss of blood from other means.   A moderate quantity of blood may be ab-
 stracted without any obvious effects on  any of  the functions; but, if the amount
 taken be increased, syncope results.   The quantity necessary to produce this  varies,
 however, considerably, and  will depend on the mode  of drawing it (whether rapidly
 or otherwise); the position, constitution, and age of  the patient; the nature  of the
 disease;  and many other circumstances  not  necessary to  enumerate.   It is well
 known that a small quantity will, if taken rapidly, and the patient be in the erect
 posture, cause this effect; whereas, a considerably larger amount may be abstracted,
 if taken gradually, and the patient in the recumbent  position, without giving rise
 to it.   The  usual explanation of  this is, that when blood is drawn faster than the
 vessels can  contract, the circulation is temporarily stopped, and fainting ensues.
 Several reasons,  however,  lead me to  doubt the sufficiency of this explanation.
 Leeching, then, as being a  slower mode of abstracting blood, is less likely to cause
 syncope than venesection, or even cupping.  As  the patient  recovers from the faint-
 ing state, hysterical symptoms sometimes manifest  themselves.   Throbbing head-
ache, and sleeplessness, are by no means uncommon consequences of the loss of
blood.   In  some cases I have  seen febrile excitement, of several hours' duration,
brought on by bloodletting.1
   Dr. Marshall Hall2 has directed attention to the disorder of the cerebral functions
 (marked by convulsions, delirium, or coma) caused by bloodletting.  I may observe,
that convulsive  movements are by no  means uncommon in syncope from general
bloodletting, and I think  are  not always to be considered as denoting  that the
remedy has  been used beyond  the safe degree.   I have on several occasions been
told by patients about to  lose blood, that they  are apt to faint and struggle when
bled; and  I have, in consequence, been  requested to prevent them from injuring
themselves.   Delirium and coma are less frequently met with.   Great depression
 of the vascular system, followed  by sudden dissolution, is another occasional effect
of loss of blood.3
   As might  be  expected, an operation  so powerfully affecting the vital functions
cannot be passive in its influence over morbid action; but  the phenomena vary so
much in  different diseases, and even in  the  same disease  under different circum-
stances, that it becomes extremely difficult to offer any general results.   That loss
of blood is sometimes beneficial, at other times hurtful, is well known.   Its  imme-
 diate beneficial effects are best  seen in pneumonia and ophthalmia.  In the first of
these  diseases the respiration  sometimes becomes easier, and the  pain  removed
 while the blood  is flowing; and from this time  the  amendment  progresses.  In
ophthalmia, the  redness of the conjunctiva  disappears during the syncope from
bloodletting,  and sometimes  never returns with equal intensity.   A tendency to
 hemorrhage has been thought  by some experienced  practitioners to be engendered
 or increased  by the application of leeches.  Thus, the return of the meSses the
 aggravation  of menorrhagia, haemoptysis, and apoplexy, have been found to follow
 and apparently to result from, the employment of leeches.*                      '
 i Forfartherdetailsrespecting the effects of loss of blood, see Dr ClnttprhnnV ru, ,u  d    .._,■■
tion of Bloodletting, 1840.                        '      Clutterbuck On the Proper Administra-
 2 On the Morbid and Curative Effects of Loss of Blood 1830.
 ' See an illustrative case in the Lancet, vol. xi. p. 94.
 4 See the observations of Laennec and Sir James Clark, in Forbes'n translate*, „n      , „
Diseases of the Chest, p. 193,1627.                 '         translation of Laennec's Treatise on 
          The Bloodsucking Leeches :—Physiological Effects.       1113

  The effects of bloodletting are considerably influenced  by disease.  Every prac-
titioner is acquainted with the fact that in  certain morbid conditions patients bear
the loss of larger quantities of  blood than in others. I need only mention apoplexy,
inflammation of the serous  membranes, peripneumony, and  phrenitis, as examples
of increased  tolerance; while  chlorosis and cholera may be cited  as instances of
diminished tolerance.  On this point there cannot be, I think, two opinions.
   I  confess I  am  not prepared  to assent  to  the inferences Dr. Hall  has drawn
from these facts, nor to the rules he has laid down in the diagnosis and treatment
of disease founded on the  circumstances just  mentioned.   The susceptibility  to
syncope is  so great in some persons,  that we should, I suspect,  be often  led into
error, if we were to infer the absence of inflammation merely from the occurrence
of fainting  after the loss of a few ounces of blood.   Besides, it  not unfrequently
happens that a patient faints on  the first, but not on the second or third bleeding.
I  have more than once seen this.  Neither do  I  think  it would always be safe to
bleed ad deliquium, even if we were satisfied that inflammation be present;  for in
some it is difficult  to occasion  syncope, although the quantity of  blood  lost  be  so
great as to  endanger the safety of the  patient.   The  practice of  Dr.  Hall, how-
ever, is much to be preferred in this respect to that of Mr. Wardrop;1  for, although
both recommend bleeding to syncope in inflammation, the former places his patient
in the erect, the latter in the recumbent posture.   And here I cannot help  remark-
ing, that the practice of ordering patients  to be bled to syncope in the recumbent
posture appears  to me  a  highly dangerous one.   That fainting  will sometimes
occur in the erect position, before a sufficient quantity of  blood  has been drawn, we
all know; and, to prevent  this  occurrence, it is  frequently proper to bleed in the
recumbent posture; but I must  protest against bleeding patients  to syncope in this
position.
   I have yet  to  notice another class of the general effects of the loss of  blood,
which may  be denominated secondary or remote, and which are in no way useful in
 the treatment of disease.   In  some cases excessive  reaction occurs, attended with
 throbbing of the vessels of the brain,  pain  and disorder of the cerebral functions.
 Examples of this are seen in women who  have suffered  severely from uterine he-
 morrhage.  Exhaustion, with  insufficient reaction, is another remote effect of  loss
 of blood.   In  two cases of infants, I  have  seen  this effect, consequent on hemor-
 rhage after a  leech-bite, terminate fatally.  Other  secondary or remote  effects of
 bloodletting are mentioned;  they consist  principally in  disorder of the sensorial
 functions, marked by delirium, coma, or even amaurosis.2
   Having hitherto described  the consequences of bleeding generally, I must now
 refer more particularly to leeching.   The constitutional or general effects caused by   #
 the application of  leeches are  best observed in children and delicate females—more
 especially the former.  I  have, on several occasions, seen infants completely blanched
 by the application of  one  or  two leeches.  Pelletan mentions the case of a child,
 six years old, who died from the hemorrhage occasioned  by six  leeches applied to
 the chest.  Leeching, then, is here, to all  intents and purposes,  a mode of general
 bloodletting, arising in part from the powerful influence  which a small quantity of
 blood produces in  infants; and secondly, because one leech will cause the loss of
 more blood in them than in adults, owing  to the greater vascularity of the cutane-
 ous system.  It is apparent, therefore,  that in the diseases of infants, leeching may,
 in most cases, be substituted for venesection.   But  in  disorders which are rapidly
 fatal, as croup, opening the jugular vein is undoubtedly  to be preferred, since  it is
 necessary to produce  an immediate and  powerful  effect.   As children  advance in
 years they  become capable of  bearing  larger evacuations of  blood;  and, therefore,
 leechinf excites a less influential effect.   It is quite impossible to say  at what age
 venesection ou«-ht to  be substituted, or, in infancy, what number of leeches should
 be applied •  since they take away such unequal quantities of blood.  These are points
1 On Bloodletting.
2 Dr. M. Hall, op. supra cit. 
1114
ANIMAL SUBSTANCES.
which  must be  decided by  the practitioner in each  case.   Here is a  tabular
statement of the  amount  of blood  which  Dr. James Blundell1 has  taken from
children at different ages :—
               Ages.                                 Quantities.
              2  months.................   1  ounce to 1% ounces.
              4    "          .      .......   1^  "  to 2   "
              8    «  .  .   '.         ......2    "  to 3   "
             12    "                        .   .   3    "  to 4   "
             18    "  ....'.'.'.'.'.'.'.......   4    "  to 5   "
              3  years  .................   8    "  to 10   "
              6   "   .................10    "  to 12   "

  But these quantities are  exceedingly large, and in most instances greater than it
will be found prudent to abstract.   Guersent says that, in  infants up to two years
of age, we ought never  to draw  more than three or four ounces of blood in  twenty-
four hours.3
  2.  The local effects  of leeching must now be noticed.  The jaws of the leech may
be compared to three  saws, each armed with sixty teeth.  It  is,  therefore, not sur-
prising that pain and afflux of blood to the wounded part should be occasioned by
the laceration of the skin by a  single leech.  I have sometimes seen one of these
animals produce intense redness to the extent of an inch around the bite.   This is
best observed when the  skin is delicate, as that covering the mammae of the female.
Now when a number of these animals are applied, their  united  local effects must
have some influence over a neighbouring disease.   There  are also certain topical
effects which occur subsequently, such as ecchymosis; the irritation and inflammation
of the mouths of the  punctures  ; the diffused redness and the soreness in the parts
intervening between the bites, which cannot  be without influence over morbid action.
They act on the  principle  of  counter-irritation.  In  taking into consideration the
beneficial  influence of leeches, we must, therefore, not forget these,  nor the foment-
ations aud poultices subsequently employed.
   When leeches are applied  to the temples, especially if they fix  close to the ex-
ternal canthus, a diffused swelling frequently arises, similar  to that caused by erysi-
pelas.   This is not referable  to  any  noxious qualities of the animal, for it happens
when the  finest and  most healthy are  employed;  nor to the  teeth of the animal
being left within the wound, since I have  seen it when the leech has fallen off spon-
taneously.
   Iu concluding  these  remarks on  the local effects of  leeches, I have  only to add
that, independently of  the local irritation caused  by the  puncture, I believe the
evacuation of  blood from an  inflamed part may be more  beneficial  than the same
quantity taken by the usual  operation of venesection.  In  other words, I  am dis-
posed to admit what were  formerly termed  the derivative effects of local bleediDg.
The amount of benefit obtained by the application of leeches.to parts  that have been
injured by falls, &c,  as in fractures and dislocations,  has  frequently appeared to
me much  greater than could  be referred to  the combined influence of the quantity
of blood lost, and the local irritation of the punctures;  so, also, with respect to the
good effects of leeching  hemorrhoidal tumours.  Mr. Wardrop thinks more benefit
is in some cases  obtained by the application of leeches at a distance from the affected
organ, constituting what has been termed  a revulsive operation.
   I trust  the remarks now  offered will be  sufficient  to prove that, in estimating the
therapeutic influence of  leeches, the quantity of blood drawn  is not the only element
in the calculation ;  and  I think,  in practice, constant proof will  be found that  leech-
ing is more beneficial  than  can be accounted for  by  the  mere quantity of blood
drawn.
   Uses.—The following are  some of the  uses of leeches:__
   1. In children and  delicate adults  (as females and aged persons) leeches of ten form
an excellent substitute for general bloodletting, when  the object is  not to  occasion

  1 Lancet, Sept. 20,  1828, p. 773.
  2 On the sensible effects of leeches on man, see Vitet, Traiti de la Sangs. Mid.  1809. 
            The Bloodsucking Leeches:—Mode of Application.       1115

any immediate or sudden effect on the disease.   In children, it is necessary to avoid
applying them to the neck, or other parts where compression cannot be conveniently
made.
  2. In local determinations of blood, unattended with febrile symptoms, local blood-
letting, when it  can be resorted to, is generally, though not invariably, preferred to
phlebotomy.   The advantages of leeching over cupping are, the less pain, and the
ease with which  blood may be procured; for it is evident that in swelled testicle, in
inflammation attending fractured limbs, and in acute inflammation of the mammary
gland, patients could  not, in  most cases, bear the necessary pressure of the cupping-
glass ;  and in  some parts of  the body, as the abdomen, blood can only be  procured
from cupping  by a very  dexterous manipulation.
  3. In iuternal and other inflammatory affections, accompanied with constitutional
disorder, the rule is  to  employ general  in  preference  to local bloodletting.   But
circumstances  occasionally render the reverse practice justifiable and proper, as where
the disease is  not active, and the patient delicate and weak.   In many instances it
will be found  most advantageous to combine both modes  of drawing blood; for ex-
ample, in abdominal  inflammations, the application of  leeches, preceded  by vene-
section, will sometimes do  more good than  the same quantity taken by the lancet
alone.   During  the progress of fever with determination  of  blood to the brain, the
application of leeches to the  temples, after the use of bloodletting, is often attended
with the best  effects.
   4. There are  some diseases in which no substitute of equal efficacy can  be found
for leeches.   Such,  I  conceive, are hemorrhoidal tumours, and prolapsus of the
rectum.  In these cases, general is  not  equal to local bloodletting, and cupping is
out of the question.
   5.  In various organic diseases leeches will often be found an exceedingly useful
palliative means.  I would particularly mention, as examples, affections of the heart
and lungs.
   6. Dr. Crampton1 recommends the application of leeches to the internal  surfaces;
as to the conjunctiva in ophthalmia, to  the  tonsils  in cynanche tonsillaris, and to
the iuternal surface of  the nostrils in epistaxis.  The mode  of  applying a leeeh to
the tonsils is as  follows : pass a single thread of silk  through the body of the leech,
and make fast  the ligature  to the  finger of the operator; then apply the leech to
the part.
   There are few diseases in  which loss of blood is required,  where leeching is posi-  '
tively objectionable;  indeed, erysipelas  is the  only one that can be named.   Here
it has  been supposed that the local irritation  caused by leeches would add to the
severity of the malady ;  but I believe that, even in this case, the objections are more
imaginary than   real.   There are, however, numerous instances in which leeching
is negatively objectionable; in some, the quantity of blood drawn by these animals
is insufficient to make much impression ou the disease, as in visceral inflammation
of  robust persons; in others, where the disease is very rapid  and fatal, the effects
of  leeches are too slow, as in  croup.   Venesection  is the remedy in all  these in-
stances.2
   Mode  of  applying Lekciiks.—Let the part be well  cleansed (sometimes it
may be necessary to  shave it);  then dry the leeches, by rolling them in a clean
linen cloth; place them in  the  lid of a pill-box, and apply to the affected part.   This
is a preferable method to applying them  by the fingers, or in a wineglass.  A narrow
tube (called a leech-glass)  will be found useful when we wish  to affix one of these
animals to the inside of the mouth, or any particular spot.   [By grasping the body
of  the leech gently in a dry cloth, its  head may be directed to any part where we
wish it to  be  applied;  and by gently withdrawing it as  its  head reaches the skin,
we compel the animal to fix its head to the spot, and insert its teeth.—Ed.]

  i  Dublin Hospital Reports, vol. iii. 1822.
  2 For a more extended  account of the uses of leeching, see Dr. R. Price, Treatise on the Utility of
Sanguisuction, 1822. 
1116
ANIMAL  SUBSTANCES.
  Several circumstances influence the fixing  of leeches; as the condition of the
animal, whether healthy or otherwise; the nature and condition of the part to which
it is applied: thus, leeches will not readily attach themselves to the  soles of the
feet, or the  palms of the hands, or to the hairy parts—the presence of grease,
vinegar, salt, and some other  substances,  will prevent them from biting;  whereas,
milk, sugared water, and  blood, are  said to have  the contrary effect.   Scarifying
the part promotes their  attachment.   The condition of the patient also affects the
fixing of the animal.   Derheims1 says that leeches will not bite those under the
influence of sulphur, on account of the evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen by the
skin.   The effluvia  or  vapours of the room, as  the fumes of  tobacco,  sulphur,
vinegar, &c, will prevent them biting, or even cause them suddenly to fall off.
  The quantity of blood a leech is capable of drawing varies considerably.   I be-
lieve four drachms to be the  maximum.  On  an average, I do not think we ought
to estimate it at more than one drachm and a half.   Of course this has  no reference
to that lost after the animal has fallen  off; and which varies according to the vascu-
larity of the part; in children  being oftentimes very considerable.   When the leech
has had sufficient it drops off; but it is said that if the tail be snipped  the animal
will continue to bite, the blood passing out posteriorly-as fast as it is  taken in by
the mouth.   I have tried several, but they  usually let go their hold the instant the
tail is cut.   H. Cloquet2 has made  the  same remark.   In order to disgorge the
leech of  the blood, the usual practice is  to apply salt to its body; but it  is objec-
tionable (if you wish to preserve the animal), since the surface is frequently thereby
blistered,  and  several  days  elapse  ere the creature regains  its former  activity.
Some  advise squeezing the  blood out by  the mouth;  others, the application of
diluted vinegar to the head.  If no kind of emetic be employed, the blood remains
for  a considerable time in the stomach of the leech undigested, but without putre-
fying.
  After-Treatment.—When  leeches  have  fallen off, it is generally desirable to
promote the sanguineous discharge.   This is best done by the use of warm fomenta-
tions or cataplasms;  or even, in some cases,  by cupping-glasses.   Great caution is
necessary in the case of children.  Some years since,  the application of a leech was
ordered to the chest of a child labouring under pneumonia; it was at the same time
mentioned that the bleeding  should  be encouraged.   The directions were literally
fulfilled—the discharge of blood was assiduously promoted—until so large a quan-
tity had been lost that death was the result.   No  attempt was made to stop it, nor
notice sent to the Dispensary, in the  practice of which the case occurred.  The child
being  illegitimate, and  the mother evidently careless of its recovery,  led  some to
suspect that this did not take place through mere ignorance.  In another instance
two leeches were ordered for a child aged about  eighteen  months, suffering with
pneumonic  inflammation, a consequence of measles.   The following day the poor
little creature was found in  a fainting, or rather dying  state, with face and lips
completely blanched.   On inquiry, it  appeared the leech-bites were still  bleeding,
and no attempt had been made to stop the  discharge, the  mother thinking it would
be  beneficial, more especially as the  pneumonic symptoms had considerably abated.
As predicted, the little sufferer died  within twenty-four hours.
  In some persons, there appears to be an hereditary predisposition to hemorrhage,
bo that very slight wounds are attended with serious and even fatal effects.   Mr.
Wilson, quoted by Mr. Wardrop,3 has related the case of a child where  one leech
had nearly  caused death, by the serious hemorrhage.  When about three or four
years old, this  child bit its  tongue, and, notwithstanding that  every  attempt was
made to  stop the discharge, death took place from the loss of blood.
   I have been  called to many cases of  hemorrhage after leech bites, and have  never
failed in  stopping it by compression.  Sometimes mere exposure to the air will be suf-
i ^sufracltTl^ *'*"' ?' ""* ^               ' **'■ * *«"■ "rt" *"""«. P- 83- 
TnE Bloodsucking Leeches :—Accidents.
1117
ficient; or, if this  fail, we  may apply a dossil of lint and a bandage.  In  other
instances, this will not succeed.   I usually employ compression, thus : roll a piece
of lint  into a fine cone, and introduce it into the bites by means of a needle or probe •
over this lay a compress and bandage.  Sponge may be substituted for the lint.
Various other modes have been proposed; some, I think, exceedingly cruel, since I
do not  believe them ever  necessary.  I allude, now, to  the application of a redhot
needle; and to passing a needle through the orifice, and wrapping thread round, just
as a farrier stops the discharge of blood from  the vein  of a horse.  Some employ
absorbing powders, as  gum  arabic; or styptic  washes, as a saturated solution of
alum.   One very effectual  means  is to apply a stick of  lunar caustic scraped to a
point, or powdered nitrate of silver.   Sir Charles Bell, in one case, stitched up  the
wound.
  Accidents from Leeches in  the  Mucous Cavities.—The ancients were
very apprehensive of the ill  consequences  likely to  arise from swallowing leeches.
That their fears were not groundless is proved from the following circumstances
related by the celebrated Baron Larrey.  When the French army entered upon  the
deserts which separate Egypt from Syria, the soldiers, pressed by thirst, threw them-
selves on their faces, and drank greedily of the muddy water, and which, unknown
to them, contained  leeches (Sanguisuga segyptiaca), having the form of a horse-
hair, and the length of a few lines only.   Many of them  felt immediately stino-s,
or prickling pains, in the posterior fauces, followed by frequent coughs, glairy spots,
slightly tinged with blood, and a disposition  to vomit, with a difficulty of swallow-
ing, laborious respiration, aud sharp pains in the chest, loss of appetite and rest,
attended with great uneasiness and agitation.  On pressing down the tongue of the
individual first attacked, a leech was discovered, which was with difficulty removed
by  the forceps.   Little or no hemorrhage  followed, and the  patient recovered.
Those  which  had attached themselves  to the posterior fauces were removed by the
use of  gargles composed of vinegar and salt water.   The Chief of Brigade, Latour-
Mauberg, commander of the 22d regiment of chasseurs, swallowed two in the deserts
of St. Makaire, a day's  journey from the Pyramids, which so much weakened him,
that his convalescence was long and difficult.
   Derheims1 relates a case where a young man, who had leeches applied to his anus,
was so unfortunate as to have one enter his rectum unnoticed.   The animal  made
several punctures, and  was  not expelled  until some hours  after, when  salt-water
injections were used.   The wounds caused by the bites, however, did  not  heal for
several months, during  which time the patient suffered considerably, and constantly
passed blood  with the feces.
   Whenever practicable, salt-water injections should be resorted to.  In the  fol-
lowing cases related by Derheims3 this practice could not be adopted.   Two  small
leeches were applied to the gums of an infant during the  period of dentition,  and
by the  inattention of the nurse they fixed themselves at the back part of the mouth,
and, becoming gorged with blood, caused great difficulty of respiration.  The infant,
by strongly closing the jaws, prevented the removal of the animals, who only ceased
their hold when they were filled with  blood.   The hemorrhage continued for  two
hours.
   Ill effects have resulted from swallowing leeches.   A lady accidentally swallowed
a leech she was applying to  her gums.  Acute  cardialgia soon came on, with a feel-
ing of  erosion and  creeping in the interior of  the stomach; sometimes convulsive
movements in the limbs and muscles of the face; frequency and irregularity of the
pulse;  universal agitation and  paleness of the countenance.  The physician who
was called in, recollecting the fact ascertained by Bibiena, that leeches  could  not
live in wine,  administered half a glass every quarter of  an hour.  The  symptoms
were soon alleviated; and the fourth dose caused vomiting, by which the dead leech
l Op. supra cit. p. 140.
2 Page 140. 
1118                     ANIMAL  SUBSTANCES.

was  evacuated, with much glairy matter, mixed with clots of black blood.   By a
proper subsequent treatment, the patient recovered in  eight days *
   [The following case occurred within our knowledge :  A lady was  directed to
apply a leech to the septum of the nose.  By some accident the animal insinuated
itself into the nasal cavities, and, reaching the posterior nares, the patient was irre-
sistibly compelled to  swallow it.   No  uneasiness was felt, probably owing to the
leech having already drawn much blood.  A moderately strong solution of chloride
of sodium was administered at short intervals.  The  leech was  not discharged  by
vomiting, and it did not pass by the bowels.   The patient suffered from no unusual
symptoms, probably owing to the rapid administration of the solution of salt.—Ed.]
             class  vi.  Insecta,  Goid/uss.—Insects,

  Characters.—Articulated animals with G feet (hcxapnda), one pair of antenna, a dorsal vessel
for circulation, respiring hy trachea, and undergoing metamorphosis (being successively ovum, larva,
pupa, and imago).  Head distinct from the thorax.

         Order I.  COLEOPTERA,  Linnams.—BEETLES.

  Characters.—4 wings, of which the two upper or anterior elytra or (wing cases) are horny
or leathery, united down the back by a straight suture; lower or posterior wings folded longi-
tudinally.  Mandibles and jaws for mastication.

354. CANTHARIS VESICATORIA, Latreille,L. E. D.-THE BLISTER
                     BEETLE,  OR SPANISH FLY.
                 Lytta vesicatoria, Fabricius ;  Meloe vesicatorius, Linnccus.
                         (The whole fly. E.—Cantharis, U. S.)

  History.—Hippocrates employed in medicine an insect which he calls xav9api<,
whose effects were similar to those of our Cantharis vesicatoria.   Hence, it has been
erroneously inferred by some writers that our blistering beetle is identical with that
employed by the ancients.   That this inference is incorrect is proved by the follow-
ing facts.  In the first place, many beetles agree in their effects on the system with
those of Cantharis vesicatoria; secondly, the word xavOapic. merely signifies a small
beetle or scarabseus parvus;  thirdly, both Dioscorides2 and Pliny3 refer to several
kinds of cantharides,  but remark that the most powerful are those with transverse
yellow bands on the wings, and that those  which are  homogeneous in colour are
weak and inert.   It is tolerably clear, therefore, that neither of these ancient writers
was  acquainted with  Cantharis vesicatoria.   Now  the characters assigned  to the
ancient blistering insect agree precisely with  those of two species of Mylabris.   Bur-
meister4 suggests  that Mylabris Fiisselini,  a  native of the south of Europe, was the
species used by the ancients.   Mylabris Cichorii is employed as a blistering  beetle
at the present day in  China and some parts  of  Hindostan, and may, perhaps have
teen used by the Greeks and Romans.
  Zoology.  Gen. Char.—Antennae elongate, simple, filiform.   Maxillary palpi
with terminal joint somewhat ovate.  Head large, heart-shaped.   Thorax  small
rather quadrate, narrower than the elytra, which are as long as the abdomen soft'
linear, the apex slightly  gaping.   Wings two, ample (J. F. Stephens).5
  Sp. Char—Bright glossy brass-green or bluish, glabrous; beneath more "lossy
with a few hairs.   Breast densely  pubescent, finely punctured.   Head and rfwrax
with a longitudinal  channel.   Elytra with two slightly raised  lines.   Tarsi viola-
ceous.   Antennae black, with the basal joint brassy (J. F. Stephens).
1 Eecueil piriodique.
3 Hist. Nat. lib. xxix. cap. 30, ed. Valp.
1 Man. of Brit. Coleopt. p. 334, 1839.
2 Lib. ii. cap 6y.
'  Man. ofEntomol. by s;huckard, p. 502, 1836. 
The Spanish Fly:—Zoology.
1119
   Form  elongated, almost  cylindrical.   Length six to  eleven lines.   Breadth one
to two lines.    Colour brass or copper green.   Odour nauseous, unpleasant.   Body
covered   with  whitish-gray hairs,
which are  most numerous on  the                     Fig. 426.
thorax.   Head large, subcordate,
with  a longitudinal  furrow along
its top.   Eyes lateral, dark brown.
Thorax not larger than  the head,
narrowed at the base.  Elytra from
four  to  six  lines  long,  and from
3-4ths to  1 i lines  broad;  costa
slightly margined.   Wings ample,
thin, membranous, veined, transpa-                    Cantharides.
rent, pale brown; tips folded.  Legs
6tout, from four to six lines long, the  hinder  ones  longest; tibiae  clavate, in the
female all terminated by two small movable spurs; in the male, the two hinder pairs
of extremities alone  have this  arrangement, the anterior ones having but one spur;
last joint of  the tarsi with  a pair of bifid  claws.   Abdomen soft,  broadest in the
female.   In  the female,  near the anus, are two articulated, caudal appendages.
   The internal organization  of  these animals has been elaborately  studied  by Audonin1 and  by
 Brandt2   The Nervous System  consists of a cerebrospinal axis,  and a double and single
 sympathetic system.   The cerebro-spinal axis consists of a double  nervous cord, and nine gan-
 glia (two  cephalic, one of which is the brain,  three thoracic, and four abdominal).  The single
 sympathetic system commences at the brain by two branches, which unite at theganglium frontale,
 from which a single nerve  proceeds along the oesophagus to the stomach, where it divides  in-
 to two, forming at its division  a small ganglion.   The double sympathetic system consists of four
 ganglia placed on the oesophagus, two on either  side of the single  nervous cord just described,
                                           with which, as well as with the brain, they are
                Fi". 427.                   connected  by nervous twigs.   The Vascular
                                           System consists of a simple pulsating dorsal vessel,
                                           which extends from the head to the extremity of
                                           the abdomen.  The Respiratory System con-
                                           sists of ten pair (three thoracic, seven abdominal)
                                           of stigmata, which  open into the trachea;.  The
                                           Digestive System consists of the mouth, which
                                           terminates in the pharynx.  The latter contracts
                                           into a  long  muscular  wsophagus, which ends in
                                           an  elongated fusiform stomach.   The latter  is
                                           marked transversely by bands  formed by  the

                                                             Fig. 428.
 Male Genital Organs of Cantharis
            vesicatoria.

a a. Testicle.
b b. Vasa deferentia.       .      .
c (.{(,[ c,c c. The four pair of vesicular
     seminales, or epididymoid vessels.
d. The common spermatic tube.
e. Portion of the intestinal tube inverted.
f. Last abdominal  ring.
     Female Organs of Cantharis
             vesicatoria.

a a. The ovaries covered by the egg tubes;
    each ovary sends out an oviduct, b.
     The two ducts unite to form the com-
    mon oviduct, which receives the ex-
    cretory tube of the spermatheca, c, and
    of other appendages, d d.
t. Portion of the inverted intestine.
/. Last abdominal  ring.
1 Ann. des Scienc. Nat. t. ix. p. 31.
- Med. Zool. ii. 
1120
ANIMAL SUBSTANCES.
 muscular coat.  Between the stomach and intestine is a valve (pylorus) formed by four small
 floating, kidney-shaped bodies.  The small intestine forms two curvatures, and then proceeding
 directly backwards, terminates in the swollen caecum, which ends in the very short narrow rec-
 tum.  The biliary vessels consist of six very long, filiform, convoluted tubes, which terminate
 anteriorly at the stomach  near  the pylorus, and posteriorly at the  intestine near the caecum.
 The Sexcal  System of  the Male consists of a pair of spherical testicles, having externally a
 granulated appearance; two  vasa deferentia, which have a ringed  appearance; three  or four
 pairs  of tubes (seminal vesicles  or epididymoid vessels), tbe functions  of which are imperfectly
 known ; a common spermatic dust; and a penis, which has three barbs or hooks at its extremity,
 and is enveloped by a sheath.   The Female Organs consist of two large, hollow, egg-shaped
 ovaries, the cavities of which are called calyces. On their external surface is an immense num-
 ber of pyriform egg-tubes.   From each ovary or calyx arises an oviduct, and the two oviducts by
 their  junction form the common oviduct, the lower portion of which  is called the vagina.  Into
 the common oviduct passes a tube from a vascular bag, called spermathcca  (vesicule copulatrice,
 Auduoin), and also from other appendages (sebaceous glands, Audouin).
   I must refer to Audouin's paper for an amusing account of the amours of these animals.
   Hab.—Europe.  Originally, perhaps, a native of the southern  parts, especially
 Italy and Spain.   Now found in France, Germany,  Hungary, Russia, Siberia, and
 England.  With us they are rare.   In the summer of 1837, they were abundant in
 Essex and Suffolk.1  They are  found on species of Oleaceee  (as the ash, privet, and
 lilac), and of Caprifoliaceae (as the elder and Lonicera).
   Mode of  catching Cantharides.—In the south of France these animals are
 caught during the teonth of May, either in the morning or  evening, when they are
 less active,  by spreading large cloths  under the trees, which  are then strongly
 shaken or  beaten with  long poles.   The  catchers  usually  cover their faces, and
 guard their hands by gloves.2  Various methods  have been recommended for kill-
 ing the insects; such as exposing them to  the vapour of vinegar (the practice men-
 tioned by Dioscorides), or of hot water, or of spirit of wine, or of the oil of tur-
 pentine.  Geiger states that, if destroyed by dropping oil  of turpentine into the
 bottle in which they are contained, they are not  subject to the attack of mites;
 but I believe they are more frequently destroyed by immersing the cloths contain-
 ing them in  hot vinegar and water, and then drying on hurdles covered with  paper
 or cloths.
   Preservation.—Cantharides should be preserved in well-stoppered bottles, and
 to prevent them  from being attacked by mites (Acarus domesticus), a few drops of
 strong acetic acid should be added to them.   I have found this a  most successful
 mode of preservation.   (Besides mites, they  are  subject to  the  attacks of a moth
 (Tinea flavifrontella),  and  two coleopterous insects  (Anthrenus  muscorum and
 Hoplia farinosa).
   Commerce.—Cantharides are imported from St. Petersburg,  in  cases, each con-
 taining 160  or 170 lbs.; and also from  Messina, in  barrels or cases, holding each
 about 100 lbs.   They are principally brought over  towards the end of the year.
 In 1839, duty (Is. per lb.)  was paid on 16,376 lbs.
   The  cantharides from St. Petersburg  are the largest and  most esteemed.   They
 are somewhat more copper-coloured than  the French  or English  varieties, which
 have  rather a brassy than  copper tint.  Sir James Wylie3 states that they are very
abundant in  the southern provinces of Russia.
   Characteristics for  Medico-legal Purposes.—There are no chemical tests
for cantharides, to be relied  on.   Orfila* has published an account  of  the effects of
various reagents on tincture  of  cantharides;  but  they are   unimportant.  Cantha-
rides  are rarely met with  in a  sufficiently  perfect form to  enable us to recognize
them  by their zoological characters.   Their physical  characters are much more im-
portant.   In all powders of cantharides golden green particles may be distinguished;
these  may be separated from the other contents of the stomach by immersing them
in boiling water; the fatty matter rises to the surface, while the cantharides powder
falls to  the bottom.   Orfila  has  recognized these particles in a  body nine months
1 Westwood. Intr. to the Mod. Classif. of Insects, vol. i. 1839       2 Ri-h,r,i  n-# .  „    .  ,,„
' Pharmacopoeia Castrensis Ruthenica, p. 213, Petropoli, 164o'.       « Toxicol §£        S' 1- 55°' 
The Spanish Fly:—Adulteration and Goodness; Composition.   1121
after interment;  so that they do not readily decompose, even when mixed with de-
caying animal matters.  [A  portion  of the suspected substance  spread in  a thin
layer should be allowed to  dry on a  piece of glass.   When dried, either by  the
naked eye or by  the aid of a lens, the green and copper-coloured particles  of the
wings may be seen, if cantharides be present, on one or both sides of  the glass.—
Ed.]  Some  other  insects, however, have  the same golden-green colour, but  are
without vesicating properties; and vice versa, there are many insects which vesicate,
but which have not a golden-green colour.   The physical characters of the particles,
aided by their physiological effects, together form  tolerably conclusive  evidence of
the presence of cantharides.  To judge of the effects of cantharides,  and their pre-
parations,  we should proceed as follows: If the suspected matter be a  liquid, eva-
porate it to the  consistence of an extract;  then digest  in  repeated quantities of
sulphuric ether.  The  ethereal solutions are to be  mixed, and allowed  to evaporate
in the air; the vesicating properties of the  residuum may  be determined by  apply-
ing it to the inside  of the lip or to  the  arm.   If the suspected matter contain solid
particles, these are  to be digested in ether, and the concentrated tincture applied to
the inner surface of the lip.1  Dr. Hastings3 has published an interesting fatal case
of inflammation of the  alimentary canal and urinary organs.    The symptoms simu-
lated those  caused  by excessive  doses of cantharides;  but the  moral and  other
evidence seemed  to negative the suspicion that insects had been  taken.
   Adulteration and Goodness.—The  goodness  or  quality of cantharides may
be recognized  by their odour, and freedom  from other  insects,  especially  mites.
Sometimes the powder, but more  commonly  the  plaster, is  adulterated with pow-
dered euphorbium.    I  have been  informed, by persons  well acquainted with  the
fact, that it is a common practice,  amongst certain druggists, to  mix one pound of
euphorbium with fourteen pounds of powdered Spanish flies.
   Composition.—Cantharides  were analyzed in  1803 by Thouvenal,3 in 1804 by
Beaupoil,4 and in 1810 by  Roubiquet.5
   Thouvenal's Analysis.
Watery extract  . .  .   37.50
Subsequent alcoholic
 extract.......   10.42
Subsequent  ethereal
 extract.......   2.0S
Insoluble residuum .  .   50.00
Total......100.00
     BeaupoiVs Analysis.
Black matter, insoluble in
  alcohol, but soluble in
  water   ..........12.94
Yellow matter, soluble in
  water, alcohol, and ether 12.91
Green oil, soluble in alco-
  hol and ether.......13.99
Parenchyma, salts, and ox-
  ide of iron........60.13
Phosphoric acid......  ?

       Total .......100.00
       Robiquet's Analysis.
1. Cantharidin.
2. Green fatty oil, soluble in alcohol.
3. Fatty matter, insoluble in alcohol.
4. Yellow viscid substance, soluble in
   water and alcohol (osmazome ?).
5. Black matter, soluble in water, in-
   soluble in alcohol.
6. Yellow matter, soluble in ether and
   alcoliol.
7. Free acetic and uric acids.
8. Phosphate of lime, and phosphate
   of magnesia.

        Cantharis vesicatoria.
   1. Cantharidin (Vesicatorin ; Cantharides-Camphor).—Has been found in Cantharides vesica-
toria, Lytta vittata, Mylabris Cichorii, and  other vesicating insects.  Probably exists in  all the
blistering beetles.   To procure  it, concentrate an alcoholic tincture  (prepared hy percolation)
and set aside; the cantbaradin slowly crystallizes.  It is purified by washing with cold alcohol,
and boiling with alcohol and animal charcoal.  Its properties are as  follows: It  crystallizes in
the form of micaceous plates, which are fusible, forming a  yellow oil, which by a stronger heat
is  vaporizable, forming  white vapours; these  subsequently condense into acicular crystals of
cantharidin.  Dana regards it as an organic alkali, but without any just grounds;  for it will not
restore the blue colour of litmus paper reddened by an acid.  Gmelin's opinion, that it is a solid
volatile oil seems to be correct.  When isolated, it  is not soluble  in water, but becomes so by
combination with the other constituents of cantharides; the yellow matter probably being the
principal agent in  rendering it so.  This, then, is the reason  why an aqueous infusion of the
insects contains cantharidin in solution.  Cold spirit, digested on  cantharides, extracts cantha-
ridin • which it can  only do by the agency  of some of the other  principles of the flies.  It is
easily soluble in ether, oils  (volatile and fixed), and  hot spirit of wine ; and from  the latter it
separates as the liquid cools.  Concentrated  boiling sulphuric acid dissolves cantharidin;  the

 ' See Ann  d'Hygiene Publique, 1835, xiii. p. 455.
 ■ Trans, of the Pr^in.mi. and Surg. Assoc, vol. i. p. 402.                   ,
 » .1nn.de Chim. xlvil. 230.                                               iota.xivm. £a.
 » Ibid. Ixxvi. 302.
       VOL. n.—71 
1122
ANIMAL  SUBSTANCES.
solution is slightly brown;  when diluted  with water it deposits  small  needle-like crystals of
cantharidin.  Boiling nitric and  hydrochloric  acids dissolve it without changing colour; the so-
lutions, by cooling, deposit  it.  Cantharidin is  dissolved by  potash and soda; but when concen-
trated acetic acid  is added  to the solution, the cantharidin is precipitated.  Ammonia is with-
out action on it.   According to Regnaud,  it consists of carbon 61.68 ;  hydrogen 6.04 ; and oxygen
32.28.
  Robiquet  thus describes  the effects of cantharidin: The  l-100th part of a grain, placed on a
slip of paper and applied  to the edge of the lower lip, caused, in about a quarter of an hour,
small blisters.  A little cerate being applied, served only to extend the  action over a larger
surface, and both  lips were in consequence covered with blisters.   Some atoms of cantharidin,
dissolved in two  or three  drops of almond oil, were rubbed over a  small piece of paper,  and
applied  to  the arm ; in six hours the blister was formed, the size of the paper. The volatility
of cantharidin at  a  comparatively low temperature, and the action  of the vapour on the con-
junctival membrane, are shown by the accident which happened to one of Robiquet's pupils,
who was watching its crystallization, and  felt acute pain in the conjunctiva, which was followed
by inflammation, accompanied with small phlyctenae, and loss of sight for several days.  Robi-
quet, who was not so near  the liquid, suffered but slightly.   I have suffered once in preparing
this substance.-  I  applied one drop of an ethereal solution  of impure cantharidin to the inside
of the lower lip;  but immediately afterwards, repenting of my temerity, I wiped it carefully
off.   In about an hour a blister had  formed on the inside of the lip, and it was five or six days
before  the part  had completely healed.   Bretonneau, in  his  experiments  on animals, has not
found any marked aphrodisiac effect produced by cantharidin.  He found that it rendered the
circulation slower, and caused fatal lethargy.
  2. Volatile Odorous Oil ?—Orfila asserts that volatile odorous oil is  one of the constituents
of the  insects.  The  distilled water of cantharides  is strongly odorous and  milky; and  its
vapour affects the  eyes and kidneys like cantharides.
  The  active and  odorous principles of cantharides  reside  principally in  the sexual organs of
the  animals.  Both Farines and  Zier tell  us, that the soft contain  more active matter than  the
hard parts.  It appears, also, that  the posterior is much more acrid than the anterior portion
of the body; and  Zier says the ovaries are particularly rich in this active matter.   If so, it is
evident that we ought to prefer large female  to male insects.  It  is a well-known  fact, that the
odour of these animals becomes much more powerful at the season of copulation than at other
periods; and that  persons sitting under the trees in which these insects are found, at this season
more particularly, are very apt to be attacked with ophthalmia and ardor urina?.
   Physiological Effects,   a. On Animals.—The principal  experiments with
cantharides on animals (dogs) are those  of Orfila1 and Schubarth.3   It results from
their investigations, that  these insects   cause  violent inflammation in the parts to
which they are applied,  and an affection  of the nervous system  (spinal cord, princi-
pally).  Injected into the jugular vein, the oleaginous infusion  caused tetanus;  in-
troduced into the stomach, the oesophagus being tied, the tincture produced insensi-
bility  (Orfila).   Inflammation  of  the inner coat of  the bladder was  observed when
the poison  had remained in the stomach  for a few hours before death.
   (3.  On Man.— The topical effects  of cantharides  are those of a most  powerful
acrid.    When  these insects are  applied to the skin, the first effects noticed are, a
sensation of heat accompanied  by pain,  redness,  and slight  swelling.  These phe-
nomena are soon followed  by a serous effusion between  the  corium  and epidermis,
by  which the latter is raised, forming what is commonly termed a blister, or,  in  the
more  precise language  of  the  cutaneous. pathologist, an  ampulla or bulla.  The
effused  liquid  has a pale-yellow colour, with a very feeble  taste and smell.   Two
analyses of it have been made:—
     Analysis by Dr. Bostock.
Albumen.............  6.00
Uncoagulable matter......  0.14
Salts...............  1.00
Water..............92.86

                         100.00
            Analysis by Brandes and Reimann.
Albumen...........
Animal matter, with muriate "of am'm'oni'a,'potash sal'ts car-
  donate, lactate, muriate, and sulphate of soda .  ..'.   .   0.26
  a ef *.............................93 99
                                                                                 100.00

  If  the cuticle be removed, the subjacent corium is seen intensely reddened and
by exposure  to  the  air, oftentimes  becomes exceedingly painful    If irritants be
applied, a secretion of pus takes place, and sometimes a whitish-looking false mem-

  1 T°XiC°l- GiH-                       ""^wibmer, Wirk. d. Arzneim. u. Gifte, Bd. iii. S. 262. 
                 The Spanish Fly:—Physiological Effects.            1P23

brane is formed.   Long-continued irritation occasionally causes tubercular granu-
lations.   Not unfrequently I have noticed ecthymatous pustules around the blistered
surface; and  in  one remarkable  case, which fell under my notice, the whole body,
but more especially the pectoral region (to which the blister had been applied), was
covered with them.  Sometimes the vesicles of eczema occur.   Ulceration and gan-
grene are  not uncommon; the latter effect is occasionally observed after exanthe-
matous  diseases, especially measles.   I  have  seen death  result therefrom in two
instances.   The constitutional symptoms frequently produced are excitement of the
vascular system (as denoted by the increased frequency of pulse, heat of skin, and
furred tongue), and irritation of the urinary and genital organs (marked by heat and
pain in  passing the urine, which is usually high coloured, or there may be complete
suppression).   It not unfrequently happens  that the part to which a blister has
been  applied  remains  considerably darker coloured  than the surrounding  skin.
Rayer states that the disappearance of these discolorations is hastened  by the use
of sulphurous baths.
   When swallowed, cantharides act topically on the gastro-intestinal membrane ;  in
poisonous quantities they excite inflammation of the mucous lining of the aliment-
ary canal, with constriction and difficulty of swallowing, which is  sometimes  so
great, that  not  a particle of fluid can  be got into the stomach without the most
inexpressible anguish;  violent burning  pain, nausea, vomiting, frequently of bloody
matters, sometimes with flakes  like the  inner lining of the  alimentary tube, and
great tenderness  to touch.   These  phenomena sufficiently indicate  the  gastric in-
flammation.   Ptyalism is  not an uncommon  occurrence.  The enteritic symptoms
are, abundant and frequent evacuations, sometimes of blood, with horrible griping
and burning pain, and exquisite sensibility of the abdomen.
   The volatile odorous  matter evolved  by these insects is a local irritant;  for it
causes  itching and even inflammation of the eyelids and  conjunctiva, irritation  of
the air-passages, marked by epistaxis,  convulsive sneezing, &c.  If it  be inhaled,
as  is done when persons  sit under trees on which the  animals are found, or by
breathing the vapour of decoction of cantharides, an affection of the urinary orgaus
may be brought on.   The same remote effects  may also be excited  by blisters, by
handling the  insects, by applying them to wounds, by swallowing  them, or by in-
jecting  solutions of their active  principle into the  veins.  We may classify the
remote effects of cantharides into those  observed  in  the  urino-genital, the nervous,
and the vascular systems.
   an. Action on the Urino-genital System.—The pain in  the loins, and the alteration
in the quantity and quality of the urine, are the symptoms indicative of the inflamed
condition of the  kidneys.   The  burning pain and tenderness  in  the  hypogastric
region,  and the constant desire to pass the urine, with the inability of doing  so
except drop by drop,  are evidences of the vesical inflammation.   The action on the
genital  organs in the male is proved by priapism, which is sometimes accompauied
by satyriasis, sometimes not;  and by the occasional inflammation and mortification
of the external organs.  In  the  female, the action on the sexual system is shown
by the local heat and irritation, aud by the occasional occurrence of abortion.
   0,3. Action on the Nervous System.—The affection of this system is  proved by the
pain in the head, disordered intellect, manifested in  the form of furious or phrenitic
delirium, convulsions of the tetanic kind, and  subsequently coma.  It is deserving
of especial notice, that  sometimes several days elapse before the nervous symptoms
show  themselves : thus, in a case related by Giulio, they appeared on the third day;
in another instance, mentioned by Graaf, on the eighth; and  in a case  noticed by
Dr. Ives, they were not observed until  the fourteenth day.1
   yy. Action  on the  Vascular  System.—The pulse becomes hard and frequent, the
skin hot and  the respiration quickened; diaphoresis is occasionally observed.
   The susceptibility to  the influence of  cantharides is by no means uniform.   Werl-
i See Christison, Treatise on Poisons. 
1124
ANIMAL SUBSTANCES.
 hoff mentions the case of a lad who used to be attacked with priapism and involun-
 tary emission by merely smelling the powder.   Amoreux  says, in one case a pinch
 of the powder caused death ;  while  in another a spoonful  occasioned only slight
 heat in the throat, and ardor  urinse.   Dr. Hosack  has mentioned an instance in
 which a man took nearly six ounces of the tincture with the view of self-destruction,
 yet no dangerous symptoms followed.   In contrast with this, I may instance a case
 that came within my own knowledge,  where one ounce of  the tincture produced
 serious symptoms.   Orfila has seen twenty-four grains of the powder prove fatal.
   1.  Action in small or medicinal doses.—In very small quantities  there are no
 obvious effects.   If we increase the dose, a sensation of warmth is  felt in the throat,
 stomach, and respiratory passages, with increased secretion from the alimentary tube.
 By continued use,  a  tickling or  burning  sensation is experienced  in  the urethra,
 with frequent desire to pass the urine, which  may or may  not be  altered in quality
 and quantity.   In  some cases diuresis is observed, in others not; in the latter the
 urine is generally higher coloured than usual.  Occasionally  the sexual feelings are
 excited.
   2. Action in  larger doses;  Subacute Poisoning.—The symptoms are heat in the
 throat, stomach, intestines, and  respiratory passages;  pain  in the loins, burning
 sensation in the bladder, with frequent(desire to evacuate the urine, which is some-
 times bloody, and passed with  difficulty.   Painful  priapism, with or without saty-
 riasis.   Pulse more frequent, skin hot,  and the respiration quickened; the nervous
 system is frequently excited.
   3. Action in still larger doses ; Acute  Poisoning.—The symptoms observed are,
 in part, common to other irritant  poisons;  in part peculiar  to the vesicating insects.
 Violent burning in the stomach,  with exquisite sensibility and  constant vomiting;
 extreme thirst, dryness, and  fetid odour of the mouth, and not unfrequently ptya-
 lism.   Burning pain and spasmodic contraction of the  bladder, giving rise to the
 most excruciating  agony.   Notwithstanding the incessant  desire to void  urine,
 nothing but drops of blood are passed, and with great  pain.  The constriction of
 the throat and difficulty of deglutition are  most distressing and alarming ; the unfor-
 tunate sufferer is constantly tormented with violent  gripings, purging,  generally of
 blood,  extreme tenderness of the whole abdominal surface, faintings, giddiness, con-
 vulsions, and an almost hydrophobic aversion to liquids, with delirium terminating
 in coma.
   The mode and  immediate cause of death  are various;  sometimes  the nervous
 symptoms  kill  before  gangrene  makes  its  appearance;  but more  usually  the
 patient dies from inflammation  and subsequent mortification of the alimentary tube
 or of the genital organs.
   Post-mortem Appearances.—On opening the bodies of persons poisoned by
 cantharides, inflammation and its consequences have been observed in the aliment-
 ary tube,  and the  urinary and genital organs.  The cerebral vessels have been
 found in a congested state.   It is  deserving of notice that inflammation of the urino-
 genital organs is more likely to be met with  in  patients dying within a few days
after poisoning.
   Uses.—Hippocrates used vesicating insects (under the name of cantharides) in-
ternally ; but  the practice was subsequently regarded as dangerous; and, so lately
as the  year 1693, the President of the College of Physicians  committed Dr. Groen-
 velt to Newgate for daring to employ  them ! I1
   1. Local  Uses.—Cantharides are frequently used as topical agents; sometimes as
stimulants, sometimes as rubefacients, at other times as  vesicants.
   a. To stimulate topically.—Tincture of cantharides with water (in the proportion
 of three or four drachms of the tincture to a pint of water)  has been employed to
stimulate ulcers; more especially  sinuses and fistulous  sores.   It is  said  on  the
same principle that stimulant and irritant applications are made to the eye in oph-
 1 Groenvelt, De luto Cantharidum in medicinS. usu interna, 12mo. Lond  1698- flrepnfiol,) t,.„.-
Cantharides, translated by Martin, 1706.                 '              ' <*reenne">> Treatise on 
The Spanish Fly:—Uses.                     1125
thalmia; that is, to excite a new action, which shall supersede the old one.   Mat-
thew's once celebrated injection  for  fistula  in ano is a wash of this kind.1  In
alopecia, or baldness, when this is not the result of old age, unguents of cantharides
have  been employed  to promote the growth  of hair.   Powdered cantharides  have
been advised as an application to the parts bitten by rabid animals.
  0.  To produce Rubefaction.—For this purpose  the tincture may be  mixed with
soap or camphor liniment;  or when it is desirable to limit the effect to  a particular
spot, and especially if friction be objectionable, the common blistering  plaster may
be applied, allowing it to remain in contact with  the part for an hour or two  only.
Rubefacient liniments are employed to excite  the sensibility of the skin in numbness
and paralysis ;  as also to promote heal irritation in neuralgic and rheumatic pains.
In the inflammatory affections of children it will be occasionally found useful to
employ the plaster as  a rubefacient merely.
  y.  To excite  Vesication.—A considerable  number of substances (mineral, vege-
table, and animal)  cause vesication when applied  to the skin.  Horseradish, meze-
reon, liquor aramoniae, and acetic acid, may be mentioned as examples.  To these
may be added heat, applied in the form of hot water, or a hot metallic  plate.   For
facility of  application, certainty of effect, and slightness of pain,  no agents are
equal to cantharides, and these are now almost solely used.
  It was formerly  supposed that the efficacy of  blisters was in proportion to the
quantity of fluid discharged.   But the truth  is, that the therapeutic influence is in
proportion to the local irritation,  and  has no  more relation to the quantity of fluid
discharged than that the  latter is frequently (not invariably) in  the ratio of the
former.  Stoll's axiom is,  therefore, correct: " Non suppuratio  sed stimulus  pro-
dest."  As to  the precise manner in  which  blisters,  or, indeed,  any remedies,
influence diseases, we  are quite  in the dark.  We are  accustomed to refer their
operation to the principles of  counter-irritation.  I must refer those  who feel in-
terested in the question whether blisters ought to be applied  in the  neighbourhood
of,  or at a distance from, the  affected part, to a paper by Barthez, in the Recueil de
la Societi Midicale de Paris.  In this country, we generally apply them  near to
the morbid part;  to which practice Barthez assents, with some exceptions.
   We employ blisters in  inflammatory diseases, both  acute and  chronic;  in the
former, however,  preceding  their use  by bloodletting.   In  chronic inflammatory
disease we often employ what is termed a  perpetual blister; that is, the cuticle is
removed,  and the  blistered surface dressed with  savine  or  cantharides ointment.
This practice is advisable in chronic diseases of the chest, of the joints, of the
eyes, &c.   Blisters are sometimes used in erysipelas;  thus to localize the disease
when disposed to spread, and as a revulsive, applied to the feet, in erysipelas of the
head.   A blister to the perineum has been sometimes found beneficial in gleet.
   It is hardly safe to apply blisters to children  immediately after exanthematous
diseases, sloughing being not  an unfrequent result.  If it be required to  produce
in them counter-irritation, the best plan is to dilute the common blistering plaster,
by  mixing with it three times its weight of  soap cerate.  I have  seen this  com-
pound  frequently  employed,- but never observed any unpleasant results from it.
Another plan, sometimes adopted, is to apply  a common blister, for an  hour or two
only, so that it  shall merely produce rubefaction.
   2.  Remote Uses.—These will  require examination under  distinct heads, accord-
ing to the particular object we have in view in employing cantharides.
  o.  To act specifically on  the Urinary Organs—In dropsy, they have been  used
to excite diuresis, though they frequently fail in producing this effeo*.  In diabetes,
cantharides have been employed, but without apparent  benefit.  In paralysis of the
bladder they are  frequently  useful, when there are no  marks of  local irritation.
Two  opposite conditions  may be the result  of  paralysis of this organ;  namely,
retention  or incontinence of urine.  The latter condition is not unfrequently met
1 Dr. Paris, Pharmacologia. 
H26                     ANIMAL  SUBSTANCES.

with in children, and is very likely to be  relieved by cantharides.   It  is usually
stated they are particularly serviceable in that species of incontinence which occurs
during sleep only;  but I have seen them cure the disease during day, and faiL-in
giving relief at night.   The case alluded to was that of a  boy, 14 years old, who
had been subject to incontinence of urine since his infancy.   He was a robust lad,
aud apparently  in the  most perfect health.  I put  him  under  the  influence of
gradually increased doses of cantharides, and within two months he was enabled to
retain his urine  by day, but it still  passed  involuntarily at night; and, though he
continued the remedy for a considerable time, no  further benefit was obtained.   In
incontinence of urine which  occurs after lingering labours,  from the long-continued
pressure of the child's head, cantharides are sometimes  serviceable.   But their use
must  not be commenced until all the symptoms of local  irritation have subsided.
   0.  To act  on the Organs of Generation.—In consequence of the specific stimulus
communicated by cantharides to the bladder, it has been  supposed that the  same
influence might  be extended  to the uterus;  and thus these insects have been em-
ployed as stimulating emmenagogues, m some cases with apparent benefit, but fre-
quently without any obvious effect.  Abortion has occasionally happened from  their
employment, as  I have myself witnessed in one case.
   Cantharides are also employed as an aphrodisiac, both in man and other animals
(as horses, heifers, and asses).   In man, if given in sufficient quantity to excite the
sexual feelings,  they endanger the patient's safety.  Most of the cases  in which
we are requested to administer  aphrodisiacs, will be  found, on examination, to re-
quire  moral  rather than pharmacological treatment.  In discharges from the genital
organs, beneficial effects are  frequently obtained by the  internal use of cantharides.
In  gleet, they have been  often found serviceable.  Mr. Boberton1 explains  their
efficacy by saying that they excite a mild inflammatory action on the urethra (shown
by the discharge becoming thick, opake, and puriform), which supersedes the pre-
vious  morbid one.   I have frequently found  equal parts of tincture of chloride of
iron and tincture of cantharides a successful combination  in  old-standing gonor-
rhoeas.  The dose is twenty drops at the commencement.
   y. In Chronic Skin  Diseases.—Pliny states that  cantharides  (Mylabris)  were
employed in  a disease which he terms lichen.  At the present  time, tincture of
cantharides is not unfrequently employed in  lepra psoriasis, and  eczema.   Having
found other  remedies very successful in lepra and psoriasis, I have rarely had  occa-
sion to try cantharides; but Rayer2 says:  "Of all the energetic and dangerous
remedies that have been used in lepra,  the tincture of cantharides is, perhaps, that
which has the most remarkable influence over the disease.   The great objection to
its employment is its liability to excite inflammation in the digestive organs and
urinary passages, especially among  females, which necessitates the immediate sus-
pension, and occasionally the entire abandonment, of the medicine."   Biett has
found it successful in chronic eczema, as well as in the scaly diseases.
   S. In diseases^ of the nervous system, cantharides were at one time in great repute.
The cases in which they were employed were hydrophobia, epilepsy, chorea, tetauus,
and mania.   Experience has shown that they deserve little attention in any of these
complaints.
   f. In obstinate sores, Mr. Roberton recommends cantharides on the same principle
that he uses them in gleet.
   Administration.— Powdered cantharides are not unfrequently employed inter-
nally.  The dose is one  or two grains in the form of pill.  The tincture is the safest
preparation,  and should, therefore, always be preferred.
   Antidote.-Iu poisoning by cantharides, remove the poison as speedily as pos-
sible trom the  stomach.  If sickness  have not commenced, the  removal may be
effected by  the  Stomach-pump,  emetics, or  tickling the throat (see  treatment  of
of Cantharides, 1806.
yDr. R. Willis. 
    The Spanish Fly:—Acetum;  Tinctura;  Ceratum; Unguentum.   1127

poisoning by Opium, ante).  Assist the vomiting by mucilaginous and albuminous
demulcent liquids—as linseed-tea, milk, white of egg, with water, &c.  No chemi-
cal  antidote is known.   Oil was at one time thought to be an excellent remedy; but
since  the discovery of its  being a solvent for the cantharidin, suspicion has  been
entertained that it is calculated to increase, rather than decrease, the patient's dan-
ger.  This theoretical and plausible objection, first broached, I believe, by Pallas,
seems  supported by experience.   Orfila found that cantharides macerated  in cold
oil, and afterwards given to dogs, killed them  in a few minutes; and Dr. Christison
says, " the case mentioned in the Genoa Memoirs was evidently exasperated by the
use of oil."   I  confess, however, I  think farther experience is required to deter-
mine the hurtful consequences of employing oil; for—as the editors of the Diction-
naire de Matiere Midicale very properly observe—on  the same principles that oil is
prohibited, mucilaginous drinks ought also to be prescribed, since cantharidin, aided
by  the yellow matter, dissolves in water;  and on the other hand, oil, in some cases,
has appeared to be beneficial.   To counteract the effects of cantharides, bloodletting,
both general and local, opium, and the warm-bath, must be resorted to.  Camphor
was at one time highly  esteemed for counteracting the effects of cantharides.   Olea-
ginous and mucilaginous injections into the bladder are recommended to relieve the
vesical symptoms.

  1. ACETUM  CANTHARIDIS (Epispasticum), L.;  Acetum Cantharidis, E.;  Vinegar
(epispatic) of Cantharides;  Acetum  Cantharidis,  D.—(Cantharides, rubbed to
powder, §ij;  Acetic Acid Oj.   Macerate the cantharides with the  acid for eight
days, occasionally shaking ; lastly, express and strain, L.—" Cantharides,  in  pow-
der, 3*iij; Acetic Acid f^v;  Pyroligneous Acid f£*xv; Euphorbium, in coarse pow-
der, 3*ss.   Mix the acids, add the powders, macerate for seven days, strain and ex-
press strongly,  and filter  the  liquor," E.—Spanish  Flies, in fine powder,  Jiv;
Strong  Acetic Acid fjiv; Acetic Acid of commerce  (sp. gr. 1044), f^xvj.  Mix
the acids, and, having added the flies, macerate in a close vessel for fourteen days;
then strain through flannel with expression, and filter, so as to obtain a clear liquid,
D.)—Not fitted for internal employment.   Applied to the skin as a convenient and
prompt vesicant.   In the formula of the London  College, eight times as much can-
tharides are employed as in the tincture.
   I TINCTURA CANTHARIDIS, L. E. D.  [U. S.] ;  Tinctura Lyttae; Tincture of Can-
tharides.—(Cantharides, in powder,  5iv;  Proof Spirit Oij; [Spanish Flies,  bruised,
§j; Diluted Alcohol Oij, U. S.~]   Macerate  for seven [fourteen, D.,  U. S.~\ days,
[strain and express strongly the residuum, E.~\ express, and filter, D.  " This tiuc-
ture may be obtained much more conveniently and  expeditiously by percolation,
provided  the cantharides  be  reduced to coarse powder, and left with a little of the
spirit in a state of pulp for twelve hours  before  the  process of percolation  is com-
menced," E.)—The strength of this  preparation is now uniform in the three  British
Pharmacopoeias.   Dose, tr^x, gradually increased to f5j.   Its effects on the  bladder
must be carefully watched.   It should be given in some demulcent liquid, as barley
water or linseed tea.   It is sometimes employed externally  as a rubefacient.
   I CERATUM  CANTHARIDIS, L.;  Unguentum  Cantharidis, E.; Cerate of  Cantha-
rides.—(Cantharides, in very fine  powder, |j ; Spermaceti  Cerate [Resinous Oint-
ment, E.~\ gvj. [^vij, E.~\  Add the cantharides to the cerate, softened by heat, and
mix.)—This preparation must not  be confounded with the  next one, than which it
is more irritant.  The uses of the two are the same.   From the greater activity of
the cerate  more danger of the absorption of the active principle of the cantharides
is to  be apprehended.   When  this occurs,  the  bladder becomes affected,  and, in
some cases, inflammation  of the absorbents, and fever, are produced.
  4. UNGUENTUM INFUSI CANTHARIDIS, E.;  Unguentum Cantharidis, L. D. [U. S.];
Ointment of Cantharides.—(Cantharides, in  very  fine powder, 31 ij  [|ij,  U. £];
Distilled  Water fs xij [Oss, U. S.]; Resinous Cerate tbj [Jviij, U.  &].  Boil the 
 1128                     ANIMAL SUBSTANCES.

 water with the cantharides down to one-half, and  strain.   Mix the cerate with the
 strained liquor, then evaporate the mixture to a  proper consistence, L.—-  bantha-
 rides, in moderately fine powder-,  Resin,  and Beeswax,  of each |j ;  Venice  1 ter-
 pentine  and Axunge,  of each 3ij ; Boiling Water gv.   Infuse the cantharides in
 the water for one night, squeeze strongly, and filter the expressed liquid.   Add the
 axunge, and boil till the water is dispersed.  Then add  the  wax and  resin ;  and,
 when these have become liquid, remove the vessel from the fire, add the turpentine,
 and  mix the whole thoroughly," E.—Liniment  of Spanish  Flies f^vnj; White
 Wax 3*iij; Spermaceti gj.  Melt the wax and spermaceti in the oil with a gentle
 heat, and stir  the  mixture constantly until it concretes, D.)—A milder  and less
 certain preparation  than the preceding.  Used to excite a purulent discharge  from
 blistered surfaces, and  to stimulate issues and indolent ulcers.
   5.  EMPLASTRUM  CANTHARIDIS, L. E.  D.; Emplastrum Lyttae; Plaster of  Can-
 tharides; Blistering Plaster.—(Cantharides, in very fine powder, Ibj;  Wax, Lard,
 of each gviiss;  Resin giij ;  Lard  Jvj,  L.—Cantharides,  in very  fine  powder,
 Resin,  Beeswax, and  Suet, of each 3*ij,   E.—Cantharides,  in very  fine  powder,
 3*vj; Yellow Wax, Resin, and  Lard, of each Jiv, D.—" Liquefy the fats, remove
 from the heat,  sprinkle in the cantharides  in very fine  powder, and stir briskly, as
 the mixture concretes on cooling.")—[The Ceratum Cantharidis, U. S.  Cerate of
 Spanish  Flies,  Emplastrum Epispasticum,  is the  same as this.  It is made as fol-
 lows :   Take Spanish  Flies, in  very  fine powder, ibj ; Yellow Wax,  Resin, Lard,
 each 3v"j-   Melt the  wax, resin, and lard, and stir in the Flies until cool.]   Dis-
 honest druggists sometimes omit a portion  of the cantharides here ordered, and sub-
 stitute powdered euphorbium.   In making blistering plasters, care must be taken
 not to add  the cantharides while the melted lard is quite hot, as  the  heat greatly
 injures the vesicating power of the insect.   For a similar reason the plaster should
 be spread by the thumb, a heated spatula being objectionable.   To prevent the  blis-
 ter moving after its application  to the skin, its margin should be covered with ad-
 hesive plaster.  In order to guard against any affection  of the urinary organs, place
 a piece of thin book-muslin or  silver (tissue) paper between  the plaster and the
 skin.   The efficacy of the blister depends on the fatty matter dissolving the cantha-
 ridin, and transuding through the muslin or paper.  Some recommend the paper to
 be soaked in oil, which is supposed to dissolve the cantharidin.  Now oil, not being
 miscible with the blood, is not  readily absorbed; and  hence, it is supposed, arises
its protective influence.   The usual time requisite for a blistering plaster to remain
 in contact with the skin is twelve  hours;  the vesicle is then to be cut at its  most
depending part, and dressed with spermaceti ointment.  When the irritation caused
by these plasters is excessive, it is sometimes necessary to substitute a poultice for
the  ointment.   When we wish to  make a perpetual  blister, the cerate of cantha-
rides is  employed as a  dressing;  or if we wish  to excite less irritation, and prevent
 the possibility of the urinary organs being affected, the cerate of savine.   The  dan-
ger of applying blisters to children after exanthematous diseases, especially measles,
has been already noticed (see p.  1125).

  6.  EMPLASTRUM CANTHARIDIS COMPOSITUM, E.; Compound Plaster of Cantharides.
—(Venice Turpentine  givss; Burgundy Pitch  and Cantharides, of each 3*iij ; Bees-
wax  3j;  Verdigris s"ss; White  Mustard  Seed  and  Black  Pepper,  of each  5ij.
Liquefy the wax and Burgundy pitch, add the turpentine, and, while  the  mixture
is  hot, sprinkle into it the remaining  articles previously in fine powder, and mix
together.   Stir the  whole  briskly, as  it  concretes in cooling, E.)__" This is  sup-
posed to be an  infallible blistering plaster.   It certainly contains a sufficient variety
of stimulating ingredients."1
  7.  EMPLASTRUM CALEFACIENS, D. [Emplastrum Picis cum  Cantharide, U.  S.]j
 Warming Plaster.—(Plaster of Cantharides Ibss; Burgundy Pitch rbvs's.   Melt
1 Duncan, Edinburgh Dispensatory. 
                   Cochineal Insect:—History;  Zoology.               1129

them with a steam  or water-bath, and, withdrawing the heat, stir constantly until
the mixture stiffens.)   [The formula of the  U.  S. P. is as follows:  Take of Bur-
gundy Pitch ibiijss;  Cerate of Spanish Flies ibss.   Melt them together by means
of a water-bath, and stir them  constantly till they thicken on cooling]   Stimulant,
rubefacient, and, in some cases, vesicant.   Used in catarrh, local pains, &c.
   8.  PANNUS VESICATORIL'S; Blistering Cloth;  Taffetas  Vesicant.—(Digest powder
of cantharides in sulphuric ether.   Let the  ethereal  tincture be submitted  to dis-
tillation, and the residue evaporated, by means of a salt-water bath, until ebullition
ceases.   The oily mass which remains  is to be melted with twice its weight of wax,
and spread  on  cloth  prepared with waxed  plaster,1 Henry and Guibourt.2)—Em-
ployed as a substitute for the  ordinary blistering plaster, than which it is  a more
convenient  and elegant preparation.
  The Tela vesicatoria or Blistering Tissue, and Charta vesicatoria or Blistering Paper, are analo-
gous preparations.
   The Papier ipispastique, or Epispatic Paper of Henry and Guibourt, is prepared
as follows:   Take of white wax  8 parts, spermaceti  3 parts, olive oil 4 parts, tur-
pentine 1 part, powder of  cantharides  1 part, and water 10 parts.  Boil slowly for
two hours, constantly stirring it.   Strain the fatty mixture through a woollen cloth,
without expression, and spread on paper.
                  OTHER COLEOPTEROUS  VESICANTS.

  In Europe, the ordinary vesicating insect is the Cantharis vesicatoria; but in some other parts
of the world other blistering insects are employed.  Thus, Cantharis vittata, or the Potato-fly,
C. alrata, marginata, and cinerea, are used in North America.  In the Brazils, C. alomaria lias
been employed.  C. rvfkeps, a  native of  Sumatra  and Java, is  said to possess extraordinary
blistering properties.   C. gigas (Lyttaccerulea, Pfaff) is a native of Guinea  and the East Indies.
C. violacea (Lytta  gigas mas, Buchner) is  a  native  of the  East  Indies.   In Arabia, C. syriaca
(Lytta segetum) is said by Forskal to be employed.  Mylabris  Cichorii is  used in China and
some parts of the  East Indies.  Meloe proscarabarus is an indigenous vesicating insect, which
has  in two instances caused death.  M. majalis, or true Mayworm, possesses similar properties.
                 Order II.  HEMIPTERA.—Linnceus.

  Characters.—2 wings covered by elytra.  Mouth formed for suction; the rostrum composed
of a tubular articulated sheath, including four scaly setae, in place of mandibles and jaws.  Elytra,
in some, crustaceous, with tlie  posterior extremity membranous;  in others, almost similar to
wings, but more extended, thicker, and coloured (Stark).3


    355. COCCUS  CACTI,  Linn. L. E. .d.-COCHINEAIj INSECT.
                          (Coccus, L.— The entire insects, E. D.)

   History.—The Spaniards, on  their first arrival  in Mexico, about the year 1518,
saw the cochineal employed (as it appears to have  been long before) by the  native
inhabitants of  that  country, in colouring some part of  their habitations and orna-
ments.4
   Zoology.   Gen. Char.— Tarsi with 1 joint, and terminated  by a single hook.
Male destitute of a rostrum, with  2 wings covering  the body horizontally;  abdomen
terminated  by 2 setae.   Female  apterous, furnished with  a rostrum.   Antennas of
11 joints, filiform, and setaceous.
   Sp. Char.—Male  very small, with the  antennas shorter  than the  body;  body

  t The Toile preparte a la cire, used by the French pharmacologists, is prepared by spreading the follow-
ing mixture on cloth : white wax 8 parts, olive oil 4 parts, and turpentine 1 part (Henry and Guibourt).
  » Pharmacoptc Raisonn'e, 3me edit. p. 470, Paris, 1841.
  • Elements of Natural History, ii. 318.
  * Bancroft Experimental  Researches, i. 413; and Beckmann, History of Inventions, n. 192. 
1130
ANIMAL SUBSTANCES.
Fig. 429.
Cochineal Insects (male and female).
a. Male, with the wings expanded.
b. Adult female (natural size).
c. Adult female (magnified).
d. Impregnated female (natural size).

                    Fig. 430.
elongated, of a deep red, terminated by 2 long diverging setae;  toings large, white,
crossed above the abdomen.  Female nearly twice as large as the male, bluish-red,
covered with a white farina; antennae short; body flattened below, convex; feet short.
                                 Wings of the male beautifully snow white.  The
                              females fix themselves firmly on the plant, which
                              serves them as a habitation, and never  quit this
                              spot; here they couple, and increase considerably
                              in size.  Each insect lays several thousand eggs,
                              which proceed from the body through an aperture
                              placed at the extremity of the abdomen, and pass
                              under the belly to be there hatched.  Death  then
                              ensues; the body of the mother dries up; its two
                              membranes become  flat, and form a sort of  shell
                              or cocoon, in  which  the eggs  are  inclosed, and
                              from  whence the  little cochineals  soon proceed.
                              The female only is of commercial value.
                                 Hab.—Mexico.
                                 Cultivation.—The cochineal insects feed  on
                              the Nopal (Opuntia cochinillifera).1  Mr. Ward9
                              says,  the plantations are confined to the district of
                              La Misteca, in the  state  of Oaxaca, in Mexico.
                              The animals are domesticated and reared with the
                              greatest care.   Plantations of these are cultivated
                              for the nourishment of the insects.  Here the im-
                              pregnated females are placed; this operation being
                              denominated sowing.  Young ones are soon de-
                                                 veloped ;   and  some months
                                                 afterwards, when the females
                                                 have become fecundated and
                                                 enlarged,  the   harvest   com-
                                                 mences.   The  insects   are
                                                 brushed off  with a  squirrel's
                                                 tail, and killed  by immersing
                                                 them in hot water, and after-
                                                 wards drying them in the sun,
                                                 or by  the  heat of a stove.
                                                 Three  harvests  are  made an-
                                                 nually ;  the  first being the
                                                 best, since  the  impregnated
                                                 females  alone  are  taken;  in
the second the young females also are collected; and in the third both old and young
ones, aud skins, are collected indiscriminately.   Before the rainy season commences,
branches of the  nopal plant, loaded with infant insects, are cut off and  preserved
in the houses of the Mexicans, to prevent the animals being destroyed by the
weather.
   Commerce.—In  1839, the quantity of cochineal on which duty (Is.  per  cwt.)
was paid, was 489,998 lbs.   In  1838 it was only 204,748 lbs.   It is said that, on
the average, one pound of cochineal contains 70,000 dried insects.
   Description.—Cochineal (coccus; coccinella) consists of the dried female insects,
which are about one or two lines long, wrinkled, of an irregular  figure, convex on
one  side and flat or  somewhat  hollow on  the other.   They are inodorous have a
bitterish warm taste, tinge the saliva violet  red, and yield a dark red powder.  In



a?Xvo^.^t7jrft^rhi,,ett,of^io0-  c^»^y^^i?mt^!i
  • Mexico in 1827, i. 61.
Opuntia Cochinillifera, 
         Cochineal:—Effects; Uses.   Manufacture of Carmine.     1131

burning they evolve an animal odour, and leave a grayish-white ash.  By infusion
in water they swell up, show their ringed character, aud even  their feet, giving the
liquid a red colour.   Both the Honduras and Vera Cruz kinds  are distinguished
into the silver and  black varieties.   Silver  cochineal (cochinilla jaspeada  of the
Spaniards)  has a purplish-gray colour;  but in all  the furrows and  depressions we
observe a whitish powder, which, examined by the aid of a lens, appears like fine
wool.   Black cochineal (cochinilla renigrida or grana nigra  of the Spaniards)  is
reddish or purplish-black, and  devoid or nearly so of  the silvery character.    Gra-
nilla (cochinilla sylvestre or grana sylvestria)  consists of very small cochineal insects,
and smaller, wrinkled, globular, or ovate masses (cocoons and new-born  insects ?),
somewhat like fragments of the cochineal insect.1
   An extensive system of adulterating cochineal, by a mercantile house in London,
was discovered a few years  ago.   The genuine  article was moistened with gum-
water, and  then agitated  in a  box or  leather bag, first with powdered  sulphate of
baryta, then with bone or ivory-black, to give it the appearance of black  cochineal.
By this means the specific gravity of the cochineal was increased from 1.25 to 1.35,
and 12 per cent, of worthless heavy spar sold at the price of cochineal 3   Powdered
talc and carbonate of lead have been used to give  the silvery appearance.   But a
lens will readily distinguish these powders from the real wool, which gives the true
silvery character.
   Composition.—Two analyses of cochineal have been  made;  one by John,8 the
other  by Pelletier and Caventou.4   The latter chemists  found the  constituents to
be carmine, peculiar animal  matter,  fatty matter (composed of  stearine,  olein, and
an odorous  acid), and salts (viz. phosphate and carbonate of lime, chloride of potas-
sium, phosphate of potash, and a salt of potash, containing an  organic acid).
  Cocheiullin (Carmine)—Obtained by digesting cochineal in ether, to extract the fatty matter,
and then in alcohol, which dissolves the carmine.  This colouring matter is a brilliant purplish-
red substance, with a granular or crystalline appearance; unalterable in  the air, easily soluble
in water and alcohol, but insoluble in ether. It  fuses at 112° F.  Chlorine renders it yellow.
Acids change its colour.  The concentrated mineral acids decompose it.   Alkalies render the
watery solution of carmine violet.  Lime-water forms a violet precipitate with it.   The affinity
of hydrate of alumina for it is most remarkable; the compound formed by their union is called
a lake.  [Cochenillin contains  nitrogen,but its formula has not yet been determined.  According
to Pivisser, the red colouring  matter of the  jnsect,  which he calls Carmeine. is derived by oxida-
tion from the colourless crystalline compound  called by him carmine—Ed.]
  The pigment sold in  the shops as carmine,5 and which  is one of the most valuable colours
employed by the painter in water colours, is a compound, of which cochenillin is one of the
constituents.   Pelletier and Caventou regard  it as consisting of cochenillin, animal  matter, and
an acid.
   Physiological Effects and Uses —Diuretic, diaphoretic, antispasmodic, and
anodyne qualities have been  assigned to cochineal, but without the least evidence
of their existence.   A mixture of carbonate  of potash and cochineal is  a popular
remedy  for  hooping-cough.   The only  real  value of  cochineal  is as  a  colouring
matter, and as such it  is used both in powder and  solution.   In the arts, it is ex-
tensively employed iu dying scarlet and crimson, and in the manufacture of carmine
and lake.
  Manufacture of Carmine.—[We subjoin the following note by the author on the manufac-
ture of carmine, evidently  the result of his own observation of the process pursued.—Ed.]
   Carmine is prepared from  black cochineal.  A decoction of the insect  in water is made.  The
residue is called carmine grounds (used by paper-stainers).  To the decoction is added a pre-
cipitant—say bichloride of tin.   Alum will not  answer, as the colour is  very different.   The
decoction to which the bichloride has been  added  is put into wash-hand basins, and allowed to
stand.  Slowly, a deposit  takes place.  It adheres to the sides  of the vessel, and the liquid
being poured off, it is  dried.  Artificial heat cannot be  u?ed, as it changes  the colour of the
  • See Granillo, in Bancroft's Experimental Researches, i.435.
  2 Ure, Dictionary of Arts and Manufactures, pp. 305-6.       * Gmelin, Handb. der Chem. ii. 1474.
  * Ann. de Chim. et de Phys viii. 250.
  1 Carmine, sold by the perfumers as Rouge, is very different from jeweller's rouge (oxide of iron). The
carmine sold for theatrical performers must be largely diluted, as it has been sold at 10s. psr ounce, when
carmine, properly so culled, was worth £3 or XI per ounce. 
1132                      AXIMAL SUBSTANCES.

deposit; neither can solar light be employed, for the same reason. This precipitate when dried
is carmine [the liquor is called liquid rouge].  It can only be made in certain states of weather.
If the weather be too hot, the liquids soon become sour, and the deposit is redissolved ; yet hue
weather is  necessary, qr tlie precipitate will not dry ; flies also injure it.  If carmine be not
dry, it is apt to become mouldy.
  The decoction from  which the carmine has been precipitated yields a farther precipitate on
the addition of more of the precipitant; but  the product thus obtained is darker coloured, and
is sold to the colour-makers as lake.  It varies considerably in its tint.
  Carmine is quite soluble in ammonia. Its colour should be remarkably bright.  It should be
also in the form of a light powder.   These are the best tests of its goodness.  Carmine is used
for velvet painting, for pattern  drawing for waistcoats, for water-colour painting, and as a face
paint.  Lady Dungannan's composition is composed of carmine, with  a little water and ammo-
nia.  According to  Bateinan. rouge for the face is made by mixing  Ibss of levigated  French
chalk and 2 oz. of fresh carmine.
  Six drachms of carmine may be obtained from 1 lb. of cochineal.
  Cochineal is sometimes used for colouring pickled cabbage.
  [Cochineal colouring for  jellies, &c. is prepared  by adding cream of  tartar to a decoction of
cochineal, and filtering.  The  pink saucers  sold in colour shops are  made up with a mixture
of carmine, gum, and  ammonia.—Ed.]
  TINCTURA  COCCI  CACTI,  D.—(Take  of Cochineal, in  fine powder,  ^ij;  Proof
Spirit Oj.   Macerate for fourteen days, strain, express, and filter.)
  [The author has recommended the following preparation for the tincture of cochi-
neal: Cochineal,  in powder,  one part; Bectified Spirit eight parts.  Macerate for
eight days, then filter.—Ed.]
              Order III.  IIYMENOPTERA,  Linnceus.

  Characters.—4 naked veined wings of unequal size.   Mouth composed of jaws, mandibles,
and 2 lips.  Lip tubular at  its base, terminated by a labium, either doubled or folded in, and
forming a kind of sucker.  Females with a compound ovipositor or sting at the anus (Stark).


    356. APIS  MELLIFICA, Unn. L. E. D.-THE HIVE  BEE, OR
                                HONEY  BEE.
   (1. Humor florum in favo repositus despumatus, L.; Saccharine secretion, E. D.—2. Cera, Favus
         preparatus; Cera alba, idem dealbatus, L.; Cera flava, Waxy secretion, Cera alba,
                     Bleached beeswax, E.;  Cera alba, Cera flava, D.)

   History.—This animal was very anciently known, and is frequently referred to
in the Old Testament.  In all ages it  has been an object of admiration and atten-
tion, on  account of its industry,  curious  economy, and policy.
   Zoology.   Gen. Char.—Labium filiform, composing  with  the jaws a kind of
proboscis, geniculate, and bent downwards.   First joint of the posterior tarsi large,
compressed.   No spines  at the  extremity of the last two legs.   Upper wings with
one  radial and three cubital cells (Stark).
   Sp. Char.—Blackish.   Abdomen of  the same  colour, with  a transverse grayish
band, formed by the down  at  the base of the third  and following segment (Stark).
   The honey bee lives  in societies,  called  swarms, consisting of from fifteen to
thirty thousand individuals.   Each swarm is composed of three classes of individu-
als—viz. a female, males, and  neuters.   The female, called the queen bee, is narrower
and longer than the others. The males, termed drones, are smaller than the females,
and are  devoid  of stings.   In each hive there are from 800 to 1000 drones.   To-
wards autumn, when  they can  be of no farther  use,  they are destroyed by the
neuters.   The  neuters are termed working bees, and are by far the most numerous,
since  in each  hive there are from fifteen to thirty thousand.  They are in reality
females, whose ovaries are not developed, in consequence, as some have supposed,
of the nature  of the aliment with which they  are  supplied  while  in the  larva
state. 
           Honey:—Production;  Purity;  Properties; Effects.      1133

  The digestive ststem of the animal consists of highly developed salivary organs communi-
cating with  the proboscis, of an asophagus (which enlarges at one part, forming the crop,sucking-
stomach, or honey-bag), a proper stomach, small and large intestines, and biliary vessels.  The latter
open into the alimentary canal immediately behind the stomach.   The sexual system, in the
male, consists of a pair of testicles, each having a vas deferens, which terminates in a vesicula se-
minalis.   From the conjoined extremities of the vesicula; proceed a common duct terminating in
a penis.   The female genital organs consist of two ovaries  made up of tubes, each containing
about twelve ova; the  two oviducts from  these ovaries terminate in a vagina, into which also
opens a duct from a roundish vesicle.  The poison apparatus is found in the females and neu-
ters only.   It consists of two thin convoluted secreting organs, opening into a pyriform receptacle,
from which a small duct  passes to the sting, which consists of two portions placed side by side,
barbed at the extremity and contained in  a sheath.  The poison is said  to be hot and acrid to
tbe taste.  The consequences  produced  by the sting of a bee are pain, redness, swelling, and
hardness of the part; and  might prove  fatal  if a swarm were to attack an individual.  The
removal of  the sting (if-left within the wound),and friction with saliva,or with oil and harts-
horn, is all the treatment usually required
   Hab.—Old continent (Latreille).   In   a  state of nature  they reside  in hollow
trees;  but they  are  almost  universally domesticated, and are  preserved in hives.
Curtis1  has described  and depicted a remarkable instance of the nest of some hive
bees attached to the arm of  a tree.    It was discovered in 1838,  by Lord Malmes-
bury, in his plantation  near  the River Avon.
   Bees furnish two products useful in medicine—viz. honey and wax.
   a.  HONEY.  Production.—Honey (mel) is secreted by the nectariferous glands
of flowers, and is collected  by the working or neuter bees, who take it by suction or
lapping, and pass it into the dilatation of  the oesophagus, denominated crop, sucking-
stomach, or honey-bag ;  beyond which, we presume, the honey  does not pass, as it
has never  been found in the  true stomach.  When the animal arrives at the hive,
the honey is disgorged  by a  kind of inverted  peristaltic motion, and is probably
somewhat  altered in its  properties by the secretions  of the crop.  It is used by the
animal as  food.
   Physical Properties.—Honey varies in its taste and odour  according to the
age of the bees  and flowers on which  they have fed.  A  hive which  has never
swarmed is considered  to  yield the  best, which  is therefore called virgin honey.
The flavour of Narbonne honey, which is  so much admired, is said to arise from the
labiate flowers on which the  animals feed ;  to imitate  this,  a sprig of rosemary is
sometimes added to the honey obtained from other places.
   Purity.—Flour, it is said, is now and then mixed with honey.   This adultera-
tion may be readily distinguished by its  insolubility in cold water, and by the blue
colour produced  by the addition of iodine.
   The London College  directs that honey—
Is not to be employed without being despumated.   Dissolved in water,iodide of potassium and
acid being added, it does not become of a blue colour.
   Ciiemical Properties.—The constituents of honey vary somewhat according
to  the food of the bees, the season,  the age of the animals, the mode of extracting
it from the combs, &c.  It must, however, be regarded at all times as a concentrated
solution of sugar mixed with odorous, colouring, gummy, and waxy matters.   The
saccharine matter is of two kinds:  one crystallizable, and analogous to the sugar of
grapes; the other uncrystallizable, and similar to the uncrystallizable brown syrup
of the sugar-cane.  Guibourt has found also mannite, which differs from sugar in
not fermenting when  mixed  with water and yeast.
   Physiological Effects.—Honey is  emollient,  demulcent, nutritive, and laxa-
tive.  When fresh it is apt to occasion indigestion and colic.  Collected from poison-
ous plants it has been  found to possess deleterious qualities. The honey of Trebizond
has long  been  notorious for its deleterious qualities.  Mr.  Abbott3 says it causes
violent  headache, vomiting,  and a condition like that of a  tipsy man.  A larger
dose produces deprivation of all sense and power for some  hours afterwards.  These

       1 British Entomologist, xvi. pi. 769.
       » London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine for October, 1834, vol. v. p. 313. 
1131
ANIMAL SUBSTANCES.
effects agree with those assigned to this honey by Xenophon,1 in  his account of the
"Retreat of  the Ten  Thousand."  Pliny8 also speaks  of this  poisonous  honey.
Tournefort3 ascribes its venomous properties to the bees feeding on the Azalea pon-
tica.   Many other instances of poisonous honey are on record.4
   Uses.—Mixed with flour, and spread on linen or leather, it is  a popular applica-
tion to promote the maturation of small abscesses and furunculi.  It sometimes forms
a constituent of gargles, partly on account of its taste, partly for its emollient opera-
tion.   It is also  used as a vehicle for the application  of other more powerful agents
to the mouth and throat, especially in  children.   It is occasionally employed as an
emollient  and  demulcent in  inflammatory  affections.   In  troublesome  coughs,
barley-water, mixed with honey, and  sharpened  with slices  of  lemon, and  taken
warm, forms a very agreeable and useful demulcent to allay troublesome coughs.
   1. MEL DEPURATUM,  D.;  Clarified Honey.—(Melt  the honey in a water-bath, and
strain it while hot through flannel.)—The object of this process is to deprive honey
of certain impurities which render it apt to ferment;  but the flavour and odour of
the honey is somewhat injured by the  operation.
   2. 0XYME&— See p. 947.
   0.  WAX.   Secretion of  Beeswax.—Beeswax (cera) was at one time sup-
posed  to  be  merely the  pollen of  plants elaborated  by bees.   Bonnet,  however,
so early as 1768, asserted it to be a secretion from the ventral  scales.   Hunter5 and
Huber have subsequently proved the correctness of this assertion.   The latter writer,
indeed, proved that the pollen is not at all essential to the production of wax, for
bees fed on honey and water equally secreted it, and formed  the usual waxy cells.
With  this wax they construct  the  comb (favus), the cells (alveoli) of which are
hexagonal with angular bottoms.6   The  substance called  Propolis is collected by
the bees from the buds of trees.  It is of  a resinous nature, and is used  for lining
                            the cells of a new comb, stopping crevices, &c.
                              Other  animals secrete wax. Thus the larva of the Cicada
                            limbata or white wax insect of China  is covered with a waxy
                            powder, which is communicated to the trees upon which these
                            insects are found, and is collected by the  natives, who esteem
                           it highly  as a medicinal substance.7
                              Wax is also a product of vegetables; but vegetable  wax is not
                           employed in  this country.  Myrtle wax is obtained from the
                           berries of the Myrica cerifera, a native of  the United States of
                           America.  These are boiled in water and pressed.  The wax
                           exudes, floats on the water, is skimmed  off, and  is remelted.
                           This kind of wax  has a greenish-yellow  colour.  By saponifi-
                           cation  it yields stearic, margaric, and oleic acids, along with
                           glycerine, so that it is rather fat than wax.
   Preparation.—Wax  is extracted  from  the comb,  partly  by allowing  the
latter to drip, partly by subjecting  it to  pressure.   The comb is then  melted  in
water, by which  the impurities subside, and the wax  is allowed to cool iu moulds.
   Properties of Yellow Beeswax.—Yellow wax  (cera flava)  has a remark-
able and peculiar odour; its colour is more or less yellow, but varying in degree; its
specific gravity varies from 0.960 to 0.965.  [It melts at  145°—Ed.]   It is said
to be sometimes  adulterated with suet, which  gives it  a fatty and disagreeable  taste.
Resin may be recognized by its solubility in  cold alcohol; bean or pea meal, by its
insolubility in oil of turpentine.
   Wax Bleaching.—This is effected by melting yellow wax (either in  a copper
vessel, or in a large vat or tub, by means of steam), running it off, while in a melted
Fig. 431.
Cicada limbata.
 1 Anabasis, lib. iv.                                        » u.„. -v- .    ■  ..  j •„■ •
 ' Hist, de VAcad. Roy. des Sciences, p. 351, 1704                  " Httt- jW' XX1" 44> ed- Va,P-
rr«*.7,f»"^ mSS'^84? MaSazine> XiL 121i and inBeck'8 Medical Jurisprudence; also, Hamilton'.
 * Philosophical Transactions for 1792, p. 143.
 6 On their mathematical  form, consult Waterhouse, in the Penny Cyclopaedia, art. Bee •  and Lord
Brougham's Dissertations on Subjects connected with Natural Theolosv i 218  1810        '
 ' See Donovan's Insects of China.                     *ncviogy, i. zia, iojj. 
 The Honey Bee:—Yellow Wax; White Wax;  Effects and Uses.  1135

Btate, into a trough, called a cradle, perforated at the bottom with holes, and placed
over a large water-tank, at one end of which is a revolving cylinder, almost wholly
immersed in  water.   By this means  the  wax is solidified, converted into a kind of
ribbon, and conveyed on the surface of  the water  to the other end  of  the tank.
These ribbons of wax are here lifted out, and conveyed in baskets to the bleaching-
grounds, where they are exposed to the air one or two weeks  (according to the state
of the weather), being  turned  every day, and watered from time to  time.   The
wax is  then remelted, reribboned, and  rebleached; it is subsequently refiued by
melting in water acidulated with sulphuric acid.
   Properties of White Wax.—White wax  (cera alba;  cera  dealbata) is yel-
lowish-white ; I have never met with pure wax perfectly white.  The  circular cakes
of commerce, as  well as wax candles, always contain spermaceti, which the dealers
add  to  improve  the  colour.  Pure wax is solid, brittle, inodorous,  or nearly so,
insipid,  fusible,  and  at a  much  higher temperature decomposable.   Its specific
gravity varies from 0.8203  to 0.965.   [It melts at  158°, and congeals at 149°__
Ed.]                                                  »         6           •
   Composition.—According to  John,  wax is  a compound of two  other sub-
stances;—the one called cerine,  the other myricine.  [The former is soluble in
alcohol, the latter is  comparatively insoluble.—Ed.]   These  have been examined
by Boudet and Boissenot.1
   1. Cerine—This constitutes at least 70 per cent, of wax.  It fuses at 143$ F.  It dissolves
in 16 parts of boiling alcohol.  By saponification with potash it yields margaric acid, a minute
portion of oleic acid, and a considerable quantity of a non saponifiable fat called ceraine.
   2. Myricine.—It fuses at 149° F.  It dissolves in 200 parts  of  boiling alcoliol  of sp. cr.
0.833.  It is not saponifiable by potash. Ettling2 says that cerine, ceraine, and myricine are
isomeric, and composed of C,9H190.  More recently, Hess3 asserts that pure wax is  homogene-
ous, and possesses the properties of myricine;  its composition being  C^H^O.  The difference
between cerine and myricine he ascribes to the presence of eerie acid formed by the oxidation
of myricine.
   [Mr. B. C Brodie has made an extensive series  of researches into  the constitu-
tion of wax, and has assigned formulae to sixteen different constituents or products
of the  decomposition of wax.   He applies  the  name cerotic acid to cerine and
represents its formula as CS4H540*.  Pure myricine  he  considers to be represented
by C^H^O.4  It is remarkable that in  nearly all  the varieties of wax, as well as
in the products obtained from this body,  the carbon and the  hydrogen are in  equal
equivalents.
   Beeswax varies much in the proportions of  cerine and myricine which it con-
tains.   Wax is obtained from the vegetable kingdom.   Myrtle wax is derived from
the Myrica cerifera.   From the action of  potash it appears  to  be more analogous
to the fatty bodies than to wax.   Its formula is C36H3605. The  Chinese and Japan
wax is the produce of Bhus Succedaneum.  It is white and crystalline, resembling
spermaceti.  Formula=C36H36Oa.  The  sugar-cane wax  has been called Cerosine
by Dumas.   It is a wax-like  substance, deposited in fine light pearly scales on  the
surface of  some species of sugar-cane.   It melts at 180°, and is not saponified by
potash.  Its formula, according to Dumas, is C^H^O.—Ed.]
   Physiological Effects and Uses.—Wax is an emollient and demulcent.  It
has been administered internally, in the form of emulsion (prepared with melted
wax and soap, yolk of eggs, or  mucilage), in diarrhoea  and dysentery,  especially
when ulceration of the alimentary canal  is suspected.  In these cases it has been
used by Hufeland and Wedekind.  It  has sometimes been employed as a mastica-
tory ;  but its action is mechanical only.   Its principal use,  however, is externally,
sometimes as a mild sheathing  or protecting application, sometimes  as a basis for
the application of other agents.   It is  a  constituent of all cerates, which take their
name from it.   The  vapour evolved from wax  placed on  redhot iron  has been
inhaled iu phthisis.
de Pharm. xiii. 38.
. Central-Blatt fUr 1838, p. 332.
2 Thomson, Organic Chemistry.
' Philosophical Transactions for 1849, p. 106. 
1136
ANIMAL  SUBSTANCES.
   1. EMPLASTRUM SIMPLEX, E.; Emplastrum  attrahens;  Wax  Plaster.—-Beeswax
^iij ; Suet and Besin, of each |ij.   " Melt  them together with  a moderate heat,
and stir the mixture briskly till it concretes on cooling," E.—Used to promote dis-
charge from a blistered surface.
   2.  CERATUM, L.;  Unguentum simplex,  E.;  Unguentum <Cerse albse,  D.  [Cera-
tum simplex,  U.  S.] ;  Simple  Cerate;  Simple Dressing.—(Olive  Oil  Oj  [f^vss,
E.~};  Wax gxx  [White Wax Jij,  E.~\;  White  Wax  Ibj; Prepared Hogslard,
Ifeiv,  D.   Add the oil to the  melted wax, and  mix (and  stir the mixture briskly
while it  concretes on cooling, E.)—[The U. S. Pharm. directs  Lard ^viij ; White
Wax giv.]  A mild and cooling dressing.  Sometimes used as a basis for more active
preparations.
   I LINIMENTUM SIMPLEX, E.;  Simple  Liniment—(Olive Oil  four parts ; White
Wax one part.   Dissolve the wax in the  oil with a gentle heat,  and agitate well
as the fused mass cools  and concretes.)—Differs  from the  Unguentum simplex in
its greater liquidity.  Used to soften the skin, and to promote the  healing of chaps.
                   OTHER  HYMENOPTEROUS INSECTS.

  The tribe of hymenopterous  insects, called Gallicola or Diploleparim, contains the  insects
which produce those excrescences on plants  commonly denominated galls  (see Nutgall, and
Bedeguar).  Latreille1 comprehends all the insects of this tribe in one genus—viz. Cynips.
     ciass  vii.  Crustacea,  Cumer.—Crustaceans,

The dietetical properties of the Crustaceans (Lobsters, Crabs, Cray-fish, Prawns, and Shrimps)
                           have been noticed in a former part of the work.
        Fig 432.               1- Astaccs fluviatilis.—In  the stomach of the Craw-
                           fish are found, at the  time the animal  is about to change its
                           shell, two calcareous  concretions, commonly called Crabs'
                           Eyes or Crabs' Stones (Lapilli Cancrorum), which were formerly
                           ground and employed in  medicine, as absorbents and antacids
                           under the name of Prepared Crabs' Stones (Lapilli Cancrorum
                           praparati;  Lapides Cancrorum prarparati; Oculi Cancrorum
                           praparati).2   They consist of carbonate of lime and animal
                           matter principally, with  a little phosphate of lime.  Their
                           use  is now obsolete.   In the  shops,  imitations of them
                           (prepared with chalk  and mucilage, or size) are still  met
                           with.

                              2. Cancer Pagurus.—The  Black-clawed or  Large Ediblt
                           Crab was at one time an  officinal animal.  Its Claws (Chela
                           Cancrorum), when prepared by grinding, constitute the  Pre-
                           pared Crabs' Claws (Chela Cancrorum praparata) of the shops.
                           Their composition and uses are similar to those of prepared
                           Crab's stones.  I have already given an  account of the effects
                           and uses  of carbonate  of  lime.
   jlstacus fluviatilis.
  1 In Cuvier's Rtgne Animal, v. 291, 1829.
  « « Those animals which are ready to moult, have always two stony substances, called crabs' eyes, placed
'" .I8*'™0},'; y^fhSTS^ll??!™!?*-?. 5ea?,m.ur and ot!>?rs> aPPear destined to furnish the matter,
                                                                              ten the
                                                                             they are
                                                                           p79.)
in ine stomacn, wnicn, irom tne experiments of Reaumur and others, appear destined to furnish the m
or a portion of it, of which the shell is formed; for if the animal is opened a day after its moult, wh.
shell is only half hardened, these substances are found only half diminished; and if onened later  thi
proportion:^ smaller." (Ki.by, Bridgewater Treat se, vol. ii. p. 55; quoted by Bence Jones p 79 ) 
Vertebral Animals :—Fishes.
1137
       Division II. Vertebrata.—Vertebral Animals.

  CHAiiACTEns —Animals furnished with a skull and vertebral column for the protection of the
brain and spinal marrow.
                  ciass viii.  Pisces,—Fishes,

  Chahactt.bs.— Verlebrated animals with  cold red blood, respiring by gills or branchia, and
moving in the water by the aid of fins.
  No article  of the Materia Medica, contained in the British  pharmacopoeias, is
derived from this class of animals; but the important uses of isinglass, and the ex-
traordinary efficacy, in various  diseases, ascribed by some writers  to  cod-liver oil
render it necessary to notice both of these productions.


               357. ICHTHYOCOLLA—ISINGLASS.

  History.—Tchthyocolla (ix§voX6x%a, from IxOvc, a fish; and xo-kxo,. glue) is men-
tioned by both Dioscorides1 and Pliny.3   The latter of  these writers ascribes its in-
vention to Daedalus.
  Zoology.—Isinglass is obtained from various  fishes, some ouly of which have
hitherto been ascertained.   The finest  kinds are procured from different species  of
Acipenser.   Several other genera—as Silurus, Morrhua, Gadus,  Otolithus, Lota,
and Polynemus, also yield it.
  The organ  from which isinglass is usually procured is the air-bag, or swimming
bladder,  sometimes termed the sound.  It is a membranous sac filled with air (con-
taining from  69 to 87 per  cent, of oxygen), and  placed under the spine, in the
middle of the back, and above the centre of gravity.  In most fish  it communicates
with the  oesophagus, or stomach, by the ductus pneumaticus.  In  others, it is an im-
perforate sac.  Occasionally there  are two  sacs,  which communicate  with each
other.  In  the Acipenser stellatus, according to Brandt,3 the bag is  composed  of
three membranes : an external, silvery one, derived from the peritoneum ; a middle,
membranous (hautigen) one; and the most internal, very vascular, and, as it were,
pulpy membrane.   The latter, he states,  yields the fish  gelatine.  But unless the
sound of  this fish differs considerably from that of other fishes, there must be an error
in this statement.   I have examined all the purse  and pipe isinglass of commerce,
and find the internal to be an insoluble membrane.   In the cod, the  innermost mem-
brane  is  very thin,  and is  perhaps analogous to  the  epithelium.  Externally  to
this is a  highly vascular thin coat, and still more externally is the  gelatinous coat,
which  appears devoid, or nearly so, of vessels.
  Preparation.—The mode of preparing the swimming-bladder  for sale as  isin-
glass, varies in different countries.  Sometimes the  bag  is dried unopened, as in the
case of the purse, pipe, and lump isinglass of the  shops.  At other times it is laid
open, and submitted to some  preparation;  being either dried unfolded,  as in the
leaf and  honeycomb isinglass; or folded, as in the staple and  book isinglass;  or
rolled out, as in the ribbon isinglass.   When it arrives in this country it is picked
or cut.  Formerly, it was picked  into shreds  by women and children, but it is  now
usually cut by machines worked by  steam.
  Description.—Many varieties of isinglass are imported; the Bussian kinds
are the most  esteemed; but the Brazilian, on account of its cheapness/is very ex-
tensively used.

  i jjjb  jjj  capt 102.               2 Hist. Nat. lib. vii. cap. 57: and lib. xxxii. cap. 24, ed. Vulp.
  * Brandt  and Rutzeburg's Medicinische Zoologie, p. 27, Berlin, 1833.
       vol. ii.—72 
1138                    .  ANIMAL  SUBSTANCES

   1. Russian and Siberian Isinglass.-The isinglass produced in the  Russian em-
pire is principally obtained  from the sturgeons.  These cartilaginous fishes constitute
the genus Acipenser.
  The following are the generic characters of Acipenser: Body elongated and angular defend-
edby indurated plates and spines, arranged in longitudinal rows; snout pointed, conical;  mouth
placed on the under surface of  the head, tubular, and without teeth (Yarrell  ).  1 he species
are badly determined.  Brandt* has described and figured eight.  Acipenser Slurio, or the Com-
mon Sturgeon, is occasionally caught in the River Thames.   The species from which Isinglass
is procured are the following:—                                                    .,
  ]  A  Huso, Linn.  The Beluga or Bielaga.—Inhabits  the Caspian Sea and its  tributary
streams.  Its roe (ovary) is esteemed  as caviare.  Its swimming-bladder, when properly pre-
pared, yields leaf isinglass of three qualities, fine firsts, firsts,  and seconds.                    .
  2. A. Gui.DENSTAr.TiT, Brandt and Ratzeburg.  The Ossetr or Osseter.—Inhabits the Gaspmn
and Black Seas and their tributary  rivers.  Caviare is prepared from its roe (ovary).  From its
swimming-bladder are obtained both staple and leaf isinglass.  The varieties of the staple are the
Patriarch Astrakhan, and Astrakhan firsts, seconds, and thirds.  The leaf varieties are firsts, seconds,
and thirds.3                                                       .              .
  3. A. Ruthenus, Linn.  The Sterlet.—Inhabits the Black and Caspian Seas and  their tribu-
tary rivers; and the  Arctic Ocean.  Its  roe yields  caviare.  Leaf and book (first and second)
isinglass are obtained from the  swimming-bladder.
  4. A. Stellatus,  Pallas.  The  Sewruga.—Inhabits the  Caspian and Black Seas and their
tributary rivers.  Yields caviare and leaf isinglass.
   [We subjoin some remarks by the author on the swimming-bladders of several
species of Acipenser from the Volga.   These were published in the Pharmaceutical
Journal.*—Ed.]
  Professor Ludewig kindly sent  me  the  dried air or swimming-bladders of three species of
Acipenser,  namely, the A.  Huso, A. Guldenstadtii, and A. stellatus.   I  had been  for  some time
anxious to possess specimens of these swimming-bladders, in order that I might farther  satisfy
myself of the real nature and  position of the isinglass membrane.
  In the second  edition of my Elements of Materia Medica, pp. 1859 arid  1861,1 have stated
that the innermost layer of the swimming-bladder is insoluble in boiling water, and is not the
gelatigenous or isinglass membrane.   I  came to this conclusion from a careful examination of
the sound of the  codfish, and  of the unopened pipe and  purse  isinglass  of  commerce, all of
which I found to  be lined with an insoluble epithelium.   In the leaf isinglass, imported from
Russia,this membrane has been removed, probably by  ruBbing with a cloth;  and  as in some
species  of Acipenser this layer is exceedingly fine, its presence is apt to be overlooked.  But in
the swimming-bladders  of some other fishes it is much thicker, and its non-removal in them
considerably deteriorates the commercial value of the isinglass which they yield.  The insolu-
bility of the inner lining of the Hudson Bay purse isinglass is well known to the dealers.
   Dr. Edward Martiny, the learned author of  the Naturgeschichte der jur die Heilkunde wkhtigen
 Thiere, published at Darmstadt last year, has, however, denied the accuracy of my account of
 the gelatigenous or  isinglass membrane.   He describes these bladders as consisting of two mem-
 branes (Hauten), anouter, strong, shining, and fibrous membrane, and an inner soft mucous coat.
 The outer  membrane is covered by a peritoneal coat.  " The inner membrane, namely, the mu-
 cous membrane, is the  so-called isinglass."  To this sentence  he has appended a foot-note, of
 which the following is a translation:—
   "Pereira (Elements of Materia Medica,  vol. ii.  2d ed. p. 1861) erroneously regards the  middle
 coat as yielding gelatine."
   This statement, emanating from so high an authority as Dr. Martiny, induced me-to re-exam-
 ine the subject, and the result  is the confirmation of the accuracy of my former statement.  I
 have now examined the swimming-bladders of four species of sturgeon, and in all find their
 inner coat, or lining, to consist  of  an epithelium insoluble  in water.  In some, however, it is so
 exceedingly delicate as  to require very careful microscopic  examination to detect it.  In the
 springof the present year, I obtained the swimming-bladder of the common sturgeon (Acipenser
 Sturio) caught in the Thames, and found  its lining membrane to be a very delicate,  but insolu-
 ble epithelium.  I  gave a portion of it to my friend Mr. John Quekett, of the Royal  College
 of Surgeons, and requested him to examine it, and the following is the reply which  he  sent
 me:—
    " I have carefully examined the sections of air-bladder, and I find that, commencing with the
 inner coat, you have—
    " 1st. An epithelial  layer;  then,
    " 2dly. The membrane to which the  epithelium is attached (basement-membrane) ;  then,

   1 History of British Fishes, ii. 360.                              ''Med Zool  ii  1 9nH "UQ
   » T. W. C. Martius, Lehrb. d. pharm. Zool. S. 76, 1653              « Vol. vii. No  10, April, 1848. 
             Isinglass:—The Swimming Bladders of  Acipenser.        1139

  " 3dly. Some flaky spindle-shaped bodies, which give the silvery appearanee; then,
  "4thly.  Some fibrous tissue, arranged principally in two directions, probably the muscular or
      elastic coat; then,
  "5thly.  Some areolar tissue; and,
  " 6thly.  Lastly of all the serous coat.
  "I have not tried the solubility of these layers in boiling  water, but should think  it must be
the middle or thick substance which is the gelatinous coat."
  On the receipt of the air-bladders  of the three species  of Acipenser,  sent me  by Professor
Ludewi^', I resolved to submit them to a careful microscopic examination, in order to ascertain
in them the existence  or absence of an inner epithejial or insoluble layer.  I have  detected it
in all of them.
  a.  Acipenser Hwso.'—This fish, called by the Russians the  Bieluga, yields the isinglass known
by the name of the Bieluga (or Beluga) leaf.  The dried air-bladder is a pyriform bag about the
size of a small  pig's bladder.   Its length is about eleven  inches, its greatest diameter about five
inches.  The opening of the ductus pneumaticus is near the larger extremity.
  b.  Acipenser Guldenstadtii.—From this fish  is  obtained both staple and leaf  isinglass.  The
dried pyriform swimming-bladder,  now laid  before the Society, is of tbe kind  called in  com-
merce the pipe.  Its length is about  ten inches, and its greatest diameter about  three inches.
The  opening of the ductus pneumaticus is at the larger extremity.
  c.  Acipenser Stellatus.—This yields leaf isinglass.  The pyriform swimming-bladder of this
fish,  which I  have.received from Professor Ludewig, is also of the pipe kind.  Its length is eight
inches, and its greatest diameter two and a half  inches.
   But in Bussia the acipenser is not the only genus from  which isinglass  is ob-
tained, for it is  also  procured from Silurus Glanis,1 which Dr.  Boyle3 suggests
may be the  source of the Samovey3 isinglass of  commerce.
   Brandt4 thus describes the  preparation  of Bussian isinglass.   The  swimming-
bladder is cut .open, washed, and then  exposed  to  the  air with the  inner silvery
membrane turned upwards.   The latter is  then stript off and placed in damp cloths
or left in the outer covering, and prepared or kneaded.  It is then taken  out of the
cloths,  and either  merely  dried  (leaf isinglass)  and twisted or folded in a serpen-
tine  manner, between  three  pegs, into  the  shape  of a horseshoe, heart,  or lyre
(long and short  staple), or folded  in the manner  bookbinders fold  printed sheets of
paper (book isinglass).   Jackson5  has given figures to  illustrate the manner in
which the staple and  book  isinglass are  made to retain  their  shapes by skewers.
Several kinds of leaf isinglass are  imported from Bussia.   The finest kind is that
from Astrakhan, of which one kind is said  to be  obtained  from  the  Beluga (Aci-
penser Huso).  These  are  imported from  St. Petersburg.  The  Samovey leaf is
an inferior kind brought from  Taganrod.    Sisane leaf is the produce of a small tish ;
each leaf measuring only about 1- inches  each way,  and Weighing about a drachui ;
it looks  like  pieces of dried  bladder, marked by two  fibrous  or  muscular bauds.
Kroski isinglass I have  not seen; but  I am told it  is in small, circular, membranous
disks.  Long staple isinglass  is  of fine quality.   It is the  produce  of the Oural.
[It  is usually imported loose—at times  strung  on  ropes.   The latter  kind  is
preferred.]   Of short  staple three kinds are known ; the finest is from the Oural,
and  is distinguished by the name of Patriarch, but  it is  very scarce.   The Astra-

  1 Pallas.  Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des russischen Reichs, Th. i. S. 139, Petersb. 1771.
  ' On the Production of Isinglass along  the Coasts of India, with a Notice of its Fisheries,  p. 29. Lond.
1842.
  * This word is sometimes written Samovey or Simovy. I have been unable to trace its derivation. Dr.
Royle's suggestion appears to me probable, since the Russian name for the Siluris Glanis is Som, while
Albertus Magnus calls it Sumus.  The Poles term it Szum.—(Brandt and  Ratzeburg, op. supra cit. ii. 31.)
Moreover, Martius says that staple, leaf,  and book isinglass are produced from this  fih. Now these are
the three forms of the Sainovy isinglass.  [A note addressed to  the author confirms this view.  Tbe isin-
glass in question comes from  the Russian fish Som.  The Russians having no article, make an adjective
of Som by adding " ovy." They pronounce it Samovy, although they spell it Somovy.  There is another
kind called Leshovy, from the fish Lesh or Leshtohik (Bream).  It is more soluble than the Sainovy kind,
but scarcely of equal strength.—Ed.]                               ,„,,-,.„.
  * Though the account above given by Brandt agrees with the statements of Pallas, Gmelin.  Georgi. and
Tooke there must be some inaccuracy in it.  I have before stated that the innermost membranu of  the
swimming-bladder is insoluble—but according to Brandt's statement, the innermost is the gelat nous mem-
brane.  The account which T. AV. C. Martius  (Lehrbuch. d. pharmaceut. Zoologie,p. 71. Stuttg. Ib3e)
gives of the preparation of isinglass in Russia confirms my views.   The swimming-bladders, lie observes,
are first placed in hnt water, carefully deprived of adhering blood,  cut open longitudinally, and exposed to
the air with the inner delicate silvery membrane upwards.  When dried, this fine membrane is removed
by beating and rubbing, and the swimming-bladder is then made into different forms.
  • Royle, op. supra cit. p. 21. 
1140
ANIMAL SUBSTANCES.
 khan short staple is one of the best kinds.  The Samovey short staple is of inferior
 quality.  Two kinds of book  isinglass  are  met  with.   That from  the Oural is of
 excellent quality.    Samovey  book is an  inferior kind.   Siberian purse isinglass is
 of  moderately good quality, and is in general demand.   [A small kind on strings,
 in a necklace form,  is sometimes imported.]
   2.  Brazilian Isinglass.1—This is imported from Para and Maranham;  but it
 has not hitherto  been ascertained  from what  fishes it  is procured; though  it is
 obvious, from  a  superficial examination of the commercial specimens, that  they
 must have  been obtained from at  least several species or genera.  Mr. Yarrell9
 suggests the genera Pimelodus and  Silurus as  the source of it.   It comes over in
 the form of pipe, lump, and honeycomb.   Pipe Brazilian isinglass must have  been
 procured from a large  fish.   It is  prepared by drying the swimming-bladder un-
 opened.   In  some  cases  this bladder  is imported distended with  air.   The dried
 bladders,  or pipe*, as they are called, are from ten to twelve inches  in  length, and
 two or two and a  half  inches broad.   Their weight  is about five ounces.  Their
 shape  is  somewhat conical, tapering at one extremity and broader at the other,
 where, on either side, is a conical caecal prolongation.   It is devoid of smell.   Lump
 Brazilian isinglass consists of two swimming-bladders  placed  side  by side,  con-
 siderably  separated at one end, and communicating at the other extremity with  each
 other.   When perfect,  each lump somewhat resembles in shape a torpedo.   Its size
 varies.  A perfect, though not very large specimen, measured eight inches in length,
 and, at the broadest part, five inches in breadth.  Its weight  is  six ounces and a
 half.   It  consists of three portions, separated by constrictions.   The largest portion
 is five inches broad, and three inches and a half long; flattish in front, rounded
 posteriorly.   It consists of two sacs, placed one on either side.   The middle portion
 is oblong, three inches  long,  and  two inches broad; it consists of two  sacs, which
 communicate with those of the preceding portion.   The third portion is oblong, one
 inch and a half long, and  three-quarters of an  inch wide.   It consists of one sac
 only,  into which both the sacs of the middle portion open.  Honeycomb Brazilian
 isinglass appears to  be the largest portion of the lump kind split open.   The lump
 variety is  sometimes softened,  and rolled out into thin ribbons, in this country.   On
 account of its deeper colour and inferior solubility, Brazilian isinglass is not in demand
 for  domestic use;  though, as  it is sold in the cut state, it is probably largely inter-
 mixed by shopkeepers  with the finer kinds of  Bussian isinglass, and sold as such.
 As  it is moderately  cheap and soluble, it is in  extensive  use for fining  by  brewers,
 who are the principal consumers  of this kind of  isinglass.   [When digested with
 boiling water, it leaves a very large  proportion of undissolved white residue  of a
 starchy consistence.]
  3. New York Isinglass.—Occasionally, ribbon  isinglass is  imported from New
 York.   It is in thin ribbons of several feet long, and from an inch  and a  half to
 two inches in  width. It is but little used in this country.   It is less soluble than
 the Bussian, and affords a dark-coloured solution.3   Dr. J.  V.  C. Smith,4 author of
a work  on the fishes of Massachusetts, states that it is obtained from the air-blad-
der of  the common Hake  (Gadus  merluccius),  which is thrown into  water to mace-
rate for a  little while, and  is  then taken out and Dressed between two iron rollers,
" by which it  is elongated to the extent of half a yard and more.   It is then care-
fully dried, packed, and  sent to market.   The common cod (Morrhua vulgaris) yields
a poorer kind of isinglass;  but  the hake only is known to the extensive manufacturers
as fit for their purposes."
  4. Hudson's Bay Isinglass.—I have  been  unable  to ascertain from what fish
this isinglass is procured.5   It comes over in the purse form.  A specimen  in  my

  1 Sometimes called Cayenne Isinglass (Guibourt).    " Philosonhiral Tmr>*n,ii™.  ™i i  ••• i~oo
^ United States Dispensatory; also Journal  ofthl PkilaJl}k£%SiSl o}Th7rZ7y%TtpP\f,na
^In a letter to Dr. S. VV. Williams, of Deerfield, Massachusetts, from whom I received the above informa-
  6 Richardson, in his Fauna  Boreali-Americana, part iii savs  that th* ,t,ir..An. „f w^.n, » „ •
equally numerous with those  of Asia, but that the'i? sounds arfdI'roes are u«erglasted   * AmenCa "" 
Isinglass :—Purity;  Substitution.                1141
possession measured twelve inches in length, and three inches and a half in diame-
ter; its weight is one ounce and a half.   It is of a light yellow colour, translucent,
and free from taste and smell.   The  inner lining of the sac, which may be readily
stripped off, is  insoluble in water; the  remaining  membrane  dissolves in boiling
water.                                                                         b
   5. East India Isinglass.—It appears  that,  for  a long  period,  this  has been
exported from Calcutta to China, but it  has  only recently  occupied  the attention
of Europeans.  It is  probably the  produce of a species of  Polynemus.1   But  the
fishes called  by Dr.  Buchanan, Bo/a,  and several species of Silurus,  especially
Silurus raita, also yield isinglass (Boyle).   Most of the specimens of Indian isin-
glass  which I have examined  have an unpleasant fishy odour, which renders them
totally unfit for domestic use, and greatly deteriorates  their commercial value.   A
specimen of East. India purse isinglass which I examined consisted of  an unopened
swimming-bladder, flattened and dried.   Its shape  is oval-oblong; its length nine
inches; its breadth three inches and  a half; its weight seven  ounces and a half.
It has a strong fishy  smell, and a dark colour.
   Another kind (East Indian  leaf isinglass) is merely the sac laid open and dried.
It is eight or nine  inches long, six or seven inches broad, and about  three-tenths of
an inch thick.  A third kind (East India rolled leaf isinglass), which I have received
from  Dr. Boyle, appears to have been formed by rolling out the preceding kind into
thin plates.  One specimen was about eighteen inches long,  three inches and a half
wide, and one-tenth of an inch thick.  Some  of the sheets  are covered with a thin
film of  chalk.
   Picked East India isinglass,  kindly furnished me by Dr. Boyle, is in  small shreds,
two or three inches long, and  tapering  at the extremities.   It is hand-picked  in
India by the natives.   The composition of this isinglass has  been ascertained  by
Mr. Solly, and  will hereafter be stated.3
   Manilla Isinglass.—A variety under this name has been  recently imported.   It
is called thin cake.  It is white and  clean.  It  is  equal in  quality to Brazilian or
Samovey book. The  fish  which yields it is found in the River of Manilla, and on
the coasts of  the Phillipines, Luconia.   Chief mart, Manilla.   Price four shillings
per pound.   It is smaller than the Brazilian;  but it greatly resembles the lump
Brazilian, and the  fish is probably an allied species.3
   6.  Cod Sounds.—Cod sounds, in the dried state, are brought from Scotland, and
used  as  a substitute  for foreign isinglass.  They are, however, usually preserved
soft by salting, and dressed for the table.
   Purity.—.When isinglass is reduced to small shreds (picked or cut isinglass), it
is scarcely  possible to distinguish, by the  eye, some of the inferior from  the finer
kinds.  The best criteria are its whiteness, freedom from unpleasant fishy  odour,
its solubility in water, and translucency  of the  jelly obtained  on cooling from its
hot solution.   [No sample even of  the best isinglass (Beluga or Astrachan leaf) is
completely  soluble in boiling  water.  There  is always some undissolved residue
(albuminous membrane);  but this is  small in proportion to  the goodness of quality.
In Beluga, it  may form one  per cent.;  in some kinds of Brazilian, as  much as
twenty per cent.   The reader will find some good remarks by Mr. Bedwood  on  the
adulteration of isinglass, in the Pharmaceutical Journal for May, 1850, p. 503.
—Ed.]
   Substitution.—Hartshorn shavings  and sole-skins (when clean, sweet, and well
  1 Mr. M'Clelland (Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, viii. 203) states that Indian isinglass is
yielded by Polynemus Sele of Buchanan.  But, inasmuch as he obtained only sixty-six grains of isinglass
from one of these fishes, while some of the specimens of commerce weigh from half to three-quarters of a
pound  it seems tolerably clear that the Indian isinglass of English commerce cannot be obtained from P.
Sele but must be procured from some larger fish. It may be the produce of Polynemus teria, Buchanan,
or the new species of Polynemus. referred to by Dr. Cantor (Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, v. 166,
London) as the Salllah or Saccolih.                              u^.lDJ-
  1 For farther details respecting East Indian isinglass, see Dr. Royle's work, On the Production of Isin-
glass along the Coasts of India,  with a Notice of its Fisheries, London, 1842.
  * Metcalfe, December 1642. 
1142
ANIMAL SUBSTANCES.
Fig. 433.
prepared) are sometimes substituted  for  isinglass  in  fining.   For domestic uses,
                                              patent  gelatine  is frequently  em-
                                              ployed  as a  substitute  for isin-
                                              glass.
                                                7. Para Isinglass.—A substance
                                              has lately been imported under the
                                              name of  Isinglass, which,  on ex-
                                              amination, proves not to be isin-
                                              glass, but the  dried  ovary of  a
                                              large fish.
                                                Two boxes were imported; they
                                              did not contain more than 14 or 16
                                              lbs.  A  similar  article  has been
                                              before  imported into London.   It
                                              consists of bunches of the size  and
                                              shape  of  the  subjoined  figure.
                                              They somewhat resemble a bunch
                                              of grapes; and consist of ovoid or
                                              rounded  masses, attached  by pe-
                                              duncles to a central  axis;  by im-
                                              mersion   in  water,  this  axis  is
                                              found  to  consist of  a  convoluted
                                              membrane,  to  one  side only of
                                              which  these ovoid masses  are at-
                                              tached.
                                                A very  superficial examination
                                              of this so-called  isinglass  proves
                                              that it is neither the swimming-
                                              bladder of a fish, nor is it gelatin-
                                              ous ; but it is in reality the  ovary
                                              of some large fish, and is of  an al-
                                              buminous - nature.  When  soaked
                                              in water,  its fishy odour becomes
                                              very obvious.
                                                The  ovid masses are ova.   They
                                              are highly vascular on the surface,
                                              and are filled with an animal sub-
                                              stance  of  a yellow colour.   In ge-
                                              neral  appearance  they resemble
                                              the vitellus of a shark or ray.
                                                The  Sudis  Gigas, a large os-
                                              seous fish, upwards of six  feet in
                                              length,  is found at  Para.   Its
                                              flesh is dried, salted, and eaten by
                                              the  lower  classes; and its   swim-
                                              ming-bladder  constitutes  one of
                                              the   kinds of  Brazilian  isinglass
                                              imported  into London.   It is pro-
                                              bable,  therefore, that the ovary of
                                              this fish constitutes the false isin-
                                              glass in  question.   If  not from
                                              this  fish,  it is  probably  obtained
                                              from some allied genus (as Amia)
                                              of highly organized osseous fishes.1
False Isinglass from Para (natural size)
  1 [It was during his visit to the Museum of the College of Sureeona for tho nn™.. „<•     ■ .   .,
preparation to which the preceding plate refers, that trfe late D^eref™ rn'et wX ^LdoTaTcfdcnt 
Isinglass:—Substitution;  Gelatine.
1143
  tiELATiNE.—Gelatine may be extracted from bones, by boiling tbem in water under pressure;
or, more readily, by employing Ixtnes which have been previously digested in hydrochloric acid
to extract the phosphate of  lime.  In  this way a nutritious soup is  prepared in Paris for the
hospitals, and other pauper  habitations.1   Gelatine  has even been extracted from fossil bones.
A soup was prepared from one of the bones of the Great Mastodon, by the Prefet of one of the
departments of France.
  Nelson's Patent Gelatine is obtained from glue-pieces, freed from hair, wool, flesh, and fat.2   It
it probable that inferior kinds of  isinglass are  also employed.  Two kinds of this patent gela-
tine are  made up: the best  (called gelatine of the first quality) is opake; it is, by preference,
made from  the cuttings of the hides of beasts, or from the skins of calves; the inferior kind
(called gelatine of the second quality) is transparent; it is made from non transparent glue pieces.
Both kinds are sold, cut somewhat in imitation of picked isinglass.
  French gelatine is sold in cakes, marked like those of common, glue, with the  nets on which
they have been dried.   They  are either uncoloured, or coloured  red, green, or blue.   [Some of
this patent French gelatine is  made  at  Paris, from the cuttings of skins used for making white
kid gloves.—Ed.]
  [A very pure form of gelatine  is now extensively sold under the name of Swinburne's Patent
Refined Isinglass.  It is procured from  the skins of  calves cut into very thin slices, and treated
simply with water at or about 200°.  No chemical substance whatever is used in its  prepara-
tion.   The skins are treated with successive quantities of water until all the gelatine is extracted.
The common sorts of isinglass are treated in the same way, and a verypure kind of colourless
gelatine is thus obtained from them, the residues  being subsequently boiled up to make glue.
The gelatine of the first quality  thus procured is white, inodorous, and tasteless, entirely  free
from acidity or alkalinity.  If previously  soaked in cold water, it  is entirely dissolved without
leaving any residue on  the addition of a small  quantity of boiling water, and the solution on
cooling, if not  over-heated, sets into a firm transparent jelly.   The  properties  are  the same,
whether  it be procured from calves' skins, or from isinglass.  The process simply deprives the
isinglass  and skins of their insoluble albuminous portions.
   Tho test of the goodness of gelatine  is  this: When  boiling  hot water is  poured  upon  it, it
should not form  a yellow gluey-looking mass of  an offensive odour, but it should be colourless,
of  a thick consistence, and entirely free from smell.  The French gelatine is generally run into
very thin sheets, in order to conceal  the yellow colour.  It  has no  smell when dry, but is very
offensive when treated with warm water  in the manner above described.  A pink or red colour
is sometimes given to it in order to conceal its bad quality.   The principle, gelatine, is deterio-
rated by any chemical substance  used for its extraction.  Gelatine thus prepared, has found its
way into the market, and has tended to give an evil reputation to this substance as an article of
food and as an economical substitute for isinglass.   But it is a well-known fact that isinglass owes
its  chief  properties to gelatine alone, and chemistry and the microscope show that  when  this
principle has been once extracted either from skins or fish-bladder, its properties are identical,
provided they have not been changed by any chemical process in the extraction.  Swinburne's
gelatine of  first quality is not  to be distinguished from the gelatine separated from the air-blad-
der of the sturgeon.   The  latter, weight for weight, yields  a much larger proportion  than the
skin of the calf, and the process of extraction is  more easy, but the  principles are  the same;
they have the  same properties and are  adapted to the same uses.
   The term Isinglass is probably an English corruption of the German Hausenblase—bladder of
the Sturgeon.   To apply the term isinglass to gelatine extracted from skin is, therefore, not only
a misnomer but a mistake.  All kinds of isinglass may be regarded as gelatine plus certain im-
purities or adventitious substances.   Gelatine, however, is not isinglass, but the true animal prin-
ciple separated from these impurities.
   Much absurd discussion has arisen as to whether gelatine is to be regarded in the light of a
product or educt of  the tissues.  It is an educt of the swimming-bladder of the sturgeon, and is
properly  described by the author  (infra) as a constituent forming from 86 to 93 per cent, of isin-
glass.   If an educt of the air-bladder of the sturgeon, it must be equally an educt of the skin
of young animals, as of the calf, i. e.  it exists in the skin as such, and  is not produced from it by
the action of boiling water any more than starch is produced from grain by a similar process
The tissue  of  the skin is closer than that  of the air-bladder; hence it requires a longer continu.
ance of the action of water to separate  the gelatine  from the other principles.  Acetic acid will
however, dissolve  gelatine from the skin in  the cold, and  tannic acid (in tanning skins) com'.
which confined him to his bed, and from which he was just recovering, when he was suddenly seized with
fatal illness.  The above was written while he was confined to his bed, and it was one of the last articles
from his pen.  It therefore possesses an interest beyond that of the subject to which it relates, and for this
reason we have extracted the paragraph from the  Pharmaceutical Journal for January 1853, in which it

  1 See D'Arcet, Recherches sur les Substances Nutritives que  renferment les Os, Paris, 1829;  also Ed-
wards  Recherches Statist, sur I'Emploidela Gelatine, Pans,  1835; and Quarterly Journal of Science,

  » See the'specification of hi« patent in The Mechanic and Chemist for 1840. 
1144
ANIMAL SUBSTANCES.
bines with the gelatinous tissue in the cold to form leather.  These facts show correctly and
truly that gelatine exists in the skin as an independent principle, like albumen.—En.J
   Composition.—Isinglass of fine quality was analyzed by John,1 who found the
constituents to be  gelatine 70.0, osmazome 16.0, membrane  insoluble  in  boiling
water 2.5, free acid (lactic ?), with salts of potash and soda, and some phosphate of
lime, 4.0, and water 7.0.  These  results, however, can scarcely be  accurate; for
dried flesh, as Berzelius3 observes, does not contain more than 8 per cent, of osma-
zome ;  and if isinglass contained 16 per cent, it could not be kept dry when exposed
to the air.
   Mr.  E. Solly, jun.3 examined three specimens of Bengal isinglass, and found the
constituents to be gelatine, albumen, a small portion of saline and earthy substances,
osmazome, and a minute  trace of odorous  oil.  The quantities of gelatine in three
specimens were respectively 86.5, 90.9, and 92.8 per cent.;  while those of albu-
men were 13.5, 9.1, and 7.2 per cent.
   For the following table of the different kinds of isinglass known in the London
market, I am principally indebted to Mr. James Metcalfe, wholesale dealer in isin-
glass, of No. 20, Artillery Place, Finsbury Square.
Country.	Place of Produce.	Place of Export.	Name and Cha-racter.	Prices per lb. English.		Remarks.
r	The Oral (Ural)	St. Peters-	Long Staple Ural,			
		burg . . ..	1st and 2d ...	14 6	13 6	
	The Irtysch and					
	Obi.......	k	Short ditto, Pa-		None.	Very choice and dear.
	Oural and tribu-					
		u	Ditto, ditto, 1st and 2d book . .	14 6	13 0	
	Astrakhan . . .	it	Thin leaf, 1st and			1
			2d.......	14 6 to	9 6	These are the sorts
	The Volga and					\ which yield the
	tributaries . . .		Beluga, 1st and 2d .......	14 6	10 6	cut.
Russia .	Tributaries of		Cut by machine \ or hand . . . . ) Pickings (the brown ends) . .	16 0 to 14 6 8 0	13 6 to 9 6	Refuse of the above.
	Black Sea . . .	Odessa . .	Sisane leaf . . .	2 6		Seldom imported.
	Tcherkaskoy . . The Don and tri-	Taganrog .	KroskiorKrosky	6 0		Seldom inquired for.
	butaries ....	<<	Samovey .Leaf,			
	Ditto......	«	1st and 2d . . . Ditto, Book 1st	3 9	3 3	Used for finings.
			and 2d ... .	4 0	3 6	In great demand.
Siberia	( The Irtysch I and Obi . .	St. Peters-	Do. Short Staple	5 0		Seldom imported.
		burg . . .	Siberian Purse .	8 6	7 6	In good esteem.
	( Hudson's Bay					( A thin insoluble
North America	1 and rivers . ( United States .	Hudson's Bay . . . New York	> Purse..... Ribbon ....	5 6 No price.	6 0	I membrane lining ( the inside. Not in use.
			f Pipe Brazil . .	5/0 toll	3 0	< In general demand.
1 South	1 The Brazils j	Maranham	i Lump ditto . .	5;0 to4i	3 0	
America		and Para	| Honeycomb do.	36	2 0	Not in much repute. Used perhaps for
			(.Cut Brazil . . .	7;6to6/6	6 0	
						mixing.
						' Objected to on ac-
						count of its fishy
East Indies	> Bay of Bengal	Calcutta .	} Leaf . . ...	\ 2 0	4 0	smell and imper-fect solubility.
			( Picked . . .r.	3 0	4 0	When carefully
						prepared, it may
						equal the Brazi-
						lian kind.
Scotland	Coasts of Scotland		Cods' Sounds . .	1 9 to	1 6 if dry and sweet.	
England			Sole Skins . . .	0 10 if		
					clean, sw<	:et, ana well prepared.
1 Gmelin, Handb  der Chemie, ii. 1468.
* Royle, On the Production of Isinglass, p. 40, Lond. 1842.
2 Traiti de Chim. vii. 668. 
Cod-Liver Oil :—
History; Zoology.
1145
  Effects and  Uses.—The dietetical properties of gelatine have been  already
noticed.   Considered medicinally it is an emollient and demulcent.   It is employed,
dissolved in water or milk, and rendered palatable by acid and sugar, as a nutritious
substance for invalids and convalescents.
  A solution of isinglass, with  tincture of benzoin, is brushed over black sarcenet
to form  Court or Black Sticking Plaster.   Liston's isinglass plaster consists of oiled
silk coated with isinglass.1  The preparation of Gelatine Capsules has been already
described.
  Isinglass is also employed as a clarifying  or fining agent, (for coffee, wines, beer,
&c.)  Some of  the  constituents  of these liquors unite with  the gelatine, and form
soluble compounds,  which precipitate, and in the act of precipitation the gelatine
incloses  within  its meshes the matters which rendered the liquid turbid.  The great
consumers of isinglass are the brewers,3 who employ principally the coarse Brazilian
variety.
    358.  OLEUM JECORIS  MORRHUiE—COD-LIVER OIL.

                       (Gadus Morrhua, L.—Morrhua vulgaris, D.)
                                [Oleum Morrhuse, U. S.]

  History.—The  oil obtained from  the  livers of the Common Cod, and various
other allied species of fish, appears to have been for a long period a popular remedy,
in various countries of Europe, for  rheumatism, and  some  other  diseases, though
its use by medical practitioners is comparatively recent.   In 1782, it was strongly
recommended in  chronic rheumatism, by  Dr. T.  Percival,3 and in  1807,  by Dr.
Bardsley,^who states that it was in high repute in Lancashire.
  Zoology.—This oil is principally procured from the common cod (Morrhua vul-
garis; Gadus Morrhua), formerly called Asellus major;5 also  from allied  species,
as the Dorse (Gadus collarias), the Coal-fish  (Gadus  carbonarius), the  Burbot
(Lota vulgaris),  the Ling (Lota molva), and the Torsk (Brosmius vulgaris).6
  Some of  the fish-oils7 of commerce are obtained exclusively from the liver, others
are  procured from  the adipose tissue diffused  through the  body of  the animal
generally.  In the former, therefore, we are prepared to find bile-constituents, which
are  not obtainable from the  latter.   In fishes, properly so called, the distribution of
oil  in the  body  of  the animal is  not uniform.   In the  Gadidise or Cod-tribe
(common  cod, dorse, coal-fish,  pollack, turbot,  ling, torsk, &c), in  the Squalid se
or Sharks, and in some other fishes, almost the whole adipose tissue of the animal is
concentrated in the form of oil  contained in the liver.8  On the other hand, in the
salmon, herring, sprat, and  wolf-fish, the oil  is  more  diffused through the body of
the animal, and the liver is, comparatively speaking, devoid of it.  The oils obtained
from  the  livers of the different  species composing the .tribe  Gadidise, appear to  be
very similar in their  physical  and chemical qualities, and  there is good reason for
believing  that they agree in their medicinal properties.   To all of them the term

  1 Pharmaceutical Transactions, i. 145.
  8 Pull particulars respecting the mode of fining beer are given by Jackson, in his Essay on British Isin-
glass, Lond. 1765.
  » London  Medical Journal, iii. 393.                                * Medical Reports, p. 18.
  * See Schonevelde, Ichthyologia, p. 18, Hamb. 1624. Pliny (Hist. Nat. lib. ix. cap. 28, ed. Valp.) men-
tions two kinds of Asellus ; namely, a smaller kind called callaria,  and a kind termed bacchi, caught in
deep water  only.
  ■ See Dr.  J.  H. Bennett's Treatise on the Oleum Jecoris Aselli, p. 17, Lond. 1841.
  1 I use the term fish-oils in its popular and commercial acceptation, and include under it not only the oils
obtained from fishes properly so called, but also those procured from other aquatic animals, as the cetacea
and seals.                                                   . ,          .
  8 Professor Owen in his Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Vertebrate Animals
(Part 1, Fishes, p. 242, 1846), observes, " that the myriuds of dog-fish captured and commonly rejected on
our coasts, show that the fishermen have not yet taken full advantage of this anatomical fact, which  ex-
poses to them an abundunt source of a pure and valuable oil." 
1146
ANIMAL SUBSTANCES.
 olum jecoris aselli,' <,lmm jecoris gad i, or cod-liver oil,2 is indiscriminately applied,
 though it  is comiuouly used, especially in this country, to indicate the oil procured
 from the liver of the common cod.  (Gadus morrhua, Cuv.)   It would be  better,
 therefore,  to employ the  term oleum jecoris morrhuse, or simply oleum morrhux,
 when  it is intended exclusively to designate the latter oil.   De Jongh, in his Dis-
 quisilio comparativa chemico-med ica de tribus olei jecoris aselli speciebus, published
 at Leyden, in 1843, states that the Bergen (Norwegian) oil is principally obtained
 from three species, viz. the dorse  (Gadus callarias), the Coal-fish (Gadus carbo-
 narius), and the pollack (Gaduspollachius), but chiefly from the first.
   Preparation.—In different countries the mode of preparing the oil varies some-
 what.   The  cod-oil met with in the London market is  the produce of Newfound-
 land, where, according to Pennent,3 it is thus  procured: "They  take a half tub,
 and, boring  a hole through the bottom, press hard down into it a layer of  spruce
 boughs; upon which they place the livers, and expose the whole apparatus to as
 sunny a place  as  possible.   As the  livers corrupt the  oil  runs from them,  and,
 straining itself through the spruce boughs, is caught in a vessel  set under, the hole
 in the tub's bottom."   "At Newhaven, near Edinburgh,  the fishermen simply boil
 the  livers  in an iron pot, and then filter it  [the oil]  through a  towel  containing a
 little sand."  (J. H. Bennett.)
   Description.—Among  the  London dealers,  I have met with but  one kind of
 cod-liver oil.   Jts colour is chestnut-brown, and  its odour  is like that of boiled cod's
 liver.  It  is the Cod Oil of commerce, the oleum jecoris aselli fuscum of conti-
 nental pharmacologists.   It is extensively used by curriers in dressing leather.
   In general,  continental writers distinguish  three  varieties  of  cod-liver oil;  one
 white or pale-yellow, a second brownish-yellow,  a third dark-brown.   But between
 the finest  pale-yellow or almost colourless oil, and the dark-brown cod-ojj  used by
 curriers, there is an almost infinite variety of shades, so that no absolute difference
 can  be founded on colour only.  De Jongh made, in  Mulder's  laboratory,  a very
 elaborate  analysis of  three  kinds of cod-liver oil, the properties of which  he thus
 describes:—
   Three kinds of cod-liver oil are admitted and described  by the writer just quoted.
 These are pale, pale-brown, and brown.
   1.  Pale cod-liver oil.—Golden yellow; odour not disagreeable;  not bitter, but
 leaving in the throat  a somewhat acrid fishy  taste ; reacts feebly as an acid ;  sp.
 gr. 0.923 at  63°.5. Fahr.   Cold alcohol dissolves from 2.5 to  2.7 per  cent,  of the
 oil;  hot alcohol from 3.5 to 4.5 per cent. ; in either it is soluble  in all  proportions.
   2. Pale-brown cod-liver oil—Colour that of  Malaga wine;  odour not disagree-
 able ; bitterish, leaving a  slightly acrid fishy taste in  the throat;  reacts feebly as
an acid; sp.  gr. 0.924 at 63°.5. Fahr.   Cold alcohol dissolves from 2.8 to 3.2 per
cent, of it; hot alcohol from 6.5 to  6.8  per cent.  Ether dissolves it in all  pro-
portions.                                                                    r
   3. Dark-brown cod-liver oil—Dark-brown, by transmitted light greenish, in thin
layers transparent;  odour disagreeable, empyreumatic; taste  bitter and empyreu-
matic,  leaving  behind in  the fauces an acrid  sensation; reacts  feebly as an acid;
sp. gr. 0 929 at 63°.5 Fahr.  Cold  alcohol  dissolves from 5.9 to  6.5 per cent, of
it; hot alcohol from 6.0 to 6.9  per cent, of it.   In ether, it is soluble in all pro-
portions.                                                                    r
former.  Varro (Opera Omnia, p. 21, Durdrecht" 16W) savsthJthil' A  ^"e- wHere Preferred to the
from their resemblance in colour to the ass.  By  om late/wrhers th  t,t „S ^"T" ^ ™me?s?h
several species of the cod tribe-thus, the common°codis LulTa!el^alnr  Z'v^ been„ext*nded t0 
Cod-Liver Oil :—Composition.
1147
   Composition.—Cod-oil  has been analyzed  by several chemists.   The followin"
is  the  analysis of Marder.*   In  200 grains of the oil he found the following  sub*
stances:—                                                                         °

                       In the Clear Oil.                  In the Burnt Oil.
              Green soft resin.........   0.104  (brown resin).....   0 130
              Brown hard resin........   0.026  (black resin).....   0.156
Gelatine  .............   0.312
Oleic acid............111.833
Margaric acid..........  20.625
Glycerine.............  16.832
Colouring matter........  11 500
Chloride of calcium......;   0.1016
Chloride of  sodium.......   0.1179
Sulphate of potash.......   0.0361
161.4906
  0.936
 95.000
  8.000
 18.000
 25.000
  0.2092
  0.1883
  0.0614

147.6809
   Since the above  analyses were  made, iodine and  bromine have been detected in
this oil.

   De Jongh  found the principal constituents of these oils to be oleate and mar gar ate of glycerine,
possessing the usual  properties.   But they also contained butyric and acetic acids, the principal
constituents of the bile (bilifellinic acid, bilifulvin, and cholic acid), some peculiar principles (among
which the substance called gaduin) and not quite one per cent, of salts, containing iodine, chlo-
rine, and traces of  bromine.  Moreover, he found that the oil always contained free phosphorus.
   The following table shows the  proportions of the constituents in the three kinds of oil:__

                   Constituents.
Oleic acid (with Gaduin and two other substances) ....
Margaric acid..........................
Glycerine  ...........................
Butyric acid.......................'.'.'.
Acetic acid....................•.....   [
Fellinic and cholic acids, with a small quantity of mar- )
  garine, oleine, and bilifulvin...............j
Bilifulvin, bilifellinic acid, and two peculiar substances  .
A peculiar substance, soluble in alcohol..........
A peculiar substance, insoluble in water, alcohol, and ether
Iodine   .............................
Chlorine, and traces  of bromine................
Phosphoric acid........................
Sulphuric acid '...•.•...................
Phosphorus  .................'.........
Lime..............................
Magnesia............................
Soda- ..............................
Iron .... ...........................
Loss  .............................

                 Cod-Liver Oil..............100.00000

   By reference to  this table, there will be observed some slight differences in the composition
of the three kinds  of oil.   Whether these are constant or accidental, farther investigations are
required to determine.   But from De Jongh's analyses, it  would  appear that the pale oil  is
richest in oleic acid and glycerine—that the brown oil contains the largest amount of margaric,
butyric, and  acetic acids, and of  the substances peculiar to cod-liver oil—and, lastly, that the
pale-brown oil is richest in iodine and saline matters.
   I now proceed to notice in detail some  of the substances  which enter into the composition of
this oil.
   1. Of Gaduin.—For the discovery of this substance in cod-liver oil we are  indebted  to De
Jongh.   It may be obtained as follows:  Saponify cod-liver oil by  means of caustic soda, and
decompose the soap thus obtained by means of acetate of lead.  The resulting lead soap is to
be treated  with  ether, which  takes up oleate of*lead and gaduin,  and leaves undissolved the
martiarate  of lead.  The  ethereal  solution  is dark brown.   If it be decomposed by sulphuric
acid, brown oleic acid is set free.   The brown colour of this acid is owing to the presence of
gaduin.   To separate  the  latter, add excess of caustic acid  to the oleic acid, by which oleate of
soda is formed.  This is insoluble in the excess of caustic soda. It is to be dissolved in alcohol,
and the alcoholic solution cooled below 32° Fahr., by which  tbe oleate of soda separates, leaving
for the most part the gaduin in solution.   By the addition of sulphuric acid the gaduin is preci-
pitated from its solution. Gaduin is a brown substance which is soluble in alcohol, but is rendered
insoluble by evaporating its solution to  dryness.  The alcoholic solution yields, on the addition of
neutral acetate of  lead, a copious precipitate, composed of Ca5H220,Pb,0.   If this lead salt be
Pale Oil.	Pale Brown Oil.	Brown Oil.
74.03300	71.75700	69.78500
11.75700	15.42100	16.14500
10.17700	9.07300	9.71100
0.07436	—	0.15875
0.04571	—	0.12506
0.01300	0.06200	0.29900
0.26900	0.44500	0.87600
0.00600	0.01300	0.03800
0.00100*	0.00200	0.00500
0.03740	0.04060	0.02950
0.14880	0.1*60	0.08400
0.09135	0.07890	0.05365
0.07100	0.08595	0.01010
0 02125	0.01136	0.00754
0.15150	0.16780	0 08170
0.O0880	0.01230	0.00380
0.05540	0.06810	0.01790
—	—	a trare
3.00943	2.60319	2.56900
100.00000	100.00000	100.00000
1 .Pharm. Central-Blatt fUr 1837, p. 536. 
 1148                        ANIMAL  SUBSTANCES.

 digested with carbonate of soda, it is decomposed, and a soda salt is obtained in  solution, from
 which sulphuric acid precipitates a brown acid.  This, when dried at JSS° Fahr., was found to
 have the following composition: C^H^O9.   Gaduin is odourless, tasteless, and of a dark brown
 colour.   It is completely insoluble  in water, but is for the most part soluble in both  ether and
 alcohol.   Its insoluble  portion augments every time the solution is  evaporated.   When  cky, it
 is brittle and pulverizable.   It is insoluble in both nitric and hydrochloric acids.   In sulphuric
 acid it  dissolves, and acquires a blood-red colour; but from this solution it is precipitated both
 by water and alkalies.   It is soluble in  alkalies.  Diffused through water and treated  with chlo-
 rine, it becomes decolorized.  In burning, it  yields an odour, first of acetic acid, afterwards of
 cod oil, and leaves behind a  small quantity of ash.
   The  insoluble modification of gaduin, to which allusion has already been  made, is blackish-
 brown, pulverizable,  insoluble in water, alcohol, ether, and diluted sulphuric  acid; but  by con-
 centrated sulphuric ami hydrochloric  acids  it is converted into a black powder, without  freely
 dissolving;  in  hot nitric acid, it gradually and  completely dissolves.  It dissolves in alkalies,
 forming  a red coloured solution.  In burning, it evolves the odour of acetic acid, and leaves
 about 0.822 per cent, of ashes.   When dried at 238°  F. its composition is C39H260I2=C35H220«
 + C«H»03+HO; that is, gaduin (C^H^O^HO) combined with acetic acid (C<H3H3).  But De
 Jongh's formula scarcely agrees with his experimental  result.   He says that analysis gave him
 7.04 per cent, of hydrogen, whereas his formula indicates about 7.3  per cent.
   Berzelius states that, when he read De  Jongh's account of gaduin, he was struck with the
 analogy of the reactions of  this substance with those of bilifulvic acid, and he tells us  that he
 was disposed to think that gaduin is primitive bilifulvic acid, and that the reddish-brown sub-
 stance, insoluble both in alcohol and water, which he  (Berzelius) separated  from  bilifulvin by
 long and numerous operations, is only the insoluble modification of gaduin.  • This point, how-
 ever, at present remains undetermined.
   Gaduin is contained  in all  the  three varieties of oil examined by De Jongh.  At first, it is
 yellow, but under the influence of atmospheric  air it acquires a  brown  colour.
   2. Fatty acids; margaric  and oleic acids.—These acids," as obtained from cod-liver oil, do not
 appear to differ in their nature and composition  from the same acids procured  from other sources.
 De Jongh analyzed them  in the form of margarate and oleate of lead.  The results were as
 follows:—

                   Margarate of lead...............  ClfO'jPbO.
                   Oleate of lead.................  C^H^O^PbO.

   3.  Glycerine.—This was obtained by saponifying cod-liver oil by caustic soda.   The residual
 lye was  decanted from  the  soda-soap, saturated with sulphuric acid, and the sulphate of soda
 prepared by crystallization.   The  residual glycerine  was compared with glycerine procured
 from olive-oil and lead, and found to be darker coloured.  All  these kinds  of glycerine were
 decolorized  by adding basic  acetate of lead to the glycerine solution, though they again became
 coloured when  submitted to evaporation.
   4. Bile constituents.—-When cod-liver oil is shaken with water, an  emulsion is obtained from
 which the oil slowly  separates.  The aqueous liquid becomes clear by filtration. That which had
 been obtained by shaking the brown oil with water was  coloured and  empyreumalic; but the
 other kinds of oil did not colour the  water.   The liquid invariably had a slightly acid reaction,
 and the oil which had been shaken with it was clearer, had a feebler odour, and reacted less
 powerfully as an acid.  By  boiling the oils with water, the same results were obtained.  By
 evaporation, the  aqueous fluids from all the three kinds of oil yielded a reddish-brown extract,
 which, softened by  heat, was slightly soluble in water, was more soluble in ether, and  com-
 pletely so in alcohol.  Alkaline solutions dissolved it, and acids threw it down a«ain in the
 form of a re.ldish-b.own flocculent precipitate. The extracts had  a peculiar odour  and a bitter-
 lsh taste.   Ihe quantities obtained  from the  different kinds of oil were as follows:—

                                      With cold water.         With hot water.
               Pfle °lX ■ ■ ■ •.......0-607 per cent.......0.513 per cent
               Clear brown oil......0 890   »    ...       0 849    <'
               Brown oil..........  ] .288   <<    ..'.'..'.  l!256    "

 When successively treated  with ether, alcohol, and dilute  spirit, all these extracts yielded the
 same results.                                                                   '
 . By ether, a reddish-brown, transparent, glutinous extract was obtained, which melted by heat,
stained paper, and  had  the  odour  and  taste of bile.   After  some  time, small crystals made
alcTho.^TT,-1" %  ^^"^'g^y-oluble in water, but readily so in ether as well  as in
 e™™'i„n „ft  " f °8-^   ^amin0n,a being added to its  ethereal solution caused the
   "j0"   „ mi    G    ,T°  ryerS; 3n "PPer tUrbld Wer,which by evaporation yielded
some  drops of olein, some crystals of margann, and a  brownish mass which was identical with
 hat procured by the evaporation of  the lower layer.   Tins brown mass had  a bitter aste was

ImmZS  * "^ ""* ' S°'Uble ^ '^^  P°ni°n' a"d COnsisted of/^nauZd 2* o} 
Cod-Liver-Oil:—Composition; Adulteration.            1149
  The extract which had been exhausted  by ether yielded to alcohol a blackish-brown, odour-
less, bitter, shining, hygroscopic mass, which dissolved with difficulty in water, and consisted of
biliverdin, bilifulvin, and bilifellinic acid.
  Dilute spirit removed from the residual extract a black, shining substance, soluble in alkalies,
concentrated sulphuric acid, and  hot acetic acid, but insoluble in nitric and hydrochloric acid3.'
From jts alcoholic solution, baryta-water and acetate of lead precipitated it of a brown colour.
It left no residue by  burning.
  The residue  of the  aqueous extract, left after  the action of the three above-mentioned sol-
vents, contained an organic substance (whose nature has not been determined) and inorganic salts,
in which  chlorine, phosphoric  and sulphuric acids, lime, magnesia, and  soda were found, but
no potash  or iodine.
  5. Iodine,  bromine, and chlorine.—Considerable, though, as I conceive, unnecessary, importance
has been given to the fact that cod-liver oil frequently or usually contains  both iodine and bro-
mine.  To the presence of one  or both of these substances has been ascribed the whole or part
of the remedial efficacy of the oil.   A little consideration, however, would be sufficient to prove
that their therapeutical  agency in the oil must, if any, be exceedingly small.   The proportions
in which they exist in the oil is inconstant, though in all cases very small. Moreover, beneficial
effects have been produced by the use of the oil, which neither iodine nor bromine is capable of
producing.
  Some chemists have  failed to detect iodine in cod-liver oil.  De Jongh says that  it is  present
in every genuine oil, but that the only certain mode of detecting it is to saponify the oil, and
carbonize  the resulting soap.   He confirms Stein's remark, that neither by immediately  carbon-
izing the oil, nor by saponifying it, and then  decomposing the soap by acids, can the iodine be
detected.  It follows, therefore, that iodine exists in the oil neither in the free state nor in that
of metallic  iodide, but  probably in organic combination, perhaps  as an  iodic fatty acid.  De
Jongh determined the proportion of iodine by forming iodide of palladium; every 100 parts of
anhydrous iodide of  palladium were considered equivalent to 70.34 parts  of free iodine.
   The largest amount of iodine found  in genuine oil is less  than 0.5 per cent.  If the amount
obtained be larger than  this, fraud may be  suspected.   It  is said  by Dr. Martiny1 that some
dishonest  druggists have introduced iodine into the oil for the purpose  of augmenting its  com-
mercial value.   Nay, it is  stated  that an  artificial  cod-liver oil has been made by combining
iodine with  common fish or train oils.
   De Jongh detected bromine in the oil by Balard's process.   The carbonized soap  was digested
with alcohol, and tbe alcoholic extract treated with chlorine gas and ether..  Its proportion was
estimated in conjunction with that of chlorine, as the quantity was  too small to admit of accu-
rate separation.
   The chlorine  was determined by precipitating  it as chloride of silver from the watery extract
of the carbonized soap.
   6.  Phosphoric  and sulphuric acids—Phosphorus.—De Jongh determined the presence and
quantity of  these ingredients in the following way:  The oil was saponified by potash, and the
soap thus obtained decomposed by hydrochloric  acid, by which the fatty  acids were separated.
From the solution the phosphoric acid was precipitated by a nitrate of iron (whose  propor-
tions of oxide was known) and ammonia, and the sulphuric acid by  means of nitrate  of baryta.
   In order to determine the presence and quantity of free phosphorus or sulphur, a given quan-
tity of oil  was decomposed by concentrated nitric acid, and the quantity of phosphoric and sul-
phuric acids in theoxidized liquid ascertained by the above-mentioned method.  More phosphoric
acid was procured from the oxidized  than from  the unoxidized  liquid, and  the  proportion of
phosphorus  was calculated from the excess of acid.
   7. Acetic and butyric acids.—De Jongh separated these volatile acids from cod-liver oil by add-
ing sulphuric acid to the soda-soap, and distilling the liquid thus obtained.   The distilled  product
had a peculiar odour.   It was saturated with barytic water, and evaporated to dryness.   One
portion of the residue was insoluble in alcohol, the other was soluble.   The insoluble salt was
acetate of baryta with two equivalents of water (=C4H505,BaO) ;  the soluble salt  was butyrate
of baryta.   The soluble salt obtained from the pale  oil gave the formula  2(C8H603),BaO,6HO ;
that procured from the  pale-brown sort gave the formula C8H603,BaO,HO.
   Rancid cod liver oil  emits an odour  like common fish, or train-oil, and we might,  therefore,
expect that  phocenic acid would be a constituent of cod-liver oil.   De Jongh did  not detect it;
but thinks that phocenic acid may perhaps be resolvable into acetic and butyric acids—a suppo-
sition somewhat improbable, seeing that phocenic acid contains considerably more carbon than
either butyric or  acetic acid.   Berzelius observes that the presence of acetic acid in cod-liver
oil, in a form which is  not extractable by water, is  remarkable, because  it leads to the suppo-
sition that it is  contained in the  form of a peculiar fat, which would  be  the  acetate  of lipule.
It will be»unnecessary to enter into any details with respect to the other constituents of the oil.
   Adulteration.—The characters by which we judge of the genuineness, purity,
and goodness of the oil, are partly physical, partly cheniical.

            i Nalurgeschichte der fur die Heilkunde wichtigen Thiere, Darmstadt, 1847. 
1150
ANIMAL SUBSTANCES.
   The physical characters which are usually employed are principally colour, odour,
 and flavour.  The finest oil is that which is most devoid of colour, odour, and flavour.
 The oil as contained  in  the cells of  the  fresh liver is nearly colourless, and the
 brownish colour possessed by the ordinary cod-oil used by curriers is due to colour-
 ing matters derived from the decomposing hepatic  tissues and fluids, or from the
 action of air on the oil.  Chemical  analysis lends no support to the opinion, at one
 time entertained, that  the brown oil was  superior, as a  therapeutical agent, to the
 pale  oil. •  Chemistry has not discovered  any substances in the  brown  oil which
 would confer on it  superior  activity as a medicine.  On  the other hand, the dis-
 gusting odour  and flavour, and nauseating qualities of  the brown oil, preclude its
 repeated use.  Moreover, there is reason  to suspect that, if patients could conquer
 their aversion  to it, its free use, like  that of other rancid and  empyreumatic  fats,
 would disturb the digestive functions, and be attended with injurious effects.
   Of  the chemical characters which have been used to determine the  genuineness
 of cod-liver oil, some  have reference  to the iodine,  others  to the gaduin  or to the
 bile constituents.   I have already stated  that  some fraudulent persons are said to
 have admixed  iodine (either free iodine  or iodide of potassium) with train-oil to
 imitate cod-liver oil.  The presence of this substance  may be readily detected by
 adding a solution of starch and a few drops of sulphuric  acid, by which  the  blue
 iodide of starch iss produced; or the  suspected oil may be shaken with alcohol, which
 abstracts the iodine.
 ^ But though we may thus readily prove that the suspected oil contains  no artifi-
 cially added iodine, the iodine which is naturally contained in,  and more intimately
 combined with the oil, may be frequently recognized by another process.  Marchand1
 gives the following directions for detecting it:  Saponify the oil with  soda, carbonize
 the soap thus obtained, digest tbe coal in distilled water, add a drop  of starch paste,
 and subject the mixture  to the action of  a voltaic  battery, the positive pole being
 placed in contact with  the starch  paste, the negative pole with the  solution.  If
 iodine be present, the starch becomes blue.  Marchand states that by this test the
 iodine can  be detected in the urine of  a  patient  soon after he has taken  the oil.
 This, however, is certainly not always correct;  for I submitted the urine of a young
 gentleman,  who, for several weeks, had  taken with great  benefit a tablespoonful
 of cod-liver oil thrice  daily,  to the action of  a galvanic battery of  fifty pairs of
 plates for several hours, without obtaining the slightest  evidence of  the presence of
 iodine.                                                               r
   Sulphuric acid has been employed as a test for cod-liver oil.   If  a drop of  con-
 centrated sulphuric  acid  be added  to  fresh cod-liver oil, the latter  assumes a  fine
 violet colour, which  soon  passes into yellowish  or brownish-red. ' Some samples of
 oil.produce at once  the red colour, without the preliminary violet tint.  Gobley,3
 who noticed this reaction in  the  case of  oil of the  liver of the ray, says, that oil
 which has been prepared  by ebullition in water does not possess this property, but
 yields with  sulphuric acid a clear red colour.   This, however, Is an error, at  least
 with respect to cod-liver oil    It has  been erroneously supposed  by some persons
 that this violet colour was due to the evolution of iodine  by the action of the  acid

 SrW   n™ ?    uTmt m the  0iL   If that *ere the case> th* P^sence  of a
little starch-paste would be sufficient to convert the violet into an intense blue colour:
which  is not the case.    The coloration, in fact, depends on the action of the sul-
f.JJ.T8?   °n. S?T T ?-.m°re °rganic constit»ents of the oil, and the following
^r;*^ifc is m  ^due to the presence in tte oii °f - °f **
   It is well known that, in 1844, Pettenkofer*  pointed out a new test for bile   If
^ff^  f0 C0DtT H16  ab0Ut  two ^irds of  its volume of  oil of vitriol
bedded, the liquid  kept  cool, a few dn>psof^                      £™

 1 Lehrbuch der Physiolog. Chemie.               ~T     , .  D,           ~---------■—'---
   Ann. der Chimie und Pharmacie, B. Iii. S. 90, 1844 • also ' ^m™,'VTTm.acie> 3me Bkr- v. 308, 1841.
u. 193.                              °"> 10**> also Simon's Chemistry, translated by Dr. Lay. 
Cod-Liver Oil:-
:—Adulteration;  Tests.
1151
 parts to one of sugar) be added, and the mixture  shaken up, a violet-red colour is
 produced, provided bile  be present.   This test  succeeds very well, if we dissolve  a
 little extract of ox-bile in water, and test the solution with sugar and oil of vitriol.
 The colour developed agrees with that produced by the addition of oil of vitriol to
 cod-liver oil, which De Jongh has shown contains the essential constituents of the
 bile.   Pettenkofer remarks that  the presence  of a very great excess of chlorides
 will change the violet-red  colour into  a brownish-red.  This fact is deserving of
 notice, because it may aid in accounting for  the fact that some specimens of cod-liver
 oil strike a brownish-red, not a violet-red colour, with oil of vitriol.   Strecker1 con-
 firms Platner's observation that both cholic and paracholic acids produce the same
 colour with sugar  and oil of vitriol, as bile does; so that Pettenkofer's test doubtless
 acts on one or both of these acids.  Now De Jongh has shown that cholic  acid is
 contained in cod-liver oil, and we  have,  therefore, good reason for believing that it
 is in  part by the action of oil of vitriol on this acid that the violet-red colour is pro-
 duced in cod-liver oil.
   But it is well known that for the  development of this colour in  bile it is neces-
 sary  to use, besides oil of vitriol,  a third agent (sugar).   Pettenkofer observes that
 for cane-sugar we may substitute grape-sugar  or starch;  in  fact,  any substance
 which can by  the  action of oil of  vitriol be  converted into grape-sugar.   No  such
 substance has hitherto been detected in cod-liver  oil, and, therefore, it may be said
 the necessary  ingredient to produce  this characteristic reaction of oil of vitriol on
 cholic acid is wanting.   Strecker has recently supplied the  wanting  link.  In his
 valuable paper, to which I have already  referred,  he  observes that  acetic acid may
'be substituted for  sugar.   To the  liquid  supposed to contain  bile add a few drops
 of acetic acid, and then concentrated sulphuric  acid, when a magnificent purple-red
 colour is  developed.   If the quantity of bile be small, it may be necessary to use
 heat.   Now, as cod-liver oil contains acetic acid, we  have  the requisite agent to
 enable the oil of vitriol to act on the cholic  acid, and the development of the purple
 or violet-red colour is then  readily accounted for.  I have already  noticed the red
 colour produced by the action  of oil  of vitriol on gaduin (supposed  by Berzelius to
 be derived from the bile).  Here, then,  is another source for the red colour caused
 by the action of sulphuric acid on cod-liver  oil.
   It  follows, therefore,  from what has been now  stated, that oil of  vitriol is a test
 for liver oils. It does not distinguish  one liver oil from another, for it reacts equally
 with  the  oil of the liver of the ray and with oil of the liver of the  common  cod.
 Neither does it distinguish  good cod-liver oil from bad, for  it produces its charac-
 teristic reaction  both with common  brown  cod-oil, and with the finest and palest
 qualities.  But it serves to distinguish oil procured from the liver, from oil obtained
 from  other parts of the  animal.
   [The experiments of De Jongh go to  prove that the  active principle of the  cod-
 oil is a substance called by him gadin.   Dr. Winckler considers the efficacy of the
 oil to depend on the presence of oxide of propyle, a substance existing also in ergot
 of rye, and in the  liquor in which herrings  are pickled.—Ed.]
   Mr. Beasley communicated to the late  Dr.  Pereira  the subjoined  method  by which he de-
 tected iodine in  cod-liver oil: To detect iodine in the liquor which  accompanies the oil  from
 the liver of codfish, it is sufficient to put a portion  of it  into  a porcelain capsule with a littie
 starch, and add a few drops of a fresh and rather dilute solution of chloride of lime.   The
 characteristic colour manifests itself either immediately or after standing a short time.
   The detection of  the iodine  in the oil was thus effected: £iss of  hydrate of potash was
 triturated in a wedgewood mortar with about  fsjvj of  warm  water, and fgij of the oil.   The
 mortar was set in a warm  place, and triturated occasionally until the combination appeared
 complete.   The soapy mass was thrown, by portions, into a crucible heated to redness  in a
 common^ire, and the heat continued till the soap  was  calcined.  The residuum was triturated
 with f5ij or less of water, and the mixture thrown on  a  filter.  A portion of the clear lixivium
 was placed on a capsule with a little starch and nitric acid, moderately diluted, gradually added.
l Ann. der Chemie und Pharmacie, Bd. lxv  S. 15, 1848. 
1152                     ANIMAL SUBSTANCES.

A considerable effervescence takes place, and  as soon as the point of saturation is passed the
mixture becomes coloured.  A considerable excess of acid, however, destroys the colour.
  Physiological Effects.—At the commencement of  its  use" cod-liver oil fre-
quently causes nausea, disagreeable eructation, and  occasionally vomiting.  In the
dose  of  a tablespoonful it acts as a  laxative,  diaphor-etic,  and  diuretic.1   But
Taufflied3 declares that,  in doses of from  two to four spoonfuls a day, he never
found it  " exert any appreciable  influence upon the urine or perspiration, or pro-
duce any disturbance in  the economy."   The  disagreeable flavour of the oil some-
times creates nausea and sickness, but when habit has surmounted the repugnance
to it,  these effects cease.   In  several cases it  has proved  emmenagogue ;3 and on
some  occasions it has given rise to a cutaneous eruption.4 ■  Dr. Bardsley found that
most persons were disposed to get fat under its use.
  Uses.—Though it  has  been  used  more  or less  successfully in  a considerable
number of diseases, the cases in  which it has proved most successful are those  of a
gouty, rheumatic, or scrofulous nature, [and especially in phthisis.—Ed.]  But even
in these it requires a very long-continued use to prove successful.  The  most recent
writer on  its employment observes that its use must  be continued long, " at least a
month, often six weeks, and sometimes for years."   As the oil contains iodine, and
as it proves most successful in those maladies in which this element proves success-
ful, it has been suggested  that iodine is its active principle.   Taufflied, however,
denies this, and  asserts  that  the properties of the two  are  not identical, for the
one succeeds where the other fails.   Is bromine  the active agent ?s  [It must not
be forgotten that iodine  and bromine  are combined organically with  some of the
constituents of this oil, and in such manner that they are not to  be immediately
recognized by the ordinary tests.   This fact may perhaps tend to develop a peculiar
action of iodine and bromine,  and endow them with an efficacy not otherwise attain-
able.—Ed.]
  The oil is best adapted  for relaxed, torpid, and  phlegmatic temperaments,  and
for  scrofulous subjects.  In plethoric  habits, and where irritation  of the stomach
and bowels, or inflammation, exists, its use is contraindicated.
  Rheumatism, scrofula, and phthisis are the diseases in which  it has proved most
successful.  In rheumatism,  it  is indicated  in  the chronic forms of this disease,
where the muscles  and tendons are  rigid,  and  the joints nearly  inflexible.   In
chronic gout it is said  not to be so efficacious.  In scrofula, it has proved successful
in most of the forms of  this disease, but especially  when it affects the bones (as in
rickets, caries, &c), and in  tabes mesenterica.   In the latter  intractable form of
the disease, its efficacy has occasionally been most surprising.   [The experience of
the profession at  large appears now quite to have established the fact that cod-liver
oil  is one  of  the  most efficacious  of all  remedies in arresting the progress of pul-
monary phthisis; that it enables patients to struggle on  longer  against the inroads
of the disease, and thus enables  them sometimes to obtain  cicatrization  and con-
traction of cavities which otherwise must have produced speedy  death.__Ed.]
  The oil hasalso been employed in some other diseases, with more or less success.
In chronic skin diseases  attention was drawn to  its  use, some years since, by Dr.
Marshall  Hall.6   In tinea favosa, impetigo, and  chronic eczema, it has been found
efficacious as a topical application.  In  chronic  ophthalmia,  especially of a scrofu-
lous kind, it has  been given internally, and, in  some cases, applied to the eye  with
benefit.  In paralysis, also, it has been found beneficial by Schuppmann.?
  Administration.—For an adult,  the dose at the commencement is a table-
spoonful, which has sometimes been increased to six times this quantity (!)   This


Iim, tef"eS7p°M   erS0U 8 SpeCulat,OD8 0n the mod™ ******* of this oil, see Dr. Bennett's Trea-
  ' London Medical Gazette, x. 796.
^w°r.fatrth" denM8 ueTrCtl?g the the^Peutic uses of this oil. the reader is referred to Riohters Au<
fuhrl. Arzneim.; Dierbach's Neuest. Entd. in d. Mat Met*  n -270 \*->h ■ »l,\ tV.-j   V->  . o-   ?  ,\
Bennett's Treatise, already quoted.                     P'   ' e*' and Ibtd- ' 3y2' lo37i iUs" u 
            The Domestic Cock and Hen:—History; Zoology.        1153
                                                V
dose is to be  repeated  two, three, or  four times a day for several weeks, or even
months.   One patient consumed thirty-six lbs. of oil in two  years  and a half!!
(Taufflied.)   Dr. Bardsley gave  from £ss  *°  5'1SS twice or  thrice a day in warm
table beer.  For children of twelve months or under, the dose is a teaspoonful night
and morning.   The addition of some aromatic oil (as of lemon, peppermint, cassia,
or anise) partly covers the  unpleasant  taste and  smell.  It is sometimes taken in
the form of an emulsion.  Peppermint water and lozenges have been recommended
for covering the  unpleasant taste of  the remedy.   [A minute  portion  of common
salt, taken both before and  after the  dose of oil, will sometimes enable the stomach
to bear this remedy when all other devices fail.—Ed.]
                     class  IX,   Aves.^-Birds,

  Characters.—Vertebrated animals, with red and warm  blood, respiring by lungs, and the
young of which are produced from eggs.  Body covered with feathers, and general conformation
organized for flying.
Order I.  GALLING, Linncem.—GALLINACEOUS  BIRDS.

  Characters.—Bill short, convex, in some genera covered by a cere.  Upper mandible bending
from its base or only at the point;  nostrils lateral, covered  by a membrane, naked, or feathered.
Tarsus long.  Three toes  before, united at their base by a membrane: hind toe articulated on
the tarsus above the junction of the anterior toes.


  359. GALLUS  BANCKIVA var. DOMESTICUS, Temminck.-THE
                     DOMESTIC  COCK AND HEN.

                              Phasianus Gallus, Linn. E.
                  (Ovi albumen; Ovi vitellus, L.—The egg, E.—Ovum, D.)

   History.—No mention is made of  this animal in the Old Testament.   Both
the male and female are referred to in  the  New Testament.1   Aristotle2 calls the
cock axextpvov,—the hen aXtxropic.
   Zoology.  Gen. Char.—Bill  of  medium * size, strong,  base  naked.  • Upper
mandible arched, convex, bent towards the point.   Head surmounted by a crest or
plume.  Ears naked.  Three toes before, united to the first joint;  the hind toe
raised from the ground.  Tarsus with a long and bent spur.   Middle feathers of
the tail arched.    Wings short.
   Sp. Char.— Comb dentated.   Throat wattled.   Feathers of the neck  linear and
elongated.   Body variegated with  beautiful colours.   Tail compressed and ascend-
ing.   Comb and wattles of the female  less than  those of the male.
  Some doubt exists as to the origin of  our  domestic cock and hen.   Sonnerat3 affirms that all
the varieties originate from the Jungle Fowl (Gallus Sonnerati); while Temminck  refers them
to the Javan Fowl (Gallus banckiva).
  Structure of the  Ovarium  and Development  of the Egg.—The Ovarium  (racemut
vitellorum) or egg-organ, consists of a cluster of ova, in a  hen beginning to  lay, about 500 in
number.  The stalk by which each ovum is attached to the ovarium is called the petiolus.  The
size of the ova is exceedingly various; when quite  ripe, they are as large as the yelk of an egg;
the  smaller ones are white, the larger ones yellow.  Each ovum, when ripe, is composed of a
calyx, the yelk-bag, and the yelk.  The calyx constitutes  the outer coat or covering of the ovum,
and consists of two layers—an outer one, derived from  the peritoneum, and an inner one, which
is somewhat thicker.  Between these two coats the vessels ramify.  The petiolus is merely a
prolongation of the calyx : it is studded with a number of small  ova resembling vesicles.  On
that part of  the calyx of a ripe ovum which is opposite the petiolus is a whitish curved stripe,

      1 Matthew, xxiii. and xxvi.                                * Hist, de Animal.
      2 Voyage aux Ind. Orient, ii. 148.
       vol. n.—73 
1154
ANIMAL SUBSTANCES.
called the stigma, indicating the spot where the calyx bursts, to allow the escape of the yelk.
The yelk-bag, or membrana propria vitelli, is within the calyx, and closely invests the yelk.   It is
a flocculent, delicate, fine coat.   In  the early stage  of the  ovum, the yelk  is constituted ol a
pellucid fluid lymph, and is hardly distinguishable from the vesicula cicatnculaz.  It then becomes
whitish, and  subsequently yellow, globules of oil making their appearance.   In  a ripe ovum,
ii is viscid, tenacious, and of an orange yellow colour;  and lies in  the calyx, with its long axis
towards the petiolus.  It is composed of three layers, the middle one having the deepest colour;
the innermost inclosing a white fluid called the albumen centrale (or substantia alba vitelli), from
which, passes a little canal to that part of the surface of the yelk called the acatricula.   _
  The internal surface  of the yelk bag is lined with n very thin  stratum of globules, in form
and figure like those of  the blood, but arranged organically.   The  cicatricula or  tread (as  it is
improperly called), is formed  by an accumulation  of  these globules forming a mammiform
heap, the  convexity of which is towards the centre of the yelk, and  is usually situated nearer
the petiolus than the stigma.  In the top of this is the so called pellucid pore, which is occupied
by a small vesicle  discovered by Purkinje,1 and called  by him the vesicula  germinativa, or vesi-
cula cicatricula.  It is found in all the  ovarian ova, and seems to be a natural organ, since it is
found in the ova of fowls which have never had access to the male.   When the  yelk falls into
the infundibulum, this vesicle disappears.   The Oviduct has some resemblance to a convoluted
intestine.  It is situated on the left  side of the animal.  Its  superior expanded free extremity
is  called  the infundibulum, the edges of which are fimbriated.   Inferiorly, the  oviduct opens
into the cloaca.  It is attached to the spine by the mesonietrium.  The infundibulum, or expanded
portion of the tube, receives the ovum as it escapes from the  calyx of the ovarium.   The upper
part of the ovum is lined by a fine villous membrane, covered with follicles secreting the albu-
men, or glaire, and thrown into  a number of longitudinal folds.   The" first layer of albumen
which the ovum receives forms the membrana chalazifera of Dutrochet; at either end of which
is a soft, pellucid, albuminous nodule, which  may be regarded as  the rudimentum chalazarum.
During the descent of the ovum in the oviduct,  it receives fresh deposits of albumen ; and, as it
undergoes spiral rotations in its  passage, the above-mentioned processes become curved spirally,
and in the perfect egg constitute the chalaza, grandines, appendices albuminis, or the poles or tred-
dies.  From  one chalaza to the other are observed, in many eggs, one  or more white stria,
formed by a thickening of the membrana chalazifera.   Vicq  d'Azyr called this appearance the
zona albicans.
  The albumen, glaire, or white of the egg, is  not uniform in its  consistence.  The thickest portion
is that which is fn>t deposited around  the yelk.  Proceeding from without  inwards, the three
layers of albumen are denominated albumen primum, a. secundum, and a. lertium.  Just before the
e^g arrives at that part  of the oviduct called the uterus, it receives its outer coat, the pellicula
ovi.  In the  middle, or  so-called uterine portion of the oviduct, is  formed  the calcareous shell.
Some eggs are expelled  without it;.these are termed oon eggs.   The chalk  is first deposited in
small polygonal pieces, having a crystalline appearance; but, when  the deposit  has attained a
certain thickness, all traces of crystallization  are lost.
   Hab.—Domesticated in  all the four quarters of the globe.
   Description.—Eggs (ova) are too well  known to need much description.   Their
specific gravity varies from  1.080 to 1 090.    By keeping they become lighter, by
the evaporation of a  portion of the water.   Dr. Prout3 found that in  two years an
egg had  lost 544 ^  grains.   The relative weights of the  different parts of the egg
are, according  to the  same authority,  as follows : shell and membrane, 106.9 ; albu-
men, 604.2; yelk, 288.9;  total, 1,000.   By boiling in  water, an egg loses two or
three per cent.
   1. Egg-shell (Testa  Ovi; Putamen  Ovi).—This  consists,  according to Prout, of carbonate of
lime, 97;  phosphate of lime and magnesia,  1;  animal matter,  with traces of sulphur and iron, 2.
The chalk renders the egg absorbent and antacid; hence its use to neutralize the acidity of wines.
   2. Pellicula  Ovi (Membrana Putaminis).—An albuminous membrane which lines  the
shell.  It is soluble in alkalies, and from its solution is precipitated by acids.  It weighs about
2.35 grains (the whole  egg being supposed to be 1,000 grains).   At the larger  end of the egg it
forms  the follicula aeris;  the air of which, according to Bischoff, contains 23.475  per cent, of
oxygen.
   3. White  or  Glaire (Albumen seu Album Ovi) consists of  two or three lamina?, which are
not homogeneous, as two parts at least are  discernible, viz. a  solid, probably organized albumen,
having the appearance of a very fine delicate membrane, forming a series of cells, in which is
contained the liquid albumen.   Glaire or white  of egg consists, according to Gmelin, of albumen
12.0, mucus 2.7,  salts 0.3, and  water 85.0.  According  to Dr. Bostock,3 white of  egg consists of
ovi avium histor. ante incub. Lipsiae, 1830.   2 Philosophical Transactions for 1822, d  377
i's Journal, n. 246.                                                         '' 
Great-Headed Cachalot:—History;  Zoology.          1155
water 80.0, albumen 15.5, uncoagulable matter 4.5=100.0.  The coagulability of albumen by heat,
and its incoagulability by acetic acid, distinguish  it from caseine.  Albumen or glaire (or oval-
bumen) is distinguished from albumen of the serum of the blood (seralbumen)  by its being
coagulated by etlier.  The membranous tissue in which the liquid albumen of eggs is contained
is said by Couerbe to be devoid of nitrogen; he calls it albumenin or oonin.
  4. Yei.k (Vitellus Ovi)  is a kind of yellow emulsion, consisting of oil suspended in water by
means of albumen, and inclosed in a sac called the yelk-bag.  On its upper  surfaee is seen the
cicatricula.   At the extremities are the twisted flocculent chalaza.  The yelk consists, according
to Dr. Prout,  of yellow oil,  with crystallizable fat 28.75, albumen containing phosphorus 17.47, and
water  53.8.   Dr. Prout1 says, the  yelk of egg consists of  water 170.2, albumen 55.3, yellow oil
91.0=316.5.  The yellow oil (oleum ovi) may be obtained  by boiling the yelk hard, and digest-
ing in ether or alcohol,  ■which dissolves the oil.  By distilling off the alcohol from the filtered
tincture, the oil is left behind.
   Physiological Effects  and Uses.—Both the glaire and the yelk are highly
nutritive; the latter, on account of the oil which it contains, is somewhat less easy
of  digestion than  the white.  Both are more readily assimilated when in the soft
state than when  hardened by heat.  Considered as  medicinal agents, they are emol-
lient and demulcent.  The glaire  is a valuable agent in the treatment of poisoning
by bichloride of mercury, sulphate of copper, arid  the bichloride of  tin.   Its efficacy
in these cases depends on the combination of the albumen with the  oxide or chloride
of  the metal.   [The yelk, as well as the white,  exerts antidotal powers, and may
therefore be freely used.—Ed.]    The glaire is also used as a demulcent or sheath-
ing agent in all cases of corrosive or acrid poisons.  The yelk is a constituent of the
mistura spirit&s vini gallici.   It is also used for preparing emulsions.  Its oil has
been applied to cracked  nipples.   The white or  glaire is employed  as a clarifying
agent for wines and  some other liquids.  Its efficacy depends on its coagulation, by
which it entangles  in its  meshes the impurities with which it either rises  to the
surface or   precipitates.  When the  liquid  to be clarified  does not spontaneously
coagulate the albumen, it is necessary to apply heat.   Bookbinders  use the glaire
as  a varnish.
         class x.  Mammalia,  Linnxus.—Mammals,

  Characters.— Vertebrated animals with red and warm blood, breathing through lungs, vivipa-
rous, and suckling their young with milk formed in their breasts or mammx.


     Order  I. CETACEA, Llnrnvus.—THE  CETACEANS.

  Characters.—Body pisciform, terminated by a caudal  appendage, cartilaginous, and hori-
zontal.  Two anterior extremities  formed like fins, having the bones which form them flat-
tened and very soft.  Head joined to  the body by a very short thick neck.  Two pectoral or
abdominal mammx.   Ears with very small external openings.  Brains large.  Pelvis and bones
of the posterior extremities represented by two rudimentary bones lost in the flesh.

   360. PHYSETER MACROCEPHALUS, Und.  L. £.-GREAT-
                         HEADED CACHALOT.
        (Concretum in propriis cellulis repertum, L.—Cetine nearly pure, E.—Cetaceum, D.)

  History.__Cuvier" is of  opinion  that this animal is  perhaps  the Physeter of
Pliny3__the Orca of some other Latin writers.
  Zoology.   Gen. Char.—Inferior  teeth eighteen to  twenty-three  on each side of
the jaw.    Upper jaw  broad,  elevated, without  teeth, or with these short and con-

~ Philosophical Transactions, 1822.                      2 R'ch. sur les Osstmens Foss. v. 328.
  • Hist. Nat. ix. 3, and xxii. 53, ed Valp. 
 1156                      ANIMAL  SUBSTANCES.

 cealed in the gum; lower jaw elongated, narrow, corresponding to a furrow of the
 upper, and armed with thick and  conical teeth entering into corresponding cavities
 in the upper jaw.   Spiracular orifices united  at  the upper part of the snout  A
 dorsal fin in some species, a simple eminence in others.   Cartilaginous cavities in
 the superior region  of  the head, filled with oily matter.
   Sp. Char.—Lower teeth twenty to twenty-three on each side, recurved and pointed
 at the extremity.  Small conical teeth concealed in the upper gums.   Tail narrow
 and conical.  A. longitudinal eminence on the back above the anus.   Upper part of
 the body blackish or slate blue,  a little spotted with white.   Belly whitish.  Length
 forty-five to sixty feet.
   The snout of the cachalot, notwithstanding its prodigious length, is formed only
 by the maxillae on the sides, by the intermaxillas towards the median line, and by
 the vomer on  this line.   The intermaxillae project to form the anterior part of the
 snout.   Posteriorly, the  right one ascends higher than the left.   The spout-hole is
 single (in  most  cetacea it is double), and directed towards the  left side,  so that
 whenever the animal spouts water, it is to that side only.
  Seat of Spermaceti.—Spermaceti is found in several parts of the body of the animal, mixed
 with common fat.  The head, however,  is the grand reservoir for it.  Here it is found (mixed
with oil)  in a large excavation of the  upper jaw, anterior to, and  quite distinct from, the true
cranium which contains the brain. Mr. Hunter1 states that the spermaceti and oil are contained
in cells, or cellular membrane, in the same  manner as  the  fat  in other animals; but that
besides the common cells there are larger ones, or ligamentous partitions going across, the latter
to support the vast load of oil, of which the bulk of the head is principally  made up.
  There are two places in the head where this oil lies; these are situated  along its upper and
lower part; between them  pass the nostrils, and a vast number of  tendons going to the nose
and different parts of the head.   The purest spermaceti is contained in  the smallest and least
ligamentous cells.  It lies above the nostril, along the upper part of the head, immediately un-
der the skin and common  adipose membrane.  These cells resemble  those which contain the
common fat in the other parts of the body nearest the skin.  That whjch lies above the  roof of
the mouth, or between that and the nostril, is more intermixed with a ligamentous cellular mem-
brane, and lies in chambers  whose partitions are  perpendicular.  These  chambers are smaller
the nearer to the nose, becoming larger towards the back part  of the head, where the spermaceti
 is more pure.
  Mr. Hunter discovered  about the nose, or posterior part of the nostril, a great many vessels
having the appearance of a plexus of veins, some as large as  a finger.  On examining them, they
 were found loaded with spermaceti and oil; and some had corresponding arteries. They were
most probably lymphatics, whose contents had been absorbed from the cells of the head.
   Hab.—Pacific Ocean, Indian and  Chinese Seas.  Especially off New Guinea and
 parts  adjacent, Timor,  Australasia, Polynesia, Peru, &c.
   Extraction of Spermaceti.—In the right side  of  the nose  and upper surface
of the head of the whale is a triangular-shaped cavity, called by the whalers " the
case."    Into this the whalers make  an opening, and  take out  the liquid  contents
(oil and  spermaceti) by  a bucket.   The dense mass of cellular tissue beneath the
case and  nostril, and which is technically called "junk," also contains spermaceti
 with which and oil its  tissue is  infiltrated.3   The spermaceti from the case is care-
 fully boiled alone, and placed in separate casks, when it is called " head matter."3
   Purification—The  substance called " head matter" consists of spermaceti and
 sperm oil.  Its colour is yellow.  Its consistence varies with the temperature  In
 cold weather it consists of a congealed  mass (spermaceti) surrounded and infiltrated
 by oil.   To separate the latter as much as possible, it is put into filter bags   The
 solid thus obtained is then submitted to compression in hair bags  placed in an hy-
 draulic press.   It is then melted  in water, and the  impurities  are skimmed off
 Subsequently,  it is remelted in a weak  solution of potash.  It is then fused in a tub
 by the agency  of steam  ladled into  tin  pans, and  allowed  slowly to concentrate
 into large, white, translucent, crystalline masses.
   Properties.—Commercial spermaceti (cetaceum ;  sperma ceti) usually contains

  1 Philosophical Transactions, lxxvii. 390.
  * Beale, Natural History of the Sperm Whale, p. 186 1839- nl»n v n t>
 Koyap round the Globe, from the year 1833 to 1836, ii. 153 and 228, Lond 1840    Narrattve °fa Whaling 
Great-Headed Cachalot :—Physiological Effects ; Uses.
1157
a minute portion of sperm oil, which is best removed by boiling in alcohol.   [The
Cetine or pure spermaceti is dissolved, and is deposited  on cooling in a  crystalline
mass.  This process should be repeated so long as the alcohol extracts any oil.—Ed ]
Absolutely pure spermaceti (called Cetine) is a white lamellated substance, without
taste, and almost odourless.   By  the addition of a few drops of alcohol or almond
oil, it may be reduced to powder.   [It is crystalline, has a bright pearly lustre,
and melts at 120°.   At 670° it is sublimed unchanged.—Ed.]   It is  insoluble  in
water, and slightly soluble only in alcohol, even at a boiling  temperature.  [When
distilled at a high temperature it  is converted chiefly  into ethalic or  cetylic acid,
and cetene, a liquid hydrocarbon having the formula C32H33.  By  carefully regulating
the temperature these  two products alone are formed.   When saponified by  fusion
with  caustic potash, it yields  cetylate of potash and ethal (C33H330) or hydrated
oxide of cetyle.   No oleate or  margarate of potash  is  produced, as was formerly
supposed.  According to L. Smith,  purified spermaceti or  cetine is a cetylate of
oxide of cetyle, the oleic  acid formerly found being derived from a portion  of sperm
oil.adhering to the spermaceti.—Ed.]
   Composition.—The ultimate analysis of pure spermaceti  or  cetine was  made by
Chevreul.1  The proximate composition of the same substance has been  ascertained
by Dumas and Peligot.8
      Chevreul's Analysis.     |               Dumas and Peligot's Analysis.
                          I                    Atoms.                      Atoms.
Sai?on.........81 •*?" ! Margaric acid......2\    r Margarate of cetine .  ... 2
Hydrogen.......12.662 ! 0]ei° acid              o      1    6
Oxygen........   5.478 i Cetene     .......3  f  or \ Binoleate of cetine .... 4
        Cetine____loo7oo"o j VVater  ■' •" ■' ! •' ■' : : ''  '^    ^^..........1
                                  Cetine.....1    or  ..............1
   [The researches of  L. Smith and others have shown that the analysis of Dumas
and Peligot must have referred to an impure specimen  of spermaceti, i. e. a speci-
men from which  the oil had not been entirely separated.   The formula of  cetine or
pure  spermaceti,  on Liebig's authority, is (C^H^O4).   This  corresponds to one
equivalent of oxide of cetyle  (C32H330) and one equivalent of cetylic acid (CsaH31
O3).   This formula at once explains the products obtained by its saponification and
distillation.  By  distillation  at a high temperature,  the ethal (C32H830) loses 1
equivalent of water and becomes  cetene, while the cetylic acid takes up  the equiva-
lent of water, and is distilled over as hydrated cetylic acid.—Ed.]
   Physiological Effects and  Uses.—Emollient and demulcent.  Internally, it
has been employed in irritation and inflammation of the alimentary canal  (as diar-
rhoea  and  dysentery) and of  the  bronchial  membrane (catarrh); but  its internal
administration is now  nearly obsolete.  Its principal medicinal  use is in the  prepa-
ration of cerates and ointments.
   Administration.—When  employed internally it is generally exhibited  in the
form  of an emulsion (spermaceti mixture)  made  with the yelk of egg.   Or it may
be made with mucilage.
   1.  CERATUM  CETACEI, L. [U. S.]:  Ceratum simplex, E.; Unguentum  Cetacei, J).-,
Spermaceti Cerate.—(Spermaceti £ij; White Wax |viij;  Olive Oil Oj, L.—Olive
Oil 6 parts;  Bleached Beeswax 3 parts; Spermaceti 1 part, E.—White Wax Ibss;
Spermaceti Ibj; Prepared Hogs' lard ibiij, D.   " Heat  the oil gently, add the wax
and spermaceti, stir the whole briskly when it is fluid, and  continue the agitation
as it cools,"-K   [Spermaceti gj;  White Wax ^iij;  Olive Oil fgvi,  U. £.])—
If cold oil be added to the wax and spermaceti, the preparation is apt to be some-
what lumpy.   As the white wax of commerce is always largely  mixed with sperma-
ceti  this  preparation  has never  the precise composition intended by the College.
Practically, however,  this is  of no consequence.  The  preparation is employed  as
a mild and simple dressing for blisters and excoriated surfaces.
i Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. ii. 440.
? Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. lxxii. 5. 
1158
ANIMAL  SUBSTANCES.
   2.  nGUEXTH CETACEI,  L.;  Spermaceti Ointment.—(Spermaceti  3v;  White
Wax 3xivJ Olive Oil Oj.   Having melted them  together with  a slow  fire, stir
assiduously until they become cold.)—A softer preparation than the preceding, but
used  in the same cases.

  Ambergris.—The substance called Ambergris  (Ambra grisea) is procured from the Cachalot
or Sperm Whale.1  In this country it is used as a perfume only; on the continent it is employed
in medicine.  It appears to be the  indurated feces (perhaps somewhat altered by disease) of
the animal.  Mr. Beale2 collected some of the semifluid feces, and found that the dried  mass
had all the properties of ambergris.   It is a solid, opake, grayish, striated substance, having a
pleasant musk-like odour, and which is supposed to be derived from the Squid (Sepia moschata)
on which  the  animal  feeds; and in support of this opinion it  must be mentioned that the
horny beaks  of this animal are found imbedded  in  the masses.   Its sp. gr. is 0.908  to 0.92.
John  analyzed it,  and found it  to consist of  a peculiar non-saponifiable fat {ambreine) 85, sweet
balsamic alcoholic extract, with benzoic acid, 2.5, aqueous  extract, benzoic acid, and chloride of sodium
1.5.  Ambreine is  soluble in alcohol, and by the action of nitric acid furnishes a peculiar acid
called ambreic acid.  The effects of ambergris on the system are said to be analogous to those of
musk.  In the shops is kept an alcoholic tincture (called essence of ambergris), which is employed
as a perfume only.
      Order  II.  RUMINANTIA,  Cuvier.—RUMINANTS.

                                  Pecora. Linnseus.

  Characters —No incisors in the upper jaw ; in the lower, visually eight; a vacant space be-
tween the incisors  and molars, but in which, in  some genera, are found one or two canines.
Molars twelve in each jaw, the crown marked with two double crescents of enamel, of which
the convexity is outwards in the lower jaw, and inwards in the upper.  No clavicles.  Extremi-
ties  disposed for walking.  Two toes  furnished with  hoofs; metacarpal  bones  united.   Four
stomachs; intestines long.  Two or four inguinal mamma.  Horns in the males, and often in the
females of most species.
    361. MOSCHUS  MOSCHIFERUS, Linn. L. E. fl.-THE  MUSK
                                   ANIMAL.

(Concretum in folliculopraeputii repertum, L.—Inspissated secretion in the follicle of the prepuce, E. D.)

   History—Aristotle, Pliny,  Julian,  and  Oppian,  make  no  mention  of this
animal.   Mtms* is the earliest writer who notices the perfume.   None of the ety-
mologies hitherto given for the word Musk 0*00*05) are satisfactory.
   Zoology.  Gen. Char.— Incisors I  Canines 1—1. Molars §—1 = 34.  Canines
wanting altogether in the females; superior canines large in the males  Ears long,
pointed.  Body slender.   Feet with hoofs, separated and enveloping  the "last pha-
langes,  lail very short.   Two inguinal mammae.
   Sp. Char— Fur of a gray-brown;  hair coarse.  A pouch before the prepuce of
the male, failed with an unctuous musky substance.   Size of the roebuck
   Thejibseuce  of horns  and  the presence of canine  teeth distinguish the animal
from  the Deer (Cervus).   The Stylocerus moschatus is the connecting link between
the deer and the musks.    It has the horns of the one, and the canine teeth  of the
other.
   The most interesting part of the musks is the preputial musk  sac.   Cuvier4 says
no other species of Moschus possesses a musk sac; but this  statement is  not cor-
rect.   M. -Altaicus L.chscholtz  (M. Moschiferus  Altaicus, Brandt), M. Napu, and
M. Javamcus, are also said to  possess musk sacs.

  1 Phil. Trans, foe 1783, lxxiii. 226.                    2  n„  ..     Z
  ' Serm xxvi. t. ,i. can. cxiii.                        ,  2^,"p:° ."'■ J>-
cap  c                            « dV "~f"" "■"•• v- 135.
       "                         Regne Animal, nouv. edit. i. 259, 1829. 
The Musk Animal :—Anatomy of the Musk Sac.
1159
Fig. 434.
Fig. 435.
                                                       Moschus moschiferus.

                                         Asatomt op the  Musk Sac—The sac is peculiar
                                      to the male animal.  If he be supposed to be laid on
                                      his back, and the belly examined, we observe behind
                                      the navel, and  immediately in front of the preputial
                                      orifice, a small  aperture (external aperture of the musk
                                      sac) leading  into the musk canal, which terminates in
                                      thet cavity of the musk sac.  The aperture is about half
                                      an inch from the umbilicus, and usually about a  line,
                                      or a  line and a  half, from the preputial orifice.   In
                                      some  preparations in my  possession the  distance is
                                      much greater.   The  preputial  orifice  is  somewhat
                                      more prominent, and  has a number of longish  hairs >
                                      projecting from  it, in the form of a brush or hair-pencil;
                                      whereas, the external musk aperture is  placed in a de-
                                      pression, and is smooth.
                                         The musk sac  is of an  oval  form, rather  broader at
                                      the anterior  than at the posterior part.   It is flat and
                                      smooth above, where it  is in contact with the abdomi-
                                      nal muscles, but convex below (supposing the animal
                                      standing).  Its  breadth is from l£ to  if  inches;  its
                                      length from  2  to  2^ inches; its depth  varies, being
                                      greatest anteriorly, where it is about one half or three-
                                      fourths of  an inch.  The external aperture of the musk
                                      sac is placed  in the median line, but  nearer  to the ante-
                                      rior than the posterior extremity of the sac.   The musk
                                      canal is about  1 or Ij lines  long,  its diameter being
                                      about one  line.   The internal  aperture of the musk sac
                                      is surrounded by fine hairs, which readily fall off, and
                                      are found  in  the musk of commerce.  The following
                                      are the parts of which the musk sac consists:—
                                         1.  Outer or hairy coat or skin.—This is a continuation
                                       of the hide, and covers the convex portion of the  sac.
Its hairs are stiff but smooth, and disposed in a circular manner around  the external musk
orifice.                                                                        .
  2. Muscular coat.__This  consists of two strata of fibres which surround the sac in a circular
form.  Pallas1 states  that they arise from  the groin, and  unite anteriorly with the panniculns
carnosus.   He regards them as the compressors and retractors of the follicle  and of the prepuce
when the genital organ is  thrust out.  The same naturalist has described two retractors of the

  Between the two strata of muscular fibres  is placed the penis, which is remarkable from the
circumstance of the urethra projecting beyond the extremity of the glans.  In its usual state the
penis lies rolled  up within the belly.
  On the inner surface of  the muscular fibres is a  number of small oblong or roundish glands,
compared by Pallas to the Meibomian glands of the  palpebral                         -
  3  Fibrous coat.—This is the most external of the proper coats of the musk sac.  Vn Ms in-
ner surface are numerous depressions or cells, surrounded by ramifying folds, within which the
bloodvessels ramify.  This coat is continuous  (through the musk orifice) with the corium.
  4. Pearly coat.—A.  soft delicate  membrane, shining like  mother-of-pearl.   It lines the cells,
and'covers the folds of the fibrous coat.                                            , .     .
  5. Epidermoid coat.—h is the inner lining of the sac.   Its external layer is silvery white; its
internal one yellowish or  reddish brown.
  6  Musk elands.__In each of the depressions observed on the internal coat of  the musk sac
    Belly of Moschus moschiferus
          (From  Pallas.)
. Tail.  b. Anus.   c. Srotum.
putiiil orifice,  e.  Abdomen,  h.
of the musk sac.
d. Pre-
Orifiee
l  Spicileg. Zoolog. fasc. xiii. 
1160
ANIMAL SUBSTANCES.
 are found two or more irregular-shaped bodies of a yellowish or reddish brown colour.  These
 bodies consist of a central  brownish mass (supposed to be glandular), covered by a fine mem-
 brane.
   7. Contents of the Musk Sac—Pallas found that, in young animals, the sac was empty and
 contracted.  In the adult animal  it contained about a drachm and a half of musk, and in old
 animals more than  two drachms.  But these quantities must  be  below  the average, since the
 dried  pods of commerce contain on the average more musk than this.   Mr. Campbell1 describes
 the musk found in the sac as soft, reddish-brown, granular, and having the appearance of soft
 gingerbread.2
   Hab.—Asia, between  16° and  58° north  latitude, and  92° and 155° of east
 longitude.   Especially on the Atlas and Himalayan ranges.   China, Cochin-China,
 Tonquin, Tartary, and Siberia, have all been celebrated for the musk.   The animal
 is timid, and dwells in cold mountainous  districts, where coniferous plants abound.
   Capture  of the Animals.—Various methods of catching the  animals are
 adopted.  Sometimes they are taken by snares or gins, sometimes by pitfalls, some-
 times by shooting  them.   The Tungouses, one of  the native tribes of Siberia, em-
 ploy the bow and arrow only.
   Description.—Three  kinds of musk are  described, viz:  China, Russian (or
 Kabardine), and Bucharian.   I am acquainted with the first two only.
   1. China, Tonquin, or Thibet Musk (Moschus tunquinensis seu tibetanus).—This
 is imported in small  rectangular  boxes (catties), about 7f  inches  long, 4| inches
broad, and 4| deep; covered externally by silk, and lined with sheet-lead and paper.
 These boxes  contain  about twenty-five sacs  or pods,  each wrapped  separately in
paper.  On the outside of the lid of some of the boxes is marked Lingchong Musk;
and on the inside of the lid is a rude  Chinese representation of the musk hunters,
some  shooting the  animal, others cutting  out the musk bag.   On the paper, which
envelops each pod, are similar rude representations in blue or red ink.
   Pod musk  (moschus in vesicis) consists of roundish or somewhat oval pods, which
 are generally broader at one end than at the other.   The hairs are brownish-yellow,
 or grayish or whitish, bristle-like, and stiff; arranged in a concentric manner around
 the orifice of  the sac.   A careful  examination will  always discover  the remains of
 the penis.  The pods are  about 2£ inches long, and  If inches broad.   The weight
 of each pod, as well as of the contained musk, is very variable.   I am  indebted to
 Mr. Noakes, druggist, of Snowhill, for the following account of the weight of six
 pods,  and of  the grain musk obtained  therefrom :—
Pods of Musk.
Total . . 6
Average 1
      Weight.
5j drachms 0 grains
 8
 9
 5
 Si

37
 0
37i
47i
20
 (J

15
12i
Grain Musk
Contents.
16 drachms 15 grains.
   Grain musk (moschus in granis ; moschus ex vesicis) is granular, unctuous to the
feel, mixed with hairs, of a dark reddish-brown colour, a bitter aromatic taste, and
a strong, remarkable, very persistent smell (musky odour).   Its odour can scarcely
be called peculiar, since it  is common  to  several  animals  and vegetables.  Thus,
the musk-ox and the musk-cat evolve it.   The submaxillary gland of the crocodile
secretes an unctuous musky substance.  Among plants, Erodium moschatum, Malva
moschata, and Centaurea moschata, may be referred to as possessing a musky odour.
When mixed with other scents, musk has  the remarkable  property of augmenting
and improving their smell, without much imparting its own; hence it is extensively
used by perfumers.   A few drops of potash added to musk increases its odour  by
setting  free, it is supposed,  ammonia.                                        '
 1 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vi. 119, Calcutta 1827
zlof.Bd"?** detaiU reSpeCting the 8tructure°f ^e mask sac, consult Brandt and Ratzeburg, Med. 
The Musk Animal :—China and Siberian Musk.         1161
   2.  Siberian, Russian, or Kabardine (Caberdine) Musk (Moschus sibiricus, ros-
sicus  seu cabardinus).  This is an  inferior  kind.  The pods  are said to be more
oblong or oval than those of the China kind; the hairs longer and whiter.   But I
have  examined large quantities of Siberian musk, the pods of which are not  distin-
guishable from those of the China by any of these characters.   The only invariable
distinction I have observed is in the  scent, which is remarkably different; it is much
less powerful, and more nauseous and disagreeable, being somewhat empyreumatic.
Geiger says, it is sometimes accompanied by an odour somewhat similar  to that of
the sweat of a horse.  This kind of musk is imported in wooden boxes, and all the
pods that I have examined were iu a good state of preservation; but frequently, I
am told, this is not the case.
  Bucharian Musk  (Moschus bucharirus) is described  by some pharmacologists, but  I have
never  met with it.  The hairs are said to be yellowish or reddish-brown. The musk has  a
weak odour, and is of very inferior quality.

   Adulteration.—The great sophisticators of musk  are the  Chinese.  I have
seen several artificial pods of musk which had been imported from Canton.   T. W.
C. Martius1 calls this artificial  kind Wampo Musk, and says that, for  some years
past,  it has been extensively introduced  into commerce.   The hairy portion of the
sacs is formed of a piece of the skin of  a musk animal (readily distinguishable by
its remarkable hairs), coarsely sown at  the edges  to a piece of  membrane,  which
represents the smooth or hairless portion of the sacs.  These pods are distinguished
from the genuine ones by  the following characters: the absence of any aperture in
the middle of the hairy coat; the  hair not being arranged in a circular manner; and
the absence of remains of the penis (found in every genuine  musk sac).   These
false sacs, as well as the genuine ones, are sometimes enveloped  in papers marked
" Musk collected in Nankin by Jung-then-chung-chung-kee."   The odour of the musk
of the false sacs is ammoniacal.
   Grain musk is sometimes imitated by dried blood, and  perhaps  by other sub-
stances.  The fraud is  to be detected by a careful examination of the appearance
and odour of the particles, and by their chemical characters.   An infusion of genuine
musk gives no precipitate with a solution of bichloride of mercury, but does with
tincture of nutgalls, and acetate of lead.  By incineration, genuine musk leaves be-
hind a grayish-white ash, whereas blood yields a reddish one.   Artificial musk is
said to be prepared  by rubbing in a mortar dried bullock's blood with caustic am-
monia, and mixing  the half-dried musk with genuine musk.
  Commerce.—At an average of the three years ending with 1832, the imports of
musk from all places  eastward of  the Cape of Good Hope, with the  exception of
China, amounted to 4,965 ounces a year.3  In 1839, duty (Qd. per ounce) was paid
on 2,389 ounces.
  Composition.—In 1803, Thiemann3 analyzed musk.  In 1805,  Bucholz4 ex-
amined it.   In 1820, Blondeau and Guibourt5 published an analysis of it.  After-
wards, Westler,6 Buchner,7 and Geiger and Reinmann,8 submitted it  to  chemical
investigation.

   1 Lehrb. d. Pharm. Zool. S. 39, 1838.               3 M'Culloch's Dictionary of Commerce.
   ' Berl. Jahrb. S. 100, J803.                      * PfafT, Mat. Med. iv. 401.
   1 Journ. de Pharm. vi. 105.                      • Buchner's Rep. xvi. 222, 1824.
   ' Ibid. xxii. 152, 1825.                          » Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. ii. 1449. 
1162
ANIMAL  SUBSTANCES.
            Geiger and Reinmann.
             ,  ....     ) Quantity unde-
 1. Peculiar volatile substance £   terminable.
 2. Ammonia..............• •  • -Ditto.
 3. Peculiar, fixed, uncrystallizable acid  . .Ditto.
 4. Stearine and oleine............    1.1
 5. Cholesterine (with some oleine and resin)    4.0
 6. Peculiar bitter resin...........     5.0
 7. Osmazome and salts...........    7.5
 8. A mouldy-like substance, in part com-
    bined with ammonia and salts......   36.5
 9. Sand...................■ •    0.4
10. Water,  some volatile odorous matter, the
    above acid in part combined with alkaline
    salt, and loss...............   45.5
                                      100.0
            Guibourt and Blondeau.
 1. Volatilized by (Water..........46.925
     drying    \ Ammonia  ........   0.325
 2. Extracted by ether— Stearine, oleine, cho-
    lesterine, fatty  acid  with  ammonia,
    traces of a volatile oil  .........13.000
 3. Extracted subsequently by alcohol—Cho-
    lesterine, fatty acid with ammonia, sal
    ammoniac, chlorides of potassium, so-
    dium, and calcium, and an undetermined
    acid combined with the same bases  . .   6.000
 4. Extracted subsequently  by water—Gela-
    tine,  carbonaceous  matter soluble in
    water, the preceding chlorides, and an
    undetermined combustible acid.....19.000
 5. Extracted subsequently by ammonia—Al-
    bumen and phosphate of lime  .....12.000
 6. Fibrous tissue, carbonate and phosphate
    of lime, hairs, and sand.........   2.750
                                    100.000

   Odotious  Phtxciple.—Has not hitherto been isolated.  The strong and  diffusive odour of
 musk would lead us to expect that its odorous matter was highly volatile.  Yet such is  not the
 fact; for we cannot deprive  musk of its peculiar odour by distillation, though the distilled liquid
 has a musky smell.  As it is destructible by heut, it is obviously organic.  It is not peculiar to
 musk, since many other substances exhale an analogous  odour.  Some have suggested that it is
 the result of putrefaction of one or  more of the constituents of musk; and in support  of this
 statement it is asserted that, by Leslie's method of desiccation, musk may be dried and rendered
 odourless.   I have repeatedly performed this experiment with  every care, but without  obtain-
 ing odourless musk.   Robiquet was of opinion that many odorous substances owed their odour
 to a certain quantity of ammonia, which, being disengaged, carried off  with  it substances not
 otherwise  volatile, which  masked the ammoniacal smell.  In applying this hypothesis to musk,
 it must be admitted that it harmonizes well with several of the circumstances observed.   Thus,
 musk evolves ammonia; water distilled from  musk contains ammonia;  and  potash added to a
 solution of musk heightens its odour (by facilitating the  evolution of ammonia?).1
   Physiological Effects.—Musk  disturbs the functions of the stomach, acts as
 a stimulant to the vascular system and brain, and  afterwards proves  narcotic.  Jbrg9
 and his pupils submitted themselves to its influence in doses of from 2 to 15  grains
 in water, or mixed with magnesia.  Its primitive effects were eructation, weight at
 the stomach, diminution or  increase of appetite, dryness of the oesophagus, heaviness
 of the head, vertigo, and headache.   The secondary effects were more  marked on
the encephalon than on  the digestive canal;  disposition to  sleep, faintness,  and a
 feeling of heaviness in the whole body.    Lastly, deep  and  long-continued  sleep.
 In very large doses, the action on the  nervous system was very marked; trembling
in the limbs, and  even  convulsions,  were observed.   The  pulse was increased in
frequency, and somewhat fuller.   These  effects  show  that  musk  belongs to the
cerebro-spinants.   It  is  a stimulant to the nervous and vascular systems, and  an
irritant to the  stomach.   Its effects  are  by no  means  uniform.   Trousseau  and
Pidoux3  suffered from its use neither  excitement  of the vascular system nor  sleep.
Its influence is more manifest in some constitutions (those, for example, commonly
termed nervous, in  whom  there  is a very sensible  or excitable condition  of the
nervous  system), than in others (as the phlegmatic).   Moreover, its effects are more
marked in some morbid conditions of the cerebral  functions (of the hysterical kind),
than  in  the healthy condition of these  functions.   In some persons the nervous
system appears to be peculiarly susceptible of the odour of musk; for it is reported
that headache, giddiness, and even fainting, have been  induced by it.   When the
digestive  apparatus is  previously in a state of irritation, musk increases the local
disorder,  giving  rise  to  pain,  nausea, vomiting, and  diarrhoea.   Sometimes the
stimulant influence of musk is directed to the sexual organs.  Trousseau and Pidoux4
experienced from it " une  assez  vive excitation  des  organes g£nitaux."   In the
  1 Even after a century, musk, if originally good, retains it* odour  Th« 01,11™ „__:_ a        .l
possession of Mr. Ince, of the date of 1745, t. e&100 years old  It w"s in smallTcohLi^  d S°m^ V" ?"
powerful and delightful odour. Is this the kind described as beto* «™ in w Zt ?h ****' **?■ ^m
  | Material zu exner Arzneimittell. Leipzig, 1825; and Lond. Med. Gai. xxvi. 952.           interior.
                                                                       4  Op. supra cit. 
The Musk Animal:—Physiological Effects; Uses.       1163
female it has occasionally provoked the catamenial discharge.  In persons disposed
to epistaxis it has at times appeared  to bring on the hemorrhage.  Occasionally,
diaphoresis or diuresis has seemed to result from its use.
   The odorous principle of  musk is absorbed, and subsequently thrown out of the
Bystem by the excretories.  Barbier1 observes that the urine and the sweat of per-
sons who have taken  this substance are powerfully impregnated with its odour—
now and then so strongly, that the hand, applied  for  the  purpose of feeling the
pulse, retains  its odour for  some time.  On post-mortem examination, the brain,
and the cavities  of the chest and abdomen, in those who have taken it during life,
sometimes emit  a strong smell of musk.  Tiedemann and Gmelin2 recognized the
odour of musk in the blood of the  mesenteric, splenic, and  portal veins;  but  they
failed to detect it in the contents of the lacteals. . Trousseau and  Pidoux mention
that, in their experiments, the excretions acquired a feeble odour of musk.  Jorg,
however, denies  that the excretions of those  who have taken musk have the smell
of this substance.
   Uses.—The effects of musk, already alluded to, show that it is a remedy which
will be useful where we want  to excite the nervous system;  and, vice versa, that it
will be hurtful where there exists a determination of blood to the brain, and in those
constitutions denominated plethoric.  The cases in which experience seems to  have
showu that musk is sometimes useful, are the following:—
   1. Those diseases which are attended with convulsive movements, and which,
therefore, are called spasmodic.  Such, for example, as hysteria, epilepsy (especially
of children, and where the disease  does not depend on  organic changes, or on ple-
thora), chorea, and even in some cases of tetanus.   The employment of musk  here
has led to its denomination of antispasmodic.
   Dr.  Cullen,3  on whose practical information I place great reliance,  says: "I
maintain that musk (when genuine) is one of the most powerful antispasmodics that
we are acquainted with.   I have found it, with Dr. Wall, to be a powerful remedy
in many convulsive and spasmodic  affections, and in some of a very peculiar kind.
I had once a gentleman affected with a spasm of the pharynx, preventing degluti-
tion, and almost respiration.   This, when other  remedies had failed, was relieved
by the use of musk, which often  showed its power; for the disease continued to
recur at times for some years  after, and was only obviated or relieved by the use of
musk."
   2. In low fevers which  are accompanied with delirium, twitchings of the muscles,
a small contracted pulse, and  convulsions, musk has been  occasionally employed,
and with benefit.  Like opium, its use iu these cases is always uncertain;  in one
instance relieving, in another increasing the malady, though the cases may be to all
appearances parallel.
   3. In ret raced en t gout, as where gout attacks the stomach or the head, giving
rise  to  headache or delirium, musk has been found beneficial.  Culleu  relates a
case where immediate  relief was obtained by the  exhibition of fifteen  grains  of
genuine musk.
   4. In the delirium which sometimes occurs in  pneumonia, but which bears no
relation to the intensity of the latter, and is accompanied with adynamia, Recamier4
has found it beneficial.
   5. Lastly, during  the  severe visitation of  malignant cholera, musk was  one of
the remedies tried.   I saw  it  employed several  times, but without obvious relief.
The experience  of others was various; but  the result  is, that the  profession has
formed a very low estimate of  its power in this disease.
   Administration.—Musk  should  be given in substance, either in the form of
boluses or suspended in water by means of  saccharine or mucilaginous substances.
1 Traiti Eltm. de Mat. Med.'iA edit. ii. 143, ls-24.
a Vers. Ub. d. Wege auf welch. Subst. ins Blut gelang S 63, 69, Tl, 73, 1620.          a Mat. Med.
* Jucquet, Biblioth. Mid. hx. 
»
1164
ANIMAL SUBSTANCES.
Its dose is from eight to fifteen grains.   In children, it  may be sometimes used in
the form of enema.
  Esskxck of .Musk, used as a perfume, is ordinarily prepared from the musk pods from which
the grain musk has been extracted.  The following formula has been furnished me, as one in
common use:  Grain Musk gxiv (or Musk Pods 5 v ij) ; Boiling Water Oss.  Digest  until cold;
then add, of Reclined Spirit Ovjss ; Carbonate oi  Potash gas.  Digest.


          362. CERVUS ELAPHUS, Linn. L. E.-THE STAG.
                               (Cornu, L.—Horn, E.)

   History.—Both the hart and the hind (the male and female stag) are repeatedly
mentioned in the Bible.1   The stag is also noticed by Hippocrates, Aristotle, Pliny,
Galen, and Avicenna.
   Zoology.  Gen  Char.—Incisors  £, canines £—$, or  1—£, molars £—f = 32 or
34.   Canines, when  they exist, compressed  and bent back.   Head long, terminated
by a muzzle.   Eyes  large, pupils  elongated transversely.   A  lachrymal sinus in
most.   Ears large  and  pointed.    Tongue soft.   Body slender.   Four inguinal
mammas.   Horns solid, deciduous, palmated, branched, or simple, in  the males;
females, with one exception, without horns.
   Sp. Char.—Horns with  three anterior antlers, all curved upwards, the summit
forming a crown of  snags from a  common  centre.  Lachrymal sinuses.   Fur red-
brown in summer, brown-gray in winter.   A pale dink on the  buttocks.
   The stag usually begins to shed his antlers in February or March, immediately
after which  their- reproduction  begins,  and by  July he has completely renewed
them.2  The first sensible phenomenon of the formation of these parts  is the vas-
cular excitement about the frontal bone.   The arteries are observed to be enlarged,

                                     Fig. 436.
                         Skull and Antlers of Cervus Elaphus.
                     a. Crown of the antlers with the velvety covering.

and to pulsate more strongly than usual;  the heat is increased, and, in fact, all the
symptoms of active inflammation come on.  Very soon we perceive  two cartilagi-
nous  tubercles,  one on each side;  these enlarge and  elevate the  skin, by which

  1 Deut. xiv. 5 ; and Psalms, xviii. 33.
  3 The temporary existence of the antlers shows that they are for a temporary use.  The period of their
existence, and the stoppage of their growth by castration, points to the sexual functions for their use No
sooner are they fully formed than the males engage in the most deadly fights for the females. In the'Col-
lege of Surgeons are two hne heads with the antlers interlocked—the animals died starved 
The Sheep :—History ; Zoology.
1165
they acquire, from the distension of  the latter, a velvety covering.   These tubercles
are soon converted  into  real bone;  but the deposit of ossific matter does not stop
here; it continues  around  the  base of the antlers, thus giving rise  to what  has
been  usually termed  the burr.   These osseous prominences, the antlers, are sup-
plied with two sets  of vessels—an external or cutaneous, which is the most efficient
and an internal.  By the pressure made on the  former  by the burr, they are obli-
terated ;  the covering of the antlers no  longer  receiving a  supply of blood, soon
ceases to live, dries up, and falls off.  The internal vessels continue to keep up the
life of the bone for a few months longer, when death takes place.  This occurrence
may be in part owing to the imperfect nutrition, and partly, perhaps,  to the expo-
sure of the  bone to the air without any envelop;  but  it arises principally from
some  unknown  changes in the vital  actions.  The antlers being now dead, nature
soon  sets about their separation.   To effect this, the living parts at the base are
rapidly absorbed, so that the antlers being left but slightly adherent to the frontal
bone, readily fall off by  a gentle knock.   A few hours only  elapse before the irre-
gularity  on  the surface of the os frontis is covered by a thin pellicle,  and shortly
afterwards the formation of  a fresh pair of antlers is commenced.  Castration stops
the growth of the antlers.
   Hab.—Europe, Asia,  and North of Africa.
   Description and Composition.—The antlers of the stag are commonly called
hartshorn (cornu cervi vel  comu cervinum).   Though  simply designated  cormi
(horn) in the London and  Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia,  their composition is very
different from that  of the horns of  the ox  or the sheep, and which are sometimes
called true horn.   The latter consists principally of coagulated albumen; whereas,
hartshorn has the sama composition  as bone.  According to  Merat-Guillot,1 it con-
sists of soluble  cartilage  (gelatine) 27.0, phosphate of lime 57.5, carbonate of lime
1.0, water and  loss  14.5.
   Hartshorn shavings or raspings (rasura vel ramenta cornu  cervi) readily give out
their gelatine by boiling in  water.
   Physiological  Effects and Uses.—Decoction of hartshorn is nutritive, emol-
lient, and demulcent.  It has been used in intestinal and pulmonary irritation.   It
is generally  taken flavoured with sugar, lemon, or orange juice, and a little wine.
   Hartshorn shavings are directed  to be used  in  the manufacture of Antimonial
Powder, but manufacturers generally substitute bone sawings.
   Brewers sometimes employ decoction of hartshorn for fining  beer and other liquors.
It is preferable to isinglass on account of its cheapness.   The gelatinous matter of
bones being less soluble  than that of antlers, bone sawings  or shavings do not an-
swer as a substitute for hartshorn.
   CORNU USTUM was formerly a preparation of the Ph. L., but is now removed to
the Materia Medica, and designated  " Calcis phosphas e cornu igne comparata."


             363.  OVIS  ARIES,  Linn. L. E-THE SHEEP.
                     (Scvum [17. S.] / Adeps praeparatus, L.—Fat, E.)

•   History.—The sheep is one of the anciently known  animals.   It is mentioned
by Moses,2 by Herodotus,3 Aristotle, and other ancient writers.
   ZOOLOGY.—Gen. Char.—Incisors #, canines •—a, molars £—-£=32.   Horns
common to both sexes, sometimes wauting in  the female, thick, angular, wrinkled
transversely, pale-coloured,  turned laterally in a spiral form.  Ears small.  Legs
slender.  Hair of  two kinds.    Tail more or less short.   Two mammae.
   Sp. Char.—[0.  Musimom.']—Horns  very strong, arched backwards and curved
downwards,  and towards the point.  General colour fawn,  more or less brown, white
i Quoted by Berzelius, Traiti de Chim. vii. 643.
• Thalia, cxiii.
' Genesis, iv. 2. 
1166
ANIMAL  SUBSTANCES.
on the face and legs, and under the  belly; a darker streak  on the dorsal line, on
the flanks, and often black about the neck.
Fig. 437.
438.
Ovis Musimon.
                 Ovis Ammon.

  The immense number of races of this animal in cultivation are well known ;  and
it is now difficult, perhaps impossible, to determine its  native condition.   Modern
zoologists,  however, ascribe our  domesticated sheep  to  Ovis Ammon,  called the
Argali of Siberia, or to Ovis Musimon,  termed the  Mouflon or Mufion of Sardinia.
  Hab.—Domesticated everywhere.
  Description.—Mutton  suet  (sevum;  adeps prseparatus) is the fat  from the
neighbourhood of the kidneys of the animals.   It is prepared (sevum prseparatum)
by melting it over a slow fire, and  straining through linen or  flannel in order to
separate the membranous portions.
  Composition.—The ultimate analysis of mutton suet  has been made by Chev-
reul and by Berard.1   The first of these chemists also ascertained its proximate
composition.
                                                  Proximate Analysis.
                                  Btrard.
                                   65.0'
                                   21.5
                                   13.5
         Ultimate Analysis.
                Chevreul.
Carbon  ........78.996
Hydrogen....... 11.700
Oxygen........  9.304
Mutton suet
100.000
100.0
Stearine . .  . .  )  .   .  ,,
Elaine or Oleine J Principally.
Margarin, a little.
Hircin, a little.
Mutton Suet.
  Physiological Effects  and  Uses.—Like other fatty bodies, mutton suet ia
nutritious, but difficult of digestion.   Its local effects are emollient and demulcent.
In medicine it is used  as  a basis  for ointments, cerates, and some plasters; being
preferred, in some cases, to hogslard,  on account of its greater consistence.

                364.  BOS  TAURUS, l««s.-THE  OX.
                                     (Lac.)

  History.—An  animal very anciently known and highly valued.   It is repeat-
edly mentioned by Moses.
  Zoology.   Gen. Char—Incisors  $, canines %—°, molars f—£ =32.   Body
large.   Members strong.  Head large; forehead  straight; muzzle square.   Eyes
large.  Ears generally funnel-shaped.   A fold of the skin, or dew-lap, on the under
side of the neck.   Four mammae; tail long, tufted; horns  simple, conical, round,
with different inflections, but often directed laterally, and the points raised.
  Sp.  CYiax.—Horns round, lateral arched, with the pojnt turned outwards.   Face
flat, or a little concave.   Occipital crest in the same line as the base of the horns.
1 Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. ii. 439. 
The Ox:—Description;  Composition.
1167
Mammae disposed  in  a square  form.  Hair fawn-coloured, brown  or  black, not
sensibly longer at the anterior than the posterior parts.   About seven feet long.
  Mammary Glands two, placed close together, and constituting the udder.  Each gland con-
sists of a number of lobes, made up of yellowish or reddish soft granules,  which  consist of very
fine bloodvessels, nerves, and the commencement of the milk or lactiferous ducts (ductus galac-
tophori)  which unite to form 8 or 10  principal ducts, which open into the large duct, or duct of
the teat.  This tube is conical, and has a number of folds on its internal surface.
   Hab.—Domesticated everywhere.
   Description.—Milk (lac), or  to  be  more  precise  in  our description,  cows'
milk (lac vaccinum), is an  opake, white,  emulsive liquid,  with a  bland  sweetish
taste, a faint peculiar odour, and a sp. gr.  of about 1.030;  the latter  property is
subject to considerable variation.   When recently drawn  from the animal it  is
slightly alkaline.   Subjected to  a  microscopical examination, milk is observed  to
consist  of myriads of globular particles floating  in a serous liquid.   These  globules
are exceedingly minute; according to  Raspail1 the diameter  of the largest  does not
exceed  in size  the 0.0003937 (about l-2500th of  an inch).   They instantly dis-
appear  by solution on  the addition of  a drop of caustic alkali.  Both Donne3 and
Sir A.  Cooper3 have  separated  the  globules by repeated  filtration; the  filtered
liquor was transparent.  The milk globules consist essentially of  butter.   Donne"
denies that they contain any caseum, since they are  soluble both  in alcohol and
ether, which do not dissolve caseum.  Being specifically lighter than  the liquor  in
which they are suspended, they readily separate by standing.   They  therefore rise
to the surface, carrying with them some caseum, and retaining some of the serum;
thus forming what  is called cream.   The milk  from which  the cream is separated
is termed skimmed milk.
   Cream (cremor lactis ; flos laclis) has a variable sp. gr.   The average,  perhaps,
is 1.0244.  The upper stratum of cream  is richest in  butter, the lowest  in caseum.
By agitation,  as in the process termed churning, the  fatty  globules unite  to form
butter (butyrum); the residue, called buttermilk (lac-butyratum), consists  of caseum,
serum, and a little butter.
   Skimmed milk, like cream, has a variable sp. gr.;  perhaps the average  may be
taken at 1.0348.   If left to itself it readily acquires  acid  properties, while white
coagula, commonly termed cy,rds, separate from  it.  If an acid or rennet (an infu-
sion of the fourth stomach  of the calf) be  added to it, this change is immediately
effected.  The curd  separated by the rennet is called caseum.  But after rennet
has ceased to produce any more coagula, acetic acid will cause a farther quantity  to
be formed.   The curd thus separated  by the acid is termed zieger or serai.   The
whey (serum lactis) left after the separation of the caseum and serai, yields on evapo-
ration,  sugar of milk, one or more nitrogenous substances, lactic acid, and some salts.
   Composition.—Milk has been  the subject of  repeated chemical investigation.4
The recent  analysis of several kinds  of  milk,  published by MM. O.  Henry and
Chevallier,  has been already stated.
   The  following table shows the composition of several domestic  preparations  of
milk:—
                                                                 Constituents.
                             solid fat .................   1- Stearine.
              ' Bu
        ( Cream 1
              ( Rn
tter    . .  . )i-  At *                       5 2 Butyrine.
           < liquid fat.................\ 3 0Jeme.
MILK
Buttermilk  . • | Serum or whey' '.'.'....'.'.'.....
I Matters coagu- ( by rennet.................   4. Caseum.
  i„hi»       . ) not by rennet, but by acetic acid ...   5. Zeiger or Serai.
             , saccharine matter............   6. Sugar of Milk.
              azotized matter.............   7. Osmazome.
                       f  ,.,.,, ,        (8. Alkaline and earthy lac-
Whey or serum i          | soluble in alcohol.....}    tates and phosphates.
                ,       '. soluble in water, not in ( 9. Alkaline sulphate and
             L salt . .  . <  alcohoi..........\    phosphates.
                           , •.,  .             { 10. Earthy and ferruginous
                       [ insoluble in water  . . . . }    phosphates.
                                                 a London Medical Gazette, xxv. 302.
I Chtm. Organ.                                     « s  Berzelius, Traiti deChim. vii.583.
» On the Anatomy of the J>reasi, kwu. 
1168
ANIMAL SUBSTANCES.
   1. Caseum  or  Casein; Albumen of Milk; Ladalbumen.—An  albuminous substance distin-
 guished from the albumen of the eg- and of blood by its not coagulating when heated, by its
 being coagulated on the addition of acetic acid, and by the products of its spontaneous decom-
 position.  When dried  it is yellowish and transparent, like gum; it is odourless, and has a very
 slight taste.  It is soluble in water.  If its solution be boiled in contact with the air it becomes
 covered with a white pellicle insoluble in water.   The acids unite to form  with it, when they
 are in excess, insoluble  compounds.  Various salts (as sulphate  of copper,  bichloride of  mer-
 cury, nitrate of silver, bichloride of tin, &c ) form  insoluble compounds  with  it.   Its composi-
 tion has been already stated.
   2. Butter.—This well-known substance consists of three  fatty  bodies, stearine, elaine or
 oleine, and butyrine.   The latter substance is characterized by yielding, by saponification, three
 volatile, odorous, fatty acids, viz. butyric, capric, and  caproic acids.  A small quantity of these
 acids exists in  ordinary butter, especially when  it has been exposed to the air, and gives butter
 its peculiar odour.1
   3. Sugar of Milk;  Lactin ; Saccholaclin.—Obtained  from whey by evaporation.  As  used
 in commerce it occurs in cylindrical masses, in  the axis of which is the cord which serves as
 the nucleus for the crystals.  It is extensively made in Switzerland.  Mr. Hess2 has shown that,
 under certain conditions, sugar of milk is susceptible  of fermentation, as was  before inferred
 from the fact that the Tartars prepare a vinous liquid, called Koumiss,3 from  mares' milk.   It is
 gritty under the teeth, and is very slightly soluble in  alcohol.  It is much less  sweet, and less
 soluble in  water, than common sugar..  By the action of nitric acid it yields, like gum, saccho-
 lactic or mucic acid ;  so  that it forms, as it were, a connecting link between sugar and gum.
 The composition of it, according to Prout, has been already stated.  The formula of crystallized
 sugar of milk is C24Hl9Ol9-)-5 aq.  [Owing to its presence,  the  oxide of copper is reduced by
 Trommer's test on boiling milk with sulphate of copper and potash.—Ed.]
  4. Lactic Acid—This, though stated by Berzelius to be a constituent  of  milk, is probably a
 product of its decomposition.
  5. Salts—Some of these are soluble in alcohol, as the lactates of potash (principally), soda,
 ammonia,  lime, and magnesia; others  are soluble in water,  but  not in alcohol, as  sulphate of
 potash  and the  phosphate of potash and soda; lastly, the salts insoluble in water are the phos-
 phates  of lime, magnesia, and iron.  The latter are held in solution in milk by the caseum prin-
 cipally. Berzelius says by the lactic acid also.
   Characteristics op Good  Milk.—The  changes produced in the  quality of the
 milk by  diseased  conditions of the cow  has attracted  considerable  attention in
 Paris, owing  to  the prevalence  of a malady  called the  cocote, among the cows in
 that capital.4   The following are the essential morbid changes which  have been re-
 cognized  in milk :  want of homogeneousness,  imperfect mobility or liquidity, capa-
 bility of  becoming thick or viscid on  the addition  of  ammonia,  and  presenting,
 when examined by the  microscope, certain  globules  (agglutinated,  tuberculated,
 or  mulberry-like,  mucous or  pus-globules) not found  in  healthy milk.5   Hence,
 then, good milk should be quite liquid and  homogeneous;  not  viscid ;  and should
 contain an  abundance of spherical transparent globules, visible under  the micro-
 scope, soluble in alkalies and  ether;  should  not become thick when mixed  with
 ammonia; and should form a flocculent precipitate with   acetic acid,  but not be co-
 agulated  by heat alone.   The relative  quantity of cream afforded  by milk is  esti-
 mated by a graduated glass tube called a  lactometer.   [The test for the  purity  and
 goodness  of milk is  the  microscope.   By this  instrument  the number, size,  and
 form of the oil-globules may be  determined.—Ed.]
  I have repeatedly submitted the  milk supplied to me by a respectable dealer in this metro-
 polis, to examination  by the lactometer, but the results have been  most unsatisfactory, as the
quantity of cream which I procured varied from 5 to 23 per cent by measure.   I have'usually
 found the afternoon's  milk to yield less cream than the milk supplied  me in the mornin"   On
 one occasion, I found  11.5 per cent, of cream in the morning milk, but only 5 per cent.Tn  the
afternoon milk.  The milk of an Alderney cow yielded 17.5 per cent, of  cream.
   Physiological Effects.—The dietetical properties  of milk have been already
noticed.  As a medicinal agent it  is regarded as  a demulcent and emollient.
CM^y^nrslrrv^p.'Iir^31 aDd micr08C°Pical characters of butter, by Turpin, see Journ. de
 1 Journ. de Pharm. xxxiii. 498.
 * Clarke's Travels in various Countries  of Eurove. i. 238  I.nnH  iftin  q„„ »i » n.     .-    j.  ,
Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. i.            P '     '   °nd-  1810,  See als0 Transactions of the
 ' See Journ. de Pharm xxv. 301 — 318.
 * Recherches microscopiques sur divers laits obtenus de vachei nlv* n« mn;J. „&, .a  a  i    .  ,-
a rigni pendant Vhiver de 1828 a 18-39, et designie ^Z&^lmlJaV!^'?-'''? £ maladu «"*
Turpin, in the Mimoires de VAcadimie Royale des ScStZl'lZVutT^^Z^^^ P" M' 
The Hog:—History; Zoology.                    H69
    Uses.—The dietetical uses of milk have been already noticed.
    As a demulcent, milk is an exceedingly valuable  substance in irritation of the
  pulmonary and digestive organs.   It is an excellent  sheathing agent  in  poisoning
  by caustic and acrid substances, and in some of  these  cases  it acts as a chemical
  antidote;  for example, in  poisoning by bichloride of mercury, sulphate of copper,
  bichloride of tin, the mineral acids, &c.  Milk is farther employed on account of
  its demulcent qualities  in  the preparation of the bread and  milk poultice, which
  requires to be frequently renewed on account of the facility with which it undergoes
  decomposition, and acquires acrid qualities.
    Milk is a  constituent of the Mistura Scammonii, E.
     Whey is an excellent diluent  and nutritive, Wine whey (serum lactis  vinosum)
  taken warm, and combined with  a sudorific regimen, acts powerfully on  the skin,
  and is a valuable remedy in  slight colds and febrile disorders.   I have  already
  referred to the uses of cream of tartar whey,  alum whey, and tamarind whey.
    1.  LACTIC  ACID.  CSHSOS+Aq. Symbol=L. This acid  has been introduced into medicine
  by xMagendie.1 As  it is one of the constituents of the gastric juice, he  proposed its  use in dys-
  pepsia and as it is a ready solvent of phosphate of lime,  he  suggested its employment in phos-
  phatic deposits in the urine.  An  Italian physician2 has more recently recommended it in gout,
  in consequence of its being a special  solvent of the freshly precipitated phosphate of lime.  It
  has been exhibited in the form of lozenges, or in solution  in water flavoured with  sugar.
    Z.  OX BILE (Fel Bovinum seu  Tauri). Formerly extract  of ox bile (fel lauri inspissatum)
  was employed in medicine as  a tonic, and  it has been  recently reintroduced by a few practi-
  tioners in dyspeptic cases and  biliary  derangement.   The dose of it is a few grains in the form
  of pills.

    Order III.   PACHYDERMATA,  Cuvier.—THE  PACHY-
                                    DERMS.

   Essential  Characters.—Three kinds of teeth.   Four extremities, with the toes variable in
  number, and furnished with strong nails or hoofs.  No clavicles.  Organs ofdigeslitm not disposed
  for ruminating.

              365.  SUS SCROFA, Linn.  L. E. D.-THE HOG.
               (Adeps praeparatus, L.—Fat, E.—Adeps suillus,  D.—Adeps, U. S.)

   History.—The hog is an  animal very anciently known.   By the Levitical law
 the Jews were forbidden to eat its flesh;3 on account of  either the filthy  habits of
 the animal, or its supposed  tendency to  engender skin and other diseases, more
 especially leprosy.   The Mahometans are also interdicted from eating it.
   Zoology.    Gen. Char.—Incisors, { or |; canines,  \—};  molars, i—$',=
 42  or  44.   Canines bent  upwards and laterally; molars tuberculous; lower in-
 cisors  bent forwards.   Four toes on all
 the feet,  the two middle  ones  only                   Fig. 439.
 touching  the  ground,   armed  with
 strong  hoofs.   Nose elongated, carti-
 laginous.  Body covered with  bristles.
 Twelve teats.
   Sp. Char.— Tusks  strong,  triangu-
 lar,  directed  laterally.   No  protube-
 rance  under the eyes.   Colour black-
 ish-gray in  the wild animal, but vary-
 ing much in the domesticated races.
  The  varieties of this animal are almost             Skeleton of Sus Scrofa.
innumerable.  They  are most conveniently             a.  Foot with five hoofs.
reduced to the  following:—                           6.  Undivided hoof.
1 Formulaire pour la priparation et Vemploi de plusieurs nouveaux medicaments, Paris, 1S35
* British and Foreign Medical Review, ix. 239.                               » Levit. xi. 7.
      vol. n.—74 
1170
ANIMAL SUBSTANCES.
  a. S. Scrofa ferus.  The wild hog, or wild boar.
  8. S. Scrofa domesticus.  The domesticated hog, which varies in its form and colour.
  S.  S Scrofa pedibus monungulis.  The hog with solid and undivided hoofs.   11ns variety was
noticed by Aristotle and Pliny.
   Hab.—The temperate parts of Europe and Asia; the northern parts of  Africa;
America ;  the Islands of the South Sea,  &c.
   Preparation.—The fat of the animal is employed in medicine.  That about the
loins being firmer and denser than the fat of the other parts of the animal, is  selected
for medicinal use.  In order to separate  it from the membranes in which it is con-
tained, it is  melted over  a slow fire, then strained through flannel or linen, and
poured while liquid into a bladder, where  it solidifies by cooling (adeps praeparatus).
Occasionally salt is added to preserve it; but unsalted lard should be employed for
medical purposes.  By melting  in boiling water, lard may be deprived of any salt
which may have been mixed with it.   While solidifying, lard should be kept stirred,
to prevent the separation of stearine and elaine.
   Properties.—Hogslard (adeps suillus vel porci) or axunge (axungia, so called
from the use anciently  made of it,  namely, greasing the  axle of a wheel—unguendi
axem) is at ordinary temperatures a white or yellowish-white  solid.   Its melting-
point varies from 78.5 F.  to 87.5° F.   In the liquid  state it  should be perfectly
clear and transparent;  but if it be intermixed with water it has a whitish or milky
appearance.   It  should have  little or no taste or odour.  By exposure to  the air,
however, it acquires an unpleasant odour and acid  properties.   In  this state  it is
said to be rancid.  This condition  is induced by the oxygen of the air, part of which
is absorbed, while a small portion of carbonic acid is evolved.  As stearine does not
become rancid in the air, while elaine does, the rancidity of lard is referred to the
latter constituent.  But it  has been found  that the purer the elaine the less readily
does this change occur; whence it is assumed that some foreign substance in the
elaine is the primary cause of rancidity,  either  by undergoing decomposition or by
acting on the elaine.
   Composition.—The ultimate composition of lard was ascertained by Chevreul,1
as well as by  Saussure  and Berard.  The first of these chemists also made a proxi-
mate analysis of rancid lard; and Braconnot determined the composition of fresh
lard.
  Ultimate Analysis.—
      Chevreul.
Carbon......79.098
Hydrogen  .... 11.146
Oxygen.....  9.756
Lard
. 100.000
Proximate Analysis of
Fresh Lard—Braconnot.
Stearine.....
Margarine  . . .
Elaine or Oleine .  .  62
■38
100
 Proximate Analysis of Rancid Lard—Chevreul.
Stearine and elaine.
Volatile non-acid matter having a rancid odour.
Caproic (?) acid.
Another volatile acid.
Oleic, margaric, and perhaps stearic acids.
Yellow colouring matter.
Non-acid, non-volatile matter, soluble in water.

       Rancid Lard.
  Physiological Effects.—Lard, like other animal  fats, is nutritious, but very
difficult of digestion.   Its topical  effects are demulcent and  emollient.  Both the
flesh and fat of the hog have  been long supposed to dispose  to cutaneous  disease;
but it is no easy matter either to prove or disprove this opinion.
  Uses.—In  medicine, lard is principally employed as a basis for unguents.  It has
been used, by  friction, as an emollient; but the practice is now obsolete.   In pauper
establishments it is sometimes employed, as a substitute for spermaceti ointment, to
dress blisters; but the  salt which  lard sometimes  contains, as well  as the facility
with which this fat becomes rancid, are objections to its use.   I have  seen it occa-
sion considerable irritation.
1 Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. ii. 
The Beaver:—History; Zoology.                1171
       Order IV. RODENTIA,  Cuvier.—THE  RODENTS.

                                 Glires, Linnaeus.

  Essential Characters.—Two large incisors in each jaw, separated from the molars by a
vacant space. No canine teeth.  Molars with flat crowns or blunt tubercles.  Extremities, the
■posterior longest, terminated by unguiculated toes, the number varying according to the species.
Mamma variable in number.   Stomach empty.  Intestines very long.


         366.  CASTOR FIBER, Linn. L. E. O.-THE BEAVER.
   (Castoreum; Folliculi praeputii proprio humore repleti, L.—A peculiar secretion from the preputial
                                  follicles, E.D.)

   History.—Castoreum was employed in medicine by Hippocrates, who considered
it to have the power of acting on the uterus.   It was an ancient opinion that the
castor sacs were testicles, and  that -when closely pursued by the hunter, the animal
tore  them off,  leaving  them behind  as a  ransom.1  This  absurd notion [which is
carried out in  old plates on  beaver  hunting] seems to have been long  ago disbe-
lieved; for Pliny2 tells us  that Sextius derided it, and said it was impossible the
animal could bite them off, since they were fastened to the spine.  Thus was one
error confuted  by another;  the truth being, the testicles are so placed in the inguinal
region, on the external part of the os pubis, that they are not discernible until the
skin is removed.  Moreover, female  beavers also have castor sacs.
   Zoology.   Gen. Char.—Incisors  ^, canines \—%, molars £—£ = 20.  Molars
composed of flat crowns, with sinuous and complicated ridges of enamel.   Five toes
on each foot, the anterior short and close, the  posterior longer and palmated.   Tail
broad, thick, flattened horizontally, of an oval  form, naked, and covered with scales.
(Stark.)
   Sp. Char.—Fur consisting of two sorts of hair, one coarse  and brownish, the
other downy, more or  less  gray.   About two feet long.
   The ordinary colour  of the animal is brown;  but yellow, black, spotted, and
white beavers, are met with.   The two latter  are very rare.   Richardson3 has never
 seen either of  them, though  he has met with black beavers, which were  kept as
 curiosities.  The tail  is remarkable  for its  scaly appearance.  Its great  breadth
 (oftentimes 5  inches) depends, not  on  the width  of the  caudal vertebrae, but  on
 numerous strong tendons inserted into these vertebrae.  Incisor teeth smooth, orange-
 coloured  anteriorly, white  posteriorly.

                 Fig. 440.                                 Fig. 441.
  Castor Fiber.                         Skeleton of the Castor Fiber.
b. Scales of the tail.                '      <*• Molars of the upper jaw.
l Juvenal. Sat. xii. v. 34.
» Fauna Boreali-Americana.
* Hist. Nat. lib. xxxii. cap. xiii ed. Valp. 
1172
ANIMAL SUBSTANCES.
   There is some reason for supposing that the European and American beavers are
distinct species.   The former are burrowers, the latter are for the most part builders.'
   Anatomy of the Castor Sacs.—It has been before  stated that both male and female beavers
are furnished with castor  sacs; hence it will be convenient to consider them in the  two sexes
separately.
   1.  Of the Male Castor Sacs—If the animal be placed on his back, we observe, near the tail,
a  hollow (called by some a cloaca)  inclosed by a  large wrinkled, somewhat  hairy, cutaneous
protuberance, which, according to  Perrault,2  is easily contracted  and dilated, not  only by a
sphincter, as the anus, but simply like a ^lit.   In this hollow the anus, the prepuce, and the oil
sacs open.
   When the skin of  the abdomen  is removed, four eminences, covered by their appropriate
muscles, are  brought  into view.  They are placed between the  pubic arch and the so called
cloaca.  The two  nearest the  pubes are the castor sacs, while those next  the cloaca are the oil
sacs.  Between the two castor sacs, in the male, lies the penis with its  bone (os penis) ; it is
lodged in a long preputial canal, which terminates in the cloaca, and has some analogy to a vagina ;
so that there is  some difficulty to determine, until the skin be removed, whether the individual
be male or female.
   The penis points towards the tail, not towards the navel, as in the dog.   Its surface is covered
with longitudinal wrinkles and pits; in each of the latter is found a dark coloured warty-like
body.  The testicles, vasa deferentia and vesicula seminales, present nothing remarkable.   There is
no scrotum.   Like  most  other Rodentia, the beaver has vesiculce accessorial, or blind ducts, which
open into the urethra  near its commencement.  Just at that point where the urethra joins the
penis are observed Cowper's glands.   The castor sacs open by a common  aperture into the pre-
putial canal.  This aperture is  about one inch in width, and is placed opposite the extremity of
the glans penis in the  relaxed condition of the organ, and about one inch  from the orifice of the
prepuce.  Between this common orifice of the castor sacs and  the glans  penis is a semilunar
fold.  There is also a second, similar, but thicker fold covering the rectum.   The castor sacs are
pyriform and compressed.   They communicate with each other at  their  cervical portion; but
their fundi diverge outwards and towards the  pubes.   Each castor sac is composed of an exter-
nal or cellular coat which incloses muscular fibres.  The latter are a continuation of the panuiculus
carnosus; their  function appears to be to compress the sac.   Within these  fibres lies a very vas-
cular coat, which covers the  scaly or glandular coat, and sends processes in between the convo-
lutions of the latter.  The scaly or glandular coat forms numerous folds or convolutions, which
are largest and  most numerous in the fundus of the sac.   Externally, it is shining, silvery, and
iridescent.   Internally, it presents numerous, small, lanceolate, oblong or semilunar scales, which
are mostly toothed at their margin,  and envelop each a brown body, supposed to be a gland, and
which is lodged in a small cavity.  The inner surface of the castor sacs is lined with epithelium
(a continuation of tbe epithelium of the prepuce), which invests the glands and scales of the
scaly or glandular coat.  In the  cavity of the castor  sac is found  the castoreum, which, when
recent, is thin, fluid, highly odorous, yellow or  orange-coloured, becoming deeper by exposure to
the air.   The quantity of  this  secretion is liable to great variation.  The  oil sacs ace conglome-
rate glands,  placed one on each side between the castor sac and anus; their ducts terminate in
the cloaca.   The secretion of  these  sacs is a fatty matter, having  the consistence of syrup or
honey, a peculiar odour, and a  yellowish colour.  It was formerly used in  medicine under the
name of pinguedo  sen axungia castoris.3
   2. Of the  Female Castor Sac—We are less perfectly acquainted with the anatomy of the
female  than of the male  beaver.   Indeed, 1 am acquainted with three dissections only of the
former,  viz.   one  by Gottwaldt, a second by Aegse,4 and a third by Mortimer.5   The subjoined
description is from the  memoir of the  last-mentioned  authority.  He says the animal had two
ovaria, and an uterus dividing into two horns (uterus bicornis) as in the bitch.  The bladder lay
exactly over the body of the uterus.  The meatus urinarius ran upon the vagina above two inches
in length.   Just below the  os pubis, on  each  side  of  the vagina, above  the  meatus urinarius
(supposing  the animal  laid  on her  back), a pair of pyriform bags were found, about  if inch
long, and  I  inch broad, diverging at their fundi or broad  ends,  but approximating most closely
at their necks  or  narrow extremities, which  were canals communicating  with the adjoining
glands.   The membranes which formed these bags were tough, wrinkled, and furrowed of a
livid dirty colour.   They were hollow, and capable  of  containing  about an  ounce of water.
Upon opening them, a small quantity of dark brown liquor, like tar, was found, having an odour
like castoreum, and in addition a smell of  ammonia.   It is probable that the emptiness of the
sacs, aud the unusual quality of their contents, arose from the youth of the animal   About an
inch  lower, on each side of the  vagina, were a pair  of glands  (oil sacs), each about  l£ inch

Jo\™Zl**Tvm™ka °n  Ule di8tiDCtions between the burrowing and building beavers, in Jameson's
  » Mem. for a Natural History of Animals, p. 65, Lond 1701
ZooMr.fi,"ber detai'S respectin=  the 8tructure of the castor'sacs, consult Brandt and Ratzeburg, Med.
  * Both referred to  by Ratzeburg, op. supra cit.         .  Philosophical Transactions, xxxviii. 1735. 
Castor :—Description.
1173
long, and $ inch broad.  Their form was oblong but irregular, and having several protuberances
externally; their colour was pale flesh, like the pancreas.  They seemed to communicate with
the  castor  sacs, the  sac and gland on each side opening externally by one common  orifice
around which were long black hairs.
  Hab.—North America, from 67°  or  68° to about  33° north latitude;  Europe,
from 67°  to 30° north latitude, but becoming very scarce.  It appears to have been
indigenous.
  Capture of the Beaver.—The beavers are caught in various ways; sometimes
in traps ;  sometimes in nets; but the  usual method is to break up the beaver houses
when the  animals  retreat to their bank holes, where they are easily taken.
  Commerce.—Castoreum is imported from North America by the Hudson's Bay
Company.  The greater part of that brought over is sold for exportation.   In 1839,
duty (6<7. per lb.) was paid on 801 lbs.
  Description.—Two kinds  of castor (castoreum)  have long  been known,  viz.
Russian  aud American.  The latter, however, is the only one  now met with in
English commerce.
   1.  American Castor (Castoreum Americanum.)—It usually consists of two iso-
lated sacs, frequently wrinkled, and which are connected so as to form  two  parts,
like a purse, or like two testicles connected by the spermatic cords.   The size of the
sacs is liable to considerable variation; they are elongated and pyriform.   The penis
or the oil  sacs,  or  both, are sometimes attached to them.  The colour and other ex-
ternal characters are variable.  In December, 1834, I examined between three and
four thousand  pounds of castoreum,  which was  offered for sale by the Hudson's
Bay Company.  A considerable quantity of it was covered externally with a  bluish
white mouldiuess,  while the remainder was of a brownish colour.   The brown colour,
however,  varies considerably;  sometimes being dark, in some cases yellowish, or
even reddish.   Some castor sacs are found nearly empty, and present, in  their dried
state, a  very fibrous  character; these are of*inferior quality.   Others are  found
gorged with unctuous matter, and, when quite dry, break with a resinous character,
presenting no fibres until they have  been  macerated  in spirit of wine.   In many
well-filled sacs the castoreum is quite  soft.
  In English commerce, two varieties of American castoreum are made; one called
the Hudson's Bay, the other the Canadian.  Both are imported by the Hudson's
Bay Company.   The Hudson's  Bay castoreum is  usually  considered  the  finest
variety.   The specimens of it which I have examined  at the house of the Company,
in December, 1834, came from Fort York and Moose River.   The finest  samples
were  superior to any of the Canadian kind, though the average quality was much
the same.
  2.  Russian Castor (Castoreum rossicum).—This is  exceedingly scarce.   When
met with  it fetches a very high price.   I have paid for a museum  sample £2  per
oz., while American castor fetched only twenty shillings per lb.  There are at least
three kinds of castor sold as  Russian.   Chalky Russian castor occurs in smaller
and more  rounded sacs than the American kind.1  The specimens of it which  I had
seen had neither penis nor oil sacs attached.   The colour is ash-brown.   Its  odour
is peculiar, empyreumatic, and readily distinguishable  from that of the American
kind.  Under the teeth it  breaks down like  starch, has  at first little taste, then
becomes bitter and aromatic.   It is readily distinguished from  all other kinds by
dropping it into diluted hydrochloric acid, when it effervesces like a lump of marble.
I have seen another kind of castor from Russia, which may be termed Resinous
Russian castor.  The sacs were large, well filled with resin, did not effervesce with
hydrochloric acid,  and had an odour very similar to that of American castor.   The
Russian ca.-tor described by Guibourt3 appears to have been subjected to some pre-
paration.3  [Among the frauds connected with the sale  of castor, the author mentions
that he examined a pair of " fictitious castor sacs," but found  them to be real sacs

  1 <*ee London Medical Gazette, xvii. 296, fijr. 41.               a Journ. de Chim. Mid. viii. 602.
  » See London Medical Gazette, xvii. 297; fig. 42. 
1174
ANIMAL SUBSTANCES.
emptied of  their natural contents and stuffed with hay.   The  coats were  thin  and
membranous.—Ed.]
   Composition.—Castoreum has been  subjected  to chemical analysis by several
chemists.    Those  whose results  deserve" especial reference are  Bonn1 and Brandes.2
                                    Brandes's Analyses.
Volatile oil.........   1.00
Resin.....\.......13 M
Castorin...........   0.33
Albumen   ..........   0.05
Osmazome.........   0.20
Carbonate of lime......33.62
Other salts.........   2 82
Mucus...........   2.30
Animal matter like horn  .  .  .   2.30
Membrane..........20.00
Moisture and loss......22.83

      Canadian Castor ....  99.30
Volatile oil..........   2 0
Resin............5?.6
Cholesterine.........   1.2
Castorin...........   2.5
Albumen...........   1.6
Gelatine...........10 4
Osmazome..........   2.4
Matter soluble in alcohol  ...   1.6
Carbonate of lime......   2.6
Other salts..........   2.4
Membrane..........   2.0
Moisture and loss.......11.7

     Russian Castor.....99.0
   These analyses do not agree with my experiments and observations.   The quantity of car-
bonate of lime assigned to Canadian  castor is much too large.   By incinerating 60 grains  of
American castor in a platinum crucible I found only 1.2 gr. of ashes, which, if the  whole were
lime, would be equal to little more than 3.57  per cent, of chalk.
   1. Volatile Oil of Castoreum.—This is obtained by distilling the same water several times
with fresh portions of castor.  It is pale yellow, and has the odour of castor, with an acrid bitter
taste.  Bonn says he obtained 34 per cent, of oil; but there must be some error in this  state-
ment.
   2. Castorine; Castoreum Camphor, Gmelin.—A crystalline, fatty, non-saponifiable substance.
It  is fusible, and in the liquid state floats on water.  When pure, it is quite white.   It is soluble
in ether and boiling alcohol.  By long ebullition with nitric acid, it is  converted into a yellow
crystallizable  acid,  called castoric acid.  The super castorate  of  ammonia is crystallizable and
forms white precipitates with  the salts of silver, lead, and protoxide of  iron, and a green pre-
cipitate with the salts of copper.  Castorine  is obtained by boiling castor in alcoliol; the castorine
is  deposited when the liquor cools.  Scarcely any can be got  from American  castor.
   3. Resin.—This is dark  brown, has an acrid and bitter taste, and  a  slight  odour of castor.
It  is  insoluble in pure ether, but dissolves readily in alcohol.   Water  precipitates it from its
alcoholic solution.
   [In reference to the  chemical constitution of Castor, Dr. Pereira made  the singular discovery
that the aqua  castorei contained the hydruret  of salicyle.  His paper  on the subject was pub-
lished in the Pharmaceutical Journal for November,  1851.—En.]
   In the year 1844, Wohler3 remarked  that  carbolic acid  strongly resembled  in  odour  fresh
castoreum, and suggested  that  the volatile oil of castoreum  was probably nothing  but carbolic
acid; and  added, that, like the latter substance, it  became black by its reaction with chromic
acid.  !*oon after this observation, I endeavoured to  verify it by subjecting aqua castorei fr'e*hly
prepared from good American  castoreum, and in which were floating globules of oleum castorei
to  the action of a solution of chromic acid; but I failed  to produce any blackening  effect even
at a boding temperature.  It occurred to me, therefore, that  probably carbolic acid was not an
invariable constituent of castoreum.
   In  1848, Wohler4 announced the existence of both  carbolic acid and salicine in Canadian
castoreum.  By subjecting this to distillation with water, he obtained a clear distillate in which
small drops of oil were floatmg, and which possessed a strong odour of castoreum    With ses-
quichloride of iron  it gave distinctly, though feebly, the characteristic reaction of carbolic acid-
it  became violet, which colour  again disappeared in a  short time, with a whitish cloudiness
precisely like  carbohc acid   It was not coloured  yellow by ammonia, as  is the case with
hydruret of salicyle (sahcylous acid).   In  the liquid  which was  left  in the retort Wohler
detected, after filtration, a benzoate and salicine.  On  mixing it with muriatic acid, it became
turb!d and, in  the course of a day, deposited small crystals of benzoic acid. It was also observed
that the  mother-liquor separated from these crystals contained hydruret of salicyle fori  gave
with sesquichlonde of iron, first a  deep violet-bl.ie colour, and only afterwards  the wnhe cloudi-
ness produced by benzoic acid.   In the  muriatic solution  from whinh   ,■■„  i         .  ' "ai,
separated,  Wohler  detected salicine by the action o chr !rInf  1  u    benzoic acid had
which converted it  into hydruret of salicyle.         chromate of  p0lash  and  sulphuric acid,
   I  had  occasion to examine the aqua castorei. nreDarpH frr,™  A.v,„.-
■^.M  ,o find ,ha, ■■  „ad  ,cqlJed  ,„e ^'^^^^^^^2

  1 Quoted by Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. ii. 1449.                                         ~------
 ' Ann. d. Chem. v.  Pharm. B. xlix. S.360, 1844: also Phnr*» r~.    ■   .~„              2 Ibid.
 > Ann. d. Chem. u.  Pharm. B. Ixvii. S. 360, 1848'; a', so ^IZcall^zeVu, ^ SJW 
                Castor:—Composition; Physiological Effects.          1175

flowers of meadow-sweet (spircea ulmaria).  It no longer contained any traces of volatile oil.
On testing it with sesquichloride of iron, it gave at first a violet colour and afterwards a whitith
cloud (benzoate of iron).  With ammonia it became feebly yellow.   It was obvious, therefore,
that it contained hydruret of salicyle, which must either  have been originally obtained by dis-
tillation from th,e castoreum,or have been produced  in the aqua castorei by some other principle.
That  it was not originally obtained from the castoreum I have strong grounds for believing •
because the  aqua castorei,  when  first prepared,  had  not that agreeable  odour which it  now
possesses, but had the usual castoreum smell, and  contained abundance  of globules of volatile
oil of castoreum.   For several years past, in my  lectures, I have noticed and described  it, and
have  remarked that,  unlike another specimen of aqua castorei, which I prepared  in 1833,1 it
appeared to me to be losing  its proper castoreum odour, and  to be acquiring a more agreeable
one.   During the last twelve months, however, the change of odour has been more marked and
rapid than it had been previously, the hydruret of salicyle having  been gradually formed in
the aqua castorei.
  As the aqua castorei, in  which it was formed,  was obtained  by distillation, it is obvious that
the hydruret of salicyle mi\st have been produced  from some volatile substance.  Now as the
water  originally contained  globules of oleum castorei, which have gradually disappeared, and
become replaced by the hydruret of salicyle, this oil  would seem to be  the real  source of the
last-mentioned  substance.   However  this may be, it can scarcely  be doubted that  both the
hydruret of salicyle and carbolic acid (which Wohler declares to be identical with oleum castorei)
are derived  from salicine (the presence of which in  castoreum has been before stated).  As
the beaver feeds on  the bark of the willow and poplar, we have a ready explanation of the
source of the salicine.
  Salicine by oxidation readily yields  hydruret of salicyle (as by the action on it of a mixture
of chromate  of potash and sulphuric acid).  When it is  swallowed,  it suffers oxidation, and is
excreted  in  the form of hydruret of salicyle.   Professor Liebig informed me that Chrysomela
Populi, a coleopterous insect which feeds on the  leaves of the willow and poplar, excretes
hydruret of salicyle; and if allowed to crawl over paper moistened with a persalt of iron it
produces a violet-coloured stain.   In the human  subject, also, salicine suffers a similar change,
and is converted into hydruret of salicyle, which passes out of the system in the urine, in  which
fluid it may be detected by a persalt  of iron, which strikes a violet colour with  it.   Laveran
and  Millon   assert that salicylic,  acid  is  also produced, but this is  doubtful; for Wohler and
Frerichs  found that hydruret of salicyle did not  become changed into salicylic acid in its pas-
sage through the system.   Hitherto, I  believe that carbolic acid  has  not  been detected  in the
urine after the  use of salicine; but its presence is by  no means improbable, as it  is one of the
products  of the decomposition of the alkaline salicylates.
  But to return to the origin of the hydruret of salicyle in aqua castorei. It by no means follows
that  it should  be derived  from the carbolic acid, but more probably from some other volatile
product of the  oxidation of salicine.  As carbolic acid is a constituent of castoreum, and as it
is a powerful agent on the  animal economy, it follows that it must be one of the active princi-
ples of castoreum.   Wohler and Frerichs found that rabbits, guinea-pigs, and dogs, to which a
few drops of carbolic acid  diluted with water were  administered, constantly died  in convul-
sions  in  the course of  one quarter of an hour; but  no  important anatomical lesion  was dis-
covered in the bodies after death.  As castoreum contains but very minute quantities of carbolic
acid, it is obvious that  should its medicinal activity be found to depend  on the latter, a cheap
and more effective substitute for castoreum would be found in carbolic acid obtained from coal
tar.  And here I may observe that carbolic acid and creosote are closely related, if indeed  they
be not identical, as  Laurent and some other chemists suspect.
  As the odour of Hyrareum (see p. 1178) closely resembles that of castoreum, the presence of
carbolic acid  may be suspected,  but no evidence of  its presence can be gained by the action of
the sesquichloride of iron on either a watery infusion of hyraceum, or on the distilled water of
this substance.
   Physiological Effects.—Castor is usually denominated a stimulant  and anti-
spasmodic.   Since the time of Hippocrates it has been regarded as endowed with
a specific influence over  the  uterus.
   In 17G8  Mr. Alexander3 took it in various doses to the extent of two drachms;
and  the only  effect he experienced from  it was  disagreeable eructations.   In 1824,
Jbrg and his  pupils, males and females,3 submitted themselves to its influence;  but
the only effects were a slight uneasiness  in the epigastric region, and disagreeable
eructations  having the odour of castor, and which were not allayed by breakfast or
dinner, and only  ceased at night when sleep came on.

  t This specimen also contains minute traces of the hydruret of salicyle, as shown by the action of the
sesquichloride of iron, as well as of ammonia.
  3 Frvtrimtntal Essays, p. 83.
  » Material, zu einer kunft. Arzneimittell. Leipsig, 1824 ; London Medical  Gazette, xxvi. 952. 
1176
ANIMAL SUBSTANCES.
   These facts seem to show that castoreum possesses but  little  medicinal power ;
yet Dr. Cullen1 declares  that on many  occasions  it is certainly a very  powerful
antispasmodic.  Its odorous  particles  become absorbed, for they have been  recog-
nized in the urine  by their smell.                             _      .
   Uses.—Castoreum was formerly in great repute in those  affections'of the nervous
system denominated spasmodic;  such  as hysteria, epilepsy,  and catalepsy;  more
especially when these diseases occurred in females, and were attended with uterine
disorder.   Iu those kinds of fever called nervous, this medicine has also been recom-
mended.  In the northern parts of Europe it is used for its supposed uterine influ-
ence, to promote the lochial discharge,  and the expulsion of retained placentae.  It
is, however,  little  employed,  partly, perhaps, in  consequence of its disagreeable
taste  and smell, its variable quality, and its  high price;  but for the most part, I
believe, because practitioners consider it an almost inert remedy."
   Administration.—It  is best given in substance, either reduced to powder or in
the form of pill.   The dose should be at least 3ij-
   1. TINCTURA CASTOREI, L. E. [U. S.]; Tincture of Castor.—(Castor, bruised, ^iiss;
Rectified Spirit  Oij.   Macerate for seven days, then press and Strain.   "This tinc-
ture may be prepared either  by digestion or percolation, like the tincture of Cas-
sia," E.)—Rectified Spirit, used by the London and Edinburgh Colleges, is a better
solvent for castor than proof spirit.   The quantity of castor used in the  processes
is  much too small.   A fluidounce of the Edinburgh tincture contains three-fourths
of a drachm, while  the London preparation contains only  half a drachm ; so that
to give a medium dose of  castor (3J), it would  be necessary to  administer  f^ij of
the tincture (rectified spirit) of  the London Pharmacopoeia!   Dr. Paris3 says the
dose of this tincture is T*lxx to f"3'j -—[Tbe U. S. Pharm. directs Castor, bruised,
§ij; Alcohol Oij.   Macerate for seven days, express and filter through paper.]  The
tincture  of  castor  made with American  castor has a  very different odour, is of a
much paler  colour,  and yields a  much  smaller amount of  precipitate on  the addi-
tion of water, than the tincture of Russian castor.
   I TINCTURA CASTOREI AMMONIATA, E.; Ammoniated Tincture of Castor.—(Castor,
bruised, ^iiss; Assafetida, in small fragments, 3x; Spirit of Ammonia Oij.  Digest
for seven  days in a well-closed vessel; strain, and express  strongly the residuum;
and filter  the liquor.  This tincture cannot be  so conveniently prepared  by the
method of percolation, E.)—Stimulant and antispasmodic.   Spirit of Ammonia is
a good solvent for both castor and assafetida.—Dose, f3ss  to f3ij.


              367. Hyrax Capensis— The Cape Badger.
                     (Hyraceum, a proposed substitute for Castoreum.3)

  History.—I have  received from my friends, Messrs. August Faber and Co., of  London, a
small sample of this substance, with a note, stating that Hyraceum was a new article intended
as a substitute for castoreum in medicine.  They inform me that they believe all that has been
imported into Europe as yet, is a dozen tins, of about one pound and a half each, which were
sent from the Cape of Good Hope (the place of production) to Hamburg, and 'there sold at
about eight shillings each.  The tins were of a cylindrical shape, and  the hyraceum contained
in each was in one mass, adhering  to the tin without any other protection.  As this substance
is a very remarkable one, and  is scarcely known even by name in this country, I subjoin a short
notice of it, and of the animal which yields it.
  The name hyraceum was first applied to this substance by Dr. Edward Martiny* in  1847
It is derived from Hyrax* (the generic name of tbe animal yielding this substance), and bears
the same relation to this  latter word that castoreum does to castor.  By the Dutch colonist* this
substance has  been erroneously called Dassen-piss, under the mistaken notion  that  it was the
urine of the Basse (the name  by which the animal is known at the Cape).
                                                               2 Pharmacologia.


ew-mouse.                                                    ■ 3?) uses to signify the
 1 From a paper by the author in the Pharmaceutical Journal, September 1850     * '
 * Naturgeschichte der fUr die Heilkunde wichtigen Thiere p 119      '
hrew-m^us!"1^"" U derived from W which Zander , Alexipharmaea, 37) us 
The Cape Badger:—Zoology.                      1177
  Zoology.—The animals referred by zoologists to the genus  Hyrax, and called by French
zoologists Damans, possess remarkable interest to the naturalist,  on  account of the importance
of anatomy to tlie accurate determination of their position in a natural classification.  For a Ion"
period they were placed among the Rodentia, to which in size  and general appearance they
bear some resemblance.  But Cuvier showed  that,  by  their organization, they really belong to
the Pachydermata, being, with the exception of the  horn, little else than  rhinoceroses in minia-
ture;  at least, they have quite similar molars, but the upper jaw  has two stout incisors, curved
downwards, and, during youth, two very  small canines, the inferior four incisors, without any
canines.   The dental formula of the genus, therefore,  i« as follows: incisors f, canines 0, mo-
lars ^ — 7 = 34.  The animals have four  toes to each of their forefeet, and three to the hind-
feet, all, excepting the innermost posterior, which  is armed with a crooked  and oblique nail,
terminated by a kind of  very small, thin,  and rounded  hoof.   The  body is covered with thick
hair, and beset here  and there with erinaceous bristles.   They have a simple tubercle in place
of a tail, short muzzle and ears, and six teats, two pectoral, and  four ventral.
  The Hyrax capensis, Cuvier, the Cavia  capensis of Pallas, and  some  other writers, was con-
sidered by Cuvier to be identical with the Hyrax Syriacus—the Coney of Scripture.1  It is about
the sizeof a large rabbit;  with soft hairs,grayish, or ashy brown aboveand paler beneath.  Along
the back is a dark band or stripe, with a blackish spot in the middle.  The head is thicker, and
the mandible or lower jaw higher than  in other  species.  Vertebrae from forty-eight to fifty.
Ribs twenty-one to twenty-two.   Space between the incisor and molar teeth small.  Interpa-
rietal bone large and three-angled.
  Thunberg2 alludes to  the popular  notion at  the Cape, that these animals menstruate.  "In
the crevices of the mountains, a  great number of dasses (Cavia capensis) were found, which were
generally supposed to have the menstrual flux."  In another passage,3 he says he  " was shown
a kind of bitumen, which the country people supposed to be tbe inspissated urine of the great
mountain rat (Cavia capensis) that is found there.  I was informed," he adds," that this bitumen
was to be found in great abundance in the cracks and crevices of the  mountain,  especially at
one large projecting krants or summit."
  Sparrman4 notices the animals which the natives  call dasses or badgers.  " These creatures,"
he observes, " which have some affinity  with  the ordinary marmots, and are about the same
size, are  eaten by many people,  who look on them as a delicacy.  They  are likewise easily
made tame, and are found in many other places in  the African  mountains.   The little Dassen
islands on the western coast of  Africa  take their name from them.   On  these  places in the
mountains where these creatures dwell, there is found  a substance,  called here, dassen piss.  It
resembles petroleum, or rock oil, and by many  that  have seen  it  is actually considered as such.
It is likewise used  by some people for medical purposes, and  by  them is supposed to have
greater powers than is consistent with any degree of probability.  Finding that this substance
did not stand  the same  proofs as petroleum, and at the same time that it was found only in
places frequented by the dasses,  I had sufficient reason to conclude that  it proceeded from this
animal, and that it  is most probably the  menstrual  excretion of this creature, as observations
made on tame females of this species have given room for such a  suspicion ; and as, besides,
the dass's excrements are often found in this substance, and seldom anywhere else."
  Professor Lichtenstein  informed Schrader, that " this substance  is found in small  separate
pieces on rugged mountainous declivities, chiefly in  those districts where the Hyrax capensis is«
most  frequently found.  The colonists collect these pieces, which, when  fresh,  are  soft and
somewhat glutinous, and press them together  in large  masses, in which state the volatile con-
stituents are better preserved.  They employ it  medicinally, either in  the form of powder, or
infused in wine, in  many diseases, especially in hysterical complaints, in which  it frequently
acts in a surprisingly beneficial manner."
  "The  Hottentots," says Buffon,5 '-highly prize a kind of medicine, which the Dutch call
badger's urine  (pissat de blaireau).  It is a black dry substance, which has a very bad smell, and
is found  in the crevices of the rocks, and  in caverns. They say  it'is derived from the urine of
these animals, who always pass it in the same  spot.  The urine  deposits this substance, which,
becoming dry by time, acquires  some consistence.   This," adds  Buffon, " is very  probable; for
the animal at Amsterdam, almost always passed his water in the  same corner of the cage in
which he was confined."
  In the published acrountsof the dissections of this animal, no glandular structure, such as we
must  suppose would be required for the secretion of  hyraceum, is mentioned.   Mr. Quekett
writes to me that, having examined a portion of the specimen which  I gave him, he believes
it '' to be composed entirely of excrement, and not, like  castoreum and  musk, the secretion of a
gland • for I find," he adds, " that the hyrax capensis has no anal or  other glands.'6  But it de-
serves' to be especially noticed that dissections of male animals only have been published; while
the remark of Sparrman would lead us to suspect that  the secretion is peculiar to the female.
l  I evilicus  xi.5: Psalms, ciii. 18.
2  Travels in Europe, Asia, and Africa, between the years 1770 and 1779, i. 165.         » Ibid. i. 160.
*  Vovaee to the Cape of Good Hope, i. 309, 1786.   » Histoire Naturelle, Supplement, t. vi. p. 280, 1782.
•  fMr Quekett could detect no trace of any glands likely to produce the hyraceum.—Kd] 
1178
ANIMAL  SUBSTANCES.
  Farther observations respecting the anatomical structure of the animal are required ere we can
 arrive at any satisfactory conclusion respecting the origin of hyraceum.   My friend, Mr. Thomas
 Bell, Sec. R. S., who some years  since had  in his possession a living full-grown  male animal
 (the one which was subsequently dissected  by Professor Owen), tells me that his specimen had
 no peculiar smell, nor did he perceive any  peculiar gland on examination after,death.
   Pallas1 notices, as unusual and anomalous in the structure of the animal, the mode of inser-
 tion of the ureters into the fundus of the bladder.  Professor  Owen notices, and somewhat cor-
 rects this description.2  For what purpose this structure is designed  in the hyrax, or whether
 the urine undergoes  any change in consequence of it, Mr. Owen could not conjecture, but he
 alluded to the alleged medicinal qualities of this  secretion.
   Sparrman's opinion receives no support from  the physical and chemical  examination of the
 specimen in my possession.
   Dr. Krauss, of Stuttgart, who resided for a long time at the Cape, says, that most of the colo-
 nists regard it as a secretion which appears with the catamenia.
   Dr. Edward Martiny,3 who reports this, adds,"that its occurrence at the rutting season gives
 great weight to this opinion.   I regard hyraceum," he continues, " as a secretion connected with
 the sexual functions, and  produced by highly developed preputial and  probably also  vaginal
 glands, as in the beaver; but with this difference,  that while in the beaver we know not whether
 this secretion is at times evacuated, in the hyrax  it is very probably actually excreted.   For we
 find it in considerable quantities  in  those places where the. animals are met with; a fact ex-
 plained by the circumstances that the animals at the Cape usually live in  herds.  Dr. Krauss
 writes to  me, that it  is  especially found in the  fissures of the variegated sandstone of many
 mountains in the colony, especially in Kokmansklof and  Franche Hoek, and  may be collected
 there  in extraordinary quantity.   In proof of this, it  may be mentioned that, some  years  ago,
 Professor  Poppig, of Leipzig, received from the  Cape some bird-skins, stuffed with hyraceum
 to preserve them.   So that it must be met with  in considerable quantity, and at a low price,
 and might, therefore, be obtained as an excellent substitute for the  more costly castoreum."
   Properties.—Hyraceum, such as I have received it, is a tolerably hard solid substance, which
 breaks with considerable difficulty;  and has a blackish brown colour, a glistening or resinous
 appearance in places, which have a somewhat glutinous feel.  It has a moderately strong odour,
 whioh greatly resembles that of  Canadian  castoreum.  In taste, also, it is  like the latter sub-
 stance.  [Its specific  gravity is from 1.422  to 1.5.]   When  heated in the flame of a candle, it
 evolves a castor-like odour, swells up, burns, and leaves behind a  spongy coal, with  a whitish
 ash on the apex.   From the yellow colour which  it communicates to the outer cone of the flame,
 it manifestly contains sodium or  soda, and from  the intense white light which the ash  on the
 apex of the coat evolves, it obviously contains lime (?). Water dissolves a considerable portion
 of it.   Boiled in alcohol, it communicates a  feeble colour to this liquid.  By  boiling in water, it
 evolved a smell similar  to that of castoreum, and yielded a decoction which  was of a dark yel-
 lowish-brown colour, and very feebly restored the blue colour of reddened litmus paper.  When
 submitted to dry distillation in a test-tube, it evolved, first, an odour of castoreum,  then a dense
 white empyreumatic smoke, which communicated  a blue colour to  reddened litmus paper,
 thereby indicating the presence of ammonia.  Hyraceum has been submitted to a careful micro-
 scopic  examination by  myself as well as by my friends Dr. Sharpey and  Mr. John Quekett.
♦Vegetable  tissues  (epidermis, cellular tissue, woody  fibre, ducts and  spiral  vessels),  animal
 hairs, and siliceous sand, have been found in it.   Mr. John Quekett observes that " spirit and
 caustic potash appear to have little or no action on it; but they bring out a few epithelium scales,
 principally of the scaly variety."   I could detect no blood disks.  Dr. Sharpey also  observes that
 he " saw nothing which could for a moment  be taken for blood particles or the remnants of blood
 particles."  He observed globular particles, perhaps, either resinous or oily; and  at least  two
 kinds of vegetable epidermis, one  apparently from a gramineous plant.  The animal hairs were
 short fragments, very fine, and by no means numerous.
   As the hyraceum which I have received contains  vegetable remains, and probably, therefore,
 is contaminated with  the excrement of the  animal, I was anxious  to know what  kind of fecal
 matter is discharged from the bowels.   Pallas says that the " scybala  in ultimo intestinp erant
 moleculosa, fusco-lutea."  Dr. Andrew Smith, author of the Illustrations of the Zoology of South
 Africa, tells me that the feces are in  little balls, something like rabbit's dung.  He also informs
 me that, in the places where the  animals live at  the Cape, the feces occur in heaps while the
 hyraceum is found in the crevices of the rock, as if it had run off in a liquid  state, from which
 he inferred that it was a product of urine and excrement.
   Composition.—Schrader4 submitted hyraceum to chemical examination,  and found  its con-
 stituents to be  as follows:—
oliCanfeiacif00l°SiCa' *" ** fMC" "' P' "' ^        \ Proceedings of the Zoological Society, 1832.
up. ante cit.                                    * Berlin. Jahrb.fur d. Pharmacie, 1S18. 
Tinctura Hyracei.
1179
              Stearine (Talgsubstanz)......................   1
              Green resin, soluble in absolute alcohol..............   2
              Odorous yellow substance, soluble in ordinary alcohol and in water .  38
              Ilrown substance, soluble in water.................25
              Insoluble residue (vegetable fibre, quartz sand, <5cc.)........34

                                                                          100

  From his experiments, Schrader concluded that hyraceum was for the most part of an animal
nature, very probably an excretion, and that its medicinal properties resided in its odorous yel-
low constituent, which dissolved both in spirit and in water.   Its colour did not arise from  the
presence of blood, for he left a decoction of hyraceum exposed to the air for some weeks, without
finding that it  underwent putrefaction or  any change of odour.   It still retained the smell of
Canadian castoreum, and had scarcely any effect on reddened litmus paper.  By distillation with
water, a distilled liquor was obtained, which had a feeble, faint, somewhat resinous odour, but
no reaction on  test  paper.  The minute quantity of urine, therefore, which it contained, must
be regarded, like the sand and the vegetable substances, as an accidental impurity, although it
is not impossible that these substances may be due to the admixture of animal excrement.
  According to Paffe, it is produced by the uropoietical system.  The hyrax drinks very seldom,
if  ever;  and its urine, like that of the hare,  is thick and glutinous.  The animals secrete  the
urine at one  spot, and by evaporation the  tenacious extract sticks  to the root.   The fresh urine
is reddish coloured.  Lehmann regards it as solid excrement.   Reichel1 analyzed hyraceum, and
obtained twenty different substances, including castorin,  uric acid, urea, as  well as benzoic and
hippuric acids ; but Fikentscher says that  he could not detect either of the  last four substances;
and he gives the following as the results of his analysis: —

                        Matter soluble in ether..........11.5
                        Matter soluble in spirit of wine .  .....   38.0
                        Matter insoluble in both.........19.1
                        Inorganic salts..............31.4

                                Hyraceum............100.0

   TINCTURA  HYRACEI (Martii).—R Hyraceum, powdered, 3iij;  Distilled Water gxviij.
Digest at  from 86° F. to 100°  for eight days, frequently shaking.  Filter, and  to the solution
add:  Water, sufficient to make by weight, £xxj; Rectified Spirit  ^iij.   Mix and filter.   Dose,
n\,xx to f 3J.
   With regard to the medicinal  qualities of hyraceum I have very little to  say.   My  sample is
too small to enable me to make  any experiments with it.  I believe it  to be inert and useless ;
but it has been supposed to resemble castor in  its nature, odour, and medicinal  qualities.   "The
action of hyraceum," says Dr. Martiny, "is  exactly the same as that  of American castor, for which
it may be substituted."  But to  say  that hyraceum is equal to castor in medicinal properties is,
I believe, to say little in its favour;  for, in  my opinion, there  is no valid evidence that castor
possesses any medicinal power whatever.   Considered in an anatomical and physiological point
of view, both  castor and hyraceum possess some interest, but as therapeutical agents they are
worthless.   The remedial  use  of  sexual  and  anal secretions and of  excrements (e. g. castor,
musk, civet, ambergris, album gravcum, and hyraceum) belongs to the  superstitious and absurd
practices of a former age, and the administration of such disgusting and useless substances should
be banished from scientific medicine.
   It has been used in the form  of powder, or of tincture.
   [We subjoin an  extract  from an inaugural dissertation  at Erlangen on this substance, by
Fikentscher, found  among the author's papers.—Ed.]
   "In 1848," he says,  "a selected specimen  of the hyraceum was sent from the Cape to Pro-
fessor Martius, who placed a part of it at the disposal of the  Royal Hospital at Erlangen.  Pro-
fessor Canstatt, the  distinguished theoretical  and  practical physician, submitted  it to a careful
trial, administering it to a great  number of patients in  the hospital, and obtained the best results.
Professor J. Vogel  reported that at the hospital of the University of Giessen, an application of
this medicament had been made, at first, in small doses, without obtaining the results aimed at,
but which failure was  remedied by the  administration of greater doses.   As regards my own
experience, I have already treated,  in a space of two years, thirty three persons [the history of
these cases the author has annexed in an appendix], thirteen of whom were hysterical persons,
thirteen were subject to gastralgia, and one was  an inveterate hypochondriac.   Seven of tbem
were treated with  the tinct. hyrac. conjointly with other medicines; and twenty-six were treated
with  the tinct. hyrac> pure; all but eight of the latter were restored.  Tbe constricting pains in
the region  of the stomach, which ordinarily followed every use of food or  of liquid—the head-
ache  loathing, and vomiting—were diminished, and the  appetite was restored.  Other  hysterical
symptoms, as spasms, the peculiar globus  hystericus, the nervous headache,  palpitation, trem-
bling of the members, to which thirteen  individuals were before more or less subject, disap-
peared after the  use of the tinctura hyracei, except in three persons.
1  Pharm. Central-Blatt fur 1849. 
1180
ANIMAL  SUBSTANCES.
   "To these, my own observations, I will add  those of two of my friends:  'Dr.  Wintrich,
docent and assistant physician at the Policlinik at Erlangen, has applied the tinctura hyracei (in
does of from one-half to one teaspoon)  in  cases of spasm, palpitation,  hysteria, gastralgia, as
well as in nervous  excitements of irritable persons, altogether in thirty cases, and obtained good
results.   Dr. Meinel, at  Roth, reported that he has made use of the tinct.  hyrac. in cases of
hysteria and of  chlorosis, where a peculiar irritability  of the nerves existed, and obtained very
favourable results.'
   "Finally,  we conclude that the Tinctura Hyracei deserves to be recommended in most cases
of irritability of the nervous system, in hysterical affections, and  in gastralgia, in doses of from
one-half to one teaspoonful.  Every medical man knows  well the difficulties which are  presented
in the treatment of hysterical persons: sometimes one is compelled to make use of the  whole
series of the so-called ariti spasmodica, nervina, and antihysterica, in order to calm  the patient;
consequently,  it must be satisfactory to  be able to  make  use  of a  medicine which has been
found to be efficacious in most, if not in all cases of this description."
   [Since this was written, experience has not confirmed  the  very favourable description of the
new drug here given.  We are inclined  to  put  the same value on it as  that assigned by the
author to album graecum, and other excrernentitious articles.   They are the relics of the  super-
stitious practices of a bygone age.—E«.] 
APPENDIX.
                    THE  METALLIC CYANIDES.1


   368. AURI TERCYANIDUM.—TERCYANIDE  OF  GOLD.
                         Formula AuCy*. Equivalent Weight 277.

   The directions for preparing this salt, in the  French Codex, are somewhat diffuse.
 The process consists essentially in very carefully adding a solution of pure cyanide
 of potassium to a solution of chloride of gold, until a precipitate (cyanide of gold)
 ceases to be formed.  The chloride of gold, prior to solution, should be deprived of
 all excess of acid by heating it in a salt-water bath.
   Cyanide of gold  is a  yellow  powder, which  is insoluble  in water.   It has been
 used in venereal and scrofulous affections, both externally and  internally.   The
 dose is from one-fifteenth  to one-tenth  of a  grain, made  into  a pill with  some
 inert powder.


  369.  HYDRARGYRI PERCYANIDUM—PERCYANIDE  OP
                                 MERCURY.
                         Formula HgCy.  Equivalent Weight 126.

   History.—This salt was discovered by Scheele. Its real nature was first pointed
 out by  Gay-Lussac in 1815.  It has been known by various appellations, as Prus-
 sian Mercury (Hydrargyrum Borussicum),  Prussiate, Hydrocyanate,  Cyanuret,
 Cyanide or Bicyanide of Mercury (Hydrargyri Prussias, Hydrocyanas,  Cyanure-
 tum, Cyanidum seu Cyanodidum).
   Preparation.—There are two methods of preparing this  salt; one recommended
 by Proust, the  other by Winckler.   Proust's process  was formerly adopted in two
 of the British Pharmacopteias.
   The London College  formerly ordered, of Percyanide of  Iron [Prussian Blue] ^viij; Binoxide
 of Mercury !|x; Distilled Water Oiv.  Boil them together  for half an hour,  and strain. Evapo-
 rate the  liquor that crystals may be formed.  Wash what  remains frequently with boiling dis-
 tilled water, and again evaporate the mixed liquor that crystals may be formed.  The Dublin
 College employed of Prussian Blue six parts ; Nitric Oxide of Mercury five parts; Distilled Water
forty parts.
   In this process the cyanogen of the Prussian blue combines  with the mercury of
 the nitric oxide, while the iron  unites with the oxygen of the oxide.   Pure per-
 cyanide  of mercury may be more  economically prepared by  Winckler's process.
 This consists in saturating  hydrocyanic acid with red oxide of mercury.   The solu-
 1 [It was announced by the Author, in the preface to Vol. I of this edition, published in 1849, that the
description of the various metallic cyanides should follow that of hydrocyanic acid.  Since the announce-
ment was made, the cyanides have been struck out of the London and Dublin Pharmacoposias. Neverthe-
less, we have thought, it advisable to retain the au hor's account of these preparations, and we have there-
fore placed them in the Appendix.—Kd.J 
1182
INORGANIC BODIES.
tion is to be filtered and allowed to crystallize.   In this process double decomposi-
tion takes place, the resulting products being water and percyanide of mercury.
   Properties.—The crystals  of this  salt are square prisms.  They are heavy,
white, colourless, transparent or opake, inodorous,  and have a strong metallic taste.
They are soluble in water, both hot and cold, and very little, if at all so, in alcohol.
Fig. 442.
Fig. 443.
General Form of Crystals of Bicyanide of Mercury.
Crystals with Modified Planes.
   Characteristics.—Perfectly dry percyanide  of mercury when heated  yields
metallic mercury and cyanogen gas.   The latter is  known by the violet or bluish-
red colour of its flame.   Heated with hydrochloric acid it evolves hydrocyanic acid.
It.is not decomposed by nitric  acid  or  the alkalies.  Its solution  throws down a
black  precipitate  with hydrosulphuric acid,  and white pearly  crystalline  plates
(hydrargyro-iodo-cyanide of potassium) with a concentrated solution of iodide of
potassium.
   [Composition.—Its composition is variously  stated, according  to the number
assumed for the equivalent  of mercury.   The greater number  of British chemists
now consider it to be constituted of a single equivalent of each element, and there-
fore represented by the formula  HgCy.   The  term Percyanide is given to it, in
order to keep  the nomenclature in conformity with  that adopted by the author in
the mercurial  preparations of the first volume.   There  is no  other cyanide of mer-
cury known.—Ed.]
   Purity.—When prepared from ferrosesquicyanide of iron (Prussian blue),  the
crystals are  usually  yellowish, from the presence  of some oxide of  iron.   The  fol-
lowing tests of its  purity were  published in  the previous edition  of the London
Pharmacopoeia:—
  Transparent and totally soluble in water.  The solution, when hydrochloric acid  is added,
emits hydrocyanic acid, which is known by its  peculiar  smell ; and a glass  moistened with a
solution of nitrate of silver and placed over it, gives a deposit, winch is  dissolved by boiling
nitric acid. By heat it emits cyanogen, and runs into globules of mercury.
   Physiological Effects.   «*.  On Vegetables.—It acts on plants like perchloride
of mercury.1
   6. On  Animals.—Coulon2 found  that  it acted on  dogs,  cats, sparrows, frogs,
snails,  &c. like hydrocyanic acid.  After  death, inflammation of the stomach was
observed.   Ollivier  d'Angers3 tried its effects  on dogs.    Seven grains, dissolved in
water,  killed a small  dog  in ten  minutes, under attempts  to vomit, general con-
vulsions, and  exhaustion, manifested alternately;  respiration and circulation were
at first accelerated, and afterwards diminished.   Similar effects were produced by
applying the salt to the cellular tissue, or injecting it into the veins.   Tiedemann
and Gmelm* detected mercury in the blood of the splenic vein of a horse to which
the percyanide'had been administered.
1 Goeppert, in De Candolle, Phys. Vig. 1834.
» Train surl'Acide Prussique, quoted by Wibmer, IVtrifc. d. Arzneim. iii 30
* Journ. de Chim. Mid. i. 269.
• Versuche ab. d. Wege auf welch. Subst. aus d. Magen u. Darmk. ins Blut. gelang. 
Cyanide of Silver.
1183
   y. On Man.—Taken in small doses, it very readily excites nausea and vomiting.
 Parent* says it does not produce the epigastric  pain which the perchlorido of mer-
 cury readily occasions.   Continued use causes salivation.   In one  case, one-eighth
 ot  a grain twice a day caused ptyalism in three days.3   Mendaga3  says it acts
 directly on the  skin  and  bones, and hence it sometimes very speedily allays the
 pain of and disperses nodes.
   In large doses, especially in very susceptible persons, it  affects the nervous sys-
 tem, aud causes  fainting, anxiety, and cramps.   Twenty-three and a half grains in
 one instance4  caused death in  nine days.   The most remarkable symptoms were :
 obstinate vomiting;  mercurial ulceration of the  mouth, and abundant ptyalism;
 contractions of the heart, which at first were very strong, but became  successively
 slower and more feeble;  the abdomen was yielding, and not tender, notwithstand-
 ing the constant tenesmus; suppression of  urine;  semi-erection  of the penis, and
 ecchymosis of this  organ, as well  as of the scrotum; and, ultimately, convulsive
 movements.
   Uses.—It has been  employed as an antivenereal medicine, and was first used as
 such by  Brera.5 _ Parent6 administered it  as  a  substitute for the perchloride of
 mercury, over  which it has several advantages.   Thus, being more soluble, it ought
 to be more readily absorbed;  it does not give rise  to epigastric pain; and lastly, it
 is not  so  readily decomposed; for alkalies, several salts, and  many  solutions of
 organic  matters, which decompose corrosive sublimate, have no effect on it.  It
 may be applied in the form of aqueous solution or  ointment to venereal  sores.
   It has been  employed in induration of the liver, in some chronic skin diseases,
 in obstinate headache, and in other maladies, as an antiphlogistic.
   Its principal use in this country is as a source of hydrocyanic acid and of cyano-
 gen gas.
   Administration.—Internally, it may be employed in doses of one-sixteenth of
 a grain gradually increased to one-half of a grain.   It may be administered in the
 form of pills (made with crumb of  bread) or in alcoholic solution.   It  will be fre-
 quently advisable to conjoin opium, to prevent nausea or vomiting.   When used as
 a gargle or. wash, we may employ ten grains to a pint of water.   An ointment may
 be prepared of ten or twelve grains to an ounce of lard.
   Antidote.—I am  unacquainted with any antidote for  it.  Albumen does not
 decompose it.   Perhaps ammonia might be found serviceable, to diminish the effect
 on the nervous system.   Opium relieves the vomiting.  Our principal  object must
 be to remove the poison from the stomach, which is to be effected by the stomach-
 pump, emetics, tickling the throat, &c.


    370.  ARGENTI CYANIDUM—CYANIDE OP SILVER.
                         Formula AgCy.  Equivalent Weight 134.

   History.—This  compound,  sometimes called Hydrocyanate, Cyanuret, or  Cya-
 nodide of Silver, .or  Argentum zootinicum, has been studied by  Scheele, Ittner, and
 Gay-Lussac.
   Preparation.—In  the London Pharmacopoeia it was  formerly directed  to be
 prepared as follows :—
  Take of Nitrate of Silver ^ij and ^ij.  Diluted  Hydrocyanic Acid, Distilled Water, each Oj.
Dissolve the Nitrate of Silver in the  Water, and add to them the diluted Hydrocyanic Acid, aud
mix.  Wash what is precipitated with distilled water, and dry it.
  In this  process, one equivalent or 27  parts of  hydrocyanic  acid react on one
equivalent or 170 parts of nitrate of silver; thereby generating one equivalent or
1  Journ. de Chim. M'd. viii. 473.
»  Neumann, in Dierbach's Neuesten Entd. ind. Mat. Med. Ii. 483, 1828.
»  Decades Medico-chirurgicas y Farmaceuticas, vi. 319, in Richter's AusfUhr. Arzneim. v. 477.
*  Journ. de Chim. Mid. i. 210.                                        * Richter, op. eit.
•  Journ. de Chim. MCd. viii. 473.      • 
1184
INORGANIC  BODIES.
134 parts of cyanide of silver, and one equivalent or 9 parts of water, and  setting
free one equivalent or .54 parts of nitric acid.
   Properties.—When first thrown  down  it is a curdy precipitate, which by dry-
ing becomes pulverulent.   It is insipid, insoluble in water, but dissolves in  caustic
ammonia.  It  is decomposed by hydrochloric  and hydrosulphuric acids, both of
which develop with it hydrocyanic acid.  It combines with other metallic cyanides
to form  the argento cyanides.   By exposure to the atmosphere  and  solar rays it
slowly assumes a violet tint.   It is  slowly decomposed by  mixture  with neutral
vegetable substances.1
   Characteristics.—It is insoluble in cold nitric acid, but soluble in tbe  boiling
acid.   When  carefully dried and then heated  in  a glass tube, it yields cyanogen
gas (which is readily known by its combustibility and  the  bluish-red colour of its
flame) and a residuum of metallic silver.   The latter is recognized by the  before-
mentioned tests for this metal.
   Composition.—The following is the composition of this substance :—
                                      Atoms.   Eq.Wt.     PerCent.
                Silver............1        108       80.60
                Cyanogen..........1         26       19.40
                     Cyanide of Silver  ...  1        134       100.00

   Physiological Effects and Uses.—I am unacquainted with any experiments
made to determine its effects on man and animals.   Serre, of  Montpellier,3 gave it
in syphilitic maladies, in doses of one-tenth and even one-eighth  of a grain, with-
out the least inconvenience.  It was introduced into the London Pharmacopoeia, at
the suggestion of Mr. Everitt, as a source of hydrocyanic acid, but it  has  been ex-
cluded from the last edition.


   371.  ZINCI CYANIDUM—HYDROCYANATE,  CYANIDE,
                      OR CYANURET OF ZINC
                        Formula ZuCy.  Equivalent Weight 58.5.

   This salt was introduced by the German  physicians,  as a substitute for  hydrocy-
anic acid.  It is prepared by adding  recently-made oxide  of zinc  to  hydrocyanic
acid;  or by adding  a solution  of sulphate of zinc  to a solution of cyanide of po-
tassium.  It is a white powder, insoluble in water or alcohol.  If  a strong mineral
acid be added to it, hydrocyanic acid is developed, and a soluble  salt of zinc obtained.
The latter is recognized by the  tests before mentioned for a solution of zinc.   It
consists of one equivalent or 32  parts of Zinc, and one equivalent or 26  parts of
Cyanogen.
   Its effects have not been carefully ascertained, but they afe supposed to be similar
to those of hydrocyanic acid. It has been used principally in affections of the nerv-
ous system, as epilepsy, hysteria, and chorea.   It  has also been employed in car-
dialgia and cramps of the stomach, and as an anthelmintic in  children.   The .dose
is a quarter of a grain to a  grain and a half,  three times a day.    It may  be taken
in the form of powder mixed with calcined magnesia.
1 Journ. de Chim. Mid. 2nde ser. iii. 407.
Medico-Chirurgical Review, July, 1840. 
Sumbul Root:—Composition;  Administration.          1185
             372.  RADIX SUMBUL.—SUMBUL  ROOT.
                              Sumbul,1 Sambt/l, Musk-Root.
         (Racine de Sambola ou Sambula, Guibourt.*—Moschus-wurzel of the Germans.)

  This drug was introduced into Germany from Russia about the year 1840;  more
recently, it has been brought under the notice of the medical profession in England.3
  The botanical origin of Sumbul root is involved in obscurity; from  a resemblance
which  it bears to Angelica, there is reason  to think it is  afforded by some nearly
allied umbelliferous plant.  It has been supposed a native  of Persia; but we think
there is greater reason to conclude that it is  produced in some of the more remote
regions of  Central  Asia.   Dr. Granville states that it  is brought into the  Moscow
drug-market by way of Kiakta.
  Two varieties of Sumbul have appeared in English commerce, viz :—
  1. Russian Sumbul Root (Radix  Sumbul Muscovitici).—The Sumbul imported
from Russia occurs in nearly circular  pieces, formed by the  transverse  section of a
large root;  these pieces,  which have  a dirty, somewhat worn appearance, are from
about 2£ to  5 inches in diameter, and from J of an inch to  1£ inches in thickness
at the edge, which, owing  to unequal contraction  in  drying, is thicker than the
central portion.  On  the outer edge  they are covered with a dusky, brown, rough
bark, frequently beset with short bristly fibres; the interior consists of a spongy,
coarsely fibrous, dry, yellowish-white  mass, of a  somewhat farinaceous  appearance.
Some pieces, constituting the crown portion of the root, are  covered with a  papery
bark.   The  root has  a  pure musky  odour.  Its taste is  rather bitter, and very
slightly acrid.
  2.  Indian Sumbul Root (Chinese Sumbul Root ?);  Radix Sumbul  In die i.—A
second variety of Sumbul root has been imported into  England from Bombay.  It
is stated to be of closer  texture, firmer, denser, and  of a more reddish tint than
the Russian sort.   Some of the pieces are said to bear a  slight resemblance  to in-
ferior rhubarb.   In odour it is perhaps less powerful than  the Russian.4
   Sumbul  root has also  been  brought to England vid China.   A  sample  in our
possession, said to  have  been thus obtained, is in smoothly cut slices, having the
cut surface of a dusky yellow or reddish-brown, surrounded with a paler zone.   The
external thin bark has been  mostly peeled  off, leaving visible  a pale yellow  inner
bark.   The pieces, which, from their regular edges, appear  to have  been cut from
a dried root, are smaller than those of the Russian sumbul,  denser, and bometimes
of an  almost unctuous aspect.   The odour resembles  that of the Russian sumbul,
though rather weaker; the taste is bitter, and  slightly suggestive of ammoniacum.
Judging from  the  description of Indian  sumbul  root  given  in the Pharmaceutical
Journal,5 this variety is identical with it.
   Sumbul root has been  analyzed by several German chemists,8 the results of whose
investigations show it to  contain a volatile oil; two balsamic resins,  one soluble in
ether, the  other in alcohol; wax, starch,  &c.   In addition  to these, a crystallizable
acid has been obtained in minute quantity by Dr. Reinsch, and named by him Sum-
bulic acid.
   Sumbul root may be administered, in  substance, in  doses of  from grs. iij  to grs.
viij; in tincture, made by digesting for seven days gij of the root in  .5xvj of  proof
spirit.7  An ethereal tincture  is likewise employed,  as may  be also,  according to

  1 The Arabic word, Sumbul, signifying an ear or spike, has been applied  to several odoriferous drugs,
   e s to the true spikenard, Nardostachys Jatamansi, De Cand., the Sumbul Hindee  or  Indian Sumbul
of'th'eEast-  see Sir William Jones On the Spikenard of the Antients, in the Asiatic Researches, ii. 405, iv.
Ill Lond. 1799 ; also Richardson's Persian, Arabic, and English Dictionary, word Sumbul, i. 544, Lond.
  * Hist deb Drogues, 4eme edit. iii. 195.
  » See The Sumbul, a New Asiatic Remedy,by A. B. Granville, M.D. Lond. 1850.
  * Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions for Feb. 1852, xi. 358.
  ,  y^j xi _ 358.                              « Quoted  in Journ. de Pharm. xix. 278,1851.
  ' Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions, xi.  144.
        vol. ii.—75 
1186
VEGETABLES.—Radix Sumbul.
Dr. Granville, an aqueous infusion, decoction, or extract.  The alcoholic tincture
may be given in doses of from ttlxx to n^lx.
  [Note.—We subjoin a list of some papers published by the author in the Phar-
maceutical Journal since the previous edition of his work.  They will be found to
contain many subjects of interest in addition to those noticed in these volumes.]

   1. On the Colouring Matter of Dutch or Cake Litmus.  Vol. IX. No. 1;  also
        Vol. X. No. 9.
   2. On Socotrine Aloe Juice.  Vol. XI. No. 10.
   3. On the Cardamoms  of Abyssinia.   Vol. VI. No. 10.
   4. On Grains of Paradise.  Vol. II. No.  7.
   5. On some Rare Kinds of Rhubarb.  Vol. IV. No. 10.
   6. Some Observations on Potato Starch.   Vol. III. No.  1.
   7. The Varieties of  the Almond.  Vol. VI. No. 5.
   8. On  the Myrospermum -of Sonsonate.   Vol. X. No. 8.  [Dr.  Royle  has
        proposed to call this after the author, Myrospermum Pereirae].
   9. On the Black Balsam of Peru.  Vol. XI. No.  5.
  10. On the Plants from  which Senna Leaves are obtained.  Vol. IX. No. 1.
  11. On Xyloidine, or Gun-Cotton.  Vol. VI. No. 5.
  12. On Mishmee Bitter, or Coptis Teeta.   Vol. XI. No.  7.
  13. On the Flower Buds of Calysaccion Longifolium.   Vol. X. No. 9.
  14. Notice of some Vegetable and Animal Substances, Natural Products of New
        Granada.   Vol. XI. No. 6.
  15. On the ^gle Marmelos, or Indian Bael. Vol. X.  No. 6. 
INDEX.
              A.
                        PAGE
Abies ... ...............ii.  285
     balsamea..........ii.  286
     canadensis ... ii. 286, 302
     communis........ii.  286
     excelsa............ii.  286
     nigra...............ii.  286
     pectinata .........ii.  286
     picea...............ii.  286
Abietese.................ii.  286
Abietic acid............ii.  294
Abietin..................ii.  290
Abietis cerevisia ......ii.  286
     essentia...........ii.  286
     resina .............ii.  286
Abortifacient  ergotse-
  tia.....................ii.   87
Abortiva................  i.  290
Absinthic acid.........ii.  595
Absinthin...............ii.  594
Absorbentia............  i.  216
Absorption  of medi-
  cines..................  i.  148
Abuta root .............ii. 1075
Acacia...................ii.  826
     arabica............ii.  826
     catechu............ii.  832
     Egyptian..........ii.  826
     Ehrenbergii......ii.  827
     gum................ii.  827
     gummifera........ii.  826
     karoo..............ii.  826
     nilotica............ii.  826
     Senegal  ...........ii.  827
     Seyal...............ii.  827
     tortilis.............ii.  827
     vera................ii.  826
     verek.............ii.  826
     white..............ii.  826
Acarus scabiei.........  i.  357
Acetaria................  i-  254
Acetate of alumina....  i.  605
     ammonia..........  i.  454
     copper.............  i.  762
     iron................  i-  747
     iron, tincture of.,  i.  747
     lead................  |-  707
       and opium pills  i.  711
     mercury...........  i-  821
     morphia..........."• 1063
                        PAGE
Acetate of potash.......i.  505
    soda................ i.  545
    zinc ................ i.  686
Acetated ceruse ....... i.  708
Acetates ................ii.  947
Acetic acid.............ii.  935
    camphorated.....ii.  947
    glacial.............ii.  940
Acetica..................ii.  947
Acetification,   theory
  of......................ii.  938
Acetometry ............ii.  942
Acetone  .................ii.  942
Acetosa, rumex........ii.  436
Acetosella, oxalis.....ii.  889
Acetous  fermentation  ii.  935
Acetum  .................ii.  935
    aromaticum  ......ii.  946
    britannicum......ii.  935
    cantharidis.......ii. 1127
     (cormi) colchici.. ii.  180
    destillatum.......ii.  946
    gallicum  .....ii. 937, 946
    opii ................ii. 1059
    quatuor furum... ii.  946
    scillae..............ii.  211
Acid, abietic...........ii.  290
    absinthic..........ii.  595
    acetic..............ii.  935
    aconitic............ii. 1086
    aerial .............. i.  335
    aloesic.............ii.  201
    alpha-orsellic .... ii.    74
    amygdalic ........ii.  765
    anhydrous or dry
       nitric............ i.  414
         sulphuric ... i.  372
    aromatic sulphur-
       ic ................ i.  372
    arsenious  ......... i» 614
    aspartic...........ii.  986
    atropic ............ii.  471
    auric............... i. -834
    benzoic............ii.  573
    beta-orsellic......ii.    75
    bibiric.............ii.  409
    boracic ............ i.  341
    butyric............ii. 1168
    caffeic..............ii.  630
    camphoric........ii.  398
                        PAGE
Acid, capric............ii. 1,168
     caproic ...........; ii. 1168
     carbonic...........  i.  $35
     castoric  ...........ii. 1174
     carthamic.........ii.  603
     caryophyllic......ii.  755
     catechuic.........ii.  698
     eerie ...............ii. 1135
     cerotic.............ii. 1135
     cetraric  ...........ii.   67
     cevadic............ii.  188
     chlorohydric......  i.  385
     chloronitric ......  i.  422
     chrysophanic.....ii.  431
     cinchonic ......... ii.  570
     cinnamic or cin-
      namylic.........ii.  568
     cinnamonic.......ii.  813
     cinnamic..........ii.  813
     citric...............ii.  947
     clove...............ii.  755
     cocinic  .........,..  i.  549
     colophonic........ii.  300
     coniic..............ii.  728
     copaivic...........ii.  854
     crotonic........... ii.  364
     delphinic ......... ii. 1084
     diluted muriatic.  i.  392
         nitric.........  i.  421
         sulphuric ...  i.  372
     dulcified marine . ii.  929
     elaiodic .:.......... ii.  337
     ellagic.............ii.  324
     emulsic............ii.  765
     English sulphuric  i.  366
     erythric  ...........ii.   75
     esculic ............ii.  274
     ethereo - sulphur-
      ic of Liebig.... ii.  917
     eugenic...........ii.  755
     frozen sulphuric,  i.  366
     fuming nitric.....  i.  417
         sulphuric ...  i.  365
     gallic ..............ii.  327
     gambogic or gam-
      bodic............ii.  968
     gaseous   hydro-
      chloric..........  i.  385
     gentisic  ...........ii.  524
     glacial acetic.....ii.  941 
1188
INDEX.
                        PAGE
Acid, glacialphosphoric i.  350
     guaiacic...........ii.  885
     hemidesmic.......ii.  551
     hydriodic..........  i.  406
     hydrochloric .....  i.  384
     hydrocyanic......ii.  778
         diluted ......ii.  778
     hydro-oxalic......  i.  715
     hydrous prussic . ii.  778
     hydrosulphuric ..  i.  375
     hyponitromeconic ii. 1030
     hypopicrotoxic ... ii. 1074
     igasuric............ii.  536
     iodic ...............  i.  405
     ipecacuanha......ii.  623
    jalapic.............ii.  520
    japonic ............ ii.  698
    jatrophic..........ii.  364
  '   kinic or quinic ... ii.  670
     kinovic ............ii.  670
     komenic...........ii. 1032
     krameric..........ii.  996
     lactic ..............ii. 1169
     lichenic ...........ii.   68
     lichestearic.......ii.   68
     liquid acetic .....ii.  94]
         hydrochloric  i.  385
         oxymuriatic  i.  382
     lizaric..............ii.  618
     lobelic?............ii.  585
     madderic and ru-
      biacic...........ii.  618
     margaric..........  i.  549
     margaritic........ii.  377
     marine  ............  i.  384
     mastichic .........ii.  862
     mechloic..........ii. 1030
     mecopic ... ii. 1026, 1030
    medicinal hydro-
      cyanic ..........ii.  781
     mellitic,..........ii.  947
    menispermic......ii. 1074
    metagallic........ii.  328
     metaphosphoric.  i.  349
    muriatic ..........  i.  384
     myronic...........ii. 1002
     myrrhic...........ii.  867
    native boracic___  i.  341
    nicotianic.........ii.  490
    nitric...............  i.  414
    nitric diluted.....  i.  421
         liquid ........  i.  415
    nitro-hydrochloric i.  421
    nitro-muriatic...  i.  421
    nitrous  ............  i.  417
     Nordhausen or fu-
      ming sulphuric  i.  365
     cenanthylic.......ii.  377
     of amber..........ii.  965
     of lemons,  con-
      crete ............ii.  947
     oleic ...............  i.  549
     opianic  ............ii. 1029
     oxalhydric........  i.  715
     oxalic..............ii.  954
                        PAGE
Acid, oxygenated muri-
       atic..............  i.  378
     palmitic...........  i.  549
     parallinic .........ii.  274
     pectic..............ii.  319
     phocenic ..........  i.  549
     phosphoric........  i.  349
     picrotoxic......... ii. 1073
     pimentic ..........ii.  758
     pinic..........ii. 288, 300
     polygalic..........ii.  993
     prussic ............ ii.  778
     pyro-gallic  ....... ii.  328
     pyro-guaiacic___ii.  885
     pyro-ligneous ii. 304, 938
     pyro-meconic___ii. 1032
     pyro-phosphoric   i.  349
     pyro-tartaric.....ii.  952
     pyruvic  ........... ii.  952
     rhabarberic  ......ii.  431
     rheic............... ii.  431
     ricinic .............ii.  377
   ,  ricinoleic..........ii.  377
     rubinic ............ ii.  698
     sabadillic .........ii.  188
     saccharic .........  i.  715
     salicylous.........ii.  316
     smilasperic.......ii.  551
     solid arsenious ...  i.  618
     stearic.............  i.  549
     strychnic or iga-
       suric ............ii.  536
     succinic............ ii.  965
     sulpharsenious...  i.  621
     sulphosinapic .... ii. 1005
     sulphovinic ,...... ii.  917
     sulphuric .........  i.  360
     sulphurous  .......  i.  373
     sylvic...............ii.  300
     tanacetic..........ii.  507
     tannic .. ii.  315, 325, 698
     tartaric............ii.  950
     tartralic...........ii.  952
     tartrelic...........ii.  952
     ulmic .............. ii.  332
     valerianic.........ii.  611
     vapour ............  i.  335
     veratric  ...........ii.  188
     virgineic..........ii.  993
     vitriolated tartar  i.  481
     vitriolic  ...........  i.  361
     vulpinic...........ii.   69
     zootic..............ii.  778
Acids................i. 143, 211
Acidulo-alk aline  wa-
  ters....................  i.  320
Acidulous  or  carbo-
  nated  waters........ i.  320
     tartrate of potash  i.  508
Acidum aceticum.....ii.  935
     dilutum  ...........ii.  940
     forte ............... ii.  940
     glaciale  ...........ii.  940
     aceticum aromat-
           icum......  ii.  946
        camphoratum ii.  947
                        PAGE
Acidum arseniosum...  i.   614
     benzoicum........  ii.   573
     boracicum........  i.   341
     borussicum.......  ii.   778
     carbonicum.......  i.   335
     chloro- hydrargy-
       ricum...........  i.   803
     citricum  ..........  ii.   947
     filiceum ...........  i.   100
     gallicum  ..........  ii.   327
     hydriodicum .....  i.   406
     hydrochloricum..  i.   384
         dilutum...... i.   392
     hydrocyanicum ..  ii.   778
         dilutum .....ii.   778
     hydrosulphuricum i.   375
     iodicum ...........  i.   405
     muriaticum  ......  i.   387
         dilutum .....  i.   392
     nitricum...........  i.   414
         dilutum .....  i.   421
         dulcificatum  ii.   925
     nitro-hydrochlor-
         icum .........  i.   421
     nitro-muriaticum  i.   421
     nitroso-nitricum.  i.   417
     nitrosum..........  i.   417
     oxalicum..........ii.   954
     phosphoricum  ...  i.   349
         dilutum......  i.   350
     pyrogallicum.....ii.   328
     quercitannicum..  ii.   325
     succinicum.......ii.   965
     sulphuricum .....  i.   360
         aromaticum  i.   372
         dilutum .....  i.   372
         purum.......  i.   369
         venale .......  i.   367
     sulphurosum.....  i.   373
     tannicum .........  ii.   325
     tartaricum........  ii.   950
     zooticum..........ii.   778
Acipenser     giilden-
       stadtii..........  ii. 1138
     huso ...............ii. 1138
     ruthenus..........ii. 1138
     stellatus...........ii. 1138
     sturio..............ii. 1138
Acology.................  i.   60
Aconite  .................ii. 1085
Aconiti,  extractum ...  ii. 1091
         alcoholicum  ii. 1091
     tinctura...........  ii. 1090
Aconitic  acid  ..........ii. 1086
Aconitine ...............ii. 1092
Aconitina...............ii. 1092
Aconitinse, solutio ....  ii. 1093
     unguentum.......ii. 1093
Aconitum lycoctonum  ii. 1086
     medium Schrade-
       ri ................ii. 1086
     napellus...........ii. 1085
     paniculatum, var.
       Storkianum  ...  ii. 1086
Acorus calamus.......ii.   158
Acotyledones  ..........ii.   49 
INDEX.                                   H89
    .,                   PAGE
Acnds...................  ;.  206
Acrid resin.............ii.  377
Acrita ...................ii. noi
Acrogens ...............ii.   97
Adeps praeparatus .... ii. 1170
     suillus.............ii. 1170
Adhesive plaster ......  i.  553
Adiantum  or maiden-
  hair ................ii.  98,101
Adipsa ..................  i.  210
Adragantin.............ii.  821
iEolopile................  i.   80
Aer ...................... i.  457
Aerated magnesia wa-
       ter...............  i.  593
     mineral alkali ... i.  513
Mrxxgo .................. i.  763
     crystallisata...... i.  764
iEsthetica...............  i.  238
iEtherea ................  i.  258
iEther aceticus........ii.  930
iEther hydrochloricus ii.  929
     sulphuricus  ......ii.  916
iEthereum, oleum .... ii.  923
iEthereo-oleosa .......  i.  251
iEtheris  compositus
       spiritus......... ii.  922
     nitrici spiritus ... ii.  925
     sulphuricispiritusii.  922
.<Ethiops absorbens ... i.  782
     martialis.......... i.  721
     mineral............ i.  793
     vegetabilis........ii.   56
Affusion, warm  ....... i.   82
     cold................ i.   88
     cool ................ i.   89
     tepid............... i.   89
Agaric of the oak.....ii.   93
         larch......... ii.   91
     surgeons..........ii.   93
Agaricus campestris . ii.   93
     dealbatus .........ii.   96
     dryophilus........ii.   96
     Faenisccii ......... ii.   96
     edulis..............ii.   93
     Georgii............ii.   96
     oreades............ii.   95
     semi-globatus.... ii.   96
Agathotes chirayta ... ii.  527
Ague drops, tasteless i.  635
Agrypnotica............ i.  247
Aikin's ammonio-tar-
  trate of iron......... i.  752
Air, alkaline........... i.  423
     atmospheric...... i-  457
     cold ................ i.   87
     dephlogisticated. i.  292
         nitrous  ...... i.  411
     fixed ............... i.  335
     inflammable ...... j.  296
     mephitic .......... i-  411
     phlogisticated.... i-  411
Albumen................"• H64
     an  antidote  for
       corrosive subli-
       mate ............ »•   809
PAGE
Albumenin or oonin .. ii. 1155 Aloe hepatica .
513
809
897
370
902
Alcali minerale........  1.
Alchemilla arvensis .. ii.
Alcohol..................ii.
     of sulphur ........  i.
     preparation of ... ii.
     pharmaceutical
      uses of ......... ii.
Alcoholica..............  i.
Alcoholometry.........ii.
Alcoole"s.................ii.
Aldehyd ................ii.
Ale.......................ii.
Algae.....................ii.
Algaroth'spowder ....  i.
Aliments............i. 115, 131
                         117
913
258
904
913
926
118
 50
644
     compound ..
Alizarine .'..............ii.
Alimentary principles  i.
Alkali, aerated mineral i.
     mild mineral  or
       fossil...........
     mild vegetable ..
     vegetable ........
     volatile ...........
Alkalina................
Alkaline air ...........
     salt................
     solution,  Brand-
       ish's.............  i.
     waters.............  i.
Alkanet root...........ii.
Alkanna tinctoria.....ii.
Allium ascalonicum .. ii.
     cepa ............... ii.
     porrum............ii.
     sativum  ...........ii.
     schaenoprasum ... ii.
     scorodoprasum .. ii.
     syrupus allii .....ii.
Allopathia..............  i.
Allyle....................  i.
Allspice.................ii.
Almond confection  ... ii.
     common...........ii.
     emulsion..........ii.
     milk................ii.
     oil..................ii.
     paste............... ii.
Almonds, bitter.......ii.
         volatile oil of ii.
     sweet...............ii.
         oil of.........ii.
Amorphous quinia__ii.
Alnus glutinosa.......  i.
Aloe......................ii.
     abyssinica......... ii.
     africana........... ii.
     arboresccns ...... ii.
     barbadensis ...... ii.
     caballina.......... ii.
     capensis........... ii.
     colata.............. ii.
     Commelini......... ii.
     de Mocha .........ii.
     ferox...............ii.
         indica
         purpurascens .... ii
         Socotrina.........ii,
         spicata............ii,
         vulgaris...........ii.
     Aloes, Barbadoes......ii,
         Bethelsdorp......ii,
         caballine..........ii,
         Cape...............ii,
         Curacoa...........ii,
         fetid................ ii,
         genuine hepatic, ii,
         horse ..............ii,
         Indian........ii. 1</
         Mocha.............ii.
         Socotrine  .........ii.
618j Aloesin..................ii.
1151 Aloesic acid............ii.
513 j Alpinia alba............ ii,
         chinensis.......... ii.
5131     galanga............ ii.
4G81     nutans.............ii.
460; Alterants or alteratives i.
423j Althaea officinalis......ii.
216|Althein..................ii.
423  Alternatives, voltaic, i.
546  Alum, antidote for ... i.
         cataplasm......... i.
466'.     common, or potash i.
323:     dried............... i.
508|     native.............. i.
508!     poultice............ i.
213!     roch or rock...... i.
213j     Roman ............ i.
213      water (Bates's).. i.
2121     whey............... i.
213  Alumen  ................. i.
213      exsiccatum....... i.
2131     potassicum....... i.
170!Alumina ................ i.
252 j     hydrate of......... i.
756 [ Aluminas acetas........ i.
767  Aluminum, compounds
763|   of...................... i.
767' Amadou................. ii.
767  Amanita ................ii.
768      muscaria...  i. 152;
767  Amanitin  ............... ii.
764  Amara................... i.
771'     pura  ............... i.
764  Amaryllidacese......... ii.
768  Amber  ..................ii.
671 i     camphor..........ii.
293!     oil of, volatile ... ii.
193!     volatile resin of., ii.
193  Ambergris..............ii.
193,Amblotica  .............. i.
194  Amblothridia .......... i.
193  Ambra grisea..........ii.
199  Ambreine............... ii.
198  American calumba ... ii.
200  Amide theory, Kane's i.
194  Amido-chloride of mer-
199    cury  .................. i.
193' Amylic alcohol......... ii.
 PAGE
,  198
  196
  194
  194
  194
  193
  195
  196
  199
  195
  196
  199
  197
  199
r, 199
  199
  195
  201
  201
  250
  250
  250
  250
  145
  985
  986
   99
  605
  605
  599
  600
  599
  605
  600
  600
  605
  605
  599
  605
  599
  598
  598
  605

  598
   93
   96
ii. 96
   97
  244
  214
  222
  963
  963
  964
  963
 1158
  290
  290
 1158
 1158
  530
  423

  809
  900 
1190
INDEX.
	PAGE
	i 423
acetate of .........	i. 454
or ammoniacal gas	l. 423
Berthollet's neu-	
tral carbonate	
of................	i. 443
citrate of..........	i. 456
	l. 450
hydrochlorate of.	. 444
hydrosulphates of	t. 449
hydro sulphuret of	i. 450
	l. 433
liniment of sesqui-	
carbonate of...	i. 443
	i. 444
neutral carbonate	
of................	i. 436
_neutral hydrosul-	
phuret of ......	i. 450
nitrate of.........	t. 454
	. 433
oxalate of.........	. 456
	l. 434
subcarbonate of..	. 438
	. 453
tartrate of.........	. 456
	. 426
Ammoniacal gas ......	i. 423
Ammoniacalia .........	l. 256
Ammoniacum.......... i	i. 720
	i. 723
	. 454
acetatis aqua ....	. 454
	. 454
	. 426
bicarbonas .......	. 443
bihydrosulphas.. ]	. 450
	. 434
carbonatis aqua..	. 426
causticae aqua ...	. 426
	. 456
chloride of ....... i	. 444
cuproLsulphas ... i	. 760
hydrochloras .... ]	. 444
hydrosulphates.. ]	. 449
hydro sulphur etum	i. 450
	. 426
	. 428
monocarbonas ... ]	. 436
murias ............ ]	. 444
	. 454
	. 456
sesquicarbonas... :	. 438
sesquicarbonas	
pyro-oleosa.... i	. 443
sesquicarbonatis	
	. 442
	. 453
	. 456
Ammoniaretum cupri i	. 760
Ammonio-chloride of	
mercury ............. j	. 809
Ammoniated submu-	
riate of mercury ...	. 809
Ammonium, chloride of i	. 444
theory, Berzelius's ]	. 425
                       PAGE
Ammoniuret of terox-
  ideofgold............  i.  835
Amomum Afzelii...... ii.  24S
    angustifolium ... ii.  246
    cardamomum — ii.  240
    citratum.......... ii.  247
    Clusii..............ii.  217
    globosum ......... ii.  249
    granum  paradisi ii.  241
    great winged .... ii.  245
    korarima ......... ii.  246
    macrospermum .. ii.  248
    madagascariense ii.  246
    maximum.........ii.  245
    melegueta......... ii.  241
    racemosum.......ii.  240
    villosum........... ii.  249
    zingiber............ii.  229
Amorphous  or black
       sulphuret   of
       mercury .......  i.  793
    tersulphuret  of
       antimony ......  i.  652
Amygdalae..............ii.  763
    amarae.............ii.  764
    dulces.............ii.  764
Amygdalin.............ii.  765
Amygdalus communis ii.  763
    Persica.....*.......ii.  771
Amylum................ ii.  124
    mandiocae.........ii.  382
    solani tuberosi... ii.  501
    tritici...............ii.  124
Amyris elemifera......ii.  868
    kataf............... ii.  865
    l'lumieri..........ii.  868
    zeylanica .........ii.  868
Anacathartica .........  i.  267
Anacyclus pyrethrum ii.  593
Anaesthetica............  i.  238
Analeptica .............  i.  251
Anamirta cocculus ... ii. 1072
Anaphrodisiaca .......  i.  289
Anatripsologia.........  i.  173
Anchusa tinctoria .... ii.  508
Anchusic acid ......... ii.  508
Anda brasiliensis...... ii.  380
Andira inermis.........ii.  836
    retusa.............ii.  837
Andropogon  calamus
      aromaticus .... ii.  154
    citratum ..........ii.  156
    iwarancusa.......ii.  154
    muricatus......... ii.  153
    nardoides.........ii.  154
    sehcenanthus.....ii.  155
Anethumgraveolens.. ii.  706
Angelica, garden...... ii.  709
    sativa .............ii.  709
Angiospermas..........ii.  312
Angostura bark....... ii.  880
    false bark.........ii.  881
Angosturin.............ii.  882
Anima articulorum ... ii.  181
Animal black..........  i.  331
    charcoal ..........  i.  331
Animal charcoal, puri-
       fied ..............  i.  3.'!4
    oil, Dippel's...... ii.  965
         soda soap ...  i.  550
Anise.....................ii.  703
    star.......... ii. 703, 1080
Aniseed  .......... ii. 703, 1080
Anisum stellatum  — ii. 1080
Annulosa ...............ii. HOG
Antacida................  i.  216
Antagonism or counter-
  irritation ............  i.  170
Anthelminthica .......  i.  259
Anthelmintics, mecha-
  nical ..................  i.
Anthemis chia.........ii.  590
    nobilis ............ii.  590
Anthiarin............... ii.  347
Anthypnotica..........  i.  247
Anthriscus cerefolium ii.  737
    vulgaris............ii.  728
Antilithica..............  i.  283
Antiaris toxiearia  .... ii.  347
Antidota................  i.  201
Antidotes,  mechanical
                  i. 198, 202
198
	1. '201
	. 202
	. 251
Antimonial powder ...	1. 647
	1. 670
	. 222
Aptimonii cinis........	i. 646
	. 659
et potassae tartras	l. 659
	1. 644
oxysulphuretum	. 655
potassio-tartras..	. 659
sesquisulphure-	
	. 650
	. 650
	. 655
sulphuretum prae-	
paratum ... i. 6f	1, 652
	. 644
tersulphuretum..	. 650
amorphum.. ]	. 652
Antimonii tersulphu-	
retum praecipitatum	l. 655
Antimonium tartari-	
	. 659
	l. 646
Antimony, amorphous	
tersulphuret of	. 652
common or crude	. 651
compounds of....	. 644
flowers of......... i	. 644
glass of............	i. 646
golden sulphuret	
of................	l. 657
muriate of hydro-
  chlorate of .... i.   657
nitro-muriatic ox-
  ide of............ i.   645
oil or butter of... i.   657
ore.................. i.   650 
INDEX.
1191
Antimony,  pentasul-
      phuretof....... i.  657
    precipitated  sul-
      phuret of...... i.  655
    precipitated  ter-
      sulphuret of... i.  655
    protochloride of  i.  657
    red.................. i.  652
    sulphur of......... i.  652
    sesquichloride of i.  657
    sulphuret......... i.  650
    tartarized......... i.  659
    terchloride of .... i.  657
    teroxide of....... i.  644
    tersulphuret of... i.  650
Antipathia ............. i.  168
Antiseptica............. i.  205
Antiseptics............. i.  205
Antispasmodics ... i.  223, 251
Antsjar or upas....... i.  347
Aphrodisiaca ..........ii.  289
Apis mellifica .........ii. 1132
Apargia hispida  ......ii.  605
Aporetine...............ii.  431
Apples, mad............ ii.  321
Aqua..................... i.  298
    acidi carbonici ... i.  340
        hydrosulphu-
           rici......... i.  376
    aluminosabateanai.  605
    ammoniae ......... i.  426
        acetatis...... i.  454
        carbonatis... i.  442
        causticae..... i.  426
    amygdalae amarae ii.  766
    anethi .............ii.  707
    anisi ...............ii.  704
    argentea.......... i.  765
    aurantii...........ii.  981
    barytae muriatis  i.  560
    binelli.............ii.  959
    calcis............... i.  564
         muriatis..... i.  575
    camphorae......... ii.  403
    carbonatis  sodae
      acidula ......... i.  523
    carui...............ii.  702
    cassias.............ii.  395
    castorei............ii. 1174
    cinnamomi .......ii.  392
    coloniensis'.......ii.  981
    cupri  ammoniati  i.  762
    destillata ......... i.  303
    ex flumine......... i.  313
         lacu.......... i.  314
         palude....... i.  314
         puteo......... i.  312
    ferruginosae  car-
      bonicae ......... i.  318
    floris aurantii.... ii.  981
    fceniculi............ii.  706
    fontana............ i.  311
    fortis............... i-  417
         duplex....... i.  417
         simplex...... i.  417
    hordeata..........ii-  H7
                        PAGE
Aqua hungarica.......ii.  452
     hydrogenii  .......  i.  298
     imbrium  ..........  i.  311
     infernalis.........ii.  162
     kali .................i.  472
     lauro-cerasi......ii.  775
     lavandulae.........ii.  442
     luciae...............  i.  433
     magnesiae  bicar-
       bonatis.........  i.  592
     marina ............  i.  314
     menthae piperitae ii.  446
         pulegii  ...... ii.  447
         viridis....... ii.  445
     mercurialis nigra  i.  788
     metallorum  ......  i.  765
     naphae.............ii.  980
     nitrogenii protox-
       ydi...............  i.  403
     nivalis.............  i.  311
     oxygenii..........  i.  296
     oxymuriatica ....  i.  382
     phagedenica......  i.  789
         mitis.........  i.  788
     picis liquidae......ii.  304
     pimentae...........ii.  758
     pluvia..............  i.  311
     pluvialis...........  i.  311
     potassai............  i.  464
         sulphureti...  i.  477
     pulegii  ............ ii.  447
     regia...............  i.  421
     reginae  hungariae ii.  452
     rosae ...............ii.  801
     rosmarinae........ii.  452
     sambuci...........ii.  699
     sapphirina........  i.  762
Aquae  acidulae .........  i.  320
     communes.........  i.  305
     destillatae .........  i.  303
     ferruginosae  ......  i.  317
     medicatae .........  i.  304
     minerales.........  i.  315
     salinae .............  i.  322
     sulphureae seu he-
       paticae..........  i.  319
     vitriolicse .........  i.  318
Aquila alba............  i.  795
Araceae..................ii.  157
Araliaceae...............ii.  699
Arbor  alba .............ii.  751
Arbutus uva ursi...... ii.  580
Arcanum duplicatum  i.  481
     tartari.............  i.  505
Archangelica officina-
  lis.....................ii.  709
Arctostaphylos   uva-
  ursi ................... ii.  580
Ardent spirit ..........ii.  900
         production of
                     ii.  900
Areca catechu.........ii.  170
     nut..................ii.  170
Arena  calida............  i.   78
Arenation...............  i.   78
Argel.....................ii.  552
PAGE
Argel leave?,  flowers,
       and fruit...... ii.
Argenti chloridum  ... i.
     cyanidum......... ii.
     cyanuret um...... i.
     nitras............. i.
     oxydum............ i.
Argentum............... i.
     nitratuin.......... i.
     oxydatum fuscum i.
     vivum ............. i.
     zootinicum  .......ii. 1183
Argol, or crude tartar i.  508
Aricina.............ii.  670, 675
Arissema atrorubens.. ii.  158
Aristolochiaceae.......ii.
Aristolochia longa.... ii.
     rotunda............ ii.
     serpentaria....... ii.
Armoracia cochlearia ii
Arnica montana....... ii.
Arnicin.................. ii.
Arnicina ................ ii.
Aroideae  ................ii.
Aromata................ i.
Aromatic confection.. ii.
     powder............ ii.
     vinegar............ii.
Arrack ..................ii.
Arrow-root, East In-
      dian ............. ii.
     English............ii.
     Brazilian..........ii.
     Portland.......... ii.
     West Indian...... ii.
Arseniate of iron...... i.
Arsenic  and its  com-
       pounds .........
     antidotes  for......
     butter of..........
     flowers of.........
     glacial white......
     iodide of..........
     oxide of............
     red..................
     white..............
     yellow.............
Arsenical ointment  ...
     paste...............
     solution............
Arsenici bisulphuretum
     ceratum...........
     iodidum............
     sulphureta........
     superiodidum ....
     teriodidum  .......
     unguentum.......
Arsenicum..............
     iodatum............
     purum.............
Arsenious acid.........
         rough.........
Arsenite of potash, so-
  lution of.............  i
Artanthe elongata .... ii
Artemisia absinthium ii
 844
 824
1183
 833
 824
 823
 822
 824
 823
 705
 384
 387
 387
 384
1000
 597
 598
 598
 157
 253
 393
 392
 946
 913

 225
 502
 383
 157
 224
 747

 613
 638
 642
 615
 615
 643
 614
 642
 614
 643
 G42
 642
 815
 642
 642
 643
 643
 643
 643
 642
 613
 643
 614
 614
 615

 640
 357
 594 
1192
INDEX.
                        PAGE
 Artemisia Chinensis... ii.  595
     Indica.............ii.  595
     moxa .............. ii.  595
     vulgaris...........ii.  595
 Artesian wells ......... i.  312
 Arthritifugum  mag-
   num .................. i.   91
 Articulata...............ii. 1106
 Artocarpaceae  .........ii.  347
 Artocarpus incisa..... ii.  347
 Arum maculatum...... ii.  157
 Asa dulcis...............ii.  570
 Asafoetlda ferula......ii.  712
 Asagrsea officinalis ... ii.  1S7
 Asarabacca, common ii.  385
 Asarite .................. ii.  386
 Asarum camphor......ii.  386
     europaaum.........ii.  385
 Ascaris  lumbricoides i.  2G2
     vermicularis...... i.  261
 Asclepiadaceae.........ii.  551
 Asclepias gigantea  ... ii.  552
     pseudosarsa...... ii.  551
 Ashes, hot.............. i.   78
 Ash, manna............ii.  560
 Asiatic pills ............ i.  642
 Asparagin............... ii.  986
 Asparagus  officinalis  ii.  214
 Asparamide............ ii.  986
 Aspartic acid.......... ii.  986
 Aspidium filix mas ... ii.   98
 Assafcetida.............ii.  712
 Astacus fluviatilis.....ii. 1136
 Asteroideae.............ii.  589
 Astragalus  .............ii.  819
     aristatus..........ii.  819
     creticus............ii.  820
     gummifer.........ii.  820
     strobiliferus......ii.  820
     verus............... ii.  820
 Astringentia............  i.  200
     vegetabilia  pura i.  243
 Astringents ............ i.  201
 Atmospheric air....... i.  457
     equability ........ i.  123
     humidity.......... i.  122
     moisture  .......... i.  122
     pressure........... i.  123
    purity.............. i.  122
Atramentum sutorium i.  733
Artocarpaceae  .........ii.  347
Atropa belladonna.... ii.  470
Atropia..................ii.  478
Atropiae sulphas......ii.  480
Atropicacid............ii.  471
Attar of roses.........ii.  801
Aurantiaceae............ii.  972
Aurantii baccae.........ii.  978
    cortex  .............ii.  980
Aurantiin...............ii.  975
Aurate of ammonia ...  i.  835
Auri iodidum ..........  i.  836
     terchloridum.....  i.  835
     tercyanidum...... ii. 1181
    teroxydum........  i.  834
Auric acid...............  i.  834
                        PAGE
Auro-terchloride   of
  sodium ...............  i.  837
Aurum ..................  i.  833
    fulminans.........  i.  833
    musivum..........  i.  690
    stanno-paratum   i.  835
Automalite or gahnite  i.  675
Auxilia medica.........  i.   65
Avena sativa............ii.  Ill
Avenin ..................ii.  112
Avens, common.......ii.  794
Avcs  .....................ii. 1153
Axunge..................ii. 1170
Azolitmine..............ii.   76
Azote.....................  i.  411
Azoturetted hydrogen  i.  423
              B.

 Baccae copaiferae fac-
       titiae ............ii.  858
     orientales.....:... ii. 1072
 Baker's salt............ i.  438
 Balm, common......... ii.  450
     of Gilead .........ii.  869
         fir ............ ii.  286
 Balnea animalia....... i.   82
     sulphurosa........ i.  374
 Balneum ................ i.   77
     arenae.............. i.   78
     maris factitium... i.  315
     nitro-hydrochlori-
       cum............. i.  422
     potassii  superio-
      didi.............. i.  494
     sodae    hyposul-
      phitis............ i.  530
     sulphuratum...... i.  477
     sulphuratum   et
      gelatinosum ... i.  478
Balsam, Canada.......ii.  286
     commander's.....ii.  572
     copaiva............ii.  851
     forcuts............ii.  572
     friar's .............ii.  572
     Hungarian........ii.  285
     mercurial......... i.  819
     sea-side............ii.  369
     wound.............ii.  572
     of Peru............ii.  811
       sulphur......... i.  360
       Tolu............ii.  814
Balsams.................. i.  255
Balsamaceae............ii.  313
Balsamodendron gilea-
      dense............ii.  869
     kataf...............ii.  865
     myrrha............ii.  865
Balsamum..............ii.  811
     canadense ........ii.  289
     carpathicum  .....ii.  285
     filicis...............ji.  ioi
     gileadense.........ii.  869
     libani...............ii.  285
     mercuriale........ i.  819
                        PAGE
Balsamum   peruvia-
     num ................ii.  812
         album........ii.  812
         nigrum......ii.  812
     sulphuris  ......... i.  360
     tolutanum vel de
       Tolu ............ii.  815
     traumaticum..... ii.  572
Banana..................ii.  222
Bandoline...............ii.   59
Barbadoes nuts .......it  379
     tar..................ii.  962
Barbary gum..........ii.  828
Baregine................ii.   52
Barii chloridum....... i.  557
     iodidum............ i.  560
     oxydum............ i.  555
Barilla .................. i.  514
Barium, chloride of... i.  557
     compounds of ... i.  555
     iodide of.......... i.  560
     oxide of........... i.  555
     solution of chlo-
       ride of.......... i.  560
Bark, Angostura......ii.  880
     Arica ..............ii.  654
     ashy crown.......ii.  660
     Carabaya.........ii.  652
     cascarilla or elu-
       theria...........ii.  370
     cinchona..........ii.  631
     copalche ..........ii.  372
     culilawan or clove ii.  387
     Cusco..............ii.  652
     Huamalies........ii.  656
     Huanuco, gray or
       silver............ii.  655
     infusion of.........ii.  689
    jackets ............ii.  687
     Jean or ash... ii.  637, 657
     Loxa or crown ii.  634, 658
     Maracaibo........ii.  667
     massoy............ii.  388
     new spurious yel-
       low..............ii.  664
     pale................ii.  644
     Pitaya.............ii.  663
     red..................ii.  661
     St. Lucia .........ii.  668
     sintoc..............ii.  388
     Surinam ..........ii.  837
     white crown......ii.  659
     wiry Loxa.........ii.  660
     yellow.............ii.  684
         or regia,  or
           Calisaya.. ii.  644
Barks, false cinchonas ii.  648
Barley,  common   or
       long-eared.....ii.  115
     sugar...............ii.  149
    water...............ii.  117
Barm.....................ii.   80
Barosma................ ii.  878
    crenata............ii.  878
     crenulata ......... ii.  878
     serratifolia.......ii.  878 
INDEX.                                   H93
Baryta, carbonate of  i.  655
    hydriodate of.... i.  560
    muriate of......... i.  557
    nitrate of ......... i.  561
    solution of nitrate
       of................ i.  561
    sulphate of....... i.  557
    •water............... i.  555 '
Barytae, carbonas..... i.  555
    murias  ............ i.  557
    muriatis aqua .... i.  560
    nitras.............. i.  561
    sulphas .....'....... i.  557
Barytes, muriate of... i.  557
Basilicon ointment ... ii.  301
Bassora gum............ ii.  829
Bassorin............ii. 803, 821'
Bastard dittany....... ii.  883 I
Bates's alum water ... i.  605
Bath, air-pump vapour i.    80
     animal............. i.    82
     cool................. i.    88
     electric ............ i.  105
     foot................. i.    82
     hand............... i.    82
     hip ................. i.    81
     medicated vapour i.    80
         water......... i.    82
     nitro-muriatic ... i.  422
     cold ................ i.    87
     electric ............ i.    95
Baths, hot............... i.    82
     hot air............. i.    77
     shower............. i.    89
     tepid and  warm
       bath............. i.    81
Battery, voltaic ....... i.   107
Baume  du Pdrou en
   cocos.................. ii.   812
Bay salt................. i.   536
     the sweet.........ii.   406
Bdellium................ii.   869
Bean caper tribe......ii.   883
     St. Ignatius's .... ii.   550
     tribe ...............ii.   810
Bear-berry .............ii.   580
Bearded darnel.........ii.   113
Beaver  ..................ii.  1171
Bechica ................. i.   206
Bedeguar,  or  sweet
   brier sponge.........ii.   809
Bee.......................ii.  1132
PAGE

 570
 770
 974

 974
Beeswax ................ii. 1134
Beer .....................ii.
    spruce............. ii.
Beetle, blister .........ii.
Beguin's sulphuretted
  spirit..................  i-
Belladonna ............. ii.
Belladonnin ............ ii.
Benjamin, flowers of  ii
    tree ................ ii'
Benzamide..............h.
Benzoic acid............ ii.
Benzoin.................."•
Benzoine................Ui
 118
 286
1118

 452
 470
 471
 573
 569
 770
 573
 569
 769
Benzoinum in lachry
  mis....................ii.
Benzule orbenzoyle... ii.
Bergamot citrus......ii.
    essence  or vola-
       tile oil of...... ii.
Berlin  or   Prussian
  blue...................ii.  778
Berthollet's   neutral
  carbonate of ammo-
  nia.....................  i.  443
Beta vulgaris ..........ii.  438
Betel.....................ii.  170
    nut..................ii.  833
Betle pepper............ii.  353
    piper............... ii.  353
Betula  alba  ............  i.   78
Bibirina.................ii.  409
Bibirina3  subsulphas  ii.  410
Bibiru, or greenheart
  tree ...................ii.  408
Biborate of soda......  i.  521
Bicarbonate of ammo-
       nia...............  i.  443
    lime................  i.  570
    magnesia..........  i.  592
    potash.............  i.  472
    soda................  i.  520
Bichloride of platinum i.  837
Bicyanide of mercury ii. 1181
Bigarade,  or  bitter
   orange tree .........ii.  979
Bihydrate of amiline ii.  900
Bihydrosulphate   of
   ammonia............. i.  450
Bindweed tribe.........ii.  508
Biniodide of mercury  i.  813
Binoxalate of potash ii.  889
Binoxide of  hydrogen i.  326
     manganese ....... i.  609
     mercury........... i.  788
     nitrogen........... i.  414
Birch leaves............ i.    78
Birds..................... ii. 1153
Birthworts .............ii.  384
Birthwort, round  and
   long...................ii.  387
Biscuits, purgative ... ii.  522
Bismuth and its com-
       pounds ......... i.  671
     magistery of...... i.  672
     nitrate of......... i.  072
     subnitrate of...... i.  672
     tetarto-uitrate of i.  (172
     white...............  i.  672
Bismuthi nitras....... i.  672
     subnitras ...  ..... i.  672
     trisnitras ......... i.  672
J Bismuthum............. i.  671
     album..............  i.  672
Bistort, great ......... ii.  437
; Bisulphate of copper  i.  757
     cinchonia .........ii.  673
     potash............. i.  481
     quinia............. ii.  692
     quinidine .........ii.  674
                        PAGE
 Bisulphate of soda.... i.  531
 Bisulphuret of arsenic i.  042
     carbon............. i.  376
     chlorine............ i.  392
     mercury........... i.  71)2
 Bitartrate of potash .. i.  508
 Bitter almonds.........ii.  765
     cucumber.........ii.  738
     earth............... i.  583
     purging salt...... i.  593
     simaruba..........ii.  872
 Bittern .................. i.  593
 Bitters ..................ii.  710
 Bittersalzerde ......... i.  583
 Bittersweet ............ii.  503
 Bitterwood, lofty......ii.  873
 Bitumen liquidum .... ii.  961
     petroleum.........ii.  961
 Black, animal.......... i.  331
     bone  ............... i.  331
     -boy gum.........ii.  216
     drop  ...............ii. 1060
     flux................. i.  470
     ivory............... i.  331
     jack................ i.  674
     lead................ i.  327
     naphtha...........ii.  961
     salts................ i.  468
     sticking-plaster., ii.  573
     tang................ii.    55
     wash ............... i.  788
 Bladder podded lobelia ii.  583
     fucus...............ii.    55
 Bleaching powder..... i.  575
, Blende, or black jack i.  674
 Blister, perpetual......ii. 1125
     beetle..............ii. 1118
 Blistering plaster..... ii. 1128
 Blue copperas ......... i.  757
     litmus paper......ii.    77
     or    Neapolitan
       ointment....... i.  784
     pills................ i.  783
     Prussian..........ii.  778
     stone............... i.  757
     vitriol ............. i.  757
 Bolus armena rubra... i.  599
 Bone ash................ i.  333
     black............... i.  331
     earth of............ i.  570
     spirit............... i.  331
 Boracic acid............ i.  525
 Boraginaceao  ........... ii.  508
 Borate of potash...... i.  527
     or sub-borate of
       soda............. i.  524
 Borax.................... i.  524
     crude or native... i.  525
     glass of............ i.  525
     honey of........... i.  527
     mellite of.......... i.  527
     octohedral......... i.  525
     prismatic ......... i.  625
 Bordeaux turpentine . ii.  285
 Boletus cervinus......ii.    88
 Bos taurus .............ii. 11GG 
1194
INDEX.
                       PAGE I
Boswellia serrata......ii.  863
    thurifera..........ii.  863
Botany Bay kino......ii.  758 j
Bothriocephalus latus i.  2G2
Boyle's fuming  liquor
      of sulphur...... i.  452
    hell................. i.  788
Brachiluvium .......... i.    82
Bran .....................ii.  125
    hot.................. i.    78
Brandish's   alkaline
  solution............... i.  466
Brandy..................ii.  911
Brasium.................ii.  117
Brazilian isinglass ... ii. 11401
Brayera anthelmintica ii.  804
Bread-fruit tree ......ii.  347 I
Bread, patent  unfer-
  mented...............ii.  127
Bricks, hot............. i.    78
Brimstone .............. i.  352
Bromica................. i.  220
Bromide  of potassium i.  495
Bromine  ................ i.  408
Brominium............. i.  408
Bromus catharticus... i.  134
    mollis.............. i.  134
    purgans ........... i.  134
Broomt common ......ii.  816
    Spanish............ii.  816
    salt  of .............ii.  816
    tops................ii.  817
Brown sugar............ii.  149
Brucia, or brucina ... ii.  536
    ferruginea,   or
      anti-dysentericaii.  535
Brunonian theory .... i.  145
Bryonin.................. ii.  750
Bryonia  dioica.........ii.  750
Bryony,  white.........ii.  750
Bubon galbanum...... ii.  723
Buku.....................ii.  878
Buckbean...............ii.  529
Buckthorn  tribe ...... ii.  870
Buckwheats............ii.  420
Burbot ..................ii. 1145
Burnt hartshorn ...... i.  571
    magnesia   ......... i.  583
Burgundy pitch.......ii.  301
Buranhem...............ii.  577
Burying  in the ground i.    78
Butea frondosa.........ii.  859
Butter...................ii. 1167
    of zinc............. i.  683
Byne.....................ii.  117
Byttneriaceae ..........ii.  984
Butua root .............ii. 1075
Butyrum................ii. 1167
             C.

Caape"ba.................ii. 1075
Caballine aloes.........ii.   199
Cabbage-bark tree ... ii.   836
    tribe  ...............ii.   999
                       PAGE
Cacao tribe ............ "•  (-iy4
Cadmia fornacum seu
  factitia ............... j-  678
Cadmii sulphas........ i.  687
Cadmium............i. 622, 687
    sulphate of....... i.  687
    sulphuricum...... i.  687
Caeruleum Borussicum
  seu Berolinense__ii.  778
Caffeic acid............ii.  630
Caffeone  ................ii.  630
Cagliari paste .........ii.  12G
Cajuputi ................ii.  751
    oleum..............ii.  751
Caju-kilan............... ii.  751
Calamina praeparata . i.  680
Calamine............ i. 675, 679
    cerate ............. i.  680
    electric......... i. 675, 679
    prepared.......... i.  680
Calamus aromaticus . ii.  154
    Draco..............ii.  169
Calcareous earth...... i.  661
    soap................ i.  565
    spar................ i.  565
    waters............. i.  323
Calcii chloridum ...... i.  573
Calcined magnesia .... i.  583
    mercury........... i.  788
Calcis bicarbonas...... i.  570
    carbonas .......... i.  565
         praeparatum i.  566
    dura ............... i.  566
    friabilis............ i.  566
    hypochloris  ...... i.  575
    muriatis solutio . i.  575
    phosphas precipi-
      tatum........... i.  571
    phosphas e cornu
      igne comparata ii. 1165
    plumbis............ i.  698
    triphosphas ...... i.  520
Calcium, oxide of...... i.  561
Calefacientia .......... i.  249
Calisaya bark..........ii.  632
Callicocca ipecacuanha ii.  620
Calomel.................. i.  795
Calomelas............... i.  795
    praecipitatum .... i.  797
    sublimatum ...... i.  795
Calotropis gigantea ... ii.  552
Calumba, American
                ii. 530, 1071
    false ...............ii.  530
    plant...............ii. 1069
Calumbin ............... ii. 1070
Calx...................... i.  561
    chlorinata......... i.  575
    extincta............ i.  562
    usta................ i.  561
    viva................ i.  561
Calyciflorae.............ii.  577
Cambogia gutta  ...... ii.  966
    siamensis ......... ii.  967
    zeylanica .........ii.  968
Camphene...............ii.  294
                       PAGE
Camphor  ............... «•  396
    artificial........... ii-  294
    Borneo ............ ii.  983
    crude..............."•  396
    Japan or Dutch . ii.  396
    liniment...........ii.  405
        compound... ii.  405
    liquid..............ii.  983
        artificial  .... ii.  294
    mixture............ii.  403
    nitrate of.........ii.  398
    oil  .............ii. 398, 983
    refined ............ii.  397
    tree ................ii.  396
Camphora officinarum ii.  396
Camphoracea ..........  i.  237
Camphorated   acetic
      acid.............ii.  947
    cretaceous tooth-
      powder .........  i.  570
    spirits of wine ... ii.  404
Camphoric acid ....... ii.  398
Camphrone.............ii.  398
Canada  balsam.........ii.  286
Canarium zephyrinum
  sive sylvestris  pri-
  mum  canari Barat. ii.  868
Cancer pagurus .......ii. 1136
Candles, mercurial ...  i.  776
Canella  alba............ii.  971
Canellin (Mannite?)  . ii.  972
Caniramin............... ii.  536
Canna coccinea.........ii.  227
    edulis..............ii.  227
Cannabina.......v......  i.  230
Cannabinaceae .........ii.  334
Cannabis sativa.......ii.  334
Cantharadin............ii. 1121
Cantharides............ ii. 1118
Cantharides-camphor ii. 1121
Cantharis atomaria ... ii. 1129
    atrata..............ii. 1129
    cinerea............ii. 1129
    marginata.........ii. 1129
    ruficeps............ii. 1129
    Syriaca............ii. 1129
    vesicatoria........ii. 1118
    violacea............ii. 1129
    vittata.............ii. 1129
Caper spurge..........ii.  362
Caphopicrite...........ii.  431
Capillaire...............ii.  101
Caprifoliaceae..........ii.  698
Capsicin.................ii.  506
Capsicum annuum__ii.  505
    common...........ii.  505
    frutescens.........ii.  505
Capsulas seu capita pa-
  paveris ...............ii. 1008
Carabaya bark......... ii.  652
Caramel.................ii.  153
Carapoucha ............  i.  134
Carapulla...............  i.  134
Caraway................ii.  701
Carbo animalis.........  i.  331
         purificatus..  i.  334 
INDEX.
1195
Carbo ligni.............
Carbon  ..................
    bisulphuret of ...
    consumed as food
Carbonas barytae......
    calcis ..............
         dura..........
         friabilis......
    ferri................
    plumbi.............
    potassae............
    sodae...............
    zinci impuri......
       impurum prae-
          paratum....
Carbonate of ammonia
    icon................
    lead................
    lime, neutral.....
    lithia...............
    zinc ................
Carbonated waters....
    chalybeate waters
Carbonates of ammonia
    lime................
    potash .............
Carbonic acid..........
    water...............
Carbonicum acidum...
    natrum ............
Carbonii  bisulphuret-
PAOE'
 329: Can-on oil............... i.
 327JCarrot................... ii.
 376  Carthagena barks .... ii.
 115.Carthamin, or cartha-
 555    mic acid...............ii.
 565  Carthamus  tinctorius ii.
 566 j Carthusian powder ... i.
 566ICarum carui............ii.
 727  Caryophyllaceae.......ii.
 6991 Caryophillin ...........ii.
 469; Caryophyllus aroma-
Carbonium .............
Carburet or percarbu-
  ret of iron...........
    of sulphur........
Carburetted hydrogen
Cardamine pratensis..
Cardamines, flores.....
Cardamom, black.....,
    Ceylon.............
    Clusius's...........
    cluster or round.. :
    greater Java...... :
    Java ...............
    Malabar...........
    ovoid China ......
    round China......
    the korarima ....
    true or officinal..
Cardamomum  amom-
    majus..........
         vulgare..
    rotunduni.....
Carex arenaria.....
Caricae  ..............
Carmine ............
Carminatives.......
Carnation...........
Carolina pink......
Carota daucus.....
Carotin..............
Carrageen cocoa...
    or  hi>h moss.
Carrageenin ........
513
ticus................... ii.
6791 Caryota urens..........ii.
    Caseum .................ii.
680 Cascarilla...............ii.
 436      or eleutheria bark ii.
 727      de Trinidad.......ii.
 699 Cassava, bitter.........ii.
 565      or  tapioca plant ii.
 554'     starch.............ii.
 679 Cassia...................ii.
 320      acutifolia .........ii.
 318      JEthiopica........ii.
 434      buds ...............ii.
 565      cinnamomum.....ii.
 467      elongata ..........ii.
 335      fistula .............ii.
 339      lanceolata.........ii.
 335      lignea..............ii.
 513      Marilandica......ii.
          obovata ...........ii.
 376      officinalis .........ii.
 327      praeparata.........ii.
          pulp................ii.
 329      purging............ii.
 376      senna...............ii.
 123 Cassius, purple of ....  i.
 999 Cassumunar root......ii.
 999 Castile soap............  i.
 250 Castor...................ii.
 255      fiber ............... ii.
 247      oil..................ii.
 240          plant.........ii.
 245          seeds.........ii.
 245 Castoreum..............ii.
 252 i     camphor.......... ii.
 251 Castorine ............... ii.
 249 Cataleptica..............  i.
 246 Cataplasma aluminis  i.
 251      bynes..............ii.
          carbonis ligni ....  i.
 240      conii ...............ii.
 247      fseculae cerevisias ii.
 2541     fermenti ..........ii.
 240'         cerevisiae  ... ii.
 157|     Hni..........
 345 i     sinapis .....
11311     sodae  chlorinate  i.  543
 251 Cataputia minor ......ii.  363
 991 Catechine......... ii. 698,  834
 530 Catechu, acacia....... ii.  832
 710      areca ..............ii.  833
 711      gambir .......ii. 696, 833
  59 j Catechuic acid.........ii.  698
  56 Cathacretics ............  i-  200
  61! Cathartica..............  i.  270
  PAGE
    564
    710
    665

    603
    603
    652
    701
    991
    754

    753
    161
  1168
    632
    396
    372
    380
    380
    383
    840
    841
    841
    394
    393
    841
    849
    842
    393
    842
    841
    840
    850
    850
    849
    840
    835
    234
    550
  1172
  1171
    375
    372
    375
  1171
  1174
  1174
    245
    605
     86
    331
    737
     86
     80
     86
ii.  990
ii. 1004
Cathartics  or purga-
  tives .................. i.  270
Cathartine..............ii.  846
Cathartocarpus fistula ii.  849
Caustic potash......... i.  466
    lunar............... i.  824
    or quicklime..... i.  561
Caustics (caustica) ... i.  199
Cauterization  object-
  ive.................... i.    77
Cauterium  potentiate i.  466
Cautery, the actual... i.    78
Caviare..................ii. 1138
Cayenne  pepper......ii.  505
Cebadilla ...............ii.  187
Cedar, red..............ii.  309
Centaurea centaurium ii.  529
Centaurin...............ii.  529
Centaury, common ... ii.  529
Cephalopoda...........ii. 1105
Cephaelis, ipecacuan-
  ha.....................ii.  619
Cera alba...............ii. 1135
    flava...............ii. 1134
Ceraine..................ii. 1135
Cerasin..................ii.  809
Cerasus avium.........ii.  809
    lauro-cerasus .... ii.  774
    serotina............ii.  775
Cerate,     Kirkland's
  neutral............... i.  715
Cerate of sugar of lead i.  711
    Turner's.......... i.  680
Cerate, simple.........ii. 1136
Ceratum  ................ ii. 1136
    arsenici ........... i.  642
    calaminae ......... i.  080
    cantharidis  ...... ii. 1127
    cetacei ............ ii. 1157
    epuloticum  ...... i.  680
    hydrargyri  com-
      positum......... i.  786
    plumbi acetatis .. i.  711
         compositum i.  713
    resinae ............ii.  301
    sabinae ^...........ii.  311
    saponis composi-
      tum  .........i. 553, 714
    simplex............ ii. 1157
    zinci  carbonatis i.  681
Cercbro-spinalis  ...... i.  234
Cerevisia ...............ii.  118
    abietis ............ ii.  286
    zingiberis.........ii.  233
Cerevisiae  fermentum ii.    82
Ceric  acid............... ii. 1135
Cerine .................. ij. 1135
Cerotic acid............ ii. 1135
Cerussa or ceruse...... i.  G99
    acetata............ i.  708
    citrina ............ i.  097
Cervisia.................ii.  118
Cervus elaphus.........ii. 11G4
Cetacea.................. ii. 1155
Cetaceum............... ii. 1155
Cetene ..................ii. 1157 
1196
INDEX.
	ii.	1157
Cetraria Islandica ....	ii.	66
	ii.	G7
	ii.	187
	i.	263
	1.	733
		( 01
Chalk ...................	i.	566
compound pow-		
		569
		570
		669
		566
Chalybeated tartar ...		)o-2
Chalybeate waters ...		31/
		226
		318
Chalybs cum sulphure		
	1.	V31
Chamelaea tricocca ...	u.	416
Chamaemelum flore		
	n.	591
Chamomile, common ii.		590
Chamomile flowers, fo-		
	u.	592
Chamomile, roman....	n.	590
	n.	591
Chamomilla, matrica-		
	u. ii.	590
		96
	i.	331
cataplasm........	i.	331
Charcoal poultice......	l.	331
purified animal..	i.	334
	l.	329
	u.	237
exploratoria cae-		
rulea............	n.	77
rubefacta ...	u.	78
	n.	1129
	u. ii.	353
		353
	u.	1136
Chelidonium majus...	ii.	1006
	u.	438
Chenopodium anthel-		
minticum ............	n. ii.	434
		440
Cherry-laurel, com-		
	n. ii.	774
		809
	u.	861
	n.	608
	u.	608
Chili saltpetre.........	i.	544
		505
Chimaphila corymbosa ii.		578
Chimaphila maculata	u.	578
Chimaphila umbellata ii.		578
China root...............	n.	281
Chinidin ...............	ii.	673
Chiretta or Chirayta	ii.	527
Chironia centaurium	ii.	529
Chive ...................	ii. i.	213
Chlorate of potash ..		484
Chloric ether .........	ii.	930
Chloride of ammonium  i.
    barium ............  i-
    calcium............  i.
    lead................  i-
    lime ...............  i.
TAGE
 444
 557
 573
 703
 575
ry ......i. 795, 803
     olefiant gas ......ii.  930
     potassium.........  i.  483
     silver..............  i.  824
     soda  ...............  i.  539
     sodium ............  i.  533
     zinc ................  i.  683
Chloridum barii ......  i.  557
     calcii...............  i.  573
     hydrargyri .......  i.  803
     sodii  ...............  i.  533
Chlorinated lime ......  i.  575
Chlorine ................  i.  378
     water...............  i.  382
Chlorinium .............  i.  378
Chloro-amide  of hy-
  drogen................  i.
Chloro-nitric acid......  i.
Chloroform ............ ii.
Chloroformum.........ii.
Chloroformyl .......... ii.
Chlorothalle............ii.
Chloruret of the oxide
  of calcium............ ii.
     sodium ............  i.
Chocolate...............ii.
     white............... ii.
Choke-damp...:........  i.
Cholagoga...............  i.
Chondrus crispus......ii.
Christiana............... ii. 1081
Christmas rose.........ii. 1081
Chromates  of  potash  i.
Chromic acid .........  i.
Chromium, compounds
     of....................i.
Chrysophyllum buran-
  heim .................. ii.
Churrus ................ ii.
Cichoraceae ............ ii.
Cichorium  intybus  ... ii.
Cicata maculata ......ii.
     virosa .............ii.
Cicutine..................ii.
444
422
930.
930
930
 68

575
539
984
 59
335
277
 56
607
607

607
335
604
608
727
738
729
Cimicifuga  raccmosa ii. 1093
Cinchona  ...............ii.  631
    alkaloids  .........ii.  670
    amygdalifolia.... ii.  635
    angustifolia ......ii.  034
    aurantiacea   de
       Santa F6 ......ii.  664
    australis..........ii.  635
    bark  ...............ii.  631
    barks, effects of ii.  683
    black...............ii.  634
    boliviana  .........ii.  636
    calisaya............ii.  G34
    carabaya..........ii.  652
    Carthagena.......ii.  666
    cataplasms.......ii.  687
    condaminea  ii. 634, 663
                        PAGE
Cinchona cordifolia ... ii.  636
    cusco...............ii-  6)2
    Carthagena ......ii.  6G6
    glandulifera......ii.  637
    gray  or silver... ii.  054
    hirsuta............ii.  637
    Huamalies  ....... ii.  G56
    Huanuco ......... ii.  654
    Humboldtiana ... ii.  637
    Jaen  ...............ii.  657
    lanceolata......... ii.  635
    lancifolia ......... ii.  661
    loxa............ii. 634, 658
    lucumaefolia......ii.  659
    macrocalyx...... ii.  634
    Maracaibo  ....... ii.  667
    meadow............ii.  634
    micrantha.........ii.  636
    nitida .............ii.  635
    oblongifolia ...... ii.  661
    orange of  Santa
       ¥6...............ii.  664
    ovata...............ii.  637
    Pelalba............ii.  638
    Peruviana......... ii.  655
    pitaya.............ii.  663
    pubescens......... ii.  636
        physiological
           effects of ii.  680
    purpurea .........ii.  636
    red..................ii.  661
    rotundifolia......ii.  637
    rubra.............. ii.  661
    scrobiculata......ii.  635
    villosa.............ii.  637
    yellow .............ii.  664
Cinchonacese  ..........ii.  616
Cinchonia...............ii.  670
    disulphate of......ii.  673
    neutral  sulphate
       of  ...............ii.  672
Cinchoniae  bisulphas ii.  G73
    sulphas............ ii.  673
Cinchonic acid......... ii.  G70
    red..................ii.  669
Cinchonine  ............ ii.  672
Cinchovatine  ..........ii.  658
Cineres clavellati cal-
       cinati............  i.  468
    crudi...............  i.  468
    vegetabilium  seu
       cineres e lignis
       combustis......  i.  468
Cinetica..................  i.  240
Cinin.....................ii.  596
Cinis  antimonii.........  i.  646
Cinnabar  ...............  i.  792
Cinnabaris .............  i.  792
Cinnameine ............ ii.  813
Cinnamomum  cassia ii.  393
    culilawan......... ii.  387
    sintoc .............ii.  388
    zeylanicum ......ii.  388
Cinnamon...............ii.  388
    cassia.............. ii.  393
    wild  ...............ii.  971 
INDEX.
1197
Cipipa  ..................ii.
Cistaceae  ...............ii.
Cistus creticus.........ii.
Cissampelos  Pareira ii.
Cissampelin............ii.
Citrates of iron.........  i.
Citric acid .............ii.
Citrine  ointment......  i.
Citron,  essence, or es-
       sential oil of... ii.
     tree ................ ii.
     tribe ............... ii.
Citrus aurantium......ii.
     bcrgamia .........ii.
     bigaradia......... ii.
     limetta............ii.
     limonum..........ii.
     medica............ii.
Citrullus  ............... ii.
Cladonia  rangiferina ii.
Claret  ..................ii.
Clarified  honey ......ii.
Classification of medi-
   cines .................. i.
Climate.................. i.
Clove  bark  ............ii.
     pink ...............ii.
     tannin  ............ ii.
     tree  ...............ii.
Cloves, mother.........ii.
Club-moss, common... ii.
Clysters.................. i.
Cneorum tricoccon ... ii.
Coagulated  mercury i.
Coalfish.................. ii.
Cobalt .................. i.
Coccinella...............ii.
Cocculus Indicus plant
                      ii.
     levanticus  pisca-
        torius ..........ii.
     palmatus ......... ii.
Coccus cacti............ii.
Cochineal............... ii.
Cochenillin  ............ ii.
Cochlearia  armoracia ii.
     officinalis......... ii.
Cocoa  ..................ii.
Cocoa-nut oil  ......... ii.
     tree ...............ii.
Cocos nucifera......... ii.
Cod-sounds  ............ ii-
Codeia............ii. 1026,
Codeine.................. ii.
Cod-oil.................. ii.
Cod-liver oil............  ii.
Caeliaca.................. i-
Ccelelmintha............ i.
Coffea  arabica.........ii.
Coffeaceae...............ii-
Coffee  ..................ii-
     chicory............ii-
Coil machines ......... i.
Colchicina  or colchi-
   cine  ..................)}•
Colchicum autumnale ii.
PAGE
 383
 998
 998
1075
1076
 749
 947
 819

 973
 973
 973
 978
 974
 979
 974
 974
 973
 738
   65
 897
1131

 178
 121
 388
 991
 754
 753
 754
 102
 176
 416
 788
1145
 614
1130

 1072

1073
1069
1000
1129
1131
1000
1000
 984
 168
 168
 168
1141
1027
1027
1140
1145
 259
 259
 629
 617
 629
 608
 110

 174
 171
181
181
181
171
171
723
Colchicum  bulbocodi-
       odes............. ii.
    byzantinum ...... ii.
    illyricum .........ii.
    variegatum ...... ii.
    montanuni.........ii.
Colcothar...............  i.
Cold  ..................i. 83, 316
    by conduction ...  i.   87
    evaporation ......  i.   87
    radiation .........  i.   87
Coleoptera  ............ii. 1118
Collins's  chloride  of
  lime  ..................  i.  583
Collodion ..........ii. 919, 988
Collodium  .............ii.  988
Colocynth...............ii.  738
Colocynthidis .........ii.  739
Colocynthin............ ii.
Colocynthis citrullus ii.
Colombo ................ii.
Colophonic acid ...... ii.
Colophonium  succini ii.
Colophony .............ii.
Coltsfoot ...............ii.
Compositae  ............ii.
Conchiferae ............ii. 1104
Condiments ............  i.  119
Confectio amygdalae., ii.  767
     aromatica.........ii.
     aurantii........... ii.
     cassiae.............ii.
     catechu composi-
       tum ............ii.
     opii ................ii.
     piperis nigri......ii.
 740
 738
1069
 300
 963
 300
 589
                         393
                         981
                         850

                         836
                        1055
                         352
    rosae ...............ii.  799
         caninae ......ii.  796
    rutae ...............ii.  877
    scammonii .......ii.  516
    sennae .............ii.  848
Confervacie ............ii.   51
Confervals developed
  in  pharmaceutical
  and other liquids... ii.
  employed in medi-
      cine  ............ ii.
    esculent .......... ii-
    of mineral waters ii.
Conia;  conicine;  co-
  nein  .................. ij-
Coniferae................  ]•  133
Conium maculatum... ii.  726
Conquin-tay............ii.
Conserva   amygdala-
      rum .............ii-
    aurantii  .......... ii.
    cynosbati.........ii.
    rosae ...............ii.
         fructus......ii.
Conserve of hips ......ii.
Constantinople opium ii. 1021
Contra-stimulants.....  i.  146
Contrayerva............ii.  346
Contrefeyn..............  i.  674
Convolvulaceae.........H.  508
223
981
796
799
796
796
                        PAGE
Convolvulin ............ii.  513
Convolvulus jalapa.... ii.  517
    scammouia........ii.  509
Convulsiva..............  i.  245
Copaiba..................ii.  852
Copaiba pills...........ii.  858
Copaifera................ ii.  831
    beyrichii..........ii.  851
    bijuga.............ii.  851
    cordifolia .........ii.  851
    coriacea...........ii.  851
    guianensis........ ii.  851
    Jacquini...........ii.  851
    Jussieu............ii.  851
    laxa................ii.  851
    Martii............. ii.  851
    multijuga.........ii.  851
    nitida..............ii.  851
    oblongifolia....... ii.  851
    officinalis..........ii.  851
    Sellowi............ii.  851
Copaiva, balsam.......ii.  852
    lavement..........ii.  857
    resin of............ii.  854
Copalche bark......... ii.  372
Copper and  its com-
       pounds..........  i.  755
    acetates of.........  i.  762
    ammoniated......  i.  760
    bisulphate of......  i.  800
    diacetate of......  i.  763
    rust of.............  i.  762
     subacetate  of....  i.  763
    sulphate of.......  i.  757
Copperas................  i.  733
    blue ................ i. 757
     white...............  i.  681
    green...............  i.  733
Coptis trifoliata.......ii.  1095
Coral.....................ii.  1104
    red, prepared
               i. 567,  ii.  1104
Corallium rubrum ....  ii.  1104
Cordials..................  i.  251
Corinthian raisins.....ii.  891
Coriander,  the  offici-
   nal.....................ii.  708
Coriandrum  sativum.,  ii.  708
Coriaria myrtifolia ...  ii.  845
Corktree ...............ii.  330
Corn, constituents of. i.  118
Cornaceae...............  ii-  1099
Cornu cervi elaphi....  ii.  1164
    ustum.....i. 571,  ii.  1165
Cornus florida .........  ii.  1099
    circinata..........  ii.  1100
     sericea  ............ii.  1100
Cornus sanguinea......  i.  329
Corolliflorae.............ii.  440
Corpse-lights...........  i.  113
Corrosive  muriate of
       mercury........  i.  803
    sublimate  .........  i.  803
Corsican moss..........ii.    62
Cortex  Winteri  seu
   Winteranus..........  ii.  1077 
1198
INDEX.
                        PAGE
 Corticin.................. ii.  315
 Corypha cerifera......ii.  169
 Cosmetic mercury..... i.  809
 Cosm6tique infallible i.  707
 Cotton, common.......ii.  986
 Cotyledoneae............ii.  105
 Counter-irritation..... i.  170
     irritating or anti-
       dynous lotions, i.  433
 Court-plaster...........ii. 1145
 Coury....................ii.  171
 Cowhage, common.... ii.  822
 Cow-houses, residence
  in...................... i.   80
 Ooxaeluvium............ i.   81
 Coxe's hive syrup..... ii.  212
 Crab's claws............ ii. 1136
         prepared.....i. . 567
    eyes................ii. 1136
    stones.............. ii. 1136
         prepared..... i.  567
Cransac    manganese
  waters................ i.  612
Crawfish................. ii. 1136
Cream.................... ii. 1167
    of tartar........... i.  508
Cream of tartar, solu-
  ble..................... i.  510
         whey......... i.  510
Creasote ................ii.  957
Creasoton...............ii.  957
Creme d'anise..........ii.  704
Cremor lactis...........ii. 1167
 Cremor tartari  solu-
  bilis................... i.  510
 Creta..................... i.  566
    alba................ i.  566
    praeparata......... i.  566
 Cretaceous mixture ... i.  569
 Crithmum  maritimum ii.  737
 Crocus antimonii... i.  646, 659
    martis.............. i.  722
    sativus.............ii.  217
 Croton cascarilla......ii.  372
    eleuteria..........ii.  369
    oil.................. ii.  367
    pavana.............ii.  363
    pseudo-china.....ii.  372
    seeds...............ii.  363
    tiglium.............ii.  362
 Crotoneae ...............ii.  362
 Crotonic acid...........ii.  364
 Crotonin.................ii.  364
 Crotonis oleum.........ii.  367
 Crowfoot................ii. 1080
    lesser spearwort ii. 1081
 Crown or Loxa  bark  ii.  634
 Crozopbora tinctoria.. ii.  383
Crystals, systems of., i.  182
 Cruciferae...............  ii.  999
Crustacea...............ii. 1136
Cryptogamia...........ii.   49
Cubeba, Piper.........ii.  354
    officinalis..........ii.  354
Cubebin.................ii.  355
                        PAGE
 Cubebs,  volatile  oil
       of...............  ii.   356
     essential oil of.... ii-   356
 Cubic nitre............. i.   497
 Cuckoo-flower .........ii.   999
 Cuckow-pint............ii.   157
 Cucumber,  bitter...... ii.   738
     spirting............ii.   743
     tree..................ii. 1079
     wild................ii.   743
 Cucumis colocynthis.. ii.   738
     melo................ii.   750
     sativus.............ii.   750
     citrullus...........ii.   750
 Cucurbita melopepo... ii.   750
     ovifera.............ii.   750
     pepo ...............ii.   750
 Cucurbitaceaa... i. 133, ii.  738
 Cudbear.................ii.    78
 Cuichunchully......... ii.   998
 Culilawan papuanus.. ii.   387
 Cumin...................ii.   707
 Cuminum cyminum ... ii.   707
 Cupresseae...............ii.   306
 Cupri acetas............ i.   764
     acetates............ i.   762
     ammoniati aqua., i.   762
         solutio....... i.   762
     ammoniaretum... i.   760
     ammonio-sulphas i.   760
     subacetates....... i.   762
 Cupro-sulphate of am-
   monia................. i.   760
 Cuprum.................. i.   755
     aluminatum...... i.   760
     ammoniatum..... i.   760
 Cupuliferae..............ii.   317
 Curcas multifidus......ii.   379
     purgans............ii.   379
 Curcuma  angustifolia ii.   238
     leucorrhiza.......ii.   238
     longa...............ii.   234
     rotunda............ii.   234
     rubescens.........ii.   238
     starch..............ii.   238
     viridiflora.........ii.   236
     zedoaria...........ii.   239
     zerumbet.......... ii.   239
 Curcumin...............ii.   237
 Cure, cold water...... i.   92
     psychical method
       of................ i.   66
 Curry  powder  and
   paste..................ii.   237
 Cusco cinchonia.......ii.   652
 Cusconin................ii.   675
 Cuscus...................ii.   153
 Cusparia, galipea......ii.   880
 Cusparin.......,.........Ji.   882
 Cutch.....................ii.   883
 Cuttle-fish bone........ii. 1106
 Cycadaceae..............ii.   283
 Cycas circinalis........ii.  283
     revoluta...........ii.  283
 Cydonin.................ii.  803
Cydonia vulgaris......ii.  802
                        PAGE
Cynanchum   oleaefo-
       lium............. ii.  552
    argel..............."•  552
Cyanides, the metallic ii. 1181
Cyanuret of  silver.... i.  833
Cynapina ............... ii-  738
Cynareie ................ ii.  603
Cyprus vitriol.......... i.  757
Cytisin...................ii.  597
Cytisus scoparius......ii.  816
             D.

Dahlin, Datiscin ...... ii.  590
Damson, mountain__ii.  872
Dandelion...............ii.  604
Daphne gnidium.......ii.  420
    laureola............ii.  419
    mezereum......... ii.  416
    oleoides............ii.  416
Daphnin.................ii.  418
Datura alba.............ii.  481
    fastuosa...........ii.  481
    ferox...............ii.  481
    stramonium......ii.  480
    tatula..............ii.  481(
Daturia..................ii.  481
Daucus carota.........ii.  710
Daun Gatta gambir... ii.  695
Daun kitsjil............ii.  751
Deadly nightshade.... ii.  470
Decoction of the woods ii.  888
Darkness.............. i. 67, 71
Decocta..................  i.  305
Decoctions..............  i.  305
Decocto-infusa.........  i.  305
Decoctum aloe's  com-
       positum.........ii.  205
    amyli...............ii.  125
    avenae.............. ii.  113
    Cetrariae...........ii.   69
    chimaphilae.......ii.  579
    chondri............ii.   59
    cinchonae..........ii.  690
         pallidae ......ii.  690
         rubrae........ii.  690
    cydonii............ii.  803
    cornus floridae.... ii. 1100
    dulcamarae........ii.  504
    geoffroyae.........ii.  837
    granati.............ii.  762
         radicis.......ii.  762
    guaiaci ............ii.  888
    haematoxyli.......ii.  838
    hordei .............ii.  117
         compositum ii.  117
    lichenis  islandici ii.   69
    lini compositum.. ii.  990
    mezerei............ii.  419
    papaveris.........ii. 1054
    pareirae............ii. 1077
    pectorale..........ii.  117
    plocariae candidae ii.   62
    pyrolae.............ii.  579
    quercus............ii.  820 
INDEX.
1199
Decoctum     quercus
       albae.............ii.
     sarsaparillae......ii.
     compositum.......ii.
     sarsae...............ii.
         compositum  ii.
     scoparii composi-
       tum..............ii.
     senegae  ............ii.
     taraxaci............ ii.
     tormentillae....... ii.
     ulmi................ ii.
     uvae ursi...........ii.
     veratri.............ii.
Delcroix's poudre sub-
  tile..................... i.
Delphina or Delphinia ii.
Delphinium staphysa-
  gria....................ii.
Demulcents............. i.
Dentifrices.............. i.
Dentifriceum   calcis
  chlorinatae...........
Deodorizers.............
Depilatories ............
Dephlogisticated air..
     nitrous air.........
Derivation and revul-
  sion.................... i.
Desiccants............... i.
Dextrina ................ii.
Diachylon  or diachy-
  lum.................... i.
Diamond................ i.
Dianthus caryophyllus ii.
Diapnoica............... i.
Diaphoretica............ i.
Dictamnus fraxinella. ii.
Dichloride of sulphur i.
Digitaline...............ii.
Digitalis purpurea.....ii.
Dill.......................ii.
Diluents.................. i.
Dioscoreaceae...........ii.
Diosma crenata.........ii.
     crenulata ......... ii.
     latifolia............ ii.
     odorata............ii.
     serratifolia........ii.
Diosmin.................. ii.
Dippel's animal  oil.... ii.
Dipteraceae.............ii.
Disinfectants.....»..... i.
Disinfecting fluid, Sir
  W. Burnett's......... i.
Dittany,  bastard......ii.
Diuretica................ i.
Diuretic  salt............ i.
Dock, great water..... ii.
Doctrine of contra-sti-
  mulus, new Italian i.
Dog rose................ii-
Dolichos pruriens...... ii.
Dolomite.........•....... ]•
Donovan's  solution.... i.
Dorema ammoniacum ii.
PAGE

 330
 278
 278
 278
 278

 817
 994
 607
 795
 332
 582
 185

 643
1084

1084
 198
 198

 583
 204
 200
  92
 411

 171
 201
 502

 714
 327
 991
 274
 274
 883
 392
 457
 455
 706
 209
 259
 878
 878
 878
 878
 878
 879
 965
 983
 203

 685
 883
 278
 505
 437

 145
 795
 822
 593
 815
 720
                        PAGE
Dor3e.....................ii. 1145
Dorstenia brasiliensis ii.  346
    contrajerva.......ii.  346
Doses of medicine ....  i.  164
Doubles..................  i.  594
Douche, the.............  i.   90
    vapour.............  i.   80
    topical.............  i.   90
    eye..................  i.   90
Dover's powder........ii.  627
Dracaena Draco.........ii.  215
Draconin................ii.  169
Drago mitigatus.......  i.  795
Dragon's blood.........ii.  169
Drastica.................  i.  271
Dressing, simple.......ii. 1136
Drimys Winteri........ii. 1077
Drinks, cold............  i.   91
Dragon root............ii.  158
Drinks...................  i.  119
    aqueous...........  i.   83
    cold ................  i.   91
Drop, black............ii. 1060
Drops, acidulated.....ii.  149
    Jesuit's............ii.  522
    nitre ...............ii.  925
Dryadeae................ii.  794
Drymyrhizeae  ..........ii.  229
Dryobalanops aroma-
       tica.............ii.  983
    camphora..........ii.  983
Duccia...................  i.   90
Duke  of  Portland's
  powder for the gout ii.  387
Dulcamara.............. ii.  503
Dulcamarin............. ii.  503
Dung, hot,  for baths.,  i.   82
Dutch liquid............ ii.  930
Dwale, common.......ii.  470
Dyer's alkanet.........ii.  508
Dyer's madder.........ii.  617
Dyer'soak..............ii.  320
Dyer's  orchella weed ii.   72
Earth of bones.........  i.  570
Earth, fuller's..........  i.  599
Earth of Lemnos......  i.  599
EaudeCologne.........ii.  981
    Javelle.............  i.  541
    luce .......i. 433, ii.  964
    naphre.............ii.  980
    devie...............ii.  911
    midicinale........ii.  176
Eblanin.................. ii.  939
Ecbalium agreste......ii.  743
Ecablium officinarium ii.  743
Ecbolica.................  i.  290
Eccoprotica.............  i.  271
Eccritica................  i.  264
Effects....................  i.   65
    of the active prin-
      ciples  of  cin-
      chona barks ... ii.  680
Effervescing draughts  i.
    citrates............ ii,
    tartrates..........ii.
    solution of potash  i.
Egg flip..................ii.
    shell ...............ii.
Eglantine ...............ii.
Eisol.....................  i.
Elaeis.....................ii,
Elaidine..................  i,
Elaine  or oleine........ii.
Elaphomyces granula-
  tus..................... ii,
Elaterin.................ii,
Elaterium momordica ii,
Elatin....................ii,
Elderberries............ii,
    common............ii,
    flower water......ii.
    ointment.......... ii,
    rob..................  i.
Elecampane............ii.
    camphor........... ii,
Elecampin............... ii.
Electric action of me-
       dicines ........
     aura................
     bath................
     calamine...........
     current.............
     friction  ............
     machine............
     spark...............
     shock...............
     vibration..........
Electrical battery......
     diagometer.......
     contact  ............
     chemical..........
Electricity,  frictional
     magnetic...........
     voltaic..............
Electricity,Electrizers
     Electro-puncture
Electuarium  aromati-
  cum.................... ii.
     catechu............ii.
     lenitivum .........H.
     opii.................ii.
     piperis............. ii.
     scammonii.........ii.
     sennae.............. ii.
Elemi.....................ii.
Elettaria   cardamo-
  mum ..................ii.
     major..............ii.
Eleutheria bark.......ii.
Elixir of vitriol........  i.
     proprietatis.......ii.
     salutis..............ii.
Ellagic acid............ii.
Elm, common  small-
  leaved.................H.
Embrocatio iodinii....  i.
Embryonatae............ ii.
Emetic, tartar.........  i.
PAGE
 339
 950
 953
 475
 912
1154
 795
 366
 167
 820
 559
 746
 743
 747
 699
 698
 699
 699
 699
 589
 590
 590

 138
 106
 105
 679
 107
 106
 105
 106
 106
 107
 107
 558
 107
 107
 105
 110
 107
 108
 110

 393
 836
 848
1055
 352
 516
 848
251
254
370
372
206
848
324

332
404
105
659 
1200
INDEX.
                        PAGE
Emetics (emetica).....  i.  267
Emetina or emetine... ii.  622
Em6tine indigene......ii.  997
Emmenagoga...........  i.  289
Emollients..............  i.  207
Emplastrum adhaerens  i.  553
    adhaesivum........  i.  715
        Anglicum.... ii.  573
    ammoniaci........ii.  722
         et  hydrar-
           gyro.......  i.  786
    cum hydrargyro
                i.  786, ii. 722
    ammonite hydro-
      chloratis........  i.  449
    assafcetidae........ii.  718
    belladonnae.......ii.  478
    calefaciens........ ii. 1128
    cantharidis  .......ii. 1128
        compositum. ii. 1128
    cumini.............ii.  708
    epispasticum.....ii. 1128
    ferri................  i.  724
    galbani............ii.  725
    compositum......ii.  725
    gummosum.......ii.  725
    hydrargyri........  i.  786
    iodinii..............  i.  405
    opii................. ii. 1056
    picis................ii.  302
        burgundicae ii.  301
    potassii iodidi....  i.  494
    plumbi.............  i.  714
    resinae.... i. 553, ii.  301
    resinosum i. 715, ii.  301
    roborans...........  i.  724
    saponis ............  i.  553
         compositum
           vel  adhae-
           rens........  i.  553
    simplex............ ii. 1136
    thuris..............  i.  724
Empyreumatica.......  i.  256
Emulsin..................ii.  764
    of black mustard ii. 1002
Emulsio  amygdalae  c.
   amygdalina,..........ii.  766
Endermic method.....  i.  173
Endogenae...............  ii. 105
Endosmose..............  i. 141
Enema assafcetidae....  ii. 718
     calcis chlorinatae i. 583
     catharticum i. 596, ii. 847
     colocynthidis.....ii. 743
     commune..........  i. 539
     foetidum...........ii. 718
     opii.................ii. 1058
        vel anodynum ii. 1058
     tabaci..............ii. 497
     terebinthinae......ii. 299
Enterica.................  i. 259
Enterodynia..........„  ii. 790
Epidermic method....  i. 173
Epispastics.............  i. 207
Epsom salts............  i. 593
Ergot mould............ii.   87
Ergot, or spurred rye ii.
Ergotaetia    abortifa-
  ciens .................. ii-
Ergotine ................ ii.
Ericaceae................ii.
Errhina..................  i.
Erucin...................ii.
Erythoretine............ii.
Erythraea centaurium ii.
Erythrolein.............ii.
Erythrolitmine......... ii.
Escharotics.............  i.
Essence de petit grain
                  ii. 978
     of ambergris...... ii.
       bergamot ...... ii.
       bitter almonds ii.
       cedra............ ii.
       citron...........ii.
       ginger..........ii.
       lemons.......... ii.
       musk............ii.
       peppermint.....ii.
       spearmint...... ii.
       spruce...........ii.
Essentia..................ii.
     abietis.............ii.
     myristicae  mos-
       chatae........... ii.
Ether, acetic...........ii.
     bichloric .......... ii.
     chlorhydric....... ii.
     hydrochloric......ii.
     hyponitrous.......ii.
     marine............. ii.
     muriatic...........ii.
     nitric, spirit of... ii.
     nitrous, spirit of ii.
     spirit of muriatic ii.
         nitric.........ii.
     sulphuric ......... ii.
Ethereal oil  ............ii.
Ethereo-sulphuric acid ii.
Ethereum...............ii.
Etherification, theory
   of...................... i
Etherine  ................ ii.
Etherine, hydrate of., ii.
Ethereal   tincture of
   male fern buds......ii.
Etherole.................ii.
Etheroles  ...............ii.
Ethiopa mineral  ...
Ethyle, oxide of.......ii.
Eucalyptin..............ii.
Eucalyptus resinifera  ii.
Eugenates...............ii.
Eugenia pimenta......ii.
Eugenin..............
Euphorbieae ............ii.
Euphorbia antiquorum ii.
     canariensis .......ii.
     gummi resina.....ii.
     ipecacuanha......ii.
     lathyris............ H.
     officinarum.......ii.
PAGE |			rAGE
130		11.	358
		ii.	359
			
87	European flowering		
143	ash...............	11.	560
579		11.	555
264		i.	264
1005 431		i	249
		i.	257
529		1.	120
70	Exidia auricula judae	ii.	91
76			282
200		ii	282
, 980 1158	Exogonium purga ....	ii.	517
	Exosmose and endos-	i	141
974 771		i.	266
973	Extract of butternut..	11.	1098
973	Extract, Goulard's ...	1.	711
233	Extractum aconiti ....	ii.	1091
977	alcoholicum ......	11.	1091
1164	aloes hepaticae...	11.	206
446	purificatum	11.	206
445		11.	592
286		ii.	477
916	cannabis indicae		
286	alcoholicum ...	11.	339
		ii.	592
416		11.	691
930		ii.	569
931	colchici cormi....	ii.	179
929	(cormi) colchiace		
929		11.	180
925	colocynthidis.....	ii.	742
929	compositum....	11.	742
929	conn ..............	11.	736
925	cubebae fluidum..	11.	357
925		ii.	464
929		ii.	745
225	filicis sethereum.	ii.	101
916	gentianae..........	11	527
923		ii.	818
917	haeraatoxyli......	11.	839
920		11.	343
		ii.	468
923	alcoholicum	11.	469
924	jalapae.............	ii.	522
920		n.	1098
		11.	996
101		ii.	599
924			343
922	mezerei alcoholi	.	
793	cum ............	. ii.	419
918	nucis vomicae....		545
. 759	opu................	. ii.	1056
758	oleo-resinosum		
758	cubebae........	. ii.	357
756			1054
754	pareirae...........	. 11.	1077
. 359			1097
. 360	rhei fluidum......		435
. 360			435
. 359	sabadillae alcoho!		
. 362	lcum ...........	ii	190
. 362	sarsae liquidum		280
. 360	compositum	11	281
 
INDEX.                                  1201
Extractum sarsae  flu-
       idum ............ii.
     sarsaparillae...... ii.
     saturni ............ i.
     scammonii.........ii.
     secalis cornuti ... ii.
     senegae ............ii.
     sennae fluidum ... ii.
     stramonii .........ii.
         foliorum.....ii.
     styracis............ii.
     taraxaci............ii.
     uvae ursi  ..........ii.
     Valerianae fluidum ii.
Faex sacchari .......... ii.
False angustura bark ii.
Faith.....................  i.
Farina...............,... ii.
    lini..................ii.
    mandiocae.........ii.
    sagu ............... ii.
    sinapis ............ ii.
    tritici tosta....... ii.
Fear .....................  i.
Febrifugum magnum  i.
Feelings  .................  i.   68
Fel bovinum seu tauri ii. 1169
149
880
 69
103
990!
382!
704
705
Fennel, common ...... ii.
    seeds, wild  .......ii.
    sweet ..............ii.
Fermentation, acetous ii.
    saccharine........ ii.
    vinous ............. ii.
Fern, male shield...... ii.
Ferns..................... ii.
Fermentum cervisae  ii.  80, 82
Feroniaelephantum... ii.
Ferri acetas ............  i.
    ammonio-citras...  i.
    ammonio-chlorid-
       um...............
    arsenias............
    carbonas  ...... i. 7:
         cum saccharo
    citrates............
    fila..................
    filum...............
    iodidum............
    iodidi syrupus—
    lactas...............
    limatura...........
    muriatis tinctura
    oxydi squamae ...
    oxydum nigrum..
         rubrum......
    pernitras..........
    pernitratis liquor
    persulphas........
    phosphates .......
    potassio-tartras..
    ramenta............
    rubigo.............
        VOL. II.—76
PAGE I                        PAGE
      Ferri scobs ............. i.  719
 280      sesquioxydum.... i.  721
 280          hydratum ... i.  725
 711      sulphas ............ i.  733
 517          exsiccatum.. i.  736
 143      sulphuretum...... i.  731
 995          hydratum... i.  732
 849      supercarbonas.... i.  729
 483      superphosphas ... i.  731
 484      tannas.............. i.  749
 569      tartarum .......... i.  752
 607      valerianas.........ii.  615
 582  Ferric tartrate of am-
 613             monia..... i.  750
              potash  ....... i.  752
      Ferro-citrate of ammo-
        nia..................... i.  750
      Ferro-tartrate of am-
                 monia ..... i.  752
              potash....... i.  752
      Ferrum.................. i.  761
          ammoniatum...... i.  740
          tartarizatum...... i.  752
          vitriolatum....... i.  733
 164  | Ferula assafoetida..... ii.  712
 1002.    persica ............ii.  714
  1261    (sagapenum)......ii.  719
   69  Festuca quadridentata i.  134
   91  Fever  powder of  Dr.
        James................. i.  647
      Ficus carica............ ii.  344
      Field ladies'mantle... ii.  809
      Fig, common  ..........ii.  344
 705|Figworts ............... ii.  453
 935! Figwort, knotty-root-
 898    ed ..................... ii.  454
 898  Filices................... ii.   97
   98  Filicina ................. ii.  100
   97  Filix mas................ ii.   98
      Fir........................ ii.  285
 9811    hemlock spruce., ii.  286
 747  Fishery salt............ i.  536
 750lFishes...................ii. 1137
      Fixature.................ii.   59
 7401 Fixed air  ............... i  335
 747      nitre  ............... i.  470
 727      sal ammoniac__ i.  573
 727  I Flag, sweet ............ii.  158
 749! Flake white............ i.  699
 719  i Flax, common.........ii.  988
 7191    purging............ii.  991
 741  I Flies, potato............ ii. 112'.l
 744'    Spanish............ ii. 1118
 748 i Florentine orris....... ii.  220
 719 [Flores antimonii ...... i.  644
 7381    benzoini .......... ii.  573
 722;    salis   ammoniaci
 721,      martialis....... i.  740
 722      seu oalx zinci..... i.  676
 7461 Flos aeruginis.......... i.  764
 746! Florideae................ii.   56
 737|Flour..................... ii.  120
 730      of mustard....... ii. 1002
 752  Flowerless plants......ii.   49
 719  Flowers of antimony., i.  644
 723;    arsenic ............ i.  615
                       PAGE
Flowers of benjamin., ii.   573
    sulphur............ i.   357
    zinc ................ i.   676
Flowering plants...... ii.   105
Fluid magnesia......... i.   592
Fluxus albus............ i.   470
    niger............... i.   470
Flux, black ............ i.   470
    white............... i.   470
Fly powder ............ i.   614
Foeniculum dulce......ii.   705
    vulgare............ii.   704
Food ..................... i.   115
Foods, animal ......... i.   118
    vegetable ......... i.   118
Fool's parsley ......... ii.   737
Forces, active, of med-
       icines............ i.   137
     chemical  .......... i.   137
     dynamical ........ i.   138
    physical........... i.   137
Fomentations, warm., i.    82
Formyle, chloride..... ii.   931
     terchloride of .... ii.   930
Fossil alkali............ i.   513
     salt ................ i.   533
Fowler's solution...... i.   640
Foxglove,  purple......ii.   455
Frankincense  .......... ii.   286
Frasera carolinensis.. ii.   530
     walteri ............ ii.   530
Fraxinus ornus......... ii.   560
     rotundifolia ......ii.   660
Freezing mixture...... i.    92
Friar's balsam......... ii.   572
Fucus vesiculosus.....ii.    55
Fuligo ligni ............ ii.   959
Frostbite............... i.    84
Fuller's earth.......... i.   599
Fulminating gold...... i.   835
Fulton's decorticated
     pepper............ ii.   350
Fumigating pastilles., i.   205
Fumigationes  .......... i.   204
     nitrosae ............ i.   204
Fuming sulphuric acid i.   365
Fungi.....................ii.    79
    a garicus muscaria ii.    96
    amanita  ...........ii.    96
    venenati .......... ii.    96
Funis uncatus ......... ii.   695
Furfures tritici......... ii.   125
Furnace cadmia....... i.   678
Fuselol...................ii.   900
             G.

Gadus callarias.........ii. 1145
    carbonarius ...... ii. 1145
    morrhua  .......... ii. 1145
Galangal root..........ii. 250
Galbanum officinale... ii. 723
    praeparatum......ii. 725
Galena .................. i. 690
Gallicolae  ...............ii. 1136 
1202
INDEX.
                       PAGE
Galipea cusparia......ii.  880
Galipea officinalis......ii.  880
Gallic acid .............ii.  327
Gallinae..................ii. 1153
Galls..................... ii.  320
Gallus domesticus  .... ii. 1153
Galvanism...............  i.  107
Galvanic battery......  i.  107
     current............  i.  109
     rings ...............  i.  108
     shock ..............  i.  110
Galvano-puncture.....  i.  110
Gambir..................ii.  695
Gamboge................ii.  966
     acid ................ii.  966
Gambogioides  hebra-
  dendron...............ii.  966
Ganglionica ............  i.  249
Garcinia mangostana  ii.  966
Garcinae species incer-
  ta...................... ii.  966
Garden angelica ......ii.  709
     carrot .............ii.  710
     dill, common...... ii.  706
     lettuce ............ii.  598
     rue..................ii.  875
Gargarisma sodae chlo
      rinatae ..........  i.  543
     calcis chlorinatae   i.  583
Gargle of chloride  of
  soda...................  i.  543
Garlick.................. ii.  212
Gas  ......................  i.  335
     laughing ..........  i.  411
     nitrous ............  i.  414
Gasteromycetes .......ii.   88
Gastrodynia............ii.  789
Gaultheria   procum-
  bens .................. ii.  582
Gelatigenous   princi-
  ples  ...................  i.  116
Gelatina chondri......ii.   59
     plocariae candidae ii.   62
Gelatine  ................ii. 1143
     capsules of copai-
       va  ...............ii.  858
Genetica  ...............  i.  288
Gentian,   common  or
  yellow  ............... ii.  523
Gentiana chirayita  ... ii.  527
     lutea...............ii.  523
Gentianaceae............ ii.  523
Gentianite ............. ii.  525
Gentisin.................ii.  524
Geoffroya inermis.....ii.  836
     surinamensis.....ii.  837
Geoffroyae Jamaicensis ii.  836
Geraniaceae ............ii. 1098
Geranium  maculatum ii. 1098
German opium.........ii. 1025
     tinder.............. ii.   93
Geum urbanum ....... ii.  794
Ghost lights............  i.  113
Giant puffball  .........ii.   89
Gilla Theophrasti......  i.  681
Gillenia trifoliata...... ii.  792
                        PAGE
Ginger, Barbadoes .... ii.  230
    beer  ...............ii-  233
         powders  ....  i.  523
    black  ..............ii.  230
    bleached  ..........ii.  232
    green...............ii.  230
    Jamaica...........ii.  230
    lozenges ...........ii.  233
    narrow-leaved ... ii.  229
    plaster ............ ii.  233
    powdered .........ii.  232
    preserved ......... ii.  230
    tea..................ii.  233
    washed............. ii.  232
    white  ..............ii.  230
Gingerworts............ii.  229
Ginseng..................ii.  699
Glaire ................... ii. 1154
Glairine..................ii.   52
Glaser's sal polychrest i.  481
Glauber's salt .........  i.  531
    spirit of  nitre ...  i.  415
    secret sal ammo-
       niac .............  i.  453
    spirit of salt......  i.  387
Globuli martiales  or
  boules de Nancy ...  i.  754
Glumaceae  .............. ii.  105
Glycerine...............  i.  549
Glycion,  or liquorice
  sugar.................. ii.  818
Glycyrrhiza echinata  ii.  818
    glabra ............. ii.  818
    glandulifera......ii.  818
Glycyrrhizin............ ii.  818
Gold,  ammoniuret  of
       teroxide of  ....  i.  835
    and its compounds i.  833
    fulminating.......  i.  835
    peroxide of.......  i.  834
    powder of.........  i.  834
    terchloride of ....  i.  835
    tercyanide of..... ii. 1181
    teroxide of .......  i.  834
Golden marcasite......  i.  674
    thread.............ii. 1095
    sulphuret of anti-
       mony............  i.  657
Gondret's ammoniacal
  ointment  .............  i. 433
Gorgonia pretiosa .... ii. 1104
Gossypium herbaceum ii.  986
Goulard's extract......  i.  711
    water...............  i.  713
Grains of paradise ... ii.  240
Gramineae  ......i.  133,  ii. 106
Grana dilla, or grana
       tilla .............ii.  363
    jaspeada  ..........ii. 1131
    nigra...............ii. H31
    paradisi............H.  241
    sagi................ii.  164
    sylvestria.........ii. 1131
    tigbi ...............ii.  363
Granadin ...............ii.  761
Granateae...............ii.  760
                        PAGE
Granatum, punica.....ii.  760
Granilla ................ "• 1131
Granulated elaphomy- _
  ces.....................ii-   88
Grape,  husk  of, for
  baths  ................. j.   82
Grape sugar  ........... ii.  891
Graphite, or black lead i.  327
Grass-oil of Namur... ii.  154
Gratiola officinalis .... ii.  454
Gravel-root ............ii. 1075
Gray cinchona.........ii.  654
     oxide of mercury i.  787
Great Mullein .........ii.  453
Green sloke ............ ii.   54
     tea..................ii.  982
     vitriol............... i.  733
Grenadin ............... ii.  5G2
Griffith's mixture...... i.  728
Groats,  Embden  ...... ii.  Ill
Grotto del cane  ....... i.  123
Ground liverwort......ii.   64
Gruel, water............ii.  113
Guaiacin ................ii.  885
Guaiacum  ..............ii.  883
     bark...............  ii.  884
     officinale..........ii.  883
     resin...............ii.  884
     sanctum............ii.  885
     wood...............ii.  884
Guevo upas ............ i.  123
Guinea grains .........ii.  240
     pepper ............ii.  505
Gum acacia ............ii.  827
     Arabic ............ii.  827
     Barbary  or  Mo-
      rocco ............ii.  828
     bassora............ii.  829
     black boy......... ii.  216
     butea  ..............ii.  859
     Cape ...............ii.  829
     cherry tree  ...... ii.  809
     dragon ............ ii.  820
     East Indian.......ii.  828
     Gedda .............ii.  828
     lozenges............ii.  831
     resins............... i.  255
     Senegal............ii.  828
     Turic  .............. ii.  828
     Turkey............ii.  828
     yellow.............ii.  215
Gummi gambiense  ... ii.  695
     juniperi............ii.  307
     kino ................ii.  824
     myrrha............ii.  865
     rubrum   astrin-
      gens ............ii.  824
     nostras............ii.  809
     tragacantha......ii.  820
Gunjah..................ii.  335
Gutta percha tree.....ii.  575
Guttiferae............... ii.  965
Gymnastics............. i.  120
Gymnomycetes.........ii.   79
Gymnospermae.........ii.  282
Gyrophora..............ii.   65 
INDEX.
1203
             H.  ■
                       PAGE
Haemanthus toxicarius ii.  222
Haematin,  or haema-
  toxylin  ...............ii.  838
Htematica  .............. i.  209
Haematinica............ i.  226
Haematoxylon campe-
  chianum..............ii.  837
Hahnemann's test li-
  quor  .................. i.  376
Hair dyes............... i.  199
Halophytes ............ii.  438
Hard's   farinaceous
  food...................ii.  126
Hartshorn  .............. ii. 1165
    burnt  .............. i.  571
    volatile salt of ... i.  443
Head matter............ii. 1156
Hearing................. i.   67
Heat  ..................... i.  173
    animal ............ i.   78
    conducted......... i.   77
    dry ................. i.   77
    moist  .............. i.   78
    radiant ............ i.   76
    solar ............... i.   76
Heath worts ............ ii.  579
Hebradendron cambo-
  gioides  ...............ii.  966
Hedgehyssop..........ii.  454
Helenin ................. ii.  590
Helenium inula........ ii.  589
Hellebore,  black ......ii. 1081
    white  .............. ii. 1082
Helleborin.............. ii. 1082
Helleborus fcetidus ... ii. 1095
    hiemalis  .......... ii. 1082
    niger............... ii. 1081
    officinalis .........ii. 1081
    viridis ............. ii. 1095
Hellot's test............ ii.   75
Helminthagoga........ i.  259
Helonias officinalis... ii.  187
Hemidesmic acid...... ii.  551
Hemidesmus indicus . ii.  551
Hemiptera ............. ii. 1129
Hemlock................ ii.  720
    poultice...........ii.  737
    spruce fir.........ii.  286
    water  ..............ii.  738
Hemp, Indian extract
       of  ............... ii.  339
    common........... ii.  334
Henbane, common .... ii.  465
Henry's aromatic vin-
  egar...................ii.  916
Hcparsulphuris....... i.  475
Hepatic air............. i.  375
    aloes...............ii.  197
Hepatica................ i.  263
Hepatized ammonia .. i.  450
Herb bennet ...........ii.  794
Hermodactylus........ii.  181
Hesperidin .............ii.  975
Ileudolatia Africana.. ii.  869
                        PAGE
 Hiera picra ............ii.  205
 Hidrotica ...............  i.  274
 High taper .............ii.  453
 Hip or hep............. ii.  796
 Hirudo .................. ii. 1107
 Hoffman's mineral an-
   odyneliquor.........ii.  922
 Hog...................... ii. 1169
 Hogs' lard..............ii. 1170
 Homberg's  pyropho-
   rus.....................  i.  600
 Homceopathia..........  i.  168
 Honey...................ii. 1133
     clarified...........ii. 1134
     dew................ii.  560
     of borax...........  i.  527
     ofroses............ii.  799
     oil..................ii.  560
 Hop, common..........ii.  340
 Hope.....................  i.   69
 Hordeaceae.............ii.  113
 Hordeum distichon ... ii.  115
     hexastichon...... ii.  115
     mundatum........ii.  115
     perlatum..........ii.  116
     vulgare............ii.  115
     zeocitron..........ii.  115
 Horehound, candied .. ii.  453
     syrup of........... ii.  453
     tea  .................ii.  453
     white.............. ii.  452
I Horn..................... ii. 1164
     silver or luna cor-
|       nea..............  i.  380
■ Horse-hair gloves.....  i.   68
! Horseradish............ ii. 1000
 Huamalies bark  ......ii.  65(i
 Huanuco bark ......... ii.  G54
! Huile decade..........ii.  308
'Hume's test............  i.  620
IHumulus lupulus..... ii.  340
| Hundred-leaved roses ii.  800
 Hungarian balsam .... ii.  285
 Hungary water  ....... ii.  452
 Huxham's tincture of
   bark .................. ii.  691
 Hydragoga .............  i.  271
 Hydrargyri acetas ....  i.  821
     ammonio-chlori-
       dum.............  i.  809
     bichloridum ......  i.  803
     bicyanidum  ...... ii. 1181
     biniodidum........  i.  813
     bisulphuretum...  i.  792
     chloridum.........  i.  803
     cyanuretum...... ii. 1181
     dipernitras........  i.  817
     iodida..............  i.  811
     iodidum...........  i.  811
     murias corrosivus  i.  803
     nitrates............  i.  816
     nitrico oxydum ..  i.  789
     nitrooxydum.....  i.  789
     oxydum cinereum  i.  787
     oxydum ...........  i.  787
          nigrum ......  i.  787
Hydrargyri  oxydum
      rubrum.........  i
    oxydum sulphuri-
      cum...........
    oxymurias.....
    perchloridum .
    periodidum___
    persulphas ....
    protonitras ....
    prussias........,
    subchloridum ....
    subiodidum viridi
    ammoniatum.....
    sub-sulphas flavus
    sulphates  .........
    sulphuretum......
    sulphuretum cum
      sulphure.......  i
    sulphuretum crys-
      tallizatum   vel
      rubrum.........  i
    sulphuretum  ni-
      grum vel amor-
      phum...........  i
Hydra rgyrosis seu hy-
  drargyriasis.........  i
Hydrargyrum..........  i
    borussicum....... ii
    calcinatum .......  i
    cum creta.........  i,
        magnesia  ...  i.
    muriaticum mite., i.
    pnecipitatum  al-
      bum.............  i
    purum.............  i,
Hydrargyrus ..........  i,
Hydrate of amule.....ii
    benzule............ii.
    cinnameine.......ii.
    oxide of methule ii,
    potash.............  i.
    sulphur............  i.
Hydrated  black oxide
      of iron..........  i,
    sesquioxide of iron i.
    oxide of lead......  i.
Hydriodate of baryta  i.
    iron ................  i.
Hydriodic acid.........  i.
Hydrobromate of pot-
  ash ....................  i,
Hydrocarbon,  double
      sulphate of eth-
      er and...........ii,
    sulphate of....... ii.
Hydrochlorate of am-
      monia...........  i,
    soda................  i,
    mercury...........  i,
    zinc  ................  i
Hydrochloric acid ....  i
    ether...............ii,
Hydrocyanate of mer-
      cury.............ii
    silver...............ii.
    zinc................ii
 794
 803
 803
 813
 795
 817
1181
 795
 811
 809
 794
 794
 791

 793
F91
 793

 770
 765
1181
 788
 782
 782
 795

 809
 781
 765
 900
 769
 813
 939
 466
 359

 722
 725
 701
 560
 741
 406

 495
 923
 923

 444
 533
 803
 683
 384
 929

1181
1183
1184 
1204
INDEX.
Hydrocyanic acid.....ii.   778
Hydromagnesite ...... i.   588
Hydrogen............... i.   296
    consumed as food i.   115
    chloro-amide of.. i.   444
    protoxide of...... i.   298
    sulphuretted ..... i.   375
    water .............. i.   298
Hydrogenium.......... i.   296
Hydrogenii   binoxy-
  dum................... i.   326
Hydrolata............... i.   304
Hydromeli..............ii.   900
Hydrometer, Sykes's . ii.   904
Hydropathy............ i.    92
Hydrosulphates of am-
  monia................. i.   449
Hydrosulphuret of am-
  monia................. i.   450
Hydrosulphuretum
  ammoniae ............ i.   450
Hydrothion............. i.   375
Hydrous prussic acid . ii.   778
Hymenoptera.......... ii.  1132
Hyoscyamia............ii,   467
Hyoscyamus albus.... ii.   466
    niger............... ii.   465
Hygiene................. i.   115
Hymenomycetes ...... ii.    91
Hyperaesthetica  ....... i.   238
Hypersthenica......... i.   249
Hypersthenics ......... i.   146
Hyphomycetes ........ii.    80
Hypnica................. i.   247
Hypnologist, the...... i.    68
Hypnopcei.............. i.   247
Hypnotica............... i.   247
Hypochlorite of lime . i.   575
    soda................ i.   539
Hyposthenics  .......... i.   146
Hyposulphite of soda. i.   530
Hyposulphis natricus
  seu sodicus.......... i.   530
Hyraceum.............. ii.  1176
Hyrax capensis  ....... ii.  1176
I.
Iamatologia............ i.   65
Iatreusologia .......... i.   65
Icecap.................. i.   92
    poultice ........... i.   92
Iceland moss...........ii.   66
Ichthyocolla ...........ii. 1137
Icici icicariba.......... ii.  868
Ignatia amara .........ii.  550
Illicium anisatum.....ii.  703
IUutation ..............i.  78, 82
Imagination............ i.   69
Imperial ................ i.  510
Impluvium  ............. i.   89
Incitantia ............... i.  249
Indian    Arrow-root,
       East.............ii.  225
     West...............ii.  224
Indian corn............."•
    hemp  ..............ii-
    opium ............. ii-
    tin..................  i-
    tobacco............ ii.
Indigo................... ij.
    sulphate of....... ii-
Indigofera..............ii.
    tinctoria .......... ii.
Indigotin ............... ii.
Infernal stone .........  i.
Infusa ...................  i.
Infusion of roses...... ii.
Infusions................  i.
Infusum anthemidis.. ii.
    arnicae.............ii.
    armoraciae  com-
       positum.........ii.
    aurantii........... ii.
         compositum ii.
    buchu..............ii.
    calumbae.......... ii.
    caryophylli....... ii.
    cascarillae.........ii.
    catechu............ii.
         compositum. ii.
    chamaemeli....... ii.
    chirettae...........ii.
    cinchonae.......... ii.
         compositum. ii.
         pallidas ...... ii.
         spissatum ... ii.
    colombae........... ii.
    cuspariae..........ii.
    digitalis ...........ii.
    ergotae.............ii.
    gallae  ..............ii.
    gentianae compo-
       situm............ii.
    krameriae .........ii.
    lini .................ii
    lini compositum. ii.
    lupuli.............. ii.
    menthae piperitae ii.
         viridis .......ii.
    pareirae............ii.
    polygalae..........ii.
    pruni  virginiani . ii.
    quassiae ...........ii.
    rhei................ ii.
    rosae ...............ii.
         acidum.......ii.
         compositum. ii.
    secalis cornuti ... ii.
    senegae ............ii.
    sennae..............ii.
         compositum. ii.
    serpentariae ......ii.
    simaroubae........ ii.
    spigeliae...........ii.
    tabaci..............ii.
    taraxaci..........ii.
    ulmi  ...............ii.
    Valerianae......... ii.
    zingiberis.........ii.
 Inhalatio nitrosa......   i.
PAGE
 109
 334
1023
 674
 583
 859
 859
 859
 859
 859
 824
 304
 798
 304
 592
 598

1000
 980
 980
 880
1072
 755
 371
 836
 836
 592
 528
 689
 690
 689
 690
1072
 883
 464
 142
 325

 526
 996
 990
 990
 343
 446
 444
1077
 994
 777
 874
 434
 798
 798
 798
 142
 994
 847
 847
 385
 873
 532
 497
 607
 333
 612
 233
 505
Inhalation of warm va-
  pour  ................• •
Injectio  sodae chlori-
  natae  ..................
Injections,  aqueous ..
    cold ................
    into the veins., i.
Insecta  ..................
Insolation  ..............
Inspissants.............
Instruments, chroma-
      tic ...............  i.
    dioptric ...........  i.
Intellect.................  i.
Inula helenium........ ii.
Inulin....................ii.
Invertebrata ...........ii.
Iodic  acid  ..............  i.
Iodica ...................  i.
Iodide of barium......  i.
    carbon.............  i.
Iodine,  chloride of  ...  i.
Iodide of potassium ...  i.
    compound  solu-
      tion  of..........  i.
    of lead.............  i.
    of starch..........  i.
    of sulphur........  i.
    of sulphur,  oint-
      ment of.........
Iodidum amyli.........
    arsenici ...........
    auri................
    ferri...............,
    plumbi ............
    potassii............
    sulphuris .........
Iodine ..................
    compound  tine
      ture of.........
    ointment..........
    paint..............,
    plaster ............
Iodinii chloridum ___
    composita,  tine
      tura ............
Iodinium ...............
Iodism..................
Ioduret of potassium
Ioduretted  bath......
    cataplasm.........  L
    iodide  of potas-
       sium ............  i.
     mineral water ...  i.
     ointment..........  i.
Ionidium ................i.
     ipecacuanha .....ii.
Ipecacuanha  ...........  ii.
     annulated.........  ii.
     black or Peruvian ii.
     brown annulated ii.
     cephaelis .........ii.
     false Brazilian ... ii.
gray ..............
    annulated..
spurge  ...........
     80

   543
     83
     92
83, 177
  1118
     76
   209

     73
     72
     69
   589
   590
  1101
   405
   220
   560
   404
   407
   487

   493
   704
   404
   406

   407
   404
   643
   836
   741
   704
   487
   406
   392

   493
   405
   404
   405
   407

   493
   392
   398
   487
   494
   494
488
494
493
998
998
619
620
628
621
619
998
621
621
3G2 
INDEX.
1205
                        PAGE
Ipecacuanha, striated  ii.  628
    undulated.........ii.  628
    white...............  ii.  628
Ipomoea jalapa ........ii.  518
    purga..............  ii.  518
Idraceiv.................ii.  216
Iris florentina  .........ii.  220
Irish moss..............ii.   56
Iron bark...............  ii.  758
    and its compounds i.  716
    acetate of.......... i.  747
    ammonio-chloride
       of ................ i.  740
    arseniateof  ......  i.  747
    black oxide of....  i.  721
    carbonate of......  i.  727
    carburet  or  per-
       carburetof.....  i.  329
    citrates of.........  i.  749
    compound   mix-
       ture of .........  i.  728
    crude sulphate of i.  734
    deutoxide of......  i.  721
    dried sulphate of i.  736
    filings.............. i.  719
    hydrated   black
           oxide of... i.
         protosulphu-
            ret of ...., i.
         sesquioxide of i.
     hydriodate of.....  i.
     iodide of .......... i.
     ioduret of......... i.
     liquor.............. i.
     lactate of ......... i.
     magnetic   oxide
       of.................i.
     oxyphosphate of. i.
     perchloride  of ... i.
     permuriate of ... i.
     persesquinitrate
        of  ............... i.
     persulphate of... i.
     phosphates of ... i.
     pills of iodide of. i.
          sulphate of . i.
     precipitated  car-
       bonate  of ...... i.
     protiodide of. — i.
     red  or peroxide
       of................ i.
     rust of............. i.
     saccharine carbo-
       nate of.......... i.
     sesquichloride  of i.
     sesquioxide  of... i.
     sulphate of........ i.
     sulphuret of...... i.
     supercarbonate of i,
     superphosphate of i.
     syrup of iodide of i,
     tannate of......... i
     tartar of........... i
     tartarized......... i.
     tartrate of potash
        and.............. i
Iron, tincture of acetate
           of..........  i.  747
         the muriate
           of..........  i.  738
    wine ...............  i.  754
    wire ...............  i.  719
Irrigation...............  i.   91
Isinglass................ii. 1137
    Para ......•.........ii. 1142
Isis nobilis ............. ii. 1104
Isomorphous    com-
  pounds ...............  i.  133
Isonandra gutta...... ii.  575
Issue peas..............ii.  979
Italian   or   Spanish
  juice..................ii.  819
Itch insect  .............  i.  357
Ivory black ............  i.  331
                  J.

    Jaen bark...............
    Jaggary .................
    Jalapa ipomaea.........
    Jalapic acid............
722 Jalapin..................
    Jamaica pepper.......
"32 Jamaicina ..............
T32 James's powder.......
741 Janipha manihot......
741 Jatropha curcas.......
741      manihot...........
747 Jatrophic acid .........
748 Jervin ...................
    Jesuit's drops..........
"21      powder ............
730 Juices, preserved ve-
737    getable ..............,
737 Jew's ear...............
    Juglandeae  .............
 46'Juglans cinerea.......
7371     cathartica........
730' Juniper,  common.....
 45      berries ............
    Juniperus communis .
         sabina.............
         virginiana ........
732
741
K.
i23
737!
722 j
733
731
729
731
744
749
752
752

752
Kali aqua ..............
    purum.............
    tartaricum  stibi-
      atum............
    tartarized.........
Kali or vegetable al-
  kali...................
Kalium..................
Kassu............... ii.
Kelp .....................
    ware ...............
Kermes mineral......
Kind's artificial cam
  phor ..................
ii.  637
ii.  162
ii.  518
ii.  520
ii.  520
ii.  757
ii.  837
 i.  647
ii.  380
ii.  379
ii.  380
ii.  364
ii.  183
ii.  572
ii.  632

ii.  913
ii.   91
ii. 1097
ii. 1097
ii. 1097
ii.  306
ii.  307
ii.  306
ii.  308
ii.  309
 i.  472
 i.  466

 i.  659
 i.  506

 i.  460
 i.  459
171, 883
 i.  515
 ii.   55
 i.  653

 ii.  294
                       PAGE
Kino ..................... ii.  824
    Amboyna......... ii.  824
    Botany Bay ......ii.  824
    East Indian ...... ii.  824
    genuine gum.....ii.  824
    tincture of ....... ii.  825
Kinicacid..............ii.  670
Kinovic acid ...........ii.  670
Kirkland's neutral ce-
  rate ................... i.  715
Klaprothium  sulphu-
  ricum ................ i.  687
Kosso or Kousso......ii.  804
Krameria triandra ... ii.  995
Krameric acid.........ii.  996
Kreosote or creosote., ii.  957
Krummholzol........... ii.  285
Kyapootie oil...........ii.  751
Labarraque's soda dis-
  infecting liquid...... i.  540
Labiates ................ ii.  440
Labiatiflorae............ii.  604
Lac  ......................ii. 1167
     ammoniaci  .......ii.  722
     amygdaleae  ......ii.  767
     analepticum...... ii.   59
     sulphuris.......... i.  358
     vaccinum ......... ii. 1167
Lacmus (litmus)......ii.   75
Lactalbumen .......... ii. 1168
Lactate of iron  ....... i.  748
Lactic acid ............. ii. 1169
Lactin  .................. ii. 1168
Lactuca sativa......... ii.  598
     virosa .............ii.  599
Lactucarium............ ii. 1600
Lactucerin.............. ii.  602
Lactucic acid ..........ii.  602
Lactucin ................ii.  602
Ladanum  ............... ii.  998
Ladies' mantle, field., ii.  809
Lana philosophica .... i.  676
Lapides    cancrorum
  praeparati............ i.  567
Lapilli cancrorum prae-
  parati ................ i.  567
Lapis     calaminaris
       praeparatus ... i.  680
     divinus ............ i.  760
     infernalis ......... i.  824
         vel septicus i.  466
     ophthalmicus .... i.  760
Larch agaric............ ii.   91
  or Venice turpentine ii. 288
Lard ..................... ii. 1170
Laricin .................. ii.   93
Larix Europaea......... ii.  286
Laser of Persia........ii.  712
Laserpitium............ ii.  712
Laudanum  ............. ii. 1056
     liquidum  Syden-
       ham! ............ii. 1059 
1206
INDEX.
                       PAGE
Laughing gas .........  i.  411
Lauraceae...............ii.  387
Laurel fat...............ii.  407
    leaved canella ... ii.  971
    common cherry., ii.  774
    water...............ii.  775
Laureola  ............... ii.  419
Laurin  .................. ii.  407
Laurus camphora...... ii.  396
    cinnamomum  .... ii.  388
    nobilis  ............ ii.  406
Lavender ............... ii.  441
    drops............... ii.  442
    oil  of............... ii.  442
    water...............ii.  442
Lavandula spica ...... ii.  441
    vera  ............... ii.  441
Lavements .............. i.  176
Laver.....................ii.   53
Laxativa or lenitiva...  i.  272
Lead  and  its  com-
      pounds .........  i.  690
    acetate of.........  i.  707
    black...............  i.  327
    carbonate of......  i.  699
    chloride of.........  i.  703
    colic................  i.  604
    deutoxide of......  i.  698
    horn ...............  i.  703
    iodide of ..........  i.  704
    magistery of......  i.  699
    neutral acetate of i.  708
    nitrate of .........  i.  70G
    oxide of............  i.  697
    plumbite of ......  i.  698
    red oxide of......  i.  698
    saccharate of__  i.  715
    subcarbonate  of.,  i.  699
    sugar of............  i.  708
    superacetate of...  i.  708
    tannate  of.........  i.  716
    white...............  i.  699
Leaven  ..................ii.   80
Ledoyen's disinfecting
  fluid  ..................  i.  707
Lecanora  tartarea .... ii.   70
Lecca gum ............. ii.  556
Leeches..................ii. 1106
Leek.....................ii.  213
Leguminosae  .......i. 135, 810
Lemery's white  pre-
  cipitate...............  i.  809
Lemnian earth.........  i.  599
Lemon and kali .......  i.  475
Lemonade ..............ii.  975
Lemon,  essential  salt
      of................  i.  512
    grass...............ii.  156
    juice ..........ii. 947, 975
         artificial  ii. 950, 975
    peel  ................ii.  975
Lemons  .................ii.  974
    concrete acid  of., ii.  947
Lenitive electuary .... ii.  848
Lentisk tree ............ ii.  861
Leontodon taraxacum ii.  605
PAGE
 598
 599
 599
1072
 737
  76
Lettuce, garden....... ii.
    opium ............. ii-
    strong scented ... ii.
Levant nut ............. ii.
Levisticum officinale., ii.
Lichen, blue............ii.
    common   yellow
       wall ............. ii.
    islandicus......... ii.
    starch .............ii.
Lichenes.................ii.
    tinctorii............ ii.
Lichenic acid ..........ii.
Light ....................  i.
    oil of wine ...... ii.
    wines  ..............ii.
Lignum colubrinum... ii.
Lignum.................. ii.
    quassiae............ ii.
        jamaicensis  ii.
         surinamense ii.
    santali rubri...... ii.
    vitae.................ii.
Liguliflorae  ............ ii.
Liliaceae.................ii.
Lime  .....................  i.
    bone-phosphate of i.
    burned.............  i.
    carbonates of.....  i.
    chloride of........  i.
    hydrate of.........  i.
    hypochlorite of...  i.
    juice..........  ii. 948
    muriate of.........  i.
    oil of...............  i.
    oxymuriate of ...  i.
    slaked .............  i.
    subphosphate  of.,  i.
    triphosphate of...  i.
    water  ..............  i.
Linaceae..................ii.
Ling  ..................... ii.
Liniment, anodyne ... ii. 1058
    of ammonia ......  i.  433
    of  sesquicarbon-
       ate of ammonia
    soap  ...............
    volatile ............
Linimentum aeruginis
    ammoniae .........
        compositum
        sesquicarbon-
           atis.........  i.
    calcis  .,...........  i.
    camphorae......... ii.
        compositum ii.
    crotonis ...........ii.
    hydrargyri .......  i.
    opii.................ii.
    saponis ............  i.
    simplex............ ii.
    terebinthinae...... ii.
Linseed ................. ii.
    oil.................. ii.
    tea  ................n.
Liparole d'ammoniaque i.
 69
 66
 67
 63
 69
 68
 70
923
893
549
873
873
 823
 884
 604
 192
 561
 570
 561
 565
 575
 562
 575
, 975
 573
 573
 575
 562
 570
 570
 564
 988
1145
 443
 552
 433
 764
 433
 433

 442
 5G4
 405
 405
 369
 786
1058
 552
1136
 299
 989
 990
 990
 540 i
		PAGE
Liqueur de Labarraque	>i.	540
	i.	214
Linum catharticum ...	n.	991
usitatissimum ...	u.	988
Liquidambaraceae —	n.	313
Liquidambar styraci-		
	u.	313
Liquid, artificial cain-		
	n	■>94
oxymuriatic acid	i.	382
	n.	313
		81
Liquor arsenici chlo-		
	l.	640
aluminis compo-		
situs ............	i.	605
		,428
acetatis ....	i.	454
	i.	428
sesquicarbo-		
	l.	442
anodynus mine-		
ralis Hoffmanni	n.	922
antimonii terchlo-		
		657
tartarizati ..		670
anti-podagricus...		445
argenti nitratis ..		832
		640
barii chloridi ...		560
Boyle's fuming...		452
		575
		564
		575
chlorinatae...		582
		382
cupri ammonio-		
	l.	762
	l.	745
hydrargyri bichlo		
	l.	809
iodo-arsenitis	l.	815
pernitratis ..	l.	818
hydriodatis arsen-		
ici et hydrargy-		
ri ...............	l. i.	815
magnesiae citratis		597
effervescens	l.	597
morphiae acetatis	ii.	1064
hydrochlora-		
tis.........	ii.	1066
sulphatis ...	ii.	1067
opii sedatjvus,		
	n.	1056
plumbi diacetatis	l.	711
dilutus	l.	713
subacetatis..	i.	713
	i.	464
arsenitis ....	i.	640
carbonatis...	i.	472
	l.	511
efferves-		
cens	i.	511
effervescens	i.	475
potassii iodidi		
compositus ....	l.	493
 
INDEX.
1207
Liquor pyro-oleosus e
      linteo paratus ii.  959
    sacchari tosti .... ii.  153
    Schobeltii......... i.  731
    sodae ............... i.  513
         carbonatis... i.  518
         chlorinatae .. i.  540
         effervescens  i.  523
         hydras....... i.  513
Liquorice ............... ii.  818
    lozenges........... ii.  819
    sugar............... ii.  818
Liriodendron  tulipife-
  ra  .....................ii. 1079
Liriodendrine ......... ii. 1080
Lisbon diet drink......ii.  279
Litharge,or silver stone i.  697
    gold or silver .... i.  697
Lithargyrum............ i.  697
Lithiae carbonas ...... i.  354
Lithica  .................. i.  283
Lithonlytica............ i.  284
Lithontriptica ......... i.  283
Litmus  ..................ii.    75
    paper............... ii.    77
    tincture of  .......ii.    77
Liver of sulphur ...... i.  475
Liverwort, ash-colour-
      ed ground......ii.    64
    ground ............ ii.    64
Lixivium saponarium  i.  464
    tartari ............ i.  472
Lixivius cinis.......... i.  468
Lobelia inflata.........ii.  583
    syphilitica........ ii.  587
Lobeliaceae......i. 135, ii. 583
Lobelianin  .............ii.  584
Lobelic acid............ii.  585
Lobelina ................ii.  584
Lofty bitter-wood tree ii.  873
Loganiaceae ............ii.  530
Logwood, common  ... ii.  837
Loliin.................... ii.  114
Lolium  temulentum.... i.  134,
                     ii.  113
Long-eared barley.... ii.  115
Long pepper............ii.  353
Loosestrife,    spiked
      purple ......... ii.  759
    tribe ............... ii.  759
Lota molva ............ii. 1145
    vulgaris............ii. 1145
Lotio ammonia; hydro-
      chloratis ...... i.  449
    calcis chlorinatae  i.  582
    flava ............... i.  789
    nigra............... i.  788
    phngedsenica...... i.  789
    sodae chlorinatae  i.  543
Lovage  .................. ii-  737
Loxa  bark...............ii.  634
Lozenges,  acidulated
      lemon  .......... ii.  892
    gum...............|j-  831
    liquorice .......... ij-  819
    magnesia ......... *•  '°''r-
                       PAGE
Lozenges, morphia ... ii. 1066
         and ipecacu-
           anha ......ii. 1067
    of lactucarium... ii.  603
    opium .............ii. 1055
    peppermint ...... ii.  447
    Pontefract  .......ii.  819
    soda ...............  i.  524
    Tolu ...............ii.  815
Lugol's caustic, rube-
       facient,    and
       stimulant solu-
       tions  ............  i.  494
    concentrated solu-
       tion of iodine in
       iodide of potas-
       sium ............  i.  494
    ioduretted baths.,  i.  494
         mineral water i.  494
Luna cornea ............ i.  824
Lunar caustic .........  i.  824
Lungwort tree......... ii.   65
Lupulin, or lupuiite .. ii.  342
Lupulina ...............ii.  343
Lupulinic  glands  or
  grains ................ii.  343
Lycium Europasuni ... ii.  870
Lycoperdon giganteum ii.   89
Lycopodiaceae ......... ii.  102
Lycopodium............ii.  103
    clavatum ......... ii.  102
Lythraceae ............. ii.  759
Lythrum salicaria .... ii.  759
Lytta caerulea .........ii. 1129
    gigas mas.........ii. 1129
    segetum ..........ii. 1129
    vesicatoria  ....... ii. 1118
             M.

Macaroni ............... ii.  126
Mace (macis) ......... ii.  411
Machines, coil .........  i.  110
    electric ............  i.  105
    electrodynamic...  i.  110
    induction .........  i.  110
    magneto-electric   i.  112
    volta-electric......  i.  110
Mad apples  ............ii.  321
Madarin  ............... ii.  552
Madder, Dyer's  ......  ii.  617
    Dutch or Zealand ii.  617
    East India ....... ii.  617
    Levant  ............ ii.  617
    Turkey or Smyrna ii.  617
Madeira wine .........ii.  897
    weed ............... ii.   74
Magisterium  plumbi..  i.  699
Magistery of bismuth  i.  672
    lead ................  i.  699
Magnesia ...............  i.  583
    alba ................  i.  587
    bicarbonate of ...  i.  592
    calcinata .........  i.  585
         ponderosa...  i.  585
Magnesia calcinata		
	l.	583
calcined or burnt	i.	583
carbonates of....	i.	587
citrate of ........	i. i.	597
common calcined		585
condensed solu-		
tion of..........		592
fluid ...............		592
heavy calcined..		584
carbonate of i.		589
Henry's calcined	i.	585
Indian calcined..		585
light carbonate of i.		589
		592
subcarbonate of..		587
		593
		597
		593
water, aerated ..		592
carbonated.		592
Magnesias bicarbonas		592
		588
		597
		593
		597
Magnesian lemonade		597
		588
Magnesium, corn-		
	1.	583
	i.	583
Magnetic electricity .		110
	i.	731
	i.	721
	i	11?
Magneto-electric ma-		
	i.	112
	i.	114
	i. i.	111
		111
	u.	1077
	ii.	1078
	u.	1079
	u.	1079
	u.	1079
Maidenhair ......... ii.	98	, 101
Maize or Indian corn	n.	109
Majorana hortensis...	ii.	448
Mala insana............	n.	321
Malaguetta pepper ...	n.	240
Male shield fern ......	u.	98
Mallow tribe............	u.	984
	n.	985
marsh .............	ii.	985
Malt .....................	u.	117
		118
poultice............	ii.	86
	n	935
	ii. ii.	117
Malva rotundifolia ...		985
sylvestris .........	u.	985
	n. ii.	985
		1023
	u.	1155
Mandioca or cassava		
		382
 
1208
INDEX.
                        PAGE
 Mandragora officinalis ii.  507
 Mandrake .............. ii.  507
     root ............... ii.  750
 Manganese  ............. i.  609
     acetate of......... i.  613
     binoxide  of ...... i.  609
     carbonate of...... i.  611
     chloride of........ i.  613
     native  black,  or
       peroxide of .... i.  609
     sulphate of  ...... i.  611
 Manganesic acid....... i.  610
 Manganesii  acetas  ... i.  613
     binoxydum ....... i.  609
     carbonas........... i.  611
     chloridum......... i.  613
     oxidum ............ i.  609
     sulphas............ i.  611
 Manihot aipi............ii.  381
    janipha............ii.  381
     utilissima......... ii.  380
 Manna  ..................ii.  560
     Briancon......ii.  286, 562
     cannulata  .........ii.  561
     croup............... ii.  120
     metallorum....... i.  795
     of the larch., ii.  286, 562
     Sicilian............ii.  562
     sugar............... ii.  562
 Mannite ................ii.  562
 Manuluvium ........... i.   82
 Maranta arundinacea ii.  224
     indica..............ii.  224
 Marantacese............ii.  224
 Marble .................. i.  565
 Marbled soap   ......... i.  550
 Marcasita............... i.  671
 Margarine...............ii.  559
 Margaritic acid........ ii.  377
 Margaratine............ ii.  377
 Marine acid ............ i.  384
 Marjoram, common ... ii.  448
     sweet .............. ii.  448
 Marmor  ................ i.  565
     album  ............. i.  566
 Marrubium..............ii.  45^
     vulgare............ii.  452
 Mars, salts of  ......... i.  733
     vitriol of  .......... i.  733
 Marshmallow..........ii.  985
 Marsh trefoil  ..........ii.  529
 Marsh's test............ i.  622
 Martial Ethiops ....... i.  721
 Massicot  ................ i.  697
 Massing................. i.   79
 Massoy bark............ ii.  388
 Masticatoria ........... i.  277
 Mastic tree  ............ii.  861
 Mastiche  ...............ii.  862
 Masticine ............... ii.  802
Matico plant........... ii.  357
Materia   hermaphro-
      dita .............  i.  242
     Medica  ............ i.   65
Matricaria chamomilla ii.  590 I
May apple .............ii. 1096 I
                        PAGE
 Mead  ....................ii.  900
 Meadow-saffron....... ii.  171
 Meal, cassava  ......... ii.  382
 Meconic acid ... ii. 1026, 1030
 Meconica................ i.  230
 Meconium...............ii. 1007
 Meconine ............... ii. 1026
 Mechanical antidotes  i.  198
 Medicamenta emollien-
   tia ..................... i.  207
 Medicated vinegars ... ii.  947
 Medicines............... i.  131
     absorption of......i.  148
     acting dynamical-
       ly on the blood i.  230
     acting on the ner-
       vous system ... i.  233
     acting on the res-
       piratory organs i.  231
     active forces of... i.  137
     changes in, by the
       action of the or-
       ganism  ......... i.  138
     chemical effects of i.  143
         properties of i.  135
     circumstances
       which   modify
       the effects of... i.  163
     classifications of., i.  178
     endosmotic effects
       of................ i.  141
     injection of, into
       the veins....... i.  177
     modes  of  ascer-
       taining the ef-
       fects of......... i.  132
     operation  of,  by
       nervous  agen-
       cy................ i.  162
     parts   to  which
       they are  applied i.  173
     physical effects of i.  141
     physiological
           classes of  i.  197
         effects of.... i.  140
     remote effects of  i.  148
     therapeutical  ef-
       fects of......... i.  167
     tolerance of...... i.  143
     topical............. i.  198
         ................ ii. 1133
     aegyptiacum...... i.  764
     boracis ............ i.  527
     depuratum ....... ii. 1134
     rosae ...............ii.  799
Melaleuca cajuputi ... ii.  751
     minor..............H.  75]
Melampodium .........ii. 1082
Melanthaceae ..........ii.  171
Melanochin  ............ ii.
Melinum ................ i.
Melissa officinalis.....ii.
Mellite of borax....... i.
Meloe proscarabaeus
Mel.
 671
 687
 450
 527
1129
majalis  ............ ii. 1129
vesicatorius ......ii. 1118
                        PAGE
Mcnagoga...............  i.  289
Menispermaceae.......ii. 1068
Menispermine ......... ii. 1073
Menispermum palma-
  tum ...................ii. 1069
Mentha piperita ...... ii.  445
     pulegium ......... ii.  447
     viridis ............. ii.  444
Menthene...............ii.  446
Menyanthes trifoliata ii.  629
Menyanthin............ii.  590
Mephitic air............  i.  411
Mercurial balsam......  i.  819
     candles............  i.  776
     compounds.......  i.  768
     disease ............  i.  770
     erethism..........  i.  770
     fever...............  i.  770
     ointment..........  i.  783
     pills................  i.  783
     plaster.............  i.  786
     purging ...........  i.  771
Mercurialia ............  i.  222
     et antimonialia...  i.  222
Mercurius  alcalisatus  i.  782
     cosmeticus........  i.  809
     dulcis..............  i.  795
     praecipitatus ru-
           ber ........  i.  789
        ruber per se  i.  788
     sublimatus corro-
      sivus ............  i.  803
Mercury and its com-
      pounds  ......... i.  765
    acetate of......... i.  821
    ammonio-chloride i.  809
    ammoniated...... i.  809
        submuriate of i.  809
    bibasic nitrate of
      the oxide of ... i.  817
    bipersulphate of i.  795
    bisulphuret of ... i.  792
    black oxide of ... i.  787
        sulphuret of i.  793
    calcined........... i.  788
    chloride of......... i.  803
    coagulated ....... i.  788
    corneous .......... i.  795
    corrosive muriate
      of................ i.  803
    cyanuret of......ii. 1181
    cyanodide of......ii. 1181
    deutiodideof...... i.  813
    green  subiodide
      of................ i.  811
    gray oxide of .... i.  787
    hydrochlorate of i.  803
    hydrocyanate of  ii. 1181
    iodides of......... i.  811
    metallic.......i. 767, 775
    muriate of......... i.  803
    nitrates of......... i.  816
    nitric oxide of ... i.  789
    of life.............. i.  644
    ointment of....... i.  783
        iodide of .... i.  813 
INDEX.
1209
Mercury,  ointment of
       nitrate of ...... i.
    oxide of............ i.
    oxymuriate of ... i.
    perchloride of ... i.
    percyanide of.... ii.
    periodide of...... i.
    peroxide of....... i.
    persulphate of... i.
    pills of ............ i.
         iodide of .... i.
    plaster of......... i.
    preparations of., i.
    protochloride of  i.
    protiodide of..... i.
    Prussian  ..........ii.
    prussiate of......ii.
    purified ........... i.
    red precipitated., i.
        oxide of...... i.
    Bubchloride of ... i.
    submuriate of ... i.
    suboxide of....... i.
    sulphates of...... i.
    sulphuret of...... i.
    theory of the ac-
       tion of..........
    white precipitated
    with  chalk.........
         magnesia....
    yellow   subsul-
       phate of........ i.
Metalloids............... i.
Metagallic acid........ ii.
Method by ingestion  . i.
    endermic.......... i.
    enepidermic...... i.
    iatraleptic......... i.
Methyle,  hydrate  of
  oxide of............... ii.
Methylene,  bihydrate
  of......................ii.
Methystica............. i.
Mezereon, common... ii.
Mezereum, daphne ... ii.
Mild mineral or fossil
       alkali............ i.
    vegetable  alkali., i.
Milk  .....................ii.
    albumen of.......ii.
    sugar of...........ii.
    of sulphur......... i.
    vetch .............. ii.
Milkwort tribe......... ii.
Mimoseae ...............ii.
Mimosa catechu.......ii.
Mind,  external affec-
       tions of......... i.
    internal affections
       of................ i.
Mindereri liquor ...... i
Mineral, aethiops...... i.
    anodyne liquor... ii.
    kermes ............ i.
    solution ........... i-
    springs, table of  i.
 819
 787
 803
 803
1181
 813
 788
 795
 783
 813
 786
 776
 795
 811
1181
1181
 781
 789
 788
 795
 795
 787
 794
 791

 773
 809
 782
 782

 794
 291
 328
 175
 173
 173
 173

 939

 939
 236
 416
 416

 513
 408
1107
1168
1168
 358
 819
 992
 826
 832

  66

  68
 454
 793
 922
 653
 640
 324
                       PAGE
Mineral, turpeth......  i.  794
    waters .............  i.  315
Minium ............. i. 698, 792
    secundarium......  i.  698
Mistura acaciae........ ii.  831
    althaeae ............ ii.  986
    ammoniaci........ ii.  722
    amygdalae  ........ ii.  767
    assafcetidae.......ii.  719
    camphorae.........ii.  403
        cum magne-
           sia ......... ii.  404
    creasoti............ ii.  961
    cretae  ..............  i.  569
    ferri aromatica...  i.  729
        composita...  i.  728
    gentianae compo-
       sita ..............ii.  527
    Griffithii ..........  i.  728
    guaiaci............ii.  888
    hordei .............ii.  117
    scammonii........ii.  517
    spiritus vini gal-
       lici  ..............ii.  912
Mixture, freezing......  i.   92
Molasses........... ii. 149, 912
Mollusca................ ii. 1104
Molybdaena.............  i.  697
Momordica elaterium ii.  743
Momordicine...........ii.  746
Monesia bark..........ii.  577
Monesine  ............... ii.  577
Monkshood............. ii. 1085
Monocotyledones ..... ii.  105
Monotony...............  i.   68
Moraceae................ ii.  343
Morchella esculenta .. ii.   91
Morel, common ....... ii.   91
Morphia......... ii. 1026, 1060
    and ipecacuanha
       lozenges........ ii. 1067
    acetate of  ii. 1062, 1063
    hydrochlorate  ... ii. 1064
    lozenges...........ii. 1066
    muriate of.........ii. 1064
Morphiaa acetas.......ii. 1063
    hydrochloras __ii. 1064
    murias ............ ii. 1064
    muriatis solutio  ii. 1066
    sulphas............ii. 1067
Morphometry......... ii. 1034
Morphina...............ii. 1060
Morrhua vulgaris..... ii. 1145
Morus nigra............ ii.  344
Mosaic gold ............  i.  690
Moschus ................ ii. 1158
    moschiferus ...... ii. 1158
    artificialis......... ii.  964
    factitius...........ii.  964
Moss,  carrageen,   or
       Irish ............ ii.   56
    Geylon............. ii.   60
    Corsican.......... ii. ^ 62
    cup................. ii.   64
    Iceland............ ii.   66
    pearl...............ii.   56
		PAGE
Moss, reindeer........	ii.	65
tartareous .......	ii.	70
Mountain arnica.....	ii.	597
	ii.	383
	ii. ii.	591
		591
	ii.	591
Moxon's aperienteffer		
vescing magnesia..	l.	598
	n.	831
	n.	989
	ii.	831
	n. ii.	125
		803
	u.	821
	n.	831
	n.	125
	n.	59
	ii.	117
	ii.	821
	n.	822
	n.	822
	n. i. ii.	803
		8?
		552
	ii.	552
	u.	595
Mulberry, common ...	u.	344
	l.	731
	u.	617
	1.	444
barytae ...........	l.	557
hydrargyri corro		
	l. i.	803
sodae ..............		533
Muriate of ammonia		
and mercury..		809
		657
		557
iron, tincture of		738
		573
		803
		1064
		533
		683
		384
		385
Muriatis lerri liquor		738
		408
		222
		222
		222
		146
Mushroom, common.		93
		95
	i. 6 64,	7, 69
Musk....................		1158
artificial__ii. 9		1161
	n.	892
	u.	1001
	n.	1001
	u.	1004
	u.	1004
Whitehead's es-		
	ii.	299
	ii.	604
 
1210
INDEX.
                        PAGE
 Mycoderma cerevisiae  ii.   82
 Mylabris cichorii ii. 1118,1129
     Fiisselini..........  ii. 1118
 Myrica cerifera .......  ii. 1134
 Myricine................  ii. 1135
 Myristica aromatica .  ii.  411
     fragfans  ..........  ii.  411
     moschata  .........  ii.  411
     officinalis  .........  ii.  411
 Myristicaceae  ..........  ii.  411
 Myristicae adeps ......  ii.  415
 Myristicine.............ii.  415
 Myristine...............ii.  416
 Myronic acid ..........ii. 1002
 Myrosine ...............  ii. 1002
 Myrospermine.........  ii.  813
 Myroxiline .............  ii.  813
Myrospermum  perui-
  ferum.................ii.  811
Myrospermum   tolui-
  ferum.................  ii.  814
Myroxylon   peruife-
  rum ...................ii.  811
Myrrh...................  ii.  865
Myrrha turcica........  ii.  866
Myrtaceae...............ii.  750
Myrtle wax ............ ii. 1134
Myrtus pimenta....... ii.  756
N.
Nannari.................ii.  551
Namur, grass oil of... ii.  154
Naphtha ................ ii.  939
     Barbadoes........ ii.  962
     black  ..............ii.  961
     vitrioli ............ ii.  016
Narccina......... ii. 1026, 1029
Narcissus,  odorous ... ii.  222
     pseudo-narcissus ii.  222
     tazetta............. ii.  222
Narcotic salt........... i.  341
Narcotics ............... i.  235
Narcotin,  or  narco-
  tina............ ii. 1026, 1028
Narthex assafoetida... ii.  712
Nassauviaceae ......... ii.  604
Natron carbonicum ... i.  520
     vitriolatum....... i.  531
Natrum carbonicum.. i.  513
Natrium................. i.  512
     oxide of............ i.  512
Nauclea gambir.......ii.  695
Nauseantia............. i.  2G7
Nectandra rodiaei...... ii.  408
Nephrodium filix mas  ii.   98
Nera or toddy.........  ii.  162
Neurotica............... i.  233
Neutral ointment...... i.  715
Nicotiana persica...... ii.  486
     repanda............ii.  486
     rustica ............ii.  486
     tabacum .......... ii.  484
Nicotianae  ..............  i.  237
 Nicotianin............... ii.
 Nicotine, or nicotina . ii.
 Nightshade, black__ii.
     deadly............. ii.
     woody ............. ii.
 Nihil album ............  i.
 Nitraria, artificial.....  i.
 Nitras argenti .........  i.
     hydrargyricus aci-
       do  nitrico solu-
       tus...............  i.
     potassae ...........  i.
 Nitrate of ammonia...  i.
     camphor ..........ii.
     lead . ..............  i.
     potash.............  i.
     silver ..............  i.
 Nitrieres, artificial ...  i.
 Nitre.....................  i.
     beds ...............  i.
     drops ..............ii.
     fixed ...............  i.
     sweet spirit of ... ii.
     walls...............  i.
 Nitric acid..............  i.
     oxide...............  i.
         of mercury  .  i.
 Nitrogen ................  i.
     dcutoxide of...... i.
     in food  ............ i.
     protoxide of...... i.
 Nitrogenii binoxydum i.
     protoxydum...... i.
 Nitrogenium............ i.
 Nitro-hydrochloric acid i.
     muriatic acid .... i.
         bath.......... i.
         oxide of anti-
           mony ..... i.
 Nitrous acid............ i.
     ether, spirit of... ii.
     gas.................. i.
     oxide............... i.
Nitrum .................. i.
     flaminans ......... i.
     saturninum  ...... i.
     semivolatile  ...... i.
     tabulatum, or sal
      prunelle........ i.
Non-naturals........... i.
Nordhausen,  fuming
  sulphuric acid of... i.
Nut, poison............. ii.
Nutgalls ................ ii.
Nutmegs................ ft.
    butter of.......... ii.
Nuts, physic............ ii.
Nux barbadensis......ii.
    mechil.............ij.
    moschata .........ii.
    vomica (false an-
           gostura)
           bark... ii.  535,
         strychnos  ... ii.
TAGE
 488
 480
 504
 470
 503
 676
 500
 824
 818
 497
 454
 398
 706
 497
 824
 500
 497
 500
 925
 468
 925
 500
 414
 414
 789
 411
 414
 116
 411
 414
 411
 411
 421
 421
 422

 6451
 417
 925
 4141
 411
 497
 454
 706
 454

 501!
 115

 365
 533
 3211
 411
415
379
 379
 533
412
881'
             O.
                        PAGE
Oak, common British ii.  317
    cork................ ii.  330
    dyer's .............ii.  320
Oat, common .......... ii.  Ill
Oatmeal ................ ii.  Ill
Oat-starch.............. ii.  112
Odoraments ............ i.   66
CEnanthic ether....... ii.  893
Oidium abortifaciens ii.   87
Od........................ i.  113
Oil, almond ............ii.  768
    animal.............ii.  965
    cajeput............ ii.  751
    camphor .......... ii.  398
    carron............. i.  564
    castor..............ii.  375
    Chabert's.........ii.  263
    cod................. ii  1146
    corn spirit.........ii.  900
    croton ............. ii.  367
    Dippel's........... ii.  965
    empyreumatica .. ii.  965
    etherial  ...........ii.  923
    Florence ..........ii.  558
    Gallipoli ..........ii.  558
    Genoa .............ii.  558
    linseed ............ii.  990
        cold drawn . ii.  990
    Lucca .............ii.  558
    allspice............ii.  758
    amber .............ii.  964
    anise...............ii.  704
    of antimony ...... i.  657
       assafcetida.....ii.  715
       balm............ ii.   450
       balsam of Peru ii.  813
       bays ............ii.  407
       bergamot...... ii.   974
       bitter almonds ii.   768
           orange.... ii.   980
       chamomile .... ii.   592
       caraway........ ii.   702
      cardamom, fixed ii.   253
           volatile  or
            essential ii.   253
      cassia  ..........ii.   395
      cebadilla.......ii.   188
      cedra............ ii.   973
      cherry-laurel,
        volatile......ii.   774
      cinchona bark ii.   669
      cinnamon...... ii.   391
           leaf........ii.   391
      citron...........ii.   973
      cloves...........ii.   755
      copaiva.........ii.   857
      cubebs ......... ii.   356
      cumin  ..........ii.   707
      dill...............ii.   706
      ergot............ ii.   143
      fennel, sweet., ii.   705
      garlic............ii.   212
      gentian.........ii.   524
      geranium  ...... ii.   155
      grain............ ii.   900 
INDEX.
1211
ri-i                     PAGE
Oil of hartshorn......ft.  965
       hemlock........ft.  729
       iron .............  i   738
       juniper......... ft.  308
       lavender .......ft.  442
       laurel berries., ii.  407
       lemons  ......... ft.  975
       lemon grass ... ii.  156
       lettuce..........ft.  602
       lime.............  i.  573
       linseed  ......... ii.  990
       mace............ ii.  415
       male fern ...... ii.  101
       marjoram...... ii.  448
       meadow-sweet ii.  316
       mustard........ ii. 1002
       myrrh, volatile ii.  866
       Namur  ......... ii.  154
       neroli............ft.  980
       nutmeg.........ft.  415
       nutmegs,   ex-
         pressed ......ft.  415
       onions .......... ii.  214
       orange flower . ii.  979
           leaf........ii.  979
       pennyroyal.... ii.  447
       peppermint.... ii.  446
       pimento  ........ ii.  758
       poppy .......... ii. 1008
       potato-spirit  .. ii.  900
       roses............ ii.  801
       rosemary ......ii.  451
       rue ..............ii.  877
       sarsaparilla ... ii.   274
       sassafras  ...... ii.  406
       savine .......... ii.  311
       sennae...........ii.  845
       spearmint ..... ii.   444
       spike............ ii.  442
       spikenard......ii.  155
       star-anise...... ii.  704
       sweet marjoram ii.  449
       sweet orange  .. ii.  979
       tar............... ii.  305
       tobacco.........ii.  490
       orange .........ft.  979
       thyme...... ii. 448,  450
       turpentine.....ii.  292
       verbena......... ii.  156
       vitriol .......... i.  361
           sweet ..... ii.  923
       wine ............ii.  923
           heavy.....ii.  923
           light......ii.  923
     olive ...............ii.  557
     or butter of anti-
       mony............ i.  657
     palms.............. ii.   167
     paper.............. ii.  959
     potato spirit...... ii.  900
     rag................. ii.   959
     rock................ii.   961
     Sicily...............ii.  558
     sweet, droppings
       of................ ii.   558
Oils...................... i-   -i>-
                        PAGE
Oils,  non-oxygenated  i.  253
    non-sulphuretted  i.  253
    oxygenated essen-
       tial...............  i.  253
    sulphuretted  vo-
       latile............  i.  252
    volatile............  i.  252
Ointment, arsenical...  i.  642
    blue  or  Neapoli-
       tan...............  i.  781
    citrine.............  i.  819
    mercurial .........  i.  783
    neutral ............  i.  715
    of ammonia.......  i.  433
Olea europsea...........ft.  555
Oleaceae.................ft.  555
Olefiant gas, dihydrate
  of......................ii.  920
Oleine...................ft.  559
Oleo-resinae..... i. 255, ii. 860
        terebinthinae ii.  287
Olera.....................  i.  254
Oleum absinthii....... ii.  594
    aethereum......... ii.  923
    amygdalae.........ii.  768
        amarae.......ii.  768
    anethi.............ft.  706
    animale............ft.  965
    anisi  ............... ii.  704
    anthemidis ....... ii.  592
    anthos.............ii.  451
    armoraciae........ ii. 1000
    asari  ............... ii.  386
    aurantii............ ft.  978
    badiani......  ii. 704, 1080
    bergamii, or oleum
       bergamotae .... ii.  974
    barosmas seu di-
       osmae............ii.  879
    cadinum .......... ii.  308
    cajuputi .......... ft.  751
    calami aromatica ii.  159
    calcis...............  i.  573
    camphoratum__ii.  405
    carui............... ii.  702
    caryophylli.......ii.  755
    cascarillae......... ii.  371
    cassia.............. ii.  395
    chamaemeli   Ro-
       mani.............ii.  592
    chenopodii........ ii.  439
    cinnamomi .......ii.  391
    cinnamomi folio-
       rum.............ii.  391
    copaibae........... ii.  857
    coriandri ......... ii.  708
    cornu cervi....... ii.  965
    corticis Winteri.. ii. 1078
    croci  ............... ii.  219
    crotonis............ ii.  367
    cumini.............ii.  707
    cubebae............ii.  356
    empyreumaticum
       Chaberti .......  i.  2G3
    empyreumaticum
      juniperi ........ ii.  308
                         PAGE
 Oleum ergotae..........ft.  143
     foeniculi............ft.  705
          dulcis........ft.  705
          vulgaris...... ii.  705
     filicis maris ......ii.  101
     gabianum.........ft.  962
     jatrophae curcadis ii.  379
     jecoris aselli......ii. 1145
          morrhuae.... ii. 1145
     juniperi............ ft.  308
     lauri  aethereum
       nativum........ ii.  408
     limonum.......... ft.  977
     lini..................ft.  990
     lauri ............... ft.  407
     lauro-cerasi ...... ii.  774
     lavandulae......... ii.  442
     macidis............ii.  415
     majoranae......... ii.  449
     menthae  piperitae ii.  446
          pulegii ......ii.  447
          viridis ....... ft.  444
     morrhuae.......... ii. 1146
     myristicae.........ii.  415
     Neroli .............ii.  978
     nucis moschatae.. ii.  415
     origani  ............ft.  448
     olivae............... ft.  557
     phosphoratum.... i.  349
     picis liquidae...... ii.  305
     pimentae .......... ii.  758
     pini  rubrum......ii.  305
     piperis  ............ii.  350
     provinciale ....... ii.  558
     pulegii  ............ft.  447
     ricini...............ii.  375
     rosae  ............... ii.  801
     rosmarini.........ii.  451
     rutae  ............... ii.  877
     sabinae  ............ii.  311
     sassafras..........ii.  406
     seu butyrum anti-
       monii ........... i.  657
     siticum............ii.  901
     spicae............... ii.  442
     succinae............ ii.  964
     sulphuratum ..... i.  360
     tanaceti............ ii.  597
     templinum........ii.  285
     terebinthinae......ii.  292
         purificatum.. ii.  292
         rectificatum  ii.  292
     thymi............... ii.  450
     tiglii................ ii.  367
     vitrioli dulce...... ii.  916
1     volatile............ii.  753
| Olibanum...............ii.  863
     Arabian............ii.  864
     Indian............. ii.  864
[Olivae, oleum ..........ii.  557
1 Olive, refuse of,  for
   baths.................. i.  82
 Olives.................... ii.  556
 Olive gum...............ii.  556
     oil......... i. 713; ii.  557
     spurge ............ ft.  416 
1212
INDEX.
                        PAGE
Olivile.................... ii.  556
Onion....................ft.  213
     the sea............. ft.  207
Ophelia chirata  ....... ft.  527
Opianic acid............ ii. 1029
Opium................... ft. 1007
     and calomel uills  i.  802
     Bengal .......*..... ii. 1023
     clyster ............ ii. 1057
     Constantinople... ii. 1021
     Cutch.............. ii. 1024
     Dr. Porter's solu-
       tion of, in citric
       acid............. ft. 1060
     eating ............. ii. 1037
     Egyptian ......... ii. 1022
     English............ ii. 1024
     French ............ ii. 1024
     German............ ii. 1025
     Indian.............ii. 1022
     lettuce............. ii.  599
     lozenges........... ii. 1055
     Malwa............. ii. 1023
     Persian  ........... ii. 1022
     pills................ ii. 1054
     plaster ............ ii. 1056
     preparation of.... ft. 1008
     purity and strength
       of................ ii. 1033
     smoking........... ii. 1038
     Smyrna............ ii. 1021
     tincture  of........ ii. 1056
     Turkey............ ft. 1021
     Trebizond......... ii. 1021
     vinegar of......... ii. 1059
     wine  of............ ii. 1059
Opodeldoc...............  i.  552
Opoidia galbanifera... ii.  723
Opoponax chironium  ii.  725
Opuntia cochinillifera ii. 1130
Orange berries ........ ii.  979
     bigarade, or bit-
       ter............... ii.  979
     common or  sweet ii.  978
     flowers ............ ii.  979
    juice  ............... ii.  979
     peel.................ii.  979
     Seville............. ii.  979
     tribe  ............... ii.  972
Orceine..................ii.   70
Orchella, Dyer's....... ii.   72
Orchideae  ............... ii.  255
Orchil  liquor........... ii.   78
Orchis latifolia.........ii.  25G
     mascula........... ii.  256
Orenburgh gum....... ii.  28G
Origanum majorana.. ii.  448
     vulgare............ ii.  448
Ornus Europrea........ ii.  560
     rotundifolia ...... ii.  560
Orpiment  ...............  i.  615
Orris, Florentine...... ii.  220
     root................ ii.  220
Oryza sativa............ ft.  107
Oscillaria   labyrinthi-
  formis ................ ft.   51
                       PAGE
Ossa deusta alba......  i.  571
    calcinata..........  i.  571
Ostrea edulis  i. 567 ; ii. 1104
Otto of roses........... ii.  801
Ourari poison  ......... ii.  550
Ovis ammon............ ii. 1166
    aries ............... ii. 1105
    musimon.......... ii. 1166
Ovum..................... ii. 1153
Ox........................ ii.
    bile................. ii.
Oxalate of ammonia ..  i.
Oxalic acid.............ii.
Oxalidaceae.............ii.
Oxalis acetosella...... ii.
Oxeoles..................ii.
Oxide, nitric............  i.
    nitrous ............  i.
    of arsenic.........  i.
       calcium.........  i.
       ethyle ......... ii.
       lead............  i.
       manganese  ...  i.
       mercury.......  i.
       silver..........  i.
       zinc ............  i.
Oxiodine.................  i.
Oxy-chloride of anti-
  mony ................
Oxydi ferri squamae .
Oxydum antimonii  ..
    ferroso-ferricum
    ferri  nigrum.....
        rubrum.....
    hydrargyri  cine-
       reum............  i.
    hydrargyri  rub-
       rum .............  i.
    plumbi   semivi-
       treum.........
1100
1169
 456
 954
947
414
411
614
561
920
697
609
787
823
676
405

644
722
644
721
721
697
676
G78
292
296
         nnpurum ....
Oxygen..................
    water...............
Oxygenated muriatic
  acid...................  i.  378
Oxygenized water ....  i.  296
Oxygenium.............  i.  292
Oxymel..................ft.  947
    aeruginis ..........  i.  704
    cupri subacetatis  i.  704
    scillae............... ft.  211
    simplex............ft.  947
Oxymuriate of potash  i.  484
    of sodae............  i.  539
Oyster................... ft. H04
    green...............ii.   54
    shell ............... ft. 1105
         prepared i. 567; ii.
                        1105
Ozone....................  i.  326
             P.

Pachydermata.........ft. H69
                        PAGE
Pale bark...............ii.  645
Palm oil.................ii.  160
     the gomuto........ii.  162
     wine  ...............ii.  160
Palma Christi..........ii.  372
Palmae  .................. ii.  160
     ceriferae........... ii.  169
     fariniferae......... ii.  161
     oleiferas............ii.  167
     resiniferae ........ii.  169
     tanniferae.........ii.  170
Palmine.................ii.  377
Palmitine...............ii.  168
Panax quinquefolium ii.  699
     schin-seng........ii.  699
Panchymagogum mine-
  rale....................  i.  795
Pancreatica ............  i.  264
Panes saccharati pur-
  gantes................ii.  522
Panis fermentatus .... ii.  126
     sine fermento__ii.  127
     triticeus...........ii.  126
Pannus vesicatorius .. ii. 1129
Papaver officinale  .... ii. 1008
     rhceas..............ii. 1006
     somniferum ......ii. 1007
Papaveraceas  ..........ii. 1006
Papier epispastique... ii. 1129
Papilionacae............ ii.  811
Paradise,  grains of... ii.  240
Parallinic acid.........ii.  274
Paralytica...............  i.  245
Paramenispermia.....ii. 1074
Paramorphia...........ii. 1030
Pararhodeoretin ......ii.  520
Paregoric elixir........ii.  404
Pareira brava .........ii. 1075
Parietaria officinalis., ii.  333
Pariglin.................. ii.  274
Parmelia parietina ... ii.   69
Parsley..................ft.  737
     fool's .............. ii.  737
     piert...............ii.  809
Pasta arsenicalis......  i.  642
     cacao cum chon-
       dro..............ii.   59
Pasta escharotica Lon-
  dinensis ..............  i.  467
Paste, Ward's.......... ii.  352
Pastilli fumantes...... ii.  573
Pastinaca opoponax... ii.  725
     sativa..............ii.  737
Patent   unfermented
  bread..................ft.  127
Pates de foies gras ...  i.   74
Peach ...................ft.  771
     leaves.............. ii.  772
Pearl ash ...............  i.  468
     barley.............. ft.  115
     white...............  i.  672
Peas, issue ...........•.. ft.  979
Pectic acid ............. ii.  319
Pectin................... ii.   58
Pectoral decoction.... ii.  117
Pellicula  ovi............ii. 1154 
INDEX.
1213
                        PAGE
Pellitory, common wall ii.  333
    of Spain........... ft.  593
Peltidea canina .......ii.   64
Pennyroyal.............ft.  447
Pepper, bell............ft.  506
    bird................ft.  505
    black...............ii.  348
         Fulton's de-
           corticated ii.  350
    cayenne............ii.  505
    cubeb..............ft.  354
    Guinea ............ii.  505
    Jamaica...........ii.  757
    long................ft.  353
    malagueta.........ii.  240
    volatile oil of .... ii.  350
    white............... ii.  350
Peppermint ............ii.  445
    oil of............... ii.  446
Percolation............. ii.  914
Pereira bark............ii. 1077
    medica ............ii. 1077
 530
 551
 746
 834
 609
 788
1022
 771
  78
 737
 812
Perennial worm grass ii.
Periploca indica  ......ii.
Pernitrate of iron..... i.
Peroxide of gold....... i.
     manganese ....... i.
     mercury........... i.
Persian  opium......... ii.
Persica vulgaris....... ii.
Persio (cudbear)......ii.
Persulphate  of iron... i.
Peru, liquid balsam of ii.
Peruvian bark, Cali-
       saya  ............ii.
     ipecacuanha .....ii.
•petroleum............... ii.
     Barbadense  ......ii.
Petroselinum sativum ii.
Phaeoretine.............ii.
Phanerogamia..........ii.
Pharbitis nil............ii.
Pharmacognosy ....... i.
Pharmacodynamics... i.
Pharmacology.......... i.
Pharmacy .............. i.
Phasianus Gallus...... ii. 1153
Pharmacology, general i.  132
     special............. i.  290
Philonium Londinense ii. 1055
Philosopher's wool.... i.  676
Phlogisticated air..... i.  411
Phoenix  farinifera.....ii.  161
Phosphas,  sodae....... i.
Phosphate of lime, pre
       cipitated .......
     soda................
Phosphorated oil......
Phosphoric acid.......
Phosphorized oil......
Phosphorus.........  i. 257
Phrenica................ \-
Phyceae.................. ij-
Physagoga............. i.  251
Physeter macrocepha-
  lus..................... i
635
628
961
961
737
431
105
523
131
132
131
131
527

571
527
349
349
249
344
235
 54
1155
                       PAGE
Physic nuts ............ ft.  379
Picraena excelsa.......ii.  873
Picrin ...................ii.  457
Picroglycion............ ii.  503
Picrotoxic acid.........ii. 1073
Picrotoxin...............ii. 1073
Pigmentum  indicum .. ii.  859
Piline,  impermeable
  spongio...............  i.   82
Pills,  aloetic............ii.  205
    blue.................  i.  783
    Plummer's........  i.  657
Pilula rhei compositae ii.  436
Pilulae aloes............ ii.  205
    aloes cum sapone ii.  205
    caeruleae...........  i.  783
    cocciae.............ii.  743
    colocynthidis com-
      posita .......... ii.  742
    colocynthidis   et
      hyoscyami..... ii.  743
    ammoniati cupri  i.  762
    asiaticae............  i.  642
    assafcetidae.......ii.  718
    caeruleae...........  i.  783
    calomelanos com-
      positae...........  i.  802
    calomelanosj   et
      opii  .............  i.  802
    cambogiae compo-
      sitae..............ii.  971
    catharticae  com-
      positae ..........  i.  803
    colocynthidis.....ii.  742
        et hyoscyami ii.  743
    conii compositae.. ii.  737
    copaibae............ii.  858
    cupri ammoniati  i.  762
    delphiniae......... ii. 1085
    digitalis et scillae ft.  465
    ferri carbonatis..  i.  729
        compositae...  i.  729
        cum myrrha  i.  729
        iodidi ........  i.  745
        sulphatis....  i.  737
    galbani compositae
                     ii.  725
    hydrargyri .......  i.  783
        chloridi com-
           positae.....  i.  802
        iodidi.........  i.  813
    ipecacuanhae cum
           scillae......ii.  627
        et opii....... ii.  628
    opii sive thebaicae ii. 1054
    plumbi  opiatae....  i.  711
    rhei................ii.  436
        et  ferri.......ii.  436
        compositae... ii.  436
    rufi................. ii.  205
    saponis compositae
                     ii. 1055
    scillae compositae ii.  210
    styracis............ ii.  569
        composite .. ii.  569
    veratriae .......... ii.  192
                        PAGE
Pimentic acid..........ft.  758
Pimento.................ft.  7.",7
    hydro-carbon .... ii.  758
    ovate...............ft.  757
    pepper ............ft.  757
Pimpinella anisum.... ft.  703
Pinaceae.................ft.  284
Pinaster or cluster pine ii.  285
Pinic  acid  ......;H ii. 288, 300
Pink,  Carolina......... ft.  530
    clove...............ft.  991
    root.................ft.  532
Pinus....................ft.  284
    abies............... ft.  285
    balsamea ......... ft.  286
    canadensis ....... ii.  286
    cembra............ ft.  285
    maritima .........ft.  285
    nigra...............ft.  286
    palustris..........ii.  285
    Picea ..............ft.  286
    Pinaster .......... ft.  285
    pinea .............. ft.  285
    pumilio............ii.  285
    sylvestris ......... ft.  285
    taeda................ft.  285
Piperaccae...............ft.  348
Piper album............ft.  349
    betel................ft.  353
    cubeba ............ft.  354
    longum............ft.  353
    nigrum............ ft.  349
    trioicum ..........ft.  349
Piperin..................ii.  350
Pipsissewa.............ii.  578
Piscis..................... ii. 1137
Pisselaeum indicum... ii.  962
Pistacia lentiscus......ii.  861
    terebinthus ......ii.  860
Pitaya bark............ ft.  635
Pitch, black............ ft.  305
    Burgundy......... ii.  301
    plaster,  Burgun-
      dy...............ii.  301
Pix abietina............ ft.  286
    burgundica....... ii.  301
    canadensis........ ii.  302
    liquida............. ii.  302
    nigra............... ii.  305
    solida.............. ii.  302
Plantain ................ ii.  222
    meal................ii.  223
    starch ............. ii.  223
Plaster, adhesive...... i.  553
    blistering......... ii. 1128
    Burgundy pitch .. ii.  301
    of  ammoniacum
      with mercury., i.  786
          lead  ........ i.  714
          mercury ... i.  786
    resin............... i.  715
    strengthening__ i.  724
    soap................ i.  553
    warming.......... ft. 1128
Platini bichloridum ... i.  837 
1214
INDEX.
                        PAGEl
Plat'tno-bichloride  of
   sodium ............... i.  837
Platinum,  compounds
   of...................... i.  837
Plocaria Candida...... ii.   60 j
    helminthocorton  ii.   62
Plumbago............... i.  327'
Plum-tree...............ii.  773
Plumbi acetas ......... i.  708
    carbonas.......... i.  699
    chloridum  ........ i.  703
    diacetas........... i.  711
    diacetatis solutio i.  711
    iodidum............ i.  704
    nitras.............. i.  706
    oxidum ............ i.  697
         semivitreum  i.  697
    oxydum rubrum  i.  698
    saccharas ......... i.  715
    subacetatis liquor i.  711
         compositus . i.  713
    superacetas  ...... i.  708
    tannas ............. i.  716
Plumbite of lime ....:. i.  698
Plumbum ............... i.  690
    nitricum .......... i.  706
Plummer's pill......... i.  657
Pneumatica ............ i.  231
Podophyllum peltatum ii. 1096
Podophylleae........... ii. 1096
Podophylline .......... ii. 1096
Pogostemon patchouli ii.  443
Poisons  and reputed
   antidotes.............  i.  202
Poison-oak .............ii.  802
    nut, the............ ii.  533
Pollen ...................ft.  103
Polychroite.............ii.  219
Polygala senega....... ii.  992
Polygaleae............... ii.  992
Polygalic acid.........ii.  993
Polygonaceae .......... ii.  420
Polygonatum vulgare ii.  215
Polygonum bistorta  . ii.  437
Polypiphera............ii. 1103
Polyporus fomen tariusii.   93
    igniarius..........ii.   93
    laricis ............. ii.   91
    officinalis .........ii.   91
Pomaceae ...............ii.  802
Pomegranate tribe ... ii.  760
Pommade ammoniacale
   de Gondret.......... i.  433
Pompholyx............. i.  676
Pontefract lozenges ... ii.  819
Poppy, black..........ii. 1007
    fomentation ...... ii. 1054
    heads...............ii. 1008
    oil..................ii. 1008
    red, or corn ......ii. 1006
         syrup of .... ii. 1007
    white ..............ii. 1007
         syrup of..... ii. 1054
Poriphera...............ft. 1101
Porphyra laciniata ... ii.   54
Porphyroxin  ... ii. 1026, 1030
                       TAOE
Porter................... ii.   118
Portland powder ...... ii.   387
    sago................ ii-   158
Port wine............... ii.   897
Potash................... i.   460
    acetate of......... i.   505
    acidulous tartrate
      of................ i.   508
    antimony, tartrate
      of................
    bicarbonate of ...
    binoxalate of
bisulphate of
bitartrate of
                         659
                      i.  472
                     512, ii.
                         889
                      i.  481
                     508, ii.
                         891
    borate of..........  i.  527
    boro-tartrate of .  i.  510
    carbonates of__  i.  407
    caustic.............  i.  466
    chlorate of  .......  i.  484
    citrate of..........  i.  511
    hydrate of........  i.  466
    hydriodate of ....  i.  487
    hydrobromate  of  i.  495
    hypochlorite of .  i.  484
    iodide of..........  i.  487
    neutral or bibasic
       tartrate of.....  i.  506
    neutral carbonate
           of..........  i.  468
         sulphate of .  i.  478
    nitrate of.........  i.  497
    oxalates of  .......  i.  511
    oxymuriate of  ...  i.  484
    pure carbonate of  i.  469
    quadroxalate of .  i.  512
    refined  ............  i.  469
    saltpetre..........  i.  497
    soap................  i.  548
    solution of .......  i.  464
    subcarbonate of .  i.  468
    sulphates of......  i.  478
    sulphuret of......  i.  475
    supersulphate  of  i.  481
    supertartrate of.  i.  508
    tartrate  of soda
       and..............  i.  546
    acid or monobasic
       tartrate of.....  i.
    water..............  i.
Potashes  and  Pearl-
  ashes .................
Potassa.................
    caustica...........
    cum calce........
    fusa...............
    impura ...........
Potassae acetas........
    aqua ..............
         effervescens
    bicarbonas ......
    bisulphas ........
    bitartras.........
    boro-tartras.....
    carbonas .........
508
475

468
460
466
467
466
468
505
464
475
472
481
508
510
469
i                        r.voE
 Potassae carbonates ... i.  467
     carbonatis aqua . i.  472
     causticae liquor  . i.  464
     chloras ............ i.  484
     chromates ........ i.  607
     citras............... i.  511
     et sodae tartras... i.  546
     hydras  ............ i.  466
     hydriodas......... i.  487
     hypochloris....... i.  484
     monocarbonas ... i.  468
     monosulphas..... i.  478
     monoxalas........ i.  511
     nitras.............. i.  497
     oxalates........... i.  511
     quadroxalas...... i.  512
     sesquisulphas__ i.  481
     sodio-tartras...... i.  546
     sulphas............ i.  478
     sulphates ......... i.  478
     sulphuretum...... i.  475
     Bupertartras...... i.  508
     tartras............. i.  506
     tartrates .......... i.  506
 Potassii, bromidum... i.  495
     ferro-cyanidum .. ii.  779
     iodidum............ i.  487
     sulphuretum...... i.  475
     tersulphuretum.. i.  475
 Potassio-tartras, anti-
   monii.................. i.  659
 Potassium............... i.  459
     biferrocyanide of ii.  780
     bromide of........ i.  495
     chloride of........ i.  483
     ferrocyanide of., ii.  779
     hydrobromate of i.  495
     iodide of.......... i.  487
     ioduret of......... i.  487
     ioduretted iodide
       of................ i.  488
     protoxide of...... i.  460
     sulphuret of...... i.  475
     tersulphuret of .. i.  475
 Potato...................ft.  497
     flies.................ft. 1129
     flour................ft.  502
     spirit oil ..........ii.  900
     starch..............ii.  501
     sugar............... ft.  502
 Potentilla reptans.....ii.  794
     tormentilla.......ii.  794
 Potherbs................ i.  254
 Potus imperialis ...... i.  510
 Poudre subtile......... i.  643
 Poultice, charcoal .... i.  331
     linseed  ............ ii.  990
     mustard...........ft. 1004
     substitute for .... i.  83
     emollient.......... i.  82
 Powder, antimonial... i.  647
     aromatic.......... ii.  392
     Dover's............ft.  627
     Duke  of Port-
       land's ...........ii.  387
     Dr. James's ...... i.  647 
INDEX.
1215
                        PAGE
Powder, egg............ft.  128
    German baking.. ii.  128
    Jesuit's ............ii.  632
    of antimony, com-
       pound...........  i.  647
    of Algaroth.......  i.  644
    Tennant's bleach-
       ing  ..............  i.  575
Powders,  ginger-beer  i.  523
    Seidlitz............  i.  523
    soda................  i.  523
Precipitate, red.......  i.  790
    white...............  i.  809
Precipitated phosphate
  of lime...............  i.  571
Preston salts...........  i.  437
Prismatic nitre.........  i.  497
Proof spirit.............ii.  902
    vinegar............ii.  936
Proteine.................  i.  116
Protiodide  of mercury  i.  811
Protochloride of mer-
  cury ..................  i.  795
Protoxide  of  hydro-
       gen ..............  i.  298
    nitrogen...........  i.  411
    potassium.........  i.  460
Provence oil ...........ii.  558
Prunes ..................ii.  773
Prunus domestica  .... ii.  773
    lauro-cerasus .... ii.  774
Prussian}   or Berlin
       blue.............ii.  778
    mercury........... ii. 1181
Prussiate  of mercury ii. 1181
Prussic acid............ ii.  778
Psammismus...........  i.   78
Pseudomorphia........ii. 1030
Pseudotoxin............ii.  471
Psychotria emetica.... ii.  628
Ptarmica................  i.  265
Pterocarpus draco .... ii.  169
    erinaceus .........ii.  824
    marsupium....... ii.  824
    santalinus......... ii.  823
Ptyalagoga.............  i.  276
Pucha-pat or Patchou-
  li....................... ii.  443
Pudding-pipe tree.....ii.  849
Puffball.................ii.   89
Pulveres  sedlitzenses  i.  523
    effervescentes ....  i.  523
Pulvis catechu compo-
  situs .................. ii.  836
Pulvis aloes  composi-
           tus.........ii.  205
        cum canella ii.  205
    aluminis composi-
       tus...............  i.  605
    antimonii compo-
       situs.............  i-  647
    antimonialis......  i.  647
    aromaticus ....... ii.  392
    asari  compositus ii.  387
    auri ................  i-  834
    basilicus ..........ii-  516
                       PAGE
Pulvis cinnamomi com-
      positus ......... ii.  392
    comitissae.........ii.  632
    conii ............... ii.  735
    cormi colchici.... ii.  179
    cornu cervini usti  i.  571
    cretae compositus  i.  569
         cum opio .... ii. 1055
         opiatus ......ii. 1055
    dentifricius cam-
      phora to-creta-
      ceus.............  i.  570
    Doveri.............ft.  027
    effervescens   po-
      tassicus citratus i.  475
    ergotae.............ii.  142
    escharoticae arse-
      nicalis ..........  i.  642 !
    febrifugus  Jacobi  i.  647
    ferri................  i.  719
    ipecacuanhae com-
      positus .........ii.  627
    jalapae compositus ii.  522
    jesuiticus ......... ii.  632
    kino compositus . ii.  825
    rhei compositus . ft.  436
    sabadillae ......... ii.  189
    salinus  composi-
      tus...............  i.  596
    sarsae...............ii.  278
    scillae...............ii.  210
    seminum colchici ii.  179
    secalis cornuti... ii.  142
    scammonii compo-
      situs.............ii.  516
    scammonii  cum
      calomelane  .... ii.  516
    spongiae ustae  .... ii. 1103
    stanni..............  i.  689
    tragacanthae com-
      positus .........ii.  821
    vanillae  ............ii.  259
    veratri.............ii.  185
    vetiveriae..........ii.  154
Pumping................  i.   91
Punica granatum......ii.  760
Purgativa...............  i.  270
Purgative cakes.......ii.  522
Purgatives..............  i.  198
    mechanical .......  i.  198
Purging croton......... ii.  362
    cassia..............ii.  849
    flax.................ii.  991
    nuts................ ii.  363
    saline waters.....  i.  322
Purple of Cassius  ....  i.  835
    foxglove...........ii.  455
Purpura mineralis Cas-
  sii......................  i.  835
Purpurine............... ii.  618
Pyrethrin...............ii.  593
Pyrenomycetes........ii.   90
Pyrethrum .............ii.  593
Pyretin..................ii.  959
Pyretine, crystallized ii.  963
Pyrites, coxcomb......  i.  731
                       PAGE
Pyro-acetic spirit.....ii.  942
Pyro-conia.............. ft.  731
Pyrodaturia............ft.  482
Pyrodigitaline ......... ft.  457
Pyro-gallic acid.......ii.  328
Pyro-hyoscyamia.....ft.  467
Pyrolaceae...............ft.  577
Pyrola umbellata...... ft.  578
Pyroligneous acid .... ii.  304
    ether...............ii.  939
Pyrophosphate of soda i.  528
Pyrotartaric acid......ii.  952
Pyrothonide............ii.  959
Pyroxylic spirit....... ii.  939
Pyrus cydonia.........ii.  802
Pyroxanthine..........ii.  939
Pyroxilene..............ii.  939
Pyrrhin.................. i.  458
j Quassia amara........ii.  875
     excelsa ............ ii.  873
     simaruba..........ii.  872
I Quassin .................ft.  873
 Quassite................. ii.  873
 Queen  of  Hungary's
!   water..................ii.  452
 Quercus aegilops ...... ii.  318
     alba................ii.  329
     infectoria......... ii.  320
     mannifera.........ii.  317
     marina.............ii.   55
     pedunculata......ii.  317
     robur...............ii.  317
     suber.............. ii.  330
     tinctoria..........ft.  329
j Quicklime............... i.  561
 Quicksilver............. i.  765
 Quina....................ii.  670
     amorphous .......ii.  671
     disulphate of .... ii.  692
     do Campo......... ii.  550
     native kinate  of ii.  671
     monosulphate  of ii.  672
     neutral  sulphate
       of................ii.  672
 Quinae disulphas  ii. 672, 692
     murias.............ii.  695
     valerianas ... ii. 615, 695
 Quince, common ......ii.  802
     mucilage..........ii.  803
     seeds...............ii.  803
 Quinidina...............ii.  673
 Quinidine ............... ii.  673
 Quinine, sulphate of . ii.  692
 Quinquina.............. ii.  632
 Quinquino ..............ii.  811
              R.

 Rack or arrack........ii.  913
 Radiata.................ft. 1104
IBjkUx .sumbul ......... ft. 1185 
1216                                  INDEX.
                       PAGE
Raisins..................ii.   891
Ranunculaceae.........ii. 1080
Ranunculus acris...... ii. 1081
    flammula..........ii. 1081
Realgar.............i. 615,  642
Reasoning.............. i.    70
Rectified spirit........ft.   900
Red antimony..........i.   652
    Armenian bole.... i.   599
    arsenic ............ i.   642
    bark ............... ii.   661
    coral............... ii. 1104
    lavender drops... ii.   442
    lead................ i.   698
    litmus paper......ii.    78
    oxide of lead..... i.   698
         mercury..... i.   788
    or peroxide of iron i.   722
Red poppy .............ii. 1006
    precipitate ....... i.   790
         per se........ i.   788
    roses...............ii.   797
    sandal or sander's
      wood............ii.   823
    zinc................. i.   674
Refrigerants....... i. 211,  233
Reindeer moss  ........ ii.    65
Relaxantia deprimen-
  tia..................... i.   244
Remedies, hygienic ... i.   115
    mechanical  and
      surgical ........ i.   131
    pharmacological  i.   131
    physical but im-
      ponderable..... i.    70
    psychical or men-
      tal ............... i.    66
    somatical or  cor-
      poral ............ i.    66
Removal from home .. i.    69
Repellents.............. i.   201
Repercussives ......... i.   201
Reprimentia............ i.   282
Resina...................ii.   300
    flava...............ii.   300
    kino................ ii.   824
    piperis............. ii.   350
Resinae  nigrae..........ii   300
    terebinthinae...... ii.   300
Resinigomme...........ii.   188
Resinosa................ i.   254
Resolventia..............i.   214
Restraint................ i.    69
Reussite................ i.   593
Revulsion and deriva-
  tion.................... i.   171
Rex metallorum....... i.   833
Rhabarbaric acid...... ii.   431
Rhabarbarin............ ii.   431
Rhamnaceae............ii.   870
Rhamnus  catharticus ii.   870
Rhaponticin............ii.   432
Rhatany.................ft.   995
Rheic acid..............ii.   431
Rhein.................... ft.   431
Rheum  ..................ft.   420
                       PAGE
Rheum australe....... ii.  423
    bardanifolium.... ii.  421
    bullatum.......... ii.  421
    caspicum  .........ii.  421
    compactum....... ii.  422
    confluens.......... ii.  421
    crassinervium— ii.  423
    Emodi.............ii.  423
    hybridum.........ii.  423
    leucorrhizum.....ii.  423
    Moorcroftianum  ii.  423
    palmatum  ........ ii.  422
    rhabarbarum..... ii.  421
    rhaponticum.....ii.  423
    spiciforme.........ii.  423
    undulatum........ii.  422
    Webbianum ...... ii.  423
Rheumin................ ii.  431
Rhodeoretin............ii.  520
Rhombic phosphate of
  soda .................. i.  527
Rhubarb, Batavian,  or
       Dutch trimmed ii.  427
    China, or  E. In-
       dian ............. ii.  427
    common stick, Eng-
       lish..............ii.  429
    European ......... ii.  429
    French ............ ii.  430
    Himalayan... ii. 421,  428
    rhapontic......... ii.  423
    Russian or Bucha-
       rian ............. ii.  424
    Turkey............ii.  422
    white or imperial ii.  420
Rhus radicans .........ii.  863
    toxicodendron ... ii.  862
Rice .....................ii.  107
Richardsonia brazili-
       ensis............ ii.  628
    scabra.............ft.  628
Ricini, oleum.......... ii.  375
Ricinic and  elaiodic
  acids.................. ft.  377
Ricinus africanus.....ii.  374
    communis  ........ ii.  372
    leucocarpus...... ii.  374
    lividus  ............ft.  374
    macrophyllus .... ii.  374
    viridis............. ft.  374
Rock oil.................ft.  961
Roccella tinctoria...... ii.   72
Roch alum.............. i.  600
Rochelle  salt........... i.  546
Rodentia................ft. H71
Roman alum ........... i.  600
    vitriol.............. i.  757
Rosa canina............ii.  795
    centifolia  .........ft.  800
    gallica.............ft.  797
    rubiginosa........ft.  795
Rosaceae  ................ft.  702
Rosese  ...................ft.  795
Rose, dog, common  .. ft.  795
    hundred-leaved,
       or cabbage .... ii.  800
                        PAGE
Rose, red, or French . ii.  797
    water  .............. ii.  801
Rosemary,  common ... ii.  421
    oil of............... ii.  451
Roses, attar of......... ii.  801
Rosin, brown........... ii.  300
    Flockton's patent ii.  300
    transparent....... ii.  300
    yellow ............. ii.  300
Rosmarinus officinalis ii.  451
Rotulae menthae pipe-
  ritse ................... ii.  446
Rouge.......... i. 723, ii. 1131
Rubefacients........... i.  207
Rubia munjista........ ii.  617
    tinctorum......... ii.  617
Rubiaceae ............... ii.  616
Rubigo ferri............ i.  723
Rue, common, or gar-
  den .................... ii.  875
Rufus's pills  ........... ii.  205
Rum  .....................ii.  912
Rumex acetosa........ii.  436
    hydrolapathum.. ii.  437
Ruminantia ............ ii. 1158
Rusiochin...............ii.  671
Rust of copper......... i.  762
    iron ................ i.  723
Ruta  graveolens ......ii.  875
Rutaceae................ ii.  875
Rye, common.......... ii.  128
    ergot of........... ii.  130
    spurred........... ii.  130
             S.

Sabadilla................ii.  187
Sabadillic acid.........ft.  188
Sabadillin...............ii.  190
Sabadillina.............ii.  188
Sabina...................ii.  308
Saburration ............  i.   78
Saccharate of lead__  i.  715
Saccharum.............ii.  144
    aluminatum ......  i.  605
    candum............ii.  148
    officinarum....... ii.  144
    saturni ............  i.  708
Saccholactin  ........... ii. 1168
Safflower................ii   603
Saffron, bastard ...ii. 218, 603
    cake............ii. 218, 004
    common meadow ii.  171
    crocus.............ii.  217
    hay.................ii.  217
Sagapenum  ............ft.  719
    praeparatum......ii.  720
Sago .....................ii.  161
    bread ..............ii.  163
    flour ............... ft.  164
    Japan .............ft.  283
    meal ...............ft.  163
    palm, the unarm-
      ed ............... ft.  161
    Portland.......... ii.  158 
INDEX.
1217
Saguerus Rumphii ... ii.
     saccharifer....... ii.
Sagus....................ft.
     genuina........... ii.
     laevis............... ii.
     Rumphii.......... ii.
St. John Long's lini-
   ment .................. ii.
Saint Lucia bark...... ii.
Sal absinthii........... i.
     ammoniac......... i.
         fixed  ......... i.
         Glauber's se-
           cret......,
         plaster .....
     ammoniacus___
     acetosellae .......
     anglicum.......... i.
     auri  philosophi-
       cum ............. i.
     catharticum ...... i.
     catharticus Glau-
       beri.............. i.
     deduobus......... i.
         Seignette ... i.
     enixum ............ i.
     fossilis,   or   sal
       gemmae ......... i.
     martis ............. i.
     mirabile Glauberi i.
         perlatuin.... i.
     polychrest ........ i.
     polychrestum Gla-
           seri........ i.
         Seignetti  ... i.
     Rupelleusis....... i.
     sedativum Hom-
       bergi............ i.
     Seidlitzense  ...... i.
     succini.............ii.
     tartari............. i.
     vitrioli............. i.
     volatile ............ i.
         cornu cervi  . i.
Salads ................... i.
Salep  ....................ii.
     Otaheite  ..........ii.
Sales veratriae  .........ii.
Salia neutra  et'  me-
   dia ..................... i.
Salicaceae...............ii.
Salicine  .................ii.
Salicinum............... ii.
Salicornia  .............. ii.
Saline waters.......... i.
Salix.............i. 329, ii
     alba................ii.
     capraea ............ii.
     fragilis ............ii.
     pentandra ........ ii.
     purpurea  .........ii.
     Russelliana  ...... i.
Saloop...................ji-
Salseparin..............ii-
Salsola ..................u-
Salsolaceae .............ii-
        VOL. II.—77
PAGE
  162
  162
  161
  161
  161
  161

  299
  668
  468
  444
  573

  453
  449
  444
  512
  593

  481
  593

  531
  478
  546
  481

  533
  733
  531
  527
  546

  481
  546
  546

  341
  593
  965
  468
  681
  438
  443
  254
  250
  221
  192

  217
  314
  316
  316
  438
  322
,  314
  315
  315
  315
  315
  315
  329
  406
  274
  438
  438
Salt alkali...........
    alkaline.........
    baker's.........
    bitter purging
    black ...........
     common..........
     culinary..........
     diuretic ..........
     Epsom............
     fossil..............
     Glauber's  ........
     hair...............
     of lemons  ........
     Mars..............
     tartar .............
     Seignette  ........
     wood sorrel  .....
     wormwood.......
Salt or brine waters.
     Rochelle..........
     sedative or narco-
       tic ............... i.
     Seignette's........ i.
     tasteless purging i.
     vegetable  ......... i.
     yellow.............ii.
Saltpetre................ i.
     Chili ............... i.
Salts of quina  .........ii.
     smelling,  or  vola-
       tile .............. i.
Saltworts...............ii.
Sambucus nigra.......ii,
Samphire, common ... ii.
Sandal wood, red......ft.
Sandaraca.............. ii.
Sandarach or red ar-
       senic ............ i.
     or juniper resin . ii.
Sand-bathing.......... i.
Sand, hot............... i.
Sanguinaria canaden-
  sis .............ii. 1006,
Sanguinarina... ii.  1006,
Sanguis draconis...... ii.
Sanguisuga.............ii.
     medicinalis.......ii.
     officinalis.........ii.
Santalin.................ii.
Santonine...............ii.
Sap  green, or vert de
  vessie.................ii.
Sapo
amygdalinus ..... i.
Castiliensis........ i.
crotonis........... ii.
durus............... i.
ex olivae oleo et
  potassa confec-
  tus............... i.
    oleo et sodae
       confectus
mollis.............
potassicus........
sodaicus..........
vulgaris..........
TAGE
 513
 546
 438
 593
 468
 533
 533
 505
 593
 533
 531
 593
 512
 733
 468
 546
 512
 468
 322
 546

 341
 546
 527
 507
 780
 497
 543
 671

 438
 438
 698
 737
 823
 307

 642
 307
  78
  78

1067
1067
 169
1106
1107
1107
 823
 597

' 871
 548
 550
 550
 369
 550
551

550
551
551
550
550
                        PAGE
Sapones sodaici et po-
   tassici................. i.  548
Saponis guaiacini.....ii.  885
Sapotaceae..............ft.  575
Sarsaparilla............ft.  261
     Brazilian,  Lisbon,
       Portugal, or Rio
       Negro...........ft.  267
     Caraccas..........ii.  266
     country ...........ii.  551
     Honduras.........ft.  268
     Indian or scented ii.  551
     Jamaica ..........ii.  269
     Lima...............ii.  271
     New Zealand .... ii.  261
     VeraCruz.........ft.  271
Sarcoptes hominis .... i.  357
Sassafras nuts.........ii.  406
     officinale..........ii.  405
     oil of...............ii.  406
     tea..................ft.  406
Sassoline ............... i.  341
Satureieae...............ft.  443
Saturn, extract of .... i.  711
Saturnina............... i.  223
Sander's wood, red.... ii.  823
Savine, common....... ii.  308
Saxifraga ............... i.  284
Scammonium gallicum ii.  513
Scammony..............ii.  509
     Aleppo ............ii.  511
     factitious  .........ii.  513
     Indian.............ii.  513
     Montpellier.......ii.  513
     resin...............ii.  513
     Smyrna ...........ii.  511
     Trebizond ........ ii.  511
     virgin, or lachry-
       ma...............ii.  510
Scaptin..................ii.  457
Scents................... i.   66
Scilla maritima........ ft.  207
Scillitin (scillitite).... ii.  208
Scitamineae ............ ii.  229
Scobs styracina.......ii.  566
Scoparine............... ii.  817
Scrophularia nodosa. ii:  454
Scrophulariaceae......ii.  453
Scurvy-grass, common ii. 1001.
Scyphophorus pyxida-
   tus ....................ii.   64
Sea-onion,  or officinal
       squill  ...........ft.  207
     ware, common ... ft.   55
     weeds..............ii.   50
     wrack..............ii.   55
Searle's patent  oxyge-
  nous  aerated water i.  413
Secale cereale .........ii.  128
     cornutum .........ii.  130
Sedantia ................ i.  258
Sedative salt........... i.  341
Sedatives............... i.  145
Seeds, alimentary..... i.  118
Seidlitz powders...... i.  523
Seignette's salt........ i.1  546 
1218
INDEX.
                       PAGE
Semen contra.......... ii.  596
Semolina  ............... ii.  120
Senecionideae .......... ii.  590
Senega, Polygala......ii.  992
Senegin .................ii.  993
Seneka, the ............ ii.  992
    snakeroot.........ii.  993
Senna ...................ii.  840
    Aleppo ............ii.  844
    Alexandrian......ii.  842
    American ......... ii.  845
    bladder............ ii.  845
    India  ..............ii.  846
    Mecca.............ii.  844
    Senegal  ...........ii.  844
    Smyrna  ...........ii.  844
    tea..................ii.  847
    Tinnevelly........ii.  844
    Tripoli ............ ii.  844
Sensations..............  i.   66
Sepia officinalis....... ii. 1106
Septfoil.................. ii.  794
Serai.....................ii. 1167
Serpentaria,  aristolo-
  chia...................ii.  384
Serum lactis............ii. 1167
        tamarindatumii.  840
        tartarizatum..  i.  610
        aluminosum,
          seu serum
          lactis alum-
          inatum.....  i.  605
        vinosum ......ii. 1169
Sesquicarbonate   of
  ammonia.............  i.  438
Sesquichloride of anti-
  mony..................  i.  657
Sesquioxide of antimo-
  ny  .....................  i.  644
Sesquisulphate of pot-
       ash ..............  i.  481
    soda.................  i.  518
Sesquisulphuret of an-
  timony................  i.  650
Sevum................... ii. 1166
    adeps praeparatus ii. 1165
     ovillum............ ii. 1166
    praeparatum......ii. 1166
Shallot..................ii.  213
Shampooing............  i.   79
Sherry wine............ii.  892
Shower-bath ...........  i.   89
Shoemaker's black  ...  i.  733
Shorea camphorifera ii.  983
Sialagoga................i.  276
Sialica ..................  i.  264
Sialogogues.............  i.  276
     specific or remote  i.  277
     topical............. i.  277
Signatures .............  i.  132
Siliceous waters....... i.  323
Siliquahirsuta.........ii.  822
Silver  and  its com-
       pounds..........  i.  822
     cyanide of.........ii. 1183
     cyanuret of.......ii. 1183
Silver litharge.........
    muriate of........
    nitrate of.........
    oxide of............
    protoxide of......
    solution of nitrate
      of................  j.
    stone...............  i-
Simarubaceae .......... ii.
Simaruba amara ......ii.
    officinalis ......... ii.
Simple bitters .........  i.
Sinapis alba............ii.
    nigra ..............ii.
Sinapisine.............. ii.
Sinapismus, or  sina-
  pism  ..................n.
Singles  ..................  i.
Sintoc bark  ............ ii.
Sipirina .................ii.
Sistentia................. i.
Sleep, method of pro-
  curing ................  i.
Smectis vel terra ful-
  lonica ................  i.
Smell ....................  i.
Smelling salt...........  i.
Smeltinghouse  smoke  i.
Smilaceae ............... ii.
Smilacin................ ii.
Smilasperic acid  ......ii.
Smilax  ..................ii.
    aspera,............. ii.
         root of  ...... ii.
    China.............ii.
    medica............ii.
    officinalis ......... ii.
    sarsaparilla  ......ii.
    syphilitica........ ii.
Smyrna opium......... ii.
Snakeroot, seneka.... ii.
    Virginian..........ii.
Snake-weed............ ii.
Soap .....................  i.
    almond............  i.
    animal oil soda ..  i.
         potash.......  i.
    Castile.............  i.
    cerate .............  i.
    common...........  i.
    oroton .............ii.
    hard ............
    liniment.........
    mottled.........
    olive oil soda..,
         potash ....
    plaster .........
    soda*............
    soft common ..
    transparent ...
    white Windsor
    yellow..........
Soaps .................
    guaiacum  ......
Soda..................
    acetate of......
PAGE		PAGE
697	Soda and potash soaps i	. 548
824		. 524
824	bicarbonate of ... i	. 520
823		. 524
823	carbonates of .... i	. 513
		. 539
832	dried carbonate of i	. 518
697	hypochlorite of .. i	. 539
871	liquid, Labar-	
872		. 540
872		. 524
244	monocarbonate,	
1004	or neutral car-	
1001		. 513
1002	muriate, or hy-	
	drochlorate of i	. 533
1004	neutral, or biba-	
594	sic tartrate of. i	. 546
388		. 543
409	oxymuriate of ... i	. 539
282	phosphate of..... i	. 527
		. 523
68	pyrophosphate of i	. 528
599	rhombic phosphate	. 527
66	saltpetre.......... i	. 497
438	sesquicarbonate	
615	of................ i	. 518
261		. 550
274	animal oil... i	. 550
551		. 550
261	subcarbonate of. i	. 513
282	sulphate of....... i	. 531
282	• tartarizata seu na-	
281	tron tartariza-	
261		. 546
261		. 546
262	triphosphate of., i	. 527
262		. 523
1021		. 523
993	Sodae acetas............ i	. 545
384	aqua effervescens i	. 523
437		. 520
548		. 524
550		. 531
550		. 524
551	carbonas exsiccata	i. 518
550	carbonates........ ]	. 513
553		. 513
550		. 539
369		l. 530
500	monocarbonas ...	i. 513
552		. 533
550		l. 543
550	phosphas .........	i. 527
551	potassio-tartras..	i. 546
553	sesquicarbonas ..	i. 518
550		l. 531
551		i. 546
549	valerianas.........i	i. 613
550	Sodaic powders........	i. 523
550	Sodii auro-terchlori-	
548		i. 837
885	chloridum ........	i. 533
512	platino-bichlori-	
545		i. 837
 
INDEX.                                   1219
                        PAGE
Sodium.^.....,......... i.  512
    auro-terchloride
       of................ i.  837
    chloride of........ i.  533
    chloruret of the
       oxide of......... i.  539
Softsoap................ i.  551
Solanacea  mydriatica i.  237
Solanaceae  ..............ii.  465
Solanina ................ ii.  503
Solanum dulcamara... ii.  503
    hortense nigrum  ii.  470
    nigrum  ............ii.  504
    tuberosum........ii.  497
Solazzi juice ...........ii.  819
Solenostemma argel .. ii.  552
Solomon's seal......... ft.  215
Sol, or rex metallorum i.  833
Soluble cream of  tar-
       tar  .............. i.  510
    tartar ............. i.  506
Solutio aconitinae.....ii. 1093
    argenti ammoniati i.  833
         nitratis...... i.  832
    atropiae   hydro-
       chloratis ...... ii.  480
♦   barytae muriatis . i.  560
         nitratis ...... i.  561
    chlorinii........... i.  382
    delphiniae.........ii. 1085
    elaterinae ......... ii.  750
    plumbi diacetatis i.  711
    sodae phosphatis  i.  530
    solventis minera-
       lis,  De  Valen-
       gin's  ............ i.  640
Solution, Brandish's al-
       kaline........... i.  466
    Fowler's .......... i.  640
    mineral ............ i.  640
    of  ammoniated
       copper.......... i.  762
    of chloride of cal-
       cium  ............ i.  575
    of opium, Dr. Por-
       ter's.............ii. 1060
Solutiones potassii su-
  periodidi............. i.  494
Solutive water......... i.  414
Solvents ................ i.  285
Somnifica  .............. i.  247
Somnifera .............. i.  247
Sootdrops..............ii.  959
    tincture of.........ii.  959
    wood............... ii.  959
Sorrel, common....... ii.  436
Soujee................... ii.  120
Sour  springs ........... i.  361
Spanaemica............. i.  210
Spaniolitmine..........ii.    76
Spanish broom......... ii.  858
    flies ................ii. 1118
    juice ...............ii-  819
    white  .............. i.  672
Spar,   ponderous  or
  heavy................. i-  $57
                       PAGE
Spartiine  ...............ii.  817
Spartium junceum .... ii.  858
    scoparium........ii.  815
Spastica.................  i.  245
Spearmint..............ii.  444
    oil of............... ft.  444
Species ad suffiendum ii.  573
Specificum   purgans
  Paracelsi.............  i.  478
Speltre or speltrum ..  i.  674
Spermaceti.............ii. 1156
    cerate..............ii. 1157
    ointment.......... ii. 1158
Sphacelia segetum ... ft.  133
Sphaeria sinensis...... ii.   90
Spiaulter  ...............  i.  674
Spices ...................  i.  253
Spigelia anthelmia ... ii.  532
    marilandica ...... ii.  530
Spike-flowered   asa-
  graea ..................ii.  187
Spiked purple  loose-
  strife..................ii.  759
Spikenard.............. ii.  154
Spinacea oleracea .... ii.  438
Spina  sitiens........... ii.  826
Spiraeae..................ii.  792
Spirit,  Beguin's  sul-
       phuretted ......  i.  452
    bone...............  i.  331
    corn  ............... ii.  900
    of alum............  i.  600
    ammonia ..........  i.  431
    hydrochloric  eth-
       er................ii.  929
    muriatic'ether ... ii.  929
    nitrous  or nitric
       ether............ii.  925
    sal volatile........  i.  438
    salt..................  i.  387
    sea salt............  i.  387
    tin..................  i.  622
    turpentine ........ii.  292
    vitriol..............  i-  372
    wine..............ii.  897
         comphorated ii.  404
    proof............... ii.  904
    pyro-acetic.......ii.  942
    pyroxylic ......... ii.  939
    rectified...........ii.  900
Spirituosa .............  i.  258
       et aetherea.....  i.  258
Spirits, ardent.........ii.  900
Spiritus.................ii.  916
    aetheris  composi-
           tus  .........ii. 922
         hydrochlori-
           ci..........ii.  929
         nitrici........ii.  925
         nitrosus  .....ii.  925
         oleosus ...... ii.  923
    ,    sulphurici .. ii.  922
    ammoniae .........  i.  443
         aromaticus..  i.  437
         foetidus i. 437, ii. 718
         succinatus...  i.  433
Spiritus anisi .......... ii.
     ardens............. ft.
     armoraciae  com-
       positus ..........ft.
     camphoratus .....ii.
     carui............... ii.
     cassiae .............ft.
     cinnamomi  .......ii.
     colchici  amnioni-
       atus.............ii.
     fortior............. ii.
     frumenti ..........ii.
         compositus . ii.
     juniperi compos., ii.
     lavandulae ........ii.
         compositus . ii.
     menthae ...........ii.
         piperitae.....ii.
         pulegii  ......ii.
         viridis....... ii.
     Mindereri.........  i.
     myristicae.........ii.
     nitri dulcis ....... ii.
     oryzae .............ii.
     pimentae ..........ii.
     pulegii............. ii.
     rectificatus .......ii.
     rosmarini ......... ii.
     sacchari...........ii.
     salis  ammoniaci
       causticus  cum
       calce  viva pa-
       ratus............  i.
     salis dulcis ....... ii.
     seu liquor Minde-
       reri .............  i.
     tenuior  ............ ii.
     vini gallici........ii.
     volatilis foetidus..  i.
Spirting cucumber  ... ii.
Splenica................. i.
Spodium album........  i.
Sponge ..................ii.
     burnt............... ii.
Spongia................. ii.
     officinalis ......... ii.
     usta................ii.
Spruce beer............ ii.
     essence of......... ii.
Spunk...................ii.
Spurge,( caper.........ii.
     ipecacuanha..... ft.
|     olive ...............ii.
Spurgeworts ...........ii.
Spurred rye............ii.
Squilla maritima......ii.
     pancration........ ii.
Stag's horn.............ii.
Stalagmitis  cambogi-
     oides  ...............ii.
Stanni bisulphuretum i.
     chloridum ........ i.
     limatura........... i.
     pulvis.............. i.
Stannum,............... i.
     Indicum........... i.
PAGE
 704
 900

1001
 404
 702
 395
 392

 179
 902
 900
 912
 308
 442
 442
 446
 446
 447
 444
 454
 416
 925
 900
 758
 447
 900
 452
 912
 426
 929

 454
 902
 911
 437
 743
 263
 571
1101
1103
1102
1101
1103
 285
 286
  93
 362
 362
 4; 6
 358
 130
 207
 207
1164

 966
 690
 690
 690
 689
 688
 674 
1220
INDEX.
		PAGE			PAGE			PAGE
Stannum muriaticum					201	Sulphas, magnrfsiae ...	i.	593
	1	690		u,	563		i.	478
		1080 121 404 108			568 566		i. i.	531
Starch ................. iodide of.........								681
	. ii.				566 566	Sulphate of ammonia. baryta.............	i. i.	453
rice................								557
		1084		n.	569		11.	528
		80		u.	566		n.	673
		549 559		ii.	569 564		i. ii.	VhV
								923
	'	728	officinale.........	n. ii.	564 568		n. i.	859
Stephens's receipt foi								
								
the stone and			Subacetate of copper	. l.	762	magnesia .........	l.	593
		564	Subcarbonate of am				n.	106V
pepper medicine		507			438	oxide of ammoni-		
		260	of potash......... Subchloride of mercu		468		i	453
	i.	265				ethyle and		
	i. i.	249 659		l. ii.	795 331	etherole...	n. i.	9«8
								478
	:	G44	Suboxide of mercury		330			672
sulphuratum au				i.	787		ii.	674
	1.	657	Sublimatus corrosivua	l.	803		l.	531
Sticta pulmonaria ... St. Ignatius's bean ..		65					i	681
	ii.	550	ry.....................	i.	795	Sulphated chalybeates	i.	318
St. John Long's lini			Subphosphate of lime	l.	570	Sulphates of potash ..	l.	478
	n.	299	Subsulphas hydrargy			Sulphatic+ether .......	n.	923
	145	, 249		i.	794	Sulphide of carbon ...	l.	376
Stimuli, alterative oi			Succini, colophonium	n.	963	Sulphis sodae sulphu-		
	l.	71		u.	963		l.	530
	i.	249	Succinic acid...........	ii.	965	Sulpho-sinapisin ......	u.	1005
heterogeneous ...	i.	145	Succinum...............	u.	963	vinic acid of Hen-		
homogeneous ...	i.	145		n.	963	nell .............	n.	917
	71	145	Succory, wild ......... Succus belladonnas ...		608			35M
	i. ii.	145 440		ii. ft.	477 181		i.	376
						antimonii aura-		
Stizolobium pruriens	n.	822		u.	712		i.	657
	i.	251		ii.	464	balsam of......... Boyle's fuming li-	i.	360
	i.	285		n.	975			
	l.	760		u.	736			45?
	i.	824		ii.	469			360
	u.	567		i.	77			376
	n.	567		ii.	114?	common native ..		353
	ii.	5G7		i.	274			353
	u. ii.	566 565	Sudorifics or diapho-	i.	251	flowers of.........		357
								360
oil ..................	ii.	568		n.	148	hydrate of ........		359
reddish brown ...	u. ft. ii. ii. »i-	567 564 568 566 480		n. ii. ii. ii. ii.	148 148 144 160 149	iodide of ..........		406
						liver of............		475
volatile oil of ....						milk of............		357
			Demerara crystal					358
Stramonium, datura .						native or virgin .		353
Strengthening plaster	l. ii. ii.	724 545 547		ii. ii. ii.	81 818 144	nigrum ............		360
								452
			manufacture of..					360
Strychnic, or igasuric			muscovado or raw ii.		149	compound...		360
	n.	536		ii.	891	of the iodide		
Strychnos colubrina..	n. ii.	549 550	of lead............	i.	708 1168	of.......... praecipitatum ....	i. i. i.	407 358 355
ignatia............			of milk ............					
ligustrina.........	ii.	549	palm ...............	ii.	160			
nux vomica ......	ii.	533	purified ...........	n.	149	refined.............	i.	355
	n.	549			149	roll, stick, or cane		355 357
pseudo-quina ....	ii.	550	Sulphas aluminas ei				i.	
tieute ..............	n.	549	potassae ........		599	sublimed..........	i	357
toxifera ........,	u. i. ii.	550 2351 11381	ammoniae .........		453 733 736	vegetable ......... vivum..............	ii. i. 'i.	103 360
Stupetaxient< ..........			exsiccatum .					
						volatile tinctureoJ		452
 
INDEX.
1221
Sulphur, volcanic..... i
     washed ............ i
Sulphuretted oil....... i
Sulphuratum, balneum i
     oleum.............. i
Sulphureous or hepat-
  ic waters............. i
Sulphuret  of antimo-
       ny,  golden .....
     of iron ............
     of potash .........
     of potassium ....
Sulphurets of arsenic
Sulphuretted  hydro-
           gen  ........
         in water.....
         water  ........
     or sulphurous
       bath............. i.
Sulphuretum antimo-
           nii ......... i.
         praeparatum  i.
     hydrargyri    ni-
           grum ..... i.
         rubrum...... i.
Sulphuric acid......... i.
     ether.............. ii.
Sulphuris    dichlori-
       dum............. i.
     hepar .............. i.
     iodidum"........... i.
Sulphurosa............. i.
Sulphurous acid ...... i.
Sumach  .................ii.
Sumbul root............ ii.
Sumbulic acid .........ii.
Super-acetate oflead. i.
     carbonated  chaly-
       beates .......... i.
     sulphate of potash i.
     tartrate of potash i.
Suppositories...........  i.
Suppurants ............ i.
Surinam  bark .........ii.
Sus scrofa...............ii.
Sweet almonds......,.. ii.
     bay.................ii.
     brier...............ii.
         sponge.......ii.
     fennel..............ii.
     flag, common ....  i.
     marjoram .........ii.
     oil of vitriol ...... ii.
     orange tree  ......ii.
     spirit of nitre .... ii.
     wines  .............. ii.
     wood...............ii.
     wort ...............ii.
Sylvic acid .............ii.
Syrup of copaiva......ii.
Syrupus.................ii.
     acaciie.............ii.
     acidi citrici  ...... ii.
     aceti ............... ii-
     althaeas ............ii.
     aurantii ...........ii.
PAGE
 353
 357
 360
 477
 360

 319

 G57
 731
 475
 475
 642

 375
 122
 376

 477

 650
 651

 793
 791
 360
 916

 329
 475
 406
 221
 373
 862
1185
1185
 708

 729
 481
 508
 176
 207
 837
1169
 764
 406
 809
 809
 705
 158
 448
 923
 978
 925
 894
 369
 118
 300
 857
 153
 831
 977
 947
 986
 981
                       PAGE
Syrupus croci.......... ii.  220
    ferri iodidi  .......  i.  744
    hemidesmi........ii.  551
    ipecacuanhae .....ii.  626
    krameriae ......... ii.  996
    limonum ..........ii.  977
    mori  ............... ft.  344
    papaveris.........ii. 1054
    prunae virginianae ii.  777
    rhamni  ............ii.  871
    rhei  ................ft.  436
        aromaticus.. ii.  436
    rhceados...........ft. 1007
    rosae...............ft.  801
        centifoliae ... ii.  801
        gallicae ......ii.  709
    rutae  ...............ft.  878
    sarsaparillae......ii.  279
    sarsae .............. ft.  279
    scillae.............. ii.  211
    scillae compositus ii.  211
    senegae  ............ ft.  994
    sodae  hyposulphi-
      tes  ............... i.  530
              T.

 Tabacum nicotiana ... ii.  484
 Tacca starch or Tahiti
       arrow-root .... ii.  221
     pinnatifida........ii.  221
 Taccaceae...............ii.  221
 Taenia solium........... i.  262
 Taffetas vesicant...... ii. 1129
 Tahiti arrow-root.....ii.  221
 Talbor's powder ......ii.  632
 Talc earth (Talkerde) i.  583
 Tall snakeroot.........ii. 1093
 Tamarind-tree,  com-
       mon.............ii.  839
     whey.............'.. ii.  810
 Tamarindus Indica ... ii.  839
     praeparatus.......ii.  840
 Tamus communis ..... ii.  260
 Tanacetic acid......... ii.  597
 Tanacetum vulgare ... ii.  596
 Tannate of iron........ i.  749
 Tannic acid ............ ii.  315
 Tannin .................. ii.  698
 Tanningensaure.......ii.  698
 Tansy....................ii.  596
 Tapioca plant..........ii.  380
 Tar ......................ii.  302
     Barbadoes........ii.  962
     coal ................ii.  303
     oil of...............ii.  304
     ointment.......... ii.  305
     vegetable.........ft.  3GJ
     water ....".......... ii.  303
     wood...............ii.  303
|Taraxacin  .............. ii.  606
j Taraxacum densleonis ii.  604
     officinale ..........ii.  604
[Tartar................... i.  508
'     chalybeated...... i.  752
             77*
                        PAGE
Tartar, cream of......  i.  508
     crude ..............  i.  508
     emetic.............  i.  659
         ointment ....  i.  671
     red .................  i.  508
     salt of.............  i.  470
     soluble ............  i.  506
     stibiated  ..........  i.  659
     whey, cream .....  i.  510
     white ..............  i.  508
Tartari terra foliata ..  i.  505
Tartaric acid...........ft.  950
Tartarized antimony .  i.  659
     iron ................  i.  752
     kali.................  i.  506
     soda ...............  i.  546
     tartar..............  i.  506
Tartarus albus vel ru-
       ber ..............  i.  508
     boraxatus.........  i.  510
     chalybeatus  seu
       ferratus ........  i.  752
     crudus.............  i.  508
     emeticus  ..........  i.  659
     stibiatus  ..........  i.  659
Tartras potassae.......  i.  506
     et ferri ............  i.  752
Tartrate  of iron and
       ammonia ......  i.  752
     of magnesia......  i.  597
     of potash .........  i.  506
         and soda.....  i.  546
            iron.....  i.  752
Tartrates, effervescing ft.  953
Taste ....................  i.   67
Tasteless ague drops .  i.  635
     purging salts......  i.  527
Taxaceae................ii.  311
Taxus baccata.........ii.  312
Tea  ......................ii.  982
     balm...............ii.  451
     black............... ii.  982
     oil..................ii.  983
     green .............. ii.  982
     tribe ...............ft.  982
Tectum argenti........  i.  671
Temperants or refri-
  gerants............... i.  233
Tennant's  bleaching
  powder............... i.  575
Terebinthaceae.....i. 135, 860
Terebinthina...........ft.  286
     canadensis.......ii.  289
     chia................ii.  861
     veneta.............ft.  288
         factitia...... ii.  289
     vulgaris ...........ii.  2^7
Terebinthimwoleum . ii.  292
Terebinthinate  oleo-
       resins  ..........ft.  287
     resins..............ii.  300
Terebinthine  de Bos-
  ton ....................ft.  287
Terebylene.............ii.  294
Teriodide of arsenic, i.  643
Ternstromiaceae.......ii.  982 
1222
INDEX.
545
                        PAGE
Terra foliata tartari ..  i.  5051 Tine
    foliata   tartari
       crystalisata, or
       terra foliata mi-
       neralis..........  i
    japonica......ii. 696, 832
    lemnia.............  i.  599
    inerita.............ii.  234
    ossium  ............  i.  571
    ponderosa  salita  i.  557
Test,  Hume's ..........  i-  620
    Marsh's ...........  i-  622
Testae.................... "• 1104
    preparatae ... i. 567, 1105
Tests of the impurities
   in water  .............. i.
Tetanica.................  j-
Tetanine ................ ii
Thalleiochin.....
Thallogenae  .....
Thapsia silphion
    310
    245
    545
ii.  671
     50
    712
Thea Bohea............ii.  982
     viridis ............. ii-  982
Thebaina................ "■" 1030
                         983
                          52
16,
Theina..................."
Theiothermin..........ii
Thenardite  .............  i.  531
Theobroma  cacao .....ii.  984
Therapeutical  effects
  of medicines.........  i
Therapeutics...........  i
Thermal ................  i.  316
Thieves' or  Marseilles
  vinegar ... *.......... ii.  946
Thirsty thorn..........ii.  826
Thorn-apple, common ft.  480
Thridace vel Thridaci-
  um.....................ii.  599
Thus..................... ii.  286
Thymelaceae ...........ii.  416
Thymelaea  ..............ii.  416
Thymus capitatus .... ii.  449
     vulgaris ...........ii.  449
Tiglii oleum............ii
Tin .......................  i
     bisulphuret of ...  i
     chloride of........ i.  690
     filings and powder i.  690
     granulated........ i.  689
     powder of.........  i.  689
     salt of.............. i.  690
     spirit of...........  i.  622
Tincal....................i.  524
Tinctorial lichens......ii.    69
Tinctura acetatis ferri
          cum aconiti
          foliorum...  ii.  1091
         aeoniti.......ii.  1090
     aetherea cum phos
       phoro ...........
     aloes...............ii.  206
         et myrrhae .. ii.  206
         composita... ii.  206
     amara.............ii.  527
367
688
690
349
tura arnicae....... n.
assafoetidae ....... ii
atrophr............ ij
aurantii ........... ii
belladonnas.......ii
benzoini composi-
  ta ................ ii
buchu
PAGE :
 598  Tinctura lactucarii
718
480
981]
478


880'
calumbes ..........ii. 1072
camphoras  ........ii.  404
    composita .. ii.  404
cannabis indicas . ii.  340
cantharidis....... ii. 1127
capsici  ............ii.  507
cardamomi........ii.  253
    composita .. ii.  253
caryophylli.......ii.  756
carcarillae.........ii.  371
cassias.............ii.  395
castorei............ii. 1176
    ammoniata. ii. 1176
catechu............ii.  836
    composita ... ii.  836
chirettae...........ii.  528
cinchonas  .........ii.  690
     composita... ii.  691
cocci cacti ........ii. 1132
colchici............ii.  179
     composita  .. ii.  179
colombas .......... ii. 1072
conii ............... ii.  735
crotonis ........... ii.  369
croci...............ii.  220
cubebae............ii.  357
curcuma .......... ii.  237
cusparias..........ii.  883
digitalis ...........ii.  464
elaterii............ii.  750
ergotae ............ii.  142
ergotae astherea.. ii.  142
ethereacum phos-
   phoro ...........  i.  349
euphorbii  .........ii.  361
ferri  acetatis.....  i.  747
      ammonio-
       chloridi...  i.  741
     muriatis  __  i.  738
     sesquichloridii.  738
gallarum..........ft.  325
gallas ..............ii.  325
gentianas  compo-
   sita  ..............ii. 527
 guaiaci............ft.  888
     ammoniata . ii.  888
     composita... ii.  888
 hellebori..........ii.  1083
  PAGE
   603

   442
   587
   587
   343
   343
  1127
 ,  358
 .  965
   868
 .  545
ii.  1056
ft.  1058
ft.  1059
ii.  1058
lavandulae compo-
  sita .............. ii
lobelias  ............ii
     as therea ..... ii
lupuli..............ii
Inpulinae..........ii
lyttas............... ii
matico............. ii
moschi  ............ ii
myrrhae........... ii
nucis vomicae .... ii
opii ................
     acetata  .....,
     ammoniata.
     camphorata
phosphori  aethe-
  rea  .............. i'.  349
piperis cubebae... ii.  357
pyrethri...........ii.  594
quassias ...........ii.  875
     composita  .. ii.  875
quinas  composita ft.  695
radicis aconiti ... ii. 1090
rhei................ii.  434
     composita... ii.  434
     et aloes......ii.  435
     et gentianae . ii.  435
sabadillas  .........ii.  190
sacra  ..............ii.  206
sanguinariae......ii. 1068
scammonii........ ii.  517
scillae..............ii.  210
secalis cornuti... ii.  142
seminum colchici ft.  179
 sennas  composita ii.  848
 serpentariae ...... ii.  385
 stramonii ......... ii.  484
 thebaica ..........ii. 1059
ammonias compo-
  sita ..............
433
humuli ............ ft.
hyoscyami........ ft.
hyracei............ft.
iodinii ...;.........  i.
     composita ...  i.
irides florentinas . ii.
jalapae  ............ft.
kino................ft.
krameriae .........ii.
lacini...............ft.
343
    tolutana...........ii.
    Valerianae.........ii.
         ammoniata . ii.
         composita... ii.
    vanilla............. ii.
    veratriae...........ii.
    veratri albi.......ii.
    vetiverias .........ii.
    zingiberis.........ft.
Tincturae................ft.
    ethereae............ ii.
Tincture of litmus .... ft.
Tinctures ...............ii.
Tikor .................... ii.
Tisan de Feltz.........  i.
Tisana imperialis.....  i.
Titillation ..............  i.
Toadstools..............ft.
 408  Tobacco, volatile oil of ii.
1179      empyreumatic oil
 404        of................ii.
 493      Indian.............ii.
 221      ointment..........ii.
 522      smoke .............ii.
 825      Virginian......... ii.
 996      wine of............ii.
  77  Toddy or palm wine., ii.
815
612
613
613
259
192
185
154
233
913
922
 77
913
238
652
510
 68
 96
490

490
583
497
490
484
497
160 
INDEX.
1223
Tolerance of medicines i.
    of remedies......  i.
Tolu, balsam of.......ii.
Toluifera balsamum .. ii.
Tommon besaar.......ii.
Tonics ...................  i.
    mineral............  i.
Topica chemica........  i.
    dynamica  .........  i.
    mechanica........  i.
Tormentil, common ... ii.  794
Tormentilla erecta.... ii.  794
    officinalis  ......... ft.  794
Torsk ....................ft. 1145
Torula cervisiae ....... ii.    82
Touch ...................  i.    68
Touchwood.............ft.    93
Touslesmois.......... ii.  227
Tragacanth ............ii.  820
Tragacanthin..........ii.  821
Trailing poison-oak or
  sumach...............ii.  862
Transfusion ............  i.  177
Treacle................. ii.  149
Trebizond opium...... ii. 1022
Tremor mercurialis...  i.  773
Tricocephalusdispar.. i.  262
Tripe de roche.........ii.    65
Triphosphate of soda
  and basic water.....  i.  527
Triticum ................ ii.  119
     aestivum............ ii.  119
     compactum.......ii.  119
     hybernum.........ii.  119
     monococcum..... ii.  120
     polonicum ........ ii.  120
     Spelta ............. ii.  120
     turcicum..........ft.  109
     turgidum  ......... ii.  120
     vulgare............ii.  119
Trochisci acaciae ...... ii.  831
     aciditartarici .... ii.  892
     calcis chlorinatae  i.  583
     cretae ..............  i.  570
     glycyrrhiza; ...... ii.  819
         et opii....... ii.  819
     lactucarii......... ii.  603
     magnesias.........  i.  592
Trochisci morphiae ... ii. 1066
          et ipecacu-
            anhas ii. 628, 1067
     opii.................ii. 1055
     sodas bicarbonatis i.  524
     spongiie ustae .... ii. 1103
Trona.................... i.  518
Truffle, common....... ii.    89
Tshettik ................ ii.  549
Tuber cibarium .......ii.    89
Tubulifloras ............ii.  588
Tulip-tree ..............  ii. 1079
Turkeygum............ii.  827
     opium.............. ii. 1021
     rhubarb ...........ii.  422
Turmeric, Bengal.....ii.  235
     Bombay...........  ii.  236
     China..............ii.  235
PAGE
 146
 143
 814
 814
 234
 241
 244
 199 |     paper..............ft.
 206  Turner's cerate.........  i.
 198  Turpentine.............ii
Turmeric coloured ze-
    doary............... ii.
    Java  ............... ii.
    long-rooted.......ii.
    Madras............ ii.
    Malabar........... ii.
    narrow leaved.... ii.
    American or white ii.
    Bordeaux......... ii.
    Canadian .........ii.
    Chian  ..............ii.
    common...........ii.
    larch or Venice .. ii.
    oil of............... ft.
    pistacia  ........... ii.
    spirits of.......... ii.
    Strasburg.........ii.
Turpeth  or   Turbith
  mineral...............  i.
Turpethum minerale.  i.
Tussicularia............  i.
Tussilago farfara .....ii.
Tutia seu tuthia ......  i.
    praSparata ........  i.
Tutty....................  i.
    prepared..........  i.
Turnsole ................ ii.
Turundas italicae ...... ii.
             U.

Ulmaccas................ii.  331
Ulmin  ...................ii.  332
Ulmic acid .............ii.  332
Ulmus  campestris  .... ii.  332
    fulva...............ii.  333
Ulva latissima......... ii.   54
    umbilicalis  ....... ii.   54
Umbelliferae  ....... i. 133, 700
Umbrella tree .........ii. 1079
Uncaria gambier......ii.  695
Undulated ipecacu-
  anha .................. ii.
Unguentum aconitinae ii.
    ad decubitum Au-
       tenriethi .......  i.
    aeruginis ..........  i.
    aegyptiacuni......  i.
    ammonias .........  i.
    antimoniale ......  i.
    antimonii potas-
       sio-tartratis....  i.
    arsenici............  i.
    atropias............. ii.
    basiiicuni nigrum ii.
    belladonnas.......ii.
    calamines .........  i.
    calcis chlorinates  i.
    cantharidis.......ii.
    ceras albas........ ii.
         flavas......... ii- H36
    cetacei ............ii. 1158
page |
      Unguentum citrinum. i.
 234[     cocculi  ............ii.
 236!     conii ...............ft.
 234|     creasoti ...........ft.
 236;     cupri subacetatis i.
 236 i     delphinee  ......... ii.
 238(     elemi...............ii.
 237      gallas ..............ft.
 680          compositum ft.
 287          et opii.......ft.
 287      hydrargyri ....... i.
 288      ammonio-chloridi i.
 289      hydrargyri  sub-
 8611           muriatis
 287            ammoniati i.
 2881         biniodidi  .... i.
 292          chloridi  ..... i.
 860          fortius....... i.
 299               mitius . i.
 282          nitratis...... i.
                   mitius . i.
 794          nitrico oxydi i.
 794          oxydi nitrici i.
 266      infusi cantharidis ft.
 589      iodinii ............. i.
 678      iodinii  composi-
 678         turn ............. i.
 678      mezerei............ii.
 678      oxydi hydrargyri i.
 383      picis liquidas.....ii.
 126           nigri ......... ii.
          piperis nigri...... ii,
          plumbi  acetatis.. i.
               carbonatis  .. i.
               compositum i,
               iodidi......... i.
               tannatis..... i.
          potassae  hydrio-
             datis ............ i,
          potassii bromidi. i.
               iodidi ........ i,
          praecipitati albi.. i.
          resinae albae......ii.
          resinosum ........ii,
          sabines  ..........'.. ii,
          sambuci ........... ii.
          saturninum ...... i.
          scrophulariae..... ii.
          simplex ...........ii.
          stramonii ......... ii.
          sulphuretum  ..... i.
          sulphuris ......... i.
               compositum i.
               iodidi ........ i.
          tabaci ............. ii.
          tartari emetici.... i,
          veratri.............ii,
          veratriae .......... ii.
          zinci  ............... i.
               oxydi ........ i,
      Ununtamul............. ii.
      |Upas..................... ii.
      Upas,  Guevo........... i.
      I    poison  ............ii.
          tieut6 tjettek  .... ii.
      Urari poison........... ii,
 628
1093

 716
 764
 764
 433
 671

 671
 642
 480
 305
 478
 680
 583
1127
1136
PAGE
 819
1075
 737
 961
 764
1085
 869
 325
 325
 325
 783
 811
 811
 815
 802
 784
 785
 819
 821
 791
 791
1127
 405

 493
 419
 791
 305
 305
 352
 711
 703
 715
 706
 716

 492
 497
 492
 811
 301
 301
 311
 699
  74
 454
1136
 484
 791
 360
 360
 407
 497
 671
 186
 192
 671
 678
 551
 347
 123
 347
 547
 550 
1224
INDEX.
                        PAGE
Uretica .................  i.  278
Urginea  scilla.........ft.  207
Urinalia ................  i.  278
Urticaceas  ..............ii.  333
Urtication  ........ i. 68, ii. 333
Usquebaugh ...........ii.  704
Uterina..................  i.  289
Uvse passes majores... ii.  891
Uva Ursi, Arbutus ... ii.  580
              V.

Vaccinium vitis idesa  ii.  580
Valerianin..............ii.  611
Valerian, common ... ii.  609
Valeriana  Dioscoridis ii.  609
     officinalis ......... ii.  609
Valcrianaceas..........ii.  609
Valerianic acid ........ii.. 611
Vanilla .........#......... ii.  256
     aromatica'......... ii.  257
     planifolia.........ii.  267
     pompona..........ii.  257
     sativa..............ii.  257
     sylvestris .........ii.  247
Vapour, aqueous...... i.   78
     bath ............... i.   78
     douche ............ i.   80
     inhalation of warm i.   80
Vasculares ............. ii.  105
Vauquelina ............ii.  545
Vegetable alkali ...... i.  460
         mild ......... i.  468
     ethiops ............ii.   56
    jelly................ ii.   58
    juices, preserved ii.  913
     salt................. i.  507
     sulphur  ........... ii.  103
     tar..................ii.  302
     wax ................ii. 1134
Velvet leaf .............ii. 1075
Venice turpentine__ii.  288
Veratria............ii. 183, 190
     embrocation......ii.  192
     ointment..........ii.  193
     pills................ii.  192
     sulphate and tar-
       trate of.........ii.  192
Veratrine...............ii.  190
Veratrum album......ii.  182
     sabadilla..........ii.  187
     viride ..............ii.  186
Verbascum thapsus .. ii.  453
Verdigris ............... i.  762
     ointment of....... i.  764
     prepared.......... i.  764
     distilled or crys-
       tallized ......... i.  764
Vermicelli..............ft.  126
Vermicides............. i.  261
Vermifuga.............. i.  259
Vermilion  .,.............i.  791
Vernoniaceas........... ii.  588
Vert de vessie.........ii.  871
Vertebrata.............ii. 1137
                        tact:
Vesicants ............... i.   201
Vesicatorin............. ii- 1121
Vina medicata.........ii.   897
Vine, common grape. ii.   890
Vinegar................. ii-   935
     aromatic.......... ii-   946
     distilled ........... ii.   946
     of cantharides.  .. ii. 1127
     of opium ..........ii. 1059
     of squills  ..f......ii.   211
     malt................ii.   935
     proof  .............. ii.   936
     wine .......i. 670, ii.  937
     white wine ....... ii.   937
     thieves'  or Mar-
      seilles  ..........ii.   946
Vinegars, medicated . ii.   947
Vinous fermentation . ii.   898
     liquor,    produc-
      tion of..........ii.   898
Vinum...................ii.   892
     album   Hispani-
      cum.............ii.   892
     aloes...............ii.   206
     antimonii  ......... i.   670
     antimonii  potas-    ,
      sio-tartratis ..'. i.   670
     corni colchici .... ii.   179
     ergotae.............ii.   143
     ferri................ i.   754
     gentianas..........ii.   527
     ipecacuanhae...... ii.   626
     opii................. ii. 1059
     rhei ................ ii.   435
     seminum colchici ii.   179
     tabaci..............ii.   497
     veratri............. ii.   185
     xericum...........ft.   892
Violacees................ft.   996
Viola odorata..........ii.   997
Violine  .................. ii.   997
Virgin sulphur......... i.   353
     oil  .................. ft.   557
Virgineic acid  .........ii.   993
Virginian snakeroot..  ii.   384
     tobacco............ft.   484
Vision.................... i.   67
Vitaceoe..................  ft.   889
Vital air................ i.   292"
Vitellus ovi ............ ft. 1155
Vittie vayr..............ft.   153
Vitis vinifera..........ii.   890
Vitriolated iron....... i.   733
     kali................. i.   478
     magnesia......... i.   593
     tartar............... ft   478
Vitriol,  blue............ i.   757
     elixir............... i.   372
     green  .............. i.   733
     of Mars............ i.   733
     oil  of............... i.   361
     Roman ............ ft   757
     spirit of............ i.   372
     sweet oil of.......ft.   923
     white...........ft  675.  681
Vitrioli,  sal ............ ft'  681
                        PAGE
Vitriolic naphtha...... ii.   916
Vitriolum cteruleum.. i.   757
    Martis............. i.   733
    viride............... i.   733
Vitrum antimonii.. i. 646,  059
Volatile alkali.......... i.   423
    liniment............ i.   4:13
    salt of hartshorn i.   443
Volcanic sulphur...... i.   353
Volta-electric machines i.   110
Voltaic alternatives... i.    99
    battery ............ i.   107
    current............ i.   109
    electricity......... i.   107
    shock............... i.   110
Voltaism................. i.   107
Vomicina ............... ii.   536
Vomitoria............... i.   267
            W.

Ward's paste...........ii.  352
Warming plaster ......ii. 1128
Wash, black............  i.  788
    yellow .............  i.  789
Washed sulphur.......  i.  357
Washes ..................  i.   91
Water....................  i.  298
    barley .............ii.  117
    boiling.............  i.   83
    Cologne............ii.  981
    creasote...........ii.  960
    cure................  i.   92
    dill..................ii.  707
    distilled............  i.  303
    dock, great.......ii.  437
    dressing...........  i.  303
    elder flower.......ii.  699
    gruel............... ii.  113
    hard................  i.  307
    hell.................ft.  162
    hemlock...........ii.  738
    hydrogen..........  i.  298
    lake ................  i.  314
    laurel............... ii.  775
    lime.................  i.  564
    marsh..............  i.  314
    of ammonia  ......  i.  426
      Ascot Heath...  i.  691
      mustard, distill-
        ed ............ii. 1003
      the Dead Sea.,  i.  314
    orange flower .... ii.  981
    oxygen ............  i.  296
    rain ................* i.  311
    river  ...............  i.  313
    sea .................  i.  314
    seltzer.............  i.  340
    snow...............  i.  311
    soda............i. 340, 523
    solutive............  i.  414
    spring.............  i.  311
    tar..................ft.  304
    Webb's soda......  i.  524
    well.................  i.  312 
INDEX.
1225
 Waters .................. i
     acidulous or car-
       bonated......... i
     acidulo-alkaline.. i
     alkaline............ i,
     aluminous chaly-
       beate............ i
     artificial  mineral i
     corbonated chaly-
       beates........... i
     common........... i
     calcareous......... i
     chalybeate or fer-
       ruginous .......
     distilled............
     medicated.........
     mineral............
     pure natural......
     purging saline ...
     saline...............
     salt or brine......
     siliceous...........
     sulphated chaly-
       beate ............i.
     sulphureous, or he-
       patic ............ i.
 Wax.....................ft.
     bearing palms ... ii.
     myrtle..............ii.
     plaster ............ii.
     vegetable..........ii.
     white............... ii.
     yellow.............ii.
 Wells, artesian......... i.
     London............ i.
 Wheat flour............ft.
     starch..............ii.
 Whey, cream of tartar i.
 Whiskey ................ii.
 White arsenic.......... i.
     bryony root.......ii.
     chocolate .........ii.
     copperas........... i.
     flake ............... i.
     flux................. i.
     ginger............. ii.
     hellebore..........ii.
     horehound........ ii.
     iron pyrites  ...... i.
     lead................. i.
     mustard........... ii.
     of eggs............ii.
     Oxide of mercury i.
     pearl................ i.
     pepper.............ii.
     poppy..............ij-
     precipitate........ i.
     precipitated  mer-
       cury ............ i.
     Spanish............ i.
     sugar...............ii.
     vinegar............ ii.
     vitriol.............. i.
Whi flaw's ethereal tinc-
  ture ..................."•
PAGE
 310

 320
 320
 323

 318
 320

 318
 305
 323

 317
 304
 304
 315
 306
 322
 322
 322
 323

 318

 319
1134
 169
1134
1136
1134
1135
1134
 312
 312
 120
 124
 510
 912
 014
 750
  59
 681
 699
 470
 230
 182
 452
 731
 699
1004
1154
 809
 672
 350
1007
 809

 809
 G72
 149
 937
 681

 587
PAGE
Widemann's crystalline
  matter ...............ii.
Wild carrot............. ii.
    cinnamon .........ii.
    cucumber.........ii.
    endive or succory ii.
    vine................ft.
Willow...............i. 329
Wine.....................ft.
    antimonial......... i.
    astringent.........ii.
    bouquet of........ii.
    Burgundy......... ii.
    Champagne  ......ii.
    claret...............ft.
    Madeira...........ii.
    of aloes............ii.
       ergot...........ii.
       gentian.........ft.
       iron ............ i.
    oil of...............ii.
    palm..........ii. 160, 913
    port................ii.  897
    sherry.........ii. 892, 897
    sparkling .........ii.  893
    spirit of...........ii.  901
    steel ............... i.  754
    sweet...............ii.  894
    whey.......«.......ii. 1169
 979
 710
 971
 743
 608
1075
 314
 892
 670
 897
 893
 897
 897
 897
 897
 206
 143
 972
 754
 923
	897
	893
	893
German............ii.	893
Grecian and Ionian	
n.	893
	893
Italian and Sici-	
	893
	897
    of  the Cape of
      Good Hope .... ii.
    of  Madeira  and
      the  Canary Is-
      lands ............ ii.
    Persian............ii.
    Portugal........... ii.
    Rhine..............ii.
    Spanish............ ii.
Wintera aromatica ... ii.
Winteraceae ............ii.
Winter-green,  umbel-
  lated..................ii.
Winter's bark  .........ii. 1077
        spurious.....ii.  971
Witchmeal..............ii.  103
Witherite  ...............  i.  555
Wolfsbane............... ii.
Wood ashes ............  i.
    charcoal...........  i.
    snake...............ii.
    soot................ii.
    sorrel, salt of..... ii.
        tribe..........ii.  888
Woody nightshade.... ii.  503
Woorali poison.........ii.  650
Worm bark............. ii.  836
893
 893
 893
 893
 897
 893
1077
1077

 578
1085
 330
 329
 384
 959
 889
                       PAGE
Worm grass............ii.  53(1
    seed................ft.  596
    tea..................ii.  532
Wormwood, common., ii.  594
Wort..................... ft.   53
Wound balsam.........ii.  572
             X.

Xanthochymus  ovali-
  folius ................. ii.  966
Xanthorrhcea..........ii.  215
    arborea............ft.  215
    hastile..............ii.  215
    red resin of......ii.  210
Yams ...............ii. 157, 259
Yeast.....................ft.   80
    dried...............ii.   84
    patent..............ii.   85
    poultice ...........ii.   86
Yellow arsenic..........i.  043
    bark ...............ii.  084
    basilicon ointment
                     ii.  301
    gentian............ft.  523
    gum................ii.  215
    ointment.......... i.  819
    powder............ii.  343
    rosin...............ii.  300
    salt.................ii.  780
    sulphate of  mer-
      cury  ............ i.  794
    wash............... i.  789
    wax.................ii. 1134
Yew, common  .........ii.  312
Zamia ................... ii.  283
Zea mays ...............ii.  109
Zedoary radice lutea.. ii.  234
    turmeric coloured ii.  234
Zerumbcr root.........ii.  234
Zieger...................ii. 1167
Zinc and its compounds i.  674
    acetate of......... i.  686
    butter of........... i.  683
    carbonate of...... i.  679
    chloride of........ i.  683
    cyanide of......... ii. 1184
    cyanuret or hydro-
      cyanate of......ii. 1184
    flowers or calx of i.  676
    hydrochlorate of i.  083
    impure  oxide of i.  678
    muriate of........ i.  683
    ointment.......... i.  678
    oxide of............ i.  676
    red ................. i.  674 
1226                                  INDEX.
	PAGE
	i. 680
	i. 681
	i. 686
	i. 679
	i. 679
impurumprae	-
paratum...	i. 680
                       PAGE
Zinci praecipitatus......i.  679
    chloridum......... i.  683
    cyanidum.........ii. 1184
    oxydum............ i.  676
        impurum.... i.  678
    sulphas............ i.  681
    valerianas ........ii.  614
                       PAGE
Zincum................... i.  674
Zingiberaceae ..........ii.  229
Zingiber cassumunar ii.  234
    officinale...........ii.  229
Zoogin ..................ii.   52
Zootic acid..............ft.  778
Zygophyllaceae.........ii.  883
THE END. 
 
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