ROsSif^s .S& t? yi^i. ^m" $& '**V-.i.'-. Till, ^^2.; /*#}. ELEMENTS MATERIA MEDICA THERAPEUTICS. JONATHAN PEREIRA, M.D. F.R.S. & L.S. LICENTIATE OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS IN LONDON; MEMBER OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS? FELLOW OF THE ROYAL MEDICAL AND CHIRURGICAL SOCIETY; CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE SOCIETY OF PHARMACY OF PARIS; HONORARY MEMBER OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY OF GREAT BRITAIN J EXAMINER IN MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACY TO THE UNIVERSITY OF LONDON \ AND ASSISTANT PHYSICIAN TO, AND LECTURER ON MATERIA MEDICA AT, THE LONDON HOSPITAL. WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS. ifrom the Second 2otrt»ott 3EUftfoit, ENLARGED AND IMPROVED. WITH NOTES AND ADDITIONS, BY JOSEPH CARSON, M.D. Professor of Materia Medica and Pharmacy in the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, and one of the Editors of the American Journal of Pharmacy. IN TWO VOLUMES. VOL. I. PHILADELPHIA: LEA & BLANCHARD. 1843. ; * \A ->v. » ^ j.% \v> .» *: Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year one thousand eight hundred and forty ^three, by LEA & BLANCHARD, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. GRIGGS & CO., PRINTERS. TO EMM CLUTTEEBUCK, ESQ. M.D. MEMBER OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS, PRESIDENT OF THE MEDICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, FORMERLY PHYSICIAN TO THE GENERAL DISPENSARY, ALDERSGATE STREET, AND LECTURER ON THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF MEDICINE, ETC. ETC. ETC. Ehfs wort* xb mtwmtn, AS A TESTIMONY OF HIGH RESPECT FOR HIS GREAT PROFESSIONAL TALENTS AND ESTEEM FOR HIS PRIVATE WORTH, BY HIS FAITHFUL FRIEND, AND ORATEFUL PUPIL, THE AUTHOR. PREFACE TO THE AMERICAN EDITION. The very great merit of Pereira's Elements of Materia Medica and Thera- peutics, having attracted the attention of the profession in the United States, it is believed that an important service is performed, in rendering it accessible, by the publication of an American edition. It is by far the most comprehensive treatise upon the subject in the English language. Replete with erudition and at the same time most satisfactory with respect to references; it is admirably suited to the wants of the advanced student and the practitioner; while from the distinctness of the facts, their methodical arrangement, and the clear philosophical explanations connected with them, it meets the wants of the student who is in search of the first lessons in the science. It may, therefore, with equal benefit be employed as a work of reference, or as an elementary text book, in which two-fold character it occupies an unusual position. More completely to adapt it to the demands of this country, such additions have been made as are deemed to be essential. Thus, the portion devoted to pharmaceutical information, is in the original work too strictly local, as it is con- fined almost exclusively to the peculiarities of the three British Colleges; to ob- viate this, the nomenclature of the last edition of the United States' Pharmacopoeia has been introduced, by inserting the name of each article adopted by that standard, in connexion with those assumed by the authorities uniformly cited by the author, or by expressing a correspondence of name with one or more of them by the symbols (U. S.) in union with similar symbols used by him to indicate the authority. The formulae of the United States Pharmacopoeia have also been set forth with the formulae of the standards previously mentioned, and where a for- mula has been adopted, or n medicinal preparation assumed by our own work, vi PREFACE TO THE AMERICAN EDITION. entirely differing from those found in the text, it has been presented, with all the details necessary for its employment. Succinct histories of the most important indigenous medicines of the United States, of which no account had been given, have been introduced in their appropriate places, as Cassia Marilandica, Chenopodium, Cimicifuga, Cornus Florida, Evpatorium, Gillenia, Juglans, Pix Canadensis, Podophyllum, Prunus- Virginiana, Sanguinaria and Veratrum viride; others of minor importance have also been noticed, and a sufficient exposition of their properties made, for their employment under circumstances that may render them expedient. The matter that has been added, has been included within brackets, and dis- tinguished by the insertion of the initials of the editor. February 1, 1843. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. The object of the Author, in preparing the present work for the press, has been to supply the Medical Student with a class book on Materia Me- dica, containing a faithful outline of this department of Medicine, and em- bracing a concise account of the most important modern discoveries in Natural History, Chemistry, Physiology, and Therapeutics, in so far as they pertain to Pharmacology. These subjects he has treated of in the order of their natural- historical relations. This method he has followed for many years past in his Lectures, believing it to be the most convenient and, on the whole, the least ob- jectionable mode of classifying the objects of Pharmacology: and he is glad to find that some of the most eminent professors (among whom he may mention his friends Drs. Christison and Royle,) follow a similar order in their lectures. Hitherto, however, no systematic work has been published in the English lan- guage in which this order has been adopted.1 It must be admitted, that, as the ultimate object of all our inquiries into the Materia Medica is the attainment of a knowledge of the physiological effects and therapeutical uses of medicines, an arrangement founded on the effects and uses would be much more valuable to the medical student than one based on proper- 1 The Therapeutic Arrangement and Syllabus of Materia Medica, by J. Johnston, M. D. can hardly be regarded as constituting an exception to this statement. viii PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. ties only indirectly related to those for which the agents possessing them are employed. For it would enable him more readily to practise on general indica- tions, and to substitute one remedy for another, belonging to the same class or order. Under this point of view, the author is fully impressed with the value of a physiological or therapeutical arrangement of medicines, and, could it be effected, would readily acknowledge its vast superiority, considered in a medical point of view, over all other classifications: but he is of opinion that Pharmaco- logists are too imperfectly acquainted with the operation of Therapeutical agents to enable them to effect a classification of this kind with much success. Scarcely two medicines give rise to precisely, the same effects: and, as we are unable to determine the nature of the modification produced by each, " it is impossible to bring the substances used in medicine under a general good arrangement."1 Every writer, who has attempted it, has found the facts hitherto, ascertained in- sufficient for his purpose, and has, therefore, been necessarily obliged to call in the aid of theory: hence the so-called physiological classifications of medicines are in reality founded on the prevailing medical doctrines of the day, or on the peculiar notions of the writer. Opium and mercury may be referred to in illustration of the author's meaning. They are substances in ordinary use, and their effects are well known. Yet writers are neither agreed as to the nature of the primary influence which these agents exercise over the animal economy, nor as to their proper position in a physiological classification. Thus several physicians (as Dr. John Murray2 and Dr. A. T. Thomson3) con- sider opium to be primarily stimulant; some (as Dr. Cullen4 and Barbier5) regard it as a sedative; one (Mayer6) as both—viz., a stimulant to the nerves and circu- latory system, but a sedative to the muscles and digestive organs; another (Orfila7) as neither; while others (as Muller8) call it alterative. 1 Elements of Physiology. By J. Muller, M. D.; translated by W. Baiy, i. 57. 2 A System of Materia Medica and Pharmacy. 5th ed. 1828. Edinburgh. 3 Elements of Materia Medica and Therapeutics. 2 vols. London. 1832. •» Treatise of the Materia Medica. 2 vols. Edinburgh. 1787. 3 Traite Elementaire de Matiere Medicate. 2de ed. Paris. 1824. 6 Quoted by Orfila (Toxicologic Geneiale.) 7 Toxicologic Generate. 3mc ed. 1827. 2 loin. Paris. 8 Op. cit. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. IX Again, mercury is by several writers (as Drs. Cullen,1 Chapman,3 Young,3 and Eberle4) placed in the class of sialogogues; by many (as Dr. A. T. Thom- son,5 MM. Edwards and Vavasseur,6 and MM. Trousseau and Pidoux7) among excitants; by some (as Conradi, Bertele, and Horn8) it is considered to be seda- tive; by one (Dr. Wilson Philip9) to be stimulant in small doses, and sedative in large ones; by some (as Dr. John Murray10) it is placed among tonics; by ano- ther (Vogt11) among the resolventia alterantia; by one (Sundelin13) among the Iiquefacients {yerflussigende Mittel;) by the followers of Broussais (as Begin13) among revulsives; by the Italians (as Giacomini14) among contra-stimulants or hyposthenics; by others (as Barbier15) among the incertse sedis!! The author is fully aware of the objections which some will be disposed to raise to the natural-historical and chemical details contained in this work. But with due deference to the opinion of others, he thinks the absence of these sub- jects would render the present volumes incomplete. A knowledge of them, it is true, is not essential to the successful practice of our profession; but surely a physician will not make a worse practitioner because he is acquainted with the natural history and chemistry of the agents he is employing in the treatment of disease. The author is not ambitious to raise into unnecessary importance these topics; yet he cannot help expressing his belief, that they, who are the loudest in decrying the value and utility of natural history and chemistry to the medical practitioner, are those, for the most part, whose information on these points is most limited. In drawing up the Historical and Bibliographical Table, the author thinks it but justice to acknowledge the assistance he has received:—In the Hindoo De- » Op.cit. 2 Elements of Materia Medica and Therapeutics. 2 vols. 4th ed. Philadelphia, 1825. 3 An Introduction to Medical Literature; art. Pharmacology. 2d ed. London. 1823. * Treatise on Materia Medica and Therapeutics. 2 vols. 2d ed. Philadelphia. 1825. 5 Op. cit. 6 Manuel de Matiere Medicale. Paris. 1831. 7 Traite de Therapeutique, torn. i. Paris, 1836. 8 Quoted by Richter (Ausfuhrliche Arzneimittellehre, Bd. v. 307. 1830.) 9 On the Influence of Minute Doses of Mercury. London. 1834. io Op. cit. 11 Lehrbuch der Pharmakodyna7iiik. 2 Bd. 2te Aufl. Giessen. 1828. '2 Handbuch der speciellen Hcilmittellehre. 3tc Aufl. Berlin. 1833. 11 Traite de Therapeutique. Paris. 1825. '« Trattato JHosqfico-sperimcnlale dei Soccorsi Terapeutici. Padova. 1833. ^ Op. cit. Vol. 1.—2 X PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. partment, from his friend, Professor Royle; in Scandinavian Pharmacological Literature, from Dr. Hoist, Professor in the University of Christiana; in the American department, from Dr. AVood, Professor of" Materia Medica and Phar- macy in the University of Pennsylvania,—to all of whom his best thanks are justly due. London, Nov. 1838. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. Encouraged by the rapid sale of a large impression of the first edition of this work, the author has endeavoured to make the present edition still more deserving the favour of the profession, by various additions, alterations and omissions. Among the additions will be found articles on Mental Impressions, Light, Heat, Cold, Electricity, Magnetism, Diet, Climate, and Exercise, considered as thera- peutic agents. The processes of the British Pharmacopoeias (including those of the new Edinburgh one) have been described in a more detailed manner. Upwards of a hundred wood-cuts have been added. They comprise figures of crystals, and of some insects used in medicine; microscopic views of the amylaceous grains of commerce; and illustrations of chemical manufactures, and of the modes of pre- paring some vegetable products. And, in the typographical part, various im- provements have also been effected. As some reviewers have spoken in terms of commendation of the very extended index, the author thinks it but just to state that it was carefully made by his wife, to whose pencil he is indebted for the figures of the grains of fecula, drawn to one scale by an excellent microscope, and camera lucida, lent him for that purpose by his friend and colleague, Mr. Luke. 47. Finsbury Square, March, 17, 1842. CONTENTS OF VOL. I. Title Dedication Preface to the American Edition Preface to the First Edition Preface to the Second Edition Table of Contents in Vol. I. List of Woodcuts in Vol. I. - Errata and Corrigenda in Vol. I. Historical Table PART FIRST.—GENERAL THERAPEUTICS. Therapeutics, Acology, Remedies .... 1. Psychical or Mental Remedies ... External affections of the mind - Internal affections of the mind .... 2. SOMATICAL OR CORPORAL REMEDIES I. Physical but Imponderable Jlgents Light .--.... Heat- ....... a. Radiant heat ..... a. Solar heat ...... b. Artificial radiant heat .... /3. Conducted heat ..... 1. Dry heat ------ 1. Hot-air-bath - * 2. Solid substances heated not above 100° - 3. Metal heated to 212° 4. The actual cautery .... 2. Moist heat ...... a. Aqueous vapour - 1. The vapour bath - 2. The inhalation of warm vapour- c 3. Steam --.... b. Water ------ 1. Tepid, warm, and hot baths XIV CONTENTS. 2. Warm Affusion 3. Warm fomentation and poultices - 4. Warm aqueous drinks and injections - 5. Boiling water - Cold ------ a. Cool Air - b. Cold Water - 1. Cool, cold, and temperate baths 2. Affusion - 3. The shower bath - 4. The Douche - 5. Lavation, washing, or sponging 6. Cold lotions - 7. Cold drinks - - - - - 8. Cold injections - c. Ice and snow - - - - - 1. Employed externally 2. Employed internally - - - - Electricity - a. Friction Electricity - 1. The electric bath - - - - 2. The electric aura 3. The electric spark - 4. The electric shock 5. The electric current - (3. Voltaic Electricity - - - - Electro-puncture - - - - y. Magnetic Electricity - - - - Magnetism - II. Hygienic Agents Food -.---- a. Aliments 1. Alimentary principles - - . 2. Compound aliments - - - - «. Animal - - - r /3. Vegetable - - r b. Drinks c. Condiments - - - - - Dietetical Regimen .... Diet tables of the London Hospitals Exercise ------ Climate --.... Circumstances which affect the climate of a country Varieties of climates - 1. Climates of England - - 2. Climates of France .... 3. Climates of Spain and Portugal 4. Climates of Italy and the Mediterranean 5. Atlantic Climates - Diseases for which change of Climate is resorted to III. Mechanical and Surgical Agents CONTENTS. XV IV. Pharmacological Agent.*, or Medicines - - - - 111 I. Pharmacognosy - - - - - - HI General observations, works on, &c. - - - - 111 2. Pharmacy - - - - - - LI2 Definition, and works on - - - - - -112 3. Pharmacodynamics - • • - • LI 2 Chapter I. On the means of ascertaining the effects of medicines - 112 Chapter II. Of the active forces of medicines - - - 119 1. Mechanical - - - - - - -119 2. Chemical ------- 120 3. Dynamical ------- 121 Chapter HI. On the physiological effects of medicines - - 122 1. Local effects ------- 122 2. Remote effects ------ 122 Chapter IV. On the absorption of medicines - - - - 124 Proofs of absorption - - - - - - 124 Vessels effecting absorption - - - - - 126 Veins ------- 126 Lacteals and Lymphatics ... - - 127 Mechanism of absorption - - - - 128 Absorption by physical agency {imbibition; exosmose and endosmose) - - - - - - 128 Absorption by a vital agency ----- 128 Absorption of a medicine, or poison, essential to the production of its remote effects ------ 128 How do medicines and poisons, which have entered the blood-ves- sels, affect distant organs? ----- 132 By modifying or altering the properties of the blood, and thereby unfitting it for carrying on the functions of the body 132 By pervading the structure of the organ acted on - - 134 By acting on the lining membrane of the blood-vessels - 136 Chapter V. On the operation of medicines by nervous agency - 137 Chapter VI. Of the parts affected by the remote action of medicines - 138 Chapter VII. Of the general nature of the effects of medicines * 140 1. Stimulants - - 141 a. General vital stimuli - - - - 141 S. Special stimuli ..... 141 2. Sedatives ------ 141 3. Alteratives - - - - . - - 141 XVI CONTENTS. 141 1. Brunonian theory - 2. Doctrine of contra-stimulus (New Italian Doctrine) - - J 42 Giacomini's classification of medicines - - - 142 Chapter VIII. On the circumstances which modify the effects of medi- cines 144 Relating to the medicine - - --- - 144 Relating to the organism - - - - - - 140 Chapter IX. On the therapeutical effects of medicines - - 149 Mode of production - - - - - -149 By the influence of a medicine over the causes of disease - 149 By modifying the actions of one or more parts of the system 150 Fundamental methods of cure - - - - - 150 Antipathia - - - - - - -150 Hoinoepathia ------ 151 AUopathia (antagonism, counter-irritation, revulsion, deriva- tion) ------- 153 Chapter X. Of the parts to which medicines are applied - - 155 Applications to the skin - - - - - -155 The enepidermic method - - - - 156 The iatraleptic method - - - - - 156 The endermic or emplastro-endermic method - - 156 The method by inoculation - - - - - 157 Applications to the mucous membranes - - - 157 Gastro-pulmonary membrane - - - - 158 Urino-genital membrane - - - - - 161 Applications to the serous membranes - - - - 161 Applications to ulcers, wounds, and abscesses - - - 161 Injection of medicines into the veins (infusion) - - - 162 Chapter XI. On pharmacological classification - - - 163 Empirical arrangements - - - - . -163 Rational arrangements - - - - _ 154 x. Classifications founded on the sensible qualities - - 164 /3. Classifications founded on the natural-historical properties 165 Classification of crystalline forms - - - 166 Artificial method of Linnaeus . 170 Methods founded on the parts employed - - 170 y. Classifications founded on the chemical constituents - 170 ^. Classifications founded on the physiological effects - 171 1. According to the general quality of the effects - 171 2. According to Brunonian principles - 173 3. According to the doctrine of contra-stimulus - 174 4. According to the doctrine of Broussais - . 174 5. According to chemico-physioldgical principles - 174 6. According to the part affected - - - 174 £. Classifications founded on therapeutical properties - 175 contents. xvii page. Chapter XII. On the physiological classes of medicines - - 176 Class 1. Cerebro-spinants ----- 177 Class 2. Stimulants ------ 182 Class 3. Tonics ------ 187 Class 4. Emollients ------ 190 Class 5. Refrigerants - - - - - 192 Class 6. Evacuants - - - - - - 192 Sub-class 1. Liquefacients .... 193 Sub-class 2. Diaphoretics ----- 195 Sub-class 3. Diuretics ----- 196 Sub-class 4. Errhines .... - 198 Sub-class 5. Sialogogues ----- 199 Sub-class 6. Expectorants ----- 200 Sub-class 7. Emetics ----- 201 Sub-class 8. Cathartics ----- 203 Sub-class 9. Emmenagogues ... - 205 Sub-class 10. Cholagogues ----- 206 Class 7. Ecbolics ------ 206 Class 8. Acids..... 207 Class 9. Alkalines (Lithontriptics) - 207 Class 10. Topical remedies - - - - -' 208 PART SECOND.—SPECIAL PHARMACOLOGY. Natural-historical arrangement I. INORGAMZED KINGDOM. Class X. i&on^etallfc substances. Order i.—Oxygen and its aqueous solution. Oxygenium - Aqua oxygenii Order 11.—Chlorine and its combinations with oxygen Chlorinium ------ Aqua chlorinii - *** Hypochlorous, chlorous, chloric, and perchloric acids Order hi.—Iodine and its combinations with oxygen. Iodinium ------- 1. Tinctura iodinii Vol. I.—3 213 216 217 220 222 222 233 xvin CONTENTS. PAGE. 233 2. [Liquor Iodini compositus] - - 3. Jodidum amyli - - - __. 4. Unguentum iodinii - - - *** Iodic acid - - - Order iv.—Bromine and its combinations with oxygen, chlorine, and iodine. Brominium ----- *«>* *** Compounds of bromine wilh oxygen, chlorine, and iodine - 237 Order v.—Hydrogen and its compounds with oxygen, chlorine, and iodine. Hydrogenium ------- 237 Aqua -------- - 238 1. Aqua deslillata - - - - - - 241 2. Aqua medicalce - - - - - - 242 3. Infusa ------- 242 4. Decocta ------- 243 «. Aquae communes ------ 243 1. Aqua pluvialis - ... 243 2. Aquafontana ------ 243 3. Aqua exflumine ------ 243 4. Aqua ex puteo ------ 244 5. Aqua ex lacu ...... 245 6. Aqua ex palude - - - - - 245 |S. Aqua marina - - - - - - 246 Balneum maris factitium - - * - - 247 y. Aquae minerales ------ 247 Class 1. Chalybeate or ferruginous waters - 248 Order i. Carbonated chalybeales - - - - 248 Order n. Sulphated chalybeales ... 249 Class 2. Sulphureous or hepatic waters - 249 Class 3. Acidulous or carbonated waters - - - 250 Class 4. Saline waters - 252 Order i. Purging saline waters - - - 252 Order ii. Saline or brine waters - . - . 252 Order ifi. Calcareous waters - 252 Order iv. Alkaline waters - - - - 253 Order v. Siliceous waters .... 253 Artificial mineral waters - 256 Acidum hydrochloricum ---... 256 1. Gaseous hydrochloric acid - 256 2. Liquid hydrochloric acid - 258 Acidum hydrochloricum dilutum - - - 262 Acidum hydriodicum ---... 262 Order vi.—Nitrogen and its compounds with oxygen and hydrogen. Nitrogenium -----.__ 262 Nitrogenii protoxydum --.... 263 Aquse nitrogenii protoxydi - - - 264 CONTENT' XIX Acidum nitricum ------- 264 1. Acidum nitricum dilutum .... - 269 2. Vnguentum acidi nitrici ----- 270 Acidum nitro-hydrochloricum ------ 270 Balneum nitro-hydrochloricum - - - - 271 Ammonia -------- 271 Aqua ammonia? (liquor ammoniae) ----- 273 1. Linimentum ammoniae ----- 279 2. Linimentum ammoniae-compositum - 279 3. Unguentum ammoniae ------ 280 4. Tinctura ammoniae composita . - - - 280 Ammoniae carbonas ------- 280 1. Spiritus ammoniae - - - - - 281 2. Spiritus ammoniae foetidus ----- 282 3. Spiritus ammoniae aromaticus .... 282 Ammoniae sesquicarbonas - - - - - - - 282 1. Liquor ammoniae sesquicarbonatis - - - - 286 2. Linimentum ammoniae sesquicarbonatis ... 286 Ammoniae bicarbonas ------- 286 Ammoniae hydrochloras - - - - - 287 1. Lotio arnmonice hydrochloratis - - - - 293 2. Emplastrum ammoniae hydrochloratis - 293 Liquor ammoniae acetatis ------ 293 *** Sulphate, nitrate, and citrate of ammonia - 295 Order vii.—Carbon and its compounds with oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. Section I.—Carbon. Plumbago -------- 296 Carboligni - - - - - - - 297 Cataplasma carbo ligni ..... 299 Carbo animalis -------- 299 Carbo animalis purificatus ----- 300 Section II.—Oxycarbons. Acidum carbonicum ------- 300 Aqua acidi carbonici ------- 305 Acidum oxalicum - ■ - - - - - 306 1. Arnmonice oxalas ------ 309 2. Potassae quadroxalas ------ 309 Section III.—Oxyhydrocarbons. Alcohol - -......309 L Spiritus vini gallici (Brandy) .... 322 2. Mistura spiritus vini gallici ... - 323 3. Spiritus sacchari (Rum) ----- 323 4. Spiritus frumenti compositus (Gin, Whisky, Compounds)- 324 5. Arrack- - - - - - - - 324 1. Tincturae - 2. Spiritus 325 327 XX C0NTENT9. PAGC. 327 iEther sulphuricus - _ 334 1. Spiritus aetheris sulphurici - - _ 334 2. Spiritus aetheris sulphurici compositus _ 335 Oleum aethereum - 337 Spiritus aetheris nitrici - - 342 iEther hydrochloricus - - _ - 242 Spiritus aetheris hydrochlorici - 2^2 ^Ether aceticus Acidum aceticum 343 344 Malt vinegar - ^5 Wine vinegar - 04c German vinegar - - .- - „.„ Pyroligneous acid - „.., Pyroxilic spirit - - - - Eblanin --.---- *48 1. Acelum deslillatum ----- 354 2. Acidum aceticum dilutum ----- 355 3. Acidum aceticum aromaticum --.--" j>5^ 4. Acidum aceticum camphoratum - ^0 5. Oxyme'l ....--- 356 Acidum citricum ------- f56 1. Artificial lemon juice ------ ^59 2. Effervescing citrates .- *.- - " " ^59 Acidum tartaricum ------- 359 Effervescing tartrates ------ ^62 Acidum benzoicum ------- 363 Creasoton -------- 365 1. Mistura creasoti ---""" ^69 2. Unguentum creasoti - 369 Petroleum -------- 370 Succinum - - - - - - - - 371 1. Oleum succini - - - - - " " 372 2. Acidum succinicum ------ 373 Section IV.—Compounds containing carbon and nitrogen. Oleum animale -------- 374 Acidum hydrocyanicum -.---- 374 Order viii.—Compound of boron and oxygen. Acidum boracicum ....... 388 Order ix.—Phosphorus and phosphoric acid. Phosphorus - - - - - - - - 391 1. Tinctura aelherea cum phosphoro - 394 2. Oleum phosphoratum - 394 Acidum phosphoricum dilutum -.-... 394 Order x.—Sulphur and its non-metallic compounds. Sulphur -------- 396 1. Unguentum sulphur is ----._ 400 2. Unguentum sulphuris compositum - - - - 400 3. Sulphur praecipitatum --.-.. 400 4. Oleum sulphuratum- - - - - - 401 CONTENTS. XXI PaOJ. Acidum sulphuricum ------- 401 1. Acidum sulphuricum dilutum .... 409 2. Acidum sulphuricum aromaticum - 409 3. Unguentum acidi sulphurici - - - - 410 Acidum sulphurosum - - - - - - -410 Sulphuris iodidum - - - - - - - 411 Unguentum sulphuris iodidi - - - - - 412 Ammoniae hydrosulphas ------ 412 , ----.. . 572 1. Liquor argenti nitratis ..... 580- 2. Solutio argenti ammoniati ..... 580 Mair-dye and marking-ink ..... 580 XXIV CONTENTS. PAOI Argenti cyanidum ------- 580 *.* Other compounds of silver (chloride and oxide) - - °°1 Order xxi.—Mercury and its compounds. Hydrargyrum - 5^1 Hydrargyrum purificatum - ^"a Hydrargyrum cum creta - *>98 Hydrargyrum cum magnesia - - - ^99 Pilulae hydrargyri ----- 599 Unguentum hydrargyri - 600 1. Unguentum hydrargyri mitius - - - - 602 2. Ceratum hydrargyri compositum ... - 602 3. Linimentum hydrargyri compositum - 603 Emplastrum hydrargyri ------ 603 Emplastrum ammoniaci cum hydrargyro - - - 603 Hydrargyri oxydum ------- 603 Lotio nigra ------- 605 Hydrargyri binoxydum ------ 605 Lotio flava ------- 606 Hydrargyri nitrico-oxydum ------ 607 Unguentum hydrargyri nitrico-oxydi - - - - 609 Hydrargyri chloridum ------ 609 1. Pilulae hydrargyri chloridi compositae - - - 616 2. Pilulae calomelanos et opii - - - - - 617 3. Unguentum hydrargyri chloridi - - - - 617 4. Pilulae catharticae compositae - - - - - 617 Hydrargyri bichloridum - - - - - - 617 Liquor hydrargyri bichloridi ..... 623 Hydrargyri ammonio-chloridum ----- 623 Unguentum hydrargyri ammonio-chloridi ... 626 Hydrargyri iodidum ....__ 626 1. Pilulae hydrargyri iodidi ..... 627 2. Unguentum hydrargyri iodidi .... 627 Hydrargyri biniodidum ...... 627 Unguentum hydrargyri biniodidi .... 629 Hydrargyri bisulphuretum ...... 629 Hydrargyri bisulphuretum cum sulphure - - - - 631 Hydrargyri bicyanidum - - - - -'-631 Unguentum hydrargyri nitratis - 634. Hydrargyri acetas ------- 636 Hydrargyri subsulphas flavus - 637 Order xxii.—Copper and its compounds. cuprum..... 638 Cupri sulphas -----.. q^q Ammoniae cupro-sulphas ------ 643 1. Pilulae cupri ammoniati - g43 2. Liquor cupri ammonio-sulphatis - g43 Cupri subacetas -----.„ 345 1. Cupri subacetas praeparatum - g4g 2. Linimentum aeruginis ----- q^q 3. Unguentum cupri subacetotis - - - . - 646 Cupri acetas - - .... g^g CONTENTS. XXV Order xxiii.—Bismuth and its compounds. Bismuth -------- 647 Bismuthi trisnitras ------- 647 Order xxiv.—Tin. Stannum -------- 649 Pulvis stanni ------- 650 Order xxv.—-Lead and its compounds. Plumbum ...----- 651 Plumbi oxydum ------- 655 1. Plumbi oxydum hydratum - - - - - 656 2. Calcis plumbis ------ 657 Plumbi oxydum rubrum ------ 657 Plumbi chloridum ------- 658 Plumbi iodidum ------- 658 Unguentum plumbi iodidi ----- 660 Plumbi carbonas ------ oou Unguentum plumbi carbonalis .... 662 Plumbi nitras -------- 662 Plumbi acetas - - - - - - - 663 1. Ceratum plumbi acetatis . - - - - 666 2. Pilulae plumbi opiatae ..... 666 Liquor plumbi diacetatis ------ 666 1. Liquor plumbi diacetatis dilutus - - - - 668 2. Ceratum plumbi compositum ----- 668 3. Ceratum saponis ------ 668 Emplastrum plumbi ------- 668 1. Emplastrum resinae ----- 669 2. Emplastrum saponis ------ 670 3. Unguentum plumbi compositum . - - - 670 Order xxvi.—Zinc and its compounds. Zincum -------- 670 Zinci oxydum - - - - - - - 671 1. Unguentum zinci ...... 674 2. Zinci oxydum impurum ----- 674 Zinci chloridum ------- 674 Zinci sulphas ------- 675 Zinci acetas -------- 678 Zinci acetatis tinctura ..... 679 Zinci carbonas ....... 679 1. Calamina praeparata ..... 680 2. Ceratum calaminae ------ 680 *** Zinci cyanidum ..---- ooO Vol. I.—4 XXVI CONTENTS. Order xxvh.—Iron and its compounds. Ferrum - Ferri oxydum nigrum - Ferri sesquioxydum - Emplastrum ferri Ferri sesquioxydum hydratum - Tinctura ferri sesquichloridi Ferri ammonio-chloridum Tinctura ferri ammonio-chloridi Ferri iodidum - - - - - Ferri iodidi syrupus - - - - Ferri sulphuretum - Ferri ferro-sesquicyanidum - Potassii ferro-cyanidum - Ferri sulphas . - - - - 1. Ferri sulphas exsiccatum 2. Pilulae ferri sulphotis - Ferri carbonas - 1. Ferri carbonas saccharatum 2. Mistura ferri composita 3. Pilulae ferri compositae - - - 4. Super carbonated chalybeales - Potassae ferro-tartras - Ferri acetas - 1. Ferri acetatis tinctura - 2. Tinctura acetatis ferri cum alcohole *** Other ferruginous compounds (persulphate, pernitrate of iron, ferro tartrate of ammonia, and iron wine) Order xxvui.—Binoxide of manganese. Manganesii binoxydum LIST OF WOODCUTS IN VOL. I. Ancient baths .... Apparatus for medical electricity Flower of raphanus sativus . Flov^r of glechoma hederacea Fruit of picea vulgaris . Inflorescence of fceniculum vul- gare...... Lolium temulentum . Festuca quadridentata . Cactus opuntia .... Amanita muscaria Apparatus to illustrate physical absorption..... ) Apparatus used by Messrs. Morgan > and Addison in their experiments | on the absorption of poisons > Ditto...... I Ditto...... 2^ Inhaling bottles 22. Octohedron 23. Dodecahedron .... 24. Cube . .... 25. Hemioctohedron or tetrahedron . 26. Square octohedron 27. Square prism .... 28. Combination of octohedron and prism..... 29. ) Images caused by the action of cal- 30. £ careous spar on polarized light . 31. Rhombohedron .... 32. Hexagonal prism .... 33. Combination of the rhombohedron with the hexagonal prism . 34. Scalenohedron .... 35. ) Images caused by the action of 36.1 nitre on polarized light 37. Octohedron with a rectangular base 38. Right rectangular prism 39. Octohedron with a rhombic base . 40. Right rhombic prism . 11. Oblique octohedron with a rectan- gular base..... Page. 52 67 115 115 115 115 115 116 125 126 128 131 135 136 159 167 167 167 167 167 167 167 168 168 168 168 168 169 169 169 169 169 169 Figs. 42. Oblique rectangular prism . 43. Oblique octohedron with a rhombic base..... 44. Oblique rhombic prism. 45. Doubly oblique octohedron . . 46. Doubly oblique prism . 47. Fuci yielding iodine 48. New Geyser..... 49. Hydrometer..... 50. Tincture percolator 51. Vinegar generator 52. Section of a pyroligneous acid still 53. Crystal of citric acid 54 ) --' V Crystals of tartaric acid 56. Boracic acid lagoons 57. Chambers for crystallizing and dry- ing boracic acid.... 58. Sarcoptes hominis 59. Cascade de Vinagre 60. Oil of vitriol chamber . 61. Prism of bisulphate of potash 62. ^ 63. > Crystals of sulphate of potash 64. ^ 65. Tessellated appearance of a plate of sulphate of potash in polarized light...... 65 Crystal of nitre . 66. Prism of ditto .... R7 ) 68* I Crystals of carbonate of potash 69 > -q' > Ditto of bitartrate of potash . 71. Crystal of tartrate of potash . 72. Prism df sulphate of soda 73 i 74 i Crystals of carbonate of soda i Ditto, of tartarized soda Chlorometer ..... Crystals of sulphate of magnesia . Crystal of alum . . . . Bcrzelius's reduction tube for arsc- 169 169 169 170 170 223 247 315 326 346 347 357 361 390 391 399 402 403 431 433 433 436 436 446 449 451 461 469 475 496 512 515 523 xxvui LIST op woodcuts. Fig! 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. Page. Apparatus for passing sulphuretted hydrogen through metallic solu- tions...... 526 • Marsh's apparatus . . • 528 Apparatus for subjecting arseniu- retted hydrogen to the action of heat or nitrate of silver . . 529 Octohedron of emetic tartar . . 556 Apparatus for reducing sulphuret of antimony .... 556 Figs. 90. Crystal of nitrate of silver . 91. Henry's apparatus for the subli- mation of calomel 92. Crystal of calomel . . 93. Crystal of corrosive sublimate . 94. 1 Crystals of bicyanide of mer- 95. 5 cury ..... 96. Crystal of acetate of lead . 97. Crystal of sulphate of zinc . 98. J Crystal of ferrocyanide of polas- 99. \ sium..... 100. Crystal of sulphate of iron . Page. 573 611 612 618 632 663 676 701 704 ERR A TA. For Algiae, read Alga? - „ Pluteo, read Puteo ... „ Acidum Citicum, read Citricum „ Creazotum, read Creasotum, [U. S.] „ Ceratom Saponis, read Ceratum Page. 93 244 358 365 481 TABULAR VIEW OF THE HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF THE MATERIA MEDICA. 1. WORKS ON THE HISTORY OF MEDICINE GENERALLY. Le Ci/erc (Dr. D.) Histoire de la Medecine. Gen. 1696. 4to.; Amst. 1723. 4to.; a la Haye, 1729. (Brought down to the time of Galen. An English translation, by Drs. Drake and Baden, 8vo. Lond. 1699.) Freind (Dr. J.) The History of Physick from the time of Galen to the beginning of the Sixteenth Century. 2 vols. 8vo. Lond. 3d ed. 1727. Schulze (Br. J. H.) Historia Medicinae a rerum initio ad annum urbis Romse dxxxv. deducta. Lips. 4to. 1728. Ackermann (Dr. J. C. G.) Institutiones Historioe Medicine. 8vo. Norimb. 1792. Sprengel (Kurt). Versuch einer pragmatischen Geschichte der Arzneikunde. 3tte. Aufl. 5 in 6 Thle. 8vo. Halle, 1821-28. (There is a French translation in 9 vols, by A. J. L. Jourdan, of the 2nd. ed. 8vo. 1815-20.) Choulant (Dr. D. L.) Tafeln zur Geschichte der Medicin nach der Ordnung ihrer Doctrinen. Leipzig, 1822. fol. Augustin (F. L.) Vollstiindige Uebersicht der Geschichte der Medicin in tabellarischer Form. 2te. verbess. Ausg. 4to. Berlin, 1825. Hamilton (VVm.) The History of Medicine, Surgery, and Anatomy, from the Creation of the World to the commencement of the Nineteenth Century. 2 vols, small 8vo. Lond.-1831. Bostock (Dr. J.) History of Medicine, in the Cyclopasd. of Pract. Med. Vol. 1. Broussais (Dr. C.) Atlas Historique et Bibliographique de la Medecine, ou Histoire dela Mede- cine. Paris, 1834. (A translation of Choulant's Tables, with some additions.) 2. WORKS CONTAINING A SPECIAL HISTORY OF PHARMACOLOGY. Cullen (Dr. Wm.) Treatise of the Materia Medica. 2 vols. 4to. 1789. Burdach (Dr. K. F.) System der Arzneymittellehre. 3 vols. 8vo. 1807-9. Voigtkl (Dr. F. G.) Vollstiindiges System der Arzneimittellehre. 2 vols. 8vo. 1816-17. Choulant. Op. supra cit. VOL. I. 5 XXX HISTORICAL TABLE OF THE MATERIA MEDICA. Bischoff (Dr. C. H. E.) Die Lehre von des chemischen Heilmitteln oder Handbuch der Arznei- mittellehre. 3 vols. 8vo. Bonn. 1825-31. Broussais (Dr. C.) Op. supra cit. (Choulant's Table in French, without additions.) 3. CATALOGUES OF PHARMACOLOGICAL WORKS. Baldinger (E. G.) Litteratura Universa Materiae Medics, Alimentariaj, Toxicologic, Pharmacia; et Therapice generalis medicae atque chirurgicoe potissimum Academica. 8vo. Marb. J7yd. Burdach (K. F.) Die Literatur der Heilwissenchaft. 3 Bde. 8vo. Gotha, 1810-21. (The 2d vo- lume contains the Materia Medica.) Reuss (J. D.) Repertorium Commentationum a Societatibus Litterariis editarum secundum disci- plinarum ordinem digestum. Vol. x. ad xvi. ad Anatomiam, Artem Medicam chirurgicam et Obstetriciam. 4to. Gotting. 1813-21. (The eleventh volume a. d. 1819, -contains the Materia Medica and Pharmacy.) Ersch (J. S.) Handbuch der Deutschen Literatur seit der Mitte des achtzehnten Jahrhunderts bis auf die neueste Zeit, systematisch bearbeitet und mit den nothigen Registern versehen. iNeue Ausgabe. 3tter. Band enthaltend. I. Medicin. II. Naturkunde. Leipzig, 1822. Young (Dr. T.) An Introduction to Medical Literature, &c, 1813. 2d ed. 8vo. Lond. 1823. Watt (Dr. Robt.) Bibliotheca Britannica, or a general introduction to British and Foreign Litera- ture. 2 pts. authors and subjects. 4 vols. 4to. Edinb. 1824. (See vol. iv.; subjects Medica, Materia ; Medicines ; Pharmacopoeia, and Pharmacy.) Sprengel (C.) Literatura Medica externa recentior seu enumeratio librorum plerorumque et com- mentariorum singularium, ad doctrinas medicas facientium, qui extra Germaniam ab anno inde 1750 impressi sunt. Lipsiae, 1829. Roy (C. H.) Catalogus Bibliothecse Medicee, t. vi. Amstel. 1830. (The 2d volume contains the "Materies Medica.") Enslin (F. C. F.) Bibliotheca Medico-Chirurgica et Pharmaceutico-chemica. 5te. Auflage. Leip- zig, 1838. See also Ploucquet, " Literatura Medica digesta," 4 vols. 4to. Tubings, 1808-9; and " Continuatio et Sup- plementum I." Tubingae, 1813. [vol. 3, art. " Medicamenta," and " Medicina subd. Literatura"];— Bernstien, " Medicinisch-chirurgische Bibliothek." Frankf. 1839 [Art. " Materia Chirurgica," p. 333];— Voitgel, op. supra cit.; Buchner, " Einleitung in die Pharmacie," Numb. 1827; Schwartze, " Pnar- makologische Tabellen," Leipzig, 1833; Dierbach, " Die neuesten Entdeckungen in der Materia Medica," Bd. 1, Heidb. 1837; and Bailliere's " Catalogue des Livres," 1840. B. C* EGYPTIAN MEDICINE. Thout or Thaut (also called Hermes or Mercury) regarded as the founder of Medi- cine. Medicine practised first by priests, afterwards by physicians who confined themselves to the study of one disease. (Herod. Euterpe lxxxiv.) The sick exposed in public places (Slrabo.) Purges, vomits, and clysters, used for three days successively in every month. (Ibid lxxvii.) Abstinence; dietetical regulations: the hog regarded as unclean Baths and unguents. Worshipped a bulbous plant (Kpd^vov, Squilla?) to which they erected a temple Employed aetites, slime of the Nile, frictions with crocodile's fat in rheumatism, and mucilage of seminapsyllu. Salt, virpov (carbonate of soda?), alum, plasters and unguents; white lead and verdigris occasionally entered into the latter 1-70Q * umigations with Cyphi (KS0t) a mixture of various drugs. (Dioscorides, i 24 ) 1729 fepices, balm, and myrrh, carried to Egypt, and doubtless used by the Eevotians {Gen. xxxvn. 25.) J sjf»»"». Embalming practised. Palm wine, aromatics, myrrh, cassia, and other odorous sub stances (not frankincense), as well as virpov (carb. soda ?) and gum used in rhia process. (Herod. Euterpe, lxxxvi.) sum cms Alexandrian School [see Greek Medicine]. 1680 Consult—Pauw (M. De), "Phil. Dissert, on the Egyptians and Chinese," vol I n iin i7o? Alpincs (Prosper), " De Medic. .Egypt." Lugd. 1745. Also Clot-Bey, " Apercu cVnTr'J V I'Rovnt." 2 vols. 8vn. Paris lS4rt. ' "l^V" general sur 1'Egypt." 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, f840. HISTORICAL TABLE OF THE MATERIA MEDICA. XXXI HEBREW MEDICINE. The infliction and cure of diseases on various occasions ascribed by the Sacred Histo- rian to the direct interposition of God. {Exod. ix. 15. Numb. xii. 10.) Remedial agents consisted principally in strict hygienic means. (Circumcision, diet- etical rules, separation, ablution, combustion of infected garments. (See Gen. xvii. 10; Lev. xi. & xiii.; 2 Kings, v.) Medicine practised by the priests. {Lev. xiv.) Gold, silver, lead, tin, iron, and brass (copper ?) mentioned by Moses. Odoriferous ointment and confection; the most ancient recipes on record. {Exod.xxx. 23-25, & 34, 35.) " There are named in the Pentateuch about 20 minerals, 10 vegetables and animals" (Alston). Music employed as a-.remedy. (2 Sam. xvi. 16.) Sesquisulphuret of antimony used as a face paint. (2 Kings, ix. 30.) Fig poultice. (2 Kings, xx. 7.) Physicians (not priests) referred to. {Jerem. viii. 22.) N. B. The so-called Egyptian physicians {Genes. 1. 2) were probably evrafyiao-Tai, undertakers, or embalmers. The following substances are referred to in the Bible: the Olive, Saffron, Barley, Wheat, the Fig, the Vine, Myrrh, Bdellium, Galbanum, Cumin, Coriander, Flax, Garlic, Balm of Gilead, Olibanum (Frankincense), Cassia, Cinnamon, the Almond, the Pomegranate, Dill (in our translation incorrectly called Anise)—Colocynth ? Ricinus? Herod was let down into a bath of oil. (Josephus, Bell. Jud. lib. I. cap. 33, § 5.) Oil and wine applied to wounds. {Luke, x. 34.) Various superstitious practices. (Adam Clarke Comm. Note to Mark, v. 26.) For further information respecting Hebrew medicine consult the "Bible;"—J. H. Horne's " Introd. to theCrit. Study and Knowl. of the Holy Script." vol. iii. 8th ed. 1839;—Lao- tenschlaoer, " Dissert, de medicis veterum Hebneorum, eorumque methodo sanandi," Strasburg, 17£6;—K. SpRENGEr., " Analecta Historica ad Medicinam Ebrseorum," Hal. 1796.—D. Carcassone, " Essai Historique sur la Med. des Hebreux, anciens et modernes." 8vo. Montp. 1815.—A "Flora Biblica" is contained in Sprengel's " Historia Rei Herba- riae," t. i. Amstel. 1807. B. C. ASSYRIANS. The Babylonians had no professors of medicine. They exposed their sick in public places, in order that passengers might communicate their experience as to the best mode of cure (Herodotus, Clio xcvii.) Extracted oil from the Sesamum. (Ibid, cxviii). Consult,—Smoll (D. G.), " Venerands antiquitatis Assyriorum Chaldaeorum, &c. Philoso- phorum Medicorum Regum et Principum philosophicaetmed. Principia."4to. Lubec, 1609. A. D. CHINESE MEDICINE. 229 Of its ancient state but little is known. The Chinese pretend that its study was co- eval with the foundation of their empire, and that their medical code was the production of Hoangti, B. C. 2000. (Grosier.) Before the Christian era there was a constant communication between China and India. {Asiat. Journ. July, 1836.) Medical science commenced with Chang-ka; for all works before that (said to be dated B. C. 1105 & 189) treat of medicine, without giving prescriptions. {Trans. of Med. Soc. of Calc. i. 146.) As the Chinese have retained their ancient manners and customs, we must judge of what their medicine was by what it is. Pun-tsaou (or Herbal), the most considerable Chinese work on Materia Medica, in- cludes minerals, vegetables, and animals. (Davies. ii. 278.) [A copy in the British Museum.] Ching die chun ching {Approved marked line of Medical Practice.) a celebrated work in 40 vols.; of which, eight are devoted to Luy-fang {Pharmacology). The arti- cles of the Materia Medica are very numerous. Ginseng is their panacea. Aro- matics and gums in apoplectic cases. Opium as an anodyne and in dysentery. Mercury both raw and oxidized. Musk, rhubarb, tea, camphor of the Dryobala- nops, asafcetida, spices, larvae of the silk-worm, bones of tigers and elephants, vegetable wax, horns, fins, &c. Moxa. Croton Tiglium. Consult,—Du Haldk, (J. B.), " Descript. Geogr. et Hist, de la China," t. 3, p. 318, 1770; Gro- sier (L'Abbe), " Descript. Gen. de la China," t. ii. p. 466, 1817: Davies (F. J.), " The Chinese," vol. 2, p. 278; Gutzlafp, " Journ. of the Asiat. Soc," vol. iv. p. 154. B.C. 1491 1491 1063 884 713 • 600 A.B. 40 xxxu HISTORICAL TABLE OF THE MATERIA MEDICA. B.C. AD. 0)J3 &►, c t- *^ 5 °* ^ j=-a .J | .S « » C Q fi ! B.C. HINDOO MEDICINE. 1. Ancient Medical Authorities and their Works. Brahma the Hindoo Deity; author of the Vedas, the most ancient taok. of the Hin- doos, and next in antiquity to those of Moses. (Su VV Jones /*. ; ^ ^ Ayur Fedo. the oldest medical writing of^the> H.nd°o*> lormf ?ei „t subdivisions. ^Lti« »"«* ***Es- D J^tePrajapati, to whom Brahma communicatedI the AyorJ ^instructed the two Aswins or Sons of Surva (the Surgical "tm^*™™? j^^^n According to some the Aswins instructed Indra the preceptor of Dhanwa^tari (also styled Kasiraja, prince of Benares); but others make Atreya, Bharadwaja, and Ciiaraka, prior to the latter. . „„„:_„ iviwmi and Charaka {Sarac, Scarac, Scirak or Xarac) mentioned by Serapion, Avicenna, and Rhazes. His work is extant, but not translated. „,om„„ra™nfRAM« Susruta, son of Viswamitra, was pupil of Dhanwantan and' ^W™*.°[*,*"*" Treats chiefly of Salya and Salekya or Surgery, and divides medicines: mto oco- motive (animals both viviparous and oviparous, and produced in moist places) and non-locomotive (plants and minerals). Gold, Silver, Arsenic, Mercury Diamonds, Earths, and Pearls, are enumerated; also Heat and Cold, Light and Darkness, the increase and decrease of the Moon's age, as remedial means. Lithotomy, the Extraction of the Fretus, Venesection. 127 weapons and instruments. Actual cautery. Alkaline caustics. Heated metallic plates. Leeches. Gourds used as cupping glasses. Astringent and emollient applications. Leaves, pledgets, threads, and bandages. Drastic and mild purgatives, emetics, diaphoretics, baths, and aspersions of water, Stimulants, Sedatives, Narcotics, and Acrid poisons all employed Datura, Nux Vomica, Croton Tiglium, Myrobalans, &c. were adopted by the Arabs. Susruta (The); or System of Med. taught by Dhanwantari and composed by his disciple Sus- ruta. Vol. i. 8vo. Calc. 1835.—For a list of Sanscrit medical and other works, see Amshe, "Mat. Med." vol. ii. p. 491. 2. Early Translations from Hindoo Works. a. Tamul, by Maha Rishi Aghastier, who is named in the Ramayana, the oldest Hindoo profane work, and which is supposed to have been revised by the poet Calipas in the reign of Vikramaditya, whose era commences B. C. 57. (For a classification of drugs in a Tamul work called the Kalpastanum, see Royle's Es- say, p. 54.) (3. Cingalese. (See a list in Ainslie's Mat. Ind. vol. ii. p. 526; also Heyne's Tracts on India, p. 125-17L) y. Tibetan made in the eighth century. (See Csoma de Koros, in Journ. Asiat. Soc. iv, 1.) 715 substances are mentioned, most of which are indigenous to India. A.D 3. Antiquity of Hindoo Medicine. Cannot be determined by Hindoo chronology or authors; hence must be ascer- tained from other sources. The great antiquity of Hindoo Medicine is proved by the following circumstances. o. Indian products are mentioned in the Bible. (Royle. p. 138.) In early times com- merce was established between India and Persia, Syria, and Babylon ; also, by the Persian and Arabian Gulfs, with Egypt. &c. |3. At a very early period India was peopled and in a high state of civilization. (For proofs, see Royle, p. 150 to 179.) As many chemical arts (e. g. distillation, bleaching, dyeing, calico printing, tanning, soap and glass making, manufacture of sugar and indigo) were practised by the Hindoos, who were acquainted with, and their country contains, all the chemical substances mentioned by Geber, it is not improbable that they, and not the Arabs, originated Chemistry. The Grecian sages travelled in the East: hence the coincidences between the systems and discoveries of the Greeks and those recorded in Sanscrit works. y. Indian products are mentioned by the Greeks and Romans (e. g. by Hippocrates, Theophrastus, Dioscorides, Pliny, Oribasius, iEtius, and Paulus.) They were doubtless employed in the countries where they were indigenous before they were exported. S. Ancient Inscriptions show the Antiquity of Hindoo Medicine. A medical edict by King Piyadasi, directing the establishment of depots of medicine, and the planting of medicinal roots and herbs throughout his dominions, and in the countries where Antiochus and his generals commanded. This, therefore, must have been issued and cut in rocks and metal pillars as early as B. C. 220. t. The Persians translated Hindoo Works A. D. 531 to 579. (Royle's Essay, p. 68 ) \. Hindoo physicians were in high repute at the Court of Harum Al-Rashid and Al- Ma- moon, from A. D. 786 to 850. HISTORICAL TABLE OF THE MATERIA MEDICA. XXXU1 A. D. HINDOO MEDICINE.—Continued. t>. The Arabian authors (Rhazes, Serapion, Mesue, and Avicenna) mention Charak, and quote from the Susruta. Consult,— Wilson {H. H), "Orient. Mag." Calc. 1823; and "Trans. Med. and Phys. Soc." Calc. vol. 1.; Heyne (B.); " Tracts on India," Lond. 1814; Ainslie {TV.), " Mat. Ind."2d vol. Lond. 1826; Diclz {F. R.), " Analecta Med." Lips. 1834; Royle (J. F.), " Essay on the Antiq. of Hindoo Med." 1837; Geldemeister, "Scriptorum Arabum de rebus indicis loci et opuscula inedita." 8vo. Bonn, 1838. Taleef Shereef, or Indian Materia Medica. 8vo. Calc. Eng. trans, by G. Play fair, 1833. 4. English Writers on Indian Materia Medica, 1810 Fleming (Dr.) Catalogue of Indian Medicinal Plants and Drugs in the Asiatic Re- searches. Vol. xi. 1813—26 Ainslie (Dr. W.) Materia Medica of Hindoostan. 4to. 1813 —Materia Indica, 2 vols. 8vo. 1826. 1832 Royle (J. F.) List of Articles of Materia Medica obtained in the Bazaars of the Western and Northern Provinces of India. In the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. 1 vol. 1832. 1841 O'Shaughnessy (W. B.) The Bengal Dispensatory and Pharmacopoeia Chiefly compiled from the Works of Roxburgh, Wallich, Ainslie, Wight and Arnott, Royle, Pereira, Richard and Fee, and including the results of numerous special experiments. Published by order of Government. Calcutta. [Three parts, in- cludifntpp. 622, have appeared.] Much valuableinformation on Indian Materia Medica is contained in Royle's " Illustrations of the Botany and other branches of the Natural History of the Himalayan Mountains ' 4to. 1824.—41. Several interesting papers on the same subjects have appeared in the Anglo-Indian Journals. See also the works of Heyne, Buchanan, {Hamilton), and Craw- ford. B. C. GREEK MEDICINE. 1. Before Hue time of Hippocrates. 1398 Melampus, a soothsayer and physician. Cured impotence by iron wine (ApoHod Bibl. Fr. transl. lib. i. cap. ix. p. 75); and madness by hellebore (Pliny, xxv. 21). 1270 Chiron, a Centaur, a physician and surgeon. Was cured of a wound by the Cen- taurea Cenlaurium (Ibid. xxv. 30). Had several pupils, as Hercules (to whom the invention of the warm bath is ascribed) and ./Esculapius. 1263 ^Esculapius or Asclepias, renowned for his medical and surgical skill. Employed amulets, incantations, charms, potions, incisions, and topical remedies [Le Clerc). His sons Machaon and Podalirkjs also famous surgeons; the latter practised venesection. 1184 Destruction of Troy. 1134 The first temple to .(Esculapius founded. Europhon, author of the Vvufiai KviSiai or) Asclepiade^e. MQ, „ Cnidian Sentences. Descendants and followers of AEscula- 968) Homer mentions the Papaver somniferum ius and priests of his temples. Extended SteiTSr^^^"^ over 700 years, i. e. until Hippocrates 884 ) bis Indica ? opium ? ?), Moly (?), &c Arist/eus discovered Silphium (see vol. ii. p. 471.) 617 Pvthacoras employed Magic, Dietetics, Mustard, Anise, and Vinegar of Squills 580—500 (Pliny xix. 30.) The temples became schools of medicine, the most celebrated of which were the Coan and the Gnidian. The priests of the former attempted to unite reasoning with experience; those of the latter attached themselves to observations and matters of fact. The remedies used were Gnidian berries, juice of euphorbium, hellebore, scammony, colocynth, briony, elaterium] mineral waters, &c. (Le Clerc, Sprengel^ Bostock). Votive tablets were erected in the temples. 2. Hippocrates. 460—to 360 ? Hippocrates the " Father of Medicine." Born at Cos. The 18th by his father from /Esculapius. Ascribes diseases to the alterations of the humours (blond, pituita or phlegm, and yellow and black bile). An antipathic. Employed diet, baths, exercise, blood-letting (venesection, cupping, and scarification), the actual cau- tery, the knifie, and a very extensive series of medicines. Alston found in the works which pass under the name of Hippocrates "about 36 mineral, 300 vege- table, and 150 animal substances," and he adds, " I cannot pretend to have over- looked none." The Hippocratean materia medica includes: XXXIV HISTORICAL TABLE OF THE MATERIA MEDICA. wj gA GREEK MEDICINE.—Continued. 1st. M,neraZS,-sulphur, lime, carbonate of soda, alum, co™™ Vo^nXw and bonate of lead; acetate (and sulphate t) of copper, oxide of iron, and yenow red sulphuret of arsenicum. „:„,„, i-ardamomum, cas- 2dly Vegetablesr-ncacia, allium, ammoniacum. anethum, anisum, c*rt»™°™£m, c sia, finnamon, colocynth, conium, coriandrum, crocus cum. am cydon a ejate rium(?), euphorbia, fceniculum, galbanum, galke, g»ycyrrhiza gn.d.um, hei^borus, hyoscyamus, juniper, lactuca, laurus, linum, malva, marrubium, mastic, menlha niorus, myrrha, olea, opium, opobalsamum, opoponax, origanum, piper, pix, pu e- Sum, pu7ca, quercus, rosa, rubia, rumex, ruta, sambucus, sagapenum, scammon.a, scilla, silphium, sinapis, staphisagria, sty rax, turpentine, and *eratrumj , 3dly. Aniniall-KavBapXs (Mylabris Fusselini ?), castoreum, sepia, ova, cornua, ml, serum lactis, and cera. Dierhach {Dr. J. H), " Die Arzneimittel. des Hippokrates." Heidelb. 1824. 3. From Hippocrates to Galen. 380 ANCIENT DOGMATIC {or Hippocrateari) SCHOOL. {Theory in Medicine.) 380 Founded by Thessalus and Draco (Sons of Hippocrates), in conjunction with 354 Polyisius (their brother-in-la v)----354. Diocles Carystius (called the second 341 Hippocrates) wrote on plants and dietetics. Gave a leaden bullet in ileus.---- 336 341. Praxagoras of Cos (the last of the Asclepiadeoe); vegetable medicines.—— 336. Chrysippus of Cnidus, opposed bleeding and purging, and vegetable medi- 304 Alexandrian School.----304. Erasistratus (pupil of Chrysippus) opposed bleeding; used simple medicines.----307. Herophilus of Chalcedony, a demi-empiric, 285 used compound and specific medicines.----235. Medicine divided into Dietetics, Pharmacy, and Surgery. 384—322 NATURAL HISTORIANS. 384—322. Aristotle; wrote on animals (also on 371—286 plants and pharmacy). 371—286. Theophrastus, the founder of botany. 290 EMPIRIC SECT {Experience the sole guide)—290 founded by Philinus of Cos (dis- 240 ciple of Hemophilus).----240. Serapion of Alexandria.----230. Heraclides of 233 Tarentum {"Prince of Empirics") used conium, opium, and hyoscyamus, as coun- 140 ter-poisons. Nicander of Colophon, wrote on poisons and antidotes : his Bitpi- 135__63 aKa'A\e!;i Actuarids (John). Mentions capsicum (kcL^ikov). The first Greek who mentions the 1300 ) milder purgatives (as cassia, manna, senna, myrobalans). 1300? Mvrepsus (Nicholas). HISTORICAL TABLE OF THE MATERIA MEDICA. XXXV GREEK MEDICINES— Continued. J^ JJ# 5. Modern Greek Medicine. 1837 EAXifviKi; QapiiaKovotia. Pharmacopoeia Graeca jussu Regio et approbatione Collegii Medici edita auctoribus Joanne Bairo, Xaverio Landerer, Josepho Sartori. pp. 542, 8vo. Athenis. ROMANS OR ITALIANS. A. D. In the early periods of Roman history medicine was practised by slaves and freedmen. 23 Menecrates. Employed escharotics. Invented Diachylon plaster. 13—55 Celsus (A. Cornelius). De Medicina. A methodist? An elegant writer. Lays down hygienic rules. Distinguishes foods according to the degree of their nutri- tive power and digestibility. His remarks on these subjects, as well as on the use of remedial agents generally, display great judgment. Speaks of the use of nourishing clysters, gestation, baths, frictions, &c. Employed in dropsy frictions with oil. 41 Scribonius Largus. An empiric. His work (Compositiones Medica?) is the first pharmacopoeia known. 23—79 Pliny the Elder (Caius). A natural historian. In his work (Historia Naturalis) he has collected all that was known in his time, of the arts, sciences, natural his- tory, &c. He displays prodigious learning and a vast fund of erudition. In botany and materia medica he has copied almost verbatim the remarks of Theo- phrastus and Dioscorides. 230 CiELius Aurelianus. A methodist. The only one of this sect whose works have descended to us. „ „ PERSIAN MEDICINE. 1491 Must be very ancient, but its history scarcely known. Products of Persia (ex. galba- num, asafcetida, sagapenum, &c.) mentioned in the Bible or by Hippocrates: it is to be presumed that the Persians knew the medicinal qualities of their indi- genous drugs previous to selling them. 400 Ctesias of Cnidus, physician for seventeen years to Artaxerxes Mnemon. A. D. Dschondisabour (Jondisabur of Nisabur) founded. Greek physicians sent by the Em- 272 peror Aurelian. Almanzor, the second Caliph of the house of Abbas, a great encourager of the sciences and medicine. 1055 Abu Mansur Mowafik. Liber fundam. Pharmacol. Lat. trans, by R. Seligmann Vindob. 1830—33. 1392 Ikhtariat, Buddee. Said by Toohftul Moomineen to be the first work, in the order of time, written on medicines, in the Persian language (Royle, p. 27.) Pharmacopcea Persica, ex idiomate Persico in Lalinum conversa. Paris, 1681. 1528 Shirazy (Nouraddeen Mohammed Abdullah). Ulfaz Udwiyeh, or the Mat. Med. in the Arab. Pers. and Hindevy lang. Eng. transl. by F. Gladwin. Calc. 1793. 1669 Meer Mohummud Moomin. Toohft al Moomineen. The most esteemed of the Per- sian works. The author states that he is the third, in the order of time, who had written on medicines in the Persian languages. (Royle, p. 26.) 1769 Mukhzun al Udwick or Storehouse of Medicines. Hoogly. 1824. 2 vols, small fol. (Royle, p. 26.) See a lso Gladwin's " Compendious Vocabulary, English and Persian, including all the Simples in the Materia Medica employed in Modern Practice," 4to. Malda 1780; Dr. R. Seligmann, " Ueber drey hochtseltene Persische Handschriften. Ein beytrag zur Litera- tur der Orientalischen Arzneymittellehre," Wien, 1833; Royle, op. supra cit. p. 26, and the list of Persian and Arabic Medical and Scientific Books in Jlinslie's " Mat. Ind." vol. ii. p. 504. Dr. Royle has suggested to me the propriety of making a distinction between the Materia Medica of the Persians previous and subsequent to that of the Arabs. But convenience and limited space have prevented me from adopting his suggestion. A. II. ARABIANS. 767 Bagdad built. The sciences munificently patronized by the Caliphs. A college formed. Hospitals and dispensaries established. Schools of Damascus and Cordova. The doctrines of Hippocrates and Galen taught. Mild laxatives (as cassia, tama- rinds, manna, rhubarb, and senna) substituted for drastics. Chemical medicines mentioned. Various pharmaceutical preparations (syrups, juleps, conserves loochs, robs, and distilled waters and oils) contrived. Dispensatories published' XXXvi HISTORICAL TABLE OF THE MATERIA MEDICA- A.D. ARABIAN MEDICINES— Continued. 622 Aaron or Ahron (The Pandects). Died 872 Ebn-Sahel (Sabor) Krabadin, the first Dispensatory. Died 880 Alkhende (J.). Wrote on the proportions and doses of imedicm . Boin 702 Geber, The Patriarch of Chemistry. Mentions nitric acid,vinegar, q g ride of sodium, carbonates ^^^^^^^£SS^A binoxide ammoniac, alum, sulphate of """'j'^i^i^Vay have obtained his knowledge of mercury, cinnabar, litharge, and red lead May nave from the Hindoos. (See Hindoo Medicine.) Mesue (John). De simplicibus et de electuariis. Serapion (John, jun.). De simplicibus medicinis. Abn Guefith or Abhen Gnefith. De simplic. medicam. virtut. i/mni„„aj 852 to 932 Rhazes. De simplicibus medicinis. One of the most celebrated Arabians. Employed mercurial ointment. - iv/r»,i:„:„m:»„ „~~ 978 to 1035 Ebnsina or A vicenna, " The Prince of Physicians." H.s Canon Medicina; is a com- pilation from Galen, Aetius, and Rhazes: for five centuries it was regarded as an infallible guide. Mentions croton tiglium, camphor, nux vomica, mace, nut- megs, &c. 680 Haly Abbas. (Amalek or the Royal book). 1179? Avenzoar at Seville in Andalusia. Died 1198^ or 1199 > Averrhoes, a native of Cordova. 1206 S 12th or 13th) century \ Albucasis or Alsaharavius. Mentions the preparation of rose water. 1085 ) Died 1248 Abn Bitar or Ibn-Beitar. His works have not been printed, but they are constantly quoted by Persian authors on Materia Medica. (Royle, Essay, p. 28.) He has a most extensive influence in the East. Consult,—Amoreux {P. J.), " Essai Historique et Litter, sur la Medec. des Arabes." Montp 1805, 8vo. Reiekc {J. J.), " Opusc. Med. ex Monum. Arabum et Ebraorum." Halse, 1776, 8vo. In the "Pharmaceutiscb.es Central-Blatt f. 1839," p. 313, is a notice by Dr. A. Buchner, of a collection of Arabian medicines made by Dr. Schubert, i.i Arabia. EARLY CHRISTIAN WRITERS ON MEDICINE. j±t ])# (Dark Ages.) Medicine practised by Monks. Magic and Astrology employed in medicine. The period of superstition and alchemy. The grossest impositions practised. The Neapolitan Schools of Monte-Cassino and Salerno founded by Benedictine Monks. Died 1107 Constantine the African. Wrote on diet, and simple and eye medicines. 1100 John of Milan. The supposed author of the Regimen Sanitatis Salernitanum, a collection of dietetical precepts, in rhyming Latin verse, addressed, by the Medi- cal School at Salerno, to Robert, son of William the Conqueror. Above 160 editions of this work have been published—(see Sir Alexander Croke's ed., Oxford 1830, 8vo.) 1110 Nicholas surnamed Propositus. Dispensatorium ad aromatarius; the first Euro- pean pharmacopoeia. 1150 Matthew Platerius. 1169 ^Egidius of Corbeil, 1180 Hildegard, Abbess of Bingen. Born 1098. Wrote on Medicines. Mentions Chris- tiana (supposed to be Helleborus niger.) 1259 Gilbert, an Englishman. Prepared acetate of ammonia and oil of tartar per deli- quium. Extinguished mercury by saliva. 1193—1282 Albertus Magnus. An alchemist. Mentions zinc. 1260 John of St. Amand. Commented on the works of Nicholas 1214—1284 Roger Bacon. The most philosophical of the Alchemists 1240-1313 Arnold of Villa Nova. Wrote a commentary on the Regimen Salernitana Pre- pared the oils of turpentine and rosemary. 1235—1315 Raymond Lully. Prepared the oil of rosemary, acetate of lead ammonio-chloride ol mercury, nitric oxide of mercury, and spirit of wine 1295 Simon de Cordo. 1317. Matthew Sylvaticus. 1320. (death) Peter de Apono 1328. Francis of Piedmont. 1343. Dondis, father and son. Died 1320 Platerius (John). Aniidotarium Nicolai cum expositione. 1343 St. Ardouin. Red oxide of mercury. Born 1394 Bvsil Valentine. Prepared chemical medicines. Introduced antimonials , J cure) is that branch of medicine which has for its object the treatment of diseases. It is divided into general (Therapeia generalis) and special {Therapeia specialis.) Authors are not agreed as to the proper limits of Therapeutics. In the most extended sense of the word, and which I have adopted in the text, it embraces all the known means of cure, and, consequently, all surgical operations. Guersent, (Diclionnaire de Medecine, torn. xx. art. Therapeutique. 1828) however, excludes Amputations, Lithotomy, Tracheotomy, &c. from its domains, though he includes Bloodletting, Issues, Scions, Acupuncture, and all those opera- tions which are useful in the treatment of diseases, by producing modifications of the vital properties. Sprengel (Institutiones Medica, torn. i. p. 7) applies the term Iatreusologia (from tefrptve*, J cure; and xcyoc, a discourse) to general Therapeutics. Acology (Acologia, from cckot, a remedy, and foyer,) or Jamatologia (C. H. E. BischofT, Die Lehre von den chemischen Heilmitteln. Bd. i. S. 22. Bonn, 1825) (from im^x, a remedy, and teyos-,) is that department of Therapeutics devoted to the consideration of remedies. Some authors (Sprengel; and C. H. E. Bischoff; op supra cit.) limit Acology to the conside- ration of surgical and mechanical remedies. Remedies (Remedia, from re and medeor, I heal; Auxilia medica) are agents used in palliating or curing diseases. They are of two kinds: psychical, or mental; and somatical, or corporal. The first affect the bodily functions, and influence disease by the agency of the mind; the second act on the body directly.1 1. REMEDIA PSYCHICA—PSYCHICAL OR MENTAL REMEDIES. Affections of the mind influence the corporal functions,3 favour or oppose the action of morbific causes on the system, and modify the progress of diseases. > Strictly speaking, this division may, perhaps, be inaccurate. We know that changes in the condition of the brain produce corresponding alterations in the stale of mind; and it may be fairly inferred, that changes in the state of the menial facilities are necessarily associated with some molecular alteration in the cerebral substance. If this be true, all remedies are somatical or corporal. But, in the absence of direct and positive evidence of this, we may continue to speak of mental as distinguished from corporal agents, just as we speak o(functional as distinguished from organic diseases. * For some pertinent observations on the powerful influence of mental causes in deranging Hie functions of the body, tw<: Dr. J. Johnson's Essay on Indigestion, 10th cd. 1840. Vol. 1.—6 42 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Their employment as therapeutical agents is necessarily limited; on account of the difficulty experienced in producing, regulating, and controlling them. Yet they are by no means unimportant, or to be neglected. They may be conveniently divided into two sets or classes,—the one including those affections which immediately result from the presence of objects external to the mind, and which may be denominated external affections;—the other com- prising those affections which arise in consequence of certain preceding affec- tions of the mind itself, and which may be termed internal affections.1 Class 1. External Affections of the Mind.—To this division belong those phenomena or states of the mind commonly termed sensations, and which may arise either from influences external to the body (external sensations,) or from organic causes existing within the body (internal sensations.) They suggest, by the association of ideas, other affections, which, as they arise from preceding states of the mind, are truly internal. But, in considering external affections as remedial agents, it is scarcely possible to estimate their influence independent of the internal affections which immediately arise from them. Indeed, the great remedial value of some external affections depends on the internal affections which they suggest; as in the case of Music, the therapeutical effects of which are refer- rible, not to the mere perception of the sounds, but to the resulting emotions. The mental affections of this class, which will require a brief notice, are the external sensations; viz., those ascribed to the organs of smell, taste, hearing, vision, and touch. 1 & 2. Smell and Taste.—«. An important object in the art of prescribing is to cover the unpleasant taste and smell of medicines by other substances possessed of an agreeable flavour and odour. 0. In some nervous affections we endeavour to increase the faith of our patients in the pow- erful agency of the remedies employed, by augmenting the odorous and sapid qualities of the substances used. 3. Hearing.—a. Monotonous noises favour sleep; as the humming of bees, the ticking of a clock, the murmur of a rivulet, a dull discourse, &c. We avail ourselves of this fact in the- rapeutics, and combat want of sleep by directing an attendant to read aloud to our patient. jS. Silence frequently disposes to sleep. Under some circumstances, however, it " may become a stimulus, while sound ceases to be so. Thus, a millor being very ill, his mill was stopped, that he might not be disturbed by its noise; but this, so far from inducing sleep, pre- vented it altogether; and it did not take place till the mill was set agoing again." (Dr. Robert Macnish's Philosophy of Sleep, p. 32. Glasg. 1830.) y. Music has been employed in the treatment of diseases (especially those of the mind) from very remote times (F. A. Steinbeck, Diss. Inaug. De Musices atque Poesos, Berol, 1826.) The most ancient notice of its remedial use occurs in the Bible, (Samuel, xvi. 15—23,) where the Sacred Historian tells us that David cured the melancholy of Saul by music. This hap- pened more than a thousand years before Christ. The ancient Greeks also had recourse to music in medicine, though Hippocrates makes no mention of it. It would appear to be prin- cipally adapted for the relief of the melancholic form of insanity; but its beneficial effects are very transitory, and have been greatly exaggerated. Esquirol (Des Maladies Mentales, torn. ii. p. 538. Paris, 1838) tried it at Charenton in every way, and under the most favourable circumstances, but with little success. "Sometimes," he reports, " it rendered the patients furious, often it appeared to divert them, but I cannot affirm that it contributed to their reco- very. To the convalescent, however, it proved advantageous." A more recent writer (Dr. Conolly) also observes,* that » little regard is probably due to music as a remedial means, its effects being usually only temporary. Violent patients often become silent, and then moved to weeping, when the piano is played to them."—As, in the therapeutical employment of music in insanity, our object is to create agreeable emotions, by recalling the happy events °i Y:Rne U-"ileS' a?d byLrest,orin£ old associations and trains of thought, particular attention should be paid to adapt the character of the music to the peculiarities of each case; for it is obvious that what may prove beneficial to one patient, may be injurious to another # 4. Vision.-*. Sleep is promoted by "the sight of any thing waving; as of a field of stand- ing corn, or of the hand drawn up and down before the face by a mesmeriser, attracting Sth^d^lsTo") m°re ^ JeCt &t reSt'" (Dr< Elliotson'a Human Physiology, p. 608, i Consult Dr. Thomas Brown's Lectures on the Philosophy of the Human Mind, vol. i. p 341 2,1 ZTTao.! * The Report of the Resident Physician of the Hanwell Lunatic Asylum, presented to the Court ft al. ? c ww for Middlesex, at the Middlesex Scssims, 1840. ^ourt °J Quarter Set- PSYCHICAL OR MENTAL REMEDIES. 43 /8. Absence of light is one of the circumstances which usually dispose to sleep. 5. Touch.—a. Gentle friction' with the fingers, on some part of the body, disposes to sleep. Its soothing and lulling effects I have repeatedly experienced when suffering with severe headach. " I knew a lady," says Dr. Eliiotson, (p. 609) "who often remains awake, in spite of every thing, till her husband very gently rubs her foot: and, by asserting to a patient my conviction that the secret of an advertising hypnologist, whom I allowed to try his art upon the sleepless individual, and which he did for a time successfully, was to make him rub some part of his body till he slept, he confessed this to be the fact." 0. "Gentle friction acts on the'same sense; and a combination is still more effective: whence experience has taught nurses to rock, and otherwise agitate infants, while they hum them to sleep." (Ibid.) y. Freedom from pain and uneasiness of any kind favours sleep. (f. In some soporose affections, as poisoning by opium, apoplexy, &c., remedies are resorted to which, by exciting the sensibility of the body, are calculated to rouse the patient. Various methods of causing pain have been devised : one of the oldest is urtication, or flagellation by a bunch of nettles (Urtica dioica.) This practice is mentioned by Celsus. (Lib. iii. cap. 2.) Class 2. Internal Affections of the Mind.—This class includes the intellectual states of the mind and our emotions. But, as the observations which I have to make on the therapeutic employment of this class, are rather general than specific, it will be unnecessary to attempt any systematic division of the internal affec- tions. «. An important part of the treatment of mental affections, as well as of many corporal derangements, is the removal of all moral or mental circumstances which either have produced or keep up the morbid condition. This, however, cannot be effected in many cases, or only with extreme difficulty. In a considerable number of nervous and hypochondriacal affections, appeals to the reasoning faculties are not only useless, but, in many instances, absolutely in- jurious, " by exciting irritation in the mind of the sufferer, who thinks his counsellors are either unfeeling or incredulous towards his complaints."2 In such cases no remedy is equal to travelling, especially in a mountainous country; for it combines the salutary influence of abstraction of mind from painful reflections, change of scene, respiration of pure air, and employment of bodily exercise. If the extent of the menial disorder, or the circumstances of the patient, preclude the trial of this remedy, removal from home is calculated to act bene- ficially, by withdrawing the patient from the influence of domestic circumstances calculated to add to, or at least to keep up, the morbid condition, and by presenting new objects to hia view, which arrest his attention, and excite new trains of ideas. (Consult Esquirol, op. supra cit. torn. ii. p. 743.) In lunatic asylums, seclusion proves a simple but most valuable means of tranquillizing violent maniacs.3 Amusement and employment are powerful psychical reme- dies in the treatment of the insane.4 /3. Emotions and passions of the mind have a most powerful influence upon the disorders of the body.5 Much of the evidence, however, which establishes the truth of this statement, is rather curious than practically useful, and as the general fact is well known and admitted, I shall confine myself to a few practical illustrations. Hope is a mildly stimulating or tonic passion, which may be beneficially employed in all diseases, and which proves injurious in few, if in any cases. Most patients receive with satisfaction and benefit assurances of the prospect of recovery from their medical attendant. Even in diseases of a mortal character, life may be sometimes prolonged by concealing from the sufferer the fatal nature of his malady.6 Faith in the beneficial agency of the remedies employed, and confidence in the skill of the medical attendant, are important adjuvants in the treatment of most diseases. To (hem both physician and empiric owe part of their success; and it is, therefore, the duty of the practitioner to encourage these feelings in his patient by every legitimate and honourable ' The friction above referred to should be very light and genMe.—Strong or violent friction by the hand or horse hair gloves is used for other purposes; as, for allaying itching and irritation of skin, and promoting cutaneous circulation. Dinneford's " Patent improved Electrical Horse-hair Renovators" are, for these pur- poses, a great improvement over the ordinary horsehair gloves.—On the subject of Friction as a remedial ngent, consult Celsus, lib. ii. cap. 14. » Change of Air. or the Pursuit of Health and Recreation; illustrating the beneficial influence of bodily exer- cise, change of scene, pure air, and temporary relaxation, in sicknelb and in health. By James Johnson, M. D. 4lh ed. 1838. » Sec Dr. Conolly's Report before referred to, p 53.—Bodily coercion is now no longer resorted to at the Hanwell Lunatic Asylum. Farther experience, however, is still required to establish the propriety or even humanity of omitting it in all cases. « Consult Sir W. C. Ellis's Treatise on the Mature, Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment of Insanity, 1838; and Dr. Conolly's Report before quoted, p 51. » See Dr. Win. Falconer's Dissertation on the Influence of the P.issions upon Disorders of the Body. 2d ed. London, 1791. • for some judicious remarks, by Sir H. Halford, on the duty of the physician, in withholding from, or communicating to, a patient the probable issue of a disease displaying mortal symptoms, sec London Medical GazeUe, vol. vii. p 602. I fully agree with the learned President of the College of Physicians, that the first duty of the physician ii " to protract the life of his patient by all practical means." 44 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. means. The influence of the imagination on disease has long been known, and isi a rui, u source of fallacy in therapeutics. Extraordinary cures have frequently bee., use W o ™r and useless means, when, in fact, they were refcrrible to the influence of the_™g^on- Fear is a depressing and debilitating passion, of whose power over disease the practit oner has sometimes availed himself. Thus, Boerhaave prevented JhVec"rT -pn^K (brought on by a person falling down in a fit in the sight of the hospital pa «en£) b£d^ect ng a red hot iron to be applied to the person who should next be affected. (Falconet * Dissert. before quoted, p. 100.) 2. REMEDIA SOMATICA.—SOMATICAL OR CORPORAL REMEDIES. Those remedies which act on the body directly, and which we have denomi- nated Somatical or Corporal, admit of arrangement into four classes, as follows: I. Physical but Imponderable Agents, as Light, Heat, Electricity, and Magnetism. II. Hygienic Agents, as Diet, Exercise, and Climate. III. Mechanical and Surgical Agents. IV. Pharmacological Agents or Medicines. I. AGENTIA PIIYSICA.-PHYSICAL BUT IMPONDERABLE AGENTS. 1. Lux.—Light. (Lumen.) Physiological Effects.—Light acts as a vivifying or vital stimulus2 to living beings. It promotes the nutritive processes of vegetables, and its absence is the cause of that curious phenomenon denominated the sleep of plants. A morbid condition, called etiolation, or blanching, is induced in vegetables by growing them in obscure places.3 On animals, light operates in a two-fold manner: it promotes their development and nutrition, and it acts as a specific stimulus to the eye, as the organ of vision.4 Privation of light disposes to inactivity and sleep. The disease, called Ansemia or Hypsemia in man, is analogous to the condition termed etiolation in vegetables; and, like the latter, is sometimes referrible to deprivation of light, combined, however, with other deleterious causes.5 Blind- ness (retinitis?) occasionally results from the exposure of the eye to strong light. The effect of the sun-stroke (coup de solcil or ictus Solaris,) in inducing inflam- mation of the brain, may be, in part, perhaps, owing to the influence of the light of the solar rays. Uses.—In maladies characterized by imperfect nutrition and sanguification, as scrofula, rickets, and anaemia, and in weakly subjects with cedematous limbs, i See Dr. Ilaygarth'a Of the Imagination, as a Cause and a Cure of Disorders of the Body; exemplified by fictitious Tractors and epidemical Convulsions; in the Loudon Medical Review, vol. iii. p. •.J-', 1800. Also, Dr. Lind's Treatise on the Scurvy, p 343, et. seq.; and p. 535. 3d ed. 177-2 » The phrase vivifying or vital stimuli is used to designate those external conditions necessary to the main- tenance of life in organized beings; such as heat, air, water, and nutriment. Tliey are to be distinguished from the alterative or medicinal stimuli, which, while they cause temporary excitement, ultimately exhaust. (See Muller's Elements uf Physiology, by Baly, vol. i. pp. 28 and 57 ) a For details respecting the influence of light on vegetation, consult J. O. Ebermaier, Versuch einer Geschichte des Lichtes, Osnabruck, 1799; Lnndgrebo, Uiber das Licht vorzugsweise iiber die chemischen und lO^"Pans ieVUrkunsen dtsselbcn' P- !W, Marburg, 1831.-Also, De Candolle, Physiologie vigetale, t. iii. p. Veberdie Wirkungen des supra cit. p. 370; and W. F. — r-. ---j .„,,. ..,...„, ullc „ulli allu wilt.rK mcy uecuuie as wniie, tender and ivaterv »« the finest celery For the more exquisite specimens of this human etiolation, we must survey the in hah? rants of mines, dungeons, and cither mihtsr^n^,„, ,i,„j„„ „„j c.____i... '___ ™mJ u,e inhabi- tants of mines, dungeons, and other subterraneous abodes; and for complete'contrasts to YtLJJIT only to examine the complexions of stage-coachmen, shepherds, and the sailor 'on the h „h nZ „ mast.'" (,Dr. James Johnson, Change of Air, p. 7, 4th ed 1838) fe " gl ave ddy DARKNESS.--DIOPTRIC INSTRUMENTS. 45 &c, free exposure to solar light is indicated. Its use is sometimes attended with very happy effects. Open and elevated situations probably owe part of their healthy qualities to their position with regard to solar light. The observations of Dr. Edwards, on the influence of light in promoting the perfect development of animals, led him to conclude, that in climates, where nudity is not incompati- ble with health, exposure of the whole surface of the body to light is favourable to the regular conformation of the body; and he, therefore, has suggested insola- tion in the open air a3 a means calculated to restore healthy conformation in children affected with scrofula, whose deviations of form do not appear to be incurable. (Op. supra cit. p. 401.) As in bright solar light we feel more active, cheerful, and happy,—while obscurity and darkness give rise to a gloomy and depressed condition of mind,— so we employ insolation in the open air as a mental stimulus in melancholy, low- ness of spirits, and despondency. In amaurosis, supposed to depend on, or be connected with, a languid condi- tion of the vital actions going on in the tunics of the eye, exposure to strong solar light (concentrated by a lens) has been proposed as a remedy. But not- withstanding that Hufeland (quoted by Sundelin, Handbuch der speciellen Heil- mittellehre, Bd. ii. S. 72. 3tte. Aufl. 1833) reports a case said to have been cured by it, its value is exceedingly doubtful, and its use requires extreme caution. a. Darkness. In many maladies light acts injuriously on the system, and its exclusion is attended with benefit to the patient. In all diseases of the eye attended with local, vascular or nervous excitement, darkness or obscurity should be employed. In inflammatory conditions of the brain, in fever, and in mental irritation, whether attended or not with vascular excitement, the stimulus of light proves injurious, and in such, darkness of the chamber should be enjoined. After parturition, severe wounds, and surgical operations, and in all inflammatory conditions, the exclusion of light contributes to the well-doing of the patient. Lastly, darkness is employed to promote sleep. (See p. 43.) In most cases where obscurity is indicated, rest and quietude are to be enjoined. b. Dioptric Instruments. When vision is imperfect, from defect of focal distance, the remedy consists in the use of dioptric or refracting instruments (eye-glasses; spectacles.) In Myopia, (i. e. Short- or Near-sightedness) doubly concave lenses (whose focal lengths vary from about 2£ to 48 inches) are usually employed to counteract the over refractive power of the humours; while, in Presbyopia, (Long- or Far- sightedness) doubly convex lenses (whose focal lengths vary from about 6 to 48 inches) are generally used to obviate the diminished refractive power of the humours of the eye.1 Lenses, for the above purposes, are commonly made either of flint-glass or of Brazilian quartz.3 The latter, called pebble, has the advantage of greater hardness, and its surface, therefore, is not so readily scratched. (Lenses made of amber are readily scratched and soon lose their polish.) The diathermancy of quartz is about the same as that of mirror-glass.3 i In opticians' shops two trial boxes, or frames of sight, are kept; the one comprises the range of doubly convex—the other, of the doubly concave lenses. These are used for trying myopic or presbyopic eyes. » Quartz, presents some remarkable optical phenomena. It possesses the property of double re/raction in the direction of its axis. In this it differs from every other known uniaxial crystal. Moreover, when a plane polarized ray is transmitted through a prism of quartz, the two pencils, into which the ray is divided, are, at th< ir emergence, elliptically polarized (Airy, in The Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, vol. iv. 1S33.) J Mclloni, Taylor'* Srimtific Memoirs, vol. i. p. 1. The transcalency or diathermancy of several transparent solids is as follows:—Of 100 rays of heat proceeding from the flame of an Argand lamp, there were trans- mitted by Rays transmitted. Rock Salt". •.........................02 Iceland Sp.ir........................62 Quartz ..............................62 Rays transmitted. Mirror Glass...................... 62 Alum ............................ 12 Sulphate of Copper (diaphanous) ... 0 In another nericf of experiments Mellnni ascertained the relative diathermancy of Flint-Glass, Mirror (Plate) (;iass, and t 'mwn Glass, to be respectively, 65, G-2, and 4!). 4G ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Occasionally lenses of other forms, than those above enumerated, arc employed, but the only one deserving of special notice is the periscopic or meniscus (concavo-convex; lens, recommended by Dr. Wollaston (Nicholson's Journal, vols. vn. and vin.J for enlarging tne field of vision.1 c. Chromatic Instruments. In some affections of the eye (popularly known as weakness of sight,) coloured glasses are employed, with occasional relief, to diminish the intensity of the light. Those with a neutral tint (or twilight tinge) prove the most agreeable to the eye. White light is most fatiguing and hurtful to the eye.2 The disease, called snow-blindness, which sometimes results from the long contemplation of a country covered with snow, is pro. bably retinitis. (Mackenzie, op. cit. p. 501.—Xenophon (Anabasis, lib. iv.) speaks of snow-blindness.) Both red and yellow light (Hence amber lenses are objectionable) are injurious to the eye. To the excess of the yellow and red rays, in common artificial light, may be in part ascribed the baneful influence of this light in causing impaired vision. Two modes of preventing its ill effects have been suggested; viz. the addition, by reflection, of the blue rays that are deficient (as by the use of conical blue shades or reflectors around the flame,) or the substraction, by absorption, of the red or yellow rays that are in excess (as by passing the light through some transparent medium of a blue tint.)3 Green, blue, indigo, and violet lights, are much less injurious than either red or yellow. Spectacles of these colours have been made for the use of those suffering with sensitive eyes, but they are inferior to the neutral tint before mentioned, since after their removal from the eyes every object sometimes presents for a short period complimentary tints; showing that these colours have fatigued the retinae. All dark-coloured glasses, however, and especially black crape spectacles, are objec- tionable, on account of their greater power of absorbing and radiating caloric, by which they prove heating to the eyes.* 2. Calor.—Heat. Physiological Effects.—All living beings, but especially the animals denomi- nated warm-blooded, generate heat. To all a certain temperature (which differs in different individuals) is essential to the maintenance of life; and hence caloric or heat is a vital stimulus. (See foot-note at p. 44.) Increased beyond a certain degree, it ceases to be vivifying: it may cause inflammation or apoplexy; it may exhaust by its prolonged stimulant operation; or, when its action is very violent, it may decompose the organized tissues by its chemical influence. There are three modes of promoting or raising the temperature of warm- blooded animals, viz: — 1. The communication from without of sensible heat, either by the application of heated substances to the body, or by the introduction of radiant heat. 2. By augmenting the generation of heat within the body ; as by the use of stimulant foods and drinks. 3. By diminishing the pooling influence of surrounding bodies; as by the use of clothing made of substances which are bad conductors of caloric. The effects of caloric communicated from without, on living beings, are three- fold, viz:— 1. Physical; including expansion or dilatation, mid fluidity. 2. Chemical; comprising increased tendency to changes of composition and decomposition. 3. Dynamical, physiological, or vital; comprehending all changes in the condition of the vital properties produced by heat. These changes are of two kinds:— a.. Primary; excitement, or augmentation, of vital action. (Z. Secondary; exhaustion, or diminution, of vital action. i For farther information respecting spectacles, consult Mackenzie's Practical Treatise on Diseases of the Eye 3d eclit^. London, 1840, pp 7^4 and 792; Kitchener's Economy of the Eyes, Part I. (Spectacles,) London, 1824; and Cox's Spectacle Secrets, London. 183-i ^i.The n"^nse ,isht ca,1?fu! by th? ignition of charcoal and the combustion of the metals effected by the Voltaic.Battery constructed by Professor Groves, has produced on myself, as well as on some friends, tern- porary blindness. The symptoms (which lasted two days in my case) were those of retinitis with profuse bur ^1840 JameS H"nterS WOrk' °" the T"fiuence of Artificial Light in causing Impaired Vision. Edin- « Melloni (op. supra cit) ascertained the diathermanous properties of coloured classes to be a« fnilno,... Of 100 incident rays, there are transmitted by b s I0,I0WS •— Coloured glass. Rays transmitted. Coloured glass. d„,,. /,„„„_-., . Deep violet.........................5:1 Bright yellow.............«ays transmitted. Vivid red............................47 Mineral green......................X5 Clear blue ...........................42 Very deep blue...................' In HEAT. 47 a. On Vegetables.—A certain degree of heat promotes all the vital processes of plants. It accelerates germination, the growth and development of all vegeta- ble organs, inflorescence, fecundation, and the ripening of the fruit; and it quickens the,movements of parts susceptible of motion. Too elevated a tem- perature, accompanied with dryness, deranges the health of plants. (Decan- dolle, Physiologie Vegetale, torn. iii. p. 1098.) An intense heat decomposes the vegetable tissues. 6. On Man and other Animals.—A certain degree of external heat (different in different beings) promotes the vital manifestations of animals, and hence we denominate it an excitant or stimulant. .Its prolonged operation, however, is followed by debility and exhaustion proportionate to the previous excite- ment. The influence of tropical heat on the human species furnishes an illustrative example of the effects just mentioned. It is well known that the mental powers of children are sooner developed, and the sexes arrive earlier at puberty, in warm than in cold countries. Moreover, the languor, indolence, and relaxed fibres, so commonly observed in the inhabitants of tropical climates, are probably to be ascribed, in a great measure, to the exhausting and enervating influence of external heat. The effects of topical heat are first, a sensation of warmth, redness, turgescence, and a slight augmentation of temperature of the part heated. The diameters of the minute capillary vessels expand under the influence of caloric, and thus the red blood-disks are enabled to enter tubes previously impervious to them. The augmented volume of the part arises, therefore, in a great measure from the pre- sence of an increased quantity of.blood; but in part also from the dilatation of the solids and fluids caused by their augmented temperature. The living tissues become more relaxed, soft, and flexible, under the influence of a moderate heat, and admit of a more rapid transpiration. A more violent degree of heat causes burning pain, redness, and vesication. A still more intense heat destroys vitality and organization. Whenever a large portion of the surface of the body is destroyed (as in burns and scalds,) great constitutional disturbance, or even death, results from the shock given to the ner- vous system. If the whole body be subjected to an elevated temperature, not incompatible with prolonged life, its effects are manifested first in the vascular system, and in the organs connected therewith. The superficial vessels enlarge; the skin be- comes redder; and the pulse quicker and fuller: respiration more frequent; the animal heat is augmented; and the expired air is hotter, and more loaded with vapour. The exciting influence of heat, on the vascular system, points out the impropriety of em- ploying this agent in inflammation or congestion of the organs (heart and lungs) engaged in the circulation of the blood ; hi dilatations of the heart; in aneurism ; in apoplexy; and many other cases which will readily suggest themselves. Increased exhalation (first of insensible and vaporous matter, then of visible and liquid sweat) and augmented secretion of the periphery soon succeed. The rapid conversion of a liquid into an aeriform fluid (insensible perspiration) is attended with the production of cold; and thus animals are enabled to counteract external heat, and to maintain nearly their original temperature, when exposed to a temperature considerably higher than that of their own bodies, by the in- creased perspiration which they suffer under these circumstances. The deter- mination to the surface, and the increased transpiration and secretion of the skin are attended with a contemporaneous diminution of activity in some of the inter- nal organs. Thus, the secretions of the kidneys and the mucous membranes are diminished in consequence of the increased secretion and exhalation of the skin. The mutually antagonizing influence of determinations of blood to different parts—as well as of the secretions of different tissues—is a circumstance the knowledge of which is of «rcat 48 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. practical value in therapeutics.' Wc avail ourselves of this influence, and employ external heat to produce determination of blood to, and augmented secretion of, the skin on various occa. sions; as when an internal malady is attended with coldness of surface, or appears to be connected with the sudden disappearance of a cutaneous eruption. 1 he bencnt obtamea by the use of external heat in gastritis, enteritis, cystitis, and nephritis, is in part reiernble to the same antagonizing influence. External heat is also an important adjuvant in the treat. ment of diabetes: it checks the excessive secretion of urine, and relieves the dry and unper. spirable state of the skin. Whenever we exhibit sudorific medicines, we promote their opera- tionby keeping the surface warm; while when wc employ diuretics, the skin should be kept cool. The agency of tropical heat in weakening the digestive organs, and the efficacy of spices, taken as condiments, in counteracting this effect, arc clearly refernble to the principle of antagonism above explained. The augmented secretion of bile, and the tendency to hepatic diseases, so commonly observed in Europeans when they become residents in warm climates, are other effects of the continued operation of heat on the body. That heat, aided by inactivity, abundance of solid food, and little or no drink, is capable of inducing hepatic disease, is well shown on the goose. The celebrated pates de foies gras, prepared at Strasburg and Metz, are made from the livers of geese artificially enlarged. These animals are crammed with food, kept from drink, nailed to a plank by the webs of their feet, and placed quite close to afire: and, in due time, their livers become greatly enlarged. Relaxation of the living tissues is another consequence of the employment of moderate heat. This effect, which is best observed when moisture is conjoined with caloric, commences first in the part to which heat is applied: and, when the whole surface of the body has been subjected to an increased temperature, its relaxing influence soon extends to internal parts: hence arise atony, diminution of muscular power, a feeling of languor or fatigue, and an indisposition to cor- poral exertion. We take advantage of this relaxing influence of heat in the treatment of spasmodic diseases, in the reduction of dislocations, in the application of the taxis in hernia, and on many other occasions where our object is to relax or soften muscular or other tissues. On the other hand, we avoid the employment of heat where preternatural relaxation or atony of the general sys- tem, but especially of the surface, exists. The primary effect of moderate heat on the nervous system is excitation; the secondary effect, exhaustion. In the first instance sensibility is agreeably pro- moted, the action of the voluntary muscles assisted, and the intellect somewhat exalted. But to these effects succeed languor, relaxation, listlessness, indisposi- tion to corporal and mental labour, and tendency to sleep. Lastly, the prevailing maladies of hot climates may be referred to as farther illustrations of the effect of continued heat on the body. Fevers, diarrhoea, dys- entery, cholera, and liver diseases, may be regarded as the special maladies of the burning equatorial regions. The exhaustion, which follows the excitation caused by heat and other stimuli, would seem, to use the words of Muller, (Op. cit. vol. i. p. 52.) to "show that the organic force is consumed, as it were, by the exercise of the functions;" and to employ a simile of Dr. Priestley,2 we may say, that as a candle burns out much faster in oxygen gas than in air, so we may be said to live out too fast when under the exciting influence of an elevated temperature. Uses.—Heat is employed as a remedial agent for various purposes, of which the following are the principal:— 1. To cause an afflux of blood to a part; by which,__ a. Healthy circulation and temperature may be restored. 6. The equalization of the distribution of blood may be effected; and thereby a pre- ternatural afflux to other organs checked. c. The secretions and exhalations of a part may be reestablished or increased 2. To promote the general circulation of blood. ■ See some valuable remarks on the "antagonism" of the secretions, in Muller's Elements of P ),„*„, „. k„ Dr. Baly, vol. i. p 473. J '"J^ioiogy, ny » Experiments and Observations on different kinds of Air, vol. ii. p. 109. Birmingham 1790 RADIANT HEAT. 49 3. To relax tense, rigid, or spasmodically contracted tissues. 4. To alleviate pain. 5. To hasten organic changes; as the termination (resolution or suppuration) of inflam- mation. 6. To destroy the vitality and organization of a part. The most important circumstances which contra-indicate its employment, are— 1. Great vascular excitement, plethora, aneurism, hemorrhage, &c. 2. Great relaxation and flabbiness, especially in the superficial organs. 3. Profuse secretion and exhalation. 4. Great nervous excitability, with little power. Heat is communicated to the body in two ways; viz. by radiation and by conduction. ». Radiant Heat. Radiant heat proceeds from the sun and terrestrial bodies, in straight lines or rays. Therapeutically it has been employed as a stimulant or excitant, to pro- mote circulation and warmth in the old, the debilitated, and the paralytic; and as a cautery. a. Solar Heat.—The rays, which proceed from the sun, are of three kinds— illuminating, heat-making, and chemical. Their important influence—as illumi- nating rays—have been already alluded to. (See p. 44.) The ancients1 were well acquainted with the salutary influence of solar heat on the human frame, and frequently employed it for therapeutical purposes. Insolation (insolatio, apricatio, solicatio, heliosis, yXieort?) may be employed as a stimulant for the purposes already mentioned. It is also valuable in scrofula, and as a restorative after lingering and painful maladies. Whenever it is used the head should be carefully guarded from the direct influence of the sun, in order to prevent the occurrence of the sun-stroke, or ictus Solaris, before referred to. (Page 44.) Occasionally erythema or erysipelas is produced by the direct action of the sun on the naked skin. Faure concentrated the solar rays by a burning-glass, and employed them to stimulate indolent ulcers, especially those which follow frost-bites. Formerly cauterization was effected in the same way.3 2. Artificial Radiant Heat.—Exposure to the rays of a common fire is resorted to, as a stimulant and calefacient, in old paralytic and other cases attended with coldness and blueness of the extremities, and other symptoms of insufficient cir- culation of the blood. The heat radiating from a burning body, (as a candle) or ignited iron, is some- times employed as a stimulant to produce rubefaction in the tract of the vertebral column, in paralytic and neuralgic affections of the spinal cord. " A much more durable impression of heat," observes Muller, (vol. i. p. 59.) "better than moxa or the actual cautery, is produced by holding a burning candle near to the affected part for a long time, so as to produce pain; by which means all the beneficial effect of heat is obtained, without the formation of an eschar and the subsequent suppuration, which is often of no service. The mode in which the caloric acts in these cases is not evident." The radiant heat from a red-hot iron or burning coal has been employed as a > Hippocrates, De Morbis, lib. ii. OG and 68; Celsus, lib. i. cap. 2 and 3; Cajlius Aurelianus, Morb. Chronic. lib. iv. cap 2. » Mnrjolin, in Diet, de Medecine, art. Cauterisation- Most, in his Encyklopiidie der gesammten medicin. u. chirurg Praxis, Leipzig, 1837, art. Insolatio, quotes two authors on insolation, whom I have had no oppor- tunity of consulting: they are Dresig, Dc solicationc vulgo insolatione veterum, Lips. 1737 ; and Richter, Diss. Insolatio, sru potcstas solis in corpus humanum, Gotting. 1747. Vol. I.—7 50 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. cautery to check hemorrhages, and to promote the reduction of prolapsus of the rectum and uterus, and of hernia. This practice constitutes the cauterisation objective of the French writers. js. Conducted Heat. 1. Culor siccus.—Dry Beat. This includes hot air, bottles filled with hot water, hot sand, &c. 1. Hot-Air Bath.—Air, at a temperature of from 100° to 130° F., is a powerful stimulant and calefacient, but is less relaxing and soothing than moist vapour. When required to operate as sudorific, a temperature of from 90° to 100° F. (Dr. Gower says 85°) is found most advantageous. The hot-air bath is princi- pally valuable as a remedial agent when the blood has receded from the super- ficial parts of the body, and the internal organs are in a state of congestion; as in some forms of fever, and in spasmodic cholera. In asphyxia from drowning, and from some other causes, it is also highly useful. Furthermore, in chronic rheumatism, stiffness of the joints, and chronic skin diseases (especially the dry scaly eruptions,) it also proves beneficial.1 The medicated hot-air bath is prepared by impregnating the hot air with some gas or vapour; as with sulphurous acid gas or chlorine. (See Chlorine and Sulphurous Acid.) 2. Solid Substances, heated not beyond 100°.—Bottles filled with hot water are applied to the feet to excite the circulation and augment the animal heat, in various diseases attended with cold extremities. The same remedy is conve- niently applied to the abdomen, to relieve spasmodic pain. Hot sand (arena calida,) enclosed in a bag or bladder, may be employed for similar purposes. Sometimes hot sand is used as a bath.3 It is rarely resorted to in this country, but is had recourse to in the maritime departments of the South of France. (Schwilgue, Traite de Matiere Medicale, t. ii. p. 324.) A sand-bath operates as a stimulant and sudorific; and is employed in rheumatism, spasm, paralysis, &c.s Hot ashes or bran have been applied to similar uses; as also hot bricks. The leaves of the common birch (Belula alba) are employed in Sweden. (Ber- gius, Materia Medica, t. ii. 778, ed. 2nda, Stockh. 1782.) 3. Metal heated to 212°.—The late Sir Anthony Carlisle (Lancet, 1826-27, vol. xi. p. 315 and 384.) proposed to excite speedy vesication by the application to the skin of a polished plate of metal, heated to 212° by immersion in boiling water. He recommended it as a substitute for cantharides, than which he de- clared it to be less painful. Moreover, it is not liable to cause strangury. 4. The Actual Cautery (Cauterium actuate.)—The term actual cautery is used to indicate a heated substance, employed to burn or disorganize a portion of the living body, to which it is applied. A potential cautery disorganizes by its affinity for the constituents of the living tissues. cJ* For f?i;tner information respecting the hot-air bath, consult the Cyclopaedia of Practical Medicine, vol. i .p. 266. art. Warm Air Bath, by Dr. Forbes.—Also, Dr. Gower's Auxiliaries to Medicine, Lond. 1819, Tract 1, An Account of the Sudatorium. Various simple an I ready modes of making a hot-air bath have been suggested. A very simple method is that recommended by Mr. Alcock (Lancet, 1825-6, vol. ix. p. 862.) It consist in burning spirit in a cup or artisan? teatedtf TPZZt HZT^ ^ ^ " CaP "'> Un,iU'the le'm hahle™ t0 a watef"bath a The therapeutical use of sand is denominated arenatio or psammismus Uo-ctuuia-uot. from 4.0-ctuuoe, sand) bee Quiring De balneis arteparandis Diss. Inaug. Berol. 1837.-" SaburratiJn wks a species of bathing m ancient Hse. The body was buried in sand and exnospd to tho m.n » r«a„ti.0,i«„^. i?. naming Ancient Medical Doctrines: vol i d 48 T nrJI i7Ri uV.^ • to the sun. (Sutherland's Attempts to revive Ancient jveaicai jjocinnes. vol. i. p 4«. L,ond 1763.)—Sand is employed therapeut cally for other Durmws than to communicate tea . Thus, a bag of sand has been applied to the abdomen, to compress by itS th" uterus and thereby to restrain uterine haemorrhage after the removal of the placenta; but incomnTe f in'ver Bion of the uterus is said to have been produced bv it fsee Most VncnUl^di, ri,-n „.„. ""-ompiete inver. Praxu, Bd. I. S. 175. Leipzig, 1836.) s'and has l£ tinned as? SSSilSi f"Anf^rtt of CONDUCTED HEAT. 51 Several agents have been employed as actual cauteries, viz. red-hot iron, mora, and the flame of hydrogen. The fir3t, however, is the one generally used, and commonly meant, when we speak of the actual cautery. The latter two will be noticed in subsequent parts of the work. (See Hydrogen, and Artemisia Moxa.) I have excluded boiling water, steam, and metal heated to 212°, from the list of cauteries. These agents coagulate and harden the albuminous and fibrinous portions of the living tis- sues, and excite acute inflammation; that is, they scald. They neither decompose nor effect any chemical change in the organic principles; and, therefore, chemically speaking, they do not burn the living tissues. In this country the actual cautery (red-hot iron) is seldom used. It is some- times resorted to as a styptic, where the hemorrhage is from a great number of small vessels, or from a vessel so situated that the ligature cannot be applied. It is also used to destroy morbid growths, which cannot be reached by the knife- as fungus of the antrum. Lastly, it has been applied to stop caries, to excite an artificial ulcer, to open abscesses, to close fistulous ulcers, in bites by poisonous animals, and in some affections of the brain—as epilepsy, to destroy the part from whence the aura epileptica sets out.1 2. Color humidus.—Moist Heat. a. Aqueous Vapour. The practice of bathing is of great antiquity, and precedes the date of our ear- liest records. It was adopted sometimes for the purpose of cleanliness, some- times for the preservation of health, and frequently as a recreation and luxury. The ancient Hebrews (Leviticus, xiv. 8.—2Kings, v. 10.) practised ablutions. Josephus (Bell. Jud. lib. i. cap. 33, § 5.) mentions that Herod was let down into a bath of oil. The Greeks employed bathing. Homer,3 on various occasions, mentions hot baths and ablutions. In the writings ascribed to Hippocrates, (De dixla, lib. ii. § 35. De affeclionibus, § 47.) baths are mentioned, and their effects described. Baths are also noticed by Celsus, (Lib. i. cap. 3; and lib. ii. cap. 17.) Pliny, (Hist. Nat. lib. xxix. cap. 8; lib. xxxi. cap. 2, et seq. Ed. Valp.) and other Roman writers. Prosper Alpinus (Medicina Atlgyptiorum, lib. iii. cap. 14—19.) says, that the Egyptians employed hot baths for cleanli- ness and health; and Freind states, that when Alexandria was plundered, in A. D. 640, there were 4000 baths in that city. (History of Physick, part i. p. 7. 3d ed. Lond. 1727.) Among the Persians, baths were in use.3 The Arabians also were acquainted with hot baths, as we learn from Avicenna. (Canon, lib. iii. fen. xvi. tract, iv. cap. 10.) The ancient Hindoos employed baths and aspersions with water. (Royle's Essay on the Antiquity of Hindoo Medicine, p. 53. Lond. 1837.) These examples sufficiently establish the great antiquity of the practice of bathing.4 The following is a sketch of the baths of the Romans, copied from a painting found at the Thermae of Titus. (De Montfaucon, VAntiquite expliquee et representee en Figures, torn. iii. part. ii. p. 204, 2nde ed. Paris, 1722. i For farther details respecting the actual cautery and cauterization, I must refer the reader to Percy's Pyrotechnic chirurgicale pratique, Paris, 1811 ; Marjolin, art. Cantere and Cauterisation, in the Diet, de Mede- cine; Hnd Sanson, in the Diet, de Med. et Chir. pratiques. a Iliad, xxii. 444. Odyss viii. 451.—It would appear from Homer, that the offices of the baths were per- formed by females; though, from a passage in Herodotus {Erato, xix.,) we may infer that this custom was not peculiar to the Greeks. » Xenophon, Cyropadia, lib viii.—Plutarch, in his life of Alexander the Great, mentions that this cele- brated conqueror was astonished at the sight, of the baths of Darius « For further information respecting ancient baths, consult an An Account of the Ancient Baths, and their Use in Physic, bv Thos (Jlass, M. D. Lond. 1752 —Attempts to revive Ancient Medical Doctrines, by Alexander Sutherland, M. D. Vol. i. p. 12, et. seq. Lond. 1763.—Also, De Balneis omnia qua: extant apud Qracos, Latinus ctArabas. Vend. 1553. 52 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Fig. 1. fc-^B On the right is the eleothe. rium (*x«TT»fiev) where the oils and perfumes are kept in vases: next to this is the frigidarium (tte-JuTHptov) or dressing-room: the third apartment is the tepi. darium : the fourth is the suda- tory (concamerata sudatio,) in which are seen the laconicum (so called from being first used in Laconia,) a brazen furnace to heat the room, and persons sit. ting on the steps: the fifth is the balneum, with its huge ba- "111! I" fl 111 I ^ llii^^^^^ sin (labrum,) supplied by pipes, j^ll |IH| |Ki| 1^1 [ |Er--°"J*^g^ communicating with three large Ancient Baths. bronze vases, called milliaria, a. The StrigUf* scraper or currycomb, used at baths to scrape from their capaciousness ; the the skin.) lower one contained hot, the upper one cold, and the middle one tepid water. The bathers returned back to the frigida. rium, which sometimes contained a cold bath. The subterranean portion of the building, where the fires were placed for heating the baths, was called the hypocaustum. 1. The Vapour Bath.—As aqueous vapour, like air, is a worse conductor of caloric than liquid water, its influence, as a source of either heat or cold, is neither so powerfully nor so speedily felt as that of the latter. Hence, there- fore, the temperature" of the vapour bath should always exceed that of the water bath. If, however, the whole body be immersed in vapour, Avhich is conse- quently inhaled, the temperature must be a little less than if the trunk and limbs alone were subjected to the influence of vapour; because the inhalation of vapour stops the cooling process of evaporation from the lungs. The following is a comparative view of the heating powers of water and of vapour, distinguishing the latter according as it is or is not breathed. (Dr. Forbes, Cyclopaedia of Practical Medicine, art. Bathing, vol. i. p. 265.) Water. Vapour. 85°— 92° 92o _ pg0 98° — 106° Not breathed. Breathed. 96° — 106° 106° — 120° 120° — 160° 90° — 100° 100° —110° 110° — 130° The general effects of the vapour bath are those of a powerful stimulant and sudorific. It softens and relaxes the cutaneous tissue, expands the superficial vessels, accelerates the circulation of blood, augments the frequency of the pulse and respiration, and produces copious perspiration. These effects are succeeded by a feeling of languor and a tendency to sleep. The vapour bath is distinguished from the hot-air bath by its soothing, relax- ing, and greater sudorific influence; from the hot-water bath, by its inferior power of communicating heat, by its greater sudorific tendency, and by its causing scarcely any superficial compression of the body, whereby it does not occasion the precordial oppression experienced on entering the water bath. The vapour bath, like the hot-air bath, may be employed when the blood has receded from superficial parts, and congestion of internal organs has in conse- quence occurred;—as during the cold stage of intermittent fever, in malignant cholera, and during the stage of chilliness which ushers in various febrile com- plaints. But its great value is experienced when our object is to relax the skin, MOIST HEAT. 53 and to produce profuse sweating. Thus in chronic rheumatism and gout, in slight colds fiom checked perspiration, and in chronic skin diseases, accompanied with a dry state of the cutaneous surface, it often proves highly serviceable. In old paralytic cases, unaccompanied with signs of vascular excitement of the brain, it sometimes gives relief. In some uterine affections, as chlorosis, ame- norrhea, and irritation of the womb; in dropsy of old debilitated subjects; in old liver complaints; and in some scrofulous affections, the vapour bath is occa- sionally employed with advantage.1 In this country the vapour bath is employed for therapeutic purposes only. In Egypt, Turkey, Persia, and some other parts of the East, and in Russia, however, it is in common use as a hygienic agent and luxury; and is accom- panied by a process of friction, kneading, and extension of the muscles, tendons, and ligaments, constituting the massing11 of the Egyptians, and the shampooing (Mahomed's Treatise on Shampooing.—I have not met with this work.) of the East Indians. This process is thus described by Dr. Gibney:—(Op. supra cit. p. 84.) "After exposure to the bath, while the body is yet warm from the effects of the vapour, the shampooman proceeds, according to the circumstances of the case, from gentle friction gradually increased to pressure, along the fleshy and tendinous parts of the limb;—he kneads and grasps the muscle repeatedly, presses with the points of his fingers along its course, and then follows friction, in a greater or les3 degree, alternating one with the other, while the hand is smeared with a medicated oil, in the specific influence of which the operator has considerable confidence. This process is continued for a shorter or longer space of time, and, according to circumstances, is either succeeded or preceded by an extension of the capsular ligament of each joint, from the larger to the smaller, causing each to crack, so as to be distinctly heard, which also succeeds from the process being extended to each connecting ligament of the vertebrae of the back and loins. The sensation at the moment is far from agreeable, but is succeeded by effects not dissimilar to what arise from brisk electrical sparks, taken from the joints in quick succession." In rigidity and stiffness of joints this process of massing or shampooing may prove of considerable service. The Russian Vapour Baths have long been celebrated. The vapour is produced by throw- ing water over red-hot stones. Its temperature, according to Lyall, (Character of the Rus- sians, p. 112, Lond. 1823.) is from 122° to 144-5° F. Besides being exposed to the influence of this vapour, the bathers are subjected to a system of friction, flogging with the leafy branches of the birch, and affusions of warm or cold water. It is customary with them to issue from the bathing-houses while quite hot, and, in the summer, to plunge into cold water,—in the winter, to roll themselves naked in the snow, without sustaining injury or ever catching cold. (Dr. E. D. Clarke's Travels in various Countries of Europe, part i. p. 143, et seq.) Bremner (Excursions in the Interior of Russia, vol. i. p. 185. Lond. 1829.) describes the supposed bracing effects as being all imaginary; and declares that the practice of bathing, followed by the Russians, rapidly enervates and undermines the constitution. Several medical writers (Dr. Granville's St. Petersburgh, vol. i. p. 509. Lond. 1828.) have' borne testimony to the efficacy of the baths in alleviating rheumatism. The Egyptian Vapour Baths are in constant and general use. The bathers having been subjected to the operation of massing, already described, are then rubbed, and afterwards washed.3 The Turkish* as well as the Persian (Fowler's Three Years in Persia, vol. i. p. 269. Lond. 1841.) Baths are somewhat similar. ' For a more detailed account of the uses of the vapour bath, the reader is referred to Dr. Gibney's Treatise on the Properties and Medical Application of the Vapour Bath. Lond. 1825. •> Masser. from the Arabic verb masses, to touch lightly. See Savary's Letters on Egypt, vol. i n 130 2d. ed. Lond. 1787. v ' For a description and representation of the Egyptian baths, consult Description de VEr appellant, plurimum etenim earum percussiones corporum, faciunt mutationem." The fluid employed is either water or aqueous vapour: hence we have the liquid douche and the vapour douche. According to the direction in which the fluid is applied, we have the descending, the lateral, and the ascending douche. The effect of the liquid douche depends in part on mechanical action or per- cussion, which, by continuance, excites topical pain and inflammation; and in part on the temperature of the liquid. The local excitement more speedily occurs from hot than cold water; indeed the long continued action of a stream of cold 64 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. water may act as a sedative, and cause the primary effects of cold before de- scribed. The effect of the douche is not wholly local, since the neighbouring parts, and even the whole animal economy, soon become affected. A column ol water twelve feet high, made to fall perpendicularly on the top of the head, ex- cites such a painful sensation, that, it is said, the most furious maniacs, who have once tried it, may sometimes be awed merely by the threat of its application; and hence one of its uses in madness, as a means of controlling the unfortunate patient. "At this moment a controversy is proceeding among certain t rench phy- sicians concerning the application of the douche; which some are disposed to use as a specific agahrst delusive notions. The patient is kept under the douche until he entirely recants. The principle is extremely doubtful; and it should be re- membered of every severe application, that lunatics are seldom able to make their real sufferings distinctly known. M. Esquirol subjected himself to the douche; and he describes the sensation as very painful; resembling the continued breaking of a column of ice on the head, followed by a feeling of stupefaction, which lasted an hour afterward." (Dr. Conolly's Report before cited, p. 68.) Probably all the good effects of the douche may be obtained by the shower-bath, the application of which is much less distressing to the patient. The cold douche is applicable to some cases of local diseases requiring a pow- erful stimulus; as old chronic affections of the joints, whether rheumatic, gouty, or otherwise;1 paralytic affections; sciatica; old glandular swellings; chronic headach; deafness, &c. (Dr. Butzke, London Medical Gazette, N. S. for 1839, 1840, vol. i p. 893.) has recently employed it with good effect in old ulcers of the feet. In some of the preceding cases a warm, is used instead of the cold, douche. The operation of pumping practised at Bath, may be regarded as a kind of douche, and is used in the same cases. The degree or extent of the application is determined by the number of times the handle of the pump is raised or de- pressed. From 20 to 200 strokes of the pump is the number generally directed to be taken at one time, which, however, may be increased or diminished accord- ing to the age, sex, strength, or other circumstances 6f the patient.3 The water does not issue in gushes, but in a continuous stream. 5. lavation. Washing, or Sponging.—Cold, cool, or tepid washing or sponging, may be used in febrile diseases, with great advantage, in many cases where affu- sion is not admissible, or where timidity on the part of the patient or practitioner prevents the employment of the latter. (Dr. Currie, Reports, vol. i. p. 72, 4th ed.) remarks, that in all cases of fever where the burning heat of the palms of the hands and soles of the feet is present, this method of cooling them should be re- sorted to. A little vinegar is frequently mixed with the water, to make the effect more refreshing. Washing or sponging must be effected under precisely the same regulations as those already laid down for affusion. 6. Cold Lotions.—Aqueous and spirituous liquors are employed as lotions to generate cold by evaporation, and thereby to relieve local irritation and inflamma- tion. They should be applied by means of a single layer of thin muslin or linen, and not by a compress. The cold is considerably increased by blowing on the part. Evaporating lotions are applied to the head with great relief in cephalalgia, phrenitis, fever with disorder of the cerebral faculties, and poisoning by opium. In ophthalmia, fractures of the bones of the extremities, severe bruises, and ery- sipelatous inflammation, cold lotions are used with benefit. Dr. Kinglake, (A Dissertation on the Gout. Lond. 1804.—Additional Cases of Gout. Lond. 1807.) recommended the application of cold water to parts affected with gout, but the practice is somewhat hazardous. One method of treating burns is by the appli- cation of cold water to the injured part. In modern times, Sir James Earle,8 i See some observations of Lisfranc on the use of the Douche in White Swelling, in the Lancet vol ii ia34-5, p. 337 ' » A Practical Dissertation on the Medicinal Effects of the Bath Waters, by William Falconer M. D. 1*00 3 An Essay on the means of lesseni ng the Effects of Fire on the Human Body. Lond. 1799. ICE AND SNOW. 65 was the great advocate for this plan, which proves more successful in scalds and slight bums. The burnt part should be covered with rags, and kept constantly wetted with water, in which ice is placed from time to time; " care being taken never to remove the rags from the burnt surface."1 „ j • • If the cold fluid be continually renewed, the practice has been called irriga- tion. (Macartney, Treatise on Inflammation, p. 158. London, 1838.) It is effected either by allowing cold water to drop on the affected part, from a stopcock inserted in the side of a bucket of water, or by conducting a stream of water from a vessel by means of a strip of cloth, on the principle of a syphon. 7. Cold Drinks.—Hippocrates, (De usu liquidorum.) Celsus, (Lib. iii. cap. 7.) and other ancient writers, employed cold water as a drink in ardent fever. In modern times also it has been extensively used in the same malady. Dr. Han- cocke9 called it the jfebrifugum magnum. Its. employment, however, has not been limited to fever. From its supposed great efficacy in gouty complaints, Heyden3 termed it the arthritifugum magnum. Within the last ten years, thir- teen or fourteen establishments have been set up in Germany, for the cure of dis- eases by cold water. This mode of treatment is denominated Wasserheilkunst, or Wasserkur (Water-cure.4) We are indebted to Dr. Currie for the examination of the circumstances under which the employment of cold water in fever is proper. According to him, it is inadmissible during the cold or sweating stage, but may be employed with safety and advantage when the skin is dry and burning: in other words, the regulations for its administration are precisely the same as for cold affusion. When exhibited under proper circumstances, it operates as a real refrigerant, reducing preternatu- ral heat, lowering the pulse, and disposing to sweating. Occasionally, however, serious and even fatal consequences have resulted from the employment of large quantities of cold water by persons who have been rendered warm by exercise and fatigue. Besides fever, there are several other affections in which cold water is a use- ful remedy. For example, to facilitate recovery from epilepsy, hysteria, and fainting; and to alleviate gastric pain and spasm. Large draughts of cold water have sometimes caused the expulsion of intestinal worms, (Tsenia and Ascaris vermicularis.) 8. Cold Injections.—a. Cold water is thrown into the rectum to check hemor- rhage, to expel worms, to allay local pain, to rouse the patient in poisoning by opium, to stop hemorrhage, and to diminish vascular action in enteritis. 6. Dr. A. T. Thomson5 speaks very favourably of the effects of cold water in- troduced into the vagina, by means of the stomach-pump, in uterine hemorrhage. 3. Ice and Snow. The temperature of these agents does not exceed 32° F. They are employed both internally and externally. 1. Employed externally.—The topical effects (primary and secondary) of cold agents have been already described. (See page 58.) Ice, snow, and ice-cold water, are employed externally to obtain sometimes the primary, at other times the secondary, effects of cold. a. For the Primary Effects.—Ice is used to check hemorrhage, more espe- cially when the bleeding vessel cannot be easily got at and tied. Thus, after operations about the rectum, (more especially for piles and fistulae) bleeding sometimes occurs to a most alarming extent; and, in such cases, our principal reliance must be on cold. In two instances that have fallen under my own > 7Vo Lectures on the Primary and S condary Treatment of Burns, by H. Earle. Lond. 1832. a Febrifugum magnum; or Common Water the best cure for Fevers, and probably for the Plague. 5th ed. Lond. 1723. » Arthritifugum Magnum: A Physical Discourse on the Wonderful Virtues of Cold Water. Lond. 1724. * I must refer the reader to the article Aqua, for a short notice of this mode of treatment. • Elements of Materia Medica and Therapeutics, vol. ii. p. 78. Lond. 1833. Vol. I.—9 66 ELEMENT? OF MATERIA MEDICA. observation, I believe the lives of the patients were preserved by the introduction of ice within the rectum. In many other cases of hemorrhage, the external application of cold (either in the form of ice or ice-cold water) is exceedingly useful. Thus, applied to the chest in dangerous hemoptysis, and to the abdomen in violent floodings, it is oftentimes very beneficial. In some of these cases, especially in uterine hemorrhage, more benefit is obtained by pounng cold water from a height, (cold affusion or douche) than by the mere use ol ice. A bladder, containing pounded ice, has been applied to hernial tumours, to diminish their size and facilitate their reduction; but notwithstanding that the practice has the sanction and recommendation of Sir Astley Cooper,1 it is, I believe, rarely followed, not having been found successful; while, if too long continued, it may cause gangrene. In this, as well as in other cases, where ice or snow cannot be procured, a freezing mixture may be substituted. For this purpose, five ounces of muriate of ammonia, five ounces of nitre, and a pint of water, are to be placed in a bladder, and applied to the part. Ice has also been applied in prolapsus of the rectum or vagina, when inflammation has come on, which threatens to terminate in mortification. In inflammation of the brain, the ice-cap (i. e. a bladder containing pounded ice) is applied to the head with great benefit. In fever, also, where there is great cerebral excitement, with a hot dry skin, I have seen it advantageously employed. In apoplexy, likewise, it might be useful; as also in mania, with great mental excitement. In the retention of urine, to which old persons are liable, ice-cold water applied to the hypogastrium is sometimes very effective, causing the evacuation of this secretion. b. For the Secondary Effects.—Friction with ice or snow is employed to pro- duce the secondary effects of cold in diminished sensibility of the skin, and in the rheumatism or gout of old and enfeebled persons; but its most common use is as an application to frost-bitten parts. The feet, hands, tip of the nose, and pinna of the ear, are the organs most frequently attacked. In order to guard against mortification, and other ill effects arising from a too rapid change of tem- perature, the vital properties must be slowly and gradually recalled. In order to effect this, the frost-bitten part should be rubbed with snow or pounded ice, or bathed in ice-cold water, very gradually raising the temperature of the applica- tions until the part acquires its natural heat, 2. Employed internally.—When ice or ice-cold water is swallowed, the sensation of cold which it produces is neither so acute as that occasioned by the application of ice to the skin, nor so prolonged. For the sensibility of the alimentary tube is less than that of the external integument, while its temperature is higher; so that the ice is sooner melted, and the liquid quickly raised to the temperature of the body. But when swallowed in considerable quantity, the effects of ice are of the same kind as those already described for cold generally. A sensation of cold at the epigastrium is experienced, and sometimes shivering occurs. The pulse is diminished in frequency. Temporary contraction of the alimentary canal, and diminution of irritability and secretion, are produced. When ice is taken in small quantity only, these primary effects are very slight or scarcely noticed, and the stage of re-action quickly succeeds. A feeling of warmth follows that of cold at the epigastrium, and quickly extends over the whole body; the circulation is somewhat accelerated; and the secretions of the alimentary canal, of the kid- neys, and of the skin, are promoted. If the re-action be excessive, gastric inflammation may be induced. Ice, or ice-cold water, is swallowed for the purpose of obtaining either the primary or secondary effects of cold. Thus it is taken to cause contraction of the gastric vessels, and thereby to check or stop sanguineous exhalation from the mucous membrane of the stomach. It has also been found beneficial in nasal, ' The Anatomy and Surgical Treatment of Inguinal and Congenital Hernia, p. 25. Lond. 1804 ELECTRICITY. 67 bronchial, and uterine hemorrhage. In the latter cases, the constriction of the bleeding vessels must be effected through sympathetic relations which exist between the stomach and other organs. Ice is also employed to relieve car- dialgia, vomiting, and spasmodic pain of the stomach. In the latter stage of typhus fever, the internal use of ice is sometimes beneficial. 3. Electricitas.—Electricity. Physiologists1 have long suspected that electricity was the cause of some vital -phenomena; and various circumstances lend support to this notion. Among these may be mentioned the extensive agency of this force in the production of the physical and chemical phenomena of the external world;—its well-known remarkable influence on the animal economy;—and, lastly, its development by some fishes, as the Torpedo vulgaris and Gymnolus electricus. Hitherto, how- ever, no one has succeeded in establishing the identity of electricity and the cause of vital phenomena. Electricity may be obtained from various sources; but the quantity and condi- tion of this agent, as procured by different methods, are by no means uniform. The common electric machine yields, by the friction of its glass cylinder or plate on the rubber, a small quantity of electricity whose tension or elasticity is great, and which, therefore, is capable of exerting attractive and repulsive forces not merely at sensible, but at considerable, distances. We denominate this, friction, ordinary, common, or Franklinic electricity. The electricity procured from the atmosphere, by the cleavage of crystals, and by pressure, is of the same kind. By chemical action, however, we put in motion an immense quantity of elec- tricity, whose tension is very low, and we distinguish it by the name of Voltaic electricity or Galvanism. The electricity obtained by a magneto-electric ma- chine is of the latter kind. Fig. 2. Electrical Apparatus for Medical Purposes. FRICTION ELECTRICITY. o. Cylinder Machine. b. Medical Electrometer. c. Insulating Stool. dd. Ley den Jars. e e e. Insulated Directors. /. Discharging Rod. g. Glass Tube traversed by a wire, which terminates at one end by a loop, at the other by a brass ball. VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY. h. Cruickshank's Wooden Trough. i i. Directors, each consisting of a glass tube traversed by a wire, an extremity of which is connected with one end of the trough —while the other extremity is surmounted by sponge or flannel moist- ened with salt and water. magnetic electricity. k. Clarke's Magneto-electric Machine. /. Directors. ' Mr. Ahernethy, (Inquiry into the Probability and Rationality of Mr. Hunter's Theory of Life, Lond. 1814.) adopting the notion of several preceding physiologists, that life depended on an internal principle distinct from the body,—suggested that this principle was electricity ; or if not electricity, " at least we have reason to believe," he says, that " it is of a similar nature, and has the power of regulating electrical operations."— In 1H0H, Dr. Wollaston (Phil. Mag. vol. xxxiii. p. 488) suggested that the products of secretion might be due to electricity of low tension ; and the accuracy of this opinion Dr. Wilson Philip (An Experimental Inquiry into the Laws of the Vital Functions) has endeavoured to prove experimentally, Meissner has carried the 68 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. a. Friction Electricity. (Common of Pranklinic Electricity.) The apparatus, requisite for the medical application of friction electricity, con- sists of the following instruments :— 1. A cylindrical or a plate machine. If a cylinder, the diameter should be at least from 8 to 14 inches; if a plate, from 18 to 24 inches. The amalgam used for the rubber is composed of one part tin, two parts zinc, and six parts mercury. 2. A medical electrometer, to regulate the force of the spark or shock. 3. One or two Leyden jars. 4. An insulating stool or chair. 5. A discharging rod. 6. Two or three insulated directors. The brass ball which surmounts each director may be occasionally unscrewed and removed, and a point brought into view. 7. Flexible metallic wire or chain. A brass chain is generally employed; but the spiral brass wire employed for braces is more convenient: it may be enclosed by a silk riband. Physiological Effects, a. On Vegetables.—It is a popular opinion, per- haps founded in fact, that atmospheric electricity promotes vegetation; but the arguments adduced to prove it are somewhat vague. It is said that those years in which the greatest number of thunder-storms occur, are the most productive; and that hops, barley, wheat, vines, &c, shoot up much more rapidly after a storm. These statements may, however, be true, without the inference which has been drawn from them being correct. Mushrooms form, it has been said, an exception to this statement; their growth being retarded by electricity. (De Candolle, Physiol. Veg. t. iii. p. 1091.) Some electricians have affirmed that artificial electricity promotes the germination of seeds as well as the growth and green colour of plants; but the accuracy of the statement is exceedingly doubtful. De Candolle says he has observed transpiration increased by it. The move- ments of the sensitive plant and of the stamina of the barberry may be excited by electricity. b. On man and other animals.—The effects of electricity on animals vary according to the mode of applying it; and hence they may be conveniently described under five heads:— 1. The Electric Bath.—In this mode of employing electricity the patient is placed on the insulating stool, (or chair,) and in connexion with the prime con- ductor of the machine. The whole surface of the body becomes electro-positive, while the air which surrounds the body is, by induction, rendered electro-nega- tive. The positive electricity is constantly and silently discharged from all pointed parts of the surface, as from the hairs, fingers, &c. In a darkened room the discharge is seen to be attended with the evolution of light. The effect of the electric bath does not appear to be uniform on different individuals. In some the pulse is at first quickened, in others it is unchanged; while in some it is, after ten or fifteen minutes, reduced in frequency.1 These different effects are, undoubtedly, in part referrible to the influence of mental emotion. Copious perspiration sometimes breaks out while the patient is on the insulating stool. 2. Electric Aura.—This is produced by the action of a current of electrified air on the skin. It is applied by means of an insulated pointed director, con- nected with the prime conductor by a wire or chain; its point being turned to the part intended to be electrified. In this way a current or breeze of highly excited air is directed towards the part. Or the aura may be drawn from the E^SWvf/tVTn!siCbVyBaiv^o^^T7^f Tha! Phheno,J!ena t0 a most extravagant length (see Miiller's Elem. of rnys.ya.ns. by Baly, vol. 1. p. 73.) That the active principle of the nerves is electricity has lone been a favourite opinion. Though many objections have been raised in i» /■«.« m,Tii„. «*,ecmcuy nas lons and 633.) yet it has recently received additional sunpon from Pr„^^lVh&?*^Z: "!"«'& ™ charge i c^ J^K^rp'm"^: &?' H°dgkin'8 Tfan8,ati°n °f Edwafd8' Work- On the Influence of PHysi- FRICTION ELECTRICITY. 69 patient while placed on the insulating stool, by means of an uninsulated metallic point. The electric aura operates as a mild stimulant, and is occasionally used when we are desirous of electrifying delicate parts—as the eye, ulcers, excoriated surfaces, the testicles, &c. 3. The Electric Spark.—This is one form of the disruptive discharge. It may be communicated by presenting to the part to be electrified, the ball or knob of an insulated director connected with the prime conductor. Or it may be drawn from the patient by placing him on the insulating stool, (or chair,) and bringing the knuckle or the ball of an uninsulated director near him. The opposed surfaces, between which the spark passes, are in oppositely electrified conditions. The nearer they are together, and the smaller the ball, the weaker is the force of the spark. A succession of very small sparks is obtained by sub- stituting a wooden point for the metallic ball. The spark occasions a sharp, painful, pungent sensation, redness, and some- times a small circumscribed spot or wheal, which, however, in general quickly disappears. For internal parts, as the bottom of the meatus auditorius externus, a glass tube is used to insulate the conducting wire, the end of which terminates in a very small knob, contained within, or placed at the end of, the tube. (Fig. 2, g.) A favourite mode of employing electric sparks is to draw them through flannel, as recommended by Cavallo, (Complete Treatise on Electricity, vol. ii. p. 136, 3d ed. Lond. 1786.) and since practised with great success by my friend, Mr. Charles Woodward. This method is called by some electricians electric friction. » The patient being placed on the insulating stool, takes hold of the chain communicating with the prime conductor, by the hand opposite to the side to be electrified. Over the naked part is then placed a piece of flannel, and, the machine being turned, the operator places the knob of an uninsulated director in close contact with the flannel, and moves it steadily but rapidly so as to draw a vast number of very small sparks. Mr. Woodward says it is essential, for the success of the practice, that the motion of the ball should be down the part affected; that is, in the direction of the ramifications of the nerves. The opera- tion is to be continued for twenty or thirty minutes. It excites an agreeable warmth, but no very disagreeable sensations. When an uneven surface (as of the face and hands) is to be electrified, the ball of the director should be covered with flannel. 4. The Electric Shock.—This is a violent effect of the disruptive discharge, and is thus effected. Charge a Leyden jar: then connect its outside by a chain or wire with the ball of an insulated director, which is applied to one extremity of the part through which the electricity is intended to pass. The knob of the jar is then applied to the other extremity of the part> and the discharge instan- taneously takes place. The force or the strength of the charge is graduated by interposing in the cir- cuit a medical electrometer, which is employed thus:—Place the Leyden jar so that its interior may be in communication with the prime conductor, while its exterior is connected with the patient by a chain and insulated director. One of the knobs of the electrometer is then put in communication with the opposite side of the patient by a second chain and director. If the machine be now turned, the jar charges, and, when the tension is sufficiently high, a spark passes from the prime conductor to the bail of the electrometer, and the discharge takes place, the patient experiencing the shock. To increase or diminish the force or strength of the shock, we augment or lessen the space between the prime con- ductor and the ball of the electrometer. Sometimes a coated glass tube is substituted for the Leyden phial in the above arrangement, the medical electrometer being employed. The patient then receives a rapid succession of slight shocks, constituting what some electricians denominate electrical vibration. 70 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. When a portion of the body makes part of the circuit through which the dis- charge of a Leyden phial is effected, a sudden, instantaneous, and painful sensa- tion is produced, which is denominated the shock. If the charge be passed through the arms, the effects are principally experienced in the wrists, elbows, and across the breast. " If the charge is passed through the spine, it produces a degree of incapacity in the lower extremities; so that if a person be standing at the time, he sometimes drops on his knees, or falls prostrate on the floor. (Singer, Elements of Electricity, p. 296. Lond. 1814.) If the diaphragm form part of the circuit, it is immediately thrown into a temporary state of contraction. Mr. Sino-er " once accidentally received a considerable charge from a battery throuo-h the head; the sensation was that of a violent but universal blow, followed by a transient loss of memory and indistinctness of vision, but no permanent injury ensued." If a strong charge of a battery be passed through the head of a rabbit, temporary blindness or death ensues. In persons killed by lightning, red streaks are frequently observed on the skin. It is said that marks are often observed indicating the passage of the electric fluid along the spine. The blood is usually fluid, and the muscles flaccid; though occasionally rigidity of muscles has been found. The greater or less violence of the shock depends not on the quantity merely, but on the intensity of the charge. Thus a small jar highly charged will pro- duce a greater effect than a large battery feebly charged. But of course if the intensities be equal, the greatest shock is perceived when the largest quantity is employed. 5. The Electric Current.—To cause a current to pass through a patient to the ground, connect some part of the body directly, or indirectly by a chain or wire, with the prime conductor of the machine; the patient standing on the ground. By this means the current passes into the body at the point of connexion, and escapes by the feet. Its effects are exceedingly slight, and scarcely, if at all, ob- vious. Uses.—The uses of electricity are partly rational, partly empirical. When the indications are to excite a nerve of sensation or of motion, or to produce a temporary contraction of muscles, or to promote transpiration and secretion, its employment may be regarded as rational. But it is used, sometimes benefi- cially, in several diseases in which these indications are by no means obvious. In such, its methodus medendi is unknown, and its use may be regarded as em- pirical. 1. To stimulate the nerves of sensation.—In nervous deafness electricity is sometimes employed. Sparks are thrown on, or drawn from, the mastoid pro- cess, the parts around the meatus auditorius externus, or the bottom of the mea- tus. In some cases slight temporary relief is obtained. In amaurosis, the cur- rent, the aura, and sometimes slight sparks and shocks have been tried, but rarely with success.1 In topical numbness unconnected with lesion of the nervous centres, electric friction, sparks, or very slight shocks, are occasionally service- able. 2. To excite the motor nerves.—In partial paralysis, benefit is at times ob- tained by the use of electric friction and slight shocks. When the disease depends on some lesion of the cerebro-spinal centre, relief by electricity is not to be expected. Electricity is calculated to be serviceable when the malady arises from some functional disorder of the nerves. It may also contribute to restore the use of parts originally paralyzed by effusion in some part of the cerebro-spinal centre, but which has been gradually absorbed, leaving the limb paralyzed from desuetude. These cases, however, are comparatively rare. Notwithstanding the favourable account of its efficacy given by Dr. Golding Bird, (Guy's Hospi- i Mr. Hey published several successful cases of its use in amaurosis. He never saw the least benefit from its employment when the disease had existed for two years. (Med. Obscrv. and Inq. vol v n 1 Lond 1795, 2d ed.) VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY. 71 tal Reports, vol. vi. p. 98.) my own experience of its use leads me to give an unfavourable report of it in cases of paralysis properly so called. In chronic rheumatism I have occasionally seen benefit from the use of electricity. In stiffness and rigidity, after sprains and bruises, when all inflammation and ten- derness have subsided, it has also been employed. 3. To promote secretion.—In amenorrhoea, considerable benefit is obtained by passing shocks through the pelvis (from the sacrum to the pubis.) I have, on several occasions, found the practice successful. Electric friction, or slight shocks, are sometimes employed to promote the biliary secretion. My friend, Mr. Woodward, is very sanguine as to its efficacy for this purpose; but I have had no experience of it. 4. To promote absorption.—In indolent tumours, electricity in the form ot sparks, slight shocks, and friction, has been employed, and, it is said, with oc- casional benefit. In enlarged cervical glands I have tried it in several cases, but without observing that any benefit resulted therefrom. 5. In chorea and some other allied convulsive disorders, considerable benefit is occasionally obtained from the employment of electricity, in the form of fric- tion or slight shocks in the course of the spine and limbs. I am acquainted with several remarkably successful cases of its use. Dr. Addison (Guy's Hospital Reports, vol. ii. p. 493.) and Dr. Golding Bird (Guy's Hospital Reports, vol. vi. p. 84.) have also found it beneficial. Its methodus medendi is quite inexplicable. /3. Voltaic Electricity. (Galvanism; Voltaism.) The apparatus usually employed for the medical application of voltaic electri- city consists of— 1. Two wooden troughs (devised by Mr. Cruickshanks,) each containing 50 pairs of copper and zinc plates, 2 or 2£ inches square. These may be charged with a solution of common salt, or with a weak acid liquor. Some electricians employ 1 part of common muriatic acid, and 16 or 20 parts of water. Singer thinks that ^a- of muriatic acid will be found the most useful. In some cases where the skin was very susceptible I have used water only. 2. A pair of insulated directors, each consisting of a glass tube traversed by a copper wire. One extremity of the wire is in communication with one end of the trough ; the other extre- mity is covered with sponge or flannel, moistened with a solution of common salt. 3. Copper wire to connect the directors with the ends of the troughs. Harrington's electrizers are plates of copper and zinc, or silver and zine, made in various forms. Thus for the toothache a plate of copper is soldered edgeways to one of zinc, and worn in the mouth ; the saliva serves to excite the apparatus. In another contrivance an hexagonal plate of zinc is connected by its face to a plate of silver: and aperies of these compound plates are connected together by wire, so as to move on each other like hinges. These are worn next the skin for the relief of rheumatism. The perspiration serves to excite the plates. Silver and zinc spangles also have been employed, instead of the plates just mentioned. Physiological Effects.—The physiological effects of voltaic electricity are threefold; viz.— 1. The production of certain sensations. 2. The contraction of muscular fibres. 3. An influence over secreting organs. 1. Production of certain sensations.—Although electricity acts on all the organs of sense, yet the nerve of each sense is affected in a manner peculiar to itself. Thus, by acting on the nerves of touch, we produce pain, the shock, and other disagreeable sensations: by affecting the optic nerve, we occasion a sensation of light: by influencing the gustatory nerve, a remarkable taste is excited: by affecting the auditory nerve, a peculiar sound is excited. (Volta, Phil. Trans, for 1800, p. 403.) The olfactory nerve is influenced by elec- tricity with more difficulty. Volta could not succeed in producing an effect on the sense of smell; which he ascribes to the circumstance of the electric effluvia not being expanded in and conveyed by the air, which, it is thought, is the pro- per vehicle for exciting sensations in the olfactory nerves. Cavallo (Wilkinson's Elements of Galvanism, vol. i. p. 223. Lond. 1804.) and Ritter (Midler's 72 elements of materia medica. Elements of Physiology, translated by Baly, vol. i. p. 623. Lond. 1838.) each assert, however, that they have produced peculiar smells by electricity.1 The sensations excited by the passage of the voltaic current through the sensitive nerves may be owing to the mechanical or chemical influence of the current; and not any thing pecu. liar to the electricity. Thus the nerves of touch, the optic nerve, and the auditory nerves, have each their special sensations excited by mechanical violence. The acid, or the alkaline taste produced by electricity, may be referred to the electrolysis of the salts of the saliva, and the development of an acid and an alkali at the opposite electrodes; and the metallic taste may be owing to the chemical action of the constituents of the saliva on the electrode, by which a soluble metallic compound is produced. 2. Contraction of Muscular fibre.—Voltaic electricity excites muscular contrac- tions when applied to the motor nerves, or to the central organs of the nervous system. The effect is produced not only on living, but on recently killed, ani- mals; and is more powerful on the voluntary, than on the involuntary, muscles. MM. Prevost and Dumas (Edwards, De r Influence des Agens Physiques, p. 531. Paris, 1824.) have proposed an electrical theory of muscular contraction, which appears to me to be disproved by anatomical and physiological, as well as by physical, considerations. They assert that the nervous fibres run transversely across the muscular fasciculi; that when the muscu- lar fibres become shorter by contraction, they do so by assuming a zig-zag inflexion; that the nervous fibres are conductors of a voltaic current ; and, lastly, that zig-zag inflexion is pro- duced by the mutual attraction of the parallel rectilineal currents in the nerves, the muscular fibre itself being passive. But not one of these assumptions can be admitted. Schwann, (Mill. ler, op. supra cit. p. 900.) has shown that Prevost and Dumas mistook entire nervous fasciculi for primitive nervous fibres. Prof. Owen and Dr. A. Thompson, (Ibid. p. 887.) doubt whether the zig zag inflexion exists during contraction. Prof. Owen says that the fibres become shorter and thicker, and only assume a wavy or zig-zag arrangement after contraction has ceased. Lastly, we have yet to learn how the voltaic current is insulated in the nerves, and prevented passing off laterally ; for the neurilemma, and the other soft tissues, are excellent conductors of electricity. (Ibid. p. 635.) 3. Influence over the secreting organs.-—Of the great influence exercised by the nerves in the process of secretion, no doubt can be entertained. Now it ap- pears highly probable, that as the voltaic current excites the functions of the sen- sitive and motor nerves, it also may exercise a similar influence over those nerves which are distributed to the organs of secretion. Dr. Wilson Philip3 has endea- voured to establish the truth of this opinion in the case of the secretion of the gastric juice. He divided the nervi vagi in a rabbit, and found, as he supposed, that the digestive process was stopped. In another experiment he restored, as he tells us, the functions of these nerves by the voltaic influence. But subsequent experiments have shown that the division of the nervi vagi does not wholly stop the digestive process, and that electricity cannot restore it to its original state. (Muller, op. ante cit. p. 549.) Uses.—The therapeutic uses of voltaic electricity, like those of common elec- tricity, are partly rational, partly empirical. 1. To stimulate the sensitive nerves.—In cases of nervous deafness, voltaic electricity has been used to stimulate the auditory nerve. For this purpose, one wire (pole or electrode) is introduced into one ear, and the other wire (pole or electrode) into the opposite ear. The circuit is then to be rapidly broken and completed a number of times. In amaurosis, the same remedy has been used empirically, to stimulate the retina, when other remedies have failed. It must, however, be employed with great caution, as its mechanical effect is calcu- lated in many cases to aggravate the malady. 2. To excite the motor nerves.—In paralysis, voltaic electricity is occasionally resorted to, but, for the most part, empirically. It can, of course, be of no avail if the disease arise from organic changes in the nervous centres. But when the t The peculiar smell evolved by working the ordinary electric machine in the atmosphere.-by electric sparks, and in some electro-chemical decompositions, is ascribed by Schonbnin to a new elementary substance, which he terms ozone (from «£», I smell,) and which is evolved at the anode or positive surface He supposes it to be a constituent of an electrolyte, small quantities of which exist in both air and water. (Athenasum a An 'Experimental Inquiry into the Laws of the Vital Functions, pp. Ill, 213,256, &c. 3d edit. Lond. 1825. VOLTAIC electricity. 73 malady appears to be functional only, or when there is reason to suppose that the blood effused in the brain has been absorbed, and that the paralysis remains from desuetude only, stimulating the motor nerves by electricity may perhaps prove serviceable. In asphyxia from drowning, hanging, the inhalation of noxious gases, &c, voltaic electricity is occasionally employed to excite the muscles of respiration. It appears to be a very plausible remedy, but in the cases in which it has hitherto been tried on the human subject, it has mostly failed to effect re- suscitation.1 In sanguineous apoplexy, Dr. W. Philip suggests that it might be used to enable the lungs " to perform their functions for a longer time than without this aid," and that by it the life of the patient may be prolonged. In the asphyxia produced by concussion, galvanism has been suggested by M. Goudret. 3. In Asthma and Dyspepsia.—Dr. Wilson Philip, having observed that with- drawing a considerable part of the nervous influence from the stomach and lungs deranges the digestive powers, and produces great difficulty of breathing; was led to expect relief from galvanism in indigestion and habitual asthma. He describes the benefit obtained as greatly exceeding his expectations. The positive pole (anelectrode) is applied to the nape of the neck,—the negative pole (cathelectrode) to the pit of the stomach. A weak power should be commenced with, and the strength gradually increased until some uneasiness is experienced. In some in- stances perfect cures were obtained; in others relief was gained.3 4. To electrolyze urinary calculi.—Prevost and Dumas (Journal de Physiolo- gic, t. iii. p. 217.) have proposed voltaic electricity as a means of destroying some kinds of urinary calculi. They state that a fusible calculus, in one case contained in a basin of water, in another introduced into the bladder of a dog previously dis- tended with water, was completely disintegrated by voltaic electricity, from a battery of 120 pairs. The wires were introduced through a canula into the blad- der. The operation, it is said, did not occasion the least apparent uneasiness to the animal. During the action of the battery on the calculus, the bases and phos- phoric acid first arrived at their respective poles, then re-entered into combination, forming a pulverulent salt. Bonnet proposed to inject the bladder with a solution of nitrate of potash, and to galvanize the calculus in this liquor. The nitrate will be decomposed; the phosphates dissolve in the liberated nitric acid,—and uric acid, or urate of ammonia, in the disengaged potash. These propositions are in- genious, but at present no practical use has been made of them. 5. To coagulate the blood within an aneurismal tumour.—If the electrodes of a voltaic apparatus be immersed in an albuminous liquor, the albumen is coagu- lated. It has, therefore, been suggested " that galvanism might be applied to the important purpose of coagulating the blood within an aneurismal tumour, and thus removing the disease without resorting to the ligature." (Apjohn, Cyclopcedia of Practical Medicine, art. Galvanism.) For this purpose two needles are to be in- troduced into the tumour, and their projecting extremities connected with the op- posite electrodes of the battery. 6. To cauterize.—Piavaz (Revue Medicale, Dec. 1830.) has proposed to cau- terize the bites inflicted by rabid animals, by introducing the electrodes of a bat- tery into the wound. Fabre-Palaprat (Du Galvanisme applique a la Medecine, p. 57. Paris, 1828.) has proposed to produce the cauterizing effects of the moxa by voltaic electricity; this kind of therapeutical agent he calls a galvanic moxa. 7. To promote the absorption of medicinal substances.—In 1832, Dr. Costor, « The Professors of the Irish College of Surgeons, in 1829, failed to restore by it the respiratory movements in a person who had been hunpfDr. Apjohn, in Cyclopcedia of Practical Medicine, art. Galvanism.)—Electricity, in conjunction with other means, was tried, but without success, in the case of Scott, the American diver, who had been accidentally hung for five or six minutes (see Times, Jan. 13, 1841.) » See Phil.Trans 1817,p.22; and Dr. Wilson Philip's Treatise on Indigestion.—Also, LaBeaume, OntheMe. dical Effects of Electricity and Galvanism in Nervous and Chronic Disorders. 1820. Vol. I.—10 74 ELEMENTS op materia medica. [Archives Generates de Medecine, t. ii. p. 432.) and in 1833, M. Fabre-I alaprat, (Ibid. IIme serie, t. ii.—Also, Becquerel, Traite de PElectricite, t. iv. p. 321.) em- ployed voltaic electricity to assist the introduction of certain medicinal substances into the blood. They adopted Sir H.Davy's {Phil. Trans. 1807, p. 1.) opinion, (subsequently shown by Mr. Faraday (Ibid. 1838 and 1834,) to be erroneous,) that the poles (electrodes) of a voltaic battery have attractive and repulsive powers for certain substances: the positive pole (anelectrode) for oxygen, chlorine, and iodine,—the negative pole (cathelectrode) for hydrogen and the metals. M. Fabre-Palaprat asserts, that by the aid of galvanism he has caused certain che- mical agents to traverse the body, and appear at some distant part. He bound on one arm a compress, moistened with a solution of iodide of potassium, and covered by a platinum disk, connected with the negative pole (cathrfectrode) of a voltaic battery of thirty pairs of plates. On the other arm was placed a com- press, moistened with a solution of starch, and covered by a platinum disk, con- nected with the positive pole (anelectrode) of the battery. In a few minutes the starch acquired a blue tinge, showing that the iodine had been transported from one arm to the other. But Davy's idea that the poles (electrodes) possess attrac- tive and repulsive properties is not correct, as I have before remarked. That electricity may promote absorption, either by increasing endosmosis or by acting as a stimulus to the blood-vessels and lymphatics, is not improbable; but that the poles (electrodes) can draw medicinal substances either into or out of the body is not true. I have twice repeated Fabre-Palaprat's experiment; but, though I em- ployed fifty pairs of plates for fifteen minutes, I was unable to obtain the slightest evidence of the passage of iodine through the body. A mode of employing galvanism is practised in this country, which was first suggested by Mans- ford, in his Treatise on Epilepsy. Two plates of convenient size, one of silver, the other of zinc, are con- nected together by means of a silver wire of sufficient length to reach between the points of application that may be desirable, and to favour the adjustment a portion of it should have the spiral form. By this appa- ratus a galvanic circuit is established through the parts into apposition with which the plates are brought, by the wire on one side, and their nervous communication on the other. To prepare the parts for the galvanic impression, the cuticle should be removed by a blister the size of the plates, and strips of adhesive plaster may be used to keep them in their situation. The galvanic action is favoured by placing beneath the plates a piece of moistened buckskin, parchment, sponge, or fresh muscle. The latter is most efficient, but inconvenient from the speedy decomposition which takes place, requiring to be changed oftener. The plates should be removed and cleansed of the oxide deposited on their surfaces twice in the twenty four hours. In the treatment of Epilepsy, Mansford directs the location of the silver plate upon a blistered surface on the back of the neck at the base of the brain, and the zinc plate upon a similarly prepared surface on the leg just below the knee; the wire descending the back till it reaches a belt of chamois leather buttoned round the waist, following the course of ihe belt to which it is attached until it arrives opposite the groin, then passing down the inside of the thigh until it reaches its position. Other points, however, may be selected. For an account of several interesting cases of Neuralgia treated in tbis manner, see Paper, by Dr. Thomas Harris, in American Journ. of Med. Sciences, No. xxviii. p. 384. August, 1834.—J. c.J Electro-Puncture. (Galvano-Puncture.) The operation of electro-puncture was proposed by Sarlandiere, (Memoircs sur VElectro-Puncture. Paris.) in 1825. It consists in introducing two acu- puncture needles in the usual way, and connecting them with the poles of a weak voltaic battery; the contact being occasionally suspended and renewed, in order to produce a succession of shocks. This practice has been successfully adopted for the relief of rheumatism, neuralgia, local paralysis, sciatica, spasmodic affec- tions, and other maladies in which the operation of simple acupuncture has been used, than which it has been thought, by some, to be more efficacious. In neu- ralgia and in rheumatism it should be employed only in the interval of the parox- ysms. (Trousseau and Pidoux, Traite de Therapeutique, t. i. p. 579. Paris, 1836.) M. Bourgeois1 proposed to employ the operation of electro-puncture of the heart, to promote resuscitation, in cases of asphyxia. ' Quoted by Merat and De Lens, in the Dirt. Univ. de Mat. Med. art. Electro-Puncture. MAGNETISM. 75 '/.Magnetic Electricity. The apparatus required for the medical application of magnetic electricity con- sists of— 1. A magneto-electric machine. 2. A pair of directors. The most convenient, simple, and powerful magneto-electric machine is that devised by Mr. E. M. Clarke, of the Strand. It consists of a battery of six curved permanent magnets, and an intensity armature, around whose cylinders 1500 yards of fine insulated copper wire are coiled. The ends of this wire communi- cate respectively with a pair of directors, each holding a piece of sponge (dipped in vinegar or a solution of common salt.) When the armature is rotated, and a poition of the living body interposed between the directors, a succession of shocks is received. A magneto-electric machine is not affected by the moist state of the atmosphere: this gives it an advantage over the common electric machine; and as acids are not required to excite it, one inconvenience of the voltaic battery is obviated. It is employed in medicine as a convenient substitute for the ordinary voltaic battery. 4. Magnetismus. — Magnetism. (Mineral Magnetism ) jEtius, (Scrmo ii. p. cap. 25.) who lived about a. d. 550, is the oldest author who mentions the application of magnetism to the cure of diseases; for, although Hippocrates (Opera; De intern, affect, p. 543; and De his quae uterum non gerunt, p. 686, ed. Foesii.) speaks of the magnet as a remedial agent, he refers to its internal use only. About the end of the 17th century, magnetic tooth-picks and ear-picks were made as secret preventives against pains in the teeth, eyes, and ears. (Beckmann, History of Inventions and Discoveries, vol. i. p. 74.) The power of a magnet to affect the vital functions is not generally admitted in this country; but it must be remembered that the experience which British practitioners have had of its use is exceedingly limited. Becker says that the sensations which his patients experienced from the use of the magnet were, cold (probably from the coldness of the steel;) heat (this is the most frequent effect, especially in the ears, and it often amounts to unpleasant burning;) traction (from the slightest degree, when it is an agreeable feeling, to the strongest, when it is almost painful, like that of a cupping-glass;) an indefinite sensation (in the ear, called a working or roaring;) throbbing; pain; and numbness or loss of feeling in the magnetized part. Some years ago, Mr. Faraday allowed Dr. Keil to try his magnets, in every way he thought proper, on himself (Mr. F.,) but without any effect resulting. (Lancet for 1835-36, vol, i. p. 716.) In some instances it has appeared to exercise a most remarkable influence over neuralgic pains and spasmodic affections; at one time apparently curing, at another pal- liating, and occasionally augmenting all the patient's sufferings. But, in a large proportion of cases, it fails to produce any obvious effect. The employment of magnetic plates is sometimes attended with itching and an eruption of pimples. Toothach, neuralgia, painful affections of the stomach, rheumatic pains, spas- modic asthmn, angina pectoris, and palpitation of the heart, are the maladies which have occasionally appeared to be relieved by the magnet. It is said that, in some cases, neuralgic pain is alleviated by the application of the north pole of the magnet, but is augmented by the south pole. (Ibid. 1832- 33, vol. ii. p. 312.) Laennec1 speaks highly of the efficacy of magnetized plates in neuralgia of the lungs and in angina pectoris. He applied two strongly mag- netized oval steel plates, one to the left precordial region, the other exactly opposite on the back, so that their poles were opposed. He says the relief is increased if a blister be applied under the anterior plate. The late Dr. Thomas i .1 Treatise on the Discuses of the Chest, translated by Dr. Jt'orbes, pp. 4(U and 01)3. Loud. A627. 76 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Davies (Lectures on the Diseases of the Lungs and Heart, p. 497. Lond. 1835.) tried this plan, and with good effect. •_„;„ o/^;«./,< There are several modes of using magnets. For toothach, a simple straight or bar magnet, sometimes called a magnetic staff, is used. It is first made warm, and its north pole applied to the tooth: if the pain be not relieved, the south pole should then be substituted. Or the poles are applied to, or passed over, the gums or cheeks. In neuralgic pains, a compound magnet, called a magnetic battery, is commonly employed. This consists of several curved (horse-shoe, lyre-shaped, or U-shaped) magnets, placed one over the other, with all their poles similarly disposed, and fastened firmly together. Dr. Schmidt (Lancet for 1835-36, vol. i. p. 338.) employed a battery of five magnets of un- equal length, the centre one being the longest and thickest. This kind of battery is usually called by workmen a magnetic magazine. Magnetic collars, girdles, bracelets, &c, are made of several artificial magnets, with their opposite poles m contact, enclosed in linen or silk. Magnetized steel plates, (magnetic plates) of various forms, are fitted to any part of the body. They are applied to the naked skin, and worn by the aid of a bandage.1 To attempt to explain the methodus medendi of an agent whose therapeutical influence is not generally admitted, appears to me somewhat premature. I may remark, however, that should the existence of electro-vital or neuro-electric currents in the animal body, as announced by Prof. Zantedeschi and Dr. Favio,2 be hereafter fully established, we shall have a ready explanation of the medicinal power of magnetism in the well-known influence of a magnet over a voltaic current.3 II. AGENTIA HYGIENICA.-HYGIENIC AGENTS. (Non-Naturals.) Under the absurd name of the Non-Naturals, (Non-Naturalia) the ancients included six things necessary to health, but which, by accident or abuse, often became the cause of disease;—viz: Air, Aliment, Exercise, Excretions,.Sleep, and Affections of the Mind* These are now denominated Hygienic Agents.5 I propose very briefly to consider, as therapeutic agents, Food, Climate, and Exercise. Affections of the Mind have been already noticed. (See p. 41.) 1. Cibus.—Food. The substances employed as Food (Cibus) may be conveniently arranged in three groups, respectively denominated Aliments, (Alimcnta) Drinks, (Potulenta) and Condiments (Condimenta.) a. Aliment a.—Aliments. It will be convenient to consider aliments under the two heads of Alimentary Principles and Compound Aliments.6 1. Alimentary Principles. Dr. Prout7 has divided the alimentary principles into three great classes or » Figures of the different forms of magnetic instruments here referred to, are given by MM. Andry and Thouret, in their very elaborate and able article on Medical Magnetism, in the Memoires de la Societe Royale de Medecine, Annee 1779, p. 531. o Report on the Memoir on Electric Currents in Warmblooded Animals, by Prof. Zantedeschi and Dr. Favio, presented to the Royal Academy of Sciences of Brussels on the 4th April, 1840. By M. Cantraine. In Lond. Edinb. and Dubl. Mag. for April, 1841. a For farther information respecting Magnetism as a therapeutical agent, I must refer to Andry and Thouret's Memoir before quoted; as also to Dr. Becker's Der mineralische Magnelismus und seine Anwendung in der Heilkunst, Miihlhausen, 1829; Dr. Bulmerincq's Beitruge zur iintlichen Bchandlung mittelst des mine- ralischen Magnetismus, Berlin, 1835; and Dr. Schnitzer's Ueber die rationelle Anwendung des mineralischen Magnelismus, Berlin, 1837.—Also, Most's Encyklopddie der gesammlcn medicinischen und chirurgischen Praxis; art. Magnetismus mineralis, 2<=r Band. S. 394. Leipzig, 1837. * For an account of the Non-Naturals, consult Sutherland's Attempts to revive Ancient Medical Doctrines, vol. ii. p. 113. Lond. 1763.—Also, Willich's Lectures on Diet and Regimen, 3rd edit. Lond. 1800. * Rostan (Dict.deMedecine, art. Hygiene)terms them Matiere de IHygiene.—On HygiSne,consult Dunglison, On the Influence of Atmosphere and Locality ; Change of Air and Climate; Seasons; Food; Clothing; Bathing; Exercise; Sleep; Corporeal and Intellectual Pursuits, Sec. t\c. on Human Health; constituting Elements of Hygiene. Philadelphia, 1835. e See Tiedemann's Untersuchungen ueber das Nahrungs-Bed'urfniss, den Nahrungs-Trieb, und die JVahrungs- Mitttl des Menschen. Darmstadt, 1836. t Phil. T'nns. for 1827, p. 355. Al?". nn the Nature and Treatment of Stomach and Urinary Diseases 3d edit. Lond. 1S40. In the latter work he admits a fourth alimentary principle, which he calls aqueous. FOOD. 77 groups—the saccharine, the oleaginous, and the albuminous. He was led to this division by observing that milk, the only article actually furnished and intended by nature as food, always contains a saccharine principle, a butyraceous or oily principle, and a caseous, or, more correctly speaking, an albuminous principle. This arrangement of alimentary principles appears to me to be supe- rior to any hitherto devised; and I shall, therefore, adopt it. Class 1. Saccharine Principles. The principles contained in this class are'Sugar, Gum, Vegetable Jelly, Starch, and Lignin. These agree in being of vegetable origin, and in consisting of car- bon, hydrogen, and oxygen. With the exception of pectin or vegetable jelly, they contain oxygen and hydrogen in the ratio to form water; and might, there- fore, be termed hydrates of carbon. The following table is principally drawn up from Dr. Prout's paper in the Philosophical Transactions before referred to :— Sugar, Pure Sugar Candy. Impure ditto...... East India ditto... English refined ... East India refined. Maple............ Beet-root......... East India moist.. Diahetic.......... Of Narbonne Honey Of Starch.......... Of Milk............ GuM, Arabic............. Ditto, dried at 212'. 42-85 41-5 to 42-5 419 41-5 to 42 5 422 421 421 40-88 36 to 40? 36 36 36-2 400 36-3 41-4 57 15 58-5 to 57-5 581 58 5 to 57-5 578 57-9 57-9 59 12 64 to 60 ? 63-63 638 60-0 63-7 586 Starch, Fi ne Wheaten............ Ditto, dried at 212"........ Ditto, highly dried at 350". Arrow-root............... Ditto, dried at 212°........ Ditto, highly dried at 212». Lignin, From Box................ Ditto, dried.............. From Willow............ Ditto, dried.............. Pectin or Vegetable Jelly, From sweet apples (Mul- der') ................... Ditto, sour ditto (ditto).... In pectinate of lead (ditto) In pectinate of lead (Fremy»)............... Carbon 37 5 42-8 44 0 3(i-4 428 444 42 7 50-0 42 6 49 8 45198 45-853 45608 43 5 625 57 2 56 0 63 6 57-2 55 6 57 3 50 0 574 50^ Hydr 5352 5 479 5370 Oxyg. 49-450 48 668 49022 Those varieties of each principle which contain the smallest quantity of water, Dr. Prout terms strong or high; while those containing the largest proportion of water, he denominates weak or low. Thus, sugar-candy is a high or strong sugar,—sugar of starch, a weak or low one. Sugar is the only one of the above five principles capable of crystallizing; and is, therefore, the farthest removed from organization and life. Gum, though incapable of crystallizing, is not organized: it may be denominated an organiza- ble substance. Starch and lignin are organized substances. In Diabetes, abstinence from all the alimentary principles of this class is attended with a considerable diminution of the saccharine secretion. Farinaceous matter, though less objec- tionable than common sugar, is readily convertible into sugar. 1. Saccharina. Saccharine Substances.—Under this head are placed several sweet organic principles, capable, for the most part, of undergoing vinous fer- mentation when mixed with yeast and a due proportion of water. a. Sugars susceptible of Vinous Fermentation. 1. Crystallizable. This division includes common sugars, (viz. cane, maple, and beet- root sugars) granular sugars, (viz. grape, honey, starch, and diabetic sugars) and sugar of milk. 2. UncrystaUizable. Called liquid or mucous sugars, as treacle. b. Sugars unsusceptible op Vinous Fermentation.3 1. Crystallizable. Mannite. 2. UncrystaUizable. Glycyrrhizin, Glycerin, and Sarcocollin. i Pharm. Central-Blatt far 1838. p. 338. * Journ. de Pharm. xxvi 373 3 LiRbig (Turner's Elements of Chemistry, 7th ed. p. 914, Lond. 1840) regards those substances only as sac cnarine whieh are susceptible of the vinous fermentation. 78 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Sugar is a highly nutritious substance, and by the healthy stomach is readily digested. It does not agree, however, with some dyspeptics. Flatulency and preternatural acidity of stomach are frequently ascribed to it; but, in many cases, these conditions are referrible rather to the substances taken with the sugar, than to the saccharine matter itself. In diabetes the power of assimilating sugar is in a great measure lost, and the dietetical use of saccharine matter must be rigorously prohibited. Sugar appears to contribute directly to the nutrition of plants: for the saccharine juices of the sugar-cane, of the maple, of the beet root, cfcc, must be regarded as nutritive. Yet, it is somewhat remarkable, and apparently inconsistent with this statement, that saccharine matter is found in the excretions of plants; as those formed by the nectariferous glands. Sugar appears to be especially adapted for the food of young plants; hence we find it generated in many seeds (as peas, barley, &c.) during germination. It is nutritive to animals. Thus it is an important constituent of milk ;—a liquid intended for the nourishment of mammals during the first period of their existence. Many insects (especially the Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, and Diptera) feed on sugar or saccharine liquids. Its asserted poisonous action on some Annelida, birds, and frogs, is improbable, and wants confirmation. (Vide Murray, App. Med. vol. v. p. 411. Goett. 1790.) That a diet of sugar only is incapable of supporting the life of mammals and birds, has been fully proved by the experiments of Magendie (Ann. de Chim. iii. 66. 1816.) and of Tiedemann and Gmelin. (Milller's Elem. of Phys. by Baly, p. 482.) Dogs and geese die, when confined and fed solely on sugar and water, with all the symptoms of starvation. Change or alteration of diet, with the use of a certain portion of nitrogenous food, seems, therefore, to be essential to the vitality of these animals. Sugar is employed by man on account of its agreeable taste, rather than as a direct source of nourishment; yet, of its nutritive qualities, few entertain any doubt. During the sugar season of the West India Islands, "every negro on the plantations, and every animal, even the dogs, grow fat." (Wright, Med. Plants of Jamaica.) The injurious effects, which have been ascribed to sugar, are more imaginary than real. Some individuals have consumed large quantities of it, for a long series of years, without suffering any ill consequences. (Slare, Vindication of Sugars, Lond. 1715.) Stark's experiments (Stark's Work, ed. by J. C. Smith, pp. 160 and 115. Lond. 1788.) hardly admit of any legitimate conclusions being drawn therefrom, as to the action of sugar. The fondness of children for sugar may be regarded as a natural instinct; since nature, by placing it in milk, evidently in- tended it to form a part of their nourishment during the first period of their life. The popu- lar notion of its having a tendency to injure the teeth seems most absurd, as Dr. Slare (Op. cit.) has shown. "It has been alleged, that the eating of sugar spoils the colour of and corrupts the teeth: this, however, proves to be a mistake, for no people on the earth have finer teeth than the negroes in Jamaica." (Wright, op. cit.) The principal use of sugar, considered dietelically, is for sweetening various articles of food, whose nutritive qualities also it promotes. In diabetes, and the oxalate of lime diathesis, sugar and sweet foods should be rigorously excluded. In dyspepsia, its effects are to be care- fully examined; and, if found to be injurious, its use ought to be prohibited. The copious use of unrefined sugar is likely to prove injurious in some nephritic disorders, as the phos- phatic diathesis, on account of the lime contained in it. 2. Mucilaginosa. Gummata.—The gummy principles, called Arabin, Traga- canthin or Adraganthin, Cerasin or Prunin, Cydonin, and Bassorin, belong to this group. They possess nutritive properties; but are somewhat difficult of digestion, and apt to disagree with dyspeptics. Magendie (.Inn. de Chim. et Phys. t. iii. p. 66.) has shown that do?s, fed on gum alone, languish and die in two or three weeks ; and Tiedemann and Gmelin (Muller's Physiology, by Baly, vol. i. p. 482.) found that a goose, fed with gum, died on the sixteenth day. These, as well as other experiments, merely show, however, that animals require more than one kind of aliment. The nutritive property of gum is shown by several facts. In the first place it constitutes a portion of several well known articles of food ; secondly, it sometimes forms the principal or only food of man. Hasselquist (/ oyages and Travels in the Levant, p. 298. Lond 1766 Hells us, that a caravan, of more than a thousand persons, travelling from Abyssinia to Cairo and whose provisions were exhausted, supported themselves for two months on the gum thev were carrying as merchandize. The Moors and the Negroes near the Niger, employ it as a com- mon kind of food. The Hottentots also each are well aware of its nutritive properties (Mur ray, App. Medicam. vol. ii. p. 535. Ed. alt. Goett. 1794.) Six or eight ounces daily for an adult are said to be sufficient to sustain life. J W00DV FIBRE. 79 3. Vegeto-Gelatinosa. Vegetable Jelly.—To this head are referred Pectin or Grossulin, and Carrageenin. These are nutritive and digestible. Whether the tendency of some fruits to disorder the primae viae is fairly ascribable to the vegetable jelly, or to some other principle associated with it, has not been clearly made out. Pectin, under the influence of an alkali, is readily converted into pectic acid. The latter has been recommended for the formation of jellies, gelatinous conserves, &c. (Dumas, Traite de Chimie, t. v. p. 404. Paris, 1835.) 4. Farinosa. Amylaceous, farinaceous, or starchy substances.—Under this division are included Wheat-starch, Sago, Tapioca, Arrow-root, (West Indian, East Indian, South Sea, and Portland,) Potato-starch, Tous les Mois, Salop, L°nd- ""».-&«. of the~D~iabetes Mellitus, Lond. 1798. 2d » See: the statements of Dr. March, in the Dublin Hospital Revolts vol iii Dubl 1R99- »r„i rr> n . pn7h9u tesriSrthe *"""and Treatment ^«^««ni i&w~^^*-jsz\ 3 D'Arcet Reeherches sur les Substances nutritives que rev ferment lei i")« Paris ipoq va * ,„ . sar s£ f^ces ™Juiuet ^p- ^.^£."1^^ ANIMAL ALIMENTS. 83 6. Gluten.—This substance is found in corn; especially in wheat. By washing wheaten dough with a stream of water, the gum and the sugar are dissolved, the starch is washed away, while the gluten is left in the form of a ductile, tenacious, elastic, gray mass, which, by the action of alcohol, is resolved into albumen, mucin, and glutin. a. Albumen i3 insoluble in alcohol, but soluble in water. 6. Mucin is soluble in boiling alcohol, but deposites as the liquid cools. c. Glutin is soluble in alcohol, hut is almost insoluble in water. Gluten is believed to be highly nutritious, and to confer on wheat flour its well known superior alimentary qualities. " It is the presence of gluten in wheaten flour that renders it pre-eminently nutritious, and its viscidity or tenacity confers upon that species of flour its peculiar excellence for the manu- facture of macaroni, vermicelli, and similar pastes, which are made by a kind of wiredrawing, and for which the wheat of the south of Europe, (more abundant in gluten than our own) is particularly adapted. The superiority of wheaten over other bread depends upon the greater tenacity of its dough, which, in panary fermentation, is puffed up by the evolved carbonic acid, and retained in its vesicular texture, so as to form a very light loaf." (Brande's Manual of Chemistry, p. 1091, 5th ed. 1841.) 2. Compound Aliments. These we subdivide into animal and vegetable. *. Animal Aliments. We may conveniently arrange these in six classes;—viz. 1. Mammals. 3. Reptiles. 5. Crustaceous animals. 2. Birds. 4. Fishes. 6. Mollusks. Class 1. Mammalia.—Mammals. In this country, the mammals employed by man, as food, are the Ox, the Sheep, the Hog, the Deer, the Rabbit, and the Hare. Herbivorous are generally preferred to carnivorous animals for food; as the flesh of the latter has a somewhat disagreeable odour. Mammals furnish their flesh, their viscera, their blood, and their milk, as arti- cles of food. 1. Flesh.—This consists principally and essentially of muscle, intermixed, however, with tendons, aponeuroses, nerves, vessels, cellular tissue, blood, serum, and fat. Its chemical constituents are fibrine (principally,) albumen, gelatine, haematosin or the colouring matter of the blood, osmazome, fatty matter (stearine and elaine,) creatine,1 a peculiar nervous matter, and salts. The following are the proportions of the first three principles in the muscles of some kinds of flesh:—(Biande, op. supra cit.) Total of Nutritive Matter. 26 25 29 24 The flesh of young animals is more tender than that of old ones. That of castrated males is not only more delicate and finer grained, but has a more agree- able odour and flavour than that of the uncastrated animal. Spaying is said to improve the flavour of the flesh of the female. With regard to digestibility, Dr. Beaumont found that digestion is facilitated by minuteness of division and ten- derness of fibre; and retarded by opposite qualities. Venison he ascertained to be one of the most digestible substances; a circumstance which he refers to its i Creatin.' (from x/>i*c, flesh) is a nitrogenous, crystallizable substance, insoluble in alcohol. It was disco. vcred by Chevroul (Journ. de Chim Med I. viii. p. 518 ) 100 Parts of Muscle of Beef . . . Water. . . 74 . . . . 75 . . . . 71 , . 76 Albumen or Fibrine. ... 20 ... Gelatine. . . fi ..... Veal . . . . . . 19 . . . . . 6 ..... Mutton . . ... 22 . . . . . 7 ..... Pork . . . . . . 19 . . 5 ..... 84 ELEMENTS of materia medica. being easily divisible into shreds or small particles. Beef and mutton are also ^The folbwing'table shows the mean time of digestion of several kinds of flesh, according to Dr. Beaumont's experiments:— Hours. Venison steak, broiled ...... 1 Sucking pig, roasted....... 2 Lamb, fresh, broiled ....... 2 Beef steak, broiled........ 3 Mutton, fresh, broiled....... 3 Pork steak, broiled........ 3 Veal, fresh, broiled........ 4 Beef, old, hard, salted, boiled . . 4 By boiling flesh in water, the fibrine is corrugated, the albumen coagulated (though, by a prolonged action of heat and water, it yields a soluble nitrogenous matter;) the haematosine is also coagulated; the cellular tissue, the tendons, and the aponeuroses, yield gelatine; the fatty matters melt; while the osmazome and the creatine are dissolved.1 2. Viscera.—The brain, the liver, the spleen, the kidneys, the thymus,3 the lungs, and the alimentary canal of mammals,3 are employed as food. They abound principally in albumen. Composition of the Liver of the Ox A Composition of the Thymus of the Calft Vascular & Cutaneous Tissues Parenchyma (i. e. soluble parts) Minutes. . 35 . 30 . 30 . 0 0 . 15 . 0 . 15 Liver Brown oil, containing phosphorus White fatty flocculi - Nitrogenous matter - - - Albumen - Blood - Salts ..... Water ..... 18-94| Albumen - 81-05; Osmazome Gelatine - Peculiar animal matter Margaric acid - Fibrine Water . . - 100.00 3-89 7 6M)7 20-19 ? 1-21 68.64 Parenchyma of the liver 100.00 Thymus 1400 1-65 6-00 0-30 0.05 8-00 70-00 100-00 The following are the mean times of digestion of several viscera, according to Dr. Beaumont:— Hour. Minutes, 1..... 0 1.....45 2..... 0 Tripe, soused, boiled - Brains, animal, boiled Liver of the ox, fresh, broiled Sausages made of the flesh, viscera, or blood of animals, and cured by smoking, have some- times acquired, by keeping, highly deleterious qualities, which Buchner ascribes to the pre- sence of a peculiar fatty acid, which has been termed botulinic acid (Wtirst-fett-saure.) (See Christison's Treatise on Poisons, p. 585, 3d ed. Edinb. 1835.) Bacon also sometimes becomes poisonous. (Ibid. p. 592.) 3. Blood.—Among civilized nations, the pig is the only animal whose blood furnishes a distinct article of food. Mixed with fat and aromatics, and enclosed in the prepared intestines, the blood of this animal constitutes the substance sold in the shops under the name of black pudding (apexabo.) The deleterious qualities, which blood puddings sometimes acquire, have been above re- ferred to. 4. Milk.—Properly speaking, milk should be considered among Drinks; but, i See some interesting observations on the effects of heat and water on meat, in Soubeiran'a JVouo Traiti de Pharm. t. i. p 130. 2nde ed. Paris, 1840. ' o The thymus of the calf is commonly termed sweetbread. a The stomachs of ruminants, when prepared as food, constitute tripe. * Braconnot, Ann. de Chim. et Phys., x. 189. t Morin, Journ. de Chim. Mid. t. iii. p. 450. MILK. 85 as it contains a large quantity of alimentary matter, and, farthermore, as it yields some solid foods (butter and cheese,) it will be most convenient to consider it here. The composition of several kinds of milk is thus stated by MM. O. Henry and Chevallier. (Journ. de Pharm. t. xxv. p. 340.) Milk of the Cow. Ass. Woman. Goat. Ewe. - 4-48 . . . 1-82 . . . 1-52 . . . 4-02 . . . 4-50 - 3-13 . . . 0.11 . . . 3.55 . . . 3-32 . . . 420 - 4-77 . . . 6-08 . . . 6-50 . . . 528 . . . 5-00 - 0-60 . . . 0-34 . . . 0-45 . . . 0-58 . . . 0-68 - 87-02 . . 91-65 . . 87-98 . . 86.80 . . 85-62 -100 00 .. 100-00 . . 100-00 .. 10000 .. 100-00 Solid substances - - - - 12.98.. 8-35 .. 13-00 .. 13-20 . . 14-38 The nutritive principles of milk are (excluding water,)—caseum, butter, and sugar of milk. Perhaps the phosphate of lime, found in milk, ought to be consi- dered as an aliment for young animals; inasmuch as it is necessary to the deve- lopment of their osseous system. For the most part, milk is readily digestible; but, with adults, this is by no means universally the case. With some dyspep- tics, it proves heavy and difficult of digestion. I find that those, with whom it disagrees, are obnoxious to the use of butter; whence I infer, that the injurious qualities of milk are ascribable to the oily constituent; and, with such patients, ass's milk (which contains but little butter) usually agrees. The quantity of nutritive matter, contained in milk, varies not only with the species, but with the individual,—nay, with the same individual under different circumstances. The quality of the milk is affected by constitution, age, food, period after parturition, mental emotion, dis- ease, the use of medicines, &c. Dr. Young (Quoted by Cullen, Mat. Med.) found, that a bitch, fed on vegetable aliment, yielded an acescent and spontaneously coagulable milk; but, when animal food was substi- tuted, the milk became alkaline, and did not spontaneously coagulate. Dr. Cullen says, " I allege it to be a matter of experience, that, supposing the quantity of liquid to be the same, nurses living entirely, or for the greater part, upon vegetable aliment, afford a greater quantity of milk, and of a more proper quality, than nurses living upon much animal food. This I venture to assert—from the observations of fifty years." The influence which many medicines, taken by the mother, have over the sucking infant, is a circumstance known to every nurse, though Cullen denies it. We can modify the colour of the milk by mixing saffron or madder with the food; the odour may be affected by various cruciferous and alliaceous plants; the taste may be altered by the use of bitters, as wormwood; and lastly, the medicinal effect may be also influenced. Children may be salivated by sucking nurses under the influence of mercury, or purged by the exhibition of drastics, or narcotized by the administration of opiates to the nurse. These facts are so familiar to every one, that farther evidence of them is scarcely requisite. It is curious, however, that Simon (Journ. de Pharm. xxv. 354.)- failed to recognise in the milk various salts, which were taken by the mouth, and were found in abundance in the urine. Mental emotions also affect the quality of the milk. I have frequently seen the bowels of the child disordered in consequence of some sudden emotion on the part of the mother. It is also not improbable that diseased conditions of the parent may render the milk unhealthy. Labillardiere (Diet. Mat. Med. iv. 23.) states that the milk of a cow, affected with a kind of tuberculous phthisis (pommeliere,) contained seven times more phosphate of lime than usual. Dupuy1 also speaks of the large quantity of calcareous matter in the milk of cows, in whose lungs abundant deposites of the same sub- stance were found. Other morbid changes in the milk have been observed by Donne, Robi- quct, and Lassaignc. The facts now mentioned, are of the greatest moment, not only in re- ference to the frequency of disease in cows, and, therefore, to the possible morbific character of their milk, but they are of considerable importance in reference to the milk of the human subject. I think, with this statement before us, it is highly improper to allow a female, with any trace or suspicion of tuberculous disease, to suckle. Not that a few grains, more or less, of phosphate of lime in the milk, can probably do any injury to the child; but the fact once established, that the milk may be thus altered by disease, leads to the suspicion that some other substances not yet recognised by their physical or chemical characters, may be in the milk of diseased nurses, and which may have an injurious influence on the child; and the sus- Constituents. Caseum Butter Sugar of Milk Various Salts Water 1 Uuoled by Andrei, Treat, on Pathol. Anat.;by Tuwnshend and West, vol. i.p. 675. 86 ELEMENTS of materia medica. picion does not confine itself to those affected with tuberculous diseases: other hereditary or constitutional affections may also be attended with altered conditions of the milk. This sua- picion is strengthened by the common observation, that the milk of nurses will not equally suit different children. 'A child, quite healthy, and in good condition, will sometimes, without any evident disease, fall off, and get into what is commonly called a bad condition, apparently from a change of the nurse. I am aware that we cannot always refer this to any positively hurtful matter in the milk. The quantity of nutritive matter in the same quantity of milk of two nurses may be very different: according to Payen, (Journ. de Chim. Med. t. iv. p. 118.) milk with too much nutritive matter in it may disagree with the child. Another point worthy of attention is the quantity of milk yielded in a given time. Payen says it varies in different women as much as from one to ten and a half in the same time. a. Butter.—Butter is employed rather as a condiment than as a direct alimen- tary matter. Its properties have been already noticed (See p. 81.) When ren- dered rancid by keeping,—or empyreumatic by heat, it is exceedingly injurious to the dyspeptic. Cream consists principally of butter, but mixed with a certain portion of caseum or whey. b. Cheese.—The basis of this is caseum or curd coagulated, somewhat altered in its nature, and mixed with more or less butter. Its richness is in proportion to the quantity of butter present. Stilton cheese is prepared from milk to which cream is added. Chesire, and the best Gloucester cheeses, are made from unskim- med milk. Suffolk, and Parmesan cheeses, are prepared from skim-milk. Cheese is nutritious, but difficult of digestion. When old and strong, it is taken as a con- diment, to promote the secretion of saliva and gastric juice, and thereby to assist digestion. Toasted cheese is bad for dyspeptics. Cheese, like sausages and bacon, sometimes acquires poisonous properties by keeping. (Christison, op. supra cit.) Class 2. Aves.—Birds. The eggs and flesh of these animals are used for food. 1. Eggs,—Both the white or glaire and the yelk are employed as food. The former owes its nutritive property to albumen,—the latter to both albumen and oil. Albumen.......12-0 Mucus........2-7 Salts......... 0-3 Water........85-0 White of Egg----100 01 Albumen......17-47 Yellow oil and fat - - 28-75 Water........53-78 Yelk of Egg------100-009 Eggs are highly nutritive, and, under some circumstances, are readily digested. When beaten up, in tea, or slightly boiled, they are usually easy of digestion, though with some persons they are very apt to disagree. When boiled hard, and especially when fried in butter or oil, they are exceedingly difficult of digestion, and prove highly injurious to the dyspeptic. The following are the mean times of digestion of eggs, as observed by Dr. Beaumont:— Hour. Minutes. Eggs whipped, raw...... 1 - - - 30 Eggs fresh, raw........2 --- 0 Eggs fresh, roasted......2 --- 15 Eggs fresh, soft boiled.....3 - - - 0 Eggs fresh, hard boiled-----3 --- 30 Eggs fresh, fried.......3 ,-. 30 The oil of the yelk renders this part of the egg scarcely so easy of digestion as the white or glaire. 2. Flesh.—The flesh of the common dunghill fowl is white, contains but little osmazome, and, when young, is exceedingly tender. The quantity of nutritive matter, in chicken flesh, is thus stated by Mr. Brande: — 1 Bostock, quoted by Gmelin. a prout, Phil. Trans. lo*2,p. 3cd. FISHES. 87 Total of 100 Parts of Albumen or Nutritive Musck of Water. Fibrine. Gelatine. Matter. Chicken. ... 73 ... . 20 ..... 7 . . . . 27 Chicken flesh is easily digested and nutritious. It is the least irritating or sti- mulating, perhaps, of all animal foods; and is often retained on the stomachs of invalids when other meats would be immediately rejected. Chicken broth is well adapted for irritable stomachs. The flesh of wild gallinaceous birds, as the pheasant and the partridge, is darker coloured, firmer, richer in osmazome, somewhat less digestible, and more stimulating than that of chicken. The flesh of water-fowl, as the goose and duck, is mostly firm, penetrated with fat, and often difficult of digestion. It is scarcely adapted for the invalid.1 The employment of the enlarged liver of the goose, in the preparation of the pates de foies gras, has been already referred to. (See p. 48.) These livers were highly esteemed in the time of Pliny. (Nat. Hist. lib. x. cap. 27, ed. Valp.) They contain a quantity of phosphoric oil, which renders them difficult of digestion. Dr. Prout (Op. sapra cit. p. 244.) suggests.that indolent and dyspeptic individuals, who partake of these diseased productions, " run considera- ble risk in inoculating and converting their own livers, or other organs, into a similar mass of disease." Class 3. Reptilia.—Reptiles. The Green or Edible Turtle (Chelonia esculenta, or C. midas) is the only rep- tile used in this country as food. It is highly nutritive, and, probably, when plainly cooked, is easy of digestion; but when taken in the form of the highly esteemed " turtle soup," is very apt to disagree with dyspeptics. Class 4. Pisces.—Fishes. The quantity of fibrine, albumen, and gelatine, found in some kinds of fish have been ascertained by Mr. Brande, who states them to be as follows:— Total of 100 Parts of Albumen or Nutritive Muscle of Water. Fibrine. Gelatine. Mutter. Cod .... 79 .... 14 .... 7 .... 21 Haddock. .. 82 .... 13 .... 5 .... 18 Sole .... 79 .... 15 .... 6 .... 21 Morin (Journ. de Pharm. t. viii. p. 61.) analyzed the flesh of the Smelt, and found it to consist of yellow, phosphoric oily matter, osmazome, gelatine, mucus, albumen, fibrine, sal ammoniac, phosphates of potash, lime, iron, and magnesia, chloride of potassium, and carbonate of lime. Fish are less satisfying to the appetite than either mammals or birds. They are also less nourishing. Those fish (as salmon and eels,) which abound in oily matter, are more nutritive than other kinds, but are proportionably less digestible. The thirst and uneasy feeling at the stomach, frequently experienced after the use of the richer kinds of fish, have led to the use of spirit as a condiment for this kind of food. Hence the vulgar proverb, that " brandy is Latin for fish." (See Dr. George Cheyne's Essay of Health and Long Life, p. 41.) Skin diseases are said to be more prevalent among those who live much on fish. (Troil's Letters on Iceland, p. 319. Lond. 1780.) By the continued use offish, the seminal secretion is said to be promoted, and the sexual feelings raised. This effect is ascribed to the phosphoric oil which these animals contain.2 The following are the mean times of digestion of several fish, according to Dr. Beaumont's experiments:— ■ l'>r farther detail? respecting the properties of the flesh of birds, I must refer the reader toC'ullin's Trea- tise of the Materia Medica, vol. i. p 376, Edin. 1789; and Plenck's Bromatologia. Viennte, 1783. » Foster [Observations made during a Voyage Round the ll'orld, p 315, Lond. 1778) has endeavoured to prove " that feeding on flnh by no means contributes to the increase of numbers in a nation." 83 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Hours. Minutes 1 30 1 30 2 0 3 30 4 0 Trout (Salmon,) fresh, boiled ---------------------fried Cod-fish, cured dry, boiled . Flounder, fresh, fried Salmon, salted, boiled The white fish, as whiting, haddock, sole, flounder, the cod, and turbot, are the most easily digestible of the fishes in common use, in consequence of con- taining less oil. They are also less stimulating to the system, and, therefore, are the best adapted for the use of invalids. The whiting and the haddock are the most delicate and tender; the turbot and the cod the least so. It must be remembered, however, that the sauces (melted butter, &c.,) usually taken with these fish, are exceedingly obnoxious to the stomach, and, therefore, must be excluded from the table of the invalid. Salmon, eels, herrings, and sprats, abound in oil; and, in consequence, are difficult of digestion, very apt to disturb the sto- mach, and are exceedingly injurious to the dyspeptic By drying, salting, and smoking, the digestibility of fish is diminished. Some species offish, especially in tropical climates, possess poisonous proper- ties, either at all times, or at certain seasons. Certain individuals are more sus- ceptible offish-poison than others. (On the subject of Fish-poison, the reader is referred to Dr. Christison's Treatise on Poisons.) Some of the viscera of fish are prepared and used separately as articles of food. Thus, the swimming-bladder constitutes the well-known sound and isinglass,— substances of a gelatinous nature, and already noticed. (See p. 82.) The roe or ovary (commonly called the hard roe, to distinguish it from the milt or testicle, called the soft roe) of most fishes is eaten.) It contains a phosphoric oil. The substance, called caviare, is the prepared roe of the sturgeon. The following is the composition of isinglass and caviare. (Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. ii. 1468 and 1469.) Gelatine 70-0 Yellow odorous fatly oil . 4 3 Ozmazome [?] 16-0 Soluble albumen , 6-3 Membrane, insoluble in boil °g Insoluble albumen . 24-8 water .... 2-5 ■ Chloride of sodium and sulpl ate Free acid and salts . 4-0 ofsoda .... 6-7 Water .... • 7-5 Gelatine, with some salts Water .... , 0-5 57-5 Isinglass 100-0 Fresh impressed Caviare . . 100-0 Class 5. Crustacea.—Cru^taceous Animals. To this class belong Lobsters, Crabs, Cray-fish, Prawns, and Shrimps.— "They have a white, firm flesh, which contains much gelatine. In the mem- brane, which encloses the calcareous shell, is found a resinous substance, which, in the living animals, is of a brownish-green colour, but becomes red by boiling. From this matter proceeds the peculiar odour and taste of the broth of these ani- mals. I he flesh is difficult of digestion; the broth is stimulant. In febrile and inflammatory complaints their use is injurious." (Tiedemann, op supra cit. p. 136.) A cutaneous eruption, and even colic, sometimes follow their ingestion. Several of the Crustacea are poisonous. Class 6. Mollusca.—Mollusks. The Oyster, the Muscle, the Periwinkle, the Cockle, the Whelk, and the SEEDS. 89 Limpet, belong to this class.1 The flesh of the Oyster was analyzed by Pas- quier, (Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. ii. 1478.) who found it consists of water, 87-4; and of osmazome, mucus, albumen, fibrine, and gelatine, together, 12-6. It fur- nishes a delicious article of food; and is more digestible in the raw state than when cooked (by roasting, scolloping, or stewing;) for the heat employed coagu- lates and hardens the albumen, and corrugates the fibrine, which are then less easily soluble in the gastric juice; and the heated butter, generally used as an accompaniment, adds still more to the indigestibility of the oyster. The follow- ing are the mean times of digestion of oysters, according to the experiments of Dr. Beaumont:— Hours. Minutes, Oysters, fresh, raw ... 2 - 55 Oysters, fresh, roasted - - - 3 - 15 Oysters, fresh, stewed 3 - 30 Oyster soup, boiled ... 3 - 30 As far as my own personal observation extends, the finest raw oysters of the London market, usually called natives, rarely disagree even with dyspeptics; and Dr. Cullen declares oysters to be easy of digestion. Very opposite, however, is the experience of some other writers.3 Poisonous effects even have been ascribed to oysters. (See Christison's Treatise on Poisons.) Considering the enormous consumption of these animals, their supposed ill effects must be of extremely rare occurrence. The accuracy of the statement of Dr. Clarke, (Trans, of the London College of Physicians, vol. v. p. 109.) that oysters, taken immediately after delivery, are apt to occasion apoplexies or convulsions, appears to me to be improbable. An aphrodisiac property is usually ascribed to oysters. These mollusks have been recommended in phthisis, and in some abdominal affections. The Muscle has on many occasions operated as a poison. (Christi- son, op. supra cit.) The Great or Vineyard Snail (Helix pomatia) is a popular remedy for emaciation, with hectic fever and phthisis, on account of its supposed nourishing qualities. /3. Vegetable Aliments. These may be arranged in eight classes:— 1. Seeds. 2. Fleshy Fruits. 3. Roots, Subterranean Stems, and Tubers. 4. Buds and Young Shoots. 5. Leaves and Leafstalks. 6. Receptacles and Bracts. 7. Stems. 8. Cryptogamia, or Flowerless Plants. Class 1. Semina.—Seeds. The seeds used as food are of two kinds, farinaceous and oleaginous. 1. Mealy or Farinaceous Seeds.—The most important of these are the Cereal Grains and the Leguminous Seeds. The Chestnut also belongs to this kind of seeds. The nutritive principles of the Cereal grains are Starch, Gluten, Gum, and Sugar. Of these grains none equal Wheat in nutritive qualities, which it owes to the large quantity of gluten which it contains. It yields the finest, whitest, • The mollusks just mentioned, and the crustaceous animals used as food, constitute the Shell Fish of the ■ hop!!. Of course, strictly speaking, they are not fish at all. ■' Peariion, Pract. Synopsis of the Materia Alimentaria, Lond. 1808; PariB's Treatise on Diet, 5th ed Lond. 1837. Vol. I.—12 90 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. and most digestible kind of bread. Oats are nutritive, but less so than wheat. Oatmeal " is especially the food of the people of Scotland, and was formerly that of the northern parts of England; countries which have always produced as healthy and as vigorous a race of men as any other in Europe." (Cullen's Materia Me- dica, vol. i. p. 278.) Unfermented oat-bread, in those unaccustomed to it, is apt to occasion dyspepsia, with heartburn, and was formerly thought to have a ten- dency to cause skin diseases, but without just grounds. Gruel is a mild, nutri- tious, and easily-digested article of food, in fevers and inflammatory affections. It is well adapted for irritable conditions of the stomach. Barley, when deprived of the husk (which is slightly acrid and laxative,) is highly nutritious. Count Rumford (Essay on Feeding the Poor.) regards barley-meal, when used for soup, as three or four times as nutritious as wheat-flour. Barley-bread is said to be more difficult of digestion than wheaten bread. Barley-water is a mild, easily digestible liquid. Rye is nutritive, but less so than wheat. In those unaccus- tomed to it, rye-bread is apt to occasion diarrhcea, which Cullen ascribes to its readily becoming acescent. Pice is the ordinary sustenance of many oriental nations. Being less laxative than the other cereal grains, it is frequently pre- scribed, by medical men, as a light, digestible, uninjurious article of food, in diarrhoea and dysentery; and, in consequence, it is, with the public, a reputed drying and astringent agent. Various ill effects, such as disordered vision, &c. have been ascribed to its use;1 but without any just grounds. Neither does there appear to be any real foundation for the assertion of Dr. Tytler, (Lancet, 1833-4, vol. i.) that malignant cholera (which he calls morbus oryzeus!) is in- duced by it. Maize, or Indian Corn, is nutritive; but, being deficient in gluten, is not adapted for manufacture into bread. It is apt to occasion diarrhcea in those unaccustomed to it. (Dunglison, Elements of Hygiene, p. 289. Philad. 1835.) In America, Asia, and some parts of Europe, it is used largely for human suste- nance.3 Millet, both common and Italian, is cultivated in Italy as an article of food. Sorghum, Durra, or Guinea Corn, is another of the cerealia employed, in some parts of Africa, as an article of food. Various foods are prepared from the meal or flour of the cerealia. Tho most important of these is Bread. 1. Bread.—There are two principal kinds of bread,—the one fermented or leavened, the other unfermented or unleavened. a. Fermented or leavened bread.—The best is that made from wheat, as I have before stated. Fine bread, prepared from flour only, is the most nutritive and digestible. That which con- tains the bran is laxative, and is used by persons troubled with habitual constipation. Rolls, and other kinds of fancy bread, are less digestible than the common loaf bread. All kinds, when eaten new, are injurious to dyspeptics. b. Unfermented or unleavened bread.—Biscuit is the best kind of unleavened bread, and sometimes suits the stomach of the dyspeptic when leavened bread disagrees. That which is free from butter is to be preferred. 2. Pastry. (Baked paste.)—The action of heat on the butter or lard used in the manufac- ture of pastry, renders this compound highly injurious to the dyspeptic. "All pastry is an abomination:" justly observes Dr. Paris. "I verily believe," he adds, "that one half, at least, of the cases of indigestion which occur, after dinner-parties, may be traced to this cause." 3. Puddings, Pancakes, &c—"The most digestible pudding is that made with bread, or biscuit and boiled flour: batter pudding is not so easily digested; and suet puddine is to be considered as the most mischievous to invalids in the whole catalogue. Pancaked objec tionable, on account of the process of frying imparting a greasiness, to which the dyspeptic stomach is not often reconciled. (Paris's Treatise on Diet, p. 233, 5th ed. 1837.) Of the Leguminous Seeds, peas and beans are the best known. Their com- position, as determined by Einhof, is a3 follows:__ nMEifin! ^uffiJSi^SftKt S °fthe ** MiM- Tran9laled inl° English, p. 129. JS* ffi^ Treatise on CobbetVs Corn; Quart. Journ. Agri- SEEDS. 91 Peas Garden Bean Kidney Bean (Pisum sativum.) (Ficia Faba.) (Phaseolus vulgaris.) Starch..... . . . 3245 . . . 3417 . . 35-94 Amylaceous fibre . . . . 21-88 . . . 15-89 . . 1107 Legumin .... Gum..... . . . 14-56 . . . 10.86 . . 20.81 . . . 6.37 . . . 4-61 . . 19.37 Albumen .... . . . 1-72 . . . 0-81 . 1-35 Extractive matter . . . . 211 . . . 3-54 . . 3-41 . 1005 . . 15-63 . . 7-50 . . . 1406 . . . (dried) Salts . . . . . 6-56 . . . 3.46 . . 0'98 . 0-55 Loss . . • . . . . . . 0-29 . . — 10000 100-00 100-00 Peas and beans are nutritious; but they are apt to disturb the digestive organs, and to occasion flatulence and colic. Their difficult digestibility increases with their age. When young, they are less nourishing, but more digestible. They are usually regarded as being somewhat stimulating and heating, and, therefore, not adapted for febrile and inflammatory affections. Their stimulant influence on horses is well known to veterinarians. The Chestnut possesses considerable nutritive power, and in Lombardy is ft3ed as food by the lower classes. Its sweetness, especially when roasted, indicates the presence of sugar. No oil can be obtained from it by pressure. In the raw state, it is very difficult of digestion; it requires to be cooked (roasted) to split the starch grains which it contains, and thereby to render them readily digestible. Dyspetics should carefully avoid chestnuts, even in the cooked state. 2. Oily Seeds.—To this division belong the Almond,1 the Walnut, the Hazle-nut, the Cashew-nut, the Pistachio-nut, the Stone-Pine-nut, (Pignoli- Pine,) and the Cocoa-nut. These contain a quantity of fixed oil, which, while it confers on them great nutritive qualities, renders them very difficult of diges- tion. Their use should be carefully avoided by all dyspeptics. Class 2. Fleshy Fruits, A considerable number of the esculent fleshy fruits will be described in a sub- sequent part of this work: hence, a brief notice of them will be sufficient here. 1. Stone Fruits. Drupes.—The Peach, the Apricot, the Nectarine, the Plum, and the Cherry, are the principal stone-fruits used in this country. They are usually regarded as difficult of digestion; and the popular opinion is probably the correct one, for Dr. Beaumont found that from six to ten hours were required for the artificial digestion of peaches. They are apt to disorder the digestive organs, and to occasion griping and relaxation. 2. Pomaceous Froits. Apples.—The Apple, the Pear, and the Quince, are difficult of digestion; the Pear being the least so. 3. Baccate Froits. Berries.—The Grape, the Gooseberry, and the Currant, are berries. Their skins (epicarps) and seeds are indigestible. The pulp is apt to relax the bowels. The Grape, if taken without the skin and seeds, is the safest of these fruits. 4. Aurantiaceous Fruits. Hesperidium or Aurantium.—The Orange, the Lemon, the Citron, the Lime, and the Shaddock, belong to this group. The Orange, when unripe, is apt to cause griping; but when quite ripe, i3 rarely inadmissible: the seeds and white tissue of the rind should, however, be re- jected. i The properties of this deed, which may be taken as the type of the oily seeds, will be fully described in a subsequent part of this work. D 2 ELEMEN'IS OF MATERIA MEDICA. 5. Cucurbitaceous Fru.ts. Pepones.-To this head belong the Melon the Pumpkin, the Vegetable Marrow, and the Cucumber. They yield but little nutritive matter, and readily disagree with the dyspeptic. 6. Leguminous Fruits. Legumes.—The Tamarind contains but little nutri- ment. The legume of the Phaseolus vulgaris, or kidney-bean, is brought to the table when boiled. . 7. Syconls.—Figs are nutritive, but are apt to occasion flatulence, griping, and relaxation of bowels, especially in children. 8. Sorosis.—The Mulberry yields but little nutritive matter, and readily dis- orders the bowels. The Pine-apple belongs to this division of fruits. 9. ETiERio.—The fleshy receptacle of the Strawberry is not, for the most part, injurious; especially when the achenia (commonly termed seeds) are removed. Class 3. Roots, Subterranean Steins, and Tubers. The most important of these is the Potato; which, when in good condition and boiled, furnishes a highly nutritious and easily digested article of food. Po- tatoes are more palatable and nutritive when boiled so as to make them mode- rately soft, though not to injure their shape; but they are more digestible when boiled so as to be easily mashed. Waxy and new potatoes are less digestible than old mealy ones. Potatoes, which have germinated, have sometimes proved noxious to cattle, and which is said to arise from the large quantity of solanina contained in the buds. The process of cooking potatoes is probably useful in two ways: it splits the starch grains, and thereby renders them readily digestible; and secondly, it destroys or extracts some noxious matter. The latter circum- stance seems proved by the fact, that the water in which potatoes have been boiled, has, on some occasions, been found to possess poisonous properties. Of the Cruciferous or Siliquose roots used as food, the Turnip contains the most nourishment, and is readily digested, though occasionally it creates flatu- lence. The Umbelliferous roots, in common use, are the Carrot and the Parsnip. These are saccharine, and slightly nutritive; but the volatile oil, which they con- tain, renders their flavour unpleasant to many persons, and causes them to be apt to disagree with dyspeptics. Class 4. Buds and Young Shoot?. Onions, Leeks, Garlic, and the Shallot, are usually ranked among roots. They are, however, subterranean buds, with thick and fleshy scales. When deprived, by boiling, of their acrid volatile oil, they are slightly nutritive. The young shoots of Asparagus are nourishing. When eaten, they communi- cate a peculiar odour to the urine. The melted butter eaten with them is inju- rious to the dyspeptic. Class 5. Leaves and Leaf Stalks. The herbaceous part of the Water-Cress, the leaves of Lettuce and of Endive, and the seed-leaves of White Mustard and Common Cress, are eaten raw under the name of salads (Acetaria,) with the addition of vinegar, oil, salt, and pepper. They yield very little nourishment. The Cabbage, the Cauliflower, Broccoli, the Savoy, Spinach, &c, are em- ployed only when boiled. They are apt to disagree with dyspeptics. Spinach usually relaxes the bowels. The stalks of Rhubarb leaves are used for tarts and puddings. Their use is objectionable when there is a tendency to oxalate of lime calculi. " I have seen," observes Dr. Prout, (Op. supra cit. p. 65.) " well-marked instances in which an oxalate of lime nephritic attack has followed the free use of rhubarb, (in the shape of tarts, &c.,) particularly when the patient has been in the habit, at the same time, of drinking hard waler.,'> Class 6. Receptacles and Bracts. The fleshy receptacle and bracts of the Artichoke are used as food. DRINKS. 93 Class 7. Stems. From the stems of several Cycadaceae, as well as of some Palms, is obtained a farinaceous substance, which is employed, in the countries where it is pro- cured, as an article of food. Sago is procured from this source. Class 8. Cryptogamia.—Flowerless Plants. No important articles of food are obtained from this class. 1. Ferns.—From the rhizomes of ferns is obtained, in some of the Polynesian Islands, as well as in some other parts of the world, a farinaceous or ligneous matter, which is employed by the natives as a nutritive substance. (Tiedemann, op. supra cit. p. 203.) 2. Lichens.—Several species of Gyrophora (as G. proboscidea and cylindrica) are employed by the hunters of the Arctic regions of America as articles of food, under the name of tripe de roche. They supported Capt. Sir John Franklin and his companions, in 1821, for many days. The bitter principle of these plants, however, proved noxious to several of the party. (Narrative of a Journey to the Shores of the Polar Sea. Lond. 1823.) Iceland moss also yields nutritive matter; but, to be available as food, the bitter matter of the lichen must be sepa- rated. 3. Algije. Sea Weeds.—Several species of the inarticulated Alga? are occa- sionally employed, in some parts of the British islands, as articles of food, or as condimentary substances. (See Greville's Algae Britannicse. Edin. 1830.) Laver is sometimes met with in the London shops. 4. Fungi. Mushrooms.—Though a considerable number of species of fungi are edible—in fact, several form delicious articles of food—a small number only is in common use in this country. This has arisen, in great measure, from the difficulty experienced by the public in discriminating wholesome from poisonous species. Nay, it would appear that the same species is under some circumstances edible, under others deleterious. This, if true, is a very proper ground for dis- trust. "So strongly did the late Professor L. C. Richard feel the prudence of this, that although no one was better acquainted with the distinctions of fungi, he would never eat any; except such as had been raised in gardens in mushroom beds." (Lindley, Nat. Syst. of Bot. 2d edit. p. 442.) The edible species in most common use in this country are, 1st. Agaricus campestris, (common field or cultivated mushroom,) which, in the adult state, is employed in the prepara- tion of ketchup, and is eaten fresh, either stewed or broiled: the young or button mushroom is pickled. 2dly. Morchella esculenta, (common morel,) employed to flavour gravies, ragouts, &c. 3dly. Tuber cibarium, (common truffle,) a sub- terraneous fungus, used for seasoning. No less than thirty-three species of fungi are eaten in Russia. (Dr. Lefrere, Lond. Med. Gaz. xxiii. p. 414.) b. Potulenta.—DrinkSr The liquids, taken by the mouth to quench thirst, are denominated drinks. Of these, a very brief notice is all that can be given here. Several of them will be more fully noticed in subsequent parts of this work. 1. Aqua. Water.—This is probably the natural drink of all adults. It is a vital stimulus, and is more essential to our existence than aliment. It serves at least three important purposes in the animal economy: firstly, it repairs the loss of the aqueous part of the blood, caused by the action of the secreting and ex- haling organs; secondly, it is a solvent of various alimentary substances, and, therefore, assists the stomach in the act of digestion, though, if taken in very large quantities, it may have an opposite effect, by diluting the gastric juice; thirdly, it is probably a nutritive agent,—that is, it assists in the formation of the solid parts of the body. From the latter opinion, which I hold with Count Rumford, (Essays, vol. i. p. 191, 5th cd. 1800.) many, however, will be dis- posed to dissent. DI ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Soft uteris to be preferred as a drink to hard water becau,e it is a better solvent of vegetable and animal matters; and farthermore, because the continued ngestion ofTe saline constituents of hard waters may slowly P»^JJ«ion. m some diseases. The presence of decomposing organic matter renders water Sy nox ous. Dr. Lambe* considered it to be the cause of various constitu. tional diseases, and hence he advocated the use of distilled water; but of the accuracv of his opinion we have not sufficient evidence. The obvious effec Xh rLuIts fomPruse of water containing putrescent matter is dysentery.- Lis a curious, but well established fact, that pure water more readily acquire. . metallic impregnation from leaden cisterns or pipes than hard water Distilled water, aided by atmospheric air. readily corrodes lead: but if a neutral salt as chloride of sodium or sulphate of soda, be added to the water, the corrosive action is impaired. Hence, rain-water is more apt than well-water to become impreg- nated with lead. 2 Toast-Water.—Water is rendered much more palatable and agreeable when impregnated with toasted bread or biscuit. The toast communicates to it a little gum, and an empyreumatic matter. From the latter the water acquires colour and flavour. 3 Tea —Notwithstanding the extensive employment of tea in this country, it is'no easy matter to ascertain its precise effects on the system. Its astnngency is fully proved by its chemical properties. Its peculiar influence over the ner- vous system, and which is especially manifested after the use of green tea, is another well-established effect. This influence is, in some respects, somewhat allied to that exercised by fox-glove: for both tea and fox-glove diminish the tendency to sleep, and act as sedatives to the vascular system. Hence, tea is employed as a drink by those who are accustomed to nocturnal study. Strong green tea, taken in large quantities, is capable, in some constitutions, of pro- ducing most distressing feelings; (Dr. E. Percival, Dubl. Hosp. Reports, vol. i. p. 219.) and of operating as a narcotic. Part of the effects sometimes ascribed to it are referrible to the water, the temperature at which it is swallowed, or to the substances (milk and sugar) added to it. Weak tea rarely disagrees with the invalid, and is admissible and refreshing in a variety of maladies. It is well adapted for febrile and inflammatory complaints; and is particularly valuable when we are desirous of diminishing a tendency to sleep. 4. Coffee is a tonic and stimulating drink. It occasions thirst, and not unfrequently disordeis the bowels. It is usually described as having constipating effects; but I know two individuals on whom it has a relaxing effect. It pos- sesses anti-soporific powers, and is used, therefore, by those who desire noctur- nal study. 5. Chicory, or Succory, yields a wholesome beverage, but which wants the fine'aromatic flavour for which coffee is so celebrated. I am informed, however, that the flavour of coffee mixed with chicory is preferred by some persons to that of unmixed coffee. .... 6. Chocolate is a very nourishing beverage, devoid of some of the ill qualities ascribed to tea and coffee; but, on account of the oil which enters into its com- position, it is difficult of digestion, and is apt to disagree with dyspeptics. 7. Coco is less oily, and being somewhat astringent, is adapted for persons with relaxed bowels. 8. Beer. Malt Liquor.—Under this head are included Ale, Stout, Porter, and the weaker kinds of beer, commonly known as Table or Small Beer. All i A Medical and Experimental Inquiry into the Origin, Symptoms, and Cure of Constitutional Diseases. a Dr Cheyne, in the Dublin Hospital Reports, vol. iii. p. 11.—Dr. Copland's Diet, of Pract. Med. art. Dysen- tery P- 698-99—At the Nottingham Assizes, in 1836, it was proved at a trial, on which I was a witness, that dysentery, in an aggravated form, was caused in cattle hy the use of water contaminated with putre- scent vegetable matter, produced by the refuse of a starch manufactory. (See a brief report of the trial in the Veterinarian lor la'M, p. 457) DRINKS. 95 these are fermented decoctions of malt and hops. follows:— Sp. gr. 1-111 to 1120 1097 to 1-111 1-077 to 1092 Ale, Burton, 1st sort " " 2d sort " " 3d sort Common......1070 to 1-073 Ditto.........1058 Their specific gravity is as gr. Sp. Porter, common sort . . 1-050 double......1-055 Brown Stout......1064 " " ditto best 1-072 Beer, common small . . 1-014 " good table .... 1-033 to 1039 Beer consists of water, alcohol, lupulite, (the bitter principle of hops,) volatile oil of hops, gum, sugar, gluten, brown extractive, a small portion of tannic acid, carbonic acid, and the phosphates of lime and magnesia held in solution by phosphoric and acetic acids. The quantity of alcohol in beer is as follows:— Ale, Burton " average Brown Stout London Porter (average) " Small Beer Proportion of spirit (sp. gr. 0-825) per cent, by Measure. 8-88 6-87 6-80 4-20 1-28 Ditto, per cent. by Weight. 7 326 5-667 5-610 3-465 1056 By distillation the alcohol may be readily separated. On evaporation, beer furnishes a brown extractiform residue. Beer differs from wine in several important particulars. Thus it contains a much larger quantity of nutritive matter, and a considerably less proportion of alcohol; but it has, in addition, a peculiar bitter and narcotic substance. That its inebriating quality does not wholly depend on the alcohol which it contains, is shown by comparing the quantity of spirit obtained by Mr. Brande from brandy, wine, and porter. From his experiments, it appears that the same quantity of spirit is contained in the following quantities of wine, brandy, and beer:— Port Wine Claret Champagne Brandy Burton Ale London Porter Small Beer 100 1-52 1-82 0-43 2-58 5-46 18-16 Now if the intoxicating quality of beer depended on the spirit merely, the effect of five and a half pints of London porter, or two and a half pints of Burton ale, should be equal only to that of a pint of port wine; whereas its actual ine- briating power greatly exceeds this. That beer is nutritive, and, when used in moderation, salubrious, can scarcely be doubted. It proves a refreshing drink, and an agreeable and valuable stimulus and support, to those who have to undergo much bodily fatigue. The poor labourer who has repeatedly experienced its invigorating property, will by no means admit the truth of Dr. Franklin's assertion, (Select Works, by W. T. Franklin, vol. i. p. 36. Lond. 1818.) that a penny loaf and a pint of water yield more nourishment than a pint of beer. The hop operates as a tonic, and assists digestion. With dyspeptics, beer as well as other fermented liquors, are very apt to disagree. By them, therefore, its use should be carefully avoided. Far- thermore, it is objectionable for those liable to lithic acid deposites, and for ple- thoric persons who have a tendency to apoplexy. The difference between ale and porter deserves a slight notice. The first is pale-coloured and sweetish; being prepared from pale or amber-coloured malt, 96 elements of materia medica. which contains a large quantity of saccharine matter. Porter, on the other hand, is deep-coloured and devoid of any sweet taste. It is prepared from high dried or rather charred malt, which has had its saccharine matter destroyed by heat. Hence, ale is more objectionable for diabetic and dyspeptic patients than porter. From this statement we ought perhaps to except the ales prepared for the India market, which are free from saccharine matter, and contain double the usual pro- portion of hops. (See Prout, op. supra cit. p. 44.) 9. Wines.—It cannot be denied, that the most perfect health is compatible with total abstinence from wine; and that from the use of this liquid various dis- eases have been produced, kept up, or aggravated. I am by no means, however, disposed to deny the accuracy of the statement of Dr. Paris, (Treatise on Diet, p. 268, 5th ed.) that " there exists no evidence to prove that a temperate use of good wine, when taken at seasonable hours, has ever proved injurious to healthy adults;" since he has so qualified this sentence, that in any cases where ill effects appear to result from the use of wine by adults, they may safely be ascribed to the non-fulfilment of some of the conditions here mentioned,—(viz. the temperate use of wine,—the goodness of the liquor,—the seasonable time of taking it,—or the health of the individual.) It must be admitted, that the most perfect health is compatible with the mode- rate enjoyment of wine, and that many individuals who attain a good old age, have, during a considerable period of their life, been in the habit of using wine daily. Moreover, persons who have been accustomed to the temperate use of wine, are likely to suffer if deprived of their accustomed stimulus. In a subse- quent part of this work, some remarks will be offered on the different qualities of different wines, and their medicinal uses. I shall merely remark here, that in forming an opinion as to the kind of wine best adapted for the dietetical use of our patients, we should consider its colour, its alcoholic strength and intoxicating property, its sweetness, the nature and quantity of acid which it contains, and its age. The red wines contain more extractive and colouring matters, (derived from the husk of the grape,) which are apt to disagree with some dyspeptics. With regard to its alcoholic strength and intoxicating quality, it deserves to be espe- cially remembered that the inebriating property of wine is not proportional to the quantity of contained alcohol,—since champagne is more intoxicating, though less alcoholic, than port wine. (See p. 95.) Its sweetness requires especial con- sideration in dyspeptic and urinary diseases; in some of which, (as in diabetes,) the employment of saccharine matter is highly objectionable. Without adopting the prejudices of Sir A. Carlisle, (Essay on the Disorders of Old Age.) against the use of acids, it cannot be doubted that the employment of acid wines (as claret and hock) is calculated to prove, on many occasions, injurious; and in such cases sherry is used in preference to other wines. In phosphatic urinary depo- sites, however, they prove serviceable. By keeping, wine deposites bitartrate of potash, and colouring and extractive matters, which are very apt to disagree with some patients. Hence oil wines are to be preferred to new ones. 10. Ardent Spirits.—Brandy, Rum, Gin, and Whisky, are the ardent spirits most frequently used in this country. Various compounded spirits (those im- ported are termed Liqueurs) are also employed as cordials. The injurious effects of spirit will be pointed out in a subsequent part of this work. I shall here con- fine my attention to its dietetical use. Brandy is frequently used at the table, as a gastric stimulant, to promote the digestion of substances difficult of solution in the juices of the stomach, as the oily fish. That various uneasy sensations, re- ferred to the scrobiculus cordis, are often relieved by it, cannot be denied- but of the existence of any other benefit we may fairly doubt; while the ill consequences of frequently resorting to spirit are undoubted. Dr. Paris states that in some cases of dyspepsia, wine and beer equally disagree with the stomach, producing acidity and other distressing symptoms; and in such, he observes, " very weak spirit may, perhaps, be taken with advantage." In confirmation of the accuracy CONDIMENTS. 97 of the observation I can bear testimony; having repeatedly found the substitution of a very weak spirit preferrible to fermented liquors. 11. Carbonic Acid Waters.—To this head belong Soda Water, Ginger Beer, and Effervescing Lemonade. These are refreshing, grateful beverages; though by distending the stomach with gaseous air, they must prove injurious to the process of digestion. 12. Acidulated Waters.—Lemonade and Imperial are pleasant, refreshing drinks, which, however, are apt to disagree with dyspeptics. 13. Saccharine and mucilaginous Drinks.—Sugar-water and Gum-water are also liable to disturb the stomach of the dyspeptic. 14. Infusions or Decoctions of Animal Substances.—Under this head are included Beef Tea, Mutton, Veal, and Chicken Broths, and Soups. Beef Tea is a light, pleasant, and slightly nutritive article of diet, adapted for invalids. Spices are sometimes advantageously added to it. Mutton Broth is apt to dis- agree with persons having delicate stomachs, especially if the fat be not skimmed from it. It is frequently given to promote the operation of purgative medicine. Chicken Broth is the least disposed to disturb the stomach of all the animal decoctions. It is especially adapted for invalids with great irritability of stomach. Veal Broth is less frequently used. Soups are not adapted for invalids. Their basis is gelatine, whose nutritive qualities have been already described. (See p. 83.) 15. Gruel and Barley Water. — Gruel is prepared from groats or oatmeal. It is a bland, nutritious, easily digestible, emollient liquid, well adapted for the use of invalids, and rarely disturbing the stomach. Sugar, lemon juice, aroma- tics, or butter, are frequently added, but they (especially butter) are by no means generally admissible. Barley Water is a thinner, less viscid liquid. It is used as a mild, demulcent, slightly nutritive drink, for invalids, in febrile and inflam- matory disorders. 16. Milk.—Milk is the natural drink of man during the first period of his in- fancy. Its nutritive qualities have been already noticed. (See p. 85.) On account of the butter which it contains, it is apt to disagree with some adults: in common language, it sometimes lies heavy at the stomach. Cream is still more injurious. Whey is an agreeable beverage. c. Condiment a.—C o n d i m e n t s. These are substances which are taken with the food to improve its flavour, to promote its digestion, or to correct any injurious quality which it may possess. Some of them are also nutritive. 1. Saline Condiments.—Common salt, or the chloride of sodium, is the only saline condiment essential to health. It is taken by man, as well as by many animals, on account of its agreeable flavour; but the existence of a greater or less appetite for it, in all individuals, appears to me to show that this substance must serve some more important uses in the animal economy than that of merely gra- tifying the palate. In considering these, we observe, in the first place, that it is an essential constituent of the blood, which fluid probably owes some of its essen- tial properties to its saline matter. Now as the blood is constantly losing part of its saline particles by the secretions (the tears, bile, &c.,) the daily loss is re- paired by the employment of chloride of sodium as a condiment. In the second place, the free hydrochloric acid found in the stomach, and which forms an essen- tial constituent of the gastric juice, is obviously derived from the salt taken with our food. Thirdly, the soda of the blood, and of some of the secretions, is doubt- less obtained from the decomposition, in the system, of common salt. These are some (probably only a portion) of the uses which chloride of sodium serves in the animal economv. It deserves especial notice, that while salt is thus essen- Vor.. I.—13 98 elements of materia medica. tial to health, the continued use of salted provisions is injurious. But their noxious quality is probably to be referred rather to the meat, whose physical and chemical qualities are altered, than to the presence of the salt; though we can readily conceive that an excessive use of salt, or of any other article of food, will be followed by injurious consequences. However relishing salted fish (as an- chovies, herrings, cod, &c.) may be, they are difficult of digestion. 2. Acidulous Condiments.—Vinegar is a grateful condiment, and is used either alone, or with pickles. When taken in small quantities, it is quite whole- some. It allays thirst, and operates as a refrigerant. It probably promotes digestion, not merely by the stimulus which it communicates to the stomach, but by its power of dissolving several alimentary principles,—as fibrine, albumen, and gelatine. The frequent use of it is supposed to diminish obesity. It checks the secretion of milk, and at the same time injures the quality of this liquid. Lemon juice, or a solution of citric acid, is an acidulous condiment. 3. Aromatic and Pungent Condiments.—This division includes the spices (as Pepper, Nutmegs, &c.,) the savoury herbs of the family Labiatae as (Thyme, Sage, &c.,) some Umbelliferous fruits (as Caraway,) several products of the family Cruciferae (as Mustard, Horse-radish, &c.,) and the alliaceous substances (as Onions, Garlic, &c.) They are employed as condiments, partly for their flavour, and partly to promote the digestion of some kinds of food which expe- rience has shown, are not by themselves easily or readily digested. Moreover, the cruciferous and alliaceous condiments are esteemed anti-scorbutics. By the inhabitants of the torrid zone they are extensively used to counteract the debilitating influence of heat, as already mentioned. (See p. 47.) In tem- perate climates their employment is not so important; on the contrary, their copious use is injurious. 4. Oily Condiments.—Butter and oil are used at the table as condiments. Their general effects, as nutritive substances, have been already noticed. (See p. 81.) They become more difficult of digestion and more noxious to the dys- peptic, in proportion to the heat to which they are subjected in the process of cooking. 5. Saccharine Condiments.—Sugar, honey, and treacle, are employed as condiments. The nutritive properties of saccharine substances have been before noticed. (See p. 78.) When taken in small quantities, and largely diluted, as in tea, coffee, &c. sugar is said to be very apt to disagree, and give rise to flatu- lency and gastric uneasiness. Used in the form of preserves, it is also apt to disorder the stomach of dyspeptics. Under the name of Sauces, are used at the table mixtures of various condiments, Ketchup (made from either Mushrooms or Walnuts,) Soy, and Essence of Anchovies, are those which are most frequently employed. Salt and spices are essential ingredients of them. Vinegar is also a constituent of some. Dietetical Regimen. In the treatment of many diseases, attention to diet is a point of considerable importance. In none is it more necessary than in non-febrile disorders of the digestive and urinary organs. In acute maladies, in which abstinence or low diet is requisite, there is usually no disposition to take food: on the contrary, solids of all kinds are generally loathed. In such cases, therefore, there is less chance of any error of diet being committed. Dietetical regimen is more important in chronic diseases of the assimilating organs, in which the appetite is unimpaired, or even increased,—since in such the patient is more apt to overstep the bounds of prudence, by the employment of a diet, improper either from the quantity or quality of the food used. In chronic local diseases, when the constitution ^un- impaired and the appetite for food remains natural, I would by no means advo- cate the adoption of a spare or low diet; since I believe that in such cases the DIETETICAL regimen. 99 indulgence of a moderate appetite for plain food, is attended with beneficial results. From this statement, however, maladies affecting the organs of assimi- lation must be excepted. . , . lL . c Several diets or kinds of dietetical regimen are employed in the treatment of diseases. The most important of these are the following:— 1 Animal Diet.—This term is applied to a diet composed of animal food, either exclusively or principally. The only disease, in which a diet exclusively of animal food is recommended, is diabetes. In this malady, strict abstinence from vegetable substances is attended with the diminution or cessation of the saccharine condition of the urine, and a reduction in the quantity of this fluid passed It deserves especial notice that the quantity, as well as the quality, ot the food taken in this disease, requires to be carefully attended to, as the craving for food is apt to induce the patient to indulge to an injurious extent. As an ex- ample of a dietary of animal food for a diabetic patient, I select the following, adopted by Dr. Christison, (Edinb. Monthly Journal, April 1841, p. 236.) tor a patient in the Edinburgh Infirmary:— Ounces of dry nutritive principles contained Ounces. therein.' Fresh Meat 40 10-8 Cheese - 2 - - - 2-0 Two Eggs .-. — -<- 10 New Milk ... 48 - - - 8-0 Beef Tea 16 0-25 Total........22-05 In a second case only 20 oz. of meat were allowed. In private practice, it will be convenient to allow other kinds of animal food in addition to the foregoing: as butter, chicken, sausages, fish, shell-fish, brawn, and poultry. For common drink, water, or beef-tea, or mutton-broth, may be sparingly allowed.2 The beneficial effects of a diet of animal substances exclusively in diabetes is, in most cases, temporary only; while its rigorous adoption is apt to be attended with febrile or inflammatory affections.8 Moreover, a difficulty in its employ- ment is often found in the inordinate craving for vegetable substances, and the loathing of animal food, experienced by the patient. Hence most practitioners have permitted the use of a limited quantity of farinaceous food, in the form of biscuit or bread. Rice may be occasionally admitted. Arrow-root, potatoes, and other low kinds of farinaceous substances, are less proper. Dr. Prout re- commends sound porter in preference to wine or spirits. In several other maladies the use of animal substances chiefly has been advised; as in the oxalate of lime diathesis, and in scrofula. Farthermore, it is admissi- ble in other cases, where we are desirous of employing a highly nutritious and stimulating diet. 2. Vegetable Diet.—The exclusive employment of vegetable foods has been very rarely adopted. It has been eloquently advocated by Dr. Lambe,4 who re- commends it, in conjunction with the use of distilled water, as a remedy for cancer, scrofula, consumption, asthma, and other chronic diseases; but he has, I suspect, gained few, if any, proselytes to his opinions and practice. i The quantities stated in this column appear to me too high. They are taken from Dr. Christison's state- ment at p. '240, op supra cit. •» For some farther remarks on the use of animal diet in diabetes, see p. 81 and 82. a Dr. Marsh, in the Dublin Hospital Reports, vol. iii p 453, 18-22. « Reports of the Effects of a Peculiar Regimen on Scirrhous Tumours and Cancerous Ulcers. Lond. 18U9.— Additional Reports on the Effects of a Peculiar Regimen in cases of Cancer, Scrofula, Consumption, Asthma, and other Chronic Diseases. Lond. 1815. 100 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. The term spare or abstemious diet is sometimes used to indicate the employ- ment of vegetable substances principally (not exclusively.) It generally includes the use of the white fish, sometimes alternating with a limited quantity of poultry or butcher's meat. In plethoric habits, where the appetite is unimpaired, this diet is ordered in cases of threatened apoplexy, gout, &c. By its adoption we diminish the quantity of nutritive matter supplied to the system, while we keep the digestive organs actively employed. 3. Milk Diet.—Besides cow's milk, which constitutes the principal article of food, this diet includes the use of farinaceous substances (such as arrow-root, sago, and tapioca,) bread, and light puddings (of rice, bread, or batter.) Milk diet is ordered when we are desirous of affording support to the system with the least possible stimulus or excitement. It is well adapted for inflammatory diseases of the chest (phthisis especially,) of the alimentary canal, and of the bladder, when it is considered expedient to employ a nutritious but not stimulating diet. After hemorrhages, when the powers of the system have been greatly exhausted, a milk diet is frequently beneficial. It has also been considered one of the best means of preventing and of curing the gout. It is a good diet also for many of the diseases of children, especially those of a strumous or scrofulous nature. In some of the above-mentioned maladies, where the stomach is weak and irritable, cow's milk is apt to occasion vomiting and other unpleasant effects, in consequence of the butter which it contains. In such cases, skim-milk or ass's milk may be advantageously substituted. 4. Low Diet.—In acute inflammation, in fever, and after serious accidents, surgical operations, and parturition, patients are directed to adopt a low diet, con- sisting principally of the use of slops (as tea, toast-water, barley-water, and weak broth.) Small quantities of milk and farinaceous matters (in the form of bread, arrow-root, or tapioca, gruel, and light pudding) are sometimes permitted. The terms thin diet, spoon diet, fever diet, simple diet, and broth diet, are applied to particular modifications of low diet. 5. Full or Common Diet.—On many occasions where it is desirable to re- store or support the powers of the system, patients are permitted to satisfy their appetite for plain vegetable and animal food. In many indolent diseases, in scrofula, in some affections of the nervous system (as chorea and epilepsy,) and in the stage of convalescence after acute diseases, &c. this kind of diet is frequently directed. In these cases beer is usually permitted. Wine, and even ardent spirit, are sometimes required. In some diseases of, and in accidents occurring in, confirmed drunkards, it is frequently found injurious to withhold the stimulus to which the patient's system has been long accustomed; and thus, wine, brandy, rum, or gin, is ordered, according to circumstances. In concluding these remarks on the subject of dietical regimen, I have thought it advisable to give a tabular view of the Diets employed at the different hospitals of this metropolis.1 /• 'J1?6 Ptet_lables of'ne County, Scotch, and Irish hospitals, will be found in Dunglison's New Dictionary of Medical Science, art. Diet, p. 233. Philadelphia, 1842. DIET-TABL1> OF THE LONDON HOSPITALS. 101 DIET-TABLES OF THE LONDOM HOSPITALS. In addition to the substances specified in the following Tables, other articles (as chops, steaks, fish, wine, spirit, porter, &c.) are permitted, when specially ordered by the medical officers. These are denominated extras. LONDON HOSPITAL. Per Day.. Breakfast Supper Common Diet. Middle Diet. 12 oz. Bread. 1^ pis. Beer, Men. 1 pint. Women. Gruel. 8 Oi. Beef, with Potatoes, thrice a week. 8 oz. Mutton, with Potatoes, twice a week. 8 oz. Potatoes & Soup with Vege- tables, twice a week. 1 pint of Broth. The same, ex- cept thai 4 oz. >of Meat shall be given, in- stead of 8 oz. Low Diet. 8 oz. Bread. Gruel or Broth. Milk Diet. 12 oz. Bread. Gruel. 1 pint Milk. 1 pint Milk. ST. BARTHOLOMEW'S HOSPITAL. Meat Diet. Broth Diet. Thin or'Fever Diet. Milk Diet. ' Milk Porridge. 12 oz. Bread. 6oz.Mutn or Beef lpt Broth [with Peas or Potatoes, 4 times a week.] 2 pts. Beer, Men. 1 pint, Women. 1 oz. Butter, twice a week. Milk Porridge. 12 oz. Bread. 2 pints Broth. 1 pint Beer. 1 oz. Butter. Milk Porridge. 12 oz Bread. 1 pint of Milk, with Tapioca, Arrow-root, Sago, or Rice, as may be pre-scribed. Barley-water. Milk Porridge. 12 oz. Bread. 2 pts.Milk,with Ta-pioca, Arrow-root, Sago, or Rice, as may be prescribed. Barley-water. 1 oz. Butter. Bread Pudding, 3 times a week. when ordered. GUY'S HOSPITAL. Daily , Full Diet. 14 oz. Bread. Ii oz. Butter. 1 quart Table Beer. 4 oz. Meat, when dressed. Middle Diet. 12 oz. Bread. Ii oz. Butter. 1 pt. Table Beer. 4 oz. Meat, when dressed, and i pint Broth. Low Diet. 12 oz. Bread. 1 oz. Butter. Tea & Sugar. Milk Diet. 12 oz. Bread. 1 oz. Butter. 2 pts. Milk. Fever Diet. 6 oz. Bread. 1 oz. Butter. Tea & Sugar. Half a pound of Beef (for Beet tea,) or Arrow Root or Sago, when ordered. For each diet, Gruel or Barley-Water, as required. NORTH LONDON HOSPITAL. f I Full Diet. Middle Diet. Low Diet. Milk Diet. 16 Bread. 1 pint Milk. i lb. Meat and i lb. Potatoes four days. 1 pint soup or Rice three days. 16 oz. Bread. a pint Milk. 1 pint Soup or Rice. 8 oz. Bread. I pint Milk. " Oatmeal for Gruel. 16 oz. Bread. 2 pints Milk. 102 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. ST. THOMAS'S HOSPITAL. Daily..... Breakfast. Dinner. Supper. Full Diet. pints of Beer. 14 oz. of Bread. Water Gruel. i lb of Beef, when dressed twice a week; 4 oz. of Butter, or 6 oz of Cheese, thrice a week; ilb. of Mut- ton, when boiled, thrice a week. 1 pint Broth, four times a week. Mi(k Diet. 12 oz. of Bread. I pint of Milk. Dry Diet. | Fever Diet. 14 oz. of Bread, 12 oz. of Bread, 2 pints of 2 pints of Beer. Beer. Water Gruel. 1 pint of Milk 4 oz. of Butter, four times a four times a week. week; Rice pud. Rice Pudding ding and four oz. thrice a week. of Butler, three times a week. 1 pint of Milk. Water Gruel. J of a lb. of Beef for lea. ST. GEORGE'S HOSPITAL. Daily. Breakfast.., Dinner Supper ""1 12 oz. Bread. Men. 2 pints Beer. Women. Ii pints Beer. I pint Tea. pint Milk. Extra Diet. 12 oz. Meat, roasted (weighed with One half the Ordinary Diet. 12 oz. Bread. 1 pint Beer. 1 pint Tea. i pint Milk. the bone be fore it is dress ed) four days, —boiled three days. i lb. Potatoes. I pint Gruel. i pint Milk. meat allowed for extra diet. i lb. Potatoes 1 pint Gruel. i pint Milk. Fish Diet. 12 oz. Bread. 1 pint Tea. i pint Milk. 4 oz. of plain boiled white fish (as Whit- ing, Plaice, Flounders, or Haddock.) 1 pint Gruel. r pint Milk. Fever Diet. 12 oz. Bread. Barley Water ad libitum. 1 pint Tea. i pint Milk. Arrow-root, &c. must be especially or- dered . 1 pint Tea. ipint Milk. Broth Diet. 12 oz. Bread. 1 pint Tea. | pint Milk. 1 pint Broth, 6 oz. light Pud- ding. 1 pint Gruel. i pint Milk. Milk Diet. 12 oz. Bread. 1 pint Tea. £ pint Milk }i pints Rice. Milkfourdays i lb. Bread or Rice Pudding three days. i pint Milk. WESTMINSTER HOSPITAL. Daily. Breakfast i Dinner.... ■{ Supper. Full Diet. 14 oz. Bread. 1 pint Milk Porridge, or Rice Gruel i lb. Meat roasted boiled, or chops. i lb. Potatoes 1 pint Milk Porridge, or Rice Gruel. Middle Diet. Low Diet. 10 oz. Bread. Fixed. lb. Bread. 1 pint Milk i pint Tea, with Porridge, or 'Sugar and Milk thin Gruel. i lb. Meat roasted, boiled, or chops, i lb. Potatoes. 1 pint Milk Porridge, or thin Gruel. No fixed diet for Dinner. 1 pint Tea with Sugar and Milk. I pint of broth, or i lb. of Bread. or Rice Pudding or 1 pint Beef Tea. or a Chop, or Fish. Spoon,or Fever Diet. I lb. Bread. 1 pint Tea with Sugar and Milk. Barley Water. 1 pint Tea with Sugar and Milk. i lb. Bread. i lb. Meat. ilb.potatoes i pint Milk. 1 pint Porter Incura- ble's Diet. DIET TABLES OP THE LONDON HOSPITALS. 103 MIDDLESEX HOSPITAL. Daily........ Breakfast___ Supper. Diata Carnis, or Meat Diet. Diteta Jusculi.Diesta Lactis, or or Soup Diet. Milk Diet. 12 oz. Bread. 1 pint Milk. Physicians' Patients. J lb. Potatoes, 4 oz, dressed meat (beef or mutton,) roast and boiled alter- nately, 4 days. 4 oz. Meat in Soup 3 days. Surgeons' Patients. I lb. Potatoes, 4 oz. dressed Meat (Beef or Mutton,) roast and boiled alter nately. 1 pint Gruel alter nately, with 1 pint of Barley Water 12 oz. Bread. 1 pint Milk. Diteta Simplex or Simple Diet 12 oz. Bread. 1 pint Milk. I pint Soup, made with A oz Beef, alter- nately with 1 pint of Broth with Barley 1 pint Gruel. 6 oz. Bread. 1 pint Barley Water. ipint Milk, with Rice Pudding 4 days, and with Batter Ptidding3days i pint Milk, or 1 pint Gruel 1 pintGruel. 1 pint of Gruel or Barley Wa ter. Cancer Diet, 12 oz. Bread, i lb. Meat. i lb. Potatoes. 1 pint Milk. KING'S COLLEGE HOSPITAL. Breakfast.... j Full Diet. Middle Diet. Milk Diet. Low Dirt. Fever Diet. 1 pint Beer, or i pint Porter. 14 oz. Bread. 1 pint Milk Por-ridge. i lb. Meat. i lb. Potatoes. 1 pint Milk Por-ridge. 14 oz Bread. 1 pint Milk Porridge. ilb. Meat. i lb Potatoes. Ipint Milk Porridge. 1 lb. Bread. 1 pint Milk. 1 pint Milk. 1 pint Gruel. 8oz. Bread. 1 pintGruel. 1 pint Broth. 1 pint Milk Porridge. 1 pint Gruel-2 pints Barley Water. 1 pint Milk Porridge. 2. Exercitatio.—Exercise. (Gymnastics.) Exercise is an important hygienic agent. Its proper consideration, however, requires far more space than can be devoted to it in this work. I must, there- fore, content myself with a few remarks on its general effects, and refer the reader to some treatises in which it is more fully considered. Though the word exercise, in its most extensive signification, has reference to the action of all the organs of the animal economy, yet it is usually limited to those of locomotion; and in this sense I employ it. The exercise of the muscular system is followed by several marked effects:— of these, the first to be noticed are mechanical. Whenever the muscles are called into activity, they exert a local influence, of a mechanical kind, on the blood-ves- 104 ELEMENTS OP MATERIA MEDICA. sels in their immediate vicinity, and accelerate the circulation of the blood T\m is followed by an augmentation of the animal heat; and, if the exercise be of a kind to call into activity a considerable number of muscles, the general circulation soon participates in the effects; the pulse is quickened, and the respiration and secretion are augmented. Another effect, which, in its origin, is probably of a mechanical nature, is the absorption of the fat between the muscles and their fas- ciculi. It seems to arise from the pressure exerted by the contracted muscle on the soft tissues immediately around it. . A second'class of effects caused by muscular action may be denominated organic or vital. I refer now to the augmentation of volume, firmness, and elasticity, and increase of strength or power, which a muscle acquires from fre- quent but moderate use. Blacksmiths, fencers, and prize-fighters, furnish excel- lent illustrative examples of these effects. But the action of the muscles can only be effected through the medium of the nervous centres and nerves. So that the latter are called into activity, and through them the whole system becomes influenced, when a number of muscles is exer- cised. These effects may be denominated nervous. The fourth and last class of effects to be referred to, may be called psychical or mental. (See p. 41.) To this belong the different mental effects produced by agreeable and disagreeable,—by voluntary and compulsory,—exercises. Employed moderately, agreeable exercise acts as a salutary excitant to the intel- lectual faculties and sensations. I agree with Dr. James Johnson, (Change of Air, or the Pursuit of Health and Recreation, 4th ed. 1838.) " that travelling exercise, while it so much improves all the bodily functions, unhinges and unfits the mind, pro tempore, for the vigorous exercise of its higher faculties." But the first excitant being over, " the memory of scenes and circumstances, together with the reflections and recollections attendant thereon, furnish an ardent mind with rich materials and trains of thought, that may, by gifted individuals, be con- verted into language; and thus conveyed to thousands." Thus, then, it appears that exercise, employed moderately, has a tonic and stimulating influence on the system, and is calculated to be beneficial in a great variety of complaints. Used immoderately, it exhausts both the mental and bodily powers, and produces great debility. In fever, in vascular excitement or inflammation of the brain, in inflammatory affections of the lungs, in maladies of the circulating organs (especially dilatation of the cavities of the heart, diseased valves, and aneurism,) in violent hemorrhages, gastro-enteritic inflammation, acute rheumatism, &c, muscular exertion is manifestly injurious; repose and inaction being indicated. In sprains and lacerations of the muscles, in fractures and dis- locations, &c, it is obviously improper. In hernia, or a tendency thereto, great muscular exertion must be carefully avoided. Exercises may be divided into the active, the passive, and the mixed. To the first belong walking, running, leaping, dancing, fencing, wrestling, &c; to the second are referred, carriage exercise and sailing; while horse-exercise be- longs to the third or last division.1 3. Climate. Under the word Climate are included those topographical, atmospheric, and other conditions of a region or country, which have a beneficial or injurious in- fluence on the health and lives of the inhabitants. It is probable that we are yet ignorant of many circumstances which contribute to give the climatic character to a place; and, of those that are known, it is often not easy to define the separate influence of each. i For farther information on the subject of Exercise, the reader is referred to Celsus, lib. I. cap. 2, and lib- ii. cap. 15; Sir J. Sinclair's Code of Health and Activity, Edinb 1806; Dunglison's Elements of Hygiene, Phila- delphia, 1835; Diet, de Medecine, art. Gymnastique; Diet, de Mcdefine et de Chirurgie pratiques, art. Oymnas- tique; Manuel d'Education physique, gymnastique et morale, par le Colonel Amoros. Paris, 1830. CLIMATE. 105 The most obvious circumstances which affect the climate of a region or coun- try, are temperature, humidity, purity of the atmosphere, wind, atmospheric pressure, intensity of light, and atmospheric equability or vicissitudes. 1. Temperature.-—In considering the temperature of a place, we must regard, not merely its annual mean, but its extremes. Inland tracts of country experience greater extremes than the coasts. This arises from land being more rapidly heated and cooled than water. Hence it attains a higher temperature in summer,—and a lower one in the winter. It also deserves notice that the western coasts of the extra-tropical continents have a much higher mean tem- perature than the eastern coasts. This is explained by the heat evolved in the condensation of vapour, swept from the surface of the ocean by the eastern winds. (Daniell's Metereologi- cal Essays, p. 105, 2d ed. Lond. 1827.) The effects of heat and cold on the human body have been already considered. (See pp. 46 and 57.) Warm climates are adapted for pulmo- nary invalids (especially consumptive patients,) the rheumatic, the scrofulous, and the para- lytic. Cold, or rather moderately cool, climates are bracing, and are fitted for relaxed consti- tutions. 2. HuMiniTY. Hygrometric State of the Atmosphere.—Evaporation from the cutaneous and pulmonary surfaces is augmented by a dry state of the atmosphere, and checked by a damp or moist state. But the transudation which depends on vital action is augmented by a warm moist atmosphere. (Edwards, De ^Influence des Agens Physiques, p. 338. Paris, 1824.) " Of all the physical qualities of the air," observes Sir James Clark, (The Sanative Influence of Climate, 3d ed. Lond. 1841.) "humidity is the most injurious to human life." A moist, or rather a soft, climate promotes vital transudation, and, therefore, is adapted for chronic bronchitis of a dry irritable kind, frequently denominated dry catarrh, and for some other maladies attended with a harsh, dry, parched skin. A dry climate, on the other hand, checks vital transudation, and, therefore, is better fitted for relaxed, languid constitutions, with pro- fuse secretion and exhalation; as^humid asthma, and those forms of chronic catarrh accom- panied with copious expectoration. 3. Purity of the Atmosphere.—A pure condition of the atmosphere is an essential element of all healthy climates. The greater mortality of cities than of the country is principally re- ferrible to the respiration of air vitiated by the congregation of a large number of persons in a comparatively limited space. Emanations from the soil, and from decomposing organic matter, also contribute to the contamination of atmosphere,1 The injurious effect of fogs on pulmonary invalids is well known to every one. Curiously enough, however, some patients affected with spasmodic asthma breathe better in a smoky atmosphere (as that of London) than in pure air. 4. Wind.—Wind greatly modifies the effect of temperature on the body. Thus two suc- cessive days, whose temperature, as indicated by the thermometer, may be the same, shall produce in as—the one a sensation of warmth, in consequence of the calm, still, condition of the air,— while the other creates a feeling of cold, from the presence of a violent wind. So that, as Sir James Clark (Op. supra cit. p. 156.) ha-i justly observed, " the influence of tempe- rature on the living body is indicated much more accurately by our sensation than by the thermometer." Moreover, the humidity and the purity of the atmosphere are greatly modi- fied by the motion or calmness of the air. The precise effects produced on climates by wind, must of course depend on its direction, violence, &c. 5. Atmospheric Pressure.—Diminished atmospheric pressure promotes evaporation. Ele- vated regions, therefore, are colder, drier, more bracing, and, cceteris paribus, better adapted for relaxed individuals, with profuse secretion and exhalation, than the opposite localities: but, on the other hand, they are injurious in bronchial or tracheal irritation, with diminished secretion. In extra tropical climates, a fall in the barometer, without a change or rise of wind, is usually followed by rain. Now a humid condition of the atmosphere checks evaporation, while the reduced barometrical pressure augments it. Hence, we have two opposing influ- ences in operation. This condition of the air induces a feeling of languor and fatigue, and gives rise to sweating on the slightest exertion. 6. Intensity of Light.—The influence of light has been already considered. (See p. 44.) » The production of Ague, by the exhalations from stagnant water and marshy soils, is well known to every one. My friend, Professor Daniell (Lond. Edinb. and Dubl. Phil. Mag. July, 1841,) has shown that the waters upon the Western coast of Africa, to an extent of 40.000 square miles, are impregnated with sul- phuretted hydrogen, to an amount, in some places, exceeding that of some of the most celebrated sulphur springs of the world; and he suggests that the existence of this deleterious gas in the atmosphere, which must necessarily accompany its solution in the waters, may be connected with the awful miasma, which has hitherto proved fatal to the explorers and settlers of the deadly shores of Africa; as well as of other places. The origin of sulphuretted hydrogen in sea, and some other waters, has been ascribed, by Dr. Marcet (Phil. T>ans. 1819, p. 195,) Mr. Malcomson (Trans, of the Geological Society, 2d Ser. vol. v. p. 564, Lond. 1840,) Dr. A. Fontan (Ann. de Chem. et de Phys. July, 1840.) and Professor Daniell (op. supra cit.,) to the decomposition of sulphates of the waters, by putrefying vegetable matter. Vol. 1.—14 106 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. d^ssssssssaSffSe and the robust. The.e are some only of the circumstances which affect the quality or charac ter of a climate Others doubtless exist; but their precise nature and influence have scarcely oeeu ascertained. For example we have yet to learn the influence of Electricity and Magnetism on the climate of a place. fproposef now, to glance at the characters of those climates most commonly resoffto by invalids^for therapeutical purposes In doing so, Vbeg to acknow- ledge the great assistance I have received from the valuable work of Sir James Clark, to which I must refer the reader for farther details. Climates may be conveniently arranged as follows:— 1. Climates of England. 2. Climates of France. 3. Climates of Spain and Portugal. 4. Climates of Italy, and the Mediterranean. 5. Climates of the Atlantic. l. Climates of England. " The British Islands are situated in such a manner as to be subject to all the circumstances which can possibly be supposed to render a climate irregular and variable. Placed nearly in the centre of the temperate zone, where the range of temperature is very great, their atmosphere is subject, on one side, to the im- pressions of the largest continent of the world; and, on the other, to those of the vast Atlantic Ocean. Upon their coasts the great stream of aqueous vapour, per- petually rising from the western waters, first receives the influence of the land, whence emanate those condensations and expansions which deflect and reverse the grand system of equipoised currents. They are also within the reach of the frigorific effects of the immense barriers and fields of ice, which, when the shift- ing position of the sun advances the tropical climate towards the northern pole, counteract its energy, and present a condensing surface of immense extent to the increasing elasticity of the aqueous atmosphere." (Daniell's Meteorological Essays, p. 114. 2»d ed. 1827.) Sir James Clark thus arranges the climates of England:— 1. London. 2. The South Coast. 3. South-west Coast. 4. Cornwall, Land's End. 5. West of England. 1. London.—The mean annual temperature of London somewhat exceeds that of the suburban parts. " The excess of the temperature of the city varies through the year, being least in spring, and greatest in winter; and it belongs, in strict- ness, to the nights, which average 3-7° warmer than in the country; while the heat of the day, owing, without doubt, to the interception of a portion of the solar rays by a constant veil of smoke, falls, on a mean of years, about a third of a degree short of that in the open plain." (See Luke Howard's Climate of Lon- don, 1818-20. 2nd ed. 1833.) Hence in the winter, delicate invalids sometimes experience benefit in coming to London from the country. But the impure state of the atmosphere generally counterbalances these good qualities.1 In some cases of spasmodic asthma, however, respiration is easier in London than in the country. 2. South Coast.—This comprehends the tract of coast between Hastings and Portland Island. Its mean annual temperature is about that of London, but the i For farther details respecting the Climate of London, consult Professor Daniell's Essay on this subject. Also, Dr. Bateman's Reports of the Diseases of London. Lond. 1819. CLIMATE. 107 summers are somewhat cooler, and the winters somewhat warmer, than the cor- responding seasons of the metropolis.1 The principal places of resort for invalids, on this line of coast, are the following :— a. Hastings.—A mild winter residence; placed low and well protected from the northerly winds. Sir James Clark (Op. supra cit. p. 177.) regards its climate "as somewhat interme- diate between that of Devonshire and Clifton; less warm, but also less relaxing than the former. It is about the same temperature; but less dry and bracing than the latter, and it is inferior to it as a spring climate." It is well adapted for pulmonary invalids during the months of December, January, and February. The distinguished author above quoted de. clarcs, that it "is unfavourable in nervous complaints, more especially in nervous headachs connected with, or entirely dependent upon, an irritated condition of the digestive organs, and also in cases where a disposition to apoplexy or epilepsy has been manifested.'' St. Leonards is about a mile from Hastings, and possesses a similar climate. b. Brighton.—The air is dry and bracing. The climate is most beneficial during autumn and the early part of winter, when it is milder and more steady than that of Hastings. It is adapted for relaxed individuals, with copious secretion and exhalation. It usually agrees well with children (especially those of a scrofulous habit) and convalescents. c. Isle of Wight.— Undercliff presents an agreeable, mild, sheltered, dry, bracing climate, well adapted for the residence of many pulmonary and other delicate invalids throughout the year. It differs from the climate of Torquay (which is soft, humid, and relaxing) by its dry and bracing qualities. Hence it is suited for relaxed constitutions, with copious secretion. Cowes and Ryde are delightful summer residences. d. Southampton.—This part of the coast is objectionable, on account of its temperature being equally variable with that of the environs of London. 3. South-West Coast.—This comprehends the tract of coast extending from Portland Island to Cornwall. Its general qualities are those of a mild, soft, humid climate, soothing but somewhat relaxing. It is adapted to pulmonary affections, especially those which are dry and unaccompanied with much expec- toration. In dyspepsia, with symptoms of irritation or inflammation, constituting the gastritic dyspepsia of Sir James Clark, it is also beneficial. But in all forms of chronic diseases, with copious secretion and exhalation, and a languid and relaxed state of the constitution, it is injurious. The following are the principal places of resort for invalids along the South-West Coast:— o. Sat.combe.—The Montpelier of Huxham. The warmest spot of this coast. b. Torquay.—This is drier than the other parts of this coast, though its general character is soft and humid. c. Dawlish.—Next in dryness to Torquay. d. Exmouth—The higher parts of the (own exposed to winds; the lower parts liable to occasional damp. Sir J. Clark declares that it is not adapted for persons with delicate chests. e. Salterton.—Preferable to Exmouth. It is well protected from winds, especially the northerly ones. /. Siumoutii.—Damp. 4. South Coast of Cornwall. LamVs End.—In its general characters this climate resembles that of the south coast of Devon. From the latter, however, it differs, in its greater humidity, and in being more exposed to winds. It is, consequently, more relaxing. The class of cases in which it is calculated to be beneficial or injurious, are much the same as those for the south coast of Devon.8 The following are the chief places of residence for invalids along this coast:— a. Penzance.—Exposed to the northeast winds during the spring months. 6. Falmouth.—The winter temperature is a trifle lower than that of Penzance. 5. West of England.—Under this head are grouped the places along the borders of the British Channel and the aestuary of the Severn. The mean tem- perature of this group is, during the winter, rather lower, but in March and April rather higher, than that of the south coast. t For the character of this part of England consult Dr. Harwoods Curative Influence of the Southern Coast of England, especially that of Hastings, with Observations on Diseases, to which a Residence on the Coast is most beneficial. Lond. 1828. » On the climate of this part of England, consult Dr. Forbe's Observations on the Climate of Penzance and the District of the Land's End. Penzance, 1820.—Also his Medical Topography of the Land's End, in the Pro- rincial Medical Transncli n«, vol. ii. 108 CLEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Clifton.—This is the mildest and driest climate in the West of England. It is bracing, and well adapted for scrofulous and relaxed constitutions, with copious secretion and exhala- tion. 2. Climates of France. The southern climates of France resorted to by invalids, may be divided into those of the South-West, and those of the South-East of that country. 1. South-West of France.—According to Sir James Clark the climate of this part of France is soft, relaxing, and rather humid: resembling in its general quali- ties that of the south-west of England. It is favourable to phthisical invalids, for those labouring under bronchial affections, with little expectoration, and for other chronic cases attended with a dry skin. a. pAU.__Dr. Playfair (Sir J. Clark's Sanative Influence of Climate, p. 192.) thus sums up the qualities of this climate. "Calmness, moderate cold, bright sunshine of considerable power, a dry state of atmosphere and of the soil, and rains of short duration. Against these must be placed,—changeableness, the fine weather being as short-lived as the bad; rapid variations of the atmosphere within moderate limits. In autumn and spring there are heavy rains." b. Bagneres de Bigorre, in the department of the High Pyrenees, has a mean temperature, during the months of June, July, August, and September, of 66° F. Dr. Wm. Farr (A Medi. cal Guide to Nice. Lond. 1841.) declares the climate to be anti-irritating and moist, and to be favourable to the consumptive. Its season is from June to September. 2. South-East of France.—Sir J. Clark says the general character of the climate is dry, hot, and irritating. It is adapted for torpid, relaxed habits, but is decidedly improper for the consumptive and those labouring under irritation and inflammation of the air-tubes. a. Montpelier.—Long but undeservedly celebrated as a residence for phthisical invalids. b. Marseilles.—Exposed to cold winds. Soil dry and arid. c. Hyeres.—Sir J. Clark declares it to be the least exceptionable residence in Provence for the pulmonary invalid. 3. Climates of Portugal and Spain. Precise information respecting the climates of these countries, to which pul- monary invalids occasionally resort, is much to be desired. 1. Portugal.—Dr. Bulbar (A If inter in the Azores. Lond. 1841.) states that the mean annual temperature of Lisbon is 12° F. higher than that of London; and that the mean temperature of its winter is 16° F. higher than that of London. But notwithstanding its mildness, it is objectionable for persons affected with phthisis, on account of the inequality of its temperature. 2. Spain.—Biscay is subject to sudden and extraordinary changes in tempera- ture; the mercury having been known to rise and fall from 3° to 4° F. within a few minutes. (Inglis, Spain in 1830, vol. i. p. 39. Lond. 1831.) This must, of course, make it an unfit residence for pulmonary invalids. Madrid is elevated more than 300 fathoms above the level of the sea. Its annual mean temperature is 59° F. (Humboldt, in De Laborde's View of Spain, vol. i. p. clxiii. Lond. 1809.) Cadiz, being nearly surrounded by the sea, has a comparatively tem- perate climate. 4. Climates of Italy and the Mediterranean. The climates included under this head are exceedingly diversified, so that it is difficult to lay down any general character of them. a. Nick.—The climate of this place is somewhat similar to that of the South-East of France. It is mild, equable, and dry; being adapted for torpid, relaxed individuals, with abundant secretion from the mucous membranes. Dr. William Farr (A Medical Guide to Nice p 10 Lond. 1841.) says, the great objection to it is its dryness, and the exciting and irritating CLIMATE. 109 nature of its atmosphere. It is beneficial in chronic bronchitis, with copious expectoration,— in chronic rheumatism,—scrofula,—gout, and atonic dyspepsia. b. Genoa.—Climate dry and healthy, with a sharp exciting air. It is adapted for relaxed constitutions, but is unfit for phthisical invalids. c. Florence.—Not favourable for invalids. d. Pisa.—According to Sir James Clark, the climate "is genial, but rather oppressive and damp. It is softer than that of Nice, but not so warm; less soft, but less oppressive, than that of Rome." Pisa is frequented by consumptive invalids. e. Rome.—The climate of this city is one of the best in Italy. Sir James Clark charac terizes it as being mild, soft but not damp, rather relaxing and oppressive, and remarkable for the stillness of its atmosphere. It is well adapted for phthisis, bronchial affections of a dry irritating kind, and chronic rheumatism. /. Naples.—The climate of Naples is warm, variable, and dry. Sir James Clark compares it to that of Nice, but states that it is more changeable, and, if softer in the winter, is more humid. Dr. Cox, (Hints for Invalids about to visit Naples, p. 17. Lond. 1841.) however, declares that the mean diurnal variation is far less than is generally supposed. It is an unsuitable residence for most pulmonary invalids, especially those affected with tubercular phthisis. In bronchial cases, with profuse secretion, benefit is sometimes obtained from it. In general debility and deranged health, it is also serviceable. Dr. Cox says it is beneficial in dyspepsia, rheumatic neuralgia, and scrofula. g. Malta.—The climate of Malta is mild, dry, bracing, and pretty equable. It is ser- viceable in chronic bronchitis, .(with profuse secretion,] scrofula, dyspepsia, and hypochon- driasis. 5. Atlantic Climates. The climates of the Atlantic islands, resorted to by invalids, may be arranged in two groups,—the one eastern, the other western. 1. Eastern Atlantic—This group includes Madeira, the Canaries, and the Azores. a. Madeira.—The climate of Madeira is mild, humid, equable, and steady. Sir James Clurk regards it as the finest in the northern hemisphere. It is superior to all other climates for incipient phthisis. This superiority consists in the mildness of the winter, the coolness of the summer, and the remarkable equality of the temperature during the night and day, as well as throughout the year. Experience, moreover, seems to have fully demonstrated the advantage which patients, with incipient symptoms of consumption, derive from a residence in this island.1 b. The Canaries.— Teneriffe is the only island of this group possessing accommodation for invalids. Though its mean annual temperature is higher than that of Madeira, its equability is less. c. The Azores or Western Islands.—Dr. Bullar declares these to be "rather colder than Madeira, and somewhat more equable, and perhaps more humid; but they have not at pre- sent those accommodations for strangers which the latter island possesses, nor have they communications by steam with England." (A Winter in the Azores. Lond. 1841.) St. Michaels, the largest of the Azores, has a mild, humid, equable climate. 2. Western Atlantic—This group includes the Bermudas, the Bahamas, and the West Indies. It is more subject to rapid changes of temperature than the Eastern Atlantic group. a. The Bermudas.—The climate is warm, variable, and dry. The mean annual tempera- ture is considerably higher than that of Madeira; but the climate is variable and windy during the winter, and hot and oppressive in the summer (Sir J. Clark.) b. The Bahamas.—The climate is warm, but is subject to rapid changes of temperature. Dry cold winds prevail. Hence the Bahamas are unsuited to consumptive invalids. c. The West Indies.—The temperature of these islands is too high, and its variations too great, to admit of their being a desirable residence for patients affected with pulmonary con- sumption; but as a prophylactic for those predisposed to this disease, it is highly spoken of. In scrofula, the climate proves beneficial. Calculous complaints and ossific deposites are rare. The most healthy islands of the group are Jamaica, Barbadoes, St. Vincent's Antieua. and St. Kitt's. B « For farther information respecting the medical qualities of the island of Madeira, the reader may refer with groat advantage to Sir James Clark's work, before cited; Dr. Gourlay's Observations on the Natural History, Clmate, and Diseases of Madeira, 1811; Dr. Renton, in the Edinburgh Medical and SurgicalJournal, vol. xxvn. 1817; and Dr. Ileincki'n's paper in the Medical Repository, vol. xxii. IS'24. 110 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. The diseases for which change of climate is most frequently resorted to are— 1st. Pulmonary Complaints, especially Phthisis, Chronic Bronchitis resembling Phthisis, Asthma, Hemoptysis, and diseases of the Larynx and Trachea. 2. Dyspeptic and Hypochondriacal Complaints. 3. Chronic Rheumatism. 4. Scrofula. 5. Urinary Diseases. 6. Liver Complaints. 7. In the Convalescence from Fever, and other acute maladies. 1. Pulmonary Complaints.—These maladies are benefited by removal from a colder to a warmer climate. Equability, purity, and calmness of the atmosphere, are other desirable qualities in a climate for pulmonary invalids. The nature of the malady and constitution of the patient, however, render all climates possessed of these qualities not equally suited for every case. a. PnTHisis.—"For such consumptive patients," observes Sir James Clark, "as are likely to derive benefit from climate, I consider that of Madeira altogether the best. Teneriffe and the Azores approach most nearly in the character of their climate to Madeira." Of the climates of the South of France and Italy the same experienced writer says, when "there exists much sensibility to harsh and keen winds, and more especially, if* immediate vicinity to the sea- coast is known to disagree, Rome or Pisa is the best situation for a winter residence. When, on the contrary, the patient labours under a languid feeble circulation, with a relaxed habit, and a disposition to congestion or to hemorrhage, rather than to inflammation ; and, more especially, when the sea air is known by experience to agree, Nice deserves the preference." Late experience has shown, that Montpelier, Marseilles, and other places in the south-east of France, once celebrated as affording a good winter climate for consumptive patients, are de- cidedly improper for phthisicaljnvalids. Of English climates, those of Undercliff, Torquay, and Hastings, are best adapted for this disease. Torquay and Penzance disagree with per- sons of a relaxed habit. Clifton, during the spring months, often agrees well. b. Chronic Bronchitis.—In relaxed constitutions, with copious expectoration, the climates of Undercliff, Clifton, Brighton and Nice, are those which agree best. But on the other hand, for dry, bronchial, and trachial irritation, Torquay, Madeira, Rome, and Pisa, are to be pre. ferred. 2. Dyspepsia and Hypochondriasis.—In selecting a climate for these complaints, we must attend to the character of the malady and the constitution of the invalid. Thus, in the atonic dyspepsia of relaxed and sluggish individuals, with copious secretions, we select a dry and bracing climate; and in such, Brighton, Clifton, Nice, or Naples, would probably prove beneficial. But when the dyspepsia assumes an inflammatory form, with dry tongue and a febrile condition of sys- tem, the soft and humid climates are to be preferred,—such as Torquay, Pau, Rome, and Pisa. 3. Chronic Rheumatism.—In this malady, mild climates generally have been found beneficial. According to Sir James Clark's experience, Rome and Nice are the best climates on the continent. In relaxed and cachectic individuals, the latter place is to be preferred. 4. Scrofula.—In this malady the West Indies prove highly serviceable. Nice and Rome, on the continent, have appeared to be favourable. In this country Clifton is perhaps the climate best adapted for scrofula. 5. Urinary Diseases.—Warm climates relieve most affections of the urinary or- gans, especially calculous complaints, diabetes, and vesical irritation. The bene- fit probably arises from the excitement of the skin and the abundant cutaneous secretion, and is to be explained on the principle of antagonism already alluded to. (See p. 47.) In the West Indies calculous complaints are very rare. 6. Liver Complaints.—Various hepatic derangements are induced by a residence in tropical climates; (See p. 48.) and in such cases benefit is obtained by a return to the more temperate climates of Europe. 7. In the Convalescence after fevers and inflammatory diseases, change of climate is often found highly beneficial. PHARMACOGNOSY. Ill III.-AGENTIA MECHANICA ET CHIRURGICA.-MECHANI- CAL AND SURGICAL AGENTS. The consideration of these subjects does not fall within the province of this work. IV.-AGENTIA PHARMACOLOGICA SEU MEDICAMENTA- PHARMACOLOGICAL AGENTS OR MEDICINES. (Medicainina; ^xp/utatKct.) Pharmacological Agents or Medicines are substances, not essentially ali- mentary, used in the treatment of diseases, and which when applied to the body, alter or modify its vital actions. Aliments are vital stimuli (see p. 44, foot-note,) which vivify, and can themselves be vivified; (See Mailer's Elements of Physiology, by Baly, vol. i. p. 31.) since they are assimulated to our organs, and become integrant parts of the living body. Poisons are distinguished from medicines principally in the degree of their effects, and the uses to which they are applied; for the most powerful poisons become, when administered under proper regulations, very valuable medicines. Pharmacology (Pharmacologia, from Dictionn. de Matiere Medic.par F V. Merat el A. J- De Lens, torn. i. p. G72. i vnllnaf , : > Voyage to the South Sea and along the Coasts of Chili and Peru, in the years 1712, 1713, and 1714 ( 115 ) Fig. 7. Fig. 3. Fig. 5. pIG 4 Picea vulgaris. Glechoma hederacea. (Nees ab Esenbeck.) (Labiate.) (Conifers.) Fig. 6. Faniculum vulgare. (UmBELLIFERjE.) Lolium temulcntum, or Bcurdcd Darnel. 116 elements of materia medica. Festuca quadridentata (Kunth.) In some instances the exceptions are perhaps only apparent, and arise from our imperfect acquaintance with the affinities or structure of plants. We can readily imagine, that a slight and almost imperceptible difference in the structure of the nutritive organs of two plants, may be the cause of a trivial difference in the chemical composition of their products. Now organic analysis has shown us that a very inconsiderable difference in the combining propor- tions of the elements of organic substances is sometimes attended with important differences of medicinal activity. 2ndly. Plants of dissimilar structure are sometimes endowed with similar or very analogous medical properties. An oleo-rcsinous juice, called turpentine, is obtained from Pistachia MODE OF ASCERTAINING THE EFFECTS OF MEDICINES. 117 Terebinthus, a plant of the order Terebinthaceje, and a substance possessing almost identical oroperties, and bearing the same name, is procured from the genera Pmus, Larix, and Abies, of the order Conifers Balsam of Copaiba, which agrees with the turpentines in all its leadinsr properties, and whose constituents are actually isomeric with those of the turpentines, is procured from Leguminos^. Yet the structure of Conifers? is totally dissimilar to that of cither Terebinthacese or Leguminosa?. Again, the effects of Lobelia inflata, a plant be onging to the order Lobeliace^e, are so analogous to those of Nicotiana Tabacum, which belongs to Solanace^, that the first-mentioned plant has received the name of Indian Tobacco. The term Hellebore (tXKtfaoc;) has been applied to two very different plants, viz. Helleborus mger and Veratrum album, in consequence, I presume, of an observed similarity of operation (both being drastic purgatives and narcotico-acrids;) yet the first-mentioned plant is an exogen or dicotyledon, and belongs to the order Ranunculace*:,—while the second is an endogen or monocotyledon, of the order Melanthace;E. c. Of Animals.—No attempts have been made to trace any relation between the toxicological, medical, or edible properties and the anatomical structure of animals. This has probably arisen from the comparatively small number of these beings which possess medicinal or poisonous properties; for we are enabled to employ, as food, animals of every class, from the highest to the lowest. Among Quadrupeds and Birds no species is poisonous, (Fleming's Philosophy of Zoology, vol. ii. p. 110. Edinb. 1822.) unless, indeed, the Arctic bear be an exception, whose liver is stated by Captain Scoresby (Account of the Arctic Re- gions, vol. i. p. 520. Lond. 1820.) to be deleterious. Among Fishes, Mollusks, and Insects, however, several species are hurtful; and it is frequently found that where one is deleterious, kindred species are likewise more or less so. Thus all the coleopterous insects belonging to the tribe Cantharidise of Latreille pos- sess blistering properties. 3. The Chemical Properties of medicines have been sometimes resorted to for the purpose of determining the influence which these bodies have over the organism. For we sometimes find that substances possessed of similar chemical qualities operate in an analogous manner on the system. Thus Sulphuric, Nitric, and Hydrochloric acids, act very much alike; as do also Potash and Soda. But these analogies arc not common, and we frequently meet with substances whose chemical properties are similar, but whose medicinal qualities are most incon- gruous, as in the case of Quinia and Morphia: while, on the other hand, bodies whose chemical properties are exceedingly unlike, sometimes act in a very analogous manner; for example, Manna and Bitartrate of Potash. The properties of bodies are so completely altered by chemical combination, that it is, in most cases, difficult to form a correct opinion as to the action of a compound medicine, merely by knowing the nature and proportion of its constituent parts. The compounds of some of the metals, however, offer exceptions to this statement. Mr. Blake (Proceedings of the Royal Society, Jan. 28th, 1841.) contends that a very close relation exists between the chemical properties and physiological effects. 4. The Dynamical Properties. Observation of the effects caused by the application of medicines to the animal body.—Some have examined the action of medicines on dead animal tissues, and drawn inferences therefrom as to the operation on the living organism. This mode of proceeding was adopted by Dr. Adair Crawford.1 But it is admissible only for those remedies whose action is either mechanical or chemical; and, therefore, with respect to the greater number of our remedial means, it is useless. The examination of the effects of medicines on living animals is a much more valuable and important mode of investigation; for it may be asserted, as a general rule, that a substance which is poisonous to one species is more or less so to all classes of animals; and, in a considerable number of instances, its action is of the same nature or quality, though usually very different in degree, and modified by the variations in the development of the several organs and functions. It has indeed been stated that, many substances which are poisonous to man are inno- cuous to animals, and vice versd. That this statement is wholly untrue, I will i An Experimental Inquiry into the Effects of Tonics and other Medicinal Substances. Loud. 181(5. 118 elements of materia medica. not venture to affirm, but I think that it is an exaggerated one; and I believe, with Dr. Christison, (Treatise on Poisons, 3rd ed. p. 65.) that "if the subject be studied more deeply, the greater number of the alleged diversities will prove rather apparent than real." The animals employed for the purpose of ascertaining the operation of medicines are, ordi. narily, the dog and the rabbit, and, occasionally, the cat and the horse. The dog and cat are supposed to be "affected by almost all poisons exactly in the same way as ourselves." (Chris- tison, op. supra cit. p. 64.) . . . The principal peculiarities which are observed in the operation of medicines in our domestic animals, may be conveniently arranged under three heads, as follow:— a. Those relating to the nervous system. b. Those connected with the structure of the digestive organs. c. Those relating to the skin. a. To the unequal development of the Nervous Sysletn of different animals, is to be referred the peculiarities observed in the operation of the substances termed Cerebro-spinants, or Nar- cotics, on different animals. Charvet, (De VAction comparce de VOpium, p. 164. Paris 1826.) in noticing the effects of opium, observes that the brain of the dog being much less developed than that of man, " is not so liable to sanguineous congestion, and when this con- dition is observed, it is not very intense—stupor is the only symptom of it; never coma, loss of consciousness, nor profound sleep." I have observed that the root of Monkshood does not act precisely alike on rabbits and dogs. In the latter, one of the most remarkable symptoms of its operation is diminution of feeling: in the former, the function of feeling is much less obviously affected, but we observe more evident paralysis of the hind extremities and muscular weakness. Moiroud (Pharmacologie-Veterinaire, p. 51. Paris 1831.) says that "the smallest quantity of Nux Vomica is sufficient to poison the dog, while the goat eats with impunity Hemlock, and the hog, Henbane." b. From differences in the structure of the Digestive Organs arise some peculiarities in the operation of medicines. In carnivorous animals, vomiting can be readily excited; whereas in herbiverous ones it is either not effected at all, or only with extreme difficulty, as in the horse and the rabbit. In the horse, the soft palate is so placed as almost to preclude the pos. sibility of vomiting. " Whatever is returned from the stomach of the horse, passes through the nose.—(Youatt, The Horse, p. 152. Lond. 1831.) As the rumen or paunch of ruminants possesses little sensibility and few blood-vessels, it is but slightly affected by medicinal agents. Hence in the administration of medicines to these animals, it is necessary to let them trickle slowly down so that they may flow along the cesophagean canal, and through the manyplies or third stomach, into the abomasum, or fourth or true stomach. Mr. Youatt (See the article "Ergot of Rye.") ascribes the occasional inertness of ergot of rye on the ruminant, to its being hastily poured from a large vessel, by which it falls into the paunch, and there remains inert.—Lastly, it is remarkable that colocynth, jalap, gamboge, and briony, which operate as violent purgatives on man and carnivorous animals, have comparatively little effect on the horse and other herbivorous animals. (Moiroud, op. supra cit. pp. 51, 269, and 274.) c. The skin also presents some peculiarities in the operation of Medicines. Thus dogs are but little under the influence of sudorifics: while the skin of horses is exceedingly susceptible of the action of oil of turpentine. The action of medicines on the dead huffpgrh body, or on parts separated from it, (as the blood recently drawn from the veins,) has been examined, with the view of learning the operation of these agents on the living body. It may be of assistance to us in ascertaining either the mechanical or chemical action of sub- stances; but as the greater number of medicines act only on the living body, and quite independently of any known mechanical or chemical influences, this'mode of investigation is of very limi'.ed value. In ascertaining the action of remedial agents on the living body, it is necessary that we examine their influence both in healthy and diseased conditions. For, by the first we learn the positive or actual power of a medicine over the body; while by the second, we see how that power is modified by the presence of dis- ease. Moreover, in the latter condition we sometimes discover remedial influ- ences which our knowledge of the effects of medicines on the healthy body could not have lead us to anticipate. The beneficial operation of arsenious acid in agues, or in lepra, could never have been inferred from any experiments made with this substance in health merely; nor could we have formed a correct esti- mate of the effects and proper dose of opium by employing it in tetanus, nor by active forces of medicines. 119 using mercurials in fever. The homreopathists assert, and with truth, that the study of the effects of medicines in the healthy state is the only way of ascer- taining the pure or pathogenetic effects of medicines—since when we administer our remedies to invalids "the symptoms of the natural disease, then existing, mingling with those which the medicinal agents are capable of producing, the latter can rarely be distinguished with any clearness or precision." (Hahne- mann's Organon, translated by C. H. Devrient, p. 190.) CHAPTER II.—OF THE ACTIVE FORCES OF MEDICINES. The production of effects, by the application of medicines to the living body, depends on the existence of two classes of powers or forces; the one residing in the medicine, (and called the active forces of medicines,) the other in the organism. Bodies act on each other in one or more of three ways; viz. mechanically, by their weight, cohesion, external form, and motion; chemically, by their mutual affinities; and dynamically, by agencies which are neither mechanical nor che- mical merely. Hence we may examine the actions of medicines under the three heads of mechanical, chemical, and dynamical. 1. Mechanical.—The alterations of cohesion, of form, of relative position, &c, caused by medicines, are denominated their mechanical effects. They are frequently attended or followed by organic changes; consequently a mHicine whose action is simply mechanical, may preduce two classes of effects—the one mechanical, the other vital; and the whole of its operation may be denominated mechanico-vital. Muller (Elements of Physiology, translated by Baly, p. 59.) considers that mechanical agents may give rise to chemical changes in the tissues. " Mechanical influence in frictions," he observes, "acts under certain circumstances, as a vivifying stimulus; it has this effect, probably, by inducing in the composition of the tissues, slight chemical changes, as a conse- quence of which the affinity of the tissues for the general vital stimuli already in the organism is increased." Formerly most of the articles of the Materia Medica were supposed to act on the organism mechanically merely. "I doubt not," says Locke, (Essay concerning Human Understanding, book iv. chap, iii.) " but if we could discover the figure, size, texture, and motion of the minute constituent parts of any two bodies, we should know, without trial, several of their operations one upon another, as we do now the properties of the square or a triangle. Did we know the mechanical affections of the particles of rhubarb, hemlock, opium, and a man, as a watch- maker docs those of a watch, whereby it performs its operations, and of a file, which, by rub- bing on them, will alter the figure of any of the wheels, we should be able to tell before-hand that rhubarb will purge, hemlock kill, and opium make a man sleep." These mechanical no- tions of Locke harmonized well with those of the iatromechanical or iatromathematical sect of the age in which he lived; a sect which ranked amongst its supporters Borelli (its founder,) Bellini, and others, in Italy; Sauvages, in France; and Pitcairn, Keill, Mead, and Freind, in England. The functions of the body, the production of diseases, and the operation of me. dicines, were explained on mechanical principles. The action of stimulants, for example, was supposed to depend on the pointed and needle-like form of their particles, and the operation of emollients on their globular form. (Sprengel, Hist, de Medec. by Jourdan, t. v. p. 131, et seq.) I need hardly say, the existence of particles with the peculiar shapes assumed, is quite imagi- nary; and, Indeed, if, for the sake of argument, we admit their existence, the action of medi- cines is, notwithstanding, quite inexplicable. We can, indeed, easily believe that a ball of glass may be swallowed with impunity, and that the same substance, reduced to the form of a coarse powder, might cause irritation by the mechanical action of the angular particles on the tender alimentary tube; but we could not, on this hypothesis, explain why one medicine nets on one part of the body, and a second on another part. There are very few medicinal agents now in use whose remedial efficacy can be solely referred to their mechanical influence. Indeed, several of the processes to which medicines are subjected before they are administered, have for their principal object the prevention or diminution of this influence. Among the me- dicines still employed, on account of their mechanical action, are the hairs of the pods of Mucunapruricm, quicksilver, and, perhaps, powdered tin; the first and 120 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. the last are used as anthelmintics—the second, to overcome intus-susception, or intestinal invagination. 2. Chemical.—If substances, having powerful affinities for organic matter, be applied to the living tissues, they overcome the vitality of the part, and enter into combination with one or more of the constituents of the tissues; such substances are termed caustics or escharotics. But the destruction of life in one part is at- tended with alterations in the vital actions, and the production of inflammation in surrounding parts; so that the exertion of the affinities of caustics is attended by both chemical and vital effects, and the whole of the operation of these agents may be denominated a chemico-vilal process. If the energy of the affinity of caustics for organic matter be diminished, as by diluting them, the vital powers are sometimes enabled to resist the production of any immediate chemical change, and the life of the part is consequently preserved; but its organic activity is disturbed and altered. This effect is termed irritation, and the agent inducing it is called an irritant. In this case the active force is still supposed to be affinity; that is, the particles of the caustic are presumed to have a tendency to unite with those of the organized tissues; but the union being resisted by the vital powers, a new action is set up, which constitutes the changes or effects before referred to. The long-continued application, however, of weak chemical agents, will gradually effect slight changes in the composition of the tis- sues without producing the death of the altered parts. These organic alterations of a living part are of course attended by the production of morbid actions. Chemical changes are sometimes produced in the secretions of distant parts by the internal use of certain agents. Thus the qualities of the urine are modified by the administration of acids or alkalis. These modifications or changes depend, at least in a considerable number of instances, on the chemical influence of the substances swallowed. For when either alkalis or acids are swallowed, they pass out of the system, in part at least, by the kidneys; and in the urine they possess their usual chemical properties, modified by the presence of any substances with which they may have united. Moreover, the qualities which they impress on the urine, are similar to those which they produce when added to this secretion after its evacuation from the bladder. Thus, by the internal use of alkalis, it has been found that the natural acidity of the urine may be destroyed, and an alkaline quality substituted for it: the same condition of urine is produced by the addition of alkalis to this fluid out of the body. Again, the internal use of soda or mag- nesia may give rise to the appearance of white sand (phosphates) in the urine: and the same kind of deposite is produced in healthy urine by the addition of a few drops of an alkaline solution to it. Farthermore, by the administration of acids (sulphuric or hydrochloric,) phosphatic deposites are diminished or entirely prevented, while the employment of alkalis promotes them: and a few drops of hydrochloric acid added to urine, in which the earthy phosphates are suspended, dissolve them. In otljer words, as the modifications which acids and alkalis pro- duce in the condition of the urine, are precisely those which we might expect from the known chemical properties of these bodies, it is rational to infer that they depend on the affinities of these substances. Do substances (such as acids, alkalis, and metallic salts,) which are known to possess affinities for the constituents of the blood and of the tissues, exercise those affinities in their passage through the system? and are the constitutional effects of those substances referrible to chemical influences? It is impossible to give satis- factory answers to either of these questions. We cannot deny the chemical in- fluence of these agents; but we are hardly authorized to ascribe the whole of their effects to it. The truth is, that the facts on which we are required to form our opinion are too few to enable us to draw any accurate or precise conclusions. By the internal use of madder, the bones and some other parts become coloured; and the long-continued employment of the nitrate of silver gives rise occasionally to a deposite of silver under the skin. But with two or three exceptions of this kind, ACTIVE forces of medicines. 121 no changes in the living tissues or organs have been demonstrated. We know that when external agents are taken into the system, they become subject to a superior power, and are no longer at full liberty to obey the ordinary laws of affi- nity. It must be some power superior to that recognised in chemical operations which prevents the action of the gastric juice on the stomach during life. Muller, (Elements of Physiology, by Baly, vol. i. p. 58, et seq.) however, ascribes the opera- tion of most external agents to their chemical influence. Vital stimuli, (a certain degree of external heat, atmospheric air, water, and nutriment,) he observes, " do not merely produce a change in the composition of the organic structures, and stimulate by disturbing the balance in the system, but renovate the tissues by entering, in a manner indispensable to life, into their composition." On the other hand, all agents of this kind, as well medicinal substances, as caloric, electricity, and mechanical influences, "may, when their action is excessive, have the opposite of a vivifying effect, by producing such a violent change in the organic matter, that the combinations necessary to life cannot be maintained." " A great number of sub- stances are important as medicaments, from producing a chemical change in the organic mat- ter, of which the result is, not an immediate renovation of material and increase of vital force, but the removal of that state of combination of the elements which prevented healthy action, or excited diseased action ; or the chemical change produced is such as to render the-organ no longer sensible to a morbid stimulus; or it is such that certain apprehended destructive changes in its composition are no longer possible, as in the antiphlogistic plan of treatment; or, lastly, these substances produce a change in the nutritive fluids. Such substances are alte- ratives. By these remedies an organ morbidly changed in composition cannot be rendered sound by, as it were, a chemical process, but such a slight chemical change can be produced as shall render it possible for nature to restore the heal.hy constitution of the part by the pro- Cess of nutrition. These remedies, again, may be divided into two principal kinds, according as they act chiefly on the nervous system, or on the other organs dependent on that system. Among those of the first kind, the most important are the so called narcotics; those of the lat- ter kind comprehend the numerous medicines which exercise their action on diseases in other organs. These remedies, also, by removing the obstacles to cure, become indirectly vivifying or renovating stimuli; and they may themselves, by disturbing the balance in a part, produce symptoms of irritation. If used to excess, they either give rise to the injurious effects of the heterogeneous stimulants, or, by inducing a sudden change of composition, annihilate the vital force, as is the case with the narcotics. Since, however, such alterative medicines affect the composition of an organ each in its own way, one alterative may, after a time, lose its influ- ence, as it were, by saturation, while the organ may still be susceptible of the influence of another. A great number of the instances of habituation are referrible to this cause." 3. Dynamical.—Some substances exercise a most potent influence over the organism, without producing any obviously mechanical or chemical changes in the organic tissues. Such substances are said to act dynamically; as hydrocyanic acid, morphia, strychnia, &c. In the inorganic kingdom we have evidence of an influence which cannot be denominated either mechanical or chemical. The communication of magnetical and electrical properties to iron by mere contact with another body, without the production of any change of form or of composition, either of the iron itself or of the imparting body, is an example of this. Now, to influences of this kind the term dynamical has been applied; and several pharmacologists' have employed it to indicate those influence.:; of medicines over the organism which are as- cribable to neither mechanical nor chemical causes. As the term is a convenient one, I have adopted it. Some have attempted to account for the actiun of medicines on electrical principles. All bodies, snys Bischoff, (Op. supra cit, Bd. i. pp. 158,162, and 163.) by contact with each other, act as electrics, without, however, necessarily undergoing any chemical changes. Therefore, when a medicine is applied to the organism, its action is electrical. But though, adds this writer, a medicine may produce electrical without chemical changes, yet the reverse of this does not hold good, for no chemical changes can occur without the production of alterations in the electrical condition of bodies; and, consequently, the operation of caustics is an electro- chemical process. In some few instances the effects of medicines are analogous to those of electricity. Thus the instantaneous death caused by hydrocyanic acid is something like an electrical phenome- non. " A drop of acid, mixed with a few drops of alcohol," says Magendie, (Formulaire, 8me 6d. p. 174. Paris, 1835.) " when injected into the jugular vein, kills the animal instantly, as if he hud been struck with lightning." The same physiologist has compared the convulsive i Burdach, System der Arzneymittellehre. Leipzig, 1807.—C. H. E. Bischoff, Die Lehre von" den chemischen Heilmitteln. Bonn. 1825.—Vogt. Lehrbuch der Pharmakodynamik, 2'<* Aufl. Giessen 1828 Vol. I.—16 122 elements or materia medica. shock, caused by the Upas Tieute, " to that which takes place when a current of galvanic fluid is directed along the spinal marrow of an animal recently killed." (Orfila, Toxicologic Uini- rale.) Again, "If an animal be touched whilst under the action of this substance [extract of nux vomica,] it experiences a commotion similar to that of a strong electrical shock; and this takes place every lime the contact is renewed. (Formul. p. 5.) The recent assertions of Prof. Zantedeschi and Dr. Favio (to which I have had already occasion to refer,) (See pp. 68 & 69.) with respect to the existence of electric currents in the animal body, are especially interesting in connexion with the above speculations. These experimentalists declare, that convulsive movements strengthen or exalt the neuro-electric current,—a statement which agrees with Magendie's remark as to the effect of nux vomica. Bischoff, (British and Foreign Medical Review for July, 1841, p. 245.) however, denies the existence of electric currents in the nerves. CHAPTER III.—ON THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF MEDICINES. The effects which medicines are capable of producing in healthy individuals, are denominated Primary, Immediate, or Physiological. Formerly, no distinction was made between the effects which medicines produce in health, and those which they give rise to in disease; and the terms Virtues, Properties, Faculties, and Powers, were applied to both classes of effects. But Bichat, and subsequently Barbier and Schwilgud, pointed out the propriety of considering them separately. The Physiological Effects may, for convenience, be divided into such as are local, or which occur in the part to which the agent is applied; and those which are remote, or which take place in parts more or less distant from that to which the medicine is applied. l. Local Effects. (Topical Effects.) The local or topical effects of medicines are of three kinds,—mechanical, chemical, and vital. 1. Mechanical Effects.—The operation and primary effects of the hairs of Mucuna pruriens, and of demulcents, are mechanical. But mechanical effects are usually attended, or followed, by changes in the vital actions of the part; so that the total effect is mechanico-vital. 2. Chemical Effects.—A very large number of medicinal agents effect che- mical changes in the parts to which they are applied. The constituents of the tissues on which these agents expend the energy of their affinities, are principally water, albumen, fibrin, and gelatine. Water con- stitutes four-fifths of the weight of the animal tissues, and without it they are wholly insusceptible of vitality, except in the case of some of the lower animals. (Muller, Elem. of Physiol, p. 7.) Hence, therefore, agents like sulphuric acid, which powerfully attract water, act as caustics. Substances which either coagu- late liquid albumen, (as the mineral acids and alcohol,) or which dissolve solid albumen, fibrin, and gelatine, (as the alkalies,) are also powerful caustics. Many salts, (as bichloruret.of mercury; sulphate of copper, acetate of lead, and chloruret of zinc,) form new compounds when placed in contact with the organic prin- ciples just referred to: they are also called caustics. As a preliminary to the pro- duction of the chemical changes here mentioned, the caustic must destroy the life of the part. Lastly, around the cauterized parts inflammation is set up. So that the total effect of the chemical action of agents on the organism is chemico- vital. Those medicines or agents, which produce a local chemical effect, admit of a three-fold division:— a. Some produce the complete destruction of the parts with which they are placed in con- tact. Oil of Vitriol, Nitric, and Hydrochloric Acids, and the Caustic Alkalies, belong to this series. Liebigi refuses to call these substances poisons. They merely destroy, he says, the continuity of particular organs, and are comparable, in their operation, to a heated iron or a sharp knife. ' dr^ai840CAe'""try'" US j3pptication t0 -^Sriculture and Physiology. Edited by Lyon Playfair, Ph. D. remote effects. 123 6. Some enter into chemical combination with the tissues, or their organic components. To this series belong Sulphate of Copper, Bichloride of Mercury, Acetate of Lead, Clhoride of Zinc, Nitrate of Silver, Arsenious Acid, Tannic Acid, &c. The components of the living part, when combined with any of these substances, are less susceptible of decay and decom- position than previously. Hence they are unfitted for the exercise of the "principal property which appertains to their vital condition ; viz. that of suffering and effecting transformation :" in other words, their vitality is destroyed. In some cases the quantity of inorganic matter sufficient to destroy the life of a part, is very small; as in the case of arsenious acid and bichloride of mercury. Liebig" ascribes this to the high atomic weights of fibrine and albu- men; and he states, that 3Jffgrs. of arsenious acid, or 5 grs. of corrosive sublimate, are suffi- cient to form a neutral compound of equal equivalents with 100 grs. of fibrine, as it exists in muscle or blood; and that 1J grs. of arsenious acid are sufficient to unite with 100 grs. of albumen. c. Some agents produce chemical effects distinct from those of the preceding two series. The Salts with an alkaline or earthy base, and Alcohol, belong to this group. Liebig says, their action does not depend on their power of entering into combination with the component parts of the organism. Common salt and alcohol act by abstracting water from the moist tissues. Liebig admits that some poisons act by catalysis. Thus, decomposing animal or vegetable matters are, he thinks, capable of inducing in the blood of a healthy individual a decomposi- tion similar to that of which they themselves are the subjects. They exhibit, he says, a strong similarity to the action of yeast on liquids containing su?ar and gluten. The poisons of small-pox, plague, and syphilis, act, he thinks, in this way. This view, which is a revival of an ancient opinion, is ingenious, but improbable. 3. Vital Effects.—The effects placed under this head are those which are unaccompanied by any obvious mechanical or chemical lesions. Although it is probable, that no one component of a tissue can suffer much change in its vital activity without disturbing the actions of other components, yet we observe that the blood-vessels, the secretory apparatus, the organic fibres, and the nerves of a part, are affected, in unequal degrees, by different medicines. a. In some cases the blood-vessels appear to be principally affected. Thus, Cantharides, Savine, Gamboge, Croton Oil, Mustard, &c, cause pain, heat, redness, and other symptoms of inflammation: these agents we denominate irritants or acrids. b. In some instances the secretory apparatus is remarkably affected. Thus, Oxide of Zinc and Lime Water have a desiccating effect when applied to a secreting surface. c. The effect of astringents and emollients is on the organic fibres chiefly. d. The nerves, in some cases, are the parts principally affected. Thus, Aconite causes numb- ness, tingling, and a pricking sensation, with scarcely any visible alteration in the condition of the part. 2. R c m o t e Effects. (General Effects.) Nature of the Effects.—In general the effects produced in parts more or less remote from the seat of application, are physiological or vital; that is, they con- sist of alterations of the vital actions. In some few instances, however, chemical changes are obvious. a. Vital Effects.—Some substances, when taken into the stomach, influence the functions of remote organs, without our being able to detect, after death, any change in the structure or appearance of the parts whose functions are thus affected. Thus, Hydrocyanic Acid disturbs the cerebral functions,—and Fox- glove acts as a diuretic, without inducing any visible topical alteration in the brain and kidneys respectively. On the other hand, some agents give rise to visible changes in the condition of the parts acted on. Thus, Cantharides, in large doses, excites inflammation of the bladder,—Drastic Purgatives, of the rectum. b. Chemical Effects.—The deposition of silver under the skin and in some in- ternal organs, by the administration of the nitrate of that metal, and the red colour communicated to bones by the internal employment of Madder, are proofs that the solids remote from the seat of application may undergo slight chemical changes. Vogt, (Pharmakodynamik, Bd. i. S. 15.) however, denies that any ■ Op. supra cit. Liebig says, that 6361 parts of anhydrous fibrine are united with 30000 parts of water in muscular fibre or blood. 124 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MELIICA. remote chemical effects can be induced. I have already (See p. 120.) assigned reasons for believing that the alteration effected in the quality of the urine by the internal use of Acids and Alkalies, are the effects of a chemical influence. Medium by which Remote Effects are froduced.—It has been hitherto gene- rally supposed that there were two modes by which a medicine or poison affected remote parts: these were,— 1st. By absorption,—that is, by the passage of the medicinal or poisonous molecules into the blood. . 2ndly. By sympathy,—that is, by an impression transmitted through the nerves. Sir Benjamin Brodie {Phil. Trans, for 1811, p. 178; and for 1812, p. 205.) inferred this double medium of operation from his experiments on several poisons. It has, however, always appeared somewhat improbable that an agent should be capable of affecting remote parts in two ways. "All fair analogy," observe Messrs. Morgan and Addison, (An Essay on the Operation of Poisonous Agents on the Living Body, p. 14. Lond. 1829.) " forbids the conclusion that a poison or an ordinary cause of disease shall at one time produce constitutional distur- bance through the medium of one system of organs, and at another time through the medium of another system of organs." Difficulties, however, have hitherto appeared in the way of an exclusive adoption of either mode of operation; and, therefore, while Magendie, on the one hand, advocated the operation of absorp- tion only, and Messrs. Morgan and Addison, on the other hand, that by sympathy only, most writers, dissatified with these exclusive views, have adopted Sir Ben- jamin Brodie's opinion of a double mode of operation. Although late investiga- tions strongly favour, if, indeed, they do not absolutely establish, the correctness of Magendie's opinion, I think it expedient, so long as any doubt remains, to examine both theories; and, therefore, the following two chapters will be devoted to these subjects. CHAPTER IV.—ON THE ABSORPTION OF MEDICINES. Proofs.—The particles of most medicinal substances, when applied to the living body, become absorbed and pass into the circulation. Two facts prove this, viz. the disappearance of certain substances from a shut cavity into which they had been introduced,—and the detection of medicinal particles in the blood, secretions, or solids of the body. a. Disappearance from a shut cavity.—Drs. Christison and Coindet (Edin. Med. and Surg. Journ. xix. 335.) found that four ounces of a solution of oxalic acid injected into the peritoneal sac of a cat, killed the animal in fourteen minutes. On a post-mortem examination, although none of the fluid had escaped by the wound, they found scarcely a drachm remaining. b. Detection in other parts of the body.—Tiedemann and Gmelin1 have detected, by physical or chemical characters, the following substances in the blood of animals to whom those agents had been administered: Camphor, Dip- pel's Oil, Musk, Indigo, Rhubarb, Lead, Cyanuret of Potassium, Sulphocyanuret of Potassium, Iron, Mercury, Baryta, and Alcohol. By other experimenters, Asafcetida, Sal Ammoniac, Iodine, Hydrocyanic, and Sulphocyanic acids, &c, have been found.3 In the solids of the body several substances have been recognised: for example, Madder in the bones, Silver in the skin, Copper in the liver, Lead in the liver, spinal cord, and muscles, Mercury in various parts, &c. In the secretions various medicinal agents have been recognised.—Thus, in the cutaneous secretions, Mercury, Iodine, Sulphur, the odorous Matter of Musk, of Garlic, and of Onions, and other substances, have been detected; in the breath, i Versiche ueber d. Wege auf welshen Substanzen aus dcm Magen u. Darmkanal ins Blut gelansen. Heidel- berg, le-20. 6 e a For authorities ousult Magendie's Elementary Compendium of Physiology, and Christison's Treatise on Poisons. ARS0RPTI0N OF MEDICINES. 125 several substances have been recognised by their odour; for example, Camphor, Alcohol, Ether, Phosphorus, Asafretida, Sulphur, the odorous matter of Garlic, and of Onions, &c. The milk sometimes acquires medicinal properties, in con- sequence of the employment of certain substances by the nurse. Thus it is rendered purgative by Senna, and narcotic by Opium. " Alkalies given to the nurse will relieve acidity in the child's stomach; and Mercury given through a similar medium will cure syphilitic symptoms in the infant at the breast."1 Bit- ters, Indigo, Iodine, and Madder, have also been distinctly recognised in the milk. In the urine so many substances have been discovered, that it will be most convenient to exhibit them in a tabular form. The following is taken prin- cipally from the experiments of Drs. Wohler and Stehberger, as mentioned by the late Dr. Duncan. (Supplement to Edinburgh Dispensatory, 1829.) SUBSTANCES WHICH PASS OFF BY THE URINE. Carbonate of potash. Nitrate of potash. Chlorate of potash. Sulpho-cyanide of potassium. Fig. 9. (A.) Unchanged, or nearly so. Salts. Sulphuret of potassium. Ferro-cyanide of potassium (in 66 minutes.) Silicate of potash. Colouring Principles. Indigo >..,_. Madder \ (ln 15 minutes.) Rhubarb (in 20 minutes.) Gamboge. Logwood (in 25 minutes.) Turmeric (Lewis.) Red radishes. Mulberry. Black cherry (in 45 mi- nutes.) Cassia Fistula (in 55 mi- nutes.) Elder rob (in 75 minutes.) Cactus Opuntia (see fig. 9.) Tartrate of nickel and po- tash. Borax. Chloruret of barium. Odorous Principles somewhat altered. Oil of turpentine. ----juniper. Valerian. Saffron. Asafcetida. Garlic. Castoreum. Opium. Narcotic principle of Amanita musca- ria. Asparagus (Cullen.) Cactus opuntia; Small Indian or Prickly Fig. Other Matters. Astringency of Uva ursi (45 minutes.) Oil of almonds (Bachetoni.) (B.) In a state or combination. Sulphur as sulphuric acid and sulphuretted hydrogen. Iodine, as hydriodic acid or ioduret. Oxalic -v Tartaric I Gallic (in 20 minutes) \ Acids, appear in combination. Succinic L Benzoic J rtrate -. rate r late f i>tiit<> * (C.) In a decomposed state. of potash, or soda, are changed into the carbonate of the same alkali. Tartrate Citrate Mala Acetate Sulphuret of potassium, changed, in a great measure, into the sulphate of potash. « Dr. IjOcock. in The Cyclop, of Pract. Medicine, art. Lactation. The same authority states that a patient of Mr. Keale look Mercury by giving the Nitrate of this metal to an ass, and drinking the milk 126 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. If the accounts published respecting theAmanita muscaria be correct, its effects are mos extraordinary. A variety of this fungus has a powerful narcotic or rather inebriating effect,; and that the active molecules get into the blood is proved by the fact of the urinary secretion being impregnated with them, and thus possessing an intoxicating property; and we are told that the inhabitants of the north-eastern parts of Asia use it for this property. A man, for example, may have intoxicated himself today by eating some of the fungus; by the next morning he will have slept himself sober; but by drinking a tea cupful of his urine, he will become as powerfully in- toxicated as on the preceding day. "Thus," says Dr.Grc ville, on the authority of Dr. Langsdorf, " with a very few Amanita, a party of drunkards may keep up their debauch for a week;" and " by means of a second person taking the urine of the first, a third of the second, and so on, the intoxi. cation may be propagated through five individuals."1 Vessels effecting Absorption.—The particles of medicinal and poisonous substances are absorbed by the veins principally, but also by the lymphatics Amanita muscaria. and lacteals. 1. Absorption by the Veins.—The circumstances which seem to prove venous absorption are the following:— a. Detection of substances in the venous blood.—Tiedemann and Gmelin {Op. supra cit.) administered a variety of colouring, odorous, and saline sub- stances to animals, mixed with their food, and afterwards examined the state of the chyle, and of the blood of the (splenic, mesenteric and portal) veins. The colouring substances employed were—Indigo, Madder, Rhubarb, Cochineal, Litmus, Alkanet, Gamboge, and Sap-green; none of them could be detected in the chyle, but some were found in the blood and urine. The odorous substances used were—Camphor, Musk, Spirits of Wine, Oil of Turpentine, Dippel's Oil, Asafcetida, and Garlic: they were for the most part, detected in the blood and urine, but none were found in the chyle. The saline substances tried were— Acetate of Lead, Acetate and Cyanuret of Mercury, Chloruret and Sulphate of Iron, Chloruret of Barium, and Ferro-cyanide and Sulpho-cyanide of Potassium. A few of these were detected in the chyle, and most of them in the venous blood and urine. From these experiments we may conclude, that although saline sub- stances occasionally pass into the chyle, odorous and colouring matters do not; all the three classes of substances, however, are found in the venous blood. These results, observe Tiedemann and Gmelin, a^e opposed to those of Lister, Musgrave, J. Hunter, Haller, Viridet, and Mattei, but agree with those of Halle, Dumas, Magendie, and Flandrin. 6. Division of all Parts but Blood-vessels.—Magendie's Experiment.—Ma- gendie and Delille (Magendie's Elementary Compend. of ■Physiology, translated by Dr. Milligan, p. 284. Edin. 1823.) performed a striking experiment, with the view of settling, if possible, the question of venous or lymphatic absorption of medicines and poisons. They divided all the parts of one of the posterior ex- tremities of a dog, except the artery and vein, the former being left entiie, for the purpose of preserving the life of the limb. A portion of the Upas Tieuti was then applied to a Avound in the foot: in the short space of four minutes the effects of the poison were evident, and in ten minutes death took place. To the inferences drawn from this experiment, however, several objections have been stated: first, the exhibition of opium, to diminish the pain of the operation, has been said to vitiate the whole of the experiment; secondly, the coats of the arte- ries and veins contain lymphatics, by which absorption might be carried on; and thirdly, as the poison was introduced into a wound, the poison might have com- bined with the blood, and have rendered it deleterious, without the process of » See also on this subject, The History of Kamtschatka and the Kuriliski Islands, translated bv Dr J Grieve. p. 253. Gloucester. 1764. ' ABSORPTION OF MEDICINES. 127 absorption taking place. The first two of these objections have been obviated. In a second experiment, Magendie severed the artery and the vein, and recon- nected them by quills, so as to preclude the possibility of absorption taking place by the lymphatics of these vessels: the effects were the same. Some years since I assisted my friend Mr. Lloyd, assistant surgeon of St. Bartholomew s Hospi- tal, in performing an analogous experiment, using Strychnia instead of the Upas Tieute, and without administering opium: death took place in twelve minutes. The fate Dr. Thomas Davies (Lectures on the Diseases of the Lungs and Heart, p. 213. Lond. 1835 ) observes on" this experiment, that as the absorbents and veins communicate, it is possible that the poison flowed first into the absorbents, and from thence into the veins of the amputated portion of the limb. c. Lacteals tied: effects of poisons still produced.—.Magendie says that symp- toms of poisoning were observed in six minutes, when nux vomica was applied to the intestine, though the lacteals had been tied. d. Blood-vessels tied: poisons do not act.—Segalas tied the veins of a portion of intestine, and applied poison, but no effects were produced. Emmert ob- served, that when the abdominal aorta was tied, hydrocyanic acid was applied to the foot without producing any effect, but when the ligature was removed, symp- toms of poisoning came on. (Midler's Elements of Physiology, by Baly, vol. i. p. 242.) Mr. Blake (Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journ., vol. liii. p. 45.) found, that if a ligature be put around the vena portae, and then poison be introduced into the stomach, it failed to act. It deserves notice, that the Academy of Medicine of Philadelphia found that nux vomica! introduced into the intestines, produced tetanus, although the vena portse was tied. (Muller, op. supra, cit, vol. i. p. 240.) e. Rapidity of absorption and circulation loo great for the lymphatics or lac- teals.— Mayer (Midler's Physiology, by Baly, vol. i. p. 239.) found that Ferro- cyanide of Potassium could be detected in the blood, in from two to five minutes after its injection into the lungs. From this it has been inferred that it enters the blood too speedily for it to be explained by the slow circulation of the lymph. From later experiments, it appears that the rapidity with which poisons enter the blood has been greatly underrated. Professor Herring, of Stuttgardt, (Quoted by Dr. Christison, in his Treatise on Poisons, p. 8, 3d ed. 1835.) found that the time which a solution of Ferro-cyanide of Potassium, injected into the jugu- lar vein, requires to reach that of the opposite side, was, in various experiments, from twenty to thirty seconds. And Mr. Blake (Edin. Med. and Surg. Journ. vol. liii. p. 42.) states, that the time required for a substance which does not act on the capillary tissue, to pass from any part of the vascular system back to the same part again, in dogs, varies from twelve to twenty seconds. Rapid as is the circulation of poisonous molecules, it has been supposed not to be sufficiently so to explain the operation of certain poisons which have been said to act instantaneously; and hence an argument has been raised in favour of the nerves being the medium by which the deadly impression is conveyed. But Mr. Blake (Edin. Med. and Surg. Journ. vol. liii. p. 42.) asserts I hat an interval, always more than nine seconds, elapses between the introduction of a poison into the capillaries or veins, and the first symptom of its action;—a period suffi- ciently long for a poison to be brought into general contact with the tissues it affects. 2. Absorption by the Lacteals and Lymphatics.—The particles of medicinal and poisonous substances are probably absorbed by the lacteal and lymphatic vessels, as well as by the veins. But the process seems to be slow, and, moreover, is confined to certain agents. Tiedemann and Gmelin, whose experiments I have above referred to, were unable to recognise either colouring or odorous substances in the chyle, but occasionally detected certain salts. The absorption of saline, and non-absorption of colouring matters, have likewise been noticed by others. (M tiller's Physiology.) Somo of the experiments performed by the Academy of Medicine, at Philadelphia, appear to be in favour of absorption being effected chiefly by the lymphatics: but they are not con- elusive. 128 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Mechanism of Absorption.—The facts connected with absorption are best ex- plained by assuming the existence of two powers or agencies by which this pro- cess is effected;—the one physical, and the other vital. 1. Absorption bu physical agency (Imbibition, Magendie; Exosmose and En- dosmose, Dutrochet.)—Two fluids separated by an interposed dead membrane, mutually, though not equally, permeate the membrane, so as to become inter- mixed with each other. If a current of water, coloured by litmus, be allowed to pass from a bottle (fig. 11,) through a vein immersed in diluted sulphuric acid, contained in a Fig- IL glass dish (b,) into a reservoir (c,) the litmus liquor is soon observed to become reddened by its passage through the vein, in consequence of the acid permeating the venous coats. If the relative position of the fluids be altered,— th.it is, the litmus put in the dish (b,) and the acid passed from the bottle (a) through the vein, the litmus will still become reddened, showing that the acid has passed in this case from within outwards. Gases and vapours, as well as liquids, also readily per- Apparatus to illustrate Phy- meate dead animal membrane. But the same membrane sical Absorption. ig unequany permeated by different gases. But it may be said this effect is cadaveric only; that is, it occurs in the dead, but not in the living, tissues:—and in support of this view may be urged, the transudation of blood within the blood-vessels, and of bile within the gall-bladder, both of which phenomena are observed after death. Magendie has endeavoured to meet this difficulty with respect to the imbibition of poisons. He exposed and isolated the jugular vein of a dog, placed it on a card, and dropped some aqueous solution of the extract of nux vomica on its surface, taking care that the poison touched nothing but the vein and the card. In four minutes the effects of the substance became manifest, and the dog died. (Magendie, Lectures, in the Lan- cet, Oct. 4, 1834.) It must be admitted, however, that the result of this experi- ment does not absolutely prove, though it strongly supports, the opinion, of the imbibing power of the living vessels; for it might be objected, that the nerves of the venous coats propagated the impression of the poison, and that death took place without absorption; or, that the small veins of the venous coat had taken up the poison. The proof, therefore, should consist in the detection of the poi- son within the vessel. Now this has been obtained by Magendie: a solution of nux vomica was placed on the carotid artery of a rabbit; but as the tissue of ar- teries is firmer and less spongy, and their parietes thicker than those of veins, a longer time elapsed before the poison traversed the vessel. In fifteen minutes, however, it had passed, and on dividing the vessel the blood adherent to its inner wall was found to possess the bitter taste of the poison. [A fact of an analogous character and confirmative of the doctrine of penetra- tion through living tissues is detailed by Dr. Mitchell. He states, that " while engaged in investigating Magendie's theory of venous absorption, I coloured the diaphragm of a living cat blue, by placing a solution of prusiate of potash on one side, and that of sulphate of iron on the other." See papers on the Penelra- tiveness of Fluids, by J. K. Mitchell, M. D., &c. American Journal of Medical Sciences, November, 1830, in which are detailed other ingenious and interesting experiments on this subject.—J. C] With these results before us, we cannot refuse to admit the imbibition of living tissues, though in them this process cannot be effected so readily as dead tissues. 2. Absorption by a vital agency.—The physical and chemical agencies, with which we are at present acquainted, are totally inadequate to explain all the phe- nomena of absorption; as the interstitial absorption of solid matter,—for exam- ple, in the bones. We are constrained, therefore, to admit another agency, which we may denominate vital or organic. Absorption of a Medicine, or Poison, essential to the production op its remote effects.—Magendie and Muller (Physiol, p. 246, et seq.) consider the ABSORPTION OF MEDICINES. 129 passage of poisons into the circulation essential to their operation on the sys- tem: while Messrs. Morgan and Addison (Essay on the Operation of Poisonous Agents. Lond. 1829.) deny that in any case absorption is absolutely necessary for the operation of a poison. " We are not opposed," observe the latter gentle- men, "to the theory of venous absorption, but to that theory which would asso- ciate with it the absolute necessity for the admission of a poison into a vein." The following facts appear to me to prove, that absorption is essential to the pro- duction of the remote effects :— 1. Activity of Substances injected into the Blood-vessels.—Medicinal or poi- sonous agents, injected into the blood-vessels, exert the same kind of specific influence over the functions of certain organs, as when they are administered in the usual way; but that influence is more potent. Thus, Tartar Emetic causes vomiting, Castor oil purging, Opium stupor, and Strychnia convulsions, when thrown into the veins. 2. Detection of Substances in the Blood.—All those medicinal and poisonous agents, whose sensible or chemical properties enable them to be readily recog- nised, have been detected in the blood, or in the secretions which are formed from the blood, after their ordinary modes of administration; as by the stomach. 3. Activity of Medicines promoted by the means which promote absorption, and vice versa.—The remote effects of many medicinal and poisonous agents are influenced by the same circumstances that influence absorption; and we are, therefore, naturally led to presume a mutual relation. Now, these circumstances are principally three in number, viz. the nature of the tissue to which the agent is applied—the properties (physical or chemical) of the medicine itself—and the condition of the system. a. Nature of the tissue.—Nux vomica acts with the greatest energy when applied to the pul- monary surface,—with less when introduced into the stomach,—and with the least of all, when applied to the skin. The same order of gradation is observed with respect to opium. Now, the faculty of absorption, or of imbibition, as Magendie calls it, does not take place with equal intensity in all tissues. Certain physical conditions (viz. a fine and delicate structure and great vascularity) enable the pulmonary surface to absorb or imbibe with extreme rapi- dity; in this respect, indeed, it is not equalled by any tissue of the body. Hence, then, if we assume that nux vomica and opium act by becoming absorbed, we can easily comprehend why they are so energetic when applied to this part. The membrane lining the alimentary canal absorbs with less facility than the pulmonary membrane, which may be accounted for by its less vascularity, and by its being covered, in some parts at least, by an epidermoid layer, and in all its parts by mucus, which, to a certain extent, checks absorption. The cuta- neous surface, lastly, being covered by an inorganic membrane (the epidermis) does not possess the same physical faculties for absorption met with in either of the foregoing tissues; and hence the comparative inertness of medicines when applied to it. In fact, it is only by the long-con- tinucd application of these agents to the skin, that we are enabled to affect the general sys. tcm; and that the obstructing cause is the epidermis, is shown by the facility with which the system may be influenced when this layer is removed, as has been proposed and practised by Lembcrt and Lesieur, constituting what has been denominated the endermic or emplastro- endermic method of treating diseases; of which method I shall have occasion to speak here- after. 6. The physicaland chemical properties of medicines.—Another circumstance, tending to prove some connexion between the activity of a medicine and its absorption is, that the effect of many medicines is in proportion to their solubility. Arsenious acid and Morphia are both more energetic in solution than in the solid state. Now liquids (particularly those miscible with the blood) are much more readily absorbed than solids. In the treatment of many cases of poisoning, we endeavour to take advantage of this fact, and by rendering substances iuso- lnble, diminish therr activity, or render them quite inert. Thus the antidote for the salts of Lead, and of Baryta, rs a Sulphate, the acid of which forms an insoluble compound with the bases (Lead or Baryta) of these salts. Tannic acid (or astringent infusions which contain it) is for the same reason found useful in cases of poisoning by vegetable substances whose active principle is an alkaloid; and we employ Carbonate of Lime as an antidote for Oxalic acid, lo render this substance incapable of being absorbed. c. Condition of system.—Magendie asserts, as the result of experiments, that plethora uni- formly retards, and depletion as constantly promotes, absorption. If, therefore, we wish to Vol. I—17 130 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. promote this function, we have a ready means of doing so in blood-letting. Now every sur- geon knows that one powerful means of promoting the action of mercurials on the mouth, is to abstract blood; and, therefore, we should be cautious in bleeding a patient, while a poisonous dose of some narcotic, as opium, is in the stomach. Nay, in theory, the best means of pre. venting the operation of poisons which act by becoming absorbed, would be to throw a quan- tity of warm water into the veins. Magendie tried this on animals, and found it successful. 4. Division of all parts but blood-vessels. Magendie's experiment.—-The experiment of Magendie, already related, (See p. 126.) of applying the Upas Tieute to the leg of a dog, connected to the body only by two quills, is another argument in favour of the operation of medicines by absorption: for in this case the action of the poison could have taken place only after it had passed into the blood. 5. Division of the spinal cord.—Some poisons, as Hydrocynanic acid, are equally active when applied to the legs of an animal whose spinal marrow has been divided. In this case, the effect of the poison could not be the result of its action on the nerves of sensation and voluntary motion. But it may be said the division of the lumbar spine does not prevent the action of poisons by the ner- vous system, because it does not destroy the action of the excito-motory or sym- pathetic systems, the nervous branches of which are distributed to the lining membrane of the blood-vessels. I am aware that it is an experiment liable to objection; but, on the whole, it is certainly favourable to the opinion of the ope- ration of poisons by absorption; more particularly when we bear in mind that the motion of the blood is necessary to the action of the poison; for if the circu- lation of a part be obstructed, the poison will no longer act. 6. Ligature on the veins.—If the veins leading from a poisoned pait be tied, the symptoms of poisoning do not occur. (See p. 127.) These reasons are, to my mind, conclusive, that in a large number of instances at least, if not in all, the operation of a medicine on remote parts of the system depends on its absorption. Nor can I admit that this opinion is at all invalidated by the arguments and experiments of Messrs. Morgan and Addison. Other arguments in favour of the view here taken, may be derived from some experiments made by Mr. Blake, (Lond. Med. Gaz. for June 18th, 1841.) of which a short notice only has as yet appeared. Mr. Blake states that the rapidity of the action of a poison, is in proportion to the rapidity of the circulation. Thus, he says, a substance injeeted into the jugular vein of a horse, arrives at the capillary termination of the coronary arteries in ten seconds; of a dog, in twelve seconds; of a fowl, in six seconds; of a rabbit, in four seconds; and he adds, that the time required for the first symptoms of the poison to present themselves, bears a close relation to the rapidity of the circulation. The principal objections, which have been raised to the theory of the opera- tion of medicines by absorption, are the following:— 1. Absorption not essential.—The experiments of Magendie and others, it has been ob- served, only show that a poison may get into the veins, and do not prove that absorption is essential to the effect. " We must strongly protest," say Messrs. Morgan and Addison, " against the assumption that, because a poison has been found to enter and pass through a vein, it is thence to be inferred that such a process is, under all circumstances, absolutely ne- cessary to its operation." But it has been proved that the more absorption is facilitated the more energetic do poisons act, and vice versd. 2. The Effects of Injuries and Poisons analogous.—Mr. Travers (Farther Inquiry con- cerning Constitutional Irritation.) points out very forcibly the analogy to be observed between the effects of severe injuries and of poisons which operate rapidly on the system. Thus both strychnia and punctured wounds cause tetanus, and he, therefore, concludes their modus ope- randi must be identical: consequently, as there is nothing to absorb in the one case, so ab- sorption cannot be essential in the other. But although the symptoms caused by the above poison are very analogous to those of traumatic tetanus, yet we are not to conclude that the effects of strychnia and of a puncture are precisely alike. We have abundant evidence to prove, that very dissimilar conditions of the nervous centres may be attended with similar symptoms. Phrenitis and delirium tremens resemble each other in symptoms, yet experience has shown that they are very dissimilar diseases, and require different methods of treatment. ABSORPTION OF MEDICINES. 131 Double Brass tube. Double circulation between the Single cylindrical Carotids of a poisoned and Brass tubes. a sound dog. between the carotids of a poisoned and of a sound dog, by connecting the lower and upper ends of Ihc divided iirteries in bolh animals, so that each s-upplied the brain of the other with the portion of blood which had previously passed through the carotid artery to his own, and, consequently, the poisoned dog in this case received from the unpnisoned animal a supply of arterial blood equal to that with which be was parting (Fig. 13.) One of the dogs was then inoculated with a concentrated preparation of strychnia, which had been found upon other occasions to produce death in these animals in about three minutes and a half. In three mi- nutes and a-half the inoculated animal exhibited the usual tetanic symptoms which result from the action of this poison, and died in little less than four minutes afterwards, viz., about seven minutes from the time at which the poison was inserted, during the whole of which period a free and mutual interchange of blood between the two was clearly indicated by the strong pul- sation of the denuded vessels throughout their whole course. The arteries were next secured by ligature, and the living was separated from the dead animal; but neither during the operation, nor subsequently, did the survivor show the slightest symptom of the action of the poison upon the system. The inference which has been drawn from this experiment is, that the arterial blood of an ani- mal under the influence of poison is not poisonous. But it appears to me that this is not a neces- sary inference, and as it is opposed to the result of other experiments, it requires careful investi- gation ere we admit it. Vcrniere (Christison, Treatise on Poisons, 3d. ed. p. 10.) has proved 132 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. that if the extract of nux vomica " be thrust into the paw of an animal after a ligature has been tightened round the leg, so as to stop the venous, but not the arterial circulation of the limb, blood drawn from an orifice in a vein between the wound and ligature, and transfused into the vein of another animal, will excite in the latter the usual effects of the poison, so as even to cause death; while, on the contrary, the animal from which the blood has been taken will not be affected at all, if a sufficient quantity is withdrawn before the removal of the ligature." Mr. Travers, (Op. cit.) in noticing the different results obtained by Verniere and Messrs. Morgan and Addison, observes, that " if it be inquired why the poisoned blood concentrated below a ligature, and transferred into the vein of a healthy animal, proves destructive, while the blood of their common circulation affects only the one of the two animals which is the subject of the inoculation, the answer is obvious—that either the mechanical impulse fails, or the activity of the poison is exhausted before, in the latter case, it reaches the second ani- mal." A remarkable error pervades the whole train of reasoning adopted by Messrs. Morgan and Addison, and vitiates some of their conclusions. They assume that Magendie considers actual contact with the brain as essential for the operation of the Upas poison. (See pp. 42, 43, 47, 49, &c. of the Essay.) This assumption, however, is not correct. " In 1809," says Magendie, (Formulaire, 8me ed. p. 1.) " I laid before the first class of the French Institute, a series of experiments which had conducted me to an unexpected result; namely, that an entire family of plants (the bitter Strychnos) have the singular property of powerfully exciting the spinal marrow, without involving, except indirectly, the functions of the brain." Now, this being Magendie's opinion, it is evident that, in the experiment performed by Messrs. Morgan and Addison, the blood sent from the carotid artery of the poisoned animal to the brain of the sound one, could only reach the spinal marrow by the usual route of the circulation; that is, it must be returned by the jugular veins to the heart, from thence to the lungs, back again to the heart; from thence into the aorta, and then distributed through the system. Now it is not too much to suppose that, during this transit, some portion of the poison might be decom- posed, or thrown out of the system, before it could arrive at the spinal marrow: and even if this were not the case, this organ could only receive a small quantity of the poison contained in the system; namely, that sent by the vertebral to the spinal arteries. Hence we ought to expect that a poison thrown into the arteries will operate less powerfully than when thrown into the veins, unless it be into the arteries supplying the parts on which the poison acts. Moreover, as an anonymous reviewer [Sir David Barry?] has observed, (Lond. Med. and Phys. Journ. vol. lxiii.) it is to be recollected, that as the carotid artery, in its healthy state, is little more than one-fourth of the caliber of the vessels carrying blood directly to the brain, conse- quently the dog not inoculated was subject to the influence of onefourth only of the quantity of the poison which was conveyed to the brain alone of the inoculated animal. Farthermore, I would add, that it is not too much to suppose that the circulation of the blood through the tube would not be so free as through the artery. Another objection to this experiment has been raised by Mr. Bhke, (Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journ. vol. liii. p. 48.) who asserts, that as " soon as the poison begins to exert its influence on either animal, the pressure in its arterial system will be diminished; and thus, far from the blood containing the poison being sent to the brain of the sound animal, the only effect of the arrangement will be to cause, a reflux of pure blood from the arteries of the sound dog into those of the poisoned one." How do Medicines and Poisons, which have entered the blood-vessels, affect distant organs?—Viewing the question theoretically, we can conceive three ways, by one or more of which remote parts might become affected after medU cinal globules have passed into the blood. 1. By modifying or altering the properties of the blood, and thereby unfitting it for carrying on the functions of the body.—Although no facts are known which can be regarded as absolutely proving that the action of medicines or poi- sons is primarily on the blood, yet none I believe are inconsistent with such a notion in all cases, while several strongly favour it: and it has been justly ob- served by Andral, (Treatise on Pathological Anatomy, translated by Drs. Townsend and West, vol. i. p. 642.) that " as the blood nourishes the solids, and as without its presence they cannot support life, the state of the solids can- not but be influenced by the state of the blood," In the first place, it must be admitted that in many diseases the properties of the blood are altered, and in some cases these alterations often appear to be pri- mary; that is, they precede alterations of the solids.—Secondly, in some diseases the blood acquires poisonous properties, and is capable of transmitting the affec- absorption, of medicines. 133 tion of the individual from whom it was taken.—Thirdly, by the use of poisons, medicines, and particular kinds of diet, the properties of the blood become altered, while at the same time the condition of the solids is modified. Now as from the food is formed the chyle, from the chyle the blood, and from the blood the solids, a necessary connexion must exist between the quality of the ingesta and the condition of the solids. For facts and arguments relative to these posi- tions, I must refer to Andral's work before quoted. But if medicines or poisons introduced into the torrent of the circulation act primarily on the blood, what, it may be asked, are the effects produced? In some cases the action is mechanical, as when air is introduced into a vein. " A very small quantity of air," says Magendie, (Lancet, Nov. 15, 1834.) passed slowly into a vein, mixes with the blood, traverses the lungs, and is exhaled with the pulmonary transpiration, without causing any remarkable accident; but when the quantity is increased, especially in a sudden manner, the air mixes with the blood contained in the heart, and forms with it a foamy kind of liquid, which doe3 not pass readily through the capillary system of the pulmonary artery. In consequence of this obstacle to the passage of the blood through the lungs, the respiration and circulation become necessarily troubled, and the animal soon dies in a state of asphyxia,—not from any pernicious action of the air on the nervous system."1 Water, when introduced into the circulation, probably acts merely as a diluent. For though when mixed with blood out of the body it causes a change in the condition of the red blood disks, we can hardly suspect that it pro- duces a similar effect within the blood-vessels, from the circumstance that large quantities of water may be thrown into the veins without causing any remarkable disorder of system; whereas, if the disks were altered, great disorder of the sys- tem might be expected. Solutions of various substances (as sal ammoniac, chlo- ruret of sodium, carbonate of potash, sugar, &c.) produce no obvious change in the disks out of the body. Some substances exercise a chemical action on the blood; as the mineral acids, the alkalis, various metallic salts, alcohol, &c. The affinity of these agents is principally directed to the fibrin and albumen of the liquor sanguinis, and to the constituents of the blood disks. Hydrocyanic acid even would appear to be a chemical agent, since it makes the blood oily, fluid, and bluish in colour. Such substances, therefore, as exercise a chemical influence, cause speedy death when they are thrown into the veins, unless, indeed, the quantity introduced be very small. It is possible that organic substances may, as Dr. Christison supposes, be decomposed in the blood, without that fluid undergoing any apparent change. " A very striking proof of this is furnished by oxalic acid. Dr. Coindet and I, in one of our experiments, injected into the femoral vein of a dog eight grains and a-half of oxalic acid, which caused death in thirty seconds. Here it was im- possible that the poison could have passed off by any of the excretions; yet we could not detect even that large proportion in the blood of the iliac vein and vena cava, collected immediately after death. As the blood possessed all its usual pro- perties, we must suppose that the poison underwent decomposition in conse- quence of a vital process carried on within the vessels." (Treatise on Poisons, 3d. ed. p. 16.) Liebig (Organic Chemistry.) has suggested another mode by which medicinal agents may effect chemical changes in the condition of the blood. It is well known that the acetate of potash is converted, during its pas- sage through the system, into carbonate of potash. Now, to undergo this alte- ration, it must absorb oxygen, and set carbonic acid and water free; and as there is no evidence that the system yields oxygen, Liebig assumes that the change 1 For farther information On the Influence of Air in the Organs of Circulatijn see Dr J R Cormack's Prize Thesis on this »ubj«ct. Krtin. 1837. I 34 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. takes place in the lungs. So far his opinion seems plausible. But he goes on to observe that this change in the lungs would prevent part of the oxygen in- spired from performing its usual office: in other words, the arterialization of the blood would be impaired. This part of the explanation seems to me impro- bable. . We can readily believe that slight chemical changes may be effected in the blood disks, without our being able to demonstrate them: yet these changes may be sufficient to produce great disorder of system. It must not, however, be assumed, that agents which effect chemical changes in the blood out of the body, or when injected into the veins, necessarily produce the same phenomena when absorbed from the intestinal or other surfaces; for the quantity taken up at any one time by this process is small in proportion to the volume of the circulating fluid, and the affinities between these agents and the constituents of the blood seem to be kept in check by the vital properties. More- over, the affinities of these substances for organic matter are more or less satisfied in the alimentary tube. As the blood is a vital fluid, medicines may effect changes in it which are nei- ther mechanical nor chemical. Strychnia and morphia produce no obvious effect on the blood, yet it is not impossible that they may cause some ehanges in its vital condition; and that to these, part of the symptoms, caused by their use, are to be referred. Here, however, all our remarks are but conjectural. 2. By pervading the structure of the organ acted on.—The usual mode of explaining the action of medicines after their absorption, is, that when they have got into the blood, they are carried in the ordinary course of circulation to the heart, and from thence to the lungs. Here the blood undergoes certain chemical changes, and is probably deprived of part of the medicinal particles: at least this appears to be the case with respect to certain odorous substances. The blood, still impregnated with medicinal particles, being returned to the heart, is trans- mitted from thence to all parts of the system. In their passage through the tis- sues of the different organs, it is presumed that these particles act on one or more parts which are endowed with a peculiar susceptibility to their influence. Thus the opiate particles are supposed to exert a specific influence on the cerebral tis- sues; stiychnia is thought to act on the gray matter of the spinal marrow; mer- cury, on the salivary glands; diuretics, on the kidneys; and so on. Muller sup- poses that a change is effected on the composition of the organic matter of the part acted on. The molecules are ultimately got rid of by the excretory organs. On this supposition, then, the blood is merely the " vehicle of introduction." It must be admitted that this theory, plausible as it may appear, cannot be satisfactorily proved. We may adduce several arguments in favour of it, but absolute proof or demonstration cannot be offered: our facts merely show the passage of medicinal particles into the blood, and the affection of remote organs; but the link which connects the two phenomena cannot be, or at least has not yet been, demonstrated. The strongest argument in favour of this mode of ex- planation is, that the molecules of certain medicines may be detected in some one or more of the excreted fluids; while, at the same time, the functions of the organs secreting or excreting these fluids, have become influenced by the medi- cine. Now the simplest, and, therefore, the most plausible explanation is, that the molecules, in passing through the organ, acted on its tissue, and thus gave rise to a functional change. The diuretic effects of nitre, alkalis, turpentine, &c, are readily explained on this theory. Even when the affected part is not a se- creting organ, medicines have, in a few cases, been recognised in the organs on which they act. Thus alcohol and ether have been detected in the brain by their smell. But when the medicinal agent is not readily detected by its physical or chemical properties, we have not the same evidence to offer in support of this view, which, notwithstanding, may be not the less true. ABSORPTION OF MEDICINES. 135 Several objections present themselves to this explanation. Many medicinal substances may be detected in the secretion of an organ, though no evident influence has been ex- ercised over the organ itself. Thus the colouring particles of rhubarb may be recognised in the urine, although the action of the kidneys does not appear to he altered; and, there. fore, it may be said, that in those cases where the quality of the secretion is affected, we have no right to infer that it depends on the passage of medicinal particles through the se- creting vessels. But we know the susceptibility of the same part is not the same to all medicines; for it is not every medicine which, when applied to the stomach, produces vomiting. It has also been said that this theory of medicines "being conveyed by the circulation to different parts, is utterly gratuitous, and no less improbable." "What intelligence," says an American writer, (Chapman, Elements of Therapeutics, 4th ed. vol. i. p. 73.) " directs them in this voyage of circumnavigation to the port of destination; and how, on their arrival (admit- ting it to happen,) are they separated from the great mass of fluids in which they are enve- loped?" It is not supposed, on this theory, that medicines are conveyed to particular parts, but to every part of the body in which the blood circulates. How, then, it may be replied, is it that particular parts only are affected, since medicinal molecules are in contact with every part? We do not pretend to account for this circumstance. Everyone is familiar with the fact that carbonic acid may be applied to the stomach in large quantity with impunity ; where- as, if taken into the lungs, it acts as a narcotic poison. The urine has very little effect on the bladder, but if introduced into the cellular tissue, gives rise to violent inflammation. I have already (p. 130) alluded to another objection to this theory—namely, that injuries sometimes produce the same symptoms as poisons. But it must be recollected that, in a large number of instances, injuries do not produce the same symptoms; and in those cases where the effects of the two are analogous, I see no difficulty in assuming that there are two modes of affecting the nervous system. Moreover, we know that two different conditions of the brain may present the same symptoms. The most important objections that have been advanced against the operation of medicines through the circulation, by local contact with the tissues, are those founded on the experi- ments of Messrs. Morgan and Addison. Of all their experiments, the following are, I con- ceive, the strongest against the theory under examination :— The jugular vein of a full-grown dog was secured by two temporary ligatures; one of which was tied round the upper, Fig. 15. Fig. 16. Fig. 17. and the other round the lower part of the exposed vein. The vessel was then divided between these two ligatures, and the truncated extremities reconnected by means of a short brass cy- linder or tube (fig. 16) with- in which was placed a por- tion of woorara, of the size of a grain of canary-seed (fig. 15.) Both the tempo- rary ligatures were then re- moved (fig. 17,) the accus- tomed circulation through the vessels was re-establish- ed, and in forty-five seconds the animal dropped on the ground, completely deprived of all power over the mus- cles of voluntary motion; in two minutes, convulsions and respiration had entirely Fig. 15.— The divided vein reconnected by a brass tube containing ceased. This result was to poison. The ligatures not yet removed. be expected, whatever the- Fig. 16.—Brass connecting-tube containing the poison. ory be adopted. Fig. 17.—Ligatures loosened. 136 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. In another experiment two temporary ligatures were applied to the jugular vein, as in (he former case. A cylinder of quill, containing a little woorara, was then introduced into the vein between the two ligatures ; another ligature was then applied (fig. 18,) and the upper temporary ligature removed (fig. 19.) In the space of 108 seconds after the removal of the ligature, the animal dropped in convulsions, as in the former case, and expired in three minutes and a quarter. Now, in this experiment, the direct entrance of the poisoned blood into the heart, &c. was prevented by the lower liga- ture ; hence, if the poison operated by contact with the brain, a greater length of time was necessary for its effects to be produced; inasmuch as the circulation was no longer going on through the trunk of the jugular Itself, and, therefore, if the poison acted by actual contact, it must have a. Cylinder of Quill contain- Ligature, 6, unloosened; got into the system by the vessels of ing poison introduced into c, remaining. the vein, the vein by the aperture, b; the ligature, c, being after- • wards applied. The liga- ture, d, not yet removed. This experiment, however, cannot be regarded as conclusive. For although the " re- sult is certainly different from what might have been anticipated, on the supposition of the circulation of the poison in the blood being essential to its action, yet we cannot re- gard it as a conclusion against that supposition, unless it were shown that the poison, when the ligature above it is removed, and when it mingles itself with the stream of blood in the vein, does not taint this blood as far back as the next anastomosing branches, and so make its way forward to the heart. That this is not the effect of removing the farther ligature is not shown by these authors; and their other experiments in favour of their peculiar doctrine of the mode of action of poisons, we have no difficulty in pro- nouncing to be inconclusive."1 Moreover, the poison may act by diffusion. 3. By acting on the lining membrane of the blood-vessels.—Messrs. Morgan and Addison contend, that when poisons are " introduced into the current of the circulation in any way, their effects result from the impression made upon the sensible structure of the blood-vessels, and not from their direet application to the brain itself." (Essay, p. 60.) The proofs adduced in support of this theory are, first, " the extreme susceptibility of the inner coat of a vein, when exposed to the action of a poison," as shown by the experiment related above; secondly, that woorara acts on the brain as quickly when injected into the femoral, as when thrown into the carotid, artery; thirdly, that woorara, applied to the cut surface of the cerebrum, caused no symptoms of poisoning; fourthly, that by establishing a complete double circulation between the carotids of a poisoned and of a sound dog, the latter does not become affected. Of all these "proofs," however, the only important, though not unobjection- able one, is the first. The validity of the second objection has been denied by Mr. Blake (see p. 138.) The second and third are merely negative; their object being to show that poisons do not act by pervading the structure of the part: and to the fourth I have before offered some objections. In conclusion, then, I would observe, that while Messrs. Morgan and Addison have thrown some doubt over our previously received notions on the operation ' See a criticism in The British and Foreign Medical Review, vol. v. for Jan. 1837. OPERATION OF MEDICINES BY NERVOUS AGENCY. 137 of medicines, it cannot be admitted that they have established their own hypo- thesis; and farther experiments are still required to settle this doubtful question. In a recent discussion on the operation of poisons, at the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society, (Lond. Med. Gazette, June 18,1841.) Dr. Addison admitted that " the researches of Mr. Blake and others, had rendered the balance in some measure favourable to the theory of absorption." CHAPTER V.—ON THE OPERATION OF MEDICINES BY NERVOUS AGENCY. Messrs. Morgan and Addison contend, "thatall poisons, and perhaps, indeed, all agents, influence the brain and general system, through an impression made upon the sentient extremities of the nerves, and not by absorption and direct application to the brain." The circumstances which have been adduced in favour of this view, are— 1. The rapid action of some poisons. 2. The effects being disproportionate to the facility for absorption. 3. The effects of several poisons being analogous to those of severe injuries. 4. The rapidity of action not being diminished by increasing the distance of the brain from the part of the vascular system into which the poison is introduced. 1. The rapid operation of some poisons.—One drop of pure hydrocyanic acid, says Magendie, placed in the throat of the most vigorous dog, causes it to fall dead after two or three hurried inspirations. Sir Benjamin Brodie once happened to touch his tongue with the end of a glass rod which had been dipped in the essential oil of bitter almonds; scarcely had he done so, before he felt an uneasy, indescriba- ble sensation at the pit of the stomach, great feebleness of limbs, and loss of power to direct the muscles, so that he could hardly keep himself from falling. These sensations were quite momentary. In the cases now quoted, the rapid action of the poisons seems almost incompatible with the idea of their absorption. Dr. Christison (Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. xiii.) says, that two grains of conia, neutralized with thirty drops of diluted muriatic acid, being injected into the femoral vein of a young dog, stopped respiration, and with it all external signs of life, in two seconds, or three at farthest. In this case the death appears to have been too speedy to admit of the suppo- sition that the effect occurred in consequence of the direct contact of the poison with the brain or spinal marrow. Mr. Blake (Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journ. vol. liii. p. 35.) has met this argument by de- daring that poisons are not instantaneous in their action, but that sufficient time always elapses between the application of a poison and the first symptom of its action, to admit of its contact with the tissue which it affects. Thus he found, that after half a drachm of concen- trated hydrocyanic acid had been poured on the tongue, eleven seconds elapsed before any morbid symptom appeared, and death did not occur until thirty-three seconds after the exhi- bition of the poison; and on repeating Dr. Christison's experiment, he found that fifteen seconds elapsed after ten drops of conia (saturated with hydrochloric acid) had been injected into the femoral vein of a dog, before symptoms of the action of the poison appeared; and death did not occur until thirty seconds after the injection. Now the time required for a substance to be absorbed by the capillaries, and diffused through the body, may not exceed, according to Mr. Blake, nine seconds. So that the interval which elapsed in the preceding experiments, between the application and the effect, is quite sufficient to admit of the absorption and cir- culation of the poison. 2. The effects being disproportionate to the facility for absorption.—Orfila (Toxicologic Generate.) says, that alcohol acts with much less energy when injected into the cellular texture, than when taken into the stomach; and, as the power of absorption is greater in the former than in the latter part, he concludes that the remote action of alcohol must, in the first instance, be produced by the agency of the nerves. Opium, on the contrary, is supposed to operate by absorp- tion, because it is more active when injected into the cellular texture than when taken into the stomach. Vol. I.—18 138 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. This experiment requires repetition. Even if the result be as stated by Orfila, the inference drawn from it is by no means a necessary one. As alcohol coagulates the blood when mixed with this fluid, its absorption would be more active in the dilute than in the concentrated state. Now, the secretions and contents of the stomach may, by diluting the alcohol, promote its absorption. 3. The effects of some poisons being analogous to those of severe injuries.—- Thus, a tetanic state is produced by Strychnia as well as by a punctured wound. As tetanus can be produced without the absorption of any thing, (as when it arises from the laceration of a nerve,) it is not necessary, it has been urged, to suppose this process in the case of strychnia. Mr. Blake (Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journ. vol. lm. p. 37.) has endea- voured to meet this objection by suggesting that, in the first case, the disease may arise from the propagation of some pathologicifstate from the injured nerve to the nervous centres; for were the symptoms the mere result of the local irritation of a nerve, we might expect, he ob- serves, to produce them at pleasure, by merely irritating the nerve; but it is well known, he adds, that this is not the case. The latter part of this statement is not quite correct; for Dr. Marshall Hall (On the Diseases and Derangements of the Nervous System, p. 333. Lond. 1841.) says, that "if one of the lateral nerves [of the decapitated turtle] be laid bare, and pinched continuously, the muscles of the upper extremities, as well as the lower, are forcibly contracted. This is, in my opinion, the very type of tetanus." 4. The rapidity of action not being diminished, by increasing the distance of the brain from the part of the vascular system into which the poison is intro- duced.—Messrs. Morgan and Addison found, that the woorara poison produced its effects, when thrown into the femoral artery, a few seconds sooner, than when introduced into the carotid artery. Now, if contact with the brain were neces- sary to the action of this poison, a longer time would be required in the former than in the latter case for the production of any morbid symptoms. . Mr. Blake, however, asserts that in his experiments he found, that the nearer to the ner- vous centres is the part of the vascular system into which the poison is introduced, the more rapid is its action. CHAPTER VI.—OF THE PARTS AFFECTED BY THE REMOTE ACTION OF MEDICINES. The remote effects of medicines consist of alterations in the blood or in the functions of one or more organs more or less distant from the parts to which these agents were applied. Although an alteration of function presupposes an organic change, yet the latter is not always obvious. A medicine may affect a distant organ directly or indirectly. The stupor caused by Opium is presumed to arise from the direct influence exercised by this drug over the cerebrum, since it cannot be otherwise accounted for. The con- vulsions produced by Strychnia, on the other hand, depend on the influence which this agent exercises over the true-spinal or excito-motory system, and to its indirect action on the muscles. Some medicinal agents and poisons confine their direct remote influence prin- cipally to one organ, and indirectly disorder the functions of other organs, through the relations which exist between the affected organ and other parts of the body. Strychnia is an example of this kind. In some cases, however, poisons appear to exercise a direct influence over several remote parts. Arsenic and Mercury are agents of this kind. The intimate relations which exist between the different organs and functions, make it exceedingly difficult, and, in many cases, even impossible, to distinguish between the direct and the indirect influence of a medicine. In the following examples, of parts and functions affected by medicines, this distinction has not been attempted. 1. The Blood.—We can readily believe that some agents may affect the whole system by altering the qualities of the blood. I have already (See p. 133.) adduced several reasons for believing, that changes are induced in the condition of the circulating fluid by some medicinal substances. If this be admitted, we PARTS AFFECTED BY THE REMOTE ACTION OF MEDICINES. 139 can then readily understand how these agents affect the general system. "In fact, when all the tissues thus receive a vitiated blood, is it not consistent with sound physiology to admit, that their regular modes of vitality, nutrition, and secretion,'must be more or less deeply modified? We must either admit this conclusion, or deny the influence which, according to every physiologist, the blood exerts over each solid. It may, then, happen that one or more organs are affected in a more decided manner than the rest, and there may thus be produced in them various lesions that are only accidental and secondary: but it is not in these lesions the origin of the affection lay; it is not on them all the symptoms depend; nor, lastly, is it to them alone we are to have recourse, to throw a light upon the true nature of the disease, as well as upon the treatment proper to be pursued." (Andral, Pathol. Anal, by Drs. Townsend and West, vol. 1. p. 663.) It is probable that Mercury, the Alkalis, and many other agents, affect the qualitv of the blood. 2. Cerebral and True Spinal Systems.1—Substances which promote sleep, as Opium, or prevent it, as Green Tea; or which disorder the mental faculties, as Alcohol; or which impair sensibility,2 as Belladonna and Aconite, act on the cerebral system. Those agents which cause convulsions, as Strychnia; or para- lysis, as Conia, affect the true spinal system. 3. Muscular System.—If the tone and irritability of the muscular fibre be, as it probably is, a direct function of the true spinal system, agents which affect these properties should properly be classed in the preceding division. At pre- sent, however, it is convenient to consider them under a separate head. Opium, Alcohol, Conia, and many other agents, diminish the irritability of the muscular fibre; while Strychnia and Brucia increase it. The substances denominated Tonics, increase the firmness and elasticity of muscles. 4. Circulatory System.—The action of the organs concerned in the circula- tion of the blood is affected by medicines, principally through the agency of the nervous system. Foxglove and Tobacco diminish the force of the circulation; while Alcohol, used in moderation, augments the volume and frequency of the pulse. Lead has a constringing effect on the blood-vessels. The temperature of the body is laised by agents which excite the circulation, and, vice versd, it is reduced by those which lower the action of the vascular system. Diluted Acids and the Neutral Salts of the Alkalis appear to check preternatural heat, and they are, in consequence, denominated Refrigerants. Some other agents, probably, affect the calorific function by influencing respiration. 5. Respiratory System.—The action of the muscles of respiration is affected by those agents, already referred to, which either augment or lessen the irrita- bility of the muscular system generally. Laennec3 supposed, and probably with truth, that some cerebro-spinants (e. g. Belladonna and Stramonium) diminish the necessity of respiration. It is not improbable that certain medicines may, by their presence in the blood, retard or promote the process of respiration (i. e. the changes which the blood suffers in the lungs.) Liebig has suggested that the vegetable salts of the Alkalis (as the Acetate of Potash) do this, as I have already explained. (See p. 133.) The sensibility of the membrane lining the aerian passages is diminished by Opium and some other cerebro-spinants. The pre- parations of Lead, as well as Opium, check the secretions of this part;—while some substances, denominated Expectorants, appear at times to promote it. In diseases of this membrane we sometimes find the vital actions of the part modified by agents (such as Ipecacuanha and Senega) which, although they are usually denominated expectorants, do not always produce any evident increase in the ' Those terms are used in the sense assigned to them by Dr. Marshall Hall, (see his work On the Diseases and Derangement of the Nervous System. Lond. 1841.) » Belladonna cause* dimness of sight; Aconite is a topical benumbcr of the nerves of touch. 3 A Treatise on the Discuses of the Chest, translated by Dr. J. Forbes, pp. 77 ami 99. Lond. lfc'27. 140 elements of .materia medica. secretions of the bronchial membrane. Emetic Tartar and Corrosive Sublimate, when used in poisonous doses, occasion an inflammatory condition of the pul- monary tissue. 6. Digestive System.—The sensibility and the secretions of the gastrointes- tinal membrane are diminished by Opium. Meicury, on the other hand, pro- motes the secretions of this part. It especially affects the salivary glands and the mouth, causing salivation; and, when used in large quantities, ulceration and sloughing. Belladonna and Stramonium (as well as Hyoscyamus) produce dry- ness of the fauces; and, when given in poisonous doses, diminish or even destroy the power of deglutition. Many substances, denominated Emetics, occasion vo- miting: some of these, as Mustard, do so by their acridity; others, as Ipecacuanha and Emetic Tartar, by a specific influence over the stomach. The digestive process is readily affected by medicines. Opium checks it, and allays hunger; Condiments and the Bitter Tonics, under some circumstances, promote the ap- petite and digestion. In some disordered conditions of the stomach we have several medicines which often exercise a remarkably beneficial influence. Thus, Hydrocyanic Acid, Creosote, Trisnitrate of Bismuth, Magnesia, Calumba, and Effervescing Liquors, frequently allay vomiting and stomach pain. Purging is effected by the substances denominated Cathartics; and constipation by Opium. Mercury increases the secretion of the liver (and of the pancreas?) 7. Urinary System,—The sensibility of the organs composing this system is diminished by Opium, and its alkali Morphia, which cause relaxation, and, in extreme cases, paralysis of the muscular fibres of the bladder and ureters. Strychnia increases the irritability of the muscular fibres of the bladder. Can- tharides occasions irritation, and, in large doses, inflammation of the bladder. Several Volatile Oils (as those of Copaiba, Turpentine, Cubebs, &c.) affect the mucous membrane of the urethra and bladder, and relieve, or cure, blennorrhagia of these parts. Uva Ursi, Buchu, and Pareira brava, evince a controlling influ- ence over some morbid conditions of the vesical mucous membrane. The Tinc- ture of the Sesquichloride of Iron sometimes relieves spasmodic stricture of the urethra. Drastic purgatives, especially those acting on the lower part of the bowels, irritate the urinary organs, especially the bladder. The secretion of the kidneys is augmented by certain substances, denominated Diuretics, and is les- sened, in diabetes, by Opium. The Alkalis, Acids, certain Neutral Salts, Oil of Turpentine, &c. modify the quality of the urine. 8. Sexual System.—Ergot of Rye excites contractions of the uterus, by which matters contained in the cavity of this viscus are expelled. Savine operates as a stimulant to the blood-vessels and excretory apparatus of the uterus, and thereby acts as an emmenagogue. Opium dulls the sensibility of the sexual organs. Phosphorus and Cantharides have long been regarded as venereal excitants. Strychnia is said to possess a similar power. 9. Secreting and Exhaling Organs.—Mercury, the Alkalis, and Iodine, aug- ment the activity of the secreting and exhaling organs. The Oleo-Resins, and the Balsams, stimulate the mucous surfaces. Opium diminishes the mucous se- cretions. Diuretics promote the secretion of urine—Diaphoretics the cutaneous exhalation—Sialogogues the saliva and buccal mucus—Emmenagogues the cata- menia—Expectorants the bronchial secretion, &c. CHAPTER VII.—OF THE GENERAL NATURE OF THE EFFECTS OF MEDICINES. The vital actions of the system may be either changed or annihilated by me- dicines and poisons. The changes may be quantitative or qualitative. Agents which merely augment or lessen vital activity, effect quantitative changes, and are termed, respectively, stimulants and sedatives; while those which alter the nature of vital action occasion qualitative changes, and are the true alteratives. brunonian theory. 141 Agents which destroy the essential composition of an organized tissue, destroy or annihilate vital action. 1. Stimulants.—These agents are of two kinds: general vital stimuli, and special stimuli. (Midler's Physiology, by Baly, vol. i. p. 59.) *. General Vital Stimuli—These are agents whose constant operation is essen- tial to the maintenance of life. They are caloric, water, atmospheric air, and nutriment. They support life by effecting constant changes in the composition of the organized body. p. Special Stimuli.—These agencies vivify or strengthen only under certain con- ditions. They "produce this effect by restoring the composition of the organ by their ponderable or imponderable influence, or by so changing its composition that the renovation by the general vital stimuli is facilitated. All this, however, depends on the state of the diseased organ; and the cases in which the so-called stimulant and tonic remedies have really their supposed effect, are very rare." Special stimuli may be arranged in three groups, according as their principal action is on the nervous system, the circulatory system, or the gastro-enteritic organs. 1. Nervous Stimuli, e. g. Alcohol. 2. Cardiaco-vascular Stimuli, e. g. Ammonia. 3. Gastro-enteritic Stimuli, e. g. Spices. 2. Sedatives.—These are agents whose action is the reverse of that of stimu- lants; hence they have been termed Contra-stimulants. Cold is the most une- quivocal sedative. Aconite is a sedative with regard to the sensitive nerves; Digitalis, to the cardiaco-vascular organs. 3. Alteratives.—These are neither stimulants nor sedatives merely. They give rise to some alteration in the nature or quality of vital action, probably by effecting a change in the composition of the organic tissues. This class includes nearly the whole of the articles comprising our Materia Medica. l. Brunonian Theory. Dr. John Brown (Tlie Works of Dr, John Brown, by Dr. W. C. Brown. Lond. 1804.) supposed that all living beings possess a peculiar principle, termed excitability, and which distinguishes them from inanimate bodies. The agents which support life are termed exciting powers; and these, acting upon the excita- bility, maintain life; in the language of Brown, they produce excitement. What- ever can modify the excitability, and produce a greater or less degree of excite- ment, are termed stimulant powers: these are either universal or local. When the exciting powers act moderately, health is produced: when they act with too great energy, they cause indirect debility: when with too little, they produce direct debility. According to this doctrine, all medicines are stimulants, and differ from each other in little more than the degree in which they exert their stimulant power: moreover, they cannot cause exhaustion (of the excitability) except by an excessive action; in other words, by producing previous over-ex- citement. Considered in a therapeutical point of view merely, the following objections present them- selves to this theory:— 1. Many agents produce exhaustion without previously occasioning any obvious over-ex- citement (as the respiration of sulphuretted hydrogen or hydrocyanic acid gases.) 2. Medicines differ from each other in something more than the degree of their power; compare together the effects of foxglove, ammonia, hydrocyanic acid, cinchona, mercury, alcohol, elaterium, and opium, and the truth of this remark will be obvious. 3. The great majority of our medicines act neither as stimulants nor sedatives merely; they alter the quality of the vital actions: and this alterative effect has been quite overlooked by the Brunonians, 142 elements of materia medica. 2. Doctrine of Contra-Stimulus, (New Italian Doctrine.) This doctrine is a modification of the preceding. It was advanced about the commencement of the present century by Rasori and Borda, and was subse- quently adopted by Tommasini and some other distinguished Italian physicians. It admits two classes of medicines, the one called stimulants or hypersthenics,— the other, contra-stimulants or hyposthenics. The first exalt, the second depress, the vital energies. Hence this doctrine obviates one of the objections to the hy- pothesis of Brown, since it admits the existence of agents possessing a positive power of reducing vital action. The following is Professor Giacomini's1 arrangement of medicines:— Class I.—Hypersthenics. Order 1. Cardiaco vascular Hypersthenics. Ammonia and its Carbonate. Order 2. Vasculari-cnrdiac Hypersthenics. The Ethers. Order 3. Cephalic Hypersthenics. Opium, Morphia, and Narcotina. Order 4. Spinal Hypersthenics. Alcohol, Rum, Cherry Spirit, and Wine. Order 5. Gastro-enteritic Hypersthenics. Volatile Oils, Cinnamon, Cloves, and Nutmegs. Class II.—Hyposthenics or Contra-Stimulants. Order 1. Cardiaco-vascular Hyposthenics. Hydrocyanic Acid, Laurel Water, Bitter Al- inonds, Peach Leaves and Flowers, Black Cherries, Cantharides, Digitalis, Squills, Colchicum, White Hellebore, Cebadilla, Camphor, Peppermint, Sage, Chamomile, Venice Turpentine, Balsam of Copaiva, Juniper, Carbonic Acid, Nitre, Acetate of Potash, and Asparagus. Order2. Vascularicardiac Hyposthenics. Sect. 1. Arterial Vascular Hyposthenics. Antimonials, Aconite, Ipecacuanha, Elder Flowers, Dulcamara, Sarsaparilla, Guaiacum, Sulphur, Sulphu- ret of Potash, Sulphuretted Mineral Waters, Ergofof Rye, Cinchona, Willow Bark, Iceland Moss, and Iron. Sect. 2. Venous Vascular Hyposthenics. Sulphuric, Nitric, Hydrochloric, and Nitro-muriatic Acids, Chlorine, Oxalic, Citric, Acetic, and Boracic Acids, Mustard, and Scurvy Grass. Order 3. Lymphalico-glandular Hyposthenics. Mercurials, Iodine, Burnt Sponge, Bromine, Chloride of Barium, and Hemlock. Order 4. Gastric Hyposthenics. Bismuth, Quassia, Calumba, Wormwood, Wormseed, Gentian, Taraxacum, and Bitters. Order 5. E?iteritic Hyposthenics. Tamarinds, Cassia, Prunes, Manna, Fixed Oils of Al- monds, Olives, Linseed, and Castor, Cream of Tartar, Sulphates of Magnesia, Potash, and Soda, Carbonate of Magnesia, Senna, Rhubarb, Jalap, Aloes, Scam- mony, Purgative Elixir, Gamboge, and the Oils of Caper Spurge, and Croton. Order 6. Cephalic Hyposthenics. Belladonna, Stramonium, Henbane, and Tobacco. Order 7. Spinal Hyposthenics. Strychnia, Nux Vomica, St. Ignatius's Bean, Toxicoden- dron, Lead, Arnica, Asafcatida, and Valerian. Contra-stimulants obviate or counteract the effects of stimulants. Thus Wine being universally admitted to be a stimulant, those agents, which relieve the in- ebriation produced by it, are denominated contra-stimulants. Reasoning thus, the supporters of this doctrine deny that purgatives stimulate the stomach or in- testines; for though they evacuate the contents of the alimentary canal, yet their general effects are depressing. If it be objected, that their continued use causes inflammation, it is answered that the same effect is produced by the most power- ful contra-stimulant,—cold; and they account for it by ascribing it to re-action, which, though a consequence of contra-stimulus, is not directly caused by it But by the same process of reasoning, it would not be difficult to show that some of the substances which the Italian physicians denominate stimulants (as Opium,) are really contra-stimulants, since they are frequently useful in relieving excite- ment. Indeed, the supporters of this doctrine are by no means agreed among ' Trattatofilosofico-spcrimentale dei Soccorsi Terapeutiei. Pauova, 1833-3G. doctrine or contra-stimulus. 143 themselves as to the stimulant or contra-stimulant quality of certain medicines; for some of them regard Cinchona as belonging to the class of stimulants, others to that of contra-stimulants. It will be obvious, from the preceding remarks, that the supporters of the doc- trine of contra-stimulants disregard, or overlook, the physiological or immediate effects of medicines, but direct their sole attention to the secondary effects or con- sequences, which are uncertain, and often accidental; for many of the agents de- nominated contra-stimulants do not always, or even frequently, relieve excitement, but often have the contrary effect. The founders of this doctrine have, therefore, assembled under the same head, substances causing the most dissimilar and op- posite effects; while they have separated others whose general operation is very analogous. They assume the existence of certain diseases, which they call Sthe- nic, because they are produced by too much stimulus, and admit the existence of contra-stimulants, because certain agents sometimes, or frequently, relieve this state. In other words, they judge of the nature of a disease by the effect of the curative means, and of the virtues of medicines by the nature of diseases. So that if a disease, now supposed to be Sthenic, should hereafter prove to be Asthe- nic, the medicines used to relieve it would immediately pass from the class of contra-stimulants to that of stimulants! But the most important objection to the doctrine of contra-stimulus is, that its supporters have totally overlooked that alterative action which nine-tenths of the most impoitant articles of the Materia Medica evince. When we attentively watch the effects of medicines, it will become manifest that few of them excite or depress merely. Their most characteristic property is that of changing or alter- ing the quality of vital action; and, among the more active of our medicinal agents, scarcely two agree in producing the same kind of alteration. This defect in the doctrine of contra-stimulus equally applies to the doctrine of Brown; and appears, to me, to be fatal to both hypotheses. There is, however, one part of the doctrine of contra-stimulus which is inte- resting, since it has led to some useful practical results. It is asserted, that the doses of contra-stimulants should be proportioned to the degree of excitement; and that, when inflammatory action runs high, the patient can bear very large doses without any obvious evacuation; the disease being subdued wholly by the contra- stimulant effect upon the solids of the body. This asserted capability of bearing increased doses has been denominated Tolerance of medicines; and has led to the employment of medicines in much larger doses, and at shorter intervals, than were previously ventured on; and in the case of Emetic Tartar, the practice has proved highly successful. But, if the hypothesis were true, the tolerance ought to decrease as the disease declines; which certainly does not hold good with re- spect to Emetic Tartar, as will be hereafter mentioned. The truth appears to be, then, that many medicinal substances may be administered with safety, and, in certain maladies, with advantage, in doses which were formerly unheard of; and for this fact we are indebted to the founders of the doctrine of contia-stimulus.1 It must be admitted, however, that the effects of blood-letting, as observed in dif- ferent diseases, favour the notion of the supporters of contra-stimulus with respect to the tolerance of remedies. It is well known that in certain maladies, as conges- tion or inflammation of the brain, large quantities of blood may be abstracted with- out causing syncope, and not only with impunity, but with benefit. In this case, therefore, the disease appears to confer a protective influence,—in other words, the state of excitement increases the tolerance of the remedy. But, on the other hand, in fever, intestinal irritation, dyspepsia, and cholera, the abstraction of a much smaller quantity of blood is attended with syncope; so that these maladies > For farther information respecting the doctrine of contra-stimulus. see Delia Nova Dottrina Medica Iialiana. Prolusione alle Le-.ioni di clinica medica per I'Anno scolastico 1816—1817, del Professore Tommasini. Kirin/tj, 1817. Quarterly Journal'of Foreign and British Medicine and Surgery, vol iv. p. 213, Lond. 1822; The Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, vol. xviii. p. 606; and the Lancet, vol. ii. for 1837-38, p. 696 770, and Sfi'i. 144 elements of materia medica. appear to diminish the tolerance of blood-letting. Dr. Marshall Hall has laid great stress on these facts,1 and proposes to employ blood-letting as a diagnostic to dis- tinguish irritation from inflammation. Thus when we are doubtful whether a disease is encephalitis or intestinal irritation, he says " we must prepare the arm, open a vein, and then place the patient upright, and let the blood flow until the lips become pallid; if the case be encephalitis, an extreme quantity of blood will flow, even thirty or forty ounces, or more, before there is any appearance of syn- cope; if it be intestinal irritation, syncope occurs before one-fourth of that quan- tity of blood has left the circulating system."3 Thus assuming the degree of tolerance of blood-letting in health to be §xv., he says the oug. mented tolerance in congestion of the brain will be ^xl. 1.—in inflammation of the serous and synovial membranes, ijxxx.-xl.—in inflammation of the parenchyma of organs, ^xxx.—and in inflammation of the skin and mucous membranes, ^|xvi. The diminished tolerance in fevers and eruptive fevers, he fixes at ^xij.-xiv.—in delirium tremens and puerperal delirium, at §x.xij.—in laceration or concussion of the brain, and in intestinal irritation, at^viij.-x.—in dyspepsia and chlorosis, at §viij.—and in cholera, at ^vi.3 But though I admit the general fact that some diseases augment, while others lessen the tolerance of blood-letting, yet I am by no means prepared to admit all the inferences which Dr. Hall has drawn from this. The distinction which he sometimes makes between irritation and inflammation, is oftentimes more ideal than real; as when he endeavours to show that the pleurisy caused by broken ribs is rather irritation than inflammation.4 And, moreover, while we may fairly doubt whether blood-letting is capable of distinguishing inflammation from irrita- tion, the propriety of resorting to so powerful an agent in doubtful cases, is fairly questionable. " In my opinion," observes my friend Dr. Billing, " before such a decided step is adopted, the physician ought to have made up his mind as to what is the nature of the disease." (First Principles of Medicine, p. 67, foot note, 4th ed. Lond. 1841.) CHAPTER VIII.—ON THE CIRCUMSTANCES WHICH MODIFY THE EFFECTS OF MEDICINES. The circumstances which modify the effects of medicines may be arranged under two heads; those relating to the medicine, and those relating to the or- ganism. 1. Relating to the Medicine.—Under this head are included,-— a. Stale of Aggregation.—The state of aggregation of a medicine modifies the effect. Thus Morphia is more active in solution than in the solid state. b. Chemical Combination.—The soluble salts of the Vegetable Alkalis are more active than the uncombined alkalis, and vice versd, the insoluble salts are less active. Lead and Baryta are rendered inert by combination with Sulphuric Acid. c. Pharmaceutical Mixture.—The modifications produced by medicinal com- binations have been very ably described by Dr. Paris. (Pharmacologia, 6th ed. vol. i. p. 267.) The objects to be obtained, he observes, by mixing and com- bining medicinal substances, are the following:— I. To promote the action of the basis or principal medicine:— a. By combining together several forms or preparations of the same substance; as when we conjoin the Tincture, Decoction, and Extract of Cinchona in one formula. (S. By combining the basis with substances which are of the same nature, that is, which are individually capable of producing the same effect, but with less energy than when in combination with each other: as when we prescribe a compound of Cassia Pulp, and Manna. i Researches principally relative to the Morbid and Curative Effects of Loss of Blood. 1830. a On the Diseases and Derangements of the Nrvous System, p. 352. Lond. 1841. » Introductory Lecture to a Course of Lectures on the Practice of Physic: delivered at the Medical School in Al- dersgate Street, p. 42. London [1834] « Lancet, Nov. 4, 1837; and Principles of Diagnosis, and of the Theory and Practice of Medicine, p. 355. Lond. 1837. CIRCUMSTANCES WHICH MODIFY THE EFFECTS OF MEDICINES. 145 y. By combining the basis with substances of a different value, and which do not exert any chemical influence upon it, but are found, by experience, to be capable of render- ing the stomach, or system, or any particular organ, more susceptible of its action: as when we combine Mercury with Antimony and Opium, to increase the activity of the former. II. To correct the operation of the basis, by obviating any unpleasant effects it might be likely to occasion, and which would pervert its intended action, and defeat the objects of its exhibi- tion. a. By mechanically separating, or chemically neutralizing, the offending ingredient; as by digesting Cetraria Islandica in an alkaline solution, in order to remove the bitter prin- ciple, and to enable us to obtain a tasteless, but highly nutritious fecula. /3. By adding some substance capable of guarding the stomach or system against its de- leterious effects; as when we combine Aromatics with Drastics, to correct the griping qualities of the latter;—or Opium with Mercurials, to prevent the latter affecting the bowels. III. To obtain the joint operation of two or more medicines. «.. By uniting those substances which are calculated to produce the same ultimate results, although by totally different modes of operation : as when we combine Digitalis and Potash to produce diuresis,—the first acting on the absorbents, the second on the se- creting vessels of the kidneys. (6. By combining medicines which have entirely different powers, and which are required to obviate different symptoms, or to answer different indications : as when we combine Opium and Purgatives in painter's colic,—the first to relieve the spasm, the second to evacuate the contents of the intestinal canal. IV. To obtain a new and active remedy not afforded by any single substance. a. By combining medicines which excite different actions in the stomach and system, in consequence of which new or modified results are produced : as when we combine Opium (a narcotic) with Ipecacuanha (an emetic) to obtain a sudorific compound. 0. By combining substances which have the property of acting chemically upon each other; the result of which is, the formation of new compounds, or the decomposition of the original ingredients, and the development of their more active elements: as when solutions of Acetate of Lead and Sulphate of Zinc are mixed to procure a solution of the Acetate of Zinc: and when the Compound Iron Mixture of the Pharmacopoeia is prepared. >. By combining substances, between which no other chemical change is induced, than a diminution, or an increase, in the solubilities of the principles, which are the reposito- ries of their medicinal virtues; as when we combine Aloes with Soap, or an Alkaline Salt, to quicken their operation, and remove their tendency to irritate the rectum. V. To afford an eligible form. *. By which the efficacy of the remedy is enhanced; as in the preparation of Decoctions, Infusions, Tinctures, &c. /S. By which its aspect or flavour is rendered more agreeable; as when we exhibit medi- cines in a pilular form, or when we exhibit them in a state of effervescence. y. By which it is preserved from the spontaneous decomposition to which it is liable; as when we add some spirituous tincture to an infusion, d. Organic peculiarities.—Vegetables have their medicinal properties conside- rably modified by the nature of the soil in which they grow, by climate, by cul- tivation, by age, and by the season of the year when gathered. e. Dose.—The modifications produced in the effects of medicines by differences of dose, are well seen in the case of Opium, Mercurials, and Turpentine. 2. Relating to the Organism.—Under this head are included several circum- stances, of which the most important are the following:— a. Age.—One of the most distinctive characters of organized beings is that of undergoing perpetual mutation during the whole period of their existence; thus constituting the phenomena of age. In order the better to appreciate these changes, the life of man has been portioned out into certain periods of ages, as they have been termed, though as these pass imperceptibly into each other, there is no absolute or fixed distinction; and, consequently, the number of these periods Vol. I.—19 l 146 ELEMENTS OF MATERI K MEDICA. has not been generally agreed on; some admitting only three, others four, five, six, seven, or even eight; "the most popular number being seven: Each period of life is characterized by certain conditions of the solids, by par- ticular states of the functions, by a tendency to certain diseases, and by a differ- ent susceptibility to the influence of medicines. The effects of medicines are modified both quantitatively and qualitatively, by the influence of age. Hufeland (Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Heilkunde, p. 84, 2te Aufl. Jena, 1830.) has drawn up the following scale for different ages:— Years. 25 20 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Doses. 40 35 30 29 28 27 26 25 21 23 22 21 20 18 16 13 10 Months. 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ^ Doses. 9 8 7 6 5 4 2 1 Suppose the dose at the end of the first year to be 1, then at the fifth it Mill be 2, at the fifteenth 3, and at the twenty-fifth 4. In the above table the dose for an adult is supposed to be 40 grains. Dr. Young (Introduction to Medical Literature, p. 453, 2d ed. Lond. 1823.) gives the following rule for deter- mining the doses for children under twelve years of age:—" the doses of most medicines must be diminished in proportion of the age to the age increased by 12. For example, at two years old, to -f = -—^—^ At twenty-one, the full dose may be given." But no rule is of much value, as the degree of develop- ment is very unequal in different children of the same age. Moreover the rule that applies to one medicine will not hold good with respect to others. This is particularly obvious in the cases of Opium and Calomel: the first must be given to children with the greatest caution, and in excessively small doses, whereas the second may be given to them almost as freely as to adults. Acetate of Lead, Nitrate of Silver, Arsenious Acid, and some other metallic compounds, ought, perhaps, never to be prescribed internally for infants. b. Sex.—The sex has an influence in the operation of medicines. Females differ from males in greater susceptibility of the nervous system, more excitabi- lity of the vascular system, and less energy or power in all parts. In these re- spects, indeed, they approach children. Women, therefore, require, for the most part, smaller doses of medicinal agents than men. The periods of menstruation, pregnancy, and lactation, are attended with pe- culiarities in relation to the action of medicines. Drastic purgatives should be avoided during these states, especially the first two. Agents which become ab- sorbed, and thereby communicate injurious qualities to the blood, are of course to be avoided during pregnancy and lactation, on account of the probable ill ef- fects on the offspring. c. Mode of life: Occupation.—These circumstances affect the susceptibility of the whole organism, or of different parts, to the influence of external agents. d. Habit.—The habitual use of certain medicinal or poisonous agents, espe- cially narcotics, diminishes the influence which they ordinarily possess over the body. Of the truth of this statement we have almost daily proofs in those who are confirmed drunkards, chewers and smokers of tobacco, and opium-eaters. Instances of the use of enormous doses of opium, with comparatively slight ef- fects, will be found in every work on pharmacology. One of the most remark- able I have met with, is that related by G. V. Zeviani.1 A woman of the name of Galvani, during a period of thirty-four years, took more than two cwt. of solid opium! ! When nineteen years old she' fell down stairs, and divided her ure- thra by a knife. Although the wound healed, she M'as unable to pass her urine in the usual way, but vomited it up daily with excruciating pain, to relieve which, she resorted to the use of opium, the doses of which were gradually increased to 200 grains daily. i Sopra un vomito Urinoso, in the " Memorie di Matematica e Fisica della Soci.ta Italiana " Verona t vi 1792--4, p. 93. CIRCUMSTANCES WHICH MODIFY THE EFFECTS OF MEDICINES. 147 Dr. Kreysig (British and Foreign Medical Review, vol. ix. p. 551. Lond. 1840.) has re- cently published a case of vomiting of a urinous liquor. The influence of acrid or irritating substances is but little diminished by repe- tition,—a remark which applies especially to bodies derived from the mineral kingdom. There are, indeed, a few instances illustrative of the effect of habit in lessening the sensible influence of inorganic agents, but their number is small. The most common is the tolerance obtained by the repeated use of Tartar Emetic in peripneumonia. Several attempts have been made to account for the effect of habit. Some ascribe it to an increased power acquired by the stomach of decomposing the medicinal agent,—an explana- tion adopted, in the case of poisons, by Dr. Cliristison, (Treatise on Poisons.) and which he illustrates by reference to the increased facility acquired by the stomach of digesting sub- stances which had at first resisted its assimilative powers. If this explanation were correct, we ought to observe the effect of habit principally when substances are swallowed, and little, or not al all, when they are applied to a wound, to the cutis vera or other parts unendowed with digestive powers, and opium ought to have its usual effects in ordinary doses, on application to any part of the body of an opium eater, except to his stomach. Muller, (Op. Cit. p. 60.) as I have before noticed, (See p. 119.) ascribes a great number of instances of habituation to the substance affecting the composition of an organ, and losing its influence by saturation, while the part may still be susceptible of the action of another agent. But a strong objection to this hypothesis, is, that the effect of habit is observed principally in the case of narcotic vegetables, and is scarcely perceived in inorganic substances which evince the most powerful affinities for inorganic principles. The same physiologist ascribes part of the phenomena observed in the effects of habit, to the excitability of the organ being deadened by the stimulus being too often repeated. e. Diseased conditions of the body.—Diseases of various kinds sometimes have a remarkable influence in modifying the effects of medicines; a fact of con- siderable importance in practice. One of the most striking instances is that of Opium in tetanus. A scruple of this substance has been given at one dose, and repeated every two or three hours for several days, without any remarkable effects being produced. The late Mr. Abernethy mentions in his lectures, (Lancet, vol. v. 1824, p. 71.) a patient who had tetanus from a wound which he received at the time of the riots in the year 1780, to whom a scruple of opium was given every day, besides a drachm at night. When his body was opened, thirty drachms of opium were found undissolved in his stomach. It might perhaps be inferred, that the diminished effect arose from the want of solution of the medi- cine; and that this was Mr. Abernethy's opinion seems presumable from his ad- vice as to the mode of using it in this disease. " Give it," says he, " repeatedly in small doses, so that it may liquefy." However, that the want of liquefaction, or solution, is not the sole cause of this diminished influence, is proved from the fact that the tincture is also less effective in tenatus than in health. Begin (Traite de Therapeutique, t. ii. p. 701. Paris, 1825.) tells us, that M. Blaise, in a case of tetanus, administered, in ten days, four pounds, seven ounces, and six drachms of Laudanum, and six ounces, four drachms, and forty-five grains of solid Opium! Begin (Op. cit. t. i. p. 113.) endeavours to explain these facts by assuming, that the stomach acquires an increase of assimilative power, so that it is capable of digesting these enormous quantities of opium, in conse- quence of which the usual narcotic effects do not take place. He supports this hypothesis by stating, that if, during tetanus, opium be injected into the veins in much smaller quantities, it produces its usual effects. But if this latter assertion he correct, it does not at all warrant Begin's assumption; and, bearing in mind that opium administered by clysters during tetanus is less powerful than usual, and also taking into consideration the case related by Mr. Abernethy, I think we have evidence sufficient to warrant our non-admission of this hypothesis. All, therefore, that can bo said in the way of explanation is, that in tetanus the ner- vous system has undergone some change, by which its susceptibility to the influ- ence of opium is considerably diminished. 148 ELEMENTS OF MATLRIA MLTMCA. Another example of the influence of disease in modifying the effects of medi- cines is seen in the difficulty of causing salivation by the use of Mercury in fever. I have repeatedly seen large quantities of Mercurials exhibited internally during this disease, and in some cases accompanied with mercurial frictions, without affecting the mouth; and, in general, such cases terminated fatally. I never saw a fatal case of fever in which salivation was fully established; but whether the recovery was the consequence of the mercurial action, or the salivation of the recovery, I will not pretend to decide, though the first is the more plausible view. /. Climate.—The well-known influence of climate in modifying the structure and functions of the animal economy, and in promoting or alleviating certain morbid conditions, necessarily induce us to ascribe to it a power of modifying the effects of medicines. But it is difficult to obtain pure and unequivocal exam- ples of it, in consequence of the simultaneous presence and influence of other powerful agents. g. Mind.—The effects of medicines are very much modified by the influence of the mind. Hufeland (Op. cit. p. 80.) knew a lady who, having conceived a violent aversion to clysters, was thrown into convulsions by the injection of a mixture of Oil and Milk. I have heard the most violent effects attributed to bread pills; which pills, the patients had been previously informed, exercised a powerful influence over the system. Much of the success obtained by empirical practitioners depends on the confidence which patients have in the medicines ad- ministered. h. Race.—Differences of race have been supposed to give rise, in some cases, to differences in the action of medicines on the body. Thus Charvet (De CAc- tion comparee de /' Opium, p. 59. Paris, 1826.) ascribes to this circumstance the different effects of Opium on the Javanese and Malays (both belonging to the Mongolian race) as compared with those produced on Europeans, Turks, and Persians (the Caucasian race.) " The Javanese," says Lord Macartney, (Embassy to China, vol. i. p. 263-4. Lond. 1792.) "under the influence of an extraordinary dose of opium, becoming frantic as well as desperate, not only stab the objects of their hate, but sally forth to attack, in like manner, every person they meet, till self-preservation renders it necessary to destroy them." A similar account is given by Raynal (Histoire Philosophique et Politique des Deux Indes, t. 1", p. 359. Geneve, 1780.) of the effects of Opium on the Malays. i. Temperaments.—Under the denomination of temperaments are included peculiarities affecting certain individuals, independent of race, and which consists in disproportions in the development or activity of certain organs, by which the whole animal economy is influenced. The term temperament is derived from the Latin verb tempero, to mix together, or to temper, and is applied to certain conditions of the body formerly supposed to arise from variations in the propor- tion of the fluids of the body. Thus, when the fluids were thought to be in proper relative proportions, they were said to temper each other, and by so doing, to produce a perfect temperament. When the yellow bile was supposed to be in excess, it produced the choleric or bilious temperament; when black bile, the atrabilious or melancholic; when blood, the sanguineous; and lastly, when pituita or phlegm, the pituitous or phlegmatic. Although in modern times physiologists do not admit these notions, yet we cannot but acknowledge that individuals do present certain physical and functional peculiarities: and thus the existence of temperaments has been generally admitted, while the theory or explanation of them has varied with the prevailing doctrines of the day. The number of temperaments has not been agreed on; Hippocrates admitted four, Boerhaave eight, others five. Under five heads, I think, we may include the leading varieties, which will then stand as follows:— ON THE THERAPEUTICAL EFFECTS OF MEDICINES. 149 1st. The nervous temperament, characterized by great susceptibility of the nervous system, and comparatively little muscular power. 2d. The sanguine temperament, known by great development of the vascular system. 1 he functions are performed with considerable activity, but the strength is soon exhausted. 3d. The muscular temperament is characterized by great development of the locomotive organs (bones and muscles;) but is accompanied by diminished nervous energy. 4th. The relaxed temperament, marked by deficiency of power and imperfect performance of all the functions, with a soft and flabby condition of the solids. 5th. The most perfect temperament is that in which all the organs and functions are pro- perly balanced, and in which we have the greatest strength. Each of these temperaments varies in regard to its susceptibility to the influ- ence of medicinal agents. In the sanguine temperament, stimulants are to be employed very cautiously: in the nervous and relaxed temperaments, evacuants are to be used with great care. k. Idiosyncrasy.—Under this denomination are included these peculiarities which affect the functions of organs, without having any obvious relation to de- velopment, and which are not common to a number of individuals. Its effect in modifying the effects of medicines and poisons is, in general, to increase their activity. Thus, some individuals are peculiarly susceptible of the action of Opium, some of Mercury, and others of Alcohol. The odour of Ipecacuanha will, in certain persons, produce short and difficult respiration, approaching al- most to a paroxysm of asthma. The late Mr. Haden1 has related a case in which two drachms and a-half of Tincture of Colchicum produced death: the mother of the patient was also exceedingly susceptible of the action of colchicum even in very small doses. In some instances the effect of idiosyncrasy is to diminish the activity of the medicines. Thus some persons are exceedingly insusceptible of the action of Mercury. /. Tissue or Organ.—The nature of the part to which a medicine is applied, has an important influence over the effect produced. The stomach, for example, is much more susceptible of medicinal impressions than the skin. Opium acts more powerfully on the system when applied to the serous than to the mucous tissues. Carbonic acid acts as a positive poison when taken into the lungs, but as a grateful stimulant when applied to the stomach. The modifications effected by the nature of the tissue will be more fully noticed hereafter. CHAPTER IX.—ON THE THERAPEUTICAL EFFECTS OF MEDICINES. The effects produced on diseases by the influence of medicines are denomi- nated therapeutical. They are sometimes termed secondary, because, in a great majority of instances, they are subordinate to those already described under the name of physiological. Mode of Production.—Therapeutical effects are produced in two ways:— l. By the influence of a medicine over the causes of diseases.—This may be direct or indirect. Medicines which act directly are termed by Hufeland (Op. supra cit. p. 19.) specifica qualitativa. As examples, the Chemical Antidotes may be referred to. Those anthelmintics (as Oil of Turpentine,) which poison intesti- nal worms, also belong to this division. If the efficacy of Sulphur in the cure of itch depend on its destroying the Acarus Scabiei, this will be another instance of the direct operation of an agent on the cause of a disease. As an example of a medicine acting indirectly, I may mention the dislodgement of a biliary calcu- lus, contained in the ductus choledochus, by the administration of Ipecacuanha as an emetic: or the removal, by a Purgative, of a morbid condition of system, kept up by the presence of some depraved secretion in the bowels, the result of • a previous disease. Dunglison's Translation of Magendie's Formulary, with Notes by C. T. Haden, Esij , p. 98, 4th ed. Lond. 150 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. 2. By modifying the actions of one or more parts of the system.—In a large majority of instances the causes of disease are either not knoAvn, or they are not of a ma- terial nature. In all such cases we administer medicines with the view of pro- ducing certain changes in the actions of one or more parts of the system, and thereby of so altering the diseased action as to dispose it to terminate in health. Thus inflammation of the lungs frequently subsides under the employment of nauseating doses of Tartarized Antimony; and Emetics will sometimes put a stop to the progress of hernia humoralis. The medicines belonging to this division may be arranged in two classes; those which are applied to the diseased part, and, secondly, those which are applied to other parts. a. Topical Agents.—Under this head we include Unguents or Lotions used in cutaneous diseases, ulcers, &c; Gargles in affections of the mouth and throat; Collyria in ophthalmic diseases; and Injections into the vagina and uterus in af- fections of the urino-genital organs. In all such cases we can explain the thera- peutic effect in no other way than by assuming that the medicine sets up a new kind of action in the part affected, by which the previous morbid action is super- seded; and that the new action subsides when the use of the medicine is sus- pended or desisted from. Sometimes it may be suspected that the influence which certain medicines exercise in diseases of remote organs, arises from their particles being absorbed, and, through the medium of the circulation, carried to the parts affected. Thus the beneficial influence Avhich the Turpentines occa- sionally exert in affections of the mucous membranes (as in gleet and leucorrhcea) may perhaps be owing to a topical influence of this kind; as also Strychnia in affections of the spinal marrow. b. Medicines which indirectly influence diseased action.—Under this head I include all those agents operating on some one or more parts of the body, which have a relation with the diseased part. Thus Emetics may influence a disease by the mechanical effects of the vomiting which they induce. Alterations in the quantity of the food relieve diseases depending on morbid changes of the blood,— as when we substitute Fresh Meat and Vegetables, and the use of Vegetable Acids, for salt provisions in scurvy. Opium relieves spasm and pain, as in colic, and in the passage of calculi. Purgatives relieve cutaneous and cerebral affec- tions; Diuretics, dropsies; Blisters, internal diseases, &c. Fundamental Methods of Cure.—According to the homceopathists, there are only three possible relations between the symptoms of diseases and the specific effects of medicines—namely, opposition, resemblance, and heterogeneity. It follows, therefore, that there are only three imaginable methods of employing medicines against disease; and these are denominated antipathic, homoeopathic, and allopathic. l. A n t i p a t h i a. The antipathic (so called from avn, opposite, and vctier, a disease,) enantiopa- thic, or palliative method consists in employing medicines which produce effects of an opposite nature to the symptoms of the disease, and the axiom adopted is " contraria contrariis opponenda." Hippocrates may be regarded as the founder of this doctrine; for in his twenty-second Aphorism (Aphorismi Sectio 2nda.) he observes that " all diseases which proceed from repletion are cured by evacua- tion; and those which proceed from evacuation are cured by repletion. And so in the rest; contraries are the remedies of contraries." We adopt this practice when we employ Purgatives to relieve constipation; Depletives to counteract plethora; Cold to alleviate the effects of scalds; Narcotics to diminish preternatural sensibility or pain; and Opium to check diarrhcea. But Purgatives are not to be invariably employed in constipation, nor Opium in pain. Reference must be constantly had to the cause of these symptoms. If confinement of bowels depend on a torpid condition of the large intestines, pow- ON THE THERAPEUTICAL EFFECTS OF MEDICINES. 151 erful purgatives may be administered with great benefit; but if it arise from acute enteritis or strangulated hernia, they will probably increase both the danger and sufferings of the patient. Again, Opium may be beneficially given to relieve the pain of colic, but it would be highly improper in all cases of acute pain, as in pleurisy. The homceopathists object to antipathic remedies, on the ground that though the primary effects of these agents may be opposite to the phenomena of a dis- ease, the secondary effects are similar to them. " Constipation excited by Opium (primitive effect) is followed by diarrhcea (secondary effect;) and evacuations pro- duced by Purgatives (primitive effect) are succeeded by costiveness, which lasts several days (secondary effect.") (Hahnemann, Organon, § lxi.) The only mode of meeting statements of this kind is to appeal to experience. Is opium ever beneficial in diarrhoea? Are purgatives useful in any instances of constipa- tion? The homceopathists reply to both of these questions—No. We answer— Yes. Here, then, we are at issue with them on a matter of fact. 2. Homoeopathia. The homoeopathic (bo called) from e/u.oter,like or similar, and TrccSor, (a disease) method of treating diseases consists in administering a medicine capable of pro- ducing effects similar to the one to be removed, and the axiom adopted is " simi- lia similibus curantur.'''' Hahnemann's first dissertation on homoeopathy was published in 1796, in Hufeland's Journal.1 In 1805 appeared his " Fragmenta de viribus medica- rnenlorum positivism But the first systematic account of this doctrine appeared in 1810, in a work entitled " Organon der rationellen Heilkunde.'''' The following, says Hahnemann, are examples of homoeopathic cures per- formed unintentionally by physicians of the old school of medicine:— The author of the fifth book, 'ETi^fttniv, attributed to Hippocrates, speaks of a patient attacked by the most violent cholera, and who was cured solely by White Hellebore; which, according to the observations of Forestus, Ledelius, Reimann, and many others, produces of itself a kind of cholera. The English sweating sickness of 1415, which was so fatal that it killed 99 out of 100 affected with it, could only be cured by the use of Sudorifics. Dysentery is sometimes cured by Purgatives. Tobacco, which causes giddiness, nausea, &c. has been found to relieve these affections. Colchicum cures dropsy, because it diminishes the secretion of urine, and causes asthma in consequence of exciting dyspnoea. Jalap creates gripes; therefore it allays the gripes, which are so frequent in young children. Senna occasions colic; therefore it cures this disease. Ipecacuanha is effectual in dysentery and asthma, because it possesses the power of exciting hemorrhage and asthma. Belladonna produces difficult respiration, burning thirst, a sense of choking, together with a horror of liquids when brought near the patient; a flushed countenance, eyes fixed and sparkling, and an eager desire to snap at the by-standers; in short, a perfect image of that sort of hydrophobia which Sir Theodore de Mayerne, Miinch, Buchholz, and Neimicke, assert they have completely cured by the use of this plant. When, indeed, Belladonna fails to cure canine madness, it is attributable, according to Hahnemann, either to the remedy having been given in too large doses, or to some variation in the symp- toms of the particular case, which required a different specific—perhaps Hyos- cyamus, or Stramonium. Dis. Hartlaub and Trinks have subsequently added another homoeopathic remedy for hydrophobia—namely, Cantharides. Opium cures lethargy and stupor, by converting it into a natural sleep. The same sub- stance is a cure for constipation. Vaccination is a protection from small-pox, on homoeopathic principles. The best application to frost-bitten parts is Cold, either by the use of some freezing mixture or by rubbing the part with snow. In burns 1 See the Preface to the English Translation of the " Organoi." 15-2 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. or scalds the best means of relief are the exposure of the part to Heat, or the application of heated Spirit of Wine or Oil of Turpentine. Hahnemann thinks that it is of little importance to endeavour to elucidate, ma scientific manner, how the homoeopathic remedy effects a cure; but he offers the following as a probable explanation. The medicine sets up, in the suffering par of the organism, an artificial but somewhat stronger disease, which on account of its great similarity and preponderating influence, takes the place of the former; and the organism from that time forth is affected only by the artificial complaint. This, from the minute dose of the medicine used, soon subsides, and leaves the patient altogether free from disease; that is to say, permanently cured. As the secondary effects of medicines are always injurious, it is very necessary to use no larger doses than are absolutely requisite, more especially as the effects do not decrease in proportion to the diminution of the dose, rhus eight drops of a medicinal tincture do not produce four times the effects of two drops, but only twice: hence he uses exceedingly small doses of medicines. Proceeding gra- dually in his reductions, he has brought his doses down to an exiguity before unheard of, and seemingly incredible. The millionth part of a grain of many substances is an ordinary dose; but the reduction proceeds to a billionth, a tnl- lionth, nay, to the decillionth of a grain, and the whole materia medica may be carried in the waistcoat pocket! The following is the method of obtaining these small doses:—Suppose the substance to be a solid; reduce it to powder, and mix one grain of it with ninety- nine grains of sugar of milk: this constitutes the first attenuation. To obtain the second attenuation, mix one grain of the first attenuation with a hundred grains of sugar of milk. The third attenuation is procured by mixing one grain of the second attenuation with ninety-nine grains of sugar of milk. In this way he proceeds until he arrives at the thirtieth attenuation. Water is the diluent for liquid medicines. The following table shows the strength of the different attenuations, with the signs he employs to distinguish them:— 1 First attenua- ? One hundredth V. Fifteenth . . . One quintillionth. tion . . > part of a grain. VI. Eighteenth. . . One sextillionth. 2 Second . . . One thousandth. VII. Twenty-first . . One septillionth. I.' Third . . . One millionth. VIII. Twenty-fourth . One octillionth. II Sixth . . . One billionth. IX. Twenty-seventh . One nonillionth. III! Ninth . . . One trillionth. X. Thirtieth . . . One decillionth. IV. Twelfth . . One quadrillionth. Here is a tabular view of the doses of some substances employed by the homceopathists:— Charcoal, one or two decillionths of a grain. Chamomile, two quadrillionths of a grain. Nutmeg, two millionths of a grain. Tartar emetic, two billionths of a grain. Opium, two decillionths of a drop of a spirituous solution. Arsenious acid, one or two decillionths of a grain. Ipecacuanha, two or three millionths of a grain. These doses are given in pills (globuli) each about the size of a poppy-seed. Hahnemann gravely asserts, that the length of time a powder is rubbed, or the number of shakes we" give to a mixture, influences the effect on the body. Rub- bing or shaking is so energetic in developing the inherent virtues of medicines, that latterly, says Hahnemann, " I have been forced, by experience, to reduce the number of shakes to two, of which I formerly prescribed ten to each dilu- tion." (Organon.) In mixing a powder with sugar, the exact period we are to rub is, therefore, laid down: in dissolving a solid in water, we are told to move the phial " circa axin suam," and at each attenuation to shake it twice—" bis, brachio quidem bis moto, concule." (See Dr. Quin's Pharmacopoeia Homoeo- pafhica.) ON THE THERAPEUTICAL EFFECTS OF MEDICINES. 153 The principal facts to be urged against this doctrine may be reduced to four heads:— 1st Some of our best and most certain medicines cannot be regarded as homoeopathic : thus Sulphur is incapable of producing scabies, though Hahnemann asserts it produces an eruption analogous to it. Andral took quinia in the requisite quantity, but without acquiring inter- mittent fever; yet no person can doubt the fact of the great benefit frequently derived from the employment of this agent in ague; the paroxysms cease, and the patient seems cured. " But," says Hahnemann, "are the poor patients really cured in these cases ?" All that can be said, is, that they seem to be so; but it would appear, according to this homceopathist,that patients do not know when they arc well. We are also told, that whenever an intermittent resembles the effects of Cinchona, then, and not till then, can we expect a cure. I am afraid, if this were true, very few agues could be cured. Acids and vegetable diet cure scurvy, but I never heard of these means causing a disease analogous to it. 2dly. In many cases homoeopathic remedies would only increase the original disease; and we can readily imagine the ill effects which would arise from the exhibition of Acrids in gas- tritis, or of Cantharides in inflammation of the bladder, or of Mercury in spontaneous saliva- tion. 3dly. The doses in which these agents arc exhibited are so exceedingly small, that it is difficult to believe they can produce any effect on the system, and, therefore, we may infer that the supposed homoeopathic cures are referrible to a natural and spontaneous cure, aided, in many cases, by a strict attention to diet and regimen. What effect can be expected from one or two decillionth parts of a drop of laudanum 7 Hahnemann says, it is foolish to doubt the possibility of that which really occurs ; and adds, that the skeptics do not consider the rubbing and shaking bestowed upon the homoeopathic preparation, by which it acquires a wonderful development of power ! 4thly. Homceopathia has been fairly put to the test of experiment by some of the members of the Academic de Medecine, and the result was a failure. Andral tried it on 130 or 140 pa- lients, in the presence of the homaeopathists themselves, adopting every requisite care and precaution, yet in not one instance was he successful. (See Medical Gazelle, vol xv. p. 922.) 3. Allopathia. The allopathic, (so called from «AA«r, another, and nciAoi, a disease,) or hete- ropalhic method, consists in the employment of medicines which give rise to phenomena altogether different or foreign (neither similar nor exactly opposite) to those of the disease. Under this head is included that mode of cure effected by what is called Antagonism or Counter-irritation; that is, the production of an artificial or secondary disease, in order to relieve another or primary one. It is a method of treatment derived from observation of the influence which maladies mutually exert over each other. For example, it has been frequently noticed, that if a diarrhoea come on during the progress of some internal diseases, the latter are often ameliorated, or perhaps rapidly disappear, apparently in consequence of the secondary affection. The result of observations of this kind would naturally be the employment of alvine evacuants in other analogous cases where diarrhcea did not spontaneously take place: and this practice is frequently attended with beneficial results. The appearance of a cutaneous eruption is sometimes a signal for the disappearance of an internal affection; and vice versd, the disappearance of a cutaneous disease is sometimes followed by disorder of internal organs. Here, again, we have another remedy suggested, namely, the production of an artificial disease of the skin, as by Blisters, by an ointment containing Tartar Emetic, or by other irritating applications;—a suggestion, the advantage of which experience has frequently verified. I might bring forward numerous other ex- amples to prove the fact, (which, however, is so well known as to require little proof,) that action in one part will often cease in consequence of action taking place in another. Diseases, then, appear to have what Dr. Pring (An Exposi- tion of the Principles of Pathology, p. 352, et seq. Lond. 1823.) calls a cura- tive relation with respect to each other: and we shall find that the greater part of our most valuable and certain remedies operate on the principle of antagonism or counter-irritation; that is, they produce a secondary disease which is related to Vol. I.—20 154 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. the primary one. Dr. Parry (Elements of Pathology and Therapeutics, 2nd edit. 1825.) calls this the " cure of diseases by conversion." Vomiting is a powerful means of relief in bubo, as well as in swelled testicle. Mr. Hunter says, he has seen bubo cured by a vomit. I have frequently seen the progress of swelled testicle, in gonorrhoea, stopped by the exhibition of full doses of Tartar Emetic. Now, it is very improbable that the benefit arises from the mere evacuation of the contents of the sto. mach. The only plausible explanation to be offered, is, that the Emetic sets up a new action in the system, which is incompatible with that going on in the groin or in the testicle. If this notion be correct, Emetics act in these cases as counter-irritants. The efficacy of Pur- gatives, in affections of the head, is best accounted for by supposing that they operate on the principle of counter-irritation. Blisters, Cauteries, Issues, Moxa, and other remedies of this kind, are generally admitted to have a similar mode of operation. Even the efficacy of Blood- letting, in inflammatory affections, is better explained by assuming that this agent induces some new action incompatible with the morbid action, than that it is merely a debilitant. The immediate effect sometimes produced on disease, by this remedy, is so remarkable as hardly to admit of the supposition of its acting as a mere weakening agent. One full blood- letting will sometimes put an immediate stop to ophthalmia; and I have seen, even while the blood was flowing, the vascularity of the eye diminish, and from that time the disease progressively declined. When to this fact we add, that the same disease is often successfully treated by other different, and even opposite remedies, such as Mercury and stimulant appli- cations, we find a difficulty in explaining their beneficial agency, except by supposing that they influence disease by some relation common to allof them. This view of the counter- irritant operation of blood-letting is supported by Dr. Clutterbuck, (Lectures on the Theory and Practice of Physic, published in the Lancet, vol. x. 1826.) Dr. Pring, (Op. cit. pp. 465-8.) and others. The term counter irritant is, however, objectionable, since literally it expresses that the secondary disease should be a state of irritation,—a term hardly applicable to the condition caused by blood-letting. But this, as well as other remedial agents, (mental im- pressions, for example,) agrees with the counter-irritants, commonly so called, (blisters, &c.,) in influencing diseases only by an indirect relation; it would be better, therefore, either to extend the meaning of the term counter-irritant, or to employ some other, such as counter- morbific. The older writers employed two terms, Revulsion and Derivation; the first was applied to those cases in which the secondary disease occurred in a part remote from the seat of the primary affection; the second was, on the con- trary, confined to those instances in which the secondary was produced in the neighbourhood of the primary disease. For example, Leeches or Blisters applied to the feet in apoplexy were called revulsives; but the same applications to the head, in the same disease, would be derivatives. There is, however, no real distinction between them, their operation being similar; for revulsion was, even in their own sense of the word, only derivation at a distant part. Topical applications are frequently counter-irritants. Thus, stimulant washes, applied to the eye, sometimes cure ophthalmia. They operate, apparently, by altering the morbid action, and substituting a milder and more easily cured dis- ease for the one previously existing. Using the term counter-irritation in its most extended sense, we see our list of agents producing this effect is a most extensive one. It comprehends Emetics, Purgatives, Diffusible Stimulants, Mercury, Blisters, Cauteries, Issues, Setons, Moxa, Blood-letting, (including Arteriotomy, Venesection, Cupping, and Leeches,) Irritating Lavements, Frictions, Sinapisms,'Rubefacients, the Hot and Cold Baths, and even Mental Impressions. That is, all these agents excite some action in the system which has a relation (oftentimes beneficial) with the morbid action: to use Dr. Parry's words, these agents cure disease by conversion. The most unsatisfactory part of the subject is, the theory or hypothesis of the manner in which the mutual relations of diseased actions are effected. Dr. Parry presumes most diseases consist in local determinations of blood, and that it is a law of the human constitution that excessive morbid determination to two diffe- rent parts shall not exist in the same person at the same time. Neither of these assumptions, however, is quite correct; but, if both were true, they still leave untouched the question, how determination of blood to one organ is deeine. art. Derivatif, by Guersent. —J. C. Sabatier, Les Lois de la Revulsion, etudiees sous le Rapport Phy- siologujue et Therapeutique, Paris, 1 s:i-2. 156 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. tions, &c; and occasionally to affect remote parts of the system, as when we use Mercury. Most, if not all medicines, which influence distant organs by applica- tion to the skin, do so in consequence of their absorption; and, as the cuticle offers a mechanical impediment to this process, we generally either remove it or make use of friction. There are three methods of applying medicines to the skin; namely, the ene- pidermic, the iatraleptic, and the endermic. 1. The Enepidermic Method consists in the application of medicines to the skin, unassisted by friction; as .when we employ Plasters, Blisters, Poultices, Lotions, Fomentations, Baths, &e. Baths are made of liquids (as simple water,) soft substances (as hot dung and saline mud,) dry bodies (as sand,) gases (as hot air,) or vapours (as aqueous va- pour.) Gases or vapours are sometimes applied to the skin, either as local agents, or as means of affecting the constitution. Thus, baths of sulphurous acid gas are employed in itch; chlorine gas is recommended as an application to the skin in liver complaints; vapours of various mercurial preparations have been employed to excite salivation. The vapour of hot water, holding in solution the volatile matters of vegetables, has been employed in the treatment of many diseases, under the name of medicated vapour baths; though the greater part of their efficacy is to be ascribed to the influence of the vapour. 2. The Iatraleptic Method (which has been so called from tar^ua, to cure or heal: and "'a.Xiiipu, to anoint,) consists in the application of medicines to the skin, aided by friction. It has been termed the epidermic method—sometimes anatripsologia (from «v«st£*/3«, to rub in; and Aiyor, a discourse,) and also espo- nic medicine. It was employed by Hippocrates, and other old writers; but fell into disuse, until attention was again drawn to it by Brera, Chiarenti, Chrestien, (De la Methode Iatraleptique. Paris, 1811.) and others. Among the substances which have been employed in this way, are Camphor, Digitalis, Squills, Cantha- rides, Sulphate of Quinia, Veratria, Colocynth, Rhubarb, Opium, Belladonna, Mercury, Chloride of Gold, &c. The mode of employing medicinal agents, according to the iatraleptic method, is the following:—The substance to be applied being reduced to the finest possi- ble state of division, is to be dissolved or suspended in some appropriate liquid, and in this state rubbed into the skin. The dose is always considerably larger than for the stomach—generally two or three, often as much as ten, and, in some cases, even twenty times the ordinary dose: but no absolute rule can be laid down on this head. The liquids employed to dissolve or suspend the medicine maybe water, spirit, or oily or fatty matter. Iatraleptic writers, however, prefer the gastric juice, or saliva, or even bile; but I am not acquainted with any just grounds for this preference. Collard de Martigny (Diet, de Medec. et de Chirurg. pratiq. art. Iatreleptie.) concludes from his experiments, that the palms of the hands, soles of the feet, neighbourhood of the joints, the chest, the back, and the inner parts of the limbs, are to be preferred for the application of medicines. The objections to this mode of employing medicines are the uncertainty of re- sults; the time required to affect the system; the frequently unpleasant nature of the process (as when mercurial inunctions are employed;) and the local irritation sometimes produced by the friction. Notwithstanding these, however, it may be resorted to occasionally with advantage; as where the patient cannot or will not swallow, or where the alimentary canal is very irritable, or insensible to the action of medicines. 3. The Endermic, or Emplastro-endermic Method, consists in the applica- tion of medicinal agents to the denuded dermis. For its introduction into prac- tice we are indebted to MM. Lembert and Lesieur. (Essai sur la Methode En- dermique, par A. Lembert. Paris, 1828.) The denudation of the dermis is usually effected by a blistering plaster. When the cuticle is elevated, an opening is made into it, in order to allow the serum to OF THE PARTS TO WHICH MEDICINES ARE APPLIED. 157 escape. The medicine is then applied to the dermis either with or without re- moving the cuticle. At the first dressing the transparent pellicle formed by the dermis is to be carefully removed, as it very much impedes absorption. The me- dicine is applied to the denuded surface, either in its pure state, in the form of an impalpable powder—or, if too irritating, it is to be incorporated with gelatine, lard, or cerate. Should any circumstances arise to lead us to fear that the quan- tity of the medicine applied has been too large, the mode of proceeding is the following:—Cleanse the surface immediately; make compression (as by a cup- ping-glass) around the denuded part, in order to prevent absorption, and apply any substance that will neutralize the effect of the medicine. Thus, Lembert has found, that two grains of the Acetate of Morphia will destroy the tetanic symp- toms caused by the application of two grains of Strychnia. Musk and Camphor are said to counteract the narcotism of Morphia.1 Instead of a blistering plaster, Trousseau recommends a vesicating ointment, composed of equal parts of a strong solution of ammonia and lard. Two appli- cations, of five minutes each, are sufficient to raise the cuticle. Boiling water, which has been employed by some persons, is uncertain, painful, and dangerous: it may cause mortification of the dermis, and thus stop absorption. The advantages of the endermic method are, that substances are not submitted to the influence of the digestive process, and their pure effects can be better ascer- tained;—their operation is in general very quick, and in some cases more rapid than when they are applied to the stomach. If the gastric membrane be inflamed, or if the patient cannot (or will not) swallow, more especially if the case be urgent, this is an admirable method of putting the system under the influence of a medicine. The disadvantages of the endermic method are, the pain sometimes experienced by the application of medicinal agents to a denuded surface—some even may oc- easion mortification of the part; the possibility of the skin being permanently marked; lastly, some substances have no effect when used endermically. The substances which have been used by this method are Morphia, and its Ace- tate, Hydrochlorate, and Sulphate, in doses of from a quarter of a grain to two grains; Strychnia, from a quarter of a grain to a grain; Aconitina, one-sixteenth to one-eighth of a grain; Extract of Belladonna, three or four grains; Sulphate of Quinia, two to six grains; Musk, six or eight grains; Tincture of Asafoetida, ten minims. Many other agents have also been employed endermically: as Digitalis, Extract of Squills, Aloes, Saffron, Bichloride of Mercury, Tartar Emetic &c.a Method by Inoculation.—In connexion with the endermic method may be mentioned another mode of employing medicines; namely, the method by inoculation proposed by M. Lasargue de St. Emilion.3 In this way Morphia has been employed to relieve topical pain. It is intro- duced in the part in pain by the point of a lancet. In a few minutes a papula makes its appear. ance and an erythematous blush. 2. Applications to the Mucous Membranes. We have two mucous membranes, to the different parts of each of which we apply medicines: the first is the gastro-pulmonary membrane, the second, the urino-genital. i Ahrenscn, Dissert. deMcthodo Endermatico. Haunias, 1836.—Reviewed in the Brit, and Foreign Med. Re- view, for April, 1838, p. 342. » For farther information on the endermic method, consult, besides Lembert's Essay before quoted, the ar- ticle, F.ndermique Methode, by Douillatid, in the Diet, de Medec. et Chirurg.pratiques; also, some articles, by Dr. Burcnml Riofrov, in this Continental and British Medical Review, vol. i. pp. 66, 321, and 385; and Richter. in Und. Med Gai. Nov. 10, 1838. » See the Continental and British Review, vol. i. pp. 41 and 388; and Lancet, for 1836 37, vol. i. p. 826. 158 ELEMENTS OP MATERIA MEDICA. 1. GASTRO-PULMONARY MEMBRANE. a. Ocular mucous membrane (conjunctiva.) e. Aerian or tracheo-bronchial membrane. b. Nasal or pituitary membrane. /. Gastro intestinal membrane. c. Bucco-guttural membrane. g. Recto-colic membrane. d. Eustachian membrane. 2. Urino-genital membrane. a. Urethro-vesical membrane. b. Vagino-uterine membrane. 1. Gastro-ftjlmonary membrane: a. Ocular mucous membrane or conjunctiva.— Medicines are applied to the conjunctiva, to excite local effects only, though we might employ this part for other purposes, since remote organs may be affected by it. Thus a drop of Hydrocyanic Acid applied to the conjunctiva of a dog pro- duces immediate death. The term Collyrium (KoAAw'f ■ I. Medicines that increase the action of the ) heart and arteries....................... j I. Medicines that act on the cuta- P* neous exhalents............LTopical... II. Medicines that increase the action of the III. Emetics. Carthartics. Anthelmintics. Antacids. Astringents. Emmenagogues. Abortiva. Narcotics. Antispasmodics. Stimulants. urinary organs.......................... Medicines that alter the state of the urinary secretion........................'....... IV. Medicines that promote the secretory action ofthe salivary glands................... I. Medicines calculated to increase the mucous secretion in the bronchia, and to promote its discharge............................ II. Medicines whose action is truly topical..... Diaphoretics. Epispastics. Errhines. Emollients. Diuretics. Antilithlca. SialagogueB. Expectorants. Inhalations. Emollients. Escharotics. VOGT'S CLASSIFICATION. Vogt makes three classes of medicines: the first including those agents which specially affect the sensibility of the body, the second containing those which alter the irritability of the system, and the third embracing those agents which influence what he calls the vegetation ofthe body—that is, the organic functions; namely, nutrition and reproduction. r Class 1. Medicines ope rating specially on the I nervous system, and < particularly used i nervous agents..... Class 2. Medicines ope- rating specially on ir- ritable life........... Class 3. Medicines ope- , rating specially on the 1. vegetative [organic] system, and which are particularly used in \ diseases of vegetation | 2. [nutrition and repro- I duction]............. ( ORDERS. Medicines which limit the vital manifestation of the nervous system (Narco- tica)..................... Medicines which exalt and strengthen the vital ma- nifestations of the ner- vous system (Nervina)... Weakening {Antiphlogistica,) Medicines which heighten and strengthen the vital manifestations of the irri- table system............. Medicines operating spe- cially on the secreting and excreting system......... Medicines which specially operate on the formative process .................. 1. Opium and its allies. [ 2. Nux Vomica, and medicines simi- j lar to it. j 3. Hydrocyanic Acid, and vegetables allied to it. I 4. Belladonna, and medicines similar to it. Nervinia volatilia (Ammonia, Musk, &c.) Nervino - alterantia antjspasmo- dica (Ipecacuanha, Copper, Zinc, Bismuth &c.) as the Neutral .Salts, Cold, &c. 1. Excitantia volatilia (as Camphor, Mints, &c.) 2. Tonica. 3. Antiseptica (Acids, Chlorine, &c.) 1. Heat. 2. GummiResinosa, Balsamica, and Resinosa. 3. Resolventia (Acrids, Mercury, Antimony, Sulphur, Alkalis, Iodine, &c.) 1. Aromaia (Pepper, Pyrethrum, Nutmegs, Sec.) 2. Nutrientia. e. Classifications founded on Therapeutical Properties. The curative and remedial powers of medicines are not absolute and constant, but relative and conditional; so that we have no substance which, under every circumstance, is a remedy for a particular disease. This will explain why no 176 ELEMENT* OP MATERIA MEDICA. modern author has attempted to classify remedies according to their therapeutical properties. Such a classification, if attempted, must be an arrangement of dis- eases, and an enumeration of the medicines which experience had found fre- quently, though not invariably, beneficial for each. On this principle, an Index of Diseases and of Remedies according to the opinions of the ancient Greeks, Latins, and Arabs, has been given in the following work:— • J. Rutty, M. D., Materia Medica antiqua et nova, repurgata et illustrata, 4to. Rottero- dami, 1775. Strictly speaking, therefore, there are no substances to which the term Spe- cifics (specifica qualitativa, Hufeland1) can be properly applied. Yet it cannot be denied that there are many medicines which are particularly appropriated to the cure of certain diseases, or to the relief of particular symptoms; experience having shown that they more frequently give relief than other agents. As ex- amples I may refer to the use of Mercury in syphilis, Sulphate of Quinia in ague, Arsenious Acid in lepra, Sulphur in the itch, and Hydrocyanic Acid in vomiting. Moreover, I cannot admit that any satisfactory explanation has yet been given of the modus medendi of many of these agents. The relief obtained in constipation by the use of Senna, and in pain by that of Opium, is explicable by reference to the known physiological effects of these substances. But the benefit procured in venereal diseases by Mercury, in ague by Sulphate of Quinia, &c. cannot be accounted for by reference to any known physiological effects which these substances produce, and our use of them, therefore, is, at present, empirical. It cannot, however, be doubted that had we a more intimate acquain- tance with, and precise knowledge of, the action of remedies, the therapeutical properties of medicines would no longer appear incomprehensible and mys- terious. Though no systematic therapeutical classification has, to my knowledge, been attempted by modern authors, yet in some recent works several therapeutical classes have been admitted; especially in the following: — F. Foy, M. D., Cours de Pharmacologie, 2 tomes. Paris, 1831.—[His class of Specifics includes Antisyphilitics, Antipsorics, Febrifuges or Antiperiodics, Antiscrofulous medicines, and Anthelmintics.] J. H. Dierbach, M. D. Die neuesten Entdeckungen in der Materia Medica. 2te Ausg. 1" Band. Heidelberg und Leipzig, 1837. CHAPTER XII—ON THE PHYSIOLOGICAL CLASSES OF MEDICINES. I have already (p. 167.) expressed my opinion that, in the present state of our knowledge, a physiological classification of medicines cannot be satisfactorily effected. It is principally on this ground that I have thought it advisable, in the following pages, not to follow any attempted arrangement of this kind in de- scribing the substances used in medicine. It, however, appears to me advisable to precede the account of medicines individually, by some notice of the more important groups which they form when arranged on physiological principles. Medicines may be arranged physiologically on two principles;—according to the parts or organs which they affect, or according to the nature or quality ofthe action which they set up. But to the exclusive adoption of either principle, obstacles almost insurmountable oppose themselves. These mainly arise from the difficulty experienced in discriminating between the primary and secondary effects of medicines. In a classification of medicines according to the parts or organs affected, it would be found, I suspect, that four-fifths of our Materia Medica might be placed in one class, under the denomination of medicines affecting the nervous system (cerebral, true spinal, and ganglionic systems;3) while in a classification strictly i Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Heilkunde, S. 194. 2k Aufl. Jena, 1830. * See some remarks on the therapeutics of these systems, in Dr. Marshall Hall's work On the Diseases and Derangements of the Jfervous System, pp. 36, 113, and1129. diseases ana CEREBRO-SPINANTS. 177 founded on the nature or quality of the action which they induce, most of our medicines would belong to the class of alteratives.1 Class 1. Medicamenta Cerebr'o-spinantia.—Cerebro- spinants. (Narcotic?, Auctorum.) Definition.—Medicines which produce or prevent sleep, or which affect the intellectual functions, sensation, or the irritability of the muscular fibres, I deno- minate Cerebro-spinants, because they affect the functions of the cerebro-spinal system (cerebral and true spinal systems of Dr. Marshall Hall.) Physiological Effects.—The only essential physiological property which these agents possess in common, is that of specifically affecting the cerebro-spinal system. In other respects they present a considerable diversity of operation,— though they are so mutually related that we cannot with propriety place them in separate classes. Cerehro-8pinant3 differ among themselves with regard to both their topical and remote effects. The topical effect of Opium is that of a very slight benumbing agent; Aconite causes numbness and tingling; Conia occasions local paralysis; Tobacco, Foxglove, &c. operate on the alimentary canal as acrids; Alcohol and the Metallic Cerebro-spinants are caustics. In their remote effects we observe the same want of uniformity. Alcohol renders the pulse fuller and more frequent; while Foxglove reduces its power and frequency. Opium causes constipation, while Tobacco relaxes the bowels. Lastly, in the modifications occa- sioned in the functions of the cerebral and spinal system, we observe an equal diversity of operation. Considered with regard to their effects on the cerebro-spinal system, these agents may be arranged in ten orders, as follows:— Order 1. Convulsives (Tetanies.) Agents which augment the irritability of the muscular fibre, and in'large doses occasion convulsions.—This order includes Strychnia, Brucia, and all substances which contain one or both of these alkalis; as Nux Vomica, St. Ignatius's Bean, Snake wood, (lignum colubrinum,) the Upas Tieutt, and probably the Tanghin poison. These agents arc principally employed in torpid or paralytic conditions of the muscular system, under regulations which will be pointed out hereafter. Order 2. Paralysers. Agents tohich cause paralysis of voluntary motion, and lessen the irritability of Ike muscular fibres.—This order contains Conia, an alkali procured from Hem- lock; and which, considered physiologically, would appear to be the remedy for augmented irritability ofthe muscles, as in Tetanus and Hydrophobia. Order 3. Benumbers. Agents which cause topical numbness [paralysis of the sentient nervesl] and muscular weakness.—Monkshood, and its alkali Aconitina, occasion numbness and tingling in the parts to which they are applied. They give rise to a feeling analogous to lhat produced, on the return of sensation, after the removal of pressure upon a nerve, and which is commonly denominated "pins and needles." When swallowed, they also occasion muscular weakness. As they diminish feeling, they are adapted for the relief of neuralgia. Order 4. Convulsive Stupefacjents, acting rapidly and suddenly, (Epileptifacientsl) Agents which cause sudden loss of intellect, sensation, and volition, and usually occasion con- vulsions.—This order includes Hydrocyanic Acid, the Cyanides of Potassium and Zinc, Bitter Almonds and their Volatile Oil, and the Cherry.laurel and its Volatile Oil and Distilled Water. The narcotic gases (Carbonic Acid, Sulphuretted Hydrogen, &c.) when inhaled, belong to this order. In celerity of effect, and rapidity with which they prove fatal, no agents exceed, and few equal, the poisons of this order. The sudden loss of sensation and of consciousness, with violent convulsions, which are the characteristic effects of this order, constitute also the essen- tial symptoms of an epileptic paroxysm: they also sometimes occur from the loss of large quantities of blood. The analogy between these three conditions (i. e. hydrocyanic poisoning, epilepsy, and the effect of hemorrhage) is farther shown by the fact that the symptoms of all arc relieved by Ammonia. As therapeutical agents, hydrocyanic acid and its allies prove exceedingly useful in certain painful affections of the stomach, unaccompanied by inflam- mation. Order 5. Convulsives which cause Delirium followed by Sleep or Stupor. Agents which, in moderate doses, act as cardiaco-vascular stimulants, and exhilarate; ' Medicines niav augment, lessen, or alter vital action. See p. 140. Vol. I— 23 178 ELEMENT? OF MATERIA MEDICA. in excessive doses cause confusion of head and impaired volition, followed by delirium, convulsions, and insensibility.—This order was contrived to include Camphor. Order 6. Paralyzing, pupil-contracting Stupefacients (Narcotics; Apoplectifa- cients?) Agents which lessen feeling, and the irritability of the muscular fibres, and cause contraction ofthe pupils, and paralysis of voluntary motion, and sleep or stupor. —Opium and its alkali Morphia constitute the type of this Order, to which, probably, Lactucarium also belongs. In small doses they usually excite the vascular system, check the mucous secretions of the alimentary canal, and promote sweating. In larger doses they lessen sensation, diminish the irritability of the muscular fibre (when fatal doses have been taken actual paralysis precedes death,) cause contraction of the pupils, and occasion sleep or stupor. The apoplectic condition thus induced is denominated narcotism. In therapeutics, these agents are used— a. To check profuse mucous secretion ofthe gastrointestinal membrane. b. To promote sweating. c. To diminish augmented irritability ofthe muscular system (spasm or convulsion.) When thus used they are termed antispasmodics. d. To relieve pain. In this case they are called anodynes (from *, privitive, and s LIQUEFACIENTS. 193 of another. Moreover, we frequently employ evacuants as revulsives (see p. 153,) to relieve local determinations of blood to parts remote from those on which the evacuant operates. Thus purgatives are employed in affections of the head. Some of the milder evacuants, which gently and moderately promote the action of two or more secreting organs, are beneficially employed in chronic diseases under the name of alteratives, or purifiers of the blood. The agents called re- solvents (as Mercury, Iodine, and the Alkalis,) and which are used to combat visceral and glandular enlargements, augment the activity of the secreting organs. Modus Operandi.—In a considerable number of cases evacuants exert a topical, stimulant, or irritant influence over the organs whose secretions they augment. In some instances we apply them directly to the part on which we wish them to act; as in the case of Errhines, Masticatories, and Cathartics (usually.) In other instances, the active principle of the evacuant is absorbed, circulates with the blood, and is thrown out ofthe system by the secreting organ, whose activity it augments. It is probable, therefore, in this case, that the increased secretion arises from the local stimulus communicated to the secreting vessels by the evacuant (or its active principle) in its passage through them. The operation of the Turpentines and Copaiva on the mucous surfaces, and of many diuretics on the kidneys, is readily accounted for in this way. Active Principles.—An acrid principle is found in a considerable number of the medicines of this class. The salts ofthe alkalis operate as evacuants. Acrid Principles.—Acrids are organic substances which irritate or inflame living parts with which they are placed in contact, independently of any known chemical action. They were formerly supposed" to owe their activity to a peculiar proximate principle, which was denominated the acrid principle of plants (principium acre plantarum;) but modern chemistry has shown that there is no one constituent of organic substances to which this term can be exclusively applied; but that many dissimilar principles agree in possessing acridity. Thus acrid substances are found among acids (e. g. Crntonic, Ricinic, and Gambogic,) vegetable al- kalis (e. g. Veratria and Emetia,) neutral crystalline matters (e. g. Elaterin,) volatile oils (e. g. Cantharadin, and the Oils of Mustard, Garlic, and Rue,) resins (e. g. the resins of Euphor- bium and Mezcrcon,) and extractive matter (e. g. Colocynthin.) The acrid matter of some plants (e. g. of Ranunculus) has not yet been isolated. This arises from the facility with which it becomes decomposed. Sub-class 1. Liqnefacientia.—Liquefacients. (Verfliissigende Mittel, Sundelin.) Definition.—Medicinal agents which augment the secretions, check the solidi- fying, but promote the liquifying, processes of the animal economy, and which, by continued use, create great disorder in the functions of assimilation, may be termed liquefacients (from liquefacio, I liquefy.) Practitioners mu, I transpire,) sudorifics (from sudor, sweat, and facio, I make,) or diapnoi'cs (from hccwor>, perspiration.) The terms diaphoretic and diapnoic have been used to designate substances which augment the insensible perspiration; while the word sudorific indicates a substance increasing the sweat or sensible perspiration. But insensible perspiration and sweat differ in their physical conditions only,—the former being the vaporous, the latter the liquid state of the same fluid. Hence, there can be no essential difference between diaphoretics and sudorifics, and I, there- forr, use the terms synonymously. Physiological Effects.—The agents which, under certain circumstances, augment cutaneous exhalation, are both numerous and heterogeneous. External heat, assisted by the copious use of diluents, constitutes an important and power- ful means of promoting sweating. Whenever a large quantity of fluid is taken into the system, the excess is got rid of by the kidneys, the skin, and the lungs; and* if we keep the skin warm, as by warm clothing, or the use of hot air or hot vapour-bath, (See pp. 47, 50, and 52.) the action of the cutaneous exhalants is promoted, and sweating results; but if the skin be kept cool, the kidneys are sti- mulated, and the greater part of the liquid passes off through them. Friction, exercise, and all agents which excite vascular action, have a tendency to promote sweating. The sudden and temporary application of cold, as in the affusion of cold water, (See p. 60.) sometimes proves sudorific by the reaction which it occasions. Lastly, many medicinal agents, acting through the circulation, cause sweating. The latter are the substances which are usually indicated by the word sudorific or diaphoretic. Diaphoretics are relative agents; they succeed only in certain states of the body. Moreover, for different conditions, different diaphoretics are required. They constitute an exceedingly uncertain class of remedies, with regard both to the production of sweating and to the advantage to be derived therefrom. Dr. Holland (Medical Notes and Reflections, p. 52. Lond. 1839.) suggests that when benefit follows the use of diaphoretic medicines, it is often ascribable, not to their direct influence on the exhalant vessels, "but to other changes which thev excite in the system, of which sweating is to be regarded rather as the effect and proof than as the active cause. The operation of diaphoretics is promoted by the exhibition of large quantities of warm mild diluents, and by keeping the skin warm. Moreover, they are more effective when given at bed-time, since there appears to be greater disposi- tion lo sweating during sleep than in the waking state. The exhibition of din- 196 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. retics should be avoided during the operation of diaphoretics, as they appear to check the operation of the latter. The same rule has been laid down with regard to purgatives; but it is well known that perspiration is often the consequence of hypercatharsis. Diaphoretics may be arranged in seven orders, as follows:— Order 1. AauEous Diaphoretics.—Under this head are included not only simple Water, but Gruel, Whey, and Tea. These, when assisted by external warmth, often prove very effective diaphoretics, even when used alone, while to all the other groups they are valuable adjuvants; and in no cases are they injurious. Order 2. Alkaline and Saline Diaphoretics.—The salts of the alkalis are frequently used to promote perspiration. Acetate and Carbonate of Ammonia, Alkaline Citrates and Tartrates, Sal Ammoniac, and Nitrate of Potash, are employed for this purpose in fevers. Order 3. Antimonial Diaphoretics.—The liquefacient operation of Antimonials has been already referred to. Diaphoresis is one of its consequences. We use this group of diapho- retics in febrile and inflammatory cases. It is preferred to the opiate diaphoretics when there is inflammation or congestion ofthe brain, or a tendency to either of these conditions. Order 4. Opiate Diaphoretics.—Opium and its alkali Morphia have a remarkable ten- dency to produce sweating. The former is often used as a diaphoretic, commonly in the form of Dover's Powder, when no disorder of the brain exists; and especially when an ano. dyne is indicated. When the stomach is very irritable, an opiate diaphoretic is preferred to an antimonial one. In rheumatism, and slight catarrhs, Dover's Powder proves highly ser. viceable. In diabetes and granular disease of the kidneys, it is the best sudorific we can use, especially when conjoined with the warm bath.i Opium and Camphor form a serviceable sudorific compound when the surface is cold, as in Cholera. Order 5. Oleaginous and Resinous Diaphoretics.—This group includes a large number of substances, some of which owe their activity to volatile oil, as the Labials and the Lau- raceae (e. g. Sassafras and Camphor;) others to resin, as Mezereon and Guaiacum; while some contain both oil and resin, as Copaiva and the Turpentines. The substances of this order possess stimulant properties. They probably act locally on the cutaneous vessels through the blood; for some of them (ex. Copaiva) can be detected by their odour in the perspiration, and they occasionally excite a slight eruption on the skin. The diaphoretics of this group are useful in chronic rheumatism, secondary syphilis, and chronic cutaneous diseases. Order 6. Alcoholic Diaphoretics.—Alcohol and Wine augment cutaneous exhalation. Order 7. Ipecacuanha.—I believe the diaphoretic property of Ipecacuanha to be conside- rably less than is commonly supposed. Dover's Power owes its power of producing sweating almost exclusively to the Opium which it contains. Modus Operandi.—Dr. Edwards (De VInfluence des Agens Physiques sur la Pie. Paris, 1824.) has shown, that cutaneous transpiration is effected in two ways,—by a physical action or evaporation, and by an organic action or transu- dation. Evaporation, or the physical action, is the consequence of the porosity of bodies, and takes place equally in the dead and living state. It is influenced by the hygrometric states of the surrounding air, by its motion or stillness, by its pressure, and by its temperature. Thus, dryness, agitation, and diminution of the weight of the air, increase it. Transudation, or the organic action of transpiration, is a vital process, effected by minute spiral follicles or sudoriferous canals, and depends essentially on causes inherent in the animal economv, although it may be influenced to a certain extent by external agents. Thus, ele- vating the temperature of the surrounding air, preventing its frequent renewal, and covering the patient with warm clothing, are means which promote the organic, but check the physical, action of transpiration. Diaphoretics affect the transudation or the vital process. They probably affect the exhalants in one or both of two ways;—by increasing the force of the ^general circulation,—or by specifically stimulating the cutaneous vessels. Sub-class 3. Diuretic a.—1) i u r e t i c s. Definition.—Medicines which promote the secretion of urine are denomi- nated diuretics (from h«, through; ov?ov, the urine; and f,», I flow.) rhV!?£™ "■b"™«,,PaP"'n The Dublin Journal of Medical and Chemical Science, Jan. 1834—Also Dr. Christison, On Granular Degeneration of the Kidneys. Edinburgh, 1839. ' DIURETICS. 197 Physiological Effects.—There are two principal modes of promoting the secretion of urine; the one direct, the other indirect. The indirect method con- sists in augmenting the quantity of fluids taken into the stomach, or in removing any cause which checks the secretion. The direct mode is to stimulate the kid- neys by means which specifically affect these organs. These means are the diu- retics, properly so called. But almost all the substances thus denominated are most inconstant in their effects. The quantity of urine secreted in the healthy state is liable to considerable variation. Temperature, season of the year, climate, time of day, quantity of fluid consumed as drink, state of health, &c. are among the common circum- stances modifying this secretion. Whenever an unusual quantity of aqueous fluid is taken into the system, the kidneys are the organs by means of which the ex- cess is, for the most part, got lid of. If the customary discharge from the skin or lungs be checked, by cold, for instance, the kidneys endeavour to make up for the deficiency of action in the other organs. Thus, in winter and in cold climates, more urine is secreted than in summer and in hot climates. Again, if transpiration be promoted, as by external warmth, the secretion of urine is dimi- nished. Hence, when we wish to augment the renal secretion, diluents should be freely administered, and the skin kept cool. Mr. William Alexander (Experimental Essays. Edinb. 1768.) endeavoured to determine, as nearly as possible, the relative powers of different diuretics, and he has given the following tabular views of his results:— A Table of the different quantities of urine always discharged in an equal time ; viz. from nine o'clock in the morning till two o'clock in the afternoon, when an equal quantity of the same liquid was drunk, but with different diuretics, in different quantities, dissolved in it. By Ibj. Zvijss. simple infusion of bohea tea, standard 15 4 0 By do. with gij. of salt of tartar - - - 22 7 2 By do. „ sjij- ofniire.....22 0 0 By do. „ 4 drops oil of juniper - - - 30 3 0 By do. ,, jj. salt of wormword - - - 19 7 1$ By do. „ Jij. Castile soap . - - - 19 1 1 By do. „ a teaapoonful of spt. nitr. dulc. - 17 6 1$ By do. „ 15 drops of tine, cantharides - 16 4 0 By do. „ zij. of sal. polychrest - - - 16 3 0 By do. „ sjss. of uva ursi - - - - 16 1 0$ By do. ,, zj. of magnesia alba - - 15 5 0 By do. „ zij. of cream of tartar - - 10 2 0J A Table of the different quantities of urine evacuated in the same space of time, after drink- ing the same quantity of different liquors. I Z 9 By lbj. ^vijss. of weak punch, with acid - - 21 2 3 By do. „ new cow whey - 18 6 0 By do. „ decoct, diuret. Pharm. Edin. - - 17 5 0 By do. „ London porter - 16 7 0 By do. „ decoct, bardan. Pharm. Edin. - - 14 7 0 By do. „ warm water gruel - - 14 6 2 By do. „ small beer .... - 13 7 1 By do. „ warm new milk - 11 7 0 These tables are to a certain extent useful, but as diuretics act very unequally at different times, and cannot, therefore, be relied on, the value of Mr. Alexander's experiments is considerably diminished. By augmenting the secretion of urine we diminish the quantity of blood in the blood-vessels-, and thus create thirst, and promote absorption from the serous cavities. Hence, diuretics are commonly resorted to in dropsical complaints; but they are most uncertain in their operation. Moreover, when they increase 198 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. the quantity of urine, their influence on the effusion is not always curative. In dropsy, attended with albuminous urine, and which arises from granular degene- ration of the kidneys, diuretics have usually been considered objectionable, on ac- count of their stimulant influence over the kidneys. Dr. Christison, (On Granular Degeneration of the Kidneys, pp. 138, 149, and 160.) however, thinks the dis- trust has been carried too far, and asserts, that they " do not increase the coagu- lability of the urine in the early stage: in many instances they seem to diminish it." He also suggests that the irritation set up by the diuretic may be of a diffe- rent kind to that of the disease; and that the one may not possibly increase,—- nay, perchance, may diminish, the other. In relieving the effusion and the coma, he thinks them serviceable, and prefers Digitalis and Cream of Tartar to other agents of this order. Diuretics may be arranged in the following groups :— Order 1. AauEous Diuretics.—Aqueous drinks promote diuresis indirectly, when the skin is kept cool, as I have before mentioned. Order 2. Saline Diuretics.—This order consists principally of the Vegetable Salts of the Alkalis; especially Bitartrate and Acetate of Potash. These undergo partial digestion in the system, and are converted into carbonates. Hence, they communicate an alkaline quality to the urine. Their supposed influence in the respiratory process has been before alluded to. (See p. 134.) To this order also belong Nitrate and the Carbonates ofthe Alkalis. Order 3. Sedative Diuretics.—To this order belong Digitalis and Tobacco, whose power of reducing the force and frequency of the heart's action has been already referred to. (See p. 178.) The diuretic effect has been referred, by Dr. Paris, (Pharmacologia, p. 179, 6th ed.) to their sedative operation. For as the energy of absorption is generally in the inverse ratio of that of circulation, it is presumed that all means which diminish arterial action must indi- rectly prove diuretic, by exciting the function of absorption. Order 4. Bitter Acrid Diuretics.—To this order belong Squills, Colchicum, and Common Broom. These agents, in an over-dose, readily occasion vomiting. They owe their activity to an acrid principle, which probably operates, through the circulation, on the renal vessels as a local stimulant or irritant, and in this way proves diuretic. Ac- cording to my own observations, Common Broom less frequently fails to prove diuretic than most other agents of this class. Order 5. Oleaginous Acrid Diuretics.—To this order belong Juniper, Turpentine, Copaiva, and Cajuputi. The volatile oil probably operates through the blood on the kid- neys, as a topical stimulant. Cantharidin, the active principle of Cantharis vesicatoria, is of the nature of volatile oil, and operates in the same way. Order 6. Acid Diuretics.—The diluted Acids frequently prove diuretic. Order 7. Alcoholic and Etherial Diuretics.—Dilute Spirit and Nitric Ether are diuretics. Order 8. Alkaline Diuretics. Modus Operandi.—I have referred to the modus operandi of diuretics in speak- ing of the Orders; and, in a former part of this work, (See p. 125.) I have given a list of the substances which have been detected either unchanged, or more or less changed, in the urine. Sub-class 4. E r r h i n a.—E r r h i n c s. Definition.—Errhines (from ev, in and piv, the nose) are medicines which produce an increased discharge of nasal mucus. Substances which excite sneezing are denominated sternutatories (sternutatoria) or ptarmics (from irrctipu, I sneeze.) Physiological Effects.—All the substances employed as errhines, or sternuta- tories, are applied to the nose. The liquefacients, when administered by the stomach, augment the secretion of the pituitary membrane as well as of all other secreting organs; and I have several times remarked the increased discharge of mucus from the nose of patients under the influence of Iodide of Potassium, and have detected the smell of Iodine in their handkerchiefs, so that I believe the SIALOGOGUES. 199 particles of this substance are thrown off by the mucous membrane of the nose, as well as by other secreting organs. Most foreign matters when applied to the pituitary membrane promote its se- cretion, and frequently also occasion sneezing. The latter is a reflex action of the true spinal system; the excitor or incident nerve, by which the impression is conveyed to the medulla oblongata, is the nasal branch of the trifacial nerve. Sugar and the Labiate plants, when reduced to powder, operate as very mild errhines. Euphorbium, Veratrum, and more especially the alkali Veratria, are the most powerful of the order. Tobacco is intermediate. Absorption readily takes place from the pituitary membrane, and I have several times experienced the constitutional effects of Tobacco (such as nausea, giddiness, depression of the muscular power, and disorder of the mental functions,) from the use of the moist snuffs (Rappees.) The continued employment of snuff injures the sense of smell and alters the tone of the voice. In syphilitic affections of the nose, and where there is a disposition to nasal polypus, the frequent use of errhines may perhaps be injurious. Errhines have been principally employed to relieve chronic affections of the eyes, face, and brain; for example, chronic ophthalmia, amaurosis, headach, &c. They can only be useful on the principle of counter- irritation. Schwilgue (Traite de Matiere Medicale, t. ii. p. 298.) enumerates the follow- ing purposes for which sneezing is excited: to excite respiration when this func- tion is suspended; to promote the expulsion of foreign bodies accidentally intro- duced into the air-passages; to occasion a general shock at the commencement of dangerous diseases which we wish at once to suppress; to augment the secretion of nasal mucus, and of tears; to favour the excretion of mucus collected in the nasal sinuses; to rouse the action of the encephalon, of the senses, ofthe uterus, &c; and to stop a convulsive or spasmodic state of the respiratory apparatus. We should not, however, forget that the concussion occasioned by sneezing is not always free from dangerous results, especially in plethoric habits, and per- sons disposed to apoplexy, or affected with hernia, prolapsus of the uterus, &c. The Errhines may be arranged in the following groups:— Order 1. Mechanically-irritating Errhines.—To this order Sugar and other inert substances belong. Order 2. The Labiate or Aromatic Errhinf.s.—Sage, Marjoram, Lavender, and other Libiate plants, form mild snuffs when reduced to powder. They are seldom used singly or alone. Order. 3. Cerebro spinant Errhines.—To this order belongs Tobacco, which con- stitutes the basis of ordinary snuff. Order 4. Acrid Errhines.—Euphorbium, Veratrum, and Asarum, beloDg to this order. Order 5. Inorganic Errhines.—Common Salts, Sal Ammoniac, and Subsulphate of Mercury, belong to this group. Sub-class 5. S i a 1 o g o g a.—S i a 1 o g o g u e s, Definition.—Medicines used to augment the salivary discharge are denomi- nated sialogogues (from nxXov, the saliva; and *ya, I convey or drive out.) Physiological Effects.—Sialogogues are of two kinds: some act topically, others by specific influence over the salivary organs. This, therefore, is the foundation for ananging them in two groups or orders. Order 1. Local Sialogogues.—These are sialogogues which are applied to the mouth. When used in a soft or solid state they are called masticatories (maslicatoria, from mastico, to eat or cheto.) They act on the mucous follicles of the mouth and the salivary glands. Most solid or soft bodies, when chewed increase the flow of saliva: thus Wax and MasUc produce this effect. Acrids, however, as Horse-radish, Mezereon, Pelli- tory of Spain, and Ginger, possess this property in an eminent degree. 200 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. In almost all parts of the world masticatories are more or less used. In the East-Indies Betel-nuts (the seeds of Areca Catechu) are chewed with Quick-lime and the Betel-leaf (the leaf Piper Betel.) The Indians have a notion that these substances fasten the teeth, clean the gums, and cool the mouth. (Ainslie's Materia Indica.) In this country the masticatory commonly employed by sailors is Tobacco. As the saliva is generally swallowed, masticatories do not confine their action to the mouth, but excite likewise the stomach. Peron (Voyage aux Terres Australes. Paris.) was convinced that he preserved his health, during a long and difficult voyage, by the habitual use ofthe Betel; while his companions, who did not use it, died mostly of dysen- tery. For habitual use, and as mere sialogogues, mucilaginous and emollient masticato- ries might be resorted to, but we find that acrids of various kinds have always been pre- ferred. Masticatories, as therapeutic agents, have been principally used either as topical applications, in affections of the gum.=, tongue, tonsils, salivary glands, &c. or as coun- ter-irritants in complaints of neighbouring organs, as in earache, rheumatism of the peri- cranium, affections of the nose, &c. The stronger masticatories, as Mustard and Horse- radish, excite an increased discharge of nasal mucus and tears, as well as of saliva and mucus ofthe mouth. Order 2. Specific or Remote Sialogogues.—Several substances have had the re- putation of producing salivation or ptyalism by internal use. Of these the preparations of Mercury are the only ones on which much reliance can be placed, and even they sometimes disappoint us. The preparations of Gold, of Antimony, and of Iodine, occa- sionally have this effect. The continued use of the Hydrocyanic or Nitric Acid lias, in several instances, produced salivation. In poisoning by Foxglove the same has been ob- served. Lastly, nauseants increase the secretion of saliva. Mercurials are given in certain diseases to excite ptyalism, and in some cases it is necessary to keep up this ef- fect for several weeks. It is not supposed that the salivation is the cause of the benefit derived, but it is produced in order that we may be satisfied that the constitution is suffi- ciently influenced by the medicine. Sub-class 6. Expectorantia.—Expectorants. Definition.—Medicines which promote evacuations from the bronchia, trachea, and larynx, are denominated expectorants (from expectoro, I expectorate.) Physiological Effects.—In the healthy state, the liquids secreted or exhaled by the aerian membrane are got rid of by evaporation and absorption. But when from any circumstance the balance between the two processes of production and removal is destroyed, and an accumulation of mucus takes place, nature endea- vours to get rid of it by coughing. Hence some have applied the term expecto- rant to irritating substances (as Chlorine gas, the vapour of Acetic or of Benzoic acid, Sic,.,) which, when-inhaled, produces coughing, as well as an augmentation of secretion. " We provoke cough," says Schwilgue, (Traite de Matiere Me- dicale, torn. ii. p. 296.) " to favour the expulsion of foreign bodies introduced from without into the aerian tube, and especially of liquids; we have recourse to it to favour the expectoration of mucus, of membraniform concretions, and of pus, which have accumulated in the aerian passages, whenever the local irrita- tion is not sufficiently great. It has been thought by some, that the mucus secreted may be too tough and viscid to admit of its being easily brought up by coughing, and the term expec- torant has been applied to those medicines which have been supposed to render it thinner and less viscid. But as Mr. Moore (An Essay on the Materia Medica. London, 1792.) has justly observed, thick phlegm is sometimes more easily ex- pectorated than thin: and if this were not the case, we have no specific means of rendering the phlegm either thicker or thinner. Liquefacients, however, are the agents most likely to effect it. Frequently the term expectorant is applied to substances supposed to increase or promote the secretion of bronchial mucus, and in pharmacological works a long list of medicines, thought to have this effect, is usually given. Most of the agents employed with this view act relatively,— that is, they obviate the causes which checked the healthy secretion. Some are topical agents, as various Gases and Vapours. There are others, however, emetics. 201 which, when taken internally, are supposed to affect the aerian membrane in a specific manner, and are beneficially employed in chronic catarrhs. Such are the Balsams, the Oleo-resins, the Fratid Gums, Squills, Sic. Many of the sub- stances which give relief in chronic pulmonary complaints, do not promote, but check, the secretion of bronchial mucus: as the Sulphate of Zinc,—to which Begin (Traite de Therap. t. ii. p. 561.) adds the Balsams. Yet these agents are usually classed with expectorants; and Dr. Paris (Pharmacologia.) makes one class of expectorants to consist of " medicines which diminish the inordinate flow of fluid into the lungs, and render the expectoration of the remainder more easy. In fact, it appears to me that a large majority of the agents used under the name of expectorants, in bronchial and pulmonary affections, are substances which modify the vital activity of the aerian membrane by an alterative influence, and that expectoration is by no means an essential effect of their operation. This appears to be particularly the case with Antimonials, Senega, and Ipecacuanha. Of all classes of the Materia Medica, none are more uncertain in their action than expectorants. The following is a provisional arrangement of the substances most commonly used as expectorants: — Order 1. Vapours or Gases used as Topical Expectorants.—Chlorine and Am- moniacal Gases; the Vapours of Iodine, of Water, of the Volatile Oils, of Tar, of Ben- zoic and Acetic Acids; and the Smoke of Tobacco and Stramonium. Order 2. Stimulating, Resinous Expectorants.—This order includes the Foetid Gums, the Oleo-resins, and the Balsams. Order 3. Nauseating Expectorants, as Emetic Tartar, Ipecacuanha, Squills, Gar- lic, and Senega. Modus Operandi.—Several of the so-called expectorants become absorbed, and are recognisable by their odour in the breath; as some of the Oleo-resins, Garlic, and Asafoetida. It is probable, therefore, that their influence over the bronchial membrane is by a topical action. Emetina and Emetic Tartar have, according to Magendie (Formulaire.) and Orfila, (Toxicologic Generate.) a specific in- fluence over the lungs, and the lungs of animals killed by these substances are said to present traces of inflammation. Sub-class 7. Emetic a.—E 111 e t i C S. (Vomitoria.) Definition.—Medicinal agents used for the purpose of provoking vomiting are called emetics (from ty.tu, I vomit,) or vomits. Physiological Effects.—Usually within twenty or thirty minutes after taking an emetic, a general feeling of uneasiness and nausea comes on. The pulse becomes small, feeble, and irregular; the face and lips grow pale; a distress- ing sensation of relaxation, faintness, and coldness of the whole system is expe- rienced; the saliva flows copiously from the mouth; the eyes lose their lustre; and the whole countenance appears dejected. These symptoms, which consti- tute the first stage of vomiting, continue for a variable period, and are followed by the ejection of the contents of the stomach. As soon as actual vomiting com- mences, the general phenomena are altered: the pulse becomes frequent and full, the temperature of the body increases, and a sweat breaks out on the face and other parts. During the act of vomiting, in consequence of the pressure made on the abdominal aorta, and the interruption to the circulation through the lungs, from the impeded respiration, the blood returns with difficulty from the head, the face swells and becomes coloured, the conjunctiva is turgid and red, the jugular veins are gorged, and tears burst from the eyes. The violent straining is often attended with pain in the head and eyes, and with the involuntary expulsion of Vol. I.—26 202 elements of materia medica. the urine and faeces. The matters vomited vary according to circumstances: they may consist of the alimentary substances, bile, &c. contained in the stomach and duodenum previous to the exhibition of the emetic; of the fluids collected by the action of the emetic; and, lastly, of the emetic itself. Sometimes striae of blood are observed, which usually coine from the pharynx. The number of vomitings, and the ease with which they are effected, are liable to considerable variation, arising from the state ofthe digestive organs, the temperament ofthe patient, the state ofthe cerebral functions, &-c. When the vomiting has entirely ceased, the patient feels languid, oppressed, and drowsy, and the pulse becomes weak and slow: the exhaustion is sometimes so great as to be attended with fatal conse- quences. A case of this kind is alluded to by Dr. Paris, (Pharmacologia, vol. i. p. 163, 6th ed. 1825.) in which an emetic was imprudently given to a patient in the last stage of phthisis, with the intention of dislodging the pus with which the lungs were embarrassed: syncope was produced, from which the patient never recovered. Among other occasional ill consequences of vomiting may be mentioned comatose affections, uterine or pulmonary hemorrhages, hernia, abor- tion, suffocation, prolapsus of the uterus, rupture of the abdominal muscles, &c. These effects are produced by the violent muscular exertions, which attend the act of vomiting. They suggest cautions as to the use of emetics. Thus, in apo- plexy, and some other cerebral affections, or when a tendency thereto exists; in pregnancy, especially when miscarriage is threatened; in prolapsus uteri, hernia, aneurism, For an account of the uses of emetics consult Dr. Fothergill's Inaugural Dissertation," " De F.meticorum Usu in variis Morbis tracfandis" E; vol. xvii. p. 357, 415, and i\>3; vii. xviii. p. 75 and lt-27; vol xix. p. 970.) ■ This nu a uremenl has been calculated from the statements as to the length and diameter of the intes- tines in Meckel's Manuel a"Anatomic gencrale, descriptive ct pathologique. Traduit par J. A. L. Jourdan et G. Brctichel. Paris, lf'^5. 204 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. offers a very powerful means of diminishing the quantity of the fluids of the body; and accordingly we find that some cathartics, especially Elaterium, cause very copious watery discharges; and their employment is followed, as might be expected, with thirst and augmented absorption from the serous cavities, so that they sometimes reduce or even remove dropsical swellings. The more violent purgatives promote the discharge of bile and pancreatic liquor, by the irritation they produce at the termination of the ducts which pour these secretions into the alimentary canal. A distinction is usually made in practice between cooling and warm purgatives. By the former are commonly meant saline purgatives which, while they cause purging, without having any tendency to excite inflammation, are supposed to have a refrigerant influence over the system, and are adapted for febrile and in- flammatory cases. By the latter are meant the more violent cathartics, which are presumed either to quicken the pulse, or at least to excite the abdominal vas- cular system, and, therefore, are considered to be less fitted for febrile cases.1 Cathartics may be conveniently arranged in five groups or orders, as fol- lows:— Order 1. Laxatives or Lenitives.—This group contains the mild cathartics, such as Manna, Cassia pulp, Tamarinds, Prunes, Honey, Bitartrate of Potash, and the fixed Oila (as Castor, Almond, and Olive oils.) These very gently evacuate the contents of the intestinal canal, and usually without causing any obvious irritation, or affecting the gene- ral system. Manna, however, is apt to occasion flatulence and griping. Laxatives are employed in any cases where we wish to evacuate the bowels with the least possible irri- tation, as in children and pregnant women; in persons afflicted with inflammation of any of the abdominal or pelvic viscera, with hernia, prolapsus of the womb or rectum, piles, or stricture of the rectum; and after surgical operations about the abdomen and pelvis. Order 2. Saline, Antiphlogistic, or Cooling Cathartics.—This order is composed of the saline purgatives, such as the Sulphates of Soda, Potash, and Magnesia, &c. They increase the peristaltic motion of the alimentary canal, and augment the effusion of fluids by the exhalants of the mucous surface, thereby giving rise to watery stools. They do not appear to possess the piwer of inflaming the intestinal tube, nor of heating the general system. They are adapted for febrile disorders, inflammatory affections, plethoric conditions, &c. Order 3. Milder Acrid Cathartics.—This order includes Senna, Rhubarb, and Aloes. These are more active substances than any of the preceding. They are acrids and stimulants, but their local action is not sufficiently violent to cause inflammation. Senna is employed where we want an active, though not very acrid or irritant, purgative. Rhubarb is administered in relaxed and debilitated conditions ofthe alimentary canal, on account of its tonic properties. Aloes is used in torpid conditions of the large intestines, and in affections of the head. It is usually considered objectionable in piles and diseases ofthe rectum. Order 4. Drastic Cathartics.—This group comprehends the strong acrid purga- tives; such as Jalap, Scammony, Black Hellebore, Gamboge, Croton oil, Colocynth, and Elaterium. These, when swallowed in large doses, act as acrid poisons. They are em- ployed as purgatives in torpid conditions of the bowels; as hydragogues in dropsical af- fections; and as counter-irritants in affection of the brain. They are objectionable reme- dies in inflammatory and irritable conditions ofthe alimentary canal. Order 5. Mercurial Cathartics.—The principal of these are the Hydrargyrum cum Creta, the Pilula Hydrargyri, and Calomel. We employ them as alterative purga- tives, and to promote the hepatic functions. As they are uncertain in their operation, they are usually combined with, or followed by, other purgatives. Modus Operandi.—The more powerful cathartics are acrids or local irritants. Some of them (e. g. Gamboge) operate almost solely in this way; for they do not excite purging except when they are introduced into the alimentary canal, and they easily excite vomiting when swallowed. But most of the drastics i An ai;onymo is writer, in the London Medical Gazette, vol. iv p. 139, contends that Aloes is not a warm purgative, thougii usually considered to be so. CATHARTICS. 205 exert, in addition, a specific influence over the alimentary canal, so that they excite purging when injected into the veins, or when applied either to the serous membranes or cellular tissue. Senna, Castor and Croton oils, Black Hellebore, ^ Colocynth, and Elaterium, operate in this way. This circumstance, therefore, favours the notion that they act, in part at least, by absorption. That the purgative principles of some carthartics are absorbed, is quite certain. Gamboge, Rhubarb, Sulphate of Potash, and Oil of Turpentine, have been de- tected in the blood. Senna, Rhubarb, and Jalap, communicate purgative quali- ties to the milk. The colouring matters of Cassia pulp, Rhubarb, Senna, and Gamboge, have been recognised in the urine. Some cathartics act also as diuretics,—as Bitartrate of Potash and Gamboge. Dr. Christison (On Granular Degeneration ofthe Kidneys, p. 150. Edinburgh, 1839.) observed, that where diuretics have been given for some time without effect, he has frequently seen their action brought on " by a single dose of some hydragogue cathartic,—such as Gamboge." The resinous particles, in their passage out of the system through the renal vessels, probably acted as topical stimulants. Cathartics probably act, in part at least, by a reflex action of the ganglionic system. Muller (Physiology, by Baly, vol. i. p. 511.) observes, that galvanizing the splanchnic nerve or the cceliac ganglion, gives rise to a generally increased activity to the peristaltic movements, while division neither of the pneumo-gastric nor of the sympathetic nerve, puts a stop to them. This appeals to show that the splanchnic nerve is concerned in propagating the irritation set up by cathar- tics. The tenesmus occasioned by some cathartics is a reflex action of the true spinal system. Different parts ofthe alimentary canal are unequally affected by different cathar- tics. Thus, Aloes is remarkable for its action on the large intestine; moreover, many of the drastic cathartics,—as Gamboge, Colocynth, Savin, and Black Hellebore,—create more irritation in the large, than in the small, intestines; and Orfila (Toxicologic Generate.) mentions, that in animals killed by these sub- stances, he found the stomach and rectum inflamed, while the small intestines were healthy. In some cases, perhaps, this may be ascribed to the rapidity with which these agents pass through the small intestines, and on their longer continuance in the stomach and rectum; but the same appearance has been no- ticed when these cathartics have been applied to the cellular texture of the thigh. According to Liebig,1 concentrated saline solutions have a physical, as well as a medicinal, action. They extract water from the coats of the stomach, and thereby create thirst. Part of the solution, thus becoming diluted, is absorbed; but the greater portion enters the intestines, dilutes the solid matters, and thus acts as a purgative. Sub-class. Emmenagoga.—Emmenagogues. Definition.—Medicines which excite or promote the catamenial discharge are termed emmenagogues (from e^^ux, the menstrual discharge, and «y«, I drive away.) Physiological Effects.—As the suppression orretention of this secretion may be occasioned by very different circumstances, no one agent can be expected to prove emmenagogue in all, or even in many, cases. Deficient menstruation is rarely, perhaps, an idiopathic disease, but usually a morbid symptom merely; and, therefore, those agents which remove it must be relative,—that is, must have reference to the disease which produces it. Thus when deficient menstru- ation is connected with a deficiency of power in the system, tonics and stimu- lants are the best remedies. Again, in plethoric habits, blood-letting, and other debilitating agents, are most likely to be serviceable. 1 Organic Chemistry in its .Opplication lo Agriculture and Physiology, edited by Lyoti Play fiir, p 334. Lond. 206 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEUlcA. But the term emmenagogue is usually employed, in a more limited sense; namely, to indicate those substances which are supposed to possess a specific power of affecting the uterus, and thereby of promoting the catamenial discharge. * There are, however, few bodies to which this definition can be strictly applied. Indeed, two reasons have led some pharmacological writers to doubt the exist- ence of any medicines which can be properly termed specific emmenagogues, namely, the uncertainty of all the means so named, and the uterus not being an organ intended for the excretion of foreign matters. The substances usually regarded as specific emmenagogues are, for the most part, medicines which, when taken in large doses, act as drastic purgatives. Such are Savin, Black Hellebore, Aloes, Gamboge, &c. They excite the pelvic circulation, give rise to a sensation of bearing down of the womb, especially in females disposed to procidentia uteri, increase uterine hemorrhage, or the men- strual discharge, when given during these conditions,—and when administered in chlorosis or amenorrhoea, sometimes bring on the catamenia. Savin is de- cidedly the most emmenagogue of all the drastics just mentioned. The most effectual mode of obtaining its uterine influence is by exhibiting its oil. Substances that irritate the urinary organs also evince a stimulant influence over the uterus. I have known abortion produced by Cantharides given as an emmenagogue. Rue is a reputed and popular emmenagogue. It possesses cerebro-spinant properties, and has on several occasions produced mis-carnage. Madder was a favourite emmenagogue with the late Dr. Home, (Clinical Ex- periments, p. 422, 2d ed. Lond. 178.) who declared it to be the strongest and safest known. The Fetid Gums and Castoreum have also been supposed to possess a similar property. The Chalybeates are exceedingly valuable remedies in uterine obstructions, attended with an anaemic condition of system. Mercu- rials, by their liquefacient properties, promote the secretion of the uterus in com- mon with that of other organs. Ergot of Rye possesses an unequivocal influence over the uterus. But it rather promotes uterine contractions than the menstrual function; though it has, on many occasions, been successfully employed in amenorrhcea. Sub-class 10. C h 01 a g 0 g a.—C liolagogues. (Xolotics or Bilitics, Nuttall) Definition.—Medicines which promote the discharge of bile into the alimen- tary canal are denominated Cholagogues (from %«a>j, bile, and otyu, I drive off.) Physiological Effects.—It is probable that most, if not all, drastric purga- tives increase the secretion and excretion both of bile and pancreatic juice, by irritating the opening of the ductus choledochus in the duodenum; just as certain substances, taken into the mouth, provoke an increased discharge of saliva by irritating the mouths of the salivary ducts. Graaf (Barbier, Traite Element, de Mat. Me I. t. iii. p. 1252, 2nde ed.) says, that if a purgative be administered to a dog, and when it is beginning to operate, the abdomen be laid open, the bile and pancreatic juice will be observed flowing into the duodenum. The term cholagogue, however, has been more particularly applied to sub- stances which have been supposed to have a specific influence in promoting the secretion or excretion of bile. Mercury, Aloes, and Rhubarb, have been consi- dered to possess this property. The Alkalis are believed, by some, to render the biliary secretion more copious and thinner. Class 7. Ecbolica.—Ecbolics, or Contractors of the Uterus. (Abortiva; Amblolica; Acceleratores Partus.) Definition.—Medicines which excite uterine contractions, and thereby pro- mote the expulsion of the contents of the uterus, are called ecbolics (from eK/io^io*, a medicine which expels the foetus.) ACIDS. 207 Physiological Effects.—Some medicines excite the vascular system of the uterus, as Savin and other Drastic Purgatives. These promote the menstrual discharge, and are, therefore, denominated emmenagogues. But their is another class of agents which excite muscular contractions of the uterus, and, therefore, are adapted for expelling substances (as the foetus, hydatids, clots of blood, &c.) contained in the uterine cavity. These are the Ecbolics. The only unequivocal agent of this class is Ergot, which appears to operate on the uterus by a reflex action, and will be fully noticed hereafter. Probably the ergot of all grasses acts in the same way. A similar property has been ascribed to Borax. Class 8. Acida.—Acids. (AmalkalinaO Definition. —Acid medicines which, by repeated use, produce a chemical change in the fluids, have beed formed into a separate class under the name of Acids. Physiological Effects.—The Mineral Acids, when concentrated, decompose the organic tissues (see p. 122.) Swallowed in this state they are corrosive poi- sons. When sufficiently diluted they cease to be corrosive, though they still exert a chemical influence. Thus, when applied to the skin, they harden the cuticle by uniting with its albumen; and when applied to the mucous surface they produce astriction, and a slight whitening of the part (from their chemical influence.) The diluted Mineral and Vegetable Acids, when swallowed in mo- derate doses, at first allay thirst, sharpen the appetite, and promote digestion. They check preternatural heat, (See p. 192.) reduce the frequency ofthe pulse, lessen cutaneous perspiration, frequently allay the troublesome itching of pru- rigo, operate on the solids as tonics, (See p. 189.) and frequently prove diuretic; (See p. 198.) at the same time that they alter the quality of the urine, which they generally render unusually acid. The milk acquires a griping quality, and the bowels are usually slightly relaxed. Lender their long-continued use, the tongue becomes pale and coated with a whitish but moist fur, the appetite and di- gestion are impaired, while griping and relaxation of bowels, with febrile disor- der, frequently occur. If their use be still persevered in, they more deeply injure the assimilative processes, and a kind of scorbutic cachexy is established. Acids are used as caustics, as refrigerants, as tonics, as diuretics, as antalka- lines, as antilithics, and to check sweat and pruriginous itching. Class 9. Alkalina.—Alkaline Medicines. (Antacida.) Df.finition.—Alkaline medicines, which by repeated use produce a chemical change in the fluids, have been formed into a distinct class, under the name of Alkalina. Physiological Effects.—The alkalis in a concentrated form are powerful caustics, and when swallowed act as corrosive poisons. From their solvent action on the organic tissues, they have a softening influence even in the dilute form, and, in consequence, are saponaceous to the touch. When taken into the sto- mach, in the diluted state, they destroy the acid condition ofthe alimentary canal, and slightly augment secretion. They become absorbed, act as diuretics, and at the same time alter the quality of the urine, to which they communicate an alka- line reaction. By repeated use they operate as liquefacients. (See p. 193.) Their long-continued employment gives rise to great disorder of the assimilative organs, and a condition analogous to that of scurvy is induced. (See p. 194.) In such cases it is said that the blood drawn from a vein does not coaoulate on cooling. Alkalis are used as escharotics, as antacids, as resolvents, as antiphlo- gistics, (See p. 191.) as diuretics, and as antilithics. 2 us ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Lithontriptics; Antilithics.—Medicinal agents which effect the solution or disintegration of urinary calculi within the body, are denominated Lithontriptics (Irom rtiic, a stone, and Tptfia, I rub or wear out, or destroy.) The long-continued action of large quantities of sim- ple water on urinary calculi is capable apparently of disintegrating, and in some cases ofdis. solving them.1 This fact deserves especial notice, since it points out the propriety of aiding the operation ofthe most powerful lithontriptics by the copious use of water. The medicinal agents, which readily dissolve these concretions out of the body, belong to the two preceding classes, Acid and Alkaline substances. Thus the phosphates readily dissolve in hydrochloric and nitric acids,—while alkaline solutions are solvents for uric acid. But the introduction, by injection, into the bladder of cither acid or alkaline solutions, sufficiently strong to exert much chemical influence over calculi, would he attended with dangerous irritation ofthe vesi- cal coats. And, if we exhibit them by the mouth, they undergo important changes in pass- ing through the system, so that by the time they reach the bladder their chemical influence, as solvents, is in a great measure, if not wholly, destroyed. Yet it cannot be denied that at times they have appeared to give considerable relief, and to act as real lithontriptics. But Dr. Prout (On the Nature and Treatment of Stomach and Urinary Diseases. Lond. 1840.) asserts that urine, when in a perfectly healthy condition, is one ofthe most universal as well as powerful solvents we possess for urinary deposites; and as it contains no free and uncom- bined alkaline or acid ingredient, he concludes that lithontriptics "are to be sought for among a class of harmless and unirritaling compounds, the elements of which are so associated as to act at the same time with respect to calculous ingredients, both as alkalis and acids." At present no substance of this kind is known, but the solutions of the supercarbonated alkalis, containing a great excess of carbonic acid, approach the nearest to them; and the mineral waters of Vichy,2 which have long been celebrated in calculous affections, are natural solu- tions of this kind. The operation of these waters is not confined apparently to their solvent effects; for they possess also a disintegrating power: that is, they disturb " the attraction, both cohesive and adhesive, by which the molecules of calculi are held together, so as to ren. der them brittle and easily broken into fragments." Class 10. Topica.—Topical Remedies. Definition.—External remedies, which are used on account of their topical influence, have been formed into a distinct class, under the name of topica. Physiological Effects.—This class is a very heterogeneous one, and con- tains substances which possess a very dissimilar mode of operation. On this, as well as on other grounds, objections may, with great propriety, be made to its ad- mission in a physiological arrangement; and the only apology I can offer for it is that of convenience. Topical remedies may be conveniently arranged in six orders, as follows:— Order 1. Caustica. Cauteria Potentialia.—Topical agents, which disor- ganize by a chemical action, are called caustics (from kxiu, I burn.) The stronger ones, as Potassa fusa, are called escharolics, or erodents; the milder ones, as Sul- phate of Copper, catheretics, or c.auterants. The general action of these has been already noticed. (See p. 122.) Some of the substances used as caustics (as Arsenious Acid) become absorbed, and produce constitutional symptoms. The substances used by surgeons as caustics may be arranged in suborders thus:— Suborper 1. Concentrated non-metallic Acids.—As Sulphuric, Nitric, Hydrochloric, Phosphoric, and Acetic Acids. Suborder 2. Alkalis.—Potassa fusa, Liquor Ammoniae, and Quicklime. Suborder 3. Metallic Compounds.—A considerable number of these are used, viz.— a. Oxides; as Binoxide of Mercury and Arsenious Acid. 0. Chloridks ; as the Sesquichloride of Antimony, Chloride of Zinc, and Bichloride of Mercury. y. Oxysalts; as Nitrate of Silver, Sulphate and Acetate of Copper. Caustics are employed for various purposes, the principal of which are the fol- ' Chevallier, Essai sur la dissolution de la gravelle et des calculs dela vessie. Paris, 1837.—Also Lond. Med Gaz. vol. xx p. 431. » Ch. Petit, Quelques considerations sur la nature de la goulte et sur son traitement par les eaux de Vichy. Parig, 1835.—Nouvelles observations de guirisons de calculs urinaires au moyen dee eaux de Vichy. Parif, 1837. TOPICAL REMEDIES. 209 lowing:—To remove excrescences or morbid growths of various kinds, such as warts, condylomata, some kinds of polypi, and spongy growths or granulations; to decompose the virus of rabid animals, and the venom of the viper and other poisonous serpents: to form artificial ulcers,—as issues; to open abscesses; for the cure of hydrocele they have been applied to the scrotum, so as to penetrate through the tunica vaginalis; to change the condition of ulcerated and other sur- faces; lastly, caustics are applied to strictures of the urethia. Order 2. Topical Stimulants.—These are remedies employed to augment the vital activity of the parts to which they are applied. When they produce irritation or inflammation, they are called Irritants. If they be organic sub- stances, and cause local irritation, independently of any known chemical agency, they are denominated Acrids. (See p. 193.) Suborder 1. Cutaneous Stimulants. Rubefacients, Vesicants, and Suppuranls.—These are agents which, when applied to the skin, cause redness, and sometimes vesication and suppuration. The milder ones, such as Friction and Warm Fomentations, stimulate the skin temporarily, without producing actual inflammation. The stronger ones, such as Mustard and Cantharides, excite active inflammation. Those that cause the exhalation of a thin serous fluid beneath the cuticle, are called vesicants or epispastics : Mustard, Euphorbium, Meze- reon, Acetic Acid, Ammonia, and Cantharides, are of this kind; while Tartar Emetic, and some other substances, which produce a secretion of pus, are denominated suppuranls. The medicines of this class are employed as counter-irritants in various diseases. Their modus medendi has been before investigated. (See p. 153.) Suborder 2. Ulcer Stimulants.—Surgeons employ a variety of topical applications to wounds and ulcers, for the purpose of augmenting or altering the vital activity of the part. Those which promote healthy suppuration are called Digestives (Digercnlia seu Digestiva,) as the Ceratum Resince. Those which are supposed to promote cicatrization are denomi- nated Epulotics (Epulotica, from t7rouxca>, I cicatrize,) or Cicatrisantia, as Ceratum Calaminte. Under the name of Detergents (Detergentia) are included substances which cleanse wounds, ulcers, &c, and comprehend various kinds of agents; some of which, however, are topical stimulants. Order 3. Astringents and Desiccants.—Agents which, by their affinity for fibrine and albumen, constrict fibres and coagulate albuminous liquids, are denominated Astringents. When employed to check hemorrhage, they are called Styptics. The vegetable astringents have been already noticed: (See p. 188.) they owe their activity to Tannic Acid. A considerable number of mineral substances act as astringents when used in a dilute form,—such as Sulphate of Copper, Nitrate of Silver, Chloride of Zinc, Sulphate of Iron, Acetate of Lead, Alum, &c. In a concentrated state, the same agents are caustics. Some sub- stances, when applied to secreting and exhaling surfaces, check secretion and exhalation, and cause dryness of the parts, but have scarcely any corrugating power on the solids,—as the Oxide of Zinc. These may be termed Desic- cants. Order 4. Bencmbers.—Certain cerebro-spinants are employed as topical anodynes in neuralgia. For example, Aconite, Belladonna, and Opium. (See page'178.) Order 5. Antiseptics and Disinfectants. Antipestifera; Antiputre- scents.—Agents which prevent or are opposed to putrefaction, are called Anti- septics (from ctvri, against, and crr^ro?, putrid.) Those which destroy miasmata, are denominated Disinfectants (from dis, which signifies separation, and infect.) Putrefaction, properly so called, is a process peculiar to dead organic matter; and means which check or prevent it, act by a physical or chemical agency, and are the true antiseptics. They constitute what Guersent (Diclionnaire de Mede- cine, art. Anliseplique.) denominates physical antiseptics. Warmth, air, and water, are the most powerful agents in promoting putrefaction; and their exclu- sion, therefore, are among the most effective antiseptic means. Thus, Cold, a Vacuum, and Desiccation, are good conservators of dead organic matters. Alco- hol, Sirup, Fats, and Volatile Oils, are antiseptics: all act by excluding air, and some of them (e. g. Alcohol) likewise by abstracting water from the organic mat- Vol. I.—27 210 elements op materia medica. ter. Another class of antiseptics are chemical agents, which form with the organic matters new compounds less susceptible of decay. Saline and metallic solutions, and chlorine, act in this way. Certain diseases were formerly denominated putrid, and were supposed to de- pend on a putrescent or decomposed condition of the solids and fluids, charac- terized by the loose texture of the crassamentum, petechiae, and an offensive condition of the excretions. Remedies which relieved this state were called antiseptics. Guersent denominates them physiological antiseptics. But the alterations which are observed in the characters of the solids and of the blood in the above maladies, have no apparent analogy with those which attend the putre- faction of dead animal matters; and accordingly modern pathologists have rejected the doctrine of putrescency of the fluids. Liebig1 has endeavoured to revive the old notion; but, though his reasoning is ingenious, it is to me any thing but satis- factory, as I have before (p. 123) remarked. The subject is foreign to the objects of this work, and moreover is too extensive to be farther discussed here; but I may remark, in conclusion, that if the effects ofthe poisons of small-pox, plague, syphilis, and decomposing organic matters on the human frame, be denominated fermentation or putrefaction, the meaning of these terms must undergo very con- siderable alteration and extension. Disinfectants, I have already stated, are agents which destroy miasmata (both odorous and inodorous.) Their action is chemical. Chlorine, the Hypochlo- rites, and Nitrous and Nitric Acids, act either by oxidizing or dehydrogenizing miasmatic matters. The late Dr. Henry (Philosophical Magazine and Annals of Philosophy, for January 1832, vol. xi. pp. 22 and 205.) has apparently shown, that infectious matter of certain diseases (as scarlatina) is either dissipated or de- stroyed by a temperature not below 200° F.; and he, therefore, suggested, that infected clothing, &c. may be disinfected on this principle, for he found that neither the texture nor colour of piece goods and other articles of clothing were injured by a temperature of 250° F. Quicklime absorbs carbonic acid and sul- phuretted hydrogen3 gases, and perhaps other noxious matters. It is, therefore, occasionally useful as a disinfectant; and is employed in the form of wash for the walls of buildings. Ventilation is the most important disinfecting process. To disguise unpleasant odours, fumigations with the Balsamic Resins, Camphor, Cascarilla, and Brown Paper, are sometimes resorted to. Order 6. Cosmetics.—Agents used for the purpose of preserving or restoring the beauty, are denominated Cosmetics (cosmetica, from Koc-^eu, I adorn.) The preparation of these substances is usually left to chemist*, perfumers, and hair-dressers; but the principles on which they are employed come under the consideration of the medical practitioner. Cosmetics are employed to improve the appearance of the skin, the hair, and the teeth. Hence, we make a three-fold division of them:— *. Cutaneous Cosmetics.—Cosmetics are applied to the skin, to soften or harden the cuti- cle, and to improve the colour and clearness ofthe complexion. Alkaline, Oleaginous, and Saponaceous substances, and soft Water, cleanse and soften the skin. The Alkali acts by its solvent power on the cuticle; Oil has a mechanical influence. Almond and Spanish Soaps, Milk of Roses, and Cold Cream, are the favourite softeners ofthe skin. Almond Powder is used for a similar purpose. Diluted Acids, most Saline substances (as Alum) and Alcohol, harden the skin. The acids act by combining with the albumen ofthe cuticle, and the salts operate, probably, in the same way. T.ie hardening influence of alcohol is connected with its power of coagulating albu- men. Hard water indurates by the earthy salts which it holds in solution. A solution of Bichloride of Mercury in Bitter Almond Emulsion (about gr. j. ad f^j.) has long been a favourite face wash : it constitutes Gowland's lotion. Bichloride of Mercury, it i Organic Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and Physiology. Edited by Lyon Playfair, Ph. D. London, 1840. » Chlorine and the Hypochlorites are the most effective agents for destroying sulphuretted hydrogen, which, according to Professor Daniell, is the miasmatic matter of the western coast of Africa. (See p. 83 ; also, London Medical Gazette, July 1841.) TOPICAL REMEDIES. 211 is well known, unites with albumen, and hardens animal tissues. Bitter Almonds are men- tioned by Celsus (Lib. vi. cap. 5.) as remedies for ephelides (freckles.) Withering (An Ar- rangement of British Plants, vol. iii. p. 754, 7th ed. Lond. 1830.) recommends, as one of the safest and best cosmetics, an infusion of Horse-radish in cold milk. Face-paints are used to give an artificial colour to the skin: Carmine to communicate a red, and starch-powder a white tint, can produce no injurious effect on the constitution ; but the'white metallic compounds—viz. Trisnitrate of Bismuth, Carbonate of Lead, and White Precipitated Mercury—are dangerous, as they are liable to become absorbed. Trisnitrate of Bismuth, probably the least injurious ofthe three compounds just mentioned, has caused spss- modic trembling of the muscles of the face, ending in paralysis. (Vogt, Pharmakodynamik, Bd. i. S. 288. 2te Aufl.) 0. Hair Cosmetics.—Cosmetics are applied to the hair to render it smooth, glossy, and dis- posed to curl,—lo stain it,—to promote its growth,—and sometimes to destroy it. An excellent pomatum for rendering the hair smooth and glossy, is composed of Olive or Almond Oil §ij., and Spermaceti 3iij. It may be variously scented. Various substances have, at different times, been recommended for preventing the fall, and promoting the growth, ofthe hair; but the efficacy of most of them is doubtful. As alopecia, or baldness, arises from various and different causes, it is evident that no one agent can- under all circumstances, prove successful. When the cause is not obvious, the part should be shaved (if any hair be present,) and topical stimulants applied, to augment vascular activity. A solution of some Volatile Oil (Rosemary or Thyme,) in Rectified Spirit, used as an embro- cation, has, at times, appeared to me to be serviceable. Dupuytren (London Medical Ga- zette, vol. xv. p. 848.) employed an ointment composed of ten parts of Tincture of Cantharides (prepared by digesting one part of cantharides in ten parts of rectified spirit,) and ninety parts of Hog's-lard. Depilatories are used to remove superfluous hairs. Lime and Orpiment (Sesquisulphuret of Arsenicum) are the constituents of most of them. Plenck's pasta epilatoria consists of one part Orpiment, twelve parts Quicklime, and ten parts Starch, made into soft paste with water. The hair being previously cut close, the paste is applied, and, as soon as the mass is dry, the part is to be washed with water. (Phoebus, Handbuch der Arzneiverordnungslehre, 2er Th. S. 78, 3'te Ausg. 1840.) As orpiment is a dangerous application, especially when the skin is abraded, depilatories are sometimes formed without it. Rayer1 gives the following formula for one:—Lime, ^j.; Carbonate of Potash, ^ij.; Charcoal powder, gj. Hair Dyes have been in use from the most remote periods of antiquity. Medea (Beloe's Translation of Herodotus, vol. i. p. 382. Lond. 1825.) is said to have been acquainted with the art of dying the hair black. Paulus Mg'meta2 gives several compositions for effecting the same purpose. Various powders, pastes, and liquids, are sold in the shops as hair dyes. Some (as Orfild's Hair Dye) are mixtures or compounds of powdered Litharge (oxide of lead) and Lime, in about equal weights, or a little excess of the first ingredient. The mixture is made into a paste with hot water or milk, and applied to the hair for four or five hours, the part being covered (with oil-skin, or, in the absence of this, I have known a cabbage leaf used,) to keep the mixture moist. The water causes the Oxide of Lead to unite with the Lime, forming a plumbite of lime. The lime is useful by removing the fatty matter, while the oxide of lead, reacting on the sulphur contained in the hair, forms a black sulphuret of lead. Others (as Spencer's Hair Dye) consist of a solution of Nitrate of Silver; which, however, is objec- tionable, since it is apt to stain the skin. Hair stained with this salt blackens by exposure to the light, partly by the reduction ofthe silver and partly by the formation of a black sulphuret of silver. When an immediate effect is required, a solution of Hydrosulphuret of Ammonia is applied to the hair after the Nitrate of Silver, by which the black sulphuret of silver is in- stantaneously formed. Hewlett's Hair Dye is of this kind. Other formula for hair dyes have been published. (Journal de Chimie Meaicale, torn. ii. p. 250, 2nde Ser.) Paulus Mg\- neta mentions the bark of Green Walnuts. A leaden comb is frequently used for a similar purpose. The lead uniting with the sulphur of the hair, forms the black sulphuret. Dyed hair, especially that stained with nitrate of silver, is dry and crisp. The detection of stained hair is sometimes an object of medico-legal research.3 Lead may be recognised in hair by boiling the latter in nitric acid, and applying the tests for lead to the nitric solution. To detect silver, the hair must be treated with chlorine, to form chloride of silver, which is solu- ble in ammonia. From the ammoniacal solution the chloride may be precipitated by nitric acid, and its nature ascertained by the usual means. y. Teeth Cosmetics.—Cosmetics are applied to the teeth to cleanse them, improve their colour, and destroy unpleasant odour. Dentifrices are usually powders. Tooth powders require to have a certain degree of hard- ness or grittiness, to enable them to remove the foreign matters adherent to the teeth, but not • A Theoretical and Practical Treatise on the Diseases of the Skin, Eng. Transl p 1219 Lond 1835 vol M>'p^7 Md'aS?* 'LonTwif^™1*' '** °r>ek Physician' tran9'ated into English, by F. Adams, Esq., » Devergie, Medecine Legale, l. ii. p. 931. Paris, 1836; and Dr. Cummin, Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xix. p. 215. 212 ELEMENTS OP MATERIA MEDICA. sufficient to injure the enamel. Pumice powder is rather too gritty for frequent use. Em- ployed occasionally (say once in six or eight weeks) it is very serviceable. Though generally repudiated as a dentifrice, I find it is commonly used by dentists for cleaning teeth. Char- coal and Cuttlefish bone powder are good detergents. Chalk is somewhat too soft. Ratanhy, Cinchona, and Catechu, are useful astringents. Myrrh is employed partly for its odour. All insoluble powders, however, are more or less objectionable, since they are apt to accumulate in the space formed by the fold ofthe gum and the neck ofthe tooth, and thus present a co- loured circle. Many tooth powders are coloured red with Bole Armeniac, to render this cir- cle invisible. The soluble substances which may be used as tooth-powders are Sulphate of Potash, Phosphate of Soda, Bitartrate of Potash, and Common Salt. Disinfecting and decolourizing tooth-powders, washes, and lozenges, owe their efficacy to Chloride of Lime, and are used to destroy the unpleasant odour ofthe breath, and restore the white colour ofthe teeth when stained by tobacco,1 &c. Thus, one part of Chloride of Lime may be added to twenty or thirty parts of Chalk, and used as a decolourizing tooth powder. A disinfecting mouthwash is prepared by digesting three drachms of Chloride of I.ime in two ounces of Distilled Water; and, to the filtered solution, adding two ounces of Spirit, to which some scent (as Otto of Roses) has been added. i Journal de Chimie Medicale, t. iii. p. 494; and t. iv. p. 28. ( 213 ) |£art Second PHARMACOLOGIA SPECIALIS.-SPECIAL PHARMACOLOGY. Special Pharmacology treats of medicines individually. These I shall, for the most part, arrange in Natural-Historical Order. Natural bodies are divided into two groups, called Kingdoms; the Inorganized and the Organized. The latter is subdivided into two Sub-Kingdoms, the Ve- getable and the Animal. Formerly naturalists admitted three kingdoms; the Mineral, the Vegetable, and the Ani- mal. But the impossibility of so characterizing the latter two as to distinguish them from one another, has led later writers to unite them into one kingdom. Brogniart (Tableau de la Distribution Methodique des Especes Minerales. Paris, 1833.) makes three divisions of bodies,—the Inorganic, the Organic, and the Organized. I. INORGANIZED KINGDOM. CNass X. tftoYpffltttulttt Substances. (Metalloids.—Berzelius.) Order I. OXYGEN, AND ITS AQUEOUS SOLUTION. OXYGENTUM.—OXYGEN. History, Synonymes, and Etymology.—Oxygen gas was discovered, on the 1st of August, 1774, by Dr. Priestley, (Experiments and Observations on diffe- rent kinds of Air, vol. ii. p. 106. Birmingham, 1790.) who denominated it de- phlogisticated air. In the following year, Scheele also discovered it, without knowing what Priestley had done, and he called it empyreal air. Condorcet termed it vital air. Lavoisier called it oxygen, (from o|t>r, acid; and yeweca, I engender or produce.) Natural History.—Oxygen is found in both kingdoms of nature. a. In the inorganized kingdom.—Oxygen is, of all substances, that which is found in the largest quantity in nature, for it constitutes at least three-fourths of the known terraqueous globe. Thus, water, which covers about three-fourths of the surface of the earth, contains eight-ninths of its weight of oxygen; and the solid crust of our globe probably consists of at least one-third part, by weight, of this principle; for silica, carbonate of lime, and alumina, the three most abundant constituents ofthe earth's strata, contain nearly half their weight of oxygen. Mr. De la Beche (Researches in Theoretical Geology, p. 8. Lond. 1834.) calculates that silica alone constitutes " forty five per cent, of the mineral crust of our globe." Of the atmosphere, oxygen constitutes twenty or twenty.one per cent, by volume, or about twenty- three per cent, by weight, to which must be added eight-ninths, by weight, ofthe atmospheric aqueous vapour. In the organized kingdom.—Oxygen is an essential constituent of all living bodies. Vege- tables, in the sun's rays, absorb carbonic acid, decompose it, retain the carbon, and emit the oxygen. Hence they have been supposed to be the purifiers ofthe atmosphere. 214 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Preparation.—There are several methods of procuring this gas, but 1 shall notice three only:— . 1. By heating Chlorate of Potash in a green glass-retort.—This method yields pure oxygen gas. (From 100 grains of the chlorate we may expect to obtain nearly 100 cubic inches of the gas.—Brande.) One equivalent or 124 parts of chlorate of potash yield six equivalents or 48 parts of oxygen, and one equiva- lent or 76 parts of chloride of potassium. MATERIAL. COMPOSITION. PRODUCTS. f , m, • a j-,R 1 5 eq. Oxygen... 40------—^ 6 eq. Oxygen 48. f leg. Chloric Acid!76 j j e* Chlorine.. 36 ^^ 1 eq. Chlorate of Potash 124 i. /"C ., I 1 ej. Oxygen... 8 ^->>^ 1 eq. Potash......48 J l ^ Potassium 40-------^- 1 eq. Chloride —. --- Potassium 76 124 124 --- 124 2. By heating Binoxide of Manganese in an iron bottle.—This is the cheap- est method; and, for ordinary purposes, it yields Oxygen gas sufficiently pure. To remove any carbonic acid, the gas is to be washed with lime-water or a solu- tion of caustic potash. One pound of the commercial binoxide usually yields from 30 to 40 pints of gas: but, from fine samples, 40 to 50 pints may be pro- cured. Two equivalents or 88 parts of pure binoxide yield one equivalent or 8 parts of oxygen, and two equivalents or 80 parts of the sesquioxide of manga- nese. MATERIAL. PRODCCTS. _. .. „. „Q ( 1 eq Oxygen.................. 8 2eq. Binoxide Manganese=88 j 2 eq. Sesquioxide Manganese .. 80 88 3. By heating Binoxide of Manganese with about its own weight of Oil of Vitriol in a glass retort.—The quantity of acid to be employed should be suffi- cient to form, with the binoxide, a mixture having the consistence of cream. This method is convenient when an iron bottle cannot be procured, or when a small quantity of gas is wanted at a very short notice; but it is not economical. One equivalent or 44 parts of the binoxide yield one equivalent or 8 parts of oxygen, and one equivalent or 36 parts of the protoxide of manganese: the latter substance forms, with an equivalent or 40 parts of anhydrous sulphuric acid, one equivalent or 76 parts of sulphate of the protoxide of manganese. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. PRODUCTS. 1 eq. Binox. Manganese 44 j 1 eq. Oxygen........ 8 1 eq. Oxygen..............►• 8 \ 1 eq. Protox. Mang... **«- leq. Sulphuric Acid............................ 40— »1 eq Sulptat*. Protox. Mang.. 76 ~4 84 Properties.—It is elastic, colourless, odourless, tasteless, incombustible, but a powerful supporter of combustion. According to Dr. Thomson, 100 cubic inches _________ of this gas weigh, at the temperature of 60° F., and when the baro- meter stands at 30 inches, 34*60 grains: hence its specific gravity is IT 11; 100 cubic inches of air being taken to weigh 31 1446 grs.— (According to Berzelius and Dulong, the sp. gr. is 1*1026.) Its atomic weight is 8: its atomic volume 0*5; hydrogen being in both cases unity. Characteristics.—If a taper or match be plunged into this gas after the flame has been blown out, but while the wick or charcoal is yet glowing, the flame is instantly reproduced. The only gas likely to be confounded with oxygen in this respect is the protoxide of nitrogen, from which oxygen is distinguished by ex- ploding it with hydiogen. A mixture of one volume oxygen and two volumes hydrogen yields, by explosion, water only; whereas a mixture of one volume of 1 eq Oxy. =8 topical remedies. 215 the protoxide of nitrogen with one volume hydrogen yields water and one volume of nitrogen. Moreover, a taper burnt in a jar of oxygen gas yields no brown vapour. Physiological Effects. «. On Vegetables.—Oxygen gas is essential to the germination of seeds, and to the existence and growth of plants. Edwards (Athenseum, Feb. 2d, 1839.) says that the seeds in germinating decompose water to obtain oxygen. In the shade, vegetables absorb it from the atmosphere, and evolve an equal volume of carbonic acid; while, in the solar rays, the reverse changes take place; carbonic acid being absorbed and oxygen expired. The vigorous growth of plants in enclosed cases, as originally proposed and practised by my friend, Mr. N. B. Ward, (Companion to the Botanical Magazine, for May, 1836.) does not invalidate the above statements; since the cases are never completely air-tight, but allow the ingress and egress of air consequent on changes of temperature. The quantity of oxygen required for the growth of some plants, however, appears to be much smaller than was previously supposed. The effects of pure oxygen gas on germination and vegetation have been ex- amined by Theod. de Saussure. (Recherches Cbimiques sur la Vegetation. Paris, 1804.) He found that the period of germination is the same in oxygen gas as in atmospheric air, but that seeds evolve more carbonic acid in the former than in the latter. (See pp. 11 and 12. op. cit.) Plants do not thrive so well in an atmosphere of oxygen gas in the shade as in one of common air; they give out more carbonic acid, which is always injurious to vegetation in the shade. When exposed in oxygen gas to the direct rays of the sun, they augment in weight about as much as in atmospheric air. (See p. 93, op. cit.) 0. On Animals generally.—It is usually asserted that all animals require the influence of oxygen, or rather of air, to enable them to exist: but this assertion cannot be proved in the case of some of the lower animals. Thus intestinal worms seem to dispense with respiration. (Mailer's Physiology, by Baly, vol. i. p. 295.) Some animals, which respire, have no organs especially devoted to this function: in these the cutaneous surface effects respiration; as in the Poly- pifera. In the Infusoria the respiratory organs are delicate cilia. Many animals have branchiae, or gills, for respiration, as some Mollusca, some Annelida, and Fishes. Leeches respire by sub-cutaneous sacs, which open externally. The respiratory organs of Insects are ramifying tracheae. Lastly, the higher classes of animals, as the Mammals, respire by means of lungs. Whenever respiration is effected a portion of oxygen disappears, while a quantity of carbonic acid, nearly equal in volume to the oxygen consumed, is produced. The continued respiration of oxygen gas is injurious, and even fatal to animal life: this has been observed by all experimenters. Animals live longer in a given volume of oxygen than in the same quantity of atmospheric air, but the continued employment of it causes death. Mr. Broughton confined rabbits, guinea-pigs, and sparrows, in glass jars containing oxygen, and inverted over water. At first they suffered no inconvenience, but in about an hour their breathing became hurried, and the circulation accelerated. This state of excitement was followed by one of debility; the respirations became feeble, and were more slowly per- formed; loss of sensibility and of the power of voluntary motion supervened, till the only remaining visible action was a slight one of the diaphragm, occurring at distant intervals. On opening the body, the blood (both venous and arterial) was found to be of a bright scarlet hue; it was thin, and rapidly coagulated. The gas in which animals had thus been confined till they died, retained its power of rekindling a blown-out taper, and of sustaining, for a time, the life of another anim.il introduced into it; and Mr. Broughton hence deduced the inference that it does not contain so great an excess of carbonic acid as the gas left when animals have perished by confinement in atmospheric air, and he considered the train of symptoms induced by the respiration of pure oxygen gas as analogous to those 216 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. which follow the absorption of certain poisons into the system. (London Medi- cal Gazette, vol. iii. p. 775.) Injected into the pleura, oxygen gas is very quickly absorbed, without producing inflammation. Cautiously injected into the veins of dogs, it has no sensible effect on the system. (Nysten, Kccherchcs de Phy- siologic, p. 60. Paris, 1811.) y. On Man.—If pure oxygen be inspired a few times it does not produce any remarkable phenomena; though some have ascribed various effects to it, such as agreeable lightness in the chest, exhilaration, increased frequency of pulse, a sen- sation of warmth in the chest, gentle perspiration, and an inflammatory state of the system. But several of these results arise probably from mental influence, others from the mode of inhaling the gas, and perhaps some might depend on the employment of impure oxygen. Uses.—Soon after the discovery of oxygen, the most exaggerated notions pre- vailed as to the remedial powers of this agent. Various diseases (scorbutus, for example) were thought to be dependent on a deficiency of it in the system; and it was, in consequence, submitted to a considerable number of trials, with, as it was at first asserted, remarkable success. But Chaptal (Annates de Chimie, t. iv. p. 21.) and Fourcroy (Ibid. t. iv. p. 83.) declared that it was injurious in phthisis. In England it was tried by Beddoes1 and Hill.3 The latter states that he found it beneficial in asthma, debility, ulcers, gangrene, white swelling, and scrofulous diseases of the bones. The beneficial results obtained by the use of acids, (especially nitric acid,) of the oxides of mercury, chlorate of potash, vege- table food, &c, were referred to the oxygen which these substances contained, and which they were supposed to communicate to the system. These notions are now exploded.3 In asphyxia arising from a deficiency of atmospheric air, or from breathing noxious vapours, the inhalation of oxygen gas has been said to be, and probably is, useful. On the same principle, it may be employed during an attack of spas- modic asthma, when there is danger of suffocation; but it is at best only a pallia- tive, and has no power of preventing the occurrence of other attacks. Chaussier4 has recommended its use in children apparently still born; I have known it used without benefit. To combat the asphyxia of malignant cholera, inhalations of oxygen were tried in Russia, Poland, Prussia, and France, but without success. (Merat and De Lens, op. supra cit. t. v. p. 141.) On the whole, then, I believe oxygen to be almost useless as a remedy.5 AQUA OXYGENII. Oxygen Water.—At the mean pressure and temperature of the atmosphere, 100 vols, of water dissolve, according to Dalton and Henry," 3-7 vols, of oxygen gas; according to Saussure,7 6*5 vols. By pressure in a proper machine, water may be charged with a much larger quantity. This solu- tion has been termed oxygenated water, but is a very different substance to the peroxide of hydrogen, which has also been known by this appellation. Neither is it to be confounded with Searle's oxygenous aerated water, which is an aque- ous solution of the protoxide of nitrogen. It has been used to the extent of one or two bottlefuls daily, as a slight excitant. It is said to increase the appetite and promote the secretions; and to be serviceable in spasm of the stomach, ame- norrhcea, hysteria, atonic dropsy, &c. 1 Considerations on the Medical Use of Factitious Airs, and on the Manner of obtaining them in laree Quanti- ties. By T..Beddoes and James Watt Bristol, 1794-05. a Practical Observations on the Use of Oxygen, or Vital Air, in the Cure of Diseases. Lond. 1P00. a For farther details respecting these opinions, see the Dictionnaire Unicersel de Matiere Medicale et de Therapeutique General, par P. V. Merat and K. J. Ue Lens, I. v. p. 130. « Histoire et Memoires de la Soeieti Royale de Medecine, 1TKI-HI; Hist. p. 34(1 s It is remarkable that Electricity and Oxygen, two agent.-; of vast influence in nature, should possecs but slight remedial power. v e Elements of Experimental Chemistry, vol. i. p. -2.55, 10th edit. London, 1*20. , ibid. CHLORINE. 217 Order II.—CHLORINE, AND ITS COMBINATIONS WITH OXYGEN. CHLORIN'IUM.-CtlLORINE. History, Synonymes, and Etymology.—This gas was discovered by Scheele in 1774, who termed it dephlogisticated muriatic acid. Berthollet^ in 1785, named it oxygenated muriatic acid. Sir H. Davy called it chlorine (from ;r;A»fo«-, green.) on account of its colour. Natural History.—It is found in both kingdoms of nature. <*. In the Inorganized Kingdom it exists principally in combination with sodium, either dissolved in the water of the ocean or forming deposites of rock salt. Chlorine also occurs in combination with magnesium, calcium, lead, silver, &c. Free hydro- chloric acid is met with in the nfighbourhood of volcanoes, and is probably produced by the decomposition of some chloride. /3. In the Organized Kinodom it is found, in combination, in both animals and vege- tables. Sprengel (De Candolle, Physiol. Vtg. torn. i. p. 220.) says, maritime plants ex- hale chlorine, principally during the night. Hydrochloric acid in the free state, exists, according to Dr. Prout, in the stomach of animals during the process of digestion. Preparation.—There are several methods of procuring chlorine gas:— 1. By adding Diluted Sulphuric Acid to a mixture of Common Salt and Binoxide of Manganese.—This is the cheapest and most usual method of pre- paring it. Mix intimately three parts of dried common salt with one part of the binoxide of manganese, and introduce the mixture into a retort. Then add as much sulphuric acid, previously mixed with its own weight of water, as will form a mixture of the consistence of cream. (Brande directs 8 salt, 3 manga- nese, 4 water, and 5 acid;—Thenard, l£ salt, 1 manganese, 2 acid, and 2 water; —Graham; 8 salt, 6 manganese, and dilute acid as much as contains 13 parts of oil of vitriol.) On the application of a gentle heat, the gas is copiously evolved, and may be collected over either warm or cold water.1 In this process two equivalents or 80 parts of sulphuric acid react on one equi- valent or 44 parts of the binoxide, and on one equivalent or 60 parts of chloride of sodium, and yield one equivalent or 36 parts of chlorine, one equivalent or 76 parts of the sulphate of the protoxide of manganese, and one equivalent or 72 parts of the sulphate of soda. MATERIALS. leq. Chloride Sodium. 60 COMPOSITION. 1 eq. Chlorine............36 1 eq. Sodium..............24' 1 eq. Binoxide Manganese 44 2 eq. Sulphuric Acid.....80 184 1 > 1 eq. Soda 32 1 eq. Oxygen............. 8 J leq Protoxide Mang.....36- 1 eq. Sulphuric Acid.....40- 1 eq. Sulphuric Acid.....40- PRODUCTS. -1 eq. Chlorine*.......... 36 I eq. Sulphate Soda . leq. Protosulphate Manganese.... .76 184 2. By heating a mixture of equal weights of common Hydrochloric Acid and Binoxide of Manganese in a glass retort over a lamp. In this process two equivalents or 71 parts of hydrochloric acid react on one equivalent or 44 parts of the binoxide, and yield one equivalent or 36 parts of chlorine, two equivalents or 18 parts of water, and one equivalent or 64 parts of protochloride of manganese. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. f 1 eq Chlorine 36- 2 eq. Hydrochl. Acid.... 74 I 1 eq. Chlorine 36- (2 eq. Hydrog. 2- !2 eq. Oxygen 16 1 eq. Mangan. 28 118 118 PRODCCT3. ■1 eq. Chlorine......... .36 ■" 2 eq. Water..................IS 1 eq. Protochlo. Mang.........64 for further information respecting the commercial mode of preparing chlorine, see Hypochlorite of Lime. Vol. I.—28 218 ELEMENTS Of MATERIA ME01CA. 3. By the action of Hydrochloric Acid on Chloride ^Hypochlorite] of Lime— This method may be resorted to when binoxide of manganese cannot be pro- cured. The products of the reaction of the ingredients are, chlorine, water, and chloride of calcium. Properties.—Chlorine, at ordinary temperatures and pressures, is a gaseous substance, having a yellowish-green colour, a pungent, suffocating odour, and an astringent taste. 100 cubic inches weigh, according to Dr. Thomson, 77-8615 grs.; and its sp. gr., therefore, is 2-5 [2-47, Berzelius.] Its equiva- lent by weight is 36 (See Mr. Phillip's experiments in the Philoso- phical Transactions, for 1839.) [35-47 Berz.; 35-42 Turner] by volume 1; hydrogen being unity. It is not combustible, but is a sup- porter of combustion. Phosphorus and powdered antimony take fire spontaneously when introduced into it; and a taper burns in it, with the evolution of a red light and much smoke. When water is present it destroys vegetable colours, organic odours, and infectious matters. By a pressure of 4 atmospheres, at the temperature of 60° F., chlorine is a yellow liquid, having a sp. gr. of 1-33 (water being 1*). Characteristics.—The colour, odour, and bleaching property of chlorine readily distinguish it from other gases. It forms a white, curdy precipitate (chloride of silver) with the nitrate of silver: this precipitate blackens by exposure to light, from the escape of a little chlorine, and the formation of a subchloride of silver; (Wetzlar, in Landgrebe's Versuch uber das Licht, p. 53, 1834.) is insoluble in nitric acid, cold or boiling; readily dissolves in liquid ammonia; when heated in a glass tube fuses, and, on cooling, concretes into a gray, semi-transparent mass (horn silver, or luna cornea;) and, lastly, when heated with Potash, it yields metallic silver, and a chloride of potassium. An aqueous solution of chlorine dissolves leaf-gold. The soluble chlorides react, as free chlorine, on the solu- tion of nitrate of silver. They evolve hydrochloric acid (which also reacts on a solution of silver) when heated with liquid sulphuric acid. If a watery solution of a chloride, coloured blue by sulphate of indigo, be submitted to the action of a galvanic battery, the chlorine is evolved at the anode or positive pole, and de- stroys the colour of the sulphate of indigo in its immediate neighbourhood. The chlorates when heated evolve oxygen, and are converted into chlorides. When mixed with strong sulphuric acid they become orange-red, and give out chlorous acid. They do not precipitate the salts of silver. The hyper chlorates evolve oxygen, and are converted into chlorides when heated. They do not become red, or give out chlorous acid by the action of sul- phuric acid. The soluble hyperchlorates precipitate the salts of potash. Physiological Effects, a.. On Vegetables.—The germination of seeds has been said to be promoted by watering them with a weak solution of chlorine; (De Candolle, Physiologie Vegetale, t. ii. p. 632.) but the statement is, proba- bly, erroneous. /3. On Animals generally.—Nysten (Recherches, p. 140.) injected a small quantity of chlorine gas into the jugular vein of a dog, and the only effect was howling. A larger quantity occasioned difficult respiration, apparently great agony, and death in three minutes. The body was opened four minutes after- wards: the blood was fluid and venous in the auricles and ventricles, which con- tained neither gas nor coagula. On another occasion he threw this gas into the pleura, and thereby produced inflammation of this membrane, and death. From these experiments, Nysten (Op. cit. p. 143.) concludes that it is a local irritant, but has no specific effect on any part of the system. y. On Man.—Chlorine gas acts as a local irritant. Mr. Wallace,1 tells us, that diluted with air, or aqueous vapour, of 116° F., and applied to the skin, it pro- duces peculiar sensations, similar to those caused by the bite or sting of insects: this effect is accompanied with copious perspiration, and a determination of blood i Researches respecting the Medical Powers of Chlorine, particularly in Diseases of the Liver. Lond. 182-'. 1 eq Chlorine = 36 CHLORINE. 219 to the skin, sometimes attended with an eruption of minute papulae, or even ve- sicles. Applied to the skin in a pure form, its action is similar, but more ener- getic. If an attempt be made to inspire undiluted chlorine gas, it produces spasm of the glottis. If the gas be mixed with air, it enters into the bronchial ramifica- tions, causes a sensation of tightness and suffocation, and violent cough. Twice I have suffered most severely from the accidental inhalation of it; and each time it gave me the sensation of constriction of the air-tubes, such as might be pro- duced by a spasmodic condition of the muscular fibres of the bronchial tubes. The attack usually goes off in increased secretion from the mucous membrane. When diluted with a large quantity of air, chlorine may be inhaled without ex- citing cough: it occasions a sensation of warmth in the respiratory passages, and promotes expectoration. The irritating effects of chlorine are less powerful on those accustomed to in- hale it; as I have repeatedly seen in patients who were using the gas, and which is also proved by the following statement, made by Dr. Christison:—(Treatise on Poisons, p. 736.) " I have been told (says he,) by a chemical manufacturer at Belfast, that his workmen can work with impunity in an atmosphere of chlo- rine, where he himself could not remain above a few minutes." The constitutional or remote effect caused by inhalations of chlorine, is in- creased frequency of the pulse and of respiration. But this effect may be in part owing to the augmented muscular efforts of the patient. Mr. Wallace states, that the application of chlorine to the skin also occasions soreness of the mouth, fauces, and oesophagus, increased vascularity, and even minute ulcerations of these parts, and an alteration in the quantity and quality of the salivary and biliary secretions. He thinks that it has a tranquillizing, and at the same time exciting, power, with respect to the nervous system. It would appear, from the observations of Professor Albers, (British and Foreign Med. Review, vol. iv. p. 212.) that, though the topical action of chlorine is stimulating, yet the remote action is antiphlogistic; for it diminished the frequency of the pulse, calmed ex- citement, and produced effects which may be termed antiphlogistic. Dr. Chris- tison tells us, that at the Belfast manufactory above alluded to, the chief conse- quences of exposure to an atmosphere of chlorine, are acidity and other stomach complaints, which the men generally correct by taking chalk. Absorption of fat is also an effect observed in the manufactories at Glasgow, Manchester, and Bel- fast.1 When applied to the skin or bronchial membrane, chlorine gas, probably, be- comes absorbed; for Mr. Wallace found that the urine acquired bleaching pro- perties under its use. Uses.—«. As a fumigating agent, disinfectant, and antiseptic, chlorine, I believe, stands unrivalled. Halle, in 1785, appears to have been the first person who employed it as a disinfectant; but we are greatly indebted to Guyton-Mor- veau for the zeal and energy he manifested in his attempts to introduce it into use. For destroying miasmata, noxious effluvia, and putrid odours, it is the most powerful agent known: and is, therefore, well adapted for disinfecting pri- sons, ships, hospitals, dissecting-rooms, and all other places, the air of which re- quires purification. The best method of fumigating a large building is that adopted by Dr. Faraday, at the General Penitentiary at Milbank. (Quarterly Journal of Science and the Arts, vol. xviii. p. 92.) One part of common salt was intimately mixed with one part of the black or binoxide of manganese; then placed in a shallow earthen pan, and two parts of oil of vitriol, previously diluted with two parts by measure of water, poured over it, and the whole stirred with a stick. Chlorine continued to be liberated from this mixture for four days. i An Experimental Easay on the relative Physiological and Medicinal Properties of Iodine and its Compounds By P. Cog8well, ABM D. Edinb. 1K17, p. («. 220 ELEMENTS OP MATERIA MEDICA. The quantities of the ingredients consumed were 700 lbs. of common salt, 700 lbs. of binoxide of manganese, and 1400 lbs. of sulphuric acid. The disinfecting power of chlorine is supposed to depend on its affinity for hydrogen, by which it effects the decomposition of water or aqueous vapour, with the hydrogen of which it unites, while the nascent oxygen oxidizes the organic matter: or it may act merely by abstracting hydrogen from the putrid miasmata. Chlorine fumi- gations should be plentifully employed on board of ships off the Western coast of Africa, to prevent the deleterious effects of the miasm, which, according to Professor Daniell, is sulphuretted hydrogen.1 p. As an antidote in poisoning by hydrocyanic acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, ' or hydrosulphate of ammonia, chlorine gas is a very valuable agent. I believe, however, that chloride of lime will be found a more convenient, safe, and oppor- tune substance. The beneficial influence of chlorine in the treatment of animals asphyxiated by sulphuretted hydrogen, doubtless arises in part at least from its chemical properties; for when mixed with sulphuretted hydrogen, it forms chlo- ride of sulphur and hydrochloric acid. The best method of applying the remedy is to diffuse a little chlorine in the air, and then to effect artificial respiration. y. Inhaled in chronic pulmonary diseases it is sometimes a useful remedy. I have carefully watched its effects in phthisis and chronic bronchitis; and the re- sult of my observation is, that chlorine is rarely serviceable. Frequently, after the first and second inhalations, the patients fancy their breathing much relieved, but the amendment is seldom permanent. I need hardly say it has no preten- sions to the cure of tubercular phthisis; but it may be useful as a palliative (some- times diminishing the sweating;) and I can readily believe that occasionally in ulceration of the lungs it may be, as Albers (British and Foreign Medical Re- view, vol. iv. p. 212.) declares it is, of essential service. This would agree with the effects observed, in surgical practice, of solutions of chlorine and of the hypo- chlorites on old ulcers. I have before described the mode of administering the gas. (Seep. 159.) Either the aqueous solution of chlorine, or a small portion ofthe chloride of lime, may be placed into the inhaling bottle: if the latter be not sufficiently strong, a few drops of muriatic acid are to be added, to develope free chlorine. eJ. In diseases of the liver, not attended with active inflammation, Mr. Wal- lace has successfully employed gaseous chlorine, either in the pure state or diluted with air or aqueous vapour. The benefit of chlorine in these cases has been con- firmed by others. The temperature of the bath, and the time the patient ought to remain in it, will vary in different instances; but Mr. Wallace thinks, that, in the greater number, 150° F. will be found to answer best, and the proper time about half an hour. The benefit obtained is in part referrible to the heat em- ployed, in part to the irritant effect of the chlorine on the skin, and (according to Mr. Wallace,) in part to the specific influence of chlorine on the liver. (For a sketch of the apparatus used, see Lancet, vol. i. for 1831-32, p. 859.) Ziese, an apothecary at Altona, has also employed chlorine baths in these cases with advantage. Antidotes.—The inhalation of ammoniacal gas, ofthe vapour of warm water, of the spirit of wine, or of ether, has been recommended, to relieve the effects of chlorine. I tried them all when suffering myself, but without the least apparent benefit. In a case related by Kastner, and which is reported in Wibmer's work, (Die Wirkung der Arzneim, it. Gifte. 2er Bd. S. 109. Muncheu, 1832.) sul- phuretted hydrogen gave great relief. If this agent be employed, it must be done cautiously, as it is itself a powerful poison. AQUA CHLORINII, Ph. Dub. Chlorinei Aqua, Ph. Ed.—Solutio Chlorinii; Chlorine Water; Aqua Oxymuriutica; Liquor Chlori; Liquid Oxymuriatic Acid.—This is readily prepared by passing chlorine gas (prepared as above di- i See p. 83.—Also Land Edinb. and Dub. Philosophical Magazine, for July 1841; and Lond. Med. Qui. for July 16th and 23d, 1811. CHLORINE. 221 rected) through water placed in a Woulfe's bottle. The gas may be generated in a clean Florence flask, to which a curved tube is adapted by means of a cork. The receiving vessel holding the water, may be, in the absence of a double- necked bottle, a six- or eight-ounce phial; or a wide-mouthed bottle closed by a cork having two perforations, through one of which passes a glass tube open at the top, and dipping into the water beneath; while through the other passes the end of the tube conveying the gas from the flask into the water. In the Dublin Pharmacopoeia the proportions of ingredients used are, Dried Muriate of Soda, 100 parts; Oxide of Manganese, 30 parts; Sulphuric Acid, 87 parts; Water, 124 parts. The gas is to be gradually evolved from this mixture, contained in a retort, and transmitted through 200 parts of Distilled Water. In the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia the process is somewhat different. Muriate of Soda, 60 grs., and Red Oxide of Lead, 350 grs., are to be triturated together; then put into f Jyiij.of Water, contained in a bottle with a glass stopper; afterwards the Acid added, and the mixture agitated until all the Red Oxide becomes white. The insoluble matter is to be allowed to subside before using the liquid. In this process, Chlorine and Sulphate of Soda are formed in solution, and White Sulphate ofthe Protoxide of Lead is precipitated. The sodium ofthe common salt is oxidized by the nascent oxygen evolved by the red lead, in consequence of the action of the sulphuric acid on it. This process has been contrived to obviate the neces- sity of having to pass the gas through water, the apparatus for which operation might not be at hand. In the Pharmacopoeia Nosocomii Middlesexensis, Lond. 1841, is the following formula for a solution of chlorine:—fy. Potassae Chloratis ^ij. Acidi Hydrochlorici, Aquce destillatte, aa. f^ij. Misce. g*. Hujus Solutionis f^iij. Aquae destillatoe f^xij. Misce.—This solution contains besides chlorine, some chloride of potassium. Properties.—At the temperature of 60° F. and when the mercury in the baro- meter is standing at 30 inches, water takes up about twice its bulk of chlorine gas (Gay-Lussac.) The solution has a greenish yellow colour, the strong and peculiar odour of the gas, and an astringent taste. Its sp. gr. is T003. It bleaches vegetable colours—as tincture of litmus, turmeric, &c. By exposure to light, the water is decomposed, the oxygen is evolved, while the hydrogen unites with the chlorine to form muriatic acid. Hence, the solution should be kept in bottles excluded from the light. Prepared according to the Edinburgh Pharma- copoeia, the liquid holds in solution a little sulphate of soda, and deposites a white insoluble sulphate of lead. Characteristics.—Its odour, its action on a solution of nitrate of silver (as be- fore described for chlorine gas,) its power of dissolving leaf-gold, and its bleach- ing properties, readily distinguish this solution. It destroys the blue colour of iodide of starch and of sulphate of indigo. A piece of silver plunged into it is immediately blackened. Physiological Effects.—In a concentrated form, the aqueous solution of chlorine acts as a corrosive poison. Somewhat diluted it ceases to be a caustic, but is a powerful local irritant. Administered in proper doses, and sufficiently diluted, it operates as a tonic and stimulant. The continued use of it causes salivation. Applied to dead organic matter it operates as an antiseptic and disin- fectant. Usks.—Chlorine water has been employed in medicine both as an external and internal remedy. *. Externally.—It has been used, in the concentrated form, as a caustic ap- plication to wounds caused by rabid animals; diluted, it has been employed as a wash in skin diseases (itch and porrigo;) as a gargle in putrid sore-throat; as a local bath in liver diseases; and as an application to cancerous and other ulcers attended with a fetid discharge. In the latter cases I have repeatedly employed it with advantage, though I give the preference to a solution of the chloride [hypo- chlorite] of soda. /3. Internally.—It has been administered in those diseases denominated putrid; for example, in the worst forms of typhus, in scarlet fever, and in malignant 222 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. sore throat. It has also been employed in venereal maladies, and in diseases of the liver. Dose.—The dose of this solution varies with the degree of concentration. I have frequently allowed patients to drink, ad libitum, water, to which some of this solution has been added. If made according to the directions of the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, the dose is from one to two drachms, properly diluted. Antidotes.—According to Devergie, (Medecine Legale, t. ii. p. 634. Paris, 1836.) the antidote for poisoning by a solution of chlorine is albumen. The white of egg, mixed with water or milk (the caseum of which is as effective as the albumen of the egg,) is to be given in large quantities. The compound, which albumen forms with chlorine, has little or no action on the animal econo- my, and may be readily expelled from the stomach. In the absence of eggs or milk, flour might be exhibited; or, if this cannot be procured, magnesia or chalk. The gastro-enteritic symptoms are, of course, to be combated in the usual way. COMPOUNDS OF CHLORIDE AND OXYGEN. None of these are used in medicine. The concentrated aqueous solutions of all of them are oxidizing agents, and act on the organic tissues as caustics. Their remote effects are proba- bly similar to the acids generally and chlorine. Hypochlorous (CI. -f- O) and Chlorous (CI. -f- 40) Acids are bleaching agents: to the first, the substances called Chloride of Lime and Chloride of Soda owe their disinfecting properties. Chloric Acid (CI. -f- 50) has great ana- logy with nitric acid; combined with potash it constitutes Chlorate of Potash. Perchloric Acid (CI. -L- 70) is an excellent test for potash. Order III.—IODINE, AND ITS COMBINATIONS WITH OXYGEN AND CHLORINE. • IODIN'IUM, L. D.—IODINE. (Iodineum, E.) (Iodinum, U. S.) General History.—Iodine was discovered in 1811 by M. Courtois, a salt- petre manufacturer at Paris. It was first described by Clement in 1813, but was afterwards more fully investigated by Davy and Gay-Lussac. It was named iodine, from /#<$V, violet-coloured; on account of the colour of its vapour. Natural History.—It exists in both kingdoms of nature.1 a. In the inorganized kingdom.—Vauquelin met with iodide of silver in a mineral brought from Mexico, and Mentzel found Iodine in an ore of zinc which contained cadmium. It has also been met with in an ore of lead. (Journ. de Pharmacie, torn, xxiii. for 1837, p. 29.) It is said to have been found in coals. (Lond. and Edinb. Philosoph. Mag. for Nov. 1839.) In sea-water it has likewise been discovered, where it probably exists as an iodide of sodium or of magnesium. Many mineral waters contain it. It was detected by Mr. Copeland (Edin- burgh New Philosophical Journal, vol. i. p. 159.) in the carbonated chalybeate of Bonnington. About one grain of iodine was found by Dr. Daubeny (Phil. Trans. 1830, Part 2, p. 223.) in ten gallons of the water of Robin's Well at Leamington, in Warwickshire. In the old well at Cheltenham the quantity was not more than one grain in sixty gallons. In a brine-spring at Nantwich, in Cheshire, there was about a grain of iodine in twelve gallons. In the sul- phurous water of Castel Nuovo d'Asti, iodine was discovered by Cantu. In some ofthe mine- ral waters of Germany, Bavaria, and South America, it has also been detected.* Fuchs found it in the rock-sait ofthe Tyrol. (Gmelin, Handbuch der Chemie, Bd. i. S. 350.) 0. In the organized kingdom.—Of Animals containing iodine I may mention the genera Spongia, Gorgonia, Doris, Fenus, &c.: likewise Sepia, the envelopes of the eggs of which contain it. An insect has been found near Ascoli, in Italy, which Savi has described under the name of Julus fastidissimus, containing iodine. The animal emits, when disturbed, a i Since the publication ofthe first edition of this work, I have met with S. E. Sarphati's Commentatio it lodto Lugduni. 1835, which contains the most extensive list of natural bodies containing iodine, of any work with which I am acquainted. 6 ' ' »Gairdner, Essay on the^atural History, Origin, Composition, and Medicinal Effects of Mineral and Tker- mal Springs, p. 27, Edinb. 1832. iodine. 223 yellow fluid strongly smelling of iodine, and which immediately strikes the characteristic violet colour with starch.• Recently iodine has been detected in the oil of the cod's liver. (Journ. de Pharmacie, torn, xxiii. p. 501.) A very considerable number of Vegetables, partt- cularly those belonging to the family Algae, yield it. The following are some instances : Fucus vesiculosus, F. serratus, and F. nodosus ; (fig. 47, a, b, c.) Laminana sacchanna, and L. digi lata (fig. 47, d ;) Halidrys siliquosa ; Chorda Filum; Gelidium cartilageneum; Haly- Fig. 47. a. Fucus vesiculosus. b. F. nodosus. c. F. serratus. d. Laminaria digitata. seris polypodioides ; Phyllophora rubens; Rhodomenia palmata ; Ulva Linza ; Porphyra urn- bilicalis; Padina Pavoaia ; Gigartina Helminthocorton, and some ofthe marine Conferva. "The following table drawn up by Mr. Whitelaw, a manufacturer in Glasgow, from his own experiments, shows the proportion of iodine contained in some ofthe most common Alg» on our sea coasts:— Ratios of Iodine. Laminaria digitata............. 100 Laminaria bulbosa............. 65 Laminaria saccharina.......... 35 Ratios of Iodine. Fucus serratus.................. 20 Fucus bulbosus................. 15 " The quantities of chloride of potassium in those Algse follow nearly the same ratio." (Thomson, Organic Chemistry, p. 946.) Professor Graham states that, according to Mr. Whitelaw, the long elastic stems of the Rhodomenia palmata afford most ofthe iodine con- tained in kelp. It has been found in several species of phoBnogamous plants, as Zostera marina, and, more recently, in two growing in Mexico ; namely, a species of Agave, and one of Salzola. (Jour- nal de Pharmacie, t. xxiii. p. 31.) Preparation.—British Iodine is exclusively manufactured at Glasgow, from the Kelp of the west coast of Ireland and the western islands of Scotland. The kelp is broken into pieces and lixiviated in water, to which it yields about half its weight of salts. The solution is concentrated by evaporation, and thereby deposites soda salts (common salt, carbonate and sulphate of soda,) and on cool- ing also lets fall crystals of chloride of potassium. The mother liquor (called iodine ley) is dense, dark-coloured, and contains the iodine, in the form, it is believed, of iodide of sodium. Sulphuric acid is added, to render the liquor sour, by which carbonic acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, and sulphurous acid gases are evolved, and sulphur is deposited. The workmen set fire to the sulphuretted hydrogen as it escapes, to obviate its bad effects. The acid ley is then intro- duced into a leaden still, and heated to 140° F., when binoxide of manganese is added. A leaden head, having two stoppers, is then adapted and luted with pipeclay, and to the neck of the head is fitted a series of spherical glass con- densers, each having two mouths opposite to each other, and inserted the one into the other. Iodine is evolved, and is collected in the condensers. The pro- ' Dulk, Die Preussische Pharmakopbe, Bd. i. S. 583. Leipzig, 1829; and British and Foreitrn Medical Review for January, 183H, p. 163. 224 ELEMENTS of materia medica. cess is watched by occasionally removing the stopper, and additions of sulphuric acid or manganese are made, if deemed necessary.1 Theory of the Process.—The following is the mutual reaction of sulphuric acid, binoxide of manganese, and iodide of sodium:-two equivalents or 80 parts of sulphuric acid, react on one equivalent or 44 parts of binoxide of manganese and on one equivalent or 150 parts of iodide of sodium; and yield one equivalent or 126 parts of iodine, one equivalent or 72 parts of sulphate of soda, and one equivalent or 76 parts ofthe sulphate ofthe protoxide of manganese. PRODUCTS. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. 1 eq. Iodine........ 126-----------------1 eq. Iodine................ 128 1 eq. Soda 32 1 eq. Iodide of Sodium 150 j x £ Sadium....... 24' __ . , ., .. ( 1 eq. Oxygen....... 8J "\ 1 eq. Binoxide Mangan. 44 j \ ea. Protox. Mang. 36^ , , c. . i • a„j ai\—~™^se~—_............J:\leq.SulphateSoda........ 72 c , >_ • a j on S 1 eq. Sulphuric Acid 40 —«™^^ H K 2eq. Sulphuric Acid.. 80 j l ^ Sulphuric Acid 40____________^==>»1 eq. Protosulphte Mang.... 76 274 274 274 The evolution of iodine in the preceding process may be also accounted for in another way. By the mutual reaction of sulphuric acid, binoxide of manganese and a chloride (as of sodium or potassium,) there is set free chlorine. This reacting on iodide of sodium, would liberate iodine, and form chloride of sodium. Or, the hydriodicacid set free from a solution of iodide of sodium by sulphuric acid, may be decomposed by the nascent chlorine. Properties.—Iodine is a crystallizable solid, its primary form being a rhombic octohedron. (Buchner's Repcrtorium filr die Pharmacie, 2te Reiter, Band. xx. S. 43. Niirnberg, 1815.) It is usually met with in micaceous, soft, friable scales, having a grayish black colour, a metallic lustre, an acrid hot taste, and a disagreeable odour somewhat similar to that of chlorine. It fuses at about 225° F., and at 347° is volatilized, though the vapour rises along with that of water at 212°. Iodine vapour is of a beautiful violet colour, and a great specific gravity; namely, 8-716, according to Dumas. Iodine requires 7000 times its weight of water to dissolve it, but alcohol and ether are much better solvents for it. Its atomic weight is about 126 [126-57, Berze- lius; 126-3, Turner;] its atomic volume is 1. Characteristics.—In a free state iodine is distinguished from most other bodies by the violet colour of its vapour, and by its forming a blue compound (iodide of starch) with starch. So delicate is this test, that, according to Stromeyer, water which does not contain more than one four-hundred-and-fifty thousandth of its weight of iodine, acquires a perceptibly blue tinge on the addition of starch. This blue colour is destroyed by heat, and, therefore, in testing for iodine the liquids employed should be cold: an excess of alkali also destroys it by forming two salts, an iodate and an iodide, but by supersaturating with acid the colour is restored. Iodine as well as the mineral acids (sulphuric, nitric, and hydrochloric) produce a blue colour with narceine (See Opium.) When iodine is in combination with oxygen, starch will not recognise it. For example, if a little starch be added to a solution of iodic acid, no change of colour is observed; but if Borne deoxidating substance be now employed (such as sulphurous acid or morphia) the blue colour is immediately produced. The iodates give out oxygen when heated, and are con- verted into iodides. They deflagrate when thrown on red-hot coals. The soluble iodates produce, with a solution of the nitrate of silver, a white precipitate (iodate of silver) soluble in ammonia. If the iodine be combined with a base (as with potassium, or sodium) forming an iodide, chlorine or sulphuric or nitric acid must be employed to unite with the base; and the iodine being then set free, will react on the starch. This is the mode of proceeding to detect iodine in the urine of a patient; for the mere addition of starch will not suffice. Ni- tric or sulph'iric acid or chlorine must be employed to remove the base with which the iodine is combined. Excess of chlorine will unite with the disengaged iodine. i For farther details, consult Graham's Elements of Chemistry, vol. i. p. 384.—See also Dr. Thomson, in the Athenmum, for 1840, p. 772. IODINE. 225 The soluble iodides produce, with a solution of nitrate of silver, a yellowish precipitate (iodide of silver) very slightly soluble only in ammonia. They precipitate the salts of lead yellow, (iodide of lead,) and bichloride of mercury scarlet (biniodide of mercury.) Adulteration.—The iodine of commerce is always adulterated with variable proportions of water. An ounce, if very moist, may contain a drachm, or per- haps even a drachm and a half, of water. This fiaud is detected by compressing the iodine between folds of blotting-paper. In this moist state it is " unfit for making pharmaceutic preparations of fixed and uniform strength," and the Edin- burgh College gives the following directions for purifying it:— "It must be dried by being placed in a shallow basin of earthenware in a small confined space of air, with ten or twelve times its weight of fresh-burnt lime, till it scarcely adheres to the inside of a dry bottle." Various other substances, such as coal, plumbago, binoxide of manganese, sand, and charcoal, are also said to have been employed for the purpose of adul- terating iodine; but in no samples of iodine which I have examined, have I ever found any of these substances. Pure iodine is completely soluble in alcohol, and evaporates, when heated, without leaving any residuum. Any matter insoluble in alcohol, or even vaporizable by heat, is an adulteration. The Edinburgh College gives the following criteria of its goodness:— "Entirely vaporizable: thirty-nine grains, with nine grains of quicklime and Ihrce ounces of water, when heated short of ebullition, slowly form a perfect solution, which is yellowish or brownish, if the iodine be pure, but colourless if there be above two per cent, of water or other impurity." Physiological Effects, a. On Vegetables.—Cantu states that seeds placed in pure sand and moistened with a solution of iodine, germinate more readily than seeds sown in the usual way. Vogel, however, asserts that iodine, so far from promoting, actually checks or stops germination. (De Candolle, Physiologie Vegetate, torn. 3ine, p. 1337. 0. On Animals generally.—On horses, dogs, and rabbits, it operates as an irritant and caustic poison, though not of a very energetic kind. Magendie threw a drachm of the tincture of iodine into the veins of a dog without causing any obvious effects. (Formulaire.) Dr. Cogswell has repeated this experiment: the animal was slightly affected only. (Experimental Essay on Iodine, p. 31, 1837.) The last mentioned writer found that two drachms of the tincture caused death. But something must be ascribed to the alcohol employed. Orfila (Toxi- cologic generate.) applied 72 grains of solid iodine to a wound on the back of a dog: local inflammation, but no other inconvenience, resulted. One or two drachms administered by the stomach caused vomiting, and when this was pre- vented by tying the ossophagus, ulceration of the alimentary canal and death took place. Mr. Dick (Cogswell's Essay, p. 24.) gave iodine, in very large doses, to a horse for three weeks, but the only symptom which could be referred to its influence was an unusual disregard for water. The average daily allowance was two drachms, administered in quantities ascending from a drachm up to two ounces. Dr. Cogswell (op. cit. p. 60.) gave 73 grains of iodine to a dog in nine days. Five days after the cessation of the iodine the dog was killed: the urine contained a highly appreciable quantity of iodine—and a trace, and but a trace, of iodine was found in the blood, brain, and stomach. y. On Man.—The local action of iodine is that of an irritant. Applied to the skin it stains the cuticle orange-yellow, causes itching, redness, and desquama- tion. If the vapour of it, mixed with air, be inhaled, it excites cough and heat in the air-passages. On a secreting surface its alcoholic solution acts as a desic- cant. Swallowed in large doses it irritates the stomach, as will be presently mentioned. The effects produced by the internal administration of iodine are those of a liquefacient and resolvent. (Seep. 194.) They maybe considered under the Vol. I.—29 226 elements of materia medica. two heads, of those arising from the use of small,—and those produced by large doses. eta. In small, medicinal doses, we sometimes obtain the palliation, or even the removal of disease, without any perceptible alteration in the functions of the body. Thus, in a case of chronic mammary tumour which fell under my obser- vation, iodine was taken daily for twelve months, without giving rise to any per- ceptible functional change, except that the patient was unusually thin during this period. Sometimes it increases the appetite, an effect noticed both by Coindet (Bibliolh. Univers. torn. xiv. Sciences et Arts.) and by Lugol, (Essays, trans- lated by Dr. O'Shaughnessy.) from which circumstance it has been denominated a tonic. But the long-continued use of it, in large doses, has, occasionally, brought on a slow or chronic kind of gastro-enteritis; an effect which I believe to be rare, and only met when the remedy has been incautiously administered. In irritable subjects, and those disposed to dyspepsia, it occasions nausea, sick- ness, heat of stomach, and loss of appetite, especially after its use has been con- tinued for some days: the bowels are oftentimes slightly relaxed, or at least they are not usually constipated. More than one-third of the patients treated by Lugol experienced a purgative effect; and when the dejections were numerous, colics were pretty frequent. (Op. cit. p. 20.) Gendrin (Diet, de Mat. Med. t. 3me, p. 628.) and Manson, (Medical Researches on Iodine.) however, observed a constipating effect from the use of iodine. The action of iodine on the organs of secretion is, for the most part, that of a stimulant; that is, the quantity of fluid secreted is usually increased, though this effect is not constantly observed, J erg (Material zu einer Arzniemittell. Leip- sic, 1824.) and his friends, found, in their experiments on themselves, that small doses of iodine increased the secretion of nasal mucus, of saliva, and of urine, and they inferred that the similar effect was produced on the gastric, pancreatic, and biliary secretions. "Iodine," says Lugol, (Essays, p. 19.) "is a powerful diuretic. All the patients using it have informed me that they pass urine copi- ously." Coindet, however, expressly says that it does not increase the quantity of urine. In some cases, in which I carefully watched its results, I did not find any diuretic effect. Iodine frequently acts as an emmenagogue. Coindet, Sab- lairoles, (Journ. generate de Med. torn. 97.) Brera, (Quoted by Bayle in his Bibliotheque de Therapeutique, torn. i. p. 129.) Magendie, (Formulaire.) and many others, agree on this point; but Dr. Manson (Medical Researches on the Effects of Iodine. London, 1825.) does not believe that it possesses any em- menagogue powers, farther than as a stimulant and tonic to the whole body. In one patient it occasioned so much sickness and disorder of stomach, that the menstrual discharge was suppressed altogether. On several occasions iodine has caused salivation and soreness of mouth. In the cases noticed by Lugol, the patients were males. In the Medical Gazette, vol. xvii. for 1836, two instances are mentioned, one by Mr. Winslow, (p. 401.) the other by Dr. Ely (p. 480.) Other cases are referred to in Dr. Cogswell's work. This effect, however, I believe to be rare. De Carro (quoted by Bayle) (Op. cit. p. 50.) denies that iodine causes salivation, but says it augments expectoration. Lastly, diaphoresis is sometimes promoted by iodine. ^ Two most remarkable effects which have been produced by iodine are, absorp- tion ofthe mammae and wasting of the testicles. Of the first of these, (absorp- tion of the mammae,) three cases are reported in Hvft land's Journal, (Bayle, op. cit. p. 162.) one of which may be here mentioned. A healthy girl, twenty years of age, took the tincture of iodine during a period of six months, for a bronchocele, of which she became cured; but the breasts were observed to diminish in size, and notwithstanding she ceased to take the remedy, the wasting continued, so that at the end of two years not a vestige of the mammae remained. Sometimes the breasts waste, though the bronchocele is undiminished: Reichenau (Christi- son, p. 180.) relates the case of a female, aged twenty-six, whose breasts began IODINE. 227 to sink after she had employed iodine for four months, and within four weeks they almost wholly disappeared; yet her goitre remained unaffected. With regard to the other effect (wasting of the testicle) I suspect it to be very rare. I have seen iodine administered in some hundreds of cases, and never met with one in which atrophy either of the breast or testicle occurred. Magendie also never saw these effects, though they are frequent in Switzerland. A disordered condition of the cerebro-spinal system has in several instances been caused by iodine. Thus, slight headach and giddiness are not unfrequently brought on. Lugol tells us that, by the use of ioduretted baths, headach, drow- siness, intoxication, and even stupor, are produced. Analogous symptoms were observed in some of Dr. Manson's cases; and in one there were convulsive move- ments. A specific effect on the skin is sometimes produced by iodine, besides the dia- phoresis before alluded to. Thus Dr. C. Vogel (Rust, Magazin, Bd. 14, p. 156.) gives an account of a lady, twenty-eight years of age, of a yellow com- plexion, who, from the internal employment of the tincture of iodine, became suddenly brown, besides suffering with other morbid symptoms. After some days the skin had the appearance of having been smoked! Mr. Stedman (Lon- don Medical Gazette, vol. xv. p. 447.) says that in some scrofulous patients it improves the condition of the hair and scalp. Red hair is said to have assumed a chesnut-brown colour under the long-continued internal use of iodine. (Clau- zel, Revue Medicale, Nov. 1834, p. 30.) The rapid emaciation said to have been occasionally produced by iodine, as well as the beneficial influence of this substance in scrofulous diseases, and the disappearance of visceral and glandular enlargements under its use, have given rise to an opinion that iodine stimulates the lymphatic vessels and glands. (See p. 191.) Manson, however, thinks that it exerts no peculiar or specific influence over the absorbent system, which only participates in the general effects pro- duced on the whole body. And Lugol asserts, that instead of producing ema- ciation, it encourages growth and increase of size. There can be no doubt that the continued use of iodine must have some effect over the general nutrition of the body, and by modifying the actions previously performed by the various organs and systems, it may at one time cause the em- bonpoint described by Lugol, and at another may have the reverse effect: in one case it may promote the activity of the absorbents, and occasion the removal of tumours of considerable size, in another check ulceration (a process which Mr. Key, in the 19th vol. of the Mcdico-Chirurgical Transactions, denies to be one of absorption, but considers to be one of degeneration or disorganization) and cause the healing of ulcers. Some have ascribed to iodine an aphrodisiac operation. Kolley, (Journ. Complein. torn. xvii. p. 307.) a physician at Breslau, who took it for a broncho- cele, says it had the reverse effect on him. In some instances, the continued use of iodine has given rise to a disordered state of system, which has been designated iodism. The symptoms (termed by Dr. Coindet, iodic) are violent vomiting and purging, with fever; great thirst; palpitation; rapid and extreme emaciation; cramps, and small and frequent pulse, occasionally with dry cough; and terminating in death. This condition, how- ever, must be a very rare occurrence; for it is now hardly ever met with, not- withstanding the frequency and the freedom with which iodine is employed. But it has been noticed by Coindet, (Op. cit.) Gardner, (Essay on the Use of Iodine.) Zink, (Journ. Complem. torn, xviii. p. 126.) Jahn, (Quoted by Christi- son, p. 181.) and others. The daily experience of almost every practitioner proves, that the dangers resulting from the use of iodine have been much exag- gerated, and we can hardly help suspecting that many symptoms, which have been ascribed to the injurious operation of this remedy, ought to have been re- fetred to other causes; occasionally, perhaps, thev depended on gastro-enteritis. 228 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDINA. In some cases, the remarkable activity of iodine may have arisen from some idio- syncrasy on the part of the patient. * Dr. Coindet attributes the iodic symptoms to the saturation of the system with iodine—an explanation, to a certain extent, borne out by the results of an experiment made by Dr. Cogswell, and which I have before mentioned: I allude, now, to the detection of iodine in the tissues of an animal five days after he had ceased taking this substance. /3/3. In very large doses iodine has acted as an irritant poison. In a fatal in- stance, recorded by Zink, (Journ. Complem. torn, xviii.) the symptoms were restlessness, burning heat, palpitations, very frequent pulse, violent priapism, copious diarrhcea, excessive thirst, trembling, emaciation, and occasional syn- cope. The patient died after six weeks' illness. On another occasion, this physician had the opportunity of examining the body after death. In some parts the bowels were highly inflamed; in others they exhibited an approach to spha- celation. The liver was very large, and of a pale rose colour. Such cases, however, are very rare. In many instances, which might be re- ferred to, enormous quantities of iodine have been taken with very slight effects only, or perhaps with no marks of gastric irritation. Thus, Dr. Kennedy, (Dr. Cogswell's Essay.) of Glasgow, exhibited within eighty days, 953 grains of iodine in the form of tincture: the daily dose was at first two grains, but ultimately amounted to eighteen grains. The health of the girl appeared to be unaffected by it. It should here be mentioned, that the presence of bread, potatoes, sago, arrow-root, tapioca, or other amylaceous matters, in the stomach, will much diminish the local action of iodine, by forming an iodide of starch, which, as will hereafter be mentioned, is a very mild preparation. (See the experiments of Dr. Buchanan, presently to be noticed.) Modus Operandi.—That iodine becomes absorbed, when employed either externally or internally, we have indisputable evidence, by its detection, not only in the blood, but in the secretions. Cantu (Journ. de Chimie Med.) has disco- vered it in the urine, sweat, saliva, milk, and blood. In all cases it is found in the state of iodide, or hydriodate; from which circumstance he concludes that its influence on the body is chemical, and consists in the abstraction of hydrogen. Bennerscheidt (Ibid. torn. iv. p. 383.) examined the serum of the blood of a pa- tient who had employed for some time iodine ointment; but he could not detect any trace of iodine in it. In the crassamentum, however, he obtained evidence of its existence, by the blue tint communicated to starch. It may be readily detected in the urine of patients who have been using iodine, by adding a cold solution of starch and a few drops of nitric acid, when the blue iodide of starch is produced. Uses.—As a remedial agent iodine is principally valuable for its resolvent in- fluence in chronic visceral and glandular enlargements, indurations, thickening of membranes (as of the periosteum,) and in tumours. In comparing its thera- peutical power with that of mercury, we observe in the first place that it is not adapted for febrile and acute inflammatory complaints, in several of which mer- cury proves a most valuable agent. Indeed the existence of inflammatory fever is a contra-indication for the employment of iodine. Secondly, iodine is espe- cially adapted for scrofulous,—mercury for syphilitic, maladies; and it is well known that in the former class of diseases mercurials are for the most part inju- rious. Thirdly, the influence of iodine over the secreting organs is much less constant and powerful than that of mercury;—so that in retention or suppression of the secretions, mercury is for the most part greatly superior to iodine. Fourthly, iodine evinces a specific influence over the diseases of certain organs (e. g.the thyroid body,) which mercury does not.—These are some only of the peculiarities which distinguish the therapeutical action of iodine from that of mercury. «. In bronchocele.—Of all the remedies yet proposed for bronchocele, this has been by far the most successful. Indeed, judging only from the numerous cases IODINE. 229 cured by it, and which have been published, we should almost infer that it was a sovereign remedy. However, of those who have written on the use of iodine in this complaint, some only have published a numerical list of their successful and unsuccessful cases. Bavle (Bibliotheque de Therapeutique, torn. I", p. 391 ) has given a summary of those published by Coster, Irmenger, Baup, and Manson, from which it appears, that of 364 cases treated by iodine, 274 were cured. Dr. Copland (Diet, of Pract. Med.) observes that, of several cases of the disease which have come before him since the introduction of this remedy into practice, " there has not been one which has not either been cured or remarkably relieved by it." I much regret, however, that my own experience does not accord with this statement. I have several times seen iodine, given in conjunc- tion with iodide of potassium, fail in curing bronchocele; and I know others whose experience has been similar. Dr. Bardsley (Hospital Facts and Obser- vations, p. 121.) cured only nine, and relieved six, out of thirty cases, with iodide of potassium. To what circumstance, then, ought we to attribute this variable result? Dr. Copland thinks that, where it fails, it has been given " in too large and irritating doses, or in an improper form; and without due attention having been paid to certain morbid and constitutional relations of the disease during the treatment." But, in two or three of the instances before mentioned, I believe the failure did not arise from any ofthe circumstances alluded to by Dr. Copland, and I am disposed to refer it to some peculiar condition of the tumour, or of the constitu- tion. When we consider that the terms bronchocele, goitre, and Derbyshire neck, are applied to very different conditions of the thyroid gland, and that the causes which produce them are involved in great obscurity, and may, therefore, be, and indeed probably are, as diversified as the conditions they give rise to, we can easily imagine, that while iodine is serviceable in some, it may be useless, or even injurious, in others. Sometimes the bronchocele consists in hypertrophy of the substance of the thyroid gland,—that is, this organ is enlarged, but has a healthy structure. In others, the tumefaction of the gland has taken place sud- denly, and may even disappear as suddenly; from which it has been inferred, that the enlargement depends on an accumulation of blood in the vessels, and an effusion of serum into its tissue. Coindet mentions a goitre which was deve- loped excessively during the first pregnancy of a young female: twelve hours after her accouchement it had entirely disappeared. The same author also re- lates the circumstance of a regiment composed of young recruits, who were almost every man attacked with considerable enlargement of the thyroid gland, shortly after their arrival at Geneva, where they all drank water out of the same pump. On their quarters being changed the gland soon regained its natural size in every instance. A third class of bronchoceles consists in an enlargement of the thyroid gland from the development, of certain fluid or solid substances in its interior, and which may be contained in cells, or be infiltrated through its sub- stance. These accidental productions may be serous, honey-like, gelatinous, fibrous, cartilaginous, or osseous. Lastly, at times the enlarged gland has ac- quired a scirrhous condition. Now it is impossible that all these different con- ditions can be cured with equal facility by iodine; those having solid deposites are, of course, most difficult to get rid of. Kolley, who was himself cured of a large goitre of ten years' standing, says, that for the iodine to be useful, the bronchocele should not be of too long stand- ing, nor painful to the touch; the swelling confined to the thyroid gland, and not of a scirrhous or carcinomatous nature, nor containing any stony or other analo- gous concretions; and that the general health be not disordered by any febrile or inflammatory symptoms, or any gastric, hepatic, or intestinal irritation. If the swelling be tender to the touch, and have other marks of inflammation, let the usual local antiphlogistic measures precede the employment of iodine. When this agent is employed we may administer it both externally and internally. 230 LLEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. The most effectual method of employing iodine externally is that called endermic, already described; namely, to apply an ioduretted ointment (usually containing iodide of potassium) to the cutis vera, the epidermis being previously removed by a blister. But the epidermic, or iatroleptic method, is more usually followed —-that is, the ioduretted ointment is rubbed into the affected part, without the epidermis being previously removed, or the undiluted tincture is repeatedly ap- plied to the part by a camel's-haii pencil, while iodine is at the same time admi- nistered internally. With respect to the internal use of this substance, some think that the success depends on the use of small doses largely diluted; while others consider that as large a quantity of the remedy should be administered as the stomach and gene- ral system can bear. /3. Scrofula is another disease for which iodine has been extensively used. Dr. Coindet was, I believe, the first to direct public attention to this remedy in the disease in question. Subsequently, Baup, Gimelle, Kolley, Sablairoles, Benaben, Callaway, and others, published cases illustrative of its beneficial effects. (See Bayle's Bibliotheque de Therap. torn, i.) Dr. Manson (Op. cit.) deserves the credit of having first tried it on an extensive scale. He treated up- wards of eighty cases of scrofula and scrofulous ophthalmia by the internal exhi- bition of iodine, sometimes combined with its external employment; and in a large proportion of cases, where the use of the medicine was persevered in, the disease was either cured or ameliorated, the general health being also improved. Three memoirs on the effects of iodine in scrofula have been subsequently published by Lugol, physician to the Hospital St. Louis, serving to confirm the opinions already entertained of its efficacy. From the first memoir it appears, that in seventeen months—namely, from August 1827, to December 1828—109 scrofulous patients were treated by iodine only; and that of these 36 were com- pletely cured, and 30 relieved; in 4 cases the treatment was ineffectual, and 39 cases were under treatment at the time of the report made by Serres, Magendie, and Dumeril, to the Academie Royale des Sciences. In his illustrative cases we find glandular swellings, scrofulous ophthalmia, abscesses, ulcers, and diseases of the bones, were beneficially treated by it. Lugol employs iodine internally and externally: for internal administration, he prefers iodine dissolved in water by means of iodide of potassium, given either in the form of drops, or largely diluted, under the form of what he calls ioduretted mineral water, hereafter to be described. His external treatment is of two kinds; one for the purpose of ob- taining local effects only, the other for procuring constitutional or general effects. His local external treatment consists in employing ointments or solutions of iodine: the ointments are made either with iodine and iodide of potassium, or with the protiodide of mercury; the solutions are of iodine and iodide of potas- sium in water; and according to their strength are denominated caustic, rubefa- cient, or stimulant: the rubefacient solution is employed in making cataplasms and local baths. His external general treatment consists in the employment of ioduretted baths. In the treatment of cutaneous scrofula I have seen the most beneficial results from the application of the tincture of iodine by means of a camel's-hair pencil. It dries up tlie discharge and promotes cicatrization. The successful results obtained by Lugol in the treatment of this disease can- not, I think, in many instances, be referred to iodine solely. Many ofthe pa- tients were kept several months (some as much as a year) under treatment in the hospital, where every attention was paid to the improvement of their general health by warm clothing, good diet, the use of vapour and sulphureous bath3 &c; means which of themselves are sufficient to ameliorate, if not cure, many of the scrofulous conditions before alluded to. Whether it be to the absence of these supplementary means of diet and regimen, or to some other cause, I know not, but most practitioners will, I think, admit, that they cannot obtain, by the use of iodine, the same successful results which Lugol is said to have met with, IODINE. 231 though in a large number of cases this agent has been found a most useful remedy. y. Iodine has been eminently successful when employed as a resolvent in chronic diseases of various organs, especially those accompanied with indura- tion and enlargement. By some inexplicable influence, it sometimes not only puts a stop to the farther progress of disease, but apparently restores the part to its normal state. It is usually given with the view of exciting the action of the absorbents, but its influence is not limited to this set of vessels: it exercises a controlling and modifying influence over the blood-vessels of the affected part, and is in the true sense of the word an alterative. (See some remarks on the operation of resolvents at p. 194.) In chronic inflammation, induration, and enlargement of the liver, alter anti- phlogistic measures have been adopted, the two most important and probable means of relief are iodine and mercury, which may be used either separately or conjointly. If the disease admit of a cure, these are the agents most likely to effect it. Iodine, indeed, has been supposed to possess some specific power of influencing the liver, not only from its efficacy in alleviating or curing certain diseases of this organ, but also from the effects of an over-dose. In one case, pain and induration of the liver were brought on;—and in another, which termi- nated fatally, this organ was found to be enlarged, and of a pale rose colour. (Christison, Treatise on Poisons, pp. 180-1.) Several cases of enlarged spleens relieved, or cured, by iodine have been pub- lished. In chronic diseases of the uterus, accompanied with induration and enlarge- ment, iodine has been most successfully employed. In 1828, a remarkable in- stance was published by Dr. Thetford. (Trans, of the King and Queen's College of Phys. Ireland, vol. v.) The uterus was of osseous hardness, and of so considerable a size as nearly to fill the whole of the pelvis: yet in six weeks the disease had given way to the use of iodine, and the catamenia were restored. In the Guy's Hospital Reports, N° I. 1836, is an account, by Dr. Ashwell, of seven cases of " hard tumours" of the uterus successfully treated by the use of iodine, in conjunction with occasional depletion, and regulated and mild diet. Besides the internal use of iodine, this substance was employed in the form of ointment (composed of iodine gr. xv. iodide potassium 3ij. spermaceti oint. 3iss.,) of which a portion (about the size of a nutmeg) was introduced into the vagina, and rubbed into the affected cervix for ten or twelve minutes every night. It may be applied by the finger, or by a camel's-hair pencil, or sponge mounted on a slender piece of cane. The average time in which resolution of the indura- tion is accomplished varies, according to Dr. Ashwell, from eight to sixteen weeks. " In hard tumours of the walls or cavity of the uterus, resolution, or disappearance, is scarcely to be expected;" but "hard tumours of the cervix, and indurated puckerings of the edges of the os (conditions which most frequently terminate in ulceration) may be melted down and cured by the iodine." (Op. cit. pp. 152-3.) In ovarian tumours iodine has been found serviceable.1 In the chronic mam- mary tumour, described by Sir A. Cooper, I have seen it give great relief—alle- viating pain, and keeping the disease in check. In indurated enlargements of the parotid, prostate, and lymphatic glands, several successful cases of its use have been published. £ As an emmenagogue iodine has been recommended by Coindet, Brera, Sablairoles, Magendie, and others. The last-mentioned writer tells us that on one occasion he gave it to a young lady, whose propriety of conduct he had no reason to doubt, and that she miscarried after using it for three weeks. I have i For sonn' rvmark*, by Sir B. Krodie, on Hie use of iodine in morbid growths, see Dr. Seymour's Illustra- tions of some of the Principal Diseases of the Ovaria. Lond. 1830.—AUo, London Medical Oaiette, vol. v. p. 750. .232 ILEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. known it given for a bronchocele during pregnancy without having the least ob- vious influence over the uterus. e. In gonorrhoea and leucorrhoea it has been employed with success after the inflammatory symptoms have subsided. £. Inhalation of" iodine vapour has been used in phthisis and chronic bron- chitis. In the first of these diseases it has been recommended by Berton, Sir James Murray, and Sir Charles Scudamore. I have repeatedly tried it in this as well as in other chronic pulmonary complaints, but never with the least benefit. The apparatus for inhaling it has been already desciibed (see p. 159.) The liquid employed is a solution of ioduretted iodide of potassium, to which Sir C. Scudamore adds the tincture of conium. (London Medical Gazette, vol. viii. p. 157.) v. Chronic diseases of the nervous system, such as paralysis and chorea, have been successfully treated by iodine, by Dr. Manson. 6. In some forms of the venereal disease, iodine has been found a most ser- viceable remedy. Thus Richond (quoted by Bayle Op. cit.) employed it, after the usual antiphlogistic measures, to remove buboes. De Salle cured chronic venereal affections of the testicles with it. Mr. Mayo (London Medical Gazette, vol. xi. p. 249.) has pointed out its efficacy in certain disorders which are the consequences of syphilis, such as emaciation of the frame, with ulcers of the skin; ulcerated throat; and inflammation of the bones or periosteum,—occurring in patients to whom mercury has been given. /. In checking or controlling the ulcerative process, iodine is, according to Mr. Key, (Medico- Chirurg. Trans, vol. xix.) one ofthe most powerful remedies we possess. " The most active phagedenic ulcers, that threaten the destruction of parts, are often found to yield in a surprising manner to the influence of this medicine, and to put on a healthy granulating appearance." x. Besides the diseases already mentioned, there are many others in which iodine has been used with considerable advantage: for example—chronic skin diseases, as lepra, psoriasis, &c; (Cogswell, Essay, p. 81.)—dropsies; (Ibid.) in old non-united fractures, to promote the deposition of ossific matter; (London Medical Gazette, vol. vi. p. 512, 1830.) and in chronic rheumatism; but, in the latter disease, iodide of potassium is more frequently employed. As an antidote. in poisoning by strychnia, brucia, and veratria, iodine has been recommended by M. Donne, (Journ. de Chim. Med. torn. v. p. 494.) because the compound formed by the union of these alkalis with iodine is less active than the alkalis themselves; as an injection for the cure of hydrocele, Velpeau (London Medical Gazette, vol. xx. p. 90.) has employed a mixture of the tincture of iodine with water, in the proportion of from one to two drachms of the tincture to an ounce of water: of this mixture from one to four ounces are to be injected and imme- diately withdrawn; lastly, to check mercurial salivation iodine has been success- fully used. (London Medical Gazette, vol. xiii. p. 32; and vol. xx. p. 144.) A. As a topical remedy iodine is exceedingly valuable in several classes of diseases. Mr. Davies, (Selections in Pathology and Surgery. Lond. 1839.) of Hertford, has drawn the attention of the profession to its employment in this way, and pointed out the great benefit attending it. In most cases the tincture is the preparation employed. The part affected is painted with this liquid by means of a camel's-hair pencil. In some few cases only, where the skin is very delicate, will it be necessary to dilute the preparation. When it is required to remove the stain which its use gives rise to, a poultice or gruel should be applied. In lupus it proves highly beneficial. My attention was first drawn to its efficacy in this disease by my colleague, Mr. Luke. Under its employment the process of ulceration is generally stopped, and cicatrization takes place. The tincture should be applied not only to the ulcerated portion, but to the parts around. In eczema it also is an excellent application. In cutaneous scrofula likewise, as I have already remarked. In several other cutaneous diseases, such as lichen, IODINE. 233 prurigo, pityriasis, psoriasis, impetigo, porrigo, ecthyma, and scabies, Dr. Kennedy (London Medical Gazette, vol. xxvi. [May 8, 1840] p. 260.) has found its use beneficial. According to the testimony of Mr. Davies and an anonymous writer, (London Medical Gazette, vol. xxv. [March 20, 1840] p. 943.) it is a valuable application to chilblains. In the treatment of diseases of the joints it is used with great advantage. In erysipelas, I have seen it highly beneficial. In phlegmonous inflammation, sloughing of the cellular membrane, inflammation of the absorbents, gout, carbuncle, whitlow, lacerated, contused, and punctured wounds, and burns and scalds, it is most highly spoken of by Mr. Davies. Its topical uses are, therefoie, nearly as extensive as those of nitrate of silver. Moreover, it is used very much in the same classes of cases, and with the same views. Administration.—Iodine is rarely administered alone, but generally in con- junction with iodide of potassium, to the account of which substance I must refer for formulae for the combined exhibition of these substances. In the administration of iodine, care should be taken to avoid gastric irritation. On this account we should avoid giving it on an empty stomach. Exhibited im- mediately after a meal, its topical action is considerably diminished. This is especially the case when amylaceous substances (as potatoes, bread-pudding, sago, tapioca, and arrow-root) have been taken, as the iodine forms with them an iodide of starch. Iodine has been given in the form of pills, in substance, in doses of about half a grain. But this mode of exhibition is objectionable, and is now never resorted to. 1. TINCTURA IODINII, D. Tinctura lodinei, E.—Tincture of Iodine. (Iodine £ij. Rect. Spirit 3j. [by weight.] D.—The Edinburgh College orders Iodine 3j. Rect. Spirit f3xyj.) [This formula has been adopted by the U. S. P.] Prin- cipally valuable as a topical remedy. For this purpose it is applied as a paint by a camel's hair pencil. It is also used, mixed with four or six parts of soap liniment, as an embrocation. For internal exhibition it is inferior to the Tinctura Iodinii cornposita, L. hereafter to be mentioned. In the first place, by keeping, part ofthe iodine is deposited in a crystalline form, so that the strength is apt to vary; secondly, it undergoes decomposition, especially when exposed to solar light; the iodine abstracts hydrogen from the spirit, and forms hydriodic acid, which, acting on some spirit, forms a little hydriodic ether. These are not the only objections: when added to water, the iodine is deposited in a solid state, and may thus irritate the stomach. The dose of it is TTLv. to f3ss. Each drachm of the Dublin tincture contains five grains of iodine. The best mode of exhi- biting it, to cover its flavour, is sherry wine. Where this is inadmissible, sugared water may be employed. 2. [LKHOll IODINI COMPOSITUS, U. S.—Take of Iodine six drachms, Iodide of Po- tassium an ounce and a half, Distilled Water a pint; dissolve the iodine and iodide of potassium in the water. The dose is 20 drops. This preparation, adopted by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, closely approaches that of Lugol, given as the " Concentrated Solution of Iodine in Iodide of Potassium, (See article Iodide of Potassium,) and varies only from the " Liquor Potassii Iodidi Compositus L." in strength.] 3. IODIDUM AMU; Iodide of Starch.—The following is Dr. Buchanan's (Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xviii. p. 515.) formula for preparing this substance:— " Rub 24 grs. of iodine with a little water, and gradually add one ounce of finely- powdered starch: dry by a gentle heat, and preserve the powder in a well-stop- pered vessel." In persons not labouring under any dyspeptic ailment or consti- tutional delicacy of habit, Dr. Buchanan commences with half an ounce for a dose, and increases this to an ounce three times a day,—equivalent to about 72 grains of iodine daily. It frequently caused costiveness, attended with griping pains of the bowels and pale-coloured evacuations. Sometimes, though rarely, Vol. I.—30 234 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. it produced purging. The dose is 3ss. gradually and cautiously increased. I have found the colour of this preparation objected to by patients. 4. UNGUENTDI IODINII, D.; Iodine Ointment. (Iodine, 9j.; Prepared Hog's Lard, 3j.) - [Iodine twenty grains, Alcohol twenty minims, Lard an ounce. Rub the Iodine first with the Alcohol and then with the Lard, until they are tho- roughly mixed.—U. S.] This ointment has a rich orange-brown colour; but by keeping it becomes pale on the surface, and hence should always be made when wanted. It is employed as a local application to scrofulous tumous, bronchocele, &c. If it prove too irritating, the quantity of lard should be augmented. Antidotes.—In the event of poisoning by iodine, or its tincture, the first object is to evacuate the poison from the stomach. For this purpose, the vomitings are to be assisted by the copious use of tepid demulcent liquids—especially by those containing amylaceous matter; as starch, wheaten flour, sago, or arrow-root, which should be boiled in water, and exhibited freely. The efficacy of these agents depends on their combining with the iodine, to form iodide of starch, which has very little local action. In their absence, other demulcents, such as milk, eggs beat up with water, or even tepid water merely, may be given to promote vomiting. Magnesia is also recommended. Opiates have been found useful. Of course the gastro-enteritis must be combated by the usual means. COMPOUNDS OF IODINE WITH OXYGEN AND CHLORINE. None of these are employed in medicine. Iodic Acid (I -f- O5) is used as a test for Mor. phia and Sulphurous Acid, both of which substances deoxidize iodic acid, and set iodine free. 1. Order IV.—BROMINE, AND ITS COMBINATIONS WITH OXYGEN, CHLORINE, AND IODINE. BROMIN'IUM, L.—BROMINE. (Brominum U. S. Secondary List.) History and Etymology.—This substance was discovered by M. Balard, of Montpellier, in 1826. He at first termed it muride, (from muria, brine,) in allusion to the substance from whence he procured it; but, at the suggestion of Gay-Lussac, he altered this name to that of brome, or bromine, (from /3f*/*«f, a stench, or fetor,) on account of its unpleasant odour. Natural History.—It is found in both kingdoms of nature, but never in the free state. a. In the Inorganized Kingdom.—Hollander detected it in an ore of zinc, and Cochler recognised it in Silesian cadmium. (Gmelin, Handbuch der Chemie.) It exists in sea water and many mineral waters, in combination with either magnesium or sodium, or sometimea with both. Thus it has been found in the waters of the Medilerranean, the Baltic, the North Sea, the Frith of Forth, the Dead Sea, many of the brine springs of Europe and America, (as those of Middlewich, Nantwich, Ashby-dela-Zouch, and Shirleywich, in England,) and in many other mineral springs of Europe and America (as the Pittville spring at Cheltenham, the water of Llandridnd and of Bonnington.) The saline springs near Kreuznach in Ger- many are especially rich in it. It has been justly observed by Dr. Daubeny, (Phil. Trans. 1830.) that the detection of bromine in brine-springs is a fact interesting in a geological point of view, as tending to identify the product of the ancient seas, in their most minute particu- lars, with those ofthe present ocean. 0. In the Organized Kingdom.—Bromine has been found in the sea-plants of the Mediter. ranean, and in the mother.waters of Kelp. It has likewise been detected in various marine animals. Thus in the Sea Sponge (Spongia officinalis,) in the stony concretion found in this animal, in the ashes ofthe Janthina violacea, one ofthe gasteropodous mollusca, and in cod's- liver oil. Preparation.—Bromine was formerly prepared by a complicated process, from bittern (the mother liquor of sea-water, from which chloride of sodium has been separated by crystallization.) It is now procured by a simpler method, from the mother-ley of the salt springs near Kreuznach, in Germany. From thirty pounds of the concentrated ley, Liebig obtained twenty ounces of bromine. Of these springs, that of Karshall contains, according to Dr. G. Osann,1 6-6025 » G. W. Schwartze'B Mlgemeine und spwie/7rHei/?ue«enfeA7«7~AbtTl7s. 224. Leipzig, 1639.----- BROMINE. 235 grs. of bromide of calcium, and 13672 grs. of bromide of magnesium, in sixteen ounces of the water. According to the same authority, 100 parts of the mother- ley of the Miinster-am-Stein spring contains 24-12 parts of bromide of calcium, and 0-48 parts of bromide of magnesium. Sixteen ounces of the mother-ley of the Theodorshall spring contain 338-72 grs. of bromide of calcium, and 92-82 grs. of bromide of magnesium. The process followed at Kreuznach, according to Dr. Mohr, (Annalen der Pharmacie, Band. xxii. S. 66. Heidelberg, 1837.) is that recommended by Desfosses, (Journal de Chimie Medicale, t. iii. p. 256. 1827.) but modified by Lowig. (Das Bron und seine chemischen Verhdltnisse. Heidelberg, 1829.) To about four quarts of the mother-ley contained in a retort, are added one ounce of binoxide of manganese, and five or six ounces of commercial hydrochloric acid. On the application ofthe heat of a sand-bath, water and brome pass over into the receivei. When all the brome has passed over, the vapour is observed to be colourless, and to consist of aqueous vapour and hydrochloric acid. The following is the theory of the process:—Two equivalents or 74 parts of hydrochloric acfd react on one equivalent or 44 parts of binoxide of manganese, and yield one equivalent or 64 parts of protochloride of manganese, two equiva- lents or 18 parts of water, and one equivalent or 36 parts of chlorine: the latter, in its nascent state, reacts on one equivalent or 98 parts of bromide of calcium, and produces one equivalent or 56 parts of chloride of calcium, and one equiva- lent or 78 parts of free bromine. materials. composition. products. .. _ , . „ , ( I eq. Bromine.. 78---------------------------1 eq. Bromine 78 1 eq. Bromide Calcium---!)8 ' , * r„/rh,n, qii ) , ™ • «- ■ r~ M ( 1 eq Lataum .. z\i >________________________j eq ciilor. Cal. 56 r 1 eq. Chlorine.. 36 > 2cq. Hydrochloric Acid... 74 { 1 *? Chlorine.. [ 2 eq. Hydrogen. !2 tq. Oxygen... 1 eq Manganesi 216 216 The mixture of binoxide of manganese and hydrochloric acid is rendered too dilute by the mother-ley to produce, by their reaction, free chlorine, when no bromide is present with whose base it can combine. Hence, when all the brome has passed over, we find hydrochloric acid, and not chlorine, in the vapour which is passing over. Properties.—At ordinary temperatures bromine is a dark-coloured very vola- tile liquid, which, seen by reflected light, appears blackish red; but viewed in thin layers, by transmitted light, is hyacinth red. Its odour is strong and un- pleasant, its taste acrid. Its sp. gr. is 2966; water being 1. Its equivalent weight is 78 [78-39 Berzelius; 78-4 Turner;] by volume, in the gase- ous form 1. When exposed to a cold of—4° F. it is a yellowish brown, brittle crystalline solid. At ordinary temperatures liquid bro- mine evolves ruddy vapours, (similar to those of nitrous acid,) so that a few drops put into a small vessel immediately fills it with the vapour of bromine. At 116! F. bromine boils. The vapour is not combustible: a lighted taper plunged into it is immediately extinguished, but before the flame goes out it becomes red at the upper and green at the lower part. Antimony or arsenicum take fire when dropped into liquid bromine: when potassium or phos- phorus is dropped in, a violent explosion takes place. Bromine is a non-con- ductor of electricity: it is a bleaching agent: it dissolves very slightly only in water, more so in alcohol, and much more so in sulphuric ether. It communi- cates a fine orange colour to starch. Characteristics.—Liquid bromine is recognised by its colour, odour, volatility, and the colour of its vapour. To these characters must be added its powerful 236 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. action on antimony, arsenicum, and potassium, before mentioned, its dissolving in ether, forming a hyacinth red liquid, and the orange colour which it commu- nicates to starch. It causes a yellowish white precipitate (bromide of silver) writh a solution of the nitrate of silver. In its external appearance it resembles the terchloride of chromium and the chloride of iodine. I have known it con- founded with tincture of iodine. The soluble bromides cause white precipitates with the nitrate of silver, ace- tate of lead, and protonitrate of mercury. The precipitates are bromides of the respective metals. Bromide of silver is yellowish white, clotty, insoluble, or nearly so, in boiling nitric acid, and in a weak solution of ammonia, (by which it is distinguished from chloride of silver,) but dissolves in a concentrated solution of this alkali. Heated with sulphuric acid it evolves vapours of bromine. If a few drops of a solution of chlorine be added to a solution of a bromide, and then a little sulphuric ether, we obtain an ethereal solution of bromine of a hyacinth red colour, which floats on the water. The bromales when heated evolve oxygen, and become bromides. The bro- mates cause white precipitates (metallic bromales) with the nitrate of silver and the protosalts of mercury. Bromate of silver is not soluble in nitric acid, but dissolves readily in solution of ammonia. If a few drops of hydrochloric acid be added to a bromate, and then some ether, a yellow or red ethereal solution of bromine is obtained. Physiological Effects a. On Vegetables.—I am unacquainted with any ex- periments made with bromine on plants. /3. On Animals generally.—The action of bromine on animals has been ex- amined by Franz,1 by Barthez, by Butzke,3 and by Dieffenbach.3 The animals experimented on were leeches, fishes, birds, horses, rabbits, and dogs. But, notwithstanding the numerous experiments which have been performed, nothing satisfactory has been made out with respect to its mode of operation, beyond the fact of its being a local irritant and caustic, and, therefore, when swallowed, giving rise to gastro-enteritis. Injected into the jugular vein it coagulates the blood, and causes immediate death, preceded by tetanic convulsions. No posi- tive inferences can be drawn as to the specific influence of bromine on any organs of the body. Some of the symptoms (such as dilated pupil, insensibility, and convulsions) would seem to indicate a specific affection of the brain. Franz frequently observed inflammation of the liver. y. On Man.—Bromine stains the cuticle yellowish brown, and, by continued application, acts as an irritant. Its vapour is very irritating when inhaled, or applied to the mucous lining of the nose, or to the conjunctiva. Franz, by breath- ing the vapour, had violent cough, and a feeling of suffocation, followed by head- ach. Butzke swallowed a drop and a half of bromine in half an ounce of water, and experienced heat in the mouth, oesophagus, and stomach, followed by colicy pains. Two drops occasioned nausea, hiccup, and increased secretion of mucus. The constitutional effects resulting from the continued use of bromine have not been determined. They are probably analogous to those of iodine. Hitherto no cases of poisoning with it in the human subject have been seen. Uses.—It seems to possess the same therapeutic influence as iodine, and has been administered in bronchocele, in scrofula, in tumours, in amenorrhoea, and against hypertrophy of the ventricles. It is usually regarded as possessing more activity than iodine. Administration. It may be administered dissolved in water. An aqueous solution, composed of one part by weight of bromine and forty parts of water, may be given in doses of five or six drops properly diluted and flavoured with ' ^"°J;id by- Wibmer, Die Wirkung d. Arzneim. ler Bd. S. 433; also in Journ CHm. Med. t v p 540. a De Efficacia Bromt interna eiperimentis illustrata. Berol. 1829. » Christisun, On Poisons, p. 187. HYDROGEN. 237 syrup. This solution has also been used as an external agent in lotions. (For other formulae, see Bromide of Potassium.) Antidotes.—The treatment of cases of poisoning by bromine should be the same as for poisoning by iodine. Barthez has recommended magnesia as an antidote. COMPOUNDS OP BROMINE WITH OXYGEN, CHLORINE, AND IODINE. £ None of these have been employed in medicine ; nor have they hither^^-applied to any useful purposes in the arts. Order V -HYDROGEN, AND ITS COMPOUNDS WITH OXYGEN, CHLORINE, AND IODINE. 1. HYDROGEN'IUM.—HYDROGEN. History and Synonymes.—Cavendish may be considered as the real discoverer of hydrogen, though it must have been occasionally procured, and some of its properties known, previously. He termed it inflammable air. Lavoisier called it hydrogen (from v$up, water, and ytnxu, I beget or produce,) because it is the radicle or base of water. Natural History.—It is found in both kingdoms of nature, but always in combination. 1 eq. Oxide Zinc 40 1 eq. Zinc.................... 32 >------- __ I eq. Sulphuric Acid.......... 40 . r-»l eq Sulphate Zinc. 80 si ~81 It is remarkable that zinc alone does not decompose water, but sulphuric acid enables it to do so. Properties.—Hydrogen is *• colourless, tasteless, and, when pure, odourless gas. Its sp. gr. is 0-0694,—-$o that it is 14-4 times lighter than atmospheric air. 238 ELEMENTS op materia medica. Its refractive power is very high. It is combustible, burning in atmospheric air or oxygen gas with a pale flame, and forming water. It is not a sup- porter of combustion. It is a constituent of some powerful acids, as the hydrochloric, and of a strong base, ammonia. Its atomic weight or equivalent is 1. Its atomic volume is also 1. Characteristics.—It is recognised by its combustibility, the pale colour of ita flame, its not supporting combustion, and by its yielding when exploded with half its volume of oxygen, water only. Physiological •Effects.—*. On Vegetables.—Plants which are deprived of green or foliaceous parts, or which possess them in small quantity only, cannot vegetate in hydrogen gas: thus seeds will not germinate in this gas: but vegeta- bles which are abundantly provided with these parts vegetate for an indefinite time in hydrogen. (Saussure, Recherches Chem. sur la Veget. pp. 195 and 209.) Applied to the roots of plants in the form of gas, it is injurious, (Saussure, Recherches Chem. sur la Veget. p. 105 ) but an aqueous solution of it seems to be inert. (De Candolle, Physiol. Veget. t. iii. p. 1360.) It has been said that when plants are made to vegetate in the dark, their etoliation is much diminished if hydrogen ga3 be mixed with the air around them; and in proof of this Hum- boldt has mentioned several green plants found in the Freyberg mines. (Thom- son's Syst. of Chemistry, vol. iv. p. 347-8, 6th edit.) /3. On Animals generally.—Injected into the jugular vein of a dog hydrogen produces immediate death, probably from its mechanical effects in obstructing the circulation and respiration. (Nysten, Recherches, p. 10.) y. On Man.—It may be breathed several times without any injurious effects. Scheele made twenty inspirations without inconvenience. Pilatrede Rozier fre- quently repeated the same experiment, and to show that his lungs contained very little atmospheric air, he applied his mouth to a tube, blew out the gas, and fired it, so that he appeared to breathe flame. If much atmospheric air had been present detonation must have taken place in his lungs. (Beddoes, New Method of treating Pulmonary Consumption, p. 44.) If we speak while the chest is filled with hydrogen, a remarkable alteration is perceived in the tone ofthe voice, which becomes softer, shriller, and even squeaking. That this effect is, in part at least, if not wholly, physical, is shown by the fact that wind instruments (as the flute, pitchpipe, and organ) have their tones altered when played with this gas. The conclusion which has been drawn by several experimenters as to the effects of breathing hydrogen is, that this gas possesses no positively injurious properties, but acts merely by excluding oxygen. Uses.—*. In pulmonary consumption Dr. Beddoes recommended inhalations of a mixture of atmospheric air and hydrogen gas, on the ground that in this dis- ease the system was hyperoxygenized. The inhalation was continued for about fifteen minutes, and repeated several times in the day. (Op. supra cit) Ingen- housz fancied that it had a soothing effect when applied to wounds and ulcers. /3. In rheumatism and paralysis it has been used by Reuss as a resolvent. y. Aflame of hydrogen has been employed in Italy as a cautery, to stop caries of the teeth. (Did. Mat. Med. par Merat et De Lens.) 0s. Hydrogen water (an aqueous solution, prepared by artificial pressure) has been employed in diabetes. (Diet. Mat. Mid. par For farther details respecting the history of the discovery of the composition of water see Lord Brouo l-am-i memoir on the subject, in Jameson's Edinburgh JVeu, Philosophical Journal, vol! xxv'ii ' 240 ELEMENTS; OP MATERIA MEDICA. Composition.—The composition of water is determined both by analysis and synthesis. If this liquid be submitted to the influence of a galvanic battery, it is decomposed into two gases; namely, one vo- lume of oxygen, and two volumes of hydrogen. These gases, in the pioportions just mentioned, may be made to recombine, and form water, by heat, electricity, or spongy platinum. Ben. 8c Moms. Eq tVt. Per Cent. Dulong. Vol. Sp Or. Hydrogen .......1........1........11 11........J1-1 Hydrogen gas......1....,....................tl-0l>94 Oxycen.........1........8........83 88........889 Oxygen gas..........05......................0-5553 Water...........1........9........100-00.......100 0 Aqueous Vapour----1.........................06249 Physiological Effects.—Considered in a dietetical point of view the effects of water on the system have been already considered. (See p. 93.) Moreover, as an agent foi the communication or abstraction of heat to or from the body, it has been before noticed. (See Moist Heat, a. Aqueous Vapour, p. 51; b. Water, p. 55; Cold Water, p. 60.) Furthermore the influence of atmospheric humidity in modifying the character of climates has likewise been briefly referred to. (See p. 105.) Water moderately warm, and which neither cools nor heats the body, acts locally as an emollient, softening and relaxing the various tissues to which it is applied. When swallowed it allays thirst, becomes absorbed, mixes with, and thereby attenuates, the blood, and promotes exhalation and secretion, especially of the watery fluids. Administered in large quantities it excites vomiting. The continued excessive use of water has an enfeebling effect on the system, both by the relaxing influence on the alimentary canal and by the excessive secretion which it gives rise to. Injected into the veins in moderate quantities, tepid water has no injurious effects; it quickens the pulse and respiration, and increases secretion and exhala- tion. Large quantities check absorption, (See p. 130.) and cause difficulty of breathing and an apoplectic condition. Thrown with force into the carotid artery it kills by its mechanical effect on the brain. Uses.—Besides the dietetical and thermotic purposes for which water is em- ployed in medicine, and which have been already noticed, it serves as a diluent, humectant, emollient, evacuant, and, in pharmacy, as a solvent. Water or bland aqueous liquids are employed in some cases of poisoning. They serve to dilute the acrid and irritant poisons, the intensity of whose action on the stomach they lower. Moreover, the presence of aqueous fluids favours the expulsion of substances by vomiting. In preternatural dryness and rigidity of parts (e. g. of mucous surfaces, the skin, wounds, and ulcers,) water and mild aqueous fluids are useful moisteners and emollients. The copious use of water augments the quantity of fluid thrown out of the system by the cutaneous and pulmonic surfaces, and by the kidneys. If our ob- ject be to promote diaphoresis, external warmth should be conjoined with the internal use of diluents; whereas when we wish to excite the renal vessels the skin should be kept cool. In inflammatory affections of the urinary passages, we advise the free employment of aqueous fluids, with the view of diluting the urine, and thereby of rendering it less acrid and irritating. In Germany there are thirteen or fourteen establishments, formed within the last few years, for the cure of maladies by the use of water. This method of treatment is denominated Water-cure (Wassercur,) JVater-medicine (Wasserheil- kunst,) or Methodus Hydriatica. The following is a sketch of the regimen usually adopted at these establish- ments:— WATER. 241 At four, or half past four in the morning, perspiration is begun to be produced, which is done by wrapping the patients, like babies, in swaddling clothes, or like mummies, in large and thick blankets. Perspiration usually begins in an hour, and is kept up by makinor the patients drink several* glasses of cold water every half hour. In many cases, when the perspiration is at its height, pieces of cloth dipped in cold water, and previously well wrung, are dexterously introduced under the blankets, and applied to the most dis- eased parts; these parts, as well as the cloths, grow hot, the perspiration soon begins afresh, and causes a sensation of burning in the part. . At the end of three hours the blankets and bed are soaked with perspiration; the patients are then conducted into a neighbouring room, or to another story, where they take their cold b.ths; and in doing this, they often pass through draughts of air without being inconvenienced. Before plunging into the cold hath, they wash their head and chest; and after staying in it two or three minutes, the patients take a few cups of milk with a little bread, and then walk out upon the mountains which border on the establish- ment, and drink cold water at the numerous springs which they meet upon their mute. About nine or ten o'clock they take the douche, or else walk to the cascades which are in the forests or mountains, and expose themselves to the fall of the water that comes down from a height, and strikes the body with great force. Immediately after dressing, they again drink several glasses of water, and then walk in the open air. (London Me- dical (u/zelte, for Oct. 12, 1839, p. 111.) This mode of treatment is recommended for old and young, males and females, and is followed both in summer and winter. It is regarded as a kind of univer- sal remedy or panacea. Thus Oertel (Die allerneuesten Wasserkuren, 18 Hefte. Nurnberg, 1829-37.) says it is good for affections of the eyes, ears, and teeth, for insanity, epilepsy, hydrophobia, erysipelas, quinsy, bronchial phthisis, in- flammation of the brain, chest, or abdomen, faintings, diseases of the liver and spleen, gout, stomach complaints, acute eruptions, hemorrhages, alvine obstruc- tions, &c. ! I1 What is called Water-dressing may be regarded as a modified and improved form of poultice. It consists in the application of two or three layers of soft lint dipped in water and applied to inflamed parts, wounds, and ulcers;—the whole being covered with oiled silk or Indian rubber, which should project beyond the margin of the lint, to retain the moisture and prevent evaporation. Dr. Macart- ney (Treatise on Inflammation, p. 180. London, 1838.) considers it to operate differently to a poultice: unlike the latter, he says, it prevents or diminishes the secretion of pus, checks the formation of exuberant granulations, and removes all pain. Moreover, the water is not apt to become sour, like a poultice, and does not injure the sound part.3 Water is frequently employed in pharmacy for extracting the active principles of various medicinal agents. The solutions thus procured are termed by the French reformers3 of pharmaceutical nomenclature, hydroliques, or hydrolica, (from vfrup, water.) Those prepared by solution or mixture are termed hydroles, and are divided by Cottereau (Traite Elementaire de Pharmacologic Paris, 1835.) into three classes; mineral (as lime water,) vegetable (as almond emulsions, mucilage, infusions, decoctions, &c.,) and animal (as broths.) Those obtained by distillation are denominated hydrolals. 1. AQI'A DESTILLATA, L. E., (U. S.) Aqua Distillata, J).—Distilled Water.— (Obtained by distilling Common Water in a proper still. The first twentieth [fortieth, L., U. S.] part should be rejected: the last portions ought not to be distilled.) The first distilled portion is to be rejected, as it may contain carbonic 1 For farther details concerning this mode of treatment, consult, besides the works above quoted, Fabri- ciui, Das Game der Heilkunst mit kaltem Wasser, 2 For farther information concerning them, I must refer lo Sir G. S. Mackenzie's Travels in Iceland during the Summer of 1810, Edinb. 1811; and to Barrow's Visit to Iceland, by way of Tronyem, Sec, in the Summer of 1834. Lond. 1^35. ' * M MINERAL WATERS. 249 bridge Wells, Oddy's saline chalybeate at Ilarrowgate, and the Islington Spa near London, "order Wulphated Chalybeates.-These contain sulphate of iron. Neither exposure to the air nor boiling precipitates all the iron, and in this respect the sulphated chalybeates are distinguished from the carbonated ones. Some of them contain sulphate of alumina, and are denominated aluminous sulphated chalybeates. Of these the Sand Rock Spring, m the Isle of Wight, the Strong Moffat Chalybeate, Vicar's Bridge Chalybeate, and the Passy waters, are°examples. The waters of Buckowina, in Silesia, are of this kind; but they con- tain also chloride of iron. Those sulphated chalybeates which are devoid of sulphate of alu- mina, may be termed simply sulphated chalybeates. The Chalybeate waters operate in a similar manner to the other ferruginous compounds hereafter to be noticed. They are stimulant, tonic, and astringent. By repeated use they cause blackening of the stools. The acidulated carbonated chalybeates sit more easily on the stomach than other ferruginous agents, in con- sequence of the excess of carbonic acid which, they contain. The aluminous chalybeates are veiy apt to occasion cardialgia, especially if taken in the undiluted state. The use of this class of waters is indicated in cases of debility, especially when accompanied with that condition of system denominated anaemia. They have long obtained a high celebrity for the relief of complaints peculiar to the female sex. Their employment is contra-indicated in plethoric, inflammatory, and febrile conditions of system. CLASS 2. SULPHUREOUS OR HEPATIC WATERS. (Aquas Sulphured seu Hepaticae.) These waters are impregnated with hydrosulphuric acid (sulphuretted hydro- gen;) in consequence of which they have the odour of rotten eggs, and cause black precipitates (metallic sulphurets) with solutions of the salts of lead, silver, copper, bismuth, &c. Those sulphureous waters which retain, after ebullition, their power of causing these precipitates, contain a sulphuret (hydrosulphuret) in solution, usually of calcium or sodium. All the British sulphureous waters are cold, but some of the continental ones are thermal. The most celebrated sul- phureous waters of England are those of Harrowgate;1 those of Scotland are Moffat and Rothsay; of the continent, Enghein, Bareges, Aix, Aix-la-Chapelle, and Baden. DR. M. GAIRDNER's TABLE OP THE QUANTITY OF SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN IN SULPHUREOUS WATERS. Cub. inches 100 Cubic inches of the Water of of Gas. Authority. Bareges in the Pyrenees, contains.......... 20-0 Liidemann. Cauterets in ditto......................... 500 Ditto. St. Sauveur in ditto....................... 166 Ditto. Thermal.........J Schinznach in C Aargau in Switz......... 30-11 Peschier. Aachen in the Lower Rhine.............. 45-78 Monheim. Warmbrunn in Silesia.................... 17-17 Osann. Landeck in county of Glatz................ 14-88 Ditto. Baden near Vienna........................ 11-83 Ditto. I Harrowgate in England (old well).......... 5-94 Scudamore.' M'ulat in Scotland........................ 7-58 Thomson. Sirathpefli'r in ditto (upper well)........... 9-44 Ditto. Knghein in France........................ 1-60 Longchamps. Nenndorffin Hesse........................ 40-90 Osatin. Winslar in Hanover...................... 51-51 Ditto. Eilson in Lippe........................... 2721 Ditto. . Mcinberg in ditto......................... 30-91 Ditto. Weilbach in Nassau....................... 22-32 Ditto.' Berka in Tlmringia....................... 20-60 Ditto. Bncklet in Franconia...................... 17-17 Ditto. Do be i.in in Mecklenburg.................. 18-20 Ditto. Bentheim in Germany..................... 15-45 Ditto. Sironabad in Hesse........................ 2-63 Biichner. (. Dinkhnhi in Nassau....................... 8-6 Kolb. 1 S<-e Dr. A. Hunter's Treatise on the Mineral Waters of Harrowgate. Lond. 1830. A J ha™n"1 adl»iitR 0-42 t>24 O 270 Berthier ......... Ditto ........... Kastner, 1830___ Giurlice......... Phillips......... Berthier......... Black, 1791...... Berthier......... Black. 1791...... Carrick, 1797___ Kastner, 1823___ Berzelius, 1822 ... Scudamore, 1820.. Iron in the state of ferruginous alu- mina; sub-borate of soda 279. Iron as in San Restituta. Free carbonic acid 18 9; azote; pot ash 083; alumina 050; organic extract 237. Minute traces of phosphoric and fluoric acids, strontian, alumina, and manganese. [nese 2-42. Alumina, a trace; oxide of manga- Potash 2-73. The magnesia by Scudamore. Alumina 0'48. Alumina 0-05. Free carbonic acid 12'99. Free carbonic acid 6-0. Phosphoric acid ; potash; alumina. Azote a 01, by Pearson. | Vicar's Bridge............ Pullnaa.................. Sanlschutz............... I^arninpton (Royal Pump) I Harrowgate (old sulpher ) well).'................S Airlhrev (first spring)..... Cheltenham (old well)..... Hartfell aluminous chaly b. Isle of Wight............. Marienbad (Ferdinands- / quelle).............. j Dunblane (norlh spring) .. Vals..................... Bilin..................... Franzenbad (Eratizens- ) brunn).............. ) Pitcaithly ................ Roisdorf.............. j Epsom................... Selters (Nieder)........... Fachingen................ .Sullen.................... Moffat................... Pyrmont................. i Marienfels............... | StrathpcfTer (pump-room).. j Geilnau.................. VVeilhach................ i Ilartfell Spa.............. j Langenschwalbach (We- j inbrunn).............j | Spa...................... Carlsbad (Sauerling)...... Tunbridge............... I Malvern ................. Scotland Bohemia 0 463 20300 182-83 Ditto 481 97 43 England 0 20 80 Ditto 1-20 080 Srotlanil Eusland Scotland England 0 11 0 0 42o 1105 63 23 4858 Bohemia 9-52 27 60 Scotland France Bohemia 0 30 22-48 2051 2-23 029 340 Ditto 544 18-50 Scotland Rhenish Prussia England Nassau Ditto Ditto Scotland 030 | 6-76 250 5 37 1149 3 35 0 073 250 14-80 0-18 012 0 07 2 80 Germany 403 983 Nassau 4 83 018 Scotland Nassau Ditto Scotland 0 6 00 3-61 0 932 0 07 081 2-76 Nassau 384 012 Germany 663 0-51 Bohemia 0 28 013 England Ditto 0-20 0-32 014 014 COI.D. 0 18 17-20 0 16 7500 250 20.38 13-2 45-45 1-43 1420 602 41-92 71-90 57-90 12 00 4-95 76-83 60 50 4-47 1-94 7046 50 65 0 295 3210 45 80 0 685 32 50 4 26 0 508 0-31 1-22 0 0-82 950 3805 2 87 1-67 33 55 3 00 1 44 15 30 33 34 2847 1404 1-60 2 47 0 0-22 100 (i 21 26-70 120 0 27 20 8-50 1399 0 9 70 16-00 178 1-33 421 9-92 2 03 1230 13 CO 5-64 1606 15-63 10-72 12-75 11-80 137 183 408 0 08 0 100 1-09 000 0-26 U99 129 8-56 1-98 1-88 342 2-20 1-27 2-17 018 131 305 618 5 08 460 0 233 1-46 1 55 2-30 0-30 1-40 205 0 012 0 34 1-55 1-95 033 0 92 0-74 0-72 007 0-28 0 16 000 0-29 0 08 0 19 055 039 0 03 002 0-02 10300 0 503-10 3411 109 n 153-9 0 0 145-4 0 race 4000 14-60 0 ii ii 0-90 1274 1110 101-3 88-21 012 0-50 86-18 0-23 006 010 0 0-45 0 63-21 01-17 57-40 0-37 0-48 55-80 race 0 46-95 007 0-21 3811 0 0-12 007 008 0 0 0-38 011 100 0 37-94 3400 32-98 30-89 3003 0-36 0-68 27-89 010 trace 15-99 0 013 0 2-49 0 014 0 0 15-3(1 14-66 14-40 9-95 007 trace 8-58 790 0-68 5-92 000 001 1-42 0-38 004 007 0 1-32 101 Connel, 1831 .... Slruve.......... Ditto........... Thomson, 1830 .. Scudamore, 1819. Thomson, 1828 .. Scudamore. 1819, Thomson, 1828 .. Marcet.......... Steinmann, 1820. Murray, 1814___ Berliner......... Keuss, 1788...... Tromsdorff, 1820. Murray, 1814___ Bischof, 1820 Daubenv, 1830... Bischof," 1820___ Ditto........... Meyer, 1820..... Thomson, 1828. Struve.......... Kastner........ Thomson, 1828. Bischof, 1826 ... Ci-cve, 1810----- Thomson, 1828 . Kastner, 1829... Struve......... BerzeliuB, 1822 . Scudamore. 1816 Phillip, 1805. Potash, a trace. Potash 355. f Nitric arid 7 75; phosphoric acid; > potash 301; strontian t) 03; alu- 1 mina: oxide of manganese. Traces of iod. & brom. by Daubeny Trace of iodine by Daubeny. Alumina 5 10. Alumina 7 77. ; Phosphoric acid, lithion, strontian. i alumina, manganese, by Berzelus. Phosphoric acid, lithion, strontian. alumina, manganese, by Berzelius. Potash. Trace of bromine. Phosphoric acid 0 19. Phosphoric acid 0005. phosphoric acid, potash, strontian, Manganese. Potash 1 19; strontian,manganese, phosphoric acid. Potash ? Phosphoric acid 0-19. Sulphur resin 048. Alumina, a trace. i Potash, lithion, iodine, strontian, I alumina, manganese, phosphc. acid, ' Phos. acid; potash 0 58; manganese. j Phosphoric acid, fluate of lime, alu- j mina, oxide of manganese. Oxide of manganese. 2 W SO > c-1 > H K Sd 71 256 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. For farther details, respecting mineral waters in general, the reader is referred to the following works: — Dr. J. Rutty, Methodical Synopsis of Mineral Waters. Lond. 1757. Dr. D. Munro, Treatise on Mineral Waters. Lond. 1770. Dr. W. Saunders, Treatise on the Chemical History and Medical Powers of some ofthe most celebrated Mineral Waters. Lond. 1800. C. F. Mosch, Die Bdder und Heilbrunen Deutschlands und der Schweiz. Leipzig, 1819. Alibert, Precis historique sur les Eaux Minirales. Paris, 1826. Also, in his Nouveaux Elemens de Therapeutique, 3me torn. 5meed. Paris, 1826. E. Osann, Physikalish-medicinische Darstellung der bekannten Heilquellen der vorzuglich- sten Lander Europa's. Berlin, 1" Theil, 1829. 2" Theil, 1822. Dr. T. Thomson, Cyclopaedia of Practical Medicine, art. Waters, Mineral, vol. iv. Lond. 1835. Mr. Lee, An Account of the most frequented Watering Places on the Continent. Lond. 1836. Patissier et Bourtron-Charlard, Manuel des Eaux Minirales Naturelles, 2nde ed. Paris, 1837. Dr. A. B. Granville, The Spas of Germany, Lond. 1837. 2nd ed. 1838. G. W. Schwartze, Allgemeine und specielle Heilquellenlehre. Leipzig, 1839. Mr. Lee, Principal Baths of Germany, 1840. Dr. J. Johnson, Pilgrimage to the Spas. Lond. 1841. Dr. A. B. Granville, The Spas of England, Northern, Midland, and Southern. 1841. ARTIFICIAL MINERAL WATERS.—In this country the demand for artificial mineral waters is exceedingly limited, and I do not, therefore, think it necessary to enter into any details respecting their manufacture; but shall content myself with refer- ring those interested in the matter to the works of Soubeiran1 and Guibourt3 for full details.3 3. ACIDUM HYDROCHLORICUM.—HYDROCHLORIC ACID. (Acidum Muriaticum, Muriatic Acid, U. S.) History and Synonymes.—Liquid hydrochloric acid was probably known to Geber, the Arabian chemist, in the eighth century. The present mode of obtain- ing it was contrived by Glauber. Some modern chemists term it chlorhydric acid. Scheele, in 1774, may be regarded as the first person who entertained a correct notion of its composition. To Sir H. Davy we are principally indebted for the establishment of Seheele's opinion. Natural History.—It is found in both kingdoms of nature. a. In the Inorganized Kingdom.— Hydrochloric acid is one of the gaseous products of vol- canoes. Combined with ammonia, we find it in volcanic regions. /g. In the Organized Kingdom.—Free hydrochloric acid is an essential constituent of the gastric juice in the human subject. Hydrochlorate of ammonia (sal ammoniac) was found, by Berzelius, in the urine. Chevreul states he detected free hydrochloric acid in the joice of Isatis tinctoria. l. Gaseous Hydrochloric Acid, Preparation.—Hydrochloric acid, in the gaseous state, is procured by the action of oil of vitriol on dried chloride of sodium. The ingredients should be introduced into a tubulated retort, the neck of which is lined with bibulous paper, and the gas collected over mercury. Or they may be placed in a clean and dry oil flask, and the gas conveyed, by means of a glass tube curved twice at right angles, into a proper receptacle, as a bottle, from which the gas expels the air by its greater gravity. In this process, one equivalent or 60 parts of chloride of sodium react on one equivalent or 49 parts of the protohydrate of sulphuric acid (strong oil of vitriol,) and produce one equivalent or 37 parts of hydrochloric acid (gas,) and one equi- valent or 72 parts of the sulphate of soda. ' Nouveau Traite de Pharmacie, t. ii. 2"1 eq. Chloride Calcium 56 82 82 82 If we adopt the ammonium theory, the production of ammonia in the above process may be thus explained: one equivalent or 54 parts of chloride of ammo- nium is decomposed by one equivalent or 28 parts of lime, and the products of the reaction are as above stated. MATERIALS. 1 eq. Chloride Ammonium 54 1 eq. Lime COMPOSITION. f 1 eq. Ammonium .. ]8 [ 1 eq. Chlorine.....36 ■ f 1 eq. Oxygen .... | 1 eq. Calcium.....2ft - I eq. Amm 17- 1 eq. Hydr. 1 - PRODUCTS. .1 eq. Ammonia .... 17 "leq. Water........ 9 -1 eq. Chlor. Calcium 56 But, according to Dr. Kane, ammonia is an amidide of hydrogen, and sal am- moniac is a chloro-amidide of hydrogen ; and the changes are thus explained:— MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. 1 eq. Chloro-amidide /1 et- ^m'd'de Hydrogen ...... . . . 1, Hvdroeen 5dr- 1 ' S ........ Lie?. Chloride Hydr. 37 1 eq. Chlor. 36 1 eq. Lime 1 eq. Oxyg. 1 eq. Calc. 1 eq. Amidide Hydrog. 17 1 eq. Water........ 9 1 eq. Chlor. Cal. Before combustion. Afterwards. I eq. Ammonia = 17 2 eq. Oxygen = 16 1 eq. 1 Nitrogen 1 eq. Oxyg. =8 ' , , and 3 eq. Water = 27 Properties.—It is a colourless invisible gas, having a strong and well-known odour. It reddens turmeric paper, and changes the colour of violet juice to green; but by exposure to the air, or by the application of heat, both the tur- meric paper and violet juice are restored to their original colour. The specific gravity of this gas is 0-59. By a pressure of 6-5 atmospheres, at a temperature of 50°, it is condensed into a colour- less, transparent liquid. Ammoniacal gas is not a supporter of combustion, but is slightly combusti- ble in the atmosphere, and when mixed with air or oxygen, it forms an explosive mixture. Every two volumes of ammoniacal gas require one and a half volumes of oxygen for their complete combustion. The results of the explosion are, a volume of nitrogen and some water. Characteristics.—It is readily recognised by its peculiar odour, its action on turmeric paper, and by its forming white fumes with hydrochloric acid or chlo- rine. Dissolved in water it communicates a deep blue colour to the salts of copper, throws down a yellow precipitate (platina-bichloride of ammonia) with the bichloride of platinum, and a white one with bichloride of mercury. Conia agrees with ammonia in evolving a vapour which reddens turmeric paper, and forms white fumes (hydrochlorate of conia) with hydrochloric acid gas. WATER OF AMMONIA. 273 Composition.—Ammonia is composed of hydrogen and nitrogen, in the follow ing proportions:— Eq. Wt. Per Cent. A. Berthollet ... 14 .... Atoms Nitrogen ........ 1 ■ Hydrogen........3 . .... 82-35 3 ......... 17 65 8113 18-87 Ammonia 17 10000......... 10000 Nitrogen gas . Hydrogen gas Vol. Sp. Or- 1......0-972:2 3......0-20833 Ammoniacal gas .. 2......059027 According to Berzelius, its equivalent is 17-19 [17'15, Turner.] Constituents. Eq. Vol. The annexed diagram illustrates the volumes of the constituents of the gas, and their degree of con- densation when in combination to form ammonia- cal gas. Hypothetically, Dr. Kane (Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, vol. xix. part. 1.) has re- garded ammonia as a compound of a suppositious substance called amidogen, (N 2 H,) and hydro- gen: in other words, as an amidide of hydrogen. Physiological Effects, et. On Vegetables.—Ammoniacal gas is destructive to plants, and changes their green colour to brown. (De Candolle, Physiol. Veg. p. 1344.) /3. On Animals.—If an animal be immersed in this gas, spasm of the glottis is immediately brought on, and death results from asphyxia. Nysten (Recherches, p. 140.) injected some of this gas into the veins of a dog: the animal cried out, respiration became difficult, and death soon took place. Neither gas nor visible lesion was observed in the heart, the two ventricles of which contained liquid blood. In another experiment he threw ammoniacal gas into the pleura of a dog: cries, evacuation of urine, and vomiting, immediately followed; soon after- wards convulsions came on, and continued for several hours: ultimately they ceased, and recovery took place. In almost all cases of poisoning in animals, by ammonia, or its carbonate, con- vulsions are observed, apparently showing that these substances act on the spinal marrow. y. On Man.—Ammonia is a powerful local irritant. This is proved by its pungent odour, and its acrid and hot taste; by its irritating the eyes; and, when applied for a sufficient length of time to the skin, by causing vesication. If an attempt be made to inhale it in the pure form, spasm of the glottis comes on: when diluted with atmospheric air, it irritates the bronchial tubes and larynx, and, unless the quantity be very small, brings on inflammation of the lining membrane. Its powerful action on the nervous system is best seen in cases of syncope, (See Aqua Ammonice.) Uses.—Ammoniacal gas is rarely employed in medicine. M. Bourguet de Beziers used it with success in the case of a child affected with group, to pro- voke the expulsion of the false membrane. Antidote.—In case of the accidental inhalation of strong ammoniacal vapour, the patient should immediately inspire the vapour of acetic or hydrochloric acid. If bronchial inflammation supervene, of course it is to be treated in the usual way. 6. A'QUA AMMO'NLE —WATER OF AMMONIA. (Liquor Ammonite, and Liquor Ammonite Fortior, L.—Aqua Ammoniae, and Aqua Ammonis Fortior, £.— Aqua Ammoniae caustics, D.)—(Liquor Ammoniae, U. S.) % History.—This solution was formerly termed spiritus salis ammoniaci caus- tints cum calce viva paratus. Preparation.—It is prepared by the action of lime on either sulphate or hydro- chlorate of ammonia. On the large scale, the apparatus employed is an iron cylinder, connected with the ordinary worm refrigerator, and this with a row of Vol. I.—35 ■17 i ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. double-necked stoneware bottles containing water, analogous to those described under the head of nitric acid. All the British Colleges give formulae for its preparation.' The following are the directions of the London College:— "Take of Hydrochlorate of Ammonia ten ounces, Lime eight ounces, Water two pints: put the Lime, slaked with water, into a retort, then add the Hydrochlorate of Ammonia, broken into small pieces, and the rest of the water. Let fifteen fluid ounces of solution of ammonia distil." The Edinburgh College gives the following directions for preparing Ammoniae Aqua, and Ammonise Aqua Fortior. "Take of Muriate of Ammonia, thirteen ounces: Quicklime, thirteen ounces; Water, seven fluid ounces and a-half; Distilled Water, twelve fluid ounces. Slake the Lime with the Water, cover it up till it cool, triturate it well and quickly with the Muriate of Ammonia previously in fine powder, and put the mixture into a glass-retort, to which is attached a receiver with a safety tube. Connect with the receiver a bottle also provided with a safety tube, and containing four ounces ofthe distilled water, but capable of holding twice as much. Connect this bottle with another loosely corked, and containing the remaining eight onces of distilled water. The communicating tubes must descend to the bottom of the bottles at the farther end from the retort; and the receiver and bottles must be kept cool by snow, ice, or a rnnning stream of cold water. Apply to the retort a gradually-increasing heat till gas ceases to be evolved ; remove the retort, cork up the aperture in the receiver where it was connected with the retorl, and apply to the receiver a gentle and gradually increasing heat, to drive over as much ofthe gas in the liquid contained in it, but as little ofthe water, as possible. Should the liquid in the last bottle not have the density of -960, reduce it with some of the stronger Aqua Ammoniae in the first bottle, or raise it with distilled water, so as to form Aqua Am- moniae ofthe prescribed density." The Dublin College employs 3 parts of Muriate of Ammonia, two of fresh burned Quick- lime, and ten of Water. The lime is to be slaked with one part of hot water, and then intro. duced into the retort, and the salt dissolved in the remaining hot water, added, and five parts distilled by a medium [between 100° and 200°] heat into a refrigerated receiver. [The U. S. Pharmacopoeia directs to take of Muriate of Ammonia in fine pow- der, Lime, each a pound; Distilled water a pint; Water, nine fluid ounces. Break the lime in pieces and pour the water upon it in an earthen or iron vessel; then cover the vessel and set it aside till the lime falls into powder and becomes cold, mix this thoroughly with the Muriate of Ammonia in a mortar, and imme- diately introduce the mixture into a glass-retort. Place the retort upon a sand bath and adapt to it a receiver, previously connected, by means of a glass tube, with a quart bottle containing the distilled water. Then apply heat, to be gra- dually increased till the bottom of the iron vessel becomes red hot; and continue the process so long as the Ammonia comes over. Remove the liquor contained in the quart bottle, and for every fluid ounce of it add three and a-half fluid drachms of distilled water, or so much as may be necessary to raise its specific gravity to 0-96. Keep the solution in small bottles well stopped.] The theory ofthe process is the same as that for ammoniacal gas. An excess of lime is used to facilitate the extrication of the ammonia. The water put into the receiver is to absorb the gas. Properties.—Solution of ammonia is* a colourless liquid, having a very pun- gent odour, and a caustic alkaline taste. Its action on turmeric paper, and violet juice is like that of ammoniacal gas before described. It is lighter than water, but its sp. gr. varies with its strength. In the shops, a very strong solution (called Liquor Ammonim Fortior) is kept, having a sp. gr. of about 0-880: it is employed for smelling-bottles. One fluid ounce of Aqua Ammoniae Fortior (sp. gr. 0-880) with three of water makes Aqua Ammonia? of about sp. gr. 0-970.* Prepared according to the London and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias, the sp. gr. is 0-960; according to the Dublin, 0-950. A cubic inch of Liquor Ammoniae (sp. gr. 0-960) weighs 242-36 grs., and it contains 132 cubic inches of ammoniacal i In the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia it is stated that, the density ofthe above mixture is 0-960, but this is an error. Two fluid ounces of water with one fluid ounce of aqua ammonis fortior yield a mixture whose sp. gr. is 0-960. WATER OF AMMONIA. 275 gas in condensed solution. A cubic inch of Liquor Ammoniae Fortior (sp. gr. 0-882) weighs 222-66 grs., and it holds dissolved nearly 400 cubic inches of ammoniacal gas. (Mr. R. Phillip's Translation ofthe Pharmacopoeia, 4th edit.) The quantity of Ammoniacal gas, which water can dissolve, varies with the pres- sure of the atmosphere and the temperature of the water. Davy (Elements of Chemical Philosophy, p. 268.) ascertained that at the tem- perature of 50°, under a pressure equal to 29-8 inches, water absorbs about 670 times its volume of gas, and becomes of sp. gr. 0-875. He drew up the follow- ing table showing the quantity of ammonia in solutions of different specific gra- vities:— 100 parts of Sp. Gr. Of Ammonia. 1 100 parts of Sp. Gr. Of Ammonia. 0-8750........................contain 3250 09435........................contain 14-53 0-8875................................29-25 0-9476............................... 13"4h 0 9000................................ 20-00 | 0-9513................................ {-40 0-9054................................25'37 | 09545................................ ]' ™ 09166................................2207 I 09573............................... 1°82 0-9255................................ 1954 0-9597................................ 10 17 O'.mc,................................ 1752 ! 09619............................... 9 60 09385................................ 1588 0 9092................................ 9 5° It appears from the observations of Davy and Dalton that the specific gravity of mixtures of liquid ammonia and water is exactly the mean of that of the two ingredients. Composition.—From the above observations, the composition of officinal solu- tions of ammonia is nearly as follows:— Lond. and Edinb. Ph. Dub. Ph. Liq Am. Fort. (sp. gr. 0-900) (sp. gr. 0-9.50) (sp. gr. 0-880) Ammoniacal gas.......... 10.................. 12-5 .................. 30-5 Water.................... 90 .................. 875 .................. 69-5 Liquor Ammonite......... 100 ................. 1000 .................. 1000 Characters—{See Ammoniacal Gas.) Impurities.—Liquor ammoniae frequently contains traces of carbonate of am- monia, which may be detected by lime-water, or by a solution ofthe chloride of calcium, either of which occasions a white precipitate (carbonate of lime) if car- bonic acid be present. When a portion of the liquid has been neutralized by pure nitric acid, it ought not to cause a precipitate by the addition of nitrate of silver, of oxalic acid, or of sesquicarbonate of ammonia: for the first would indi- cate the presence of hydrochloric acid, or chlorine; the second, of lime; the third, of lime, or other earthy matter. If pure, it does not effervesce with dilute acids. Incompatibles.—It is hardly necessary to state that all acids are incompatible with ammonia. With the exception of the salts of potash, soda, lithia, baryta, and strontia, ammonia decomposes most of the metallic salts. Physiological Effects, ol. On Vegetables.—The effects of ammonia on plants have been before noticed. 0. On Animals. — Orfila injected sixty grains of liquor ammonise into the jugu- lar vein of a strong dog: tetanic stiffness immediately came on, the urine passed involuntarily, and the animal became agitated by convulsions: death took place in ten minutes. The body was immediately opened, when the contractile power of the muscles was found extinct. In another experiment, thirty-six grains of concentrated solution of ammonia were introduced into the stomach, and the oeso- phagus tied: in five minutes the animal appeared insensible, but in a few moments after was able to walk when placed on his feet,' the inspirations were deep, and his posterior extremities trembled. In twenty hours he was insensible, and in twenty-three hours he died. On dissection, the mucous membrane of the stomach was found red in some places. These experiments show the effects of large doses of this solution on the nervous system. The first experiment agrees in its results (that is, in causing tetanic convulsions) with that made by Nysten, and which has been before mentioned, of throwing ammoniacal gas into the cavitv of 276 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. the pleura. From the convulsions it may be inferred, that in these instances the (gray matter of the) spinal marrow was specifically affected. y. On Man. ax. Local Effects.—-In the concentrated form the local action of liquor ammonia? is exceedingly energetic. Applied to the skin, it causes pain, redness, vesication, and destruction of the part; thus acting, first as a rubefacient, then as a vesicant, and lastly as a caustic or corrosive. Its emanations are also irritant: when they come in contact with the conjunctival membrane, a flow of tears is the result; when inhaled, their powerful action on the air-passages is well known. Persons in syncope are observed to be almost immediately raised from a death-like state, merely by inhaling the vapour of this solution. In cases of insensibility it must be employed with great caution; for, if used injudiciously, serious, or even fatal, consequences may result. Nysten (Christison, Treatise on Poisons.) tells us that a physician, for some years subject to epilepsy, was found by his servant in a fit. In order to rouse his master, the latter applied a handkerchief, moistened with this solution, to his nose, so assidulously, that he brought on bronchitis, of which the patient died on the third day. In the Edin- burgh Medical and Surgical Journal, there is the report of the case of a lad whose death was produced, or at least hastened, by an attendant applying, " with such unwearied but destructive benevolence," ammonia to the nose, that suffoca- tion had almost resulted. Dyspnoea, with severe pain in the throat, immediately succeeded, and death took place 48 hours afterwards. A French physician also suffered ulceration of the mouth, and violent pulmonary catarrh, in consequence of the excessive use of ammonia, given as an antidote for hydrocyanic acid. More recently, another case of poisoning by the vapour of ammonia has been pub- lished. (Journal de Chimie Medicale, t. vi. p, 499, 2nde Ser/) It arose from the accidental bursting of carboy of liquor ammoniae. The mucous membrane of the nose and lips was destroyed. The tongue was deprived of its epithelium, and a large quantity of sanguineous froth escaped from the mouth. The respira- tion was so difficult, that suffocation was feared. The pulse was feeble, irre- gular, and frequent. There were no convulsions. Bronchitis supervened, but the patient recovered. When the solution of ammonia is swallowed in large doses, it acts as a power- fully corrosive poison; but modern well-marked cases of poisoning by it in the human subject are wanting. However, it is very evident that violent inflamma- . tion of all that part of the alimentary canal with which the poison may be in contact, would be the result, and that if much were taken, decomposition of the part might be expected. When swallowed in a very dilute form, and in small quantity, the local phenomena are not very marked, and the effect of the sub- stance is then seen in the affection of the general system. The chemical action of ammonia on the tissues is analogous to that of potash, hereafter to be described. /3/3. Remote Effects.—The remote effects may be investigated under two heads, according as they are produced by small or large doses. In small or therapeutic doses, such as we are accustomed to employ in the treatment of diseases, am- monia acts as a stimulant, excitant, or calefacient. It produces a sensation of warmth in the mouth, throat, and epigastrium, frequently attended with eructa- tions. A temporary excitement of the vascular system succeeds, but this quickly subsides. The heat of the skin is sometimes increased, and there is a tendency to sweating, which, if promoted by the use of warm diluents and clothing, fre- quently terminates in copious perspiration. But the skin is not the only secreting organ stimulated to increased exertion; we observe the kidneys produce more urine, and frequently the quantity of bronchial mucus is increased. The nervous svstem is also affected, and the activity of its functions heightened. Wibmer (Die Wirkung, &c. Bd. i. S. 123.) made several experiments on himself, and from them it appears that ammonia affects the head, sometimes causing oppres- sion, or a sense of fulness, but no pain. The increased capability of muscular WATER OP AMMONIA. 277 exertion, and the greater facility with which all the functions are executed, are farther indications of the action of ammonia on the nervous system. There is, however, something remarkably different between the stimulant effects of am- monia and those of alcohol or opium. The first may be employed with great benefit in many inflammatory and febrile cases, in which the latter proves highly prejudicial. Ammonia, observes Dr. Billing, (First Principles of Medicine, p. 158, 4th ed. Lond. 1841.) is not, like wine and tincture of opium, a diffusible stimulant. " In the first place, ammonia is used empirically by the most able ofthe profession, in cases where they know from experience that they must not employ wine or tincture of opium. This alone shows that it is not really a diffusible stimulant—it is a local one; and as such, through the medium of the solar plexus, excites the heart momentarily, though not injuriously. Again, so far from being a diffusible Btimulus, it immediately unites with animal acids, and then circulates, oi is diffused, not as a stimulant, but as a sedative saline; so as to perform the double operation of a temporary local stimulant to the stomach and heart, and a sedative to inflamed capillaries elsewhere, although the latter indication be not contemplated in its administration." The effects of large or poisonous doses on the human subject have not been described: but that the nervous system is affected, seems probable from a case mentioned by Plenck, (Toxicologia, p. 226, Ed. 3nda. Viennae, 1801.) which terminated fatally in four minutes; though the symptoms are not related. (See Ammoniae Sesquicarbonas.) If we compare the effects of ammonia with those of other stimulants, as cam- phor, wine, and opium, we observe, in the first place, that the influence of am- monia is principally manifested in the ganglionic and true spinal systems,—while the other stimulants, above mentioned, affect the cerebral system. Thus the effects of ammonia are usually exhibited on the circulation, respiration, secre- tion, and spasmodic actions: but camphor, wine, and opium, though they also affect these functions, yet they principally affect the intellectual functions. Secondly, the effects of ammonia are more transient than those of the other agents just referred to. Thirdly, the vascular excitement caused by wine and opium is attended with diminished mucous secretion, and is allied more to an ordinary febrile attack. Uses.—Ammonia is adapted for speedily rousing the actions of the vascular and respiratory systems, and for the prompt alleviation of spasm. It is more especially fitted for fulfilling these indications when our object is at the same time to promote the action of the skin. It is calculated for states of debility with torpor or inactivity. It is also used as an antacid and local irritant. 1. In dyspeptic complaints, accompanied with preternatural acidity of stomach and flatulence, but without inflammation, a properly diluted solution of'ammonia may be employed with a two-fold object—that of neutralizing the free acid, and of stimulating the stomach. It must be remembered that the healthy secretions of the stomach are of an acid nature, and that the continued use of ammonia, or any other alkali, must ultimately be attended with injurious results, more espe- cially to the digestive functions. While, therefore, the occasional employment of alkalis may be serviceable, their constant or long-continued use must ultimately prove deleterious. Ammonia may, under some circumstances, be employed to neutralize acids introduced into the stomach from without, as in poisoning by the mineral acids, though chalk and magnesia would be more appropriate, being less irritant. It is a valuable antidote in poisoning by hydrocyanic acid. Its beneficial operation has been ascribed to the union ofthe alkali with the acid, whereby hydrocyanate of ammonia is formed; but since it has been found that this salt is highly poison- ous, it is evident that this explanation is not satisfactory. Some have ascribed the activity of the hydrocyanate to its decomposition by the free acids of the stomach, and the consequent evolution of free hydrocyanic acid; but this explanation is not satisfactory. I believe the efficiency of ammonia as an antidote to poisoning by hydrocyanic arid, arises from its exerting an influence of an opposite nature to that of the poison. In poisoning by the oil of bitter almonds,, or other agents 278 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. supposed to contain this acid, ammonia is equally serviceable. The antidote should be given by the stomach, if the patient can swallow, and the vapour should be cautiously inhaled. 2. To produce local irritation, rubefaction, vesication, or destruction of the part.—As a local agent, ammonia has been employed in a variety of diseases, sometimes as a rubefacient or irritant, sometimes as a vesicant, and occasionally as a caustic. Thus it is employed as a rubefacient in rheumatic and neuralgic pains, and as a counter irritant to relieve internal inflammations. As a local irritant, a weak solution has been injected into the vagina and uterus, to excite the catamenial discharge; but there are some objections to its use. Thus, it is a most unpleasant kind of remedy, especially to young females; morebver, the stoppage of this discharge is in many cases dependent on constitutional or remote causes, and, therefore, a topical remedy is not likely to be beneficial. Lavagna employed ten or fifteen drops of the solution, diluted with milk. The following is Nisato's formula:— g< Ammon. liquid, gtt. xl.; Decoct. Hordei, unc. viii.; Mucilag. Arab. unc. dimid. Misce, et riant quatuor intra diem injectiones. Sometimes ammonia is employed as a vesicatory; and it has two advantages over cantharides—a more speedy operation, and non-affection of the urinary organs. It may be employed in the form of ointment or solution. As a caustic, the strong solution of ammonia may be sometimes used with advantage in the bites of rabid animals. 3. The vapour of the solution of ammonia may be inhaled when we wish to make a powerful impression on the nervous system, as in syncope, or to prevent an attack of epilepsy. To guard against or relieve fainting, ammoniacal inhala- tions are very powerful and useful; their instantaneous operation is fiequently astonishing. Pinel says, he once saw an attack of epilepsy prevented by this means. The patient (a watchmaker) had intimations of the appioaching paroxysm from certain feelings; but he found, by inhaling the vapour of ammonia, it was frequently prevented. In the case of a confirmed epilepsy, which I was in the habit of watching for some years, I think I have also seen analogous beneficial effects. I speak doubtfully, because it is so difficult to determine, in most cases, the actual approach of the fit. It is deserving of especial notice, that ammonia is useful in three conditions of system, which, though produced by very different causes, present analogous symptoms; viz. idiopathic epilepsy—the insensibility and convulsions (? epilepsy) produced by loss of blood—and the insensibility and convulsions (? epilepsy) which poisonous doses of hydrocyanic acid give rise to. (See Ammonite Sesquicarbonus.) In asphyxia, ammoniacal inhalations have been strongly recommended by Sage, who says, that he produced the apparent death of rabbits by immersion in water, and recovered them subsequently by the use of ammonia. A case is told us of a man who had been submerged in the Seine for twenty minutes, and who, when taken out of the water, appeared lifeless, yet by the use of ammonia reco- vered; and a M. Routier, a surgeon, of Amiens, is said to have restored a patient in the same way. That it may sometimes be of service I can readily believe, but it must be employed with great caution. 4. Ammonia is given internally as a stimulant and sudorific with manifest ad- vantage in several cases, of which the following are illustrations:— a. In continued fevers which have existed for some time, and where all violent action has subsided, and the brain does not appear much disordered, it is occa- sionally of great service. Its diaphoretic action should be piomoted by diluents and warm clothing. It has an advantage over opium—that, if it do no good, it is less likely to do harm. /3. In intermittent fevers it is sometimes of advantage, given, during the cold stage, to hasten its subsidence. WATER OF AMMONIA. 279 y. In the exanthemata, when the eruption has receded from the skin, and the extremities are cold, it is sometimes of great benefit, on account of its stimulant and diaphoretic properties. But in many of these cases the recession arises from, or is connected with, an inflammatory condition of the bronchial membrane, for which the usual treatment is to be adopted. I In some inflammatory diseases (especially pneumonia and rheumatism,) where the violence of the vascular action has been reduced by proper evacua- tions, and where the habit of the patient is unfavourable to the loss of blood, am- monia has been serviceable. In combination with decoction of senega, I have found it valuable in old pulmonary affections. (See Senega.) 5. In certain affections of the nervous system, ammonia is frequently em- ployed with the greatest benefit. Thus it has been used to relieve the cerebral disorder of intoxication. In poisoning by those cerebro-spinants commonly termed sedatives—such as foxglove, tobacco, and hydrocyanic acid, ammonia is a most valuable agent. This remedy has been supposed to possess a specific in- fluence in relieving those disorders of the nervous system accompanied with spasmodic or convulsive symptoms; and hence it is classed among the remedies denominated antispasmodic. Velsen, of Cleves, has used it with advantage in delirium tremens. It was a remedy frequently tried in the malignant or Indian cholera, and occasionally procured relief, but it was not much relied on. 6. Against the bites of poisonous animals—as serpents and insects, ammonia is frequently employed with the best effects. There does not appear, however, any ground for the assertion of Sage, that it is a specific: in fact, Fontana declares that it is sometimes hurtful in viper bites. (For some other uses of ammonia, see Ammonite Sesquicarbonas.) Administration.—It is given in doses of from five to twenty or thirty drops, properly diluted. Antidotes.—The diluted acids—as vinegar, lemon or orange juice, &c, are antidotes for ammonia. To abate the inflammatory symptoms caused by the in- halation of its vapour, blood-letting has been found serviceable. 1. LINIMENTUM AMMONIAE, L. E. D. (U. S.;) Liniment of Ammonia; Volatile Liniment; Oil and Hartshorn. (Solution of Ammonia, f3j- [f5'j- D.;"] Olive Oil, f3ij. Mix and shake them well together.)—This is an ammoniacal soap composed of the oleo-margarate of ammonia mixed with some glycerine. (See the articles Soap and Olive. Oil.) It is employed as an external stimulant and rubefacient, to relieve pneumatic and neuralgic pains, lumbago, sore throat, sprains, bruises, &c. 2. LINIMENTUM A1M0NIAE COMPOSITUM, E.; Compound Liniment of Ammonia. (Stronger solution of Ammonia [sp. gr. 0-880,] f3v.; Tincture of Camphor, f^ij., Spirit of Rosemary, f$j. Mix them well together. This liniment may be also made weaker for some purposes, with three fluid ounces of Tincture of Camphor and two of Spirit of Rosemary.)—These are obvious imitations of Dr. Granville's counter-irritating or antinynous lotions.1 This liniment may be used so as to produce rubefaction, vesication, or cauterization. A piece of linen six or seven times folded, or a piece of thick and coarse flannel impregnated with this liniment, is to be applied to the part and covered with a thick towel, which is to be firmly pressed against the part. If rubefaction merely be desired, the appli- cation is continued for from one to six or eight minutes; but from ten to twelve minutes are necessary to excite vesication and cauterization. In painful and spasmodic affections, as neuralgia, cramp, &c; in rheumatism, lumbago, and swollen and painful affections of the joints; in headach, sore throat, sprains, ■ Lancet, October 27, 1838; and Brit, and Foreign Med. Review, vol. vii. p. 292 —Also Dr Granville's entitled Counter trntation. its Principles and Practice, illustrated by one hundred cases of the most pain] important Diseases effectually cured by external applications. Lond. 1S3H work, painful and 280 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. and many other cases, benefit may be obtained from a powerful and speedy counter-irritant like this, as stated by Dr. Granville. 3. UNGUENTUM AMMONIAE; Liparoli d'Ammoniaque; Pommade Ammoniacale de Gondret; GondreVs Ammoniacal Ointment.—The formula for this, as given by Soubeiran, (Nouveau Traite de Pharmacie, t. ii. p. 302, 2"de ed. Paris, 1840.) is as follows:—Suet one part, Hog's Lard one part, and Strong Solution of Am- monia two parts. In Gondret's1 work, however, the following formula is given:— Hog's Lard, ^vij., Oil of Sweet Almonds, 3iss-» and Strong Liquid Ammonia, from 3v. to 3yj. Melt the lard, mix it with the oil, and pour them into a wide- mouthed bottle with a ground glass stopper; then add the ammonia, close the bottle, mix the contents together by shaking, and keep the mixture in a cool plaee.—This ointment, rubbed on the skin and covered by a compress, speedily produces vesication. Without the compress it causes rubefaction. It is a very useful rubefacient, vesicant, and counter-irritant. 4. TINCTURA AMMONIAE COMPOSITA, L. Spiritus Ammonise succinatus. (Mas- tic, 3ij.; Rectified Spirit, f 3ix.; Oil of Lavender, njxiv.; Oil of Amber, tt[iv.; Stronger Solution of Ammonia, Oj. Macerate the Mastic in the Spirit, that it may be dissolved, and pour off the clear tincture; then add the other ingredients, and shake them all together.)—This liquid is milky owing to the separation of the mastic from its spirituous solution by ammonia. It is commonly called Eau de Luce (Aqii'd Lucix,) after an apothecary at Lille. M. B. Jussieu (Histoirede V Academic Roy ale des Sciences. Annee 1747, p. 54.) gave it to one of his pupils who had been bitten by a viper; and, as the patient recovered, the remedy ac- quired considerable celebrity as a counter-poison to the bites of venomous snakes. But Fontana (Treatise on the Venom of the Viper, vol. ii. Lond. 1787.) has shown, that ammonia (its active principle) does not possess any powers of this kind. The compound tincture of ammonia is a powerful antispasmodic stimu- lant*, and. is now principally employed as an antihysteric, in doses of from ten to thirj^festr^irty minims. It has also been used as a stimulating embrocation. 7..AMMO'NIjE CARBONAS—CARBONATE OF AMMONIA. HisTOKY.—'Both solid and liquid compounds of ammonia and carbonic acid havefoeen known for several centuries. Raymond Lully, in the 13th century, was acquainted with the impure solution of carbonate of ammonia obtained from putrid urine; and it is probable that the Arabians had known it long before. Basil . Valentine (Chymische Schriften, Ander-Theile, S. 392. Hamb. 1677.) speaks i)f3jfj8ras^n7«s satis urinse. "NJt^ral History (see Ammonia, p. 272.)—Carbonate of Ammonia is formed durinj;*he putrefaction or destructive distillation of those organic substances w'hich contain'nitrogen. It is a constituent of rain water, (see p. 243.) Preparation.—Anhydrous neutral carbonate of ammonia can only be obtained by bringing together dry carbonic acid and ammoniacal gases. It is not employed in medicine. Hydrated neutral carbonate of ammonia is the first, and, therefore, the most volatile, of the solid products which appear in the distillation of the commercial hydrated sesquicarbonate of ammonia. If hydrated sesquicarbonate of ammonia be digested in a small quantity of water, we obtain a solution of a neutral carbo- nate of ammonia, mixed, however, with a little ofthe bicarbonate. The same neutral carbonate is obtained when a mixture of sal ammoniac and carbonate of either soda or potash is submitted to distillation with water; and on this principle several liquid preparations (presently to be mentioned) of this neutral salt are directed to be prepared in the Pharmacopoeia. One equivalent or 54 parts of the hydrochlorate of ammonia react on one equivalent or 70 parts of car- i Traite Thiorique et Pratique de la Derivation centre les Affections les plus communes en giniral, telle la Plithore, TInflammation, I'Hemorrhagic, &c. Paris, 1837. Reviewed in Brit, and For. Medical Review, vol. vii. p. 5G. CARBONATE OF AMMONIA. 281 bonate of potash, and yield one equivalent or 76 parts of chloride of potassium, one equivalent or 9 parts of water, and one equivalent or 39 parts of carbonate of ammonia. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. PRODUCTS. leq. Hydrochlte f 1 eq. Ammonia......................« "^^"i ea Water Ammonia....54 ^ leq. H,,drochlo j leq. Hydr....... 1--------- 1 eq. Carbte Amms---39 ric Acid 37___j leq. Chlor.......36 ~"-><~~^L.-----'*' 1 eq. Carbonate j I eq. Carbonic Acid.................22 —^>a- Chloride Po- *"■*.......70! ie?.p^48 | j;f;Sto":J5-----—^-rZsiur?!!..^ 124 124 Bone spirit, obtained by the destructive distillation of bones, contains neutral carbonate of ammonia in solution with animal empyreumatic oil. Properties.—Hydrated neutral carbonate of ammonia is a crystalline salt, having an ammoniacal odour, but weaker than that of a solution of caustic am- monia. . Characteristics.—Its solution, yields, on the addition of chloride of barium, a white precipitate (carbonate of baryta:) and no farther precipitate is obtained by the farther addition of caustic ammonia to the mixture. This character dis- tinguishes the neutral carbonate from the sub- and super-carbonates of ammonia, (see Hydrated Sesquicarbonate and Bicarbonate of Ammonia.) Composition.—The hydrated neutral carbonate of ammonia has, according to Rose, the following composition:— Atoms. Eq. w't. Per Cent. Rose. Ammonia ............2......34......39080......39-27 t'.-irbonic Acid........2......44......50575......5009 Water................1...... 9......10-345......10-64 Atoms. Eq.Wt. Per Cent. Or Carbonate of Am- ) . 39 .. 44-83 monia..........S Carb. of Oxide of Ammonium..... 1 .... 48 .... 5517 Hydrated Carbonate ) l......g?......100000......10000 of Ammonia.....j !___87___100-00 Physiological Effects and Uses.—The effects of carbonate of ammonia are similar to, but somewhat milder than, those of caustic ammonia. The neutral carbonate is more powerful than the hydrated sesquicarbonate, and still more so than the bicarbonate of ammonia. In the solid form it is not employed in medi- cine. Several officinal preparations, however, owe their medicinal activity to it. 1. SPIRITUS AMMONIAE, L. E. D. (U. S.) Spirit of Ammonia.—Prepared ac- cording to the London and Dublin Pharmacopoeias, this is a solution of carbo- nate of ammonia in rectified spirit; but according to the Edinburgh Pharmaco- poeia it is a solution of ammoniacal gas in spirit. The following are the formulae of the three colleges:— The London College orders Hydrochlorate of Ammonia, ^x.; Carbonate of Potash, |;xvj. Rectified Spirit; Water; of each Oiij. Mix, and let three pints distil.—In this process double decomposition lakes place (as above explained,) and the carbonate of ammonia, which is pro- duced, distils over with the spirit, in which the greater part of it dissolves; the remainder being deposited in an imperfectly crystalline state. The Dublin College directs [Sesqui-] Carbonate of Ammonia, coarsely powdered, Siijss. to be dissolved, with a medium heat, in Rectified Spirit, Oiij. [wine measure.]—During the solu- tion in the heated spirit, the sesquicarbonate evolves carbonic acid gas, and is reduced to the Blate of carbonate of ammonia, of which about 30 grains are taken up by each ounce measure ofthe spirit. The Edinburgh College orders Rectified Spirit, Oij. and fgij ; Fresh-burnt Lime, §xij.; Muriate of Ammonia, in very fine powder, ^viij.; Water, f^viss. Let the lime be slaked with the water in an iron or earthenware vessel, and cover the vessel till the powder be cold; mix the lime and muriate of ammonia quickly and thoroughly in a mortar, and transfer the mixture at once into a glass retort; adapt to the retort a tube which passes nearly to the bot- tom of a bottle containing the rectified spirit; heat the retort in a sand-bath gradually, so long as any thing passes over, preserving the bottle cool. The bottle should be large enough lo contain one-half more than the spirit used.—In this process we obtain, by the mutual re- action ofthe sal ammoniac and lime, (See p. 271.) ammoniacal gas, which passes over, and is dissolved in the spirit contained in the receiver. Vol.. 1.—30 282 ELEMENTS of materia MF.HICA. (The U. S. Pharmocopoeia directs Muriate of Ammonia in fine powder; Lime, each n pound; Alcohol, twenty fluid ounces; Water, nine fluid ounces. Slake the lime with the water; mix it with the Muriate of Ammonia, and proceed in the manner directed for solution of Ammo- nia, the Alcohol being introduced into the quart bottle instead of distilled Water. When all the Ammonia has come over, remove the liquor contained in the quart bottle and keep it in small bottles well stopped.) The medicinal effects of this preparation are analogous to those of Liquor Am- moniae. It may be employed in hysteria, flatulent colic, and nervous debility. It is, however, but little used except in the preparation of the following com- pounds. The dose of it is from f3ss. to f3j. properly diluted with water. Sa- turated with camphor it forms a highly stimulating liniment. 2. SPIRITUS AMMONIAE FOETLDUS, L. E. D. Fetid Spirit of Ammonia.—In this, as in the preceding preparation, a difference exists in the formulae of the British Colleges. The London and Dublin Colleges use a solution of carbonate of am- monia, while the Edinburgh College employs a solution of caustic ammonia. The formula of the London College is the s;me as that for Spiritus Ammonias, L.; except that five ounces of Asafcetida are put into the retort with the other ingredients. The Dublin College orders Asafcetida ^iss. to be macerated for three days in Spirit of Am- monia, Oij. [wine measure,] shaking occasionally; then pour off the clear liquor, and distil a pint and a. half. The Edinburgh College employs Spirit of Ammonia, f^xss.; Asafcetida, ^ss. Break the Asafcetida into small fragments; digest it in the spirit for twelve hours ; and distil over ten fluid ounces and a-half by means of a vapour-bath heat. This preparation is a very unnecessary one. It is merely a solution of the volatile oil ofthe asafcetida in spirit of ammonia; for which a mixture of tincture of asafoetida and spirit of ammonia may be conveniently and more efficaciously substituted. It is a colourless, pungent, and fetid liquor, which becomes brown- ish by age. It is employed in hysteria, in doses of from half a drachm to a drachm in water. I SPIRITUS AMMONIAE AROMATICUS, L. E. D. (U. S.) Spirit of Sal Volatile.— The preparation of the London and Dublin Pharmacopoeias is a solution of the carbonate of ammonia; but that ofthe Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia contains caustic ammonia. The London College gives the following formula:—Hydrochlorate of Ammonia, t!|v.; Car- bonate of Potash, §viij.; Cinnamon, bruised ; Cloves, bruised, of each gij.; Lemon Peel, £iv.; Rectified Spirit; Water, of each, Oiv. Mix them, and let six pints distil.— In this process double decomposition takes place, as already noticed, and the carbonate of ammonia distils over with the spirit and part of the water flavoured by the essential oi s of the aromatics used. (The same formula has been adopted by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, which directs, the distil- lation over of seven pints and a-half.) The Dublin College orders spirit of Ammonia, Oij. [wine measure;] Essential Oil of Lemons, 3:.j.; Nutmegs bruised, gss.; Cinnamon Bark, bruised, 3iij. Macerate in a close vessel for three days, shaking occasionally ; then distil a pint and a half. The Edinburgh College orders of Spirit of Ammonia, f^viij.; Volatile Oil of Lemon-peel, &]'•» Volatile Oil of Rosemary, f3iss. Dissolve the oils in the spirit by agitation. This preparation on account of its more agreeable taste and smell, is usually preferred to the Spiritus Ammonias above noticed, than which it is somewhat weaker. It is frequently employed in languors, faintings, hysteria, flatulent colic, and nervous debility, in doses of from fjss. to f3ij. properly diluted with water. 8. AMMO'NLE SESQUICAR'BONAS, L.—SESQUICARBONATE OF AMMONIA, E. (Ammonia? Carbonas, E. D.)(V. S.) History.—This salt was probably known to Raymond Lully; but until late years it has been confounded with the other carbonates of ammonia. It is fre- sesquicarbonate of ammonia. 283 quently denominated subcarbonate of ammonia, volatile, or smelling salts, or baker's salt. The last appellation has been given to it because of its use by bakers, as a substitute for yeast, in the manufacture of some ofthe finer kinds of ^t i's probable that the terms sal alkali volatile siccum sen urinosum, sal vola- tile salts ammoniaci, and sal volatile cornu cervi, applied to this rather than any other carbonate of ammonia. . Natural H.sTORY.-See Ammonia (p. 271,) and Ammoniae Carbonas (p. 280.) Preparation.—Manufacturers prepare it by submitting to sublimation a mixture of sal ammoniac or impure sulphate of ammonia and chalk. A few years since, it was extensively made at Messrs. Bush & Co.'s Bow Common. The retorts in which the sublimation was effected, were of cast iron, and similar in shape and size to those employed in the manufacture of coal gas. Each retort com- municated posteriorly with a leaden receiver, with which was connected a se- cond receiver of the same size and shape. The receivers had the form of square prisms placed endways, and were supported in a wooden frame-work. 1 lie im- pure sesquicarbonate thus obtained was contaminated with tar or oily matter, and deposited a dark carbonaceous matter when dissolved in acids. It was refined in iron pots, surmounted with leaden heads, and heated by the flue of the retort furnace. A little water is introduced into the pots to render the sesquicarbonate translucent. In another manufactory, which I have inspected, the pots are heated by a water-bath; a temperature of 150° F. being, I am informed, sufficient for this process. All the British Colleges give formulas for the preparation of this salt. The London and Edinburgh Colleges order of Hydrochlorate of Ammonia, ftj., and Chalk ftiss. These are to be rubbed separately to powder, then mixed, and submitted to sublimation with a heat gradually increased. The Dublin College orders equal parts of Muriate of Ammonia, and dried Carbonate of Soda. In this process three equivalents or 162 parts of sal ammoniac react on three equivalents or 150 parts of carbonate of lime, and produce an equivalent or 118 parts ofthe hydrated sesquicarbonate of ammonia, three equivalents or 168 parts of chloride of calcium, one equivalent or 17 parts of ammonia, and one equiva- lent or 9 parts of water. The chloride of calcium is left in the retort, the hy- drated sesquicarbonate of ammonia is sublimed, while the ammonia and the water are dissipated. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. PRODUCT?. t p„ HvHm t 3 Hydrochlo- \ 3 eq. Hydr. 3 ______ ( ] eq. Water 9-------1 p1- Water...... 9 chlorate ) _™ ■*£« mJ 3 ea- Chlor- ™? ^TV 1 W»':.t-T.1S Amm i tl eq. Ammonia .......... IT ..7^/..........................i, .....leq. Ammonia... 17 \ s Amm- 16- (2 eq. Ammonia .......... 34 ... /^L \ '3 •x on r«rh ( 3 e1- °arh Acid........... 66 /-—.............r!3=^.:::.-.-.-:~r.-^l eq Hydd. Sesqui- 1hnc 150 i 3 ea Lime 84 * 3 ^ 0iy^ 24 ^™ ^^ Amm.....ng Lime, 150^ 3 eq. Lime. Si / 3 cq Calc c0 ------------------_^=-3 eq. Chlor.Calc... 108 312 312 / 31-2 It appears from some experiments, presently to be noticed, that the compound called hy- drated sesquicarbonate of ammonia is a double salt, consisting of one equivalent of anhydrous carbonate of ammonia (NH3, CO2) and one equivalent of hydrated bicarbonate of ammonia (Nil3, 2 CO2, 2 HO.) Now in general; when two neutral salts react on each other, the result- ing compounds are also neutral; anjli'therefore, by the mutual action of 3 equivalents of hy. drochlor.ite of ammonia and 3 equivalents of carbonate of lime, the calculated products should be 3 equivalents of hydrated neutral carbonate of ammonia (NH3, CO2, HO,) called hypothe- tically carbonate of the oxide of ammonium, and 3 equivalents of chloride of calcium. But it appears from Rose's experiments (Taylor's Scientific Memoirs, vol. ii.) that such a hydrated neutral carbonate of ammonia does not exist per se. Hence at the commencement ofthe heat- ing process ammoniacal gas escapes with just so much water as is sufficient to fortn the hy- pothetical oxide of ammonium. Hydrated sesquicarbonate of ammonia cannot be re-sublimed unchanged. Hence in the process of refining, its constitution changes; every two equivalents 284 elements of materia medica. lose an equivalent of carbonic acid, and the product is a hydrated £ carbonate of ammonia. MATERIAL. COMPOSITION. !1 eq. Carbonic Acid 22- 5 eq. Carbonic Acid 110 1 1 eq. Ammonia .... 68 > 4 cq. Water....... 36 ) ~236 236 Properties.—Hydrated sesquicarbonate of ammonia is met with in the form of fibrous, white, translucent cakes, about two inches thick. When exposed to the air it evolves carbonate of ammonia, and is converted into bicarbonate of ammo- nia; so that its vapour has a pungent odour, and strongly reddens turmeric paper. The resulting hydrated bicarbonate is opaque, pulverulent, and much less pun- gent, from which it has been termed mild carbonate of ammonia. The sesqui- carbonate is soluble in four times its Aveight of cold water; but boiling water or alcohol decomposes it, with the evolution of carbonic acid. Characteristics.—As an ammoniacal salt, this substance is recognised by its odour, its fugacious action on turmeric paper, and by its action on the salts of copper, bichloride of platinum, and bichloiide of mercury (see tests for ammonia, p. 272.) As a carbonate it is known by its solution yielding a white precipitate (carbonate of baryta) with the chloride of barium: the clear liquor from which this precipitate has subsided, yields a farther precipitate on the addition of caustic ammonia. By this last character the sesquicarbonate is distinguished from the neutral carbonate. Composition.—This salt consists, according to Mr. Phillips, (Quarterly Jour- nal of Science, vol. vii. p. 294.) Dr. Thomson, and Rose, of carbonic acid, am- monia, and water, in the following proportions:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Centage. R. Phillips. Carbonic Acid.......................... 3 ........ 66 ........ 5593 ........ 542 Ammonia.....:........................ 2 ........ 34 ........ 2e-r-1 ........ 29-3 Water.................................. 2 ........ 18 ........ 1526........ 165 Hydrated Sesquicarbonate of Ammonia.. 1 ........118 ........ 10000 ........1000 It appears, however, from the observations of Dalton (Memoirs ofthe Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester, 2nd Ser. vol. iii. p. 18.) and Scanlan, (Athenaeum for 1838, p. 596.) that it is not a single salt or true sesquicarbonate, but a mixture or compound of the carbonate and bicarbonate; for if treated with a small quantity of cold water, a solution of carbonate of ammonia is obtained, while a mass of bicarbonate having the form and dimensions of the sesquicar- bonate employed, and of which it is a mere skeleton, is left. Two circumstances appear to me to prove that it is not a mere mixture, but a true chemical combina- tion of these salts; viz. first the uniformity of its composition, and secondly its crystalline structure. Its constitution, then, is as follows:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Anhydrous Carbonate of Ammonia.................... 1 ........ 39........ 33-05 Hydrated Bicarbonate of Ammonia.................... 1 ........ 79 ........ 66-95 Hydrated Sesquicarbonate of Ammonia................ 1 ........ 118 ........ 100-00 Impurity.—The hydrated sesquicarbonate of ammonia of commerce is some- times contaminated with empyreumatic oil, and in this state it yields a more or less deeply-coloured, or even blackish, solution when dissolved in dilute acid. The pure salt, on the other hand, yields a colourless solution, and leaves no resi- duum when heated on platinum or glass. It is translucent and crystalline; but when exposed to the air it evolves carbonate of ammonia, and becomes opaque, pulverulent, and less pungent: in this state it consists piincipally of bicarbonate of ammonia. Lastly, its aqueous solution, saturated with pure nitric acid, gives no precipitate with solution of chloride of barium or of nitrate of silver; for a PRODUCTS. —1 eq. Carbonic Acid 22 — 1 eq. Hydrated | Carbte. of Ammonia 214 236 sesquicarbonate of ammonia. 285 precipitate with the first of these substances would indicate the presence of a sulphate, with the second a chloride. . • , • 0„,0„c „,:♦}, Physiological Effects. «. On Animals.-The principal experimenters with this salt are Seybert, Orfila, and Gaspard, on dogs, and Wibmer on man. Sey- bert (Quoted by Wibmer, Die Wirkung, &c.) injected in one experiment fifteen grains, in a second twenty-five grains; and in a third experiment forty-five grains of this salt, dissolved in a little water, into the crural vein of a dog: the animal appeared to suffer great pain; the frequency of the heart's action was increased the respiration became difficult, and violent convulsions came on; but in all these cases perfect recovery took place. The blood, drawn after the injection, had its natural colour, odour, and consistence. Orfila (Toxicol. Generate.)i found that two drachms and a-half of the salt, given to a dog, caused gastric inflammation, with tetanic convulsions; the body ultimately becoming curved with the head forcibly bent backwards. Gaspard, quoted by Wibmer, (Die Mtrkung, &c.) killed a young pig, of three weeks old, by injecting twenty-four drops of (a solu- tion of) carbonate of ammonia in an ounce of water into the veins. Death oc- curred in nine hours. , /3. On Man.—Wibmer found that a grain and a-half of this salt produced on himself no remarkable effect; three grains increased the frequency of the pulse from 68 to 72 beats per minute, with throbbing headach. In other experiments, in which he took from six to twelve grains (in some repeating the dose at short intervals,) the effects were usually, but not constantly, increased frequency of pulse, with disorder of brain, manifested by the pain, heaviness, throbbing, &c. In one instance, he says, disposition to cough, and increased secretion of bron- chial mucus, were remarkable. To an epileptic patient (a female) in the London Hospital, I gave fifteen grains of this salt three times a day for two months, without any apparent injury. The fits, which previously had occurred at stated periods, were suspended during the time the patient was under the influence of the medicine. Huxham (Essay on Fevers, pp. 48 and 308, 3d edit. 1757.) has mentioned a remarkable case illustrative of the ill effects resulting from the long- continued use of this salt. "I had lately under my care," he observes, "a gentleman of fortune and family, who so habituated himself to the use of vast quantities of the volatile salts, that at length he could eat them in a very astonishing manner, as other people eat sugar and caraway seeds. The consequence was that he brought on a hectic fever, vast haemorrhages from the intestines, nose, and gums; every one of his teeth dropped out, and he could eat nothing solid ; he wasted vastly in his flesh, and his muscles became as soft and flabby as those of a new burn infant; and he broke out all over his body in pustules. His urine was always excessively high coloured, turbid, and very fetid. He was at last persuaded to leave off this pernicious custom; but he had so effectually ruined his constitution, that, though he rubbed on in a miserable manner for several months, he died, and in the highest degree, of marasmus. And I am persuaded he would have died much sooner, had he not constantly drank very freely of the most fine and generous wines, and daily used large quantities of asses' milk, and anti-scorbutic juices, aci- dulated with juice of lemon." The general action of this salt is similar to that of caustic ammonia, already noticed. Its topical operation, however, is less intense; for combination with carbonic acid diminishes the local action of ammonia in proportion to the quan- tity of acid present. In small doses it proves antacid, stimulant, and sudorific. By repeated use it operates as a liquefacient (see p. 194,) like the other alkalis, though much less intensely so. In doses of thirty grains or more it is apt to occasion vomiting. The effects of an over-dose are abdominal pains, and other symptoms of inflam- mation, convulsions, and other phenomena indicative of its action on the nervous system. Uses.—It is U3ed in the same cases and under the sa"me regulations as the solu- tion of ammonia, to which I must refer the reader (see p. 277.) Recently this salt has been recommended, by Dr. Barlow, (Guy's Hospital 286 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Reports, vol. v.) in diabetes, several cases of which are said to have been relieved, if not cured, by it. I regret that I cannot confirm Dr. Barlow's favourable no- tice of it. In one case (that of a man, an out-patient at the London Hospital) it has, in my hands, failed to give any relief, after a prolonged trial. It has been employed with excellent effect in some cases of scrofula.* It is best adapted for those cases attended with a languid circulation and a dry state of skin. It is frequently employed for the preparation of effervescing draughts. The following are the relative proportions of acid and base to be used:— ' r 6 fluid-drachm?! of Lemon Juice, or 20 grains of Sesquicarbonate of Ammonia >24 grajns of crystallized Citric Acid, or require...............................\ 35^ grains of cr.\stallized Tartaric Acid. The citrate and tartrate of ammonia thus obtained are useful remedies in febrile cases, where the object is to promote cutaneous circulation and exhalation. Full doses of this salt have been employed in paralysis, to occasion vo- miting. Mixed with some aromatic oil (as the oil of bergamot or lavender,) it is used as a smelling salt, against syncope, hysteria, &c. As a topical agent it has been employed in aqueous solution, or mixed with oil to form an imperfect kind of soap, or made into ointment with lard. Its ope- ration in these cases is that of a topical stimulant and rubefacient. It proves useful in rheumatic pains, sprains, &c. Administration.—As a stimulant and diaphoretic, it is used in doses of from five grains to a scruple, exhibited either in the form of pill or of solution. As an emetic, the dose is 30 grains, properly diluted, and repeated if necessary. Antidotes.—(See Ammonia, p. 279.) 1. LIQUOR AMOMAE SESQUICARBONATIS, L. Ammonia: Carbonalis Agua,E. D. (Sesquicarbonate of Ammonia, 3iv. [4 parts, D.;~] Distilled Water, Oj. [15 parts, D.~] Dissolve and filter.)—By exposure to the air, this solution loses its pungency by the formation of bicarbonate of ammonia. It may be given inter- nally in doses of from f3ss. to f3iss., or even f3ij. properly diluted. It is em- ployed in the preparation of Ferri Potassio-tartras, Ph. L., and is a constituent of the following liniment:— 2. LfiiDIEMDI AMOMAE SESQ.UICARB0MT1S, L. Liniment of Sesquicarbonate of Ammonia. (Solution of Sesquicarbonate of Ammonia, f 3j-5 Olive Oil, f 3iij- Shake them together until they are mixed.)—Oil and sesquicarbonate of ammonia form a soap, but owing to the presence of the carbonic acid, it is of an imperfect kind. Its effects and uses are analogous to the Linimentum Ammoniae before mentioned (p. 279.) 9. AMMO'XIiE BICAR'DONAS, D.—BICARBONATE OF AMMONIA. History.—This salt was formed by Berthollet, and hence it is sometimes termed Berthollet'1s neutral carbonate of ammonia. Preparation.—The directions ofthe Dublin College for its preparation, are as follows:— "Take of Water of Carbonate of Ammonia any required quantity. In a suitable apparatus let the water be exposed, until the alkali is saturated, to tne stream of Carbonic Acid Gas which escapes during the solution of white marble in diluted Muriatic Acid. Then let it rest, and let crystals form, which are to be dried without heat, and preserved in a close vessel." Bicarbonate of Ammonia is also formed by keeping the common sesquicar- bonate of ammonia in imperfectly closed vessels. Another mode of obtaining it ' An Essay on Scrofula; in which an Account of the Effect of the Ammonia; Carbonai, as a Remedy in that Disease, is submitted to the Profession. By Cliarlcs Armstrong, M.D. Lond. if 12. HYDROCHLORATE OP AMMONIA. 287 is by digesting water on the sesquicarbonate: the more soluble carbonate is dis- solved, leaving the less soluble bicarbonate (see p. 284.) Properties.—The crystals of this salt belong to the right rhombic system. (See Rose's paper, in Taylor's Scientific Memoirs, vol. ii.) Their smell and taste are very faintly ammoniacal. This salt is less soluble in water than the preceding carbonates; for it requires eight parts of cold water to dissolve it The solution, by exposure to the air, loses part of its carbonic acid, especially it it be ^Characteristics.—It is distinguished from the before-mentioned carbonates by having scarcely any ammoniacal odour. Its solution at first occasions no preci- pitate with chloride of barium or chloride of calcium (unless caustic ammonia be added:) after a short time, however, the mixture evolves carbonic acid, and a white earthy carbonate is precipitated. Composition.—The composition of this salt is as follows:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. .. 17 . .. 14 . .. 18 Per Cent. .. 21-5 .. .. 55-7 .. .. 22-8 .. Phillips. .. 2116 .. .. 55-50 .. .. 23-34 .. Rose. .. 21-39 .. 56-09 .. 22-52 Carbonic Acid gas. Vols. . 2 . 2 . 9. Crystallized Ilicarbonate. ( . .. 79 .. 100-0 .. .. 100-00 .. .. 100-00 Physiological Effects and Uses.—The operation and uses of this salt are ana- logous to those of the preceding compounds of ammonia. It is termed diapho- retic, antispasmodic, and antacid. Being less caustic, it is more palatable than the other carbonates. It may be employed to form effervescing medicines. About 18 grs. of Citric, or 19 grs. of Tartaric Acid, are required to saturate 9j. of this salt. Administration.—The dose of it is from six to twenty-four grains, dissolved in cold water. 10. AMMO'NLE HYDROCHLO'RAS, L.—HYDROCHLORATE OF AMMONIA, E. (Ammoniae Murias, E. D.) (U. S.) History.—The early history of this salt is involved in considerable obscurity; for though the term sal ammoniacus («Ar ccwmikot) is met with in several old writers, it is believed, by the erudite Beckmann (History of Inventions, vol. iv. p. 306. Lond. 1814.) as well as by others, to refer to rock-salt. The first distinct notice of hydrochlorate of ammonia is to be met with in Geber, who was acquainted with the mode of purifying it by sublimation. But as my friend Dr. Royle observes, (Essay on the Antiquity of Hindoo Medicine, p. 41. Lond. 1837.) this salt "must have been familiar to the Hindoos ever since they have burnt bricks, as they now do, with the manure of animals; as some may usually be found crystallized at the unburnt extremity ofthe kiln." The substance, whatever its nature may be, which the ancients termed sal ammoniac, derived its name from Ammonia, the name of a district of Libya where the oracle of Jupiter Ammon was situated. This district took its name fiom ctf4.i4.tr, sand, on account of the sandy nature of its soil. Herodotus (Lib. iv., [Melpomene,'] cap. 181 et 182.) mentions the salt found in this district. Synonymes.—Few substances have had so many synonymes as this salt. Be- sides those above given, the most familiar are, sal ammoniac or muriate of ammonia. On the ammonium hypothesis it is called chloride of ammonium, (MI,4 CI.,) while, according to Dr. Kane, it is chloro-amidide of hydrogen (MI,9 II, II CI.)1 Natural History:—(See Ammonia, p 271.) ■ For tlie alrlivmical namos of this substance, See Dr. T. Thomson's History of Chemistry, vol. i. p. 125. Lond. 1K10; and Parr's Medical Dictionary, art. Armoniacus. 283 ELEMENTS of materia medica. Preparation.—In Egypt, Sal Ammoniac is obtained by sublimation from the soot afforded by the combustion of camel's dung.1 It is probable that the muriatic acid or chlorine of this salt is derived from the common salt on which these animals feed; for Chaptal (Elements of Chemistry, vol. i. p. 262. Lond. 1791.) says that he could only procure sal ammoniac from the soot of cow-dung and that of horses while these animals continued to live on marine plants. Some years ago this salt was manufactured in London from the soot of coals. At the latter end of the last century it was made in Paris by the union of ammo- niacal vapour (obtained by the decomposition of animal matters, in iron cylindeis placed in a furnace) with muriatic acid gas. (See Journal de Physique for 1794.—Also Parkes, op. supra cit.) At the present time sal ammoniac is manufactured in this country from the impure ammoniacal liquors obtained as secondary products in the manufacture of coal gas and animal charcoal. 1« Manufacture of Sal Ammoniac from Coals.—In the manufacture of COal gas, coal is submitted to distillation in iron retorts, and the volatile matters obtained are conveyed to a condensing vessel or refrigeratory, in which are deposited tar and an ammoniacal liquor. This ammoniacal liquor (commonly termed gas liquor) contains several salts of ammonia—such as carbonate, hydrocyanate, sulphate, and hydrosulphate. It is usually sold to sal ammoniac manufacturers, who reside in the outskirts ofthe metropolis. The precise mode of proceeding, to convert it into sal ammoniac, varies according to circumstances. Sometimes sulphuric acid is added, and the liquor evaporated, by which brown crystals of sulphate of ammonia are obtained. This salt is then mixed with chloride of sodium, and submitted to distillation in iron pots lined with clay, to which is adopted a leaden dome or head, having an aperture or open cylindrical tube, which can be closed or opened according to circumstances. A few years since I saw this process in operation at the Westminster Gas-works. On ex- amining the clay removed from the pots after the operation, I discovered small, but perfect and beautiful, crystals ofthe bisulphuret of iron, which had been formed during the process. Every equivalent or 66 parts of sulphate of ammonia react on one equivalent or 60 parts of chloride of sodium, and yield one equivalent or 54 parts of sal ammoniac, and one equivalent or 72 parts of sulphate of soda. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. C 1 eq. Ammonia.............. 17 I eq. Sulphate of ! i eq_ Sulphuric Acid......... 40 Ammonia ...60] n , I eq. Hydrog. I < 1 eq. Water 9 ) * " e I I tq. Oxygen S leq. Chloride ( eq. Chlorine................ 36 ofSodium.. 60 j eq. Sodium ,................ 24 1-1IS 126 In some cases the gas liquor is saturated with hydrochloric acid, and the brown crystals of hydrochlorate of ammonia obtained by evaporation are purified by sublimation. As a cheap substitute for hydrochloric acid, manufacturers sometimes employ chloride of calcium.3 This proceeding I have seen adopted at the manufactory of Messrs. Bush & Co., Bow Common. The process has been described by my friend and former pupil, Dr. G. II. Jackson. (London Medical Gazette, Aug. 4, 1839.) i A very full and complete description of the process, with illustrative plates, will be found in the splendid Description de VEgypte. Etat Moderne, torn. i. p. 413. Paris, 1809; Planches ii. and xxiv. Arts et Metiers. See also Parke's Chemical Es'suys, ed. 2nd, vol. ii. p. 437. Lond. 1823. ■> The chloride of calcium used in the above process is a secondary product obtained, I am informed, from salt-works. It contains the chlorides of sodium and magnesium. 1 eq, Hydrochlor. Ammonia .... 54 -:J3»1 eq. Sulphate Soda..... 72 126 HYDROCHLORATE OF AMMONIA. 289 To the gas liquor, chloride of calcium is added, when a copious precipitation of carbonate of lime takes place, muriate of ammonia being left in solution. The whole of this is put into a tub, having holes in the bottom to allow the solution to drain through, leaving the solid particles behind. This solution is evaporated at a gentle temperature in iron tanks, when it yields impure crystals of muriate of ammonia, of a brownish colour. The salt is then dried, and the water of crys- tallization driven off in a long iron vessel, very similar to a sand-bath. It is now placed in an iron subliming pot, (previously coated to the extent of Irom one to five inches in thickness, with a composition of common clay, sand, and char- coal,) capable of holding about 5 cwts. This is covered by a dome of lead, with an aperture at the top, in which a stopper is placed, by the removal and appear- ance of which the manufacturer judges of the progress of the sublimation. A gentle fire is kept up under the subliming pot for seven or eight days, when the dome having cooled down, and the sal ammoniac somewhat contracted, so as to loosen from the sides, the dome is thrown off from the iron pot, and about 2 or 3 cwts. of white, semi-transparent, muriate of ammonia are knocked off in cakes. I have seen cakes of sal ammoniac, made at Messrs. Bush & Co's by this pro- cess, weighing between 5 and 6 cwts. each; and I am informed that they some- times weigh 1000 lbs. each. They are discoloured on their convex surface, (in contact with the leaden dome,) and are, therefore, carefully scraped before being sent out. The gray salt scraped from the exterior of the cakes consists of, or at least yields, hydro- chloric acid, ammonia, and lead. A solution of the purified salt yields no iodide of lead on the addition of iodide of potassium, but affords a black precipitate (sulphuret of lead) when sulphuretted hydrogen gas is passed through it. It is probably a double chloride of lead and ammonium. (Dr. Jackson, Ibid.) Yellow or brownish streaks or bands are frequently observed in the cakes of sal ammoniac. These are ascribed by the manufacturers to the neglect of the workmen who, falling asleep during the night, allow the fire to go down con- siderably, and then suddenly raise the heat, by which chloride of iron is sublimed in combination with sal ammoniac. For several years I have been accustomed to show, in the lecture-room, that a solution of these yellow bands in water gives no traces of iron on the addition of ferrocyanide of potas- sium, until a few drops of nitric acid be ad'ed, when a copious blue precipitate is formed; and I, therefore, inferred that this yellow matter was a double chloride of iron and ammonium. My opinion has been fully confirmed by the experiments of Dr. G. II. Jackson. 3. Manufacture of Sal Ammoniac from Bones.---Animal charcoal is extensively manufactured from bones for the use of sugar-refiners; and during the process an ammoniacal liquor (called bone spirit) is obtained as a secondary product. The operation is thus conducted. Bones are first boiled to remove the fatty matter which is used in soap-making. The larger and finer pieces are then selected for the manufacture of buttons, handles of knives and tooth-brushes, &c: while the smaller and refuse portions are sold as manure. The remainder is submitted to distillation. The stills or retorts are sometimes made of cast iron, and in shape and size resemble those used at gas-works. Formerly they were placed horizontally in the furnace,'1 and the volatile matters were conveyed away by a pipe opening into the ends of the retorts. To facilitate the speedy removal of the charcoal, they are sometimes placed obliquely in the furnace: the bones are introduced at the upper end, and the charcoal is removed from the lower end;—while the vola- tile matters are conveyed away by a side pipe. But these retorts are considered inferior to the vertical ones, on account of the facility and speed with which the latter can be charged and discharged. The vertical stills or retorts are made of cast iron or of Welch bricks; the latter, I am informed, are preferable. In a large manufactory of animal charcoal in this metropolis, the shape of the retort 1 See Uru'a Dictionary of Arts and Manufactures, p. 1081, figs. 954 and 955. Lond. 1839. Vol. I.—37 290 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. is that of a right rectangular prism; its height being twenty feet, its length about three feet, and its breadth two feet. It is closed at the top by a moveable iron plate, secured by a screw bolt. It is closed below by a double trap-door opening underground. Around the retort is a furnace of brickwork, whose shape is that of a truncated pyramid. The bones are introduced at the upper end of the retort. The volatile products are conveyed away by an iron pipe. After passing through a cistern they are conveyed to a series of receivers, where the brown ammoniacal liquor (bone spirit) and the empyreumatic oil (animal oil) are deposited. The non-condensable portion is a fetid inflammable gas: this, after passing through water contained in the second receiver, is conveyed into a chimney, or is burned. The solid re- sidue in the retort is removed, while red hot, through the lower and underground end of the retort, into wrought-iron canisters, which are instantly closed by iron covers, luted to make them air-tight, and then raised to the surface by a crane. When cold it is ground, and sold as animal bone, or ivory black. The products of this operation are easily accounted for. When bones are heated, their cartilaginous or gelatinous portion undergoes decomposition, and its elements (carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen) enter into new combinations. Some of the oxygen and hydrogen unite to form water. Carbon and oxygen, combining in different proportions, furnish carbonic oxide and acid. Carbon with hydrogen forms carbohydrogen; while nitrogen uniting with hydrogen pro- duces ammonia, which, with some carbonic acid, forms carbonate of ammonia. The empyreumatic or animal oil consists of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with probably some nitrogen. Manufacturers of animal charcoal usually soil their bone spirit to makers of sal ammoniac, who adopt different modes of proceeding, according to circum- stances. Sometimes sal ammoniac is made from bone spirit in the same way as from gas liquor. Some manufacturers digest the bone spirit with ground plaster of Paris (sulphate of lime,) by which carbonate of lime and sulphate of ammonia are formed; the former is precipitated, the latter remains in solution. The liquor being filtered and evaporated yields brown crystals of sulphate of ammonia, which, being mixed with common salt, is submitted to sublimation, by which sul- phate of soda and sal ammoniac are obtained. Properties.—Hydrochloiate of ammonia usually occurs in commerce in the form of large hemispherical cakes, which are translucent, and by exposure to the atmosphere become slightly moist. By solution or sublimation it may be ob- tained in regular octohedral, or cubic, or plumose crystals: the latter are formed of rows of minute octahedrons, attached by their extremities (Graham.) Its sp. gr. is 1-450. Its taste is saline and acrid; it has no odour. When heated, it sub- limes without undergoing fusion or decomposition. It is soluble in about 3 parts of cold and 1 of boiling water: cold being produced during the solution. It dis- solves in alcohol. Characteristics.—It may be recognised by the following characters: it is white and volatile; and if heated on the point of a knife by the flame of a candle, it readily sublimes. Mixed with caustic potash, or quicklime, it evolves ammonia- cal gas, which is known by its odour, its action on turmeric paper, and its fuming with the vapour of hydrochloric acid. Dissolved in water the hydrochlorate of ammonia produces, with a solution of nitrate of silver, a white precipitate of chlo- ride of silver, recognised by the properties before described (see p. 226:) and with bichloride of platinum a yellow precipitate platino-bichloride of ammonia) which, when collected, dried and ignited, yields spongy platinum. Composition.—The following is the composition of this salt:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Ct Kirwan. Buchoh. Berztl. Vol. 8p.gr Ammonia............ Hydrochloric Acid.... . 1 .. . 1 .. .. 17 . .. 37 .. .. 31-48 .. .. 68-51 .. .. 25 .. .. 75 .. ..31 .. .. 69 .. .. 31-95 .. 6805 Ammoniacal gas....... Hydrochloric Acid gas. . 2 . . 2 . . 0-590 . 1-284 Hydrochlorate Amm. 1 .. .. 54 .. . 10000 . . 1C0 . . 100. . . 100-00 HUDROCHLORATE of ammonia. 291 If one equivalent or two volumes of hydrochloric acid gas be mixed with one equivalent or two volumes of ammoniacal gas, combination is effected; the gases disappear, heat is evolved, and the white hydrochlorate is deposited. Analogy would lead us to regard this salt as a chloride of some metallic base. If such a base exist, it must con- sist of one equivalent nitrogen and four equivalents hydro- gen. Berzelius assumes the existence of this hypothetical metallic base, and calls it ammonium, while sal ammoniac is termed by him chloride of ammonium. The protoxide of thi* hypothetical metal will be equal to an equivalent of ammonia and one of water. I have already referred to Dr. Kane's amidogen hypothesis of ammonia; and stated that, according to this view, sal ammoniac is a chloro-amidide of hy- drogen. The composition of sal ammoniac, according to these hypothetical notions, is as follows:— 1 eq. 1 eq. Ammonia Hydroch!. = 17 Acid = 37 Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Ct Atoms. Eq. Wt.' Per Ct. Chlorine..... Ammonium.. .. 1 .. 1 ... 36 ... ... 18 ... 66-6 53-3 Chloride of Hydrogen.............1......37 Amidide of Hydrogen.............1...... 17 31-48 6851 Chloride of Ammonium... 1 Chloro-amidide of Hydrogen. 54.....10000 Impurities.—The hydrochlorate of ammonia is sometimes rendered impure by the presence of iron, or of lead (see p. 389.) Physiological Effects. <*. On Vegetable^.— According to Sir H. Davy, (Agricultural Chemistry.) water holding in solution 1-300 of it3 weight of hy- drochlorate of ammonia promotes vegetation. Solutions which contained 1-30 of their weight of this salt he found injurious. /3. On Animals.—A solution of sal ammoniac mixed with the. blood drawn from the body produces no change in the size or shape of the blood-disks. Courten, (Phil. Trans, for 1712.) Sprb'gel, Viborg, and Gaspard (quoted by Wibmer,) (Die Wirkung, &c.) injected solutions of sal ammoniac into the veins of animals (dogs and horses:) large doses generally caused convulsions, sometimes paralysis, and death. From the observations of Orfila, Smith, Arnold, (Wibmer, Op. cit.) and Moiroud, (Pharmacol. Veterinaire.) this salt appears to be a local irritant, and when introduced into the stomach in large quantities causes vomiting, purging, and gastro-enteritis. It exercises a specific influence over distant organs, for the first three of the above-mentioned experimenters observed that inflamma- tion of the stomach ensued, to whatever part of the body the salt might have been applied, and the convulsions and paralysis before referred to, attest its action on the nervous system. Arnold says it diminishes the plasticity of the blood. y. On Man.—Wibmer tried this salt on himself. He took from ten to twenty grains for a dose, whicli he repeated at the end of an hour. The effects were a sensation of warmth and oppression in the stomach, headach,'and increased desire of passing the urine. In this country it is so rarely employed internally that we have very slight experience either of its physiological or of its therapeutical effects. In Germany, where it is more frequently administered, it is in high repute as a powerful alte- rative or resolvent. (See "p. 195.) "Like most salts," says Sundelin, (Hand- buch der speciellen Heilmittdhhre, lerBd. S. 150, 3te Aufl.) " sal ammoniac ope- rates on the alimentary canal as an excito-irritant. After its absorption it appears to reduce moderately the action of the heart and large arteries, and, in this re- spect, belongs to debilitating or temperant agents. But it acts as excitant and irritant to the venous and arterial capillary systems, to the lymphatic vessels and glands, to the skin, to the kidneys, and especially to the mucous membranes; not only increasing secretion but also improving nutrition and assimilation, and coun- teracting organic abnormal conditions (as tumours, thickenings, and relaxations,) 292 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. so frequently met with in those structures. It promotes not only the mucous secretions but also cutaneous exhalation, and even menstruation. Its diuretic effects are less obvious. It extends its stimulating influence to the serous and fibrous tissues, whose nutrition it improves. " From these statements it follows that sal ammoniac operates like the more- profoundly-acting alterative agents, and even approaches, in many respects, mer- cury, but is especially distinguished from the latter in this, that it by no means acts to such a degree as a liquefacient, nay even melting, agent on solidified organic substance and its crasis, and by its not so powerfully stimulating the lymphatic system. Its long-continued use may, indeed, injure the digestive powers, but never gives rise to general cachexia. I have administered large doses of it against thickening of the mucous membrane, for months, without re- marking any injurious effects beyond those jnst mentioned. In large doses it purges like other salts, but in small ones rather constipates." Kraus (Heilmittellehre, S. 309.' Gcttingen, 1831.) says, that a slight miliary eruption and very painful aphthae have been produced by large doses of it. Uses.—In this country it is rarely employed internally. In Germany, where it is frequently used, it is administered in the following cases:— 1. In mild inflammatory fevers, especially these complicated with affections of the mucous or fibrous membranes, as in the diseases called bilious, gastric, catarrhal or rheumatic, fevers, it is employed for promoting secretion and hasten- ing critical discharges. 2. In inflammation of the mucous or serous membranes, as catarrh, dysentery, urethritis, peritonitis, pleuritis, &c. when the first violence of the disease has been subdued, but when the secretions and exhalations are not yet established. In these cases it is used as a substitute for mercury. 3. In chronic diseases of various kinds, as chronic inflammation of the lungs, liver, and spleen—enlargement of the mesenteric glands—induration of the pros- tate, uterus, and ovaries—catarrhus vesicae—chronic ulceration of the uterus— mucous discharges from the urethra and vagina, it is administered as an altera- tive, as a stimulant to the absorbent system, and as a promoter of healthy secre- tion. 4. In amenorrhoea it is strongly recommended by Sundelin (Op. cit.) as an emmenagogue, in those cases in which the disease depends on, or is connected with, inactivity of the uterus. Externally it is sometimes employed, on account of the cold produced during its solution, in headach, inflammatory affections of the brain, mania, apoplexy, &c. When used for this purpose it must be applied as soon as the salt is dis- solved. Mr. Walker (Phil. Trans. 1801, p. 120.) found that five parts of this salt, with five parts of nitrate of potash and sixteen parts of water, lowered the thermometer from 50° to 10° F. A mixture of this kind placed in a bladder has been recommended by Sir A. Cooper as an application to hernial tumours, as 1 have already mentioned (see p. 68.) It may be applied, instead of the ice-cap before noticed (p. 68,) to the head. As a stimulant and resolvent, or discutient, sal ammoniac is used in the form of plaster or lotion (see below.) In powder, it is sometimes employed as a denti- frice. A solution of 3ss. in f3xij. of water is sometimes used as a gargle. It is occasionally used to augment the solubility of bichloride of mercury, with which it combines to form a soluble double salt (see Liquor Hydrargyri Bichlo- ridi.) Tobacconists use it in the manufacture of snuff. Administration.—For internal use the dose of it is from five to thirty grains every two or three hours, either in a pulverulent form, combined with sugar or gum, or in solution with some saccharine or mucilaginous solution, to which an aromatic should be added. Antidote.—In the event of poisoning by this salt, warm water and mucilagi- nous and demulcent liquids should be given, to promote vomiting. No chemical SOLUTION OF ACETATE OF AMMONIA. 293 antidote or counterpoison is known. Gastro-enteritis is, of course, to be com- bated by the usual means. 1. LOTIO AMONIAE HYDROCHLORATIS. Muriate of Ammonia Wash.— A solu- tion of sal ammoniac, in water or in vinegar, with or without the addition of rectified spirit, is used as a resolvent or discutient lotion or embrocation. 1 he proportions of the ingredients vary according to circumstances. When a strong lotion is required, from one to two ounces of the salt are dissolved in twelve fluid ounces of liquid. Four ounces of rectified spirit are sometimes added. A wash of this strength is used in contusions and ecchymosis, when there is no wound of the skin;—in chronic tumours of the breast;—in white swellings, and other chronic affections of the joints;—in hydrocele, and dropsical enlargement of the thyroid gland;—in chilblains;—in sphacelus, after the requisite scarifications, &c. Weaker solulions (as from 3j. to 3iv. of the salt in Oj. of water) are em- ployed as washes in scabies and ulcers; and as injections in gonorrhoea and leu- corrhfea. I E1IPLASTRIJM AMMONL/E HYDROCHLORATIS. Sal Ammoniac Plaster. Lead plaster 3ss., Soap 31J.; melt them together, and when nearly cold, add Hydro- chlorate of Ammonia 3ss., in fine powder.—This plaster is stimulant and rube- facient. Its efficacy depends on the evolution of ammoniacal gas, in consequence of the action of the alkali of the soap on the hydrochloric acid of the sal ammo- niac: hence it requires renewal every twenty-four hours. It is employed as a discutient for chronic swellings and indurations, white swellings, &c. Dr. Paris (Pharmacologia.) recommends it in rheumatism ofthe muscles ofthe chest, and in pulmonary complaints. 11. LI'QUOR AMMO'NLE ACETA'TIS, L. (U. S.)—SOLUTION OF ACETATE OF AMMONIA. (Ammoniae Acetatis Aqua, E. D.) History.—This solution appears to have been first described in 1732, by Boerhaave, who introduced it into the Materia Medica. It was subsequently employed by Minderer or Mindererus; and hence obtained one of its names, Spiritus seu Liquor Mindereri. Natural History.—Acetate of ammonia is, I believe, always an artificial com- pound. Preparation.—The London College directs this solution to be prepared with Sesquicarbonate of Ammonia 3ivss., or as much as may be sufficient, and Dis- tilled Vinegar Oiv.; add the Sesquicarbonate of Ammonia to the Vinegar to satu- ration. The Edinburgh College orders " Distilled Vinegar (from French Vinegar in preference) f 3xxiv.; Carbonate [Sesqui] of Ammonia 3j-: mix them to dissolve the salt. If the solution has any bitterness, add, by degrees, a little distilled vinegar till that taste be removed. The density of the distilled vinegar should be 1-005, and that of Aqua Acetatis Ammonias 1*011."—The Dublin College directs one part of [Sesqui] Carbonate of Ammonia to be added gradually, and with frequent agitation, to as much distilled vinegar as may be requisite to saturate the ammonia; namely, about thirty parts. The saturation is to be determined by means of litmus. ^ [The United States Pharmacopoeia directs Diluted Acetic Acid two pints, (see Acetic Acid) Carbonate of Ammonia in powder a sufficient quantity. Add the Carbonate of Ammonia gra- dually until it is saturated.] In practice, diluted acetic acid is frequently substituted for distilled vinegar; and as the per cenlagc strength of this acid, as found in commerce, is subject to considerable variation, bo must bo the strength of the solution of acetate of ammonia. To obviate this, it would have been better if the British Colleges had fixed absolutely the quantity of hydrated sesqui- 294 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. carbonate of ammonia whicli should be employed to yield a given number of fluid ounces of the solution of acetate of ammonia. Apothecaries then would be at liberty to employ a stronger or a weaker acetic acid, without affecting the strength ofthe product.1 Every equivalent or 118 parts of hydrated sesquicarbonate of ammonia require two equivalents or 102 parts of anhydrous acetic acid to form a neutral com- pound, while three equivalents or 66 parts of carbonic acid gas are set free. As- suming distilled vinegar to contain 4-6 per cent, of real acid, it follows that 2217 39 parts of distilled vinegar would contain two equivalents or 102 parls of acetic acid. MATERIALS. 1 eq. Hydrated Sesquicar- bonate of Ammonia.... 2 eq. Acetic Acid. COMPOSITION. !3 eq. Carbonic Acid.. 6G- 2 eq. Water......... 18. 2 eq. Ammonia...... 34 102------------------------ PROPCC-IS. -3 eq. Carbonic Acid.. _2 eq. Water.......... 220 -2 eq. Acetate Ammonia 1M 220 Properties.—When pure this liquid is colourless. Any tint, therefore, which the solution of the shops may have, is referrible to impurities in either the vine- gar or the sesquicarbonate. Filtering it through powdered animal charcoal will usually remove any yellow or brown colour which it may have. If quite neutral, it will affect neither turmeric nOr litmus paper. It is better, however, to have a slight excess of acid present than of sesquicarbonate; for if the latter predominate,, the solution is much more irritant; and if employed as a collyrium, might produce inconvenient results. Characteristics.—It is totally dissipated by heat. With nitrate of silver it gives crystals (acetate of silver) soluble in water. When concentrated it evolves vapours of acetic acid on the addition of strong sulphuric acid, and gives out am- monia if potash or lime be mixed with it. With sesquichloride of iron it yields a red liquor (peracetate of iron.) Composition.—By evaporating a saturated solution of acetate of ammonia under the exhausted receiver of the air-pump, and over sulphuric acid, crystals of the acetate are obtained. They are transparent oblique rhomboidal prisms, and con- sist, according to Dr. Thomson, of Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. AceticAcid..................... 1 ........ 51 ........ 38931 Ammonia...................... 1 ........ 17 ........ 12-977 Water.......................... 7 ........ 63 ........ 48091 131 99-999 Crystallized Acetate Ammonia.. 1 .. The quantity of dry or anhydrous acetate of ammonia contained in the solu- tion kept in the shops, varies with the strength of the distilled vinegar. Now, according to Mr. Phillips, 100 grs. of distilled vinegar should saturate 13 grains of crystallized carbonate of soda. This would indicate the presence of 4-6 per cent, of acetic acid; and, consequently, 100 grains of liquor ammoniae acetatis, prepared from such vinegar, would be composed as follows:— Acetate of Ammonia (dry)............. CrO-10 W ater................................ 93-959 Liquor Ammonias Acetatis (Ph. L.). Crystallized Acetate of Ammonia...... 11635 Water................................ 88364 Liquor Ammoniae Acetatis (Ph. L.).. 99-999 Impurities.—This solution ought neither to be discoloured by the addition of hydrosulphuric acid, nor to throw down any precipitate by nitrate of silver or chloride of barium. These substances, therefore, may be employed to detect, respectively, metallic matter, hydrochloric acid or a chloride, and sulphuric acid. Pure acetate of ammonia occasions no precipitate with diacetate or acetate of lead; ' For some remarks on the different strengths of this preparation in the different European Pharmaco- poeias, see Mohr, in the Berlinisches Jahrbuch fur die Pharmacie, Bd. xliii. S. 253. Berl. 1840. •olution or acetate of ammonia. 295 but the liquor ammonia? acetatis of the shops usually does, owing to the presence of some free carbonic acid or sesquicarbonate of ammonia. Physiological ErFECTS.-In small doses this solution is regarded as a re- frigerant: in large doses, diaphoretic, diuretic, and perhaps resolvent, i hese effects, however, are not very obvious. Wibmer (Die Wirkung, &c.) took it in moderate doses, yet did not observe any diaphoretic, diuretic, or purgative effects from it; but he experienced headach and disturbed digestion. Dr, Cullen (Ma- teria Medica) says, " I have known four ounces of it taken at once, and soon after four ounces more, without any sensible effect." The local operation of this Bolution is that of a mild stimulant. Uses. «. Internal.—Ii is employed in febrile and inflammatory diseases, and forms a constituent of the ordinary saline draught. It is given in conjunction with nitrate of potash, or tartar emetic, and sometimes with camphor and opium. When administered as a diaphoretic, its operation is to be promoted by the use of tepid diluents and external warmth. Its diuretic effect is assisted by keeping the skin cool, and conjoining the spirit of nitric ether. 0. External.—Diluted with water it is sometimes employed as a discutient wash to inflamed and bruised parts. Mixed with six or seven times its volume of rose-water, to which a drachm or two of tincture of opium may sometimes be added, it is employed as a collyrium in chronic ophthalmia. Administration.—It is given in doses of half a fluid ounce to two or three ounces every five or six hours. OTHER SALTS OF AMMONIA. I. AMMONI/E SULPHAS; Sulphate of Ammonia ; Sulphate of Oxide of Ammonium ; Oxysul- phion of Ammonium ; Glauber's Secret Sal Ammoniac.—This salt is a constituent of 60ot from coals. It is usually obtained by dissolving hydrated sesquicarbonate of ammonia in diluted sulphuric acid to saturation, and evaporating so that crystals may form as tiie solution cools. In an impure state it is procured by satuiating ihe ammoniacal liquor of gas works or bone spirit with sulphuric acid; and the sulphate thus obtained is used in the preparation of sal ammoniac. Sulphate of ammonia when crystallized (NH3, SO3, 2 HO) contains two eqtiiva- leiits of water; ol one of which it may. be deprived by heat. Anhydrous sulphate of ammonia does not appear to exist; for when anhydrous sulphuric acid and ammoniacal gas are com- bined, a compound is formed in which neither sulphuric acid nor ammonia are evident to the usual tests. Its composition is supposed to be Nil2, SO2 -|- HO, and it has been denominated tulfamide. 2. AMMONI/E NITRAS; Nitrate of Ammonia; Nitrate of Ammonium ; Nitrum semivolatile; Nilrum Jtammans. This salt is obtained by saturating diluted nitric acid with sesquicar- bonate.of ammonia, and evaporating so that crystals may form when the solution cools. If the solution be evaporated at a temperature below 100° F., large and beautiful six-sided prisms are obtained, terminated by six-sided pyramids (prismatic nitrate of ammonia.) These crys- tals belong to the right prismatic system, and are isomorphous with nitrate of potash. They consist of one equivalent nitric acid 54, one equivalent ammonia 17, and one equivalent water 9. If the solution be boiled down, fibrous crystals are obtained (fibrous nitrate of ammonia.) When dried at 300° F. nitrate of ammonia assumes the form of a compact white mass (com. pact nitrate of ammonia.) In doses not exceeding a scruple, this salt acts as a diuretic; and, according to the experiments of Wibmer (Die Wirkung der Arzneimittel und Gifte, Bd. 1, S. 130. Munchen, 1831.) made on himself, it reduces the frequency of the pulse and the animal heat, without affecting the head, chest, or stomach. It has been given in fevers and acute Catarrhs, in doses of from one to two scruples. But it is rarely employed. It is the source from whence protoxide of nitrogen is obtained (see p. 283.) As it gene- rates considerable cold while dissolving in water, it is sometimes used to form a freezing mixture. Lastly, it is occasionally employed to promote the incineration of organic sub. •tances. 3. AMMONIAE CITRAS; Citrate of Ammonia.—A solution of this salt is oblained by satu- rating lemon or lime juice, or a solution of citric acid, with sesquicarbonate of ammonia. 70 grains ol the commercial crystals of citric acid, or f Jxvijss. of lemon juice, saturate 59 grains of hydrated sesquicarbonate of ammonia. Liquid citrate of ammonia is employed either in the still or effervescent form as a cooling saline diaphoretic in febrile disorders. 29G ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Order VII.—CARBON, AND ITS COMPOUNDS WITH OXYGEN, HYDROGEN, AND NITROGEN. SECT. I.—CARBO'NIUM.—CARBON. History.—The term carbon (from carbo, onis, coal) was first employed by Morveau, Lavoisier, and Berthollet, to designate the pure matter of charcoal. To the second of these chemists, we are indebted for demonstrating, that by combustion in oxygen gas the diamond and charcoal yield the same product; namely, carbonic acid gas. Natural History.—Carbon is found in both kingdoms of nature: et. In the Inorganized Kingdom.—When pure and crystallized it constitutes the diamond, which Sir Dr. Brewster (Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, vol. iii. p. 98; and Philosophical Magazine, vol. i. p. 147. 1827.) suspects lo be of vegetable origin; but a specimen, described by Mr. Hi uland, (Geological Transactions, 2d Series, i. 419.) was found in a primary rock. Plumbago and anthracite consist principally of carbon. The bituminous substances (as coal, petroleum, naphtha, &c.) also contain it. These are admitted by geologists to be of vegetable origin. Carburetted hydrogen is evolved from coal strata, marshy places, stagnant waters, 88-0 Carbonate of Lime ) Charcoal......... 10-0 Carburet of Silicet of Iron ...... 2-0 Sulphuret of Calcium or Iron ..... traces Common Hone black ...... 100-0 for the ordinary purposes of the arts, as sugar refining, this impure animal charcoal answers very well, because the earthy salts in no way affect the pro- cess. But in various pharmaceutical operations the presence of phosphate and carbonate of lime would preclude its use, on account of the free acid in the liquids to be decolourized. Hence the necessity of the purification of animal char- coal. Animal charcoal, when deprived of its saline matters, usually contains traces of nitrogen. Dobereinev, indeed, supposed it to bp a kind of sub-nitruret of car- 300 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA medica. bon, composed of one equivalent or 14 parts of nitrogen, and six equivalents or 36 parts of carbon. Bussy, however, has shown, that though animal charcoal retains its nitrogen with considerable obstinacy, yet that the latter may be sepa- rated by heat. Physiological Effects.—The remarks already made in reference to the phy- siological effects of wood charcoal apply equally well to animal charcoal. Uses.—The principal use of animal charcoal is as a decolourizing agent in various pharmaceutical processes, as in the preparation of sulphate of quinia, hydrochlorate of morphia, veratria, &e. The theory of its efficacy is imperfectly understood. The superior value of animal to vegetable charcoal is usually re- ferred to the minute separation of the carbonaceous particles effected by the pre- sence of other matters, as of phosphate of lime, when bones are employed. Carbonate of potash is better for this purpose than phosphate of lime. The property possessed by minute particles of charcoal, of abstracting colouring matter from liquids, depends, probably, on some chemical affinities existing between carbon and colouring matter. It is stated, in some works, that charcoal which has been once used cannot have its decolourizing property restored by a fresh ignition, unless it be mixed with some inorganic substance. This, however, is an error. The animal charcoal which has been used in sugar refining, is returned to the maker to be fresh ignited, and is then employed again, and this process of re-igniting, is, I am informed, repeated many times, without any loss of de- colourizing power. CARBO ANIMALIS PURIFICATUS, L. E. Purified Animal Charcoal (Animal Charcoal, j^j.; Hydrochloric Acid [commercial, E.~] and Water, of each, f3xij. Mix the acid with the water, and pour it gradually upon the water; then digest for two days with a gentle heat, frequently shaking them. Set by, and pour off the strpernatant liquor, then wash the charcoal very frequently with water, until nothing acid is perceptible; lastly, dry it, L,—The Edinburgh College directs the mixture to be boiled, after the digestion for two days; then diluted with two pints of water; the undissolved charcoal collected in a filter of linen and calico, and washed with water till what passes through scarcely precipitates with solu- tion of carbonate of soda. The charcoal is to be heated first moderately, and then to redness in a closely covered crucible.)—In this process the hydrochloric acid dissolves the phosphate of lime, and decomposes the carbonate of lime and sulphuret of calcium, evolving carbonic and hydrosulphuric acid gases, and form- ing chloride of calcium, which remains in solution. The carbonate of soda, used by the Edinburgh College, is for the purpose of detecting the presence of a cal- careous salt in the washings. Purified animal charcoal causes no effervescence when mixed with hydro- chloric acid, by which the absence of carbonate of lime is shown. Nor is any precipitate produced by the addition of ammonia, or its sesquicarbonate, to the acid which has been digested in the charcoal, by which the absence of any dis- solved calcareous matter is shown: caustic ammonia would precipitate any phos- phate of lime in solution, while its sesquicarbonate would yield a white precipi- tate with chloride of calcium. Purified animal charcoal, " when incinerated with its own volume of red oxide of mercury, is dissipated, leaving1 only a scanty ash."—PA. Ed. S Purified animal charcoal is used as a decolourizing agent in the preparation of the vegetable alkaloids. SECT. II.—OXYCARBONS. 1. ACIDUM CARBON'ICUM.—CARBONIC ACID. History and Synonymes.—Although the ancients were acquainted with the poisonous properties of carbonate acid gas, Dr. Black, in 1757, was the first who explained its nature. The spiritus lethalis of the ancients is evidently this acid, CARBONIC acid. 301 as is also the spiritus sylvestris or gas of Paracelsus and Van Helmont. Fixed air, acid vapour, and aerial acid, are other synonymes for it. Natural History.—It is a constituent of both kingdoms of nature. * In the Inorganized Kingdom.—Carbonic acid is a constituent of the atmosphere. In some parts of the world it is evolved from the earth in large quantities, particularly in old volcanic countries. Thus, in the vicinity of the Lake of Laach, Bischof estimates the exha- lation as equal to 600,000 lbs. daily, or 219,000,000 lbs. (equal to about 1,855 000,000 cubic •arge scale. D'Arcet has applL- Vichy, to the preparation of alkaline bicarbonates.' Most persons are familiar, by report with the Grotto del Cane, near Naples. It is a cavity in a rock, through the fissures ot which carbonic acid is evolved. It has received its name from the practice of putting dogs into it, who fall down suffocated. The Valley of Poison, in Java, which has been described by Loudon, is another spot where this acid escapes from the earth. It is a cavity of an oval form, about three quarters of a mile in circumference, and from thirty to thirty-five feet deep; filled to the height of about eighteen feet with carbonic acid gas. The bottom of it is covered with the skeletons of men and various other animals, who have fallen victims to its destruc- tive operation. If a traveller should be so unfortunate as to enter it, he cannot be sensible of hin danger until too late to return. Mr. Loudon thrust a dog in: he fell in fourteen seconds. A fowl thrown in appeared to be dead before it reached the ground !! Carbonic acid gas is frequently met with in mines and wells; and is termed by miners choke damp (from the German -dampf, vapour.) Few mineral waters are without this acid; and in some it exists in such quantity, as to give them a sparkling or effervescent quality (see p. 250.) Lastly, carbonic acid is found (native) in combination with various bases : as with soda, baryta, strontia, lime, magnesia, and the oxides of manganese, zinc, lead, iron, and copper. According to Mr. De la Bcche, (op. cit.) the average amount of carbonic acid, locked up in every cubic yard of limestone, is about 16,000 cubic feet. It is produced in the burning of limestone (carbonate of lime) at limekilns, and by the combustion of charcoal, coal, wood, coal gas, the fire-damp of coal-mines, and other combusti- bles containing carbon. @. In the Organized Kingdom.—Carbonic acid gas is exhaled by plants in dark or shady places, and hence is met with in green houses, especially during the night. Animals deve- lope it in tiie process of respiration ; and, therefore, in crowded rooms, with imperfect ventila- tion, accidents have sometimes happened from the accumulated carbonic acid. It is produced by the decomposition of organic matters, as during the fermentation of saccharine fluids, and in the destructive distillation of animal substances: hence the danger of descending into brewers' vats. Free or combined carbonic acid is found in the blood, urine, bones, &.c. Preparation.—Carbonic acid gas may be procured in various ways, but for ordinary purposes is usually obtained by the action of some acid on carbonate of lime. Soda-water makers and the preparers of the alkaline bicarbonates obtain it by the action of sulphuric acid on common whiting. In the laboratory, hydro- chloric acid and white marble are generally employed. It is most readily pre- pared in a tubulated glass retort, and may be collected over water. The ordinary hydrochloric acid of the shops should be diluted with four or five times its volume of water. By the reaction of one equivalent or 37 parts of hydrochloric acid on one equivalent or 50 parts of carbonate of lime, we obtain one equivalent or 56 parts of chloride of calcium, one equivalent or 9 parts of water, and one equiva- lent or 22 parts of carbonic acid. MATKRULS. COMPOSITION. f 1 eq. Carbon Acid........22 50 1 l.cq.LimcVs\ )elOxyg. 8 I I leq. Calc. 20 PRODUCTS. ------------1 eq. Carbon. Acid ... 22 1 eq. Carb. Lime 50 ^ , „„ ,,.„,„ OQ ( 1 eq. Oxyg. 8..........................-..^1 eq. Water......... 9 1 eq. Hydrochloric ( 1 eq. Hydrogen .......... 1'" Acia..........V( *'I-Chlorine............30-----------!>--, 1 eq. Clilor. Calcium ■ ■ 50 87 87 87 Properties.—At ordinary temperatures and pressures, carbonic acid is gase- ous. In this form it is invisible, irrespirable, has a faint odour, and a sharp taste. clm«-r^1rr^r)Zat,,ifirnnVi-og °f, '5? T*™1"3 '19ed in'he Dictionvaire de V Industrie, Manufacturer, i.ommt rciate a Jjgrtcole, t. in. p. 00. art. Carbonates. Paris. 1835. 302 ELEMENTS OP MATERIA MEDICA. Its specific gravity is 1-5277. It is neither combustible nor a supporter of com- bustion, except in the case of potassium, which, when heated in this gas, takes fire, the products of the combustion being carbon and carbonate of potash. It extinguishes most burning bodies when introduced into it in the ignited condi- tion. It reddens litmus feebly. Liquefaction.—Under a pressure of 36 atmospheres at 32°, carbonic acid is a limpid, colourless liquid, which is insoluble in water and in the fat oils, but is soluble in all proportions in alcohol, ether, oil of turpentine, and carburet of sul- phur. Its refractive power is much less than that of water. Its expansibility by heat is greater than that of gases; for when heated from 32° to 86° F., its bulk increases from 20 to 29 volumes, while the pressure of its vapour augments from 36 to 73 atmospheres.1 Solidification.—By an intense degree of cold, liquid carbonic acid may be solidified. Thus, when the pressure is removed from this liquid by opening a stopcock in the condensing vessel, the cold produced by the expansion is so great, that a quantity of solid carbonic acid is formed. In this state it is so in- tensely cold, that mercury, liquid chlorine, liquid cyanogen, &c, may be readily frozen by it. Being a very bad conductor of heat, it may be handled with im- punity. Characteristics.—Carbonic acid gas is recognised by its feebly reddening lit- mus, by being incombustible and a non-supporter of combustion, (except in the case above mentioned,) and by its forming, with a solution of lime or of baryta; a white precipitate, soluble in acetic acid. The carbonates effervesce on the addition of hydrochloric acid. The evolved gas is known to be -carbonic acid by the characters before stated. The soluble mono-carbonates form white precipitates in solutions of lime or baryta, soluble in excess of carbonic acid. Composition.—By burning charcoal in one vo- lume or 16 parts, by weight, of oxygen gas, we procure one volume or 22 parts, by weight, of car- bonic acid gas. Sp. gr. Vol. Sp. gr. 0-416'olCarb. Oxide gas 1 .. 0 97-;2 1 lll"lJ0xygen gas.... 0-5. 05555 Before combustion. After. Atoms. Carbon...... 1 Oxygen...... 2 Per Cent. Saussure. Vol. 27-27 .. 2704 to27-38JCarb vapour. 0-5 or . 72-73 .. 72-96 to72C2 Oxygen gas... 1..... Carbonic Acidi .. 22 . 10000 . 100-00 . 10-000 Carb. Acid gas 1...... 1 5277JCarb. Acid gas. 1 .. 15277 Physiological Effects. «. On Vegetables.—Carbonic acid gas is inju- rious to seeds, and diminishes or stops their germination. An aqueous solution of carbonic acid applied to the roots of plants promotes vegetation. An atmo- sphere containing not more than l-8th of its volume of carbonic acid promotes the vegetation of plants exposed to the solar rays, but is injurious to those which grow in the shade. (Saussure, Recherches, p. 25, et seq. Paris, 1804.) The carbon of plants is derived from carbonic acid, which they take in from the atmo- sphere, decompose, retain the carbon, and evolve (partially or wholly, according to ciicumstances) the oxygen. Humus nourishes plants by presenting a slow and lasting source of carbonic acid which is absorbed by the roots.3 p. On Animals.—The respiration of carbonic acid is deleterious and fatal to all classes of animals. It operates as a narcotic or stupefacient poison. That it is a positive poison, and does not act merely by excluding oxygen, as some have supposed, seems to be proved by three facts:—firstly, an atmosphere composed of 79 parts of carbonic acid and 21 of oxygen acts as a poison, although there » At the Ecole de Pharmacie, in Paris, the apparatus employed in the condensation of the gas burst, and destroyed the preparateur (see Journal de Pharmacie. t. xxvii ; and London Medical Gaiatte, April 16, 1841.) » Liebig's Organic Chemistry, in its Application to Agriculture and Physiology, edited by L. Playfair, Ph. D. Lond. 1810. CARBONIC ACID- 303 is as much oxygen present as there is in atmospheric air; secondly, one bron- chial tube of the land-tortoise may be tied, without any serious injury to the animal; but if, instead of tying it, the animal be made to inhale carbonic acid gas by it, death takes place in a few hours; (Christison, Treatise on Poisons, p 745, 3d. edit.) and, thirdly, " the cases of insidious poisoning by small doses of car- bonic acid scarcely admit of explanation, save on the grounds of the essentially and specifically poisonous action of carbonic acid gas, when sufficiently diluted to become respirable."1 The impression produced on the pulmonary extremities of the par vagum, bv the carbonic acid in the lungs, is supposed by some phy- siologists to be the ordinary stimulus to inspiration. (Dr. M. Hall on the Dis- eases and Derangements of the Nervous System, p. 66. Lond. 1841.) Ac- cording to the experiments of Nysten, (Recherches, p. 88.) this gas may be injected into the nervous system in large quantity, without stopping the circula- tion, and without acting primitively on the brain; but when more is injected than the blood can dissolve, it produces death by distending the heart, as when air is injected into the veins (see p. 23.) Applied to the skin of animals, free access of common air to the lungs being preserved, it produces, if the experiment be continued long enough, death. y. On Man.—If an attempt be made to inhale pure carbonic acid gas, the glottis spasmodically closes, so as to prevent the smallest portions from entering the lungs. (Davy, Researches, p. 472.) When mixed with more than twice its volume of air, this gas ceases to provoke spasm of the glottis, and may be taken into the lungs. It then acts as a narcotic poison. Its specific influence is exercised on the central organs of the cerebro-spinal system, which it probably gains access to, through the medium of the blood. Its action on the nervous system does not depend on its impeding the arterialization of the blood; because death may occur from the respiration of an atmosphere containing sufficient oxy- gen to support life per se, but with which is mixed carbonic acid gas. It is im- possible to state the maximum quantity of this gas which may be present in the air without exciting its effects: it probably varies for different individuals, some persons being much more susceptible of its action than others. If the proportion of carbonic acid be large, the effects are almost immediately developed; whereas, if the proportion be small, they are very slowly manifested. Dr. G. Bird has shown that an atmosphere, containing five per cent, of carbonic acid, proved fatal to a bird in thirty minutes; and it is probable that the continued respiration of an atmosphere containing a very considerably smaller proportion of carbonic acid, would be attended with dangerous and even fatal consequences. The earliest symptom usually experienced by persons exposed to an atmo- sphere containing carbonic acid gas is throbbing headach, with a feeling of ful- ness and of tightness across the temples, and in the occipital region. Giddiness, loss of muscular power, a sensation of tightness at the chest, augmented action ofthe heart, and often palpitation, succeed. The ideas become confused, and the memory partially fails. A buzzing noise in the ears is next experienced; vision is impaired; and a strong tendency to sleep succeeds, or actual syncope ensues. The pulse falls below its natural standard, the respiration becomes slow and laborious, the surface cold and often livid, but the eyes retain their lustre. Con- vulsions, sometimes accompanied with delirium, foaming at the mouth, and vomiting, come on, and are terminated by death. On post-mortem examination engorgement of the cerebral vessels, and sometimes serous or even sanguineous effusion, are the usual appearances. (For farther details, I must refer the reader to Dr. Bird's paper before cited.) Applied to the skin (care being taken that it be not inhaled) it produces a sen- sation of warmth and prickling or tingling, sometimes accompanied bv pain, in- creascd frequency of the pulse, sweating, and excitement of the nervous system. N.'8DroS?|d Md™?tor,'l«a!^nU, ^ l"e Ouy'sIi0SPital ReP°rts< vo1-iv- P- «; also London Medical Gazette, 304 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. M. Collard de Martigny (quoted by Dr. Christison) experienced weight in the head, obscurity of sight, pain in the temples, ringing in the ears, giddiness, and an undefinable feeling of terror. Taken into the stomach, dissolved in water, or in the form of effervescing draughts, it allays thirst, and diminishes preterna- tural heat, thus acting like the other dilute acids. If it be evolved in the sto- mach, it distends this viscus, excites eructations, and checks both nausea and vomiting. It appears to promote the secretions of the alimentary tube, to assist the digestive process, to allay irritation, and to act as a refreshing and exhilarating substance. It is said to be diuretic and diaphoretic. Wcihler and Stehberger expressly state, that the use of carbonic acid did not increase the quantity of this substance in the urine. (Duncan, Supplement lo the Edinb. Disp. p. 223.) When drunk too quickly, and in large quantity, water impregnated with this gas has been known to excite giddiness and intoxication; (Fodere, Med. Legale.) and it is probable that champagne is indebted to this substance for part of its intoxi- cating powers. Applied to ulcers and suppurating surfaces, carbonic acid gas acts as a stimulant, improves the quality of the discharge in ill-conditioned and indolent ulcers, retards the putrefaction of the secreted matters, diminishes the unpleasant odour of foul and gangrenous sores, and promotes the separation of the dead and mortified parts. Uses. <*.. When inhaled.—In some diseases of the lungs, particularly phthisis, it has been proposed to mix carbonic acid gas with the atmospheric air breathed by the patient, with the view of lessening the stimulant influence of the oxygen, to diminish the quantity and improve the quality of the matter expectorated, and at the same time to relieve the hectic symptoms. But the practice is dangerous. Part ofthe benefit said to have been derived by consumptive patients from a resi- dence in cow-houses, has been ascribed to the inhalation of carbonic acid gas (see p. 54.) /3. Taken into the stomach, carbonic acid is a most valuable remedy for check- ing vomiting, and diminishing irritable conditions of this viscus. The best mode of exhibiting it is, 1 believe, in the form of an effervescing draught, composed of citric acid and bicarbonate of potash. In fever, it is an excellent refrigerant; especially serviceable in those cases which are accompanied with gastric irrita- tion. In that form of lithiasis attended with a white or phosphatic deposite in the urine, carbonic acid water may be taken with advantage; but in this case the common effervescing draught (made of a vegetable acid and a carbonated alkali) must not be substituted for it, on account of the alkaline property communicated by the latter to the urine. From its antiseptic qualities, carbonic acid has been administered internally, in those diseases which are supposed to be connected with a putrescent tendency, as typhoid fevers, &c. (See Dobson's Medicul Commentary on Fixed Air, 2nd ed. Lond. 1785.) y. Clysters of carbonic acid gas have been employed in certain affections of the rectum-and colon,—for example, ulceration of the rectum, especially when of the kind commonly denominated cancerous. Mr. Parkin1 has recommended them in dysentery. The gas may be introduced into the rectum from a bladder, or solutions of tartaric acid and bicarbonate of soda may be injected in the usual way. U.) OXALIC ACID. 307 farther portion of nitric, is converted into oxalic and carbonic acids. If the ni- trous vapours be conveyed into a condenser, nitric and nitrous acids are deposited. Properties.—The crystals of oxalic acid are colourless, transparent prisms, which belong to the oblique prismatic system. They are usually flattened, six- sided (by the truncation of one pair of the lateral edges,) and have two or four terminal planes. v Crys»allized oxalic acid has often been mistaken for Sulphate of Magnesia, and the consequence has been fatal in many instances. Sulphate of Zinc and Bicyanide of Mer- cury are likewise apt to be confounded with this acid. The crystals of oxalic acid taste and react on vegetable colours powerfully acid. When pure they have no odour. Exposed to a warm air they effloresce, evolve 28 percent, (equal to two equivalents) of water, and become a pulverulent residue (hydrate of oxalic acid.) When heated rapidly to 350° F. they fuse, evolve water, and the hydrate of acid sublimes, a portion of it at the same time undergoing decomposition, but no residue being left. They dissolve in 8 parts of water at 60° F., in their own weight of boiling water, and in 4 parts of alcohol at 60° F. By the action of oil of vitriol, aided by heat, they are resolved into water, which remains with the sulphuric acid, and equal volumes of carbonic acid and carbonic oxide gases. Characteristics.—Oxalic acid reddens litmus, and is volatilized by heat. Ni- trate of silver added to a solution of it, yields a white precipitate (oxalate of sil- ver,) which is soluble in nitric acid, and when dried and heated on the point of a knife, by the flame of a candle or spirit lamp, becomes brown on the edge, very feebly detonates, and is completely dissipated, being converted into water, carbo- nic acid, and metallic silver. With lime water, or a solution of chloride of cal- cium, oxalic acid yields a white precipitate (oxalate of lime,) insoluble or nearly so, in excess of oxalic acid, readily soluble in nitric acid, and slightly so in hy- drochloric acid. If the precipitate be collected, dried, and calcined, it yields quicklime. With sulphate of copper, oxalic acid yields a blueish white precipi- tate (oxalate of copper.) It reduces the sesquichloride of gold. To detect oxalic acid in oxalate of lime, proceed as follows:—boil the oxalate with a solution of carbonate of potash for two hours, and filter. The liquor contains oxalate and carbonate of potash. Add acetate of lead, collect the precipitate (oxalate and carbonate of lead,) suspend it in water, through which sulphuretted hydrogen is to be passed; filter (to get rid ofthe dark sulphuret of lead,) boil the clear liquor, which is a solution of oxa- lic acid, and test as above for the free acid. If the oxalate of lime were mixed with organic matter, the filtered liquor should be feebly acidulated with nitric acid, before adding the acetate of lead. The acidulated liquor should be filtered, rendered faintly alkaline by carbonate of potash, again filtered, then mixed with acetate of lead, and the precipitate treated as above. Composition.—Hypothetical or anhydrous oxalic acid, as it exists in dry oxa- late of lead, has the following composition: — Atoms, r.'/ Wt. Per Cent. Or, Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Carbon......................2 ___ 12 --- 333 Carbonic Acid........... 1 ___ 2-2 ___ 619 Oxygen......................3 --- 21 --- fif>T> Carbonic Oxide.......... 1 ___ 14 ___ 38-9 Hypothetical Oxalic Acid___ 1 .... 30 --- 1000 1 --- 36 ---100-0 Crystallized oxalic acid contains three equivalents of water, of two of which it may be deprived by heat, leaving, what has been termed, hydrate of oxalic acid. The composition of these two substances is as follows:— Anhydrous Oxalic Acid.. Water.................. Atoms. .... 1 . ___3 . Eq. H't. .. 30 .. 27 Per Cent .. 5714 .. 42-86 Anhydrous Oxalic Acid. Atoms. Eq. Wt. .... 1 .... 36 . ... 1 .. . 9 . Per Cent. .. 80 .. 20 Crystallized Oxalic Acid... .... 1 . .. 63 .. .. 10000 Hydrate of Oxalic Acid.. .... 1 .... 45 . ... 100 Some chemists regard the hydrate of oxalic acid as a real hydracid, composed of C* O4 + H. 308 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Impurity.—The crystals of oxalic acid of commerce are sometimes contami- nated with nitric acid. In this state they have usually a faint odour, and stain the cork of the bottle, in which they are kept, yellow. If they are exposed to a warm atmosphere, the nitric acid escapes along with the water of crystallization. Physiological Effects, ct. On Vegetables.—k. solution of oxalic acid acts as a poison to plants.1 The acid (solid?) has been said to promote the germination of old seeds;2 but I suspect the statement to be inaccurate. /3. On Animuls.—The best series of experiments on the effects of this acid on animals are those of Christison and Coindet.3 They found that concentrated solutions of half-ounce doses of this acid introduced into the stomachs of cats and dogs caused exquisite pain, violent attempts to vomit, dulness, languor, great debility, and death in from two to twenty minutes. Post-mortem examination showed corrosion of the inner coat of the stomach. Large doses of a dilute solu- tion caused great depression of the heart's action; and small doses gave rise to tetanus or narcotism. Farthermore, the acid acts with great violence, and pro- duces nearly the same effects, to whatever part of the body it is applied. From these results it has been inferred that the concentrated acid is a corrosive poison, —while the dilute acid ceases to be corrosive, but, becoming absorbed, acts on the brain, spinal cord, and heart. It appears to me absurd to suppose, as is usually done, that a dilute solution ceises to act chemically. It does not indeed destroy the gastric membrane as a concentrated solution does, but doubtless it must effect some chemical change on the blood when it gains access to it: though the precise alteration may hitherto have evaded notice. We know that a twentieth part of oxalic acid, added to boiling syrup, renders it thin, and incapable of crystallizing; and we may, therefore, imagine that its action on other organic substances may be equally ener- getic; and thus alterations may be effected in the condition of the blood, which, though not very marked, may nevertheless be sufficient to render this fluid incapable of supporting life.4 y. On Man.—The effects of oxalic acid on the human subject vary somewhat with the dose. When this is large, and the solution concentrated, acute pain is experienced; but, after small doses and dilute solutions, this symptom is not well marked. Vomiting is usually present. The circulation is always depressed; the pulse being feeble or failing, and the surface cold and clammy. Nervous symptoms (such as lassitude, weakness ofthe limbs, numbness, pain in the back extending down the thighs, and, towards the end, convulsions) have sometimes, but by no means invariably, made their appearance. But death follows so speedily after the injection of large doses, ("few of those, who have died, sur- vived above an hour," Christison.) that the symptoms have not been fully made out. If life be prolonged for a few hours, symptoms of gastro-enteritis are ob- served. Post-mortem examination discovers irritation and often corrosion of the stomach. Some years since I opened the body of a man, who died in twenty minutes after swallowing oxalic acid by mistake for Epsom salts. The post-mortem examination was made a few hours after death, and while the body was quite warm. The stomach presented a diffused redness, like that of a part affected with erysipelas. The epithelium was destroyed; and presented, in patches, the appearance of the scalded cuticle, or ofthe pellicle which forms on the surface of boiling saline solutions. I have a wax model of the stomach, executed by the late Mr. Miller. Uses.—Oxalic acid is not at the present time used in medicine. In France, Tablettes d'Acide Oxalique are prepared. Either free or combined with ammo- nia, it is a valuable test for lime. It is employed for removing ink stains and iron moulds from linen; for cleaning the leather of boot-tops; and for certain styles of discharge in calico-printing. i Marcet, quoted by De Candolle, in his Physiologic Vegitale, t. iii. p. 1355. Paris, 1832. a Repertory of Patent Inventions, vol. xiii. p. 408. 1832. * Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, vol. xix.—In Wibmer's work (Die Wirkung, &c. Bd. iv. S. 35) will be found a notice of the experiments of Rave and Klostermann. * I have before noticed some of Drs. Christison and Coindet's experiments with this acid : see pp. 124, and 133. ALCOHOL. 309 Antidotes.—Administer as speedily as possible large quantities of chalk, whiting, or magnesia, suspended in water; by which inert earthy oxalates are formed in the stomach. In the absence of these antidotes, large quantities of warm water may be administered, and at the same time vomiting is to be pro- moted by tickling the throat. Small quantities of water may prove injurious by favouring absorption. Alkalis do not deprive the acid of its poisonous operation. The stomach-pump and emetics may be used; but on account of the rapidity with which this acid acts, it is not advisable to lose time by their application, until after the antidote has been administered. The same treatment is to be adopted in poisoning by the following salts:— 1- AMMONI/E OXALAS, E. Oxalate of Ammonia.—(Oxalic Acid, giv.; Carbonate [Ses- quicarbonate] of Ammonia, §viij.; Distilled Water, Oiv. Dissolve the carbonate in the water, add gradually the acid, boil, and concentrate sufficiently for crystals to form on cool- ing.) This salt consists of 1 eq. Oxalic Acid 36, 1 eq. Ammonia 17, and 2 eq. Water 18 = 71. By heat it suffers decomposition, and yields oxamide, (oxalamide,) composed of HNa, C O". Oxalate of ammonia was introduced into the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia as a test for calcare- ous solutions, with which it produces a white precipitate, (oxalate of lime,) which is readily soluble in nitric acid, but is only moderately soluble in hydrochloric acid. It docs not occa- sion any precipitate in solutions of the magnesian salts; hence it is a valuable agent for sepa- rating lime from magnesia. According to the experiments of Drs. Christison and Coindet, (Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, vol. xix. p. 190.) it is but little inferior in the energy of its operation on the body to oxalic acid. Ninety grains, which contain thirty-six grains of oxalic acid, killed a strong cat in nine minutes. The symptoms were tetanus and coma. 2. POTASS/E QUADROXALASi Quadroxalate of Potash.— This salt is sold in commerce as Binoxalate of Potash, Sal Acetosellai, Salt of Woodsorrel, or Essential Salt of Lemons. It is made by neutralizing one part of oxalic acid with carbonate of potash, and adding to the solu- tion three parts more of acid. It crystallizes in colourless transparent prisms of the doubly oblique prismatic system; and which consist of 4 eq. Oxalic Acid 144, 1 eq. Potash 48, and 7 eq. Water 63 =255. If three parts of the salt be converted into carbonate by heat, and added to a solution of one part, the neutral oxalate of potash is formed (Liebig.) The com- mercial quadroxalate is not pure; for I find that it yields, by ignition in a covered crucible, carbonate of potash, contaminated with carbonaceous matter; whereas the pure quadroxalate yields the carbonate only. It is employed for removing ink stains and iron moulds from linen, and for decolourizing straw used for bonnet.making. This salt was formerly used in medicine as a refrigerant. In France, Table.ttes ou Pastilles la Soif are prepared with it. It possesses poisonous properties similar to, but less energetic than, oxalic acid. A case of poi- soning by about an ounce of this salt has been published by my friend and former pupil, Mr. John Jackson.1 The accident was not known for an hour and a half after it occurred. The symptoms were those of great depression of the heart's action, but without either tetanus or coma. The eyes were sore, the vision dim, the conjunctiva a good deal injured, and the pupils dilated. The patient ultimately recovered. III. —OX YH YDROCARBONS. 1. AL'COHOL, L. E. D. (U. S.)—ALCOHOL. History.—Fermented liquors were known in the most remote ages of anti- quity. The Sacred Historian tells us, (Genesis, ch. ix.) that, after the flood, (which is supposed to have occurred 2,348 years before Christ,) " Noah planted a vineyard: and he drank of the wine, and was drunken." Homer, (Odyssey ix. and xxi.) the most ancient of all the profane writers whose works have reached us, and who lived more than 900 years before the Christian era, also frequently mentions wine, and notices its effects on the body, mind, &c. Herodotus, (Eu- terpe, lxxvii.) who wrote 445 years before Christ, tells us, that the Egyptians drank a liquor fermented from barley. • It is uncertain at what period vinous liquors were first submitted to distillation Morewood (Essay on Inebriating Liquors, p. 107. Lond. 1824.) considers the Chinese to have been acquainted with this process long before the rest of Asia AJnca, jnd^Europe. It is usually stated, that Albucasis, who is supposed to .bou^wo\«UrfD^0f"„:f .-;DnCCH18' 'ft°- I" lhe Te j°"rnal for March 5th-18«- « a ose of poisoning by itwut two ncruples of oxalic acid swallowed in combination with carbonate of soda (superoxalate of soda?) olO ELEMENTS OP MATERIA MEDICA. have lived in the 12th century, taught the mode of procuring spirit from wine. (Gmelin, Handbuch d. Chimie, Bd. ii. p. 274.) But as the process of distilla- tion was certainly known long before his time,1 it is highly probably that his predecessors had submitted fermented liquors to this operation. Raymond Lully,3 in the 13th century, was acquainted with spirit of wine, (which he called aqua ardens,) as well as of the mode of depriving it of water by means of car- bonate of potash. Preparation.—The preparation of alcohol may be divided into three stages: the production of a fermented vinous liquor; the preparation from this of an ardent spirit by distillation; and, lastly, rectification or purification. Stage 1. Production of a Vinous Liquor.—When vegetable substances are placed in contact with air and moisture, they undergo that kind of decomposition which is denominated fermentation. The products of this process vary at different periods or stages; and on this depends the distinction into kinds or varieties of fermentation. Thus starchy liquids, under some circumstances, become sac- charine; the process being termed the saccharine fermentation. Sugar dissolved in water, and mixed with nitrogenous matter, (ferment,) is converted into car- bonic acid and alcohol; and to this process the name of vinous fermentation is applied. Under some circumstances, mannite, lactic acid, and a syrupy muci- lage, are formed by the action of the nitrogenous or albuminous principles of vegetable juices on the sugar: this change has been denominated the viscous or mucilaginous fermentation. (Liebig, in Turner's Elements of Chemistry, 7th ed. p. 947. Lond. 1840.) Vinous liquids are capable of generating acetic acid, and the process is denominated acetous fermentation. Lastly, most vegetable substances are slowly converted into gases, and a substance called vegetable mould, (humus,) constituting the process termed the putrefactive fermentation. To produce a vinous liquid, it is necessary that there be present sugar (or some substance capable of forming sugar, as starch,) a certain quantity of water, and a ferment (usually yeast.) Moreover, a certain temperature (the best is be- tween 70° and 80° F.) is requisite. Both grape and cane sugar yield alcohol by fermentation. It is highly proba- ble, however, " that cane sugar, before it undergoes vinous fermentation, is con- verted into grape sugar by contact with the ferment; and that, consequently it is grape sugar alone which yields alcohol and carbonic acid." (Ibid. p. 946.) On this view, the one equivalent or 171 parts of crystallized cane sugar unite with one equivalent or 9 parts of water, to form one equivalent or 180 parts of grape sugar, which, in the process of fermentation, are converted into four equivalents or 88 parts of carbonic acid, and four equivalents or 92 parts of alcohol. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. PRODUCTS. , 4 eq. Carbon___24— ---------_____■» 4 eq.Carb. Ac<* 88 icq. Crvsmllized 1 8 eq. Carbon---48 Cane Su-ur 171 f 1 eq Grape I 8 0iyren ... (54 ( Sugar 180 ] * »" ,0 leq. Water .... 9^ ' 4 e* 0rVSen •'' 3; 112 eq. Hydmg---'----------- '----~=^i * eq. Alcohol 92 180 180 180 180 Vinous fermentation, then, is the metamorphosis of sugar into alcohol and car- bonic acid. But as the elements of the yeast or other ferment take no part in the transformation, (that is, do not enter into combination with the elements of the sugar) some difficulty has been experienced in accounting for its agency in exciting fermentation. Two opinions are entertained respecting it: by some it is regarded as a putrefying substance, whose atoms are in continual motion, which they communicate to the constituents of the sugar, and thereby destroy its i Dr. Royle's Essay on the Antiquity of Hindoo Medicine, p. 40. London, 1837. » Thomson's History of Chemistry, vol. i. p. 41, Lend. 18IS0. Teslamenlum Novissimum, p. 2. Edit Basil, p. 2. 1600. ALCOHOL. 311 equilibrium;1 by others, yeast' is considered to consist essentially of seeds or seniles, whose vegetation is the immediate cause of the metamorphosis of ^ThXquid obtained by the vinous fermentation has received different names, according to the substance from which it is obtained. When procured from he expressed juices of fruits, as grapes, currants, gooseberries, &c. it is denominated WineU'Lrn;) from a decoction of malt and hops, Ale or Beer (Ceremsia;)^ from a mixture of honey and water, Mead (Hydromeh.) Fermented infusions of barley (raw grain and malt,) prepared by the distillers of this country for the production of ardent spirit, are technically denominated Washes. The liquid obtained by vinous fermentation consists of water, alcohol, colour- ing and extractive matters, cenanthic ether, volatile oil (e. g. oil of potatoes, oil of grain, &c.,) various acids and salts. . Stage 2. Production of Ardent Spirits.—By the distillation of a vinous liquid we obtain Ardent Spirit (Spiritus Aniens.) When grape wine is employed, the spirit is called Brandy (Spiritus Vini Gallici, Ph. Lond.;) when the vinous liquid is obtained by the fermentation of molasses or treacle, the spirit is termed Rum (Spiritus Sacchari;) when the liquid is a fermented infusion of grain (Wash,) the spirit is denominatod Corn Spirit (Spiritus Frumenti;) and when the vinous liquid is either a fermented infusion of rice or toddy (Palm Wine,) the spirit is named Arrack (if from the former, it is termed Spiritus Oryzse.) The well- known liquors called Gin, Hollands or Geneva, and Whisky, are corn spirits flavoured. 11.11 Ardent spirit, from whatever source obtained, consists of water, alcohol, vola- tile oil, and, frequently, colouring matter. The following are, according to Mr. Brande, (Phil. Trans, for 1811 and 1813.) the average quantities of alcohol (sp. gr. 0-825 at 60° F.) in some kinds of ardent spirit:— Alcohol Alcohol 100 parts (by measure) of (by measure.) Brandy contain.................. 55'39 Rum............................ 5308 Gin.............................. 5160 100 parts (by measure) of (by measure.) Whisky (Scotch) contain......... 5432 Whisky (Irish)................... 53-yO Each variety of ardent spirit has an aroma peculiar to itself, and which is cha- racteristic of the substance from which it is produced. This depends on vola- tile oil. When wash is distilled, the fluid that comes over is called Singlings, or Low Ifines. It is concentrated or doubled by a second distillation, by which Raw Corn Spirit is obtained. Towards the end of the distillation the distilled pro- duct acquires an unpleasant odour and taste from the presence of volatile oil, and is called Faints. Raw corn spirit is sold by the distiller to the rectifier at 11 or 25 per cent, over proof, in the language of Sikes's hydrometer. SlilSP %, Rectification.—The object of the rectifier is to deprive ardent spirit of its volatile oil and water. This is effected by repeated distillations, and by the use of pearl ash (carbonate of potash,) which, by its powerful affinity for water, checks the rise of this fluid in distillation. In this way is procured the liquid called Rectified Spirit (Spiritus rectificatus, L. E. D.,) which is sold by the rec- tifier to the chemist or apothecary. » The view above referred to is that entertained by Liehig; for full details of it I must refer to his work, entitled Organic Chemistry, in its Application to Agriculture and Physiology, edited by L. Playfair, Ph. D., Lond. 1840; and Turner's Elements of Chemistry, 7th ed. p. 944, 1840. Berzelius (Journ. de Chimie Medicale] I. iii. p. 425, 2nde Srrie, 1837) ascribes decompositions of this kind, which are effected by the mere contact of one body with another, to a new force which he supposes to be cailed into action, and which he denominates catalytic force (from xxtzmjos, I loosen or dissolve.) « The Yeast Plant will be described and figured in a subsequent part of this work, to which the reader is ref.-rrtjd. b'or farther details, consult the IM.-iiioirs of Schwann (Poggendorf's Annalen der Phutik. lid. xu. p. lr-1 ; Pharmaceutisches Crntrul-Blutt fur 18.17. S 547 ; and Meyen's Report on the Progress of f'r.,•] and Distilled Water, Oiij. [f3xij. or a sufficiency, E.; 3 parts, D.~] The tests of its goodness are the same as for rectified spirit. Preparation of Alcohol. Alcohol (L. E. D.) is prepared by the chemist from the rectified spirit purchased of the rectifier. It is obtained by adding chloride of calcium, carbonate of potash, or well-burnt lime, to the spirit, which is then sub- mitted to distillation. The salts or lime retain the water, while the alcohol dis- tils over. The following are the directions of the British colleges:— The London College orders Rectified Spirit, Cong.].', Chloride of Calcium, Ibj. Put the chloride of calcium into the spirit, and when it is dissolved, let seven pints and five fluid ounces distil. The Edinburgh College directs "Rectified Spirit, Oj.; Lime well burnt, gxviij. Break down the lime into small fragments: expose the spirit and lime together to a gentle heat in a glass matrass till the lime begins to slake: withdraw the heat till the slaking is finished, preserving the upper part of the matrass cool with damp cloths. Then attach a proper refri- geratory, and, with a gradually increasing heal, distil off seventeen fluid ounces. The density of this alcohol should not exceed 0-796: if higher, the distillation must have been begun before the slaking ofthe lime was finished." The Dublin College takes of Rectified Spirit, Cong. j. [wine measure;] Pearl ashes, dried, and still hot, lbiijss.; Muriate of Lime, dried, lbj. Add the pearl-ashes in powder to the spirit, and let the mixture digest in a covered vessel for seven days, shaking it frequently. Draw off the supernatant spirit, and mix it with the muriate of lime ; lastly, distil, with a mode. rate heat, until the mixture in the retort begins to thicken. The sp.gr. of this liquor should be 0-810. Properties of Alcohol.—Alcohol is a limpid, colourless, inflammable liquid, having a peculiar and penetrating odour, and a burning taste. Its sp. gr., at 60° F, is 0-7947; at 68° F. it is 0792—0-791. It is obvious, therefore, that the alcohol of the British colleges is a mixture of alcohol, properly so called, and water. No means of solidifying it are at present known. It boils at 172° F.: every volume of the boiling liquid gives 488-3 volumes of vapour, calculated at 212° F. It is very combustible. In atmospheric air it burns with a pale blue flame, giving out a very intense heat, and generating carbonic acid and water, but depo- siting no soot, unless the supply of oxygen be deficient. The colour of the flame may be variously tinted—as yellow by chloride of sodium, whitish violet by chloride of potassium, green by boracic acid or a cupreous salt, carmine red Vol. I.—10 314 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. by chloride of lithium, crimson by chloride of strontium, and greenish yellow by chloride of barium. Before Combustion. Aft er Combustion. Alcohol vapour = 23 2eq Oxygen = 16 1 eq. Aq Vap. = 9 1 eq. Aq. Vap. = 9 1 eq. Aq. Vap. = 9 2eq Oxygen = 16 2eq Oxypen = 16 1 eq Carbonic Acid -- oo 1 eq. Carbonic Acid. = '2-2 One volume of alcohol va- pour requires, for its complete combustion, three volumes of oxygen gas, and yields two vo- lumes of carbonic acid gas and three volumes of aqueous va- pour. Alcohol has a strong affinity for water: hence it abstracts this fluid from the atmosphere, and precipitates from their watery solution those salts (e. g. sulphate of potash) which are not soluble in spirit: while, on the other hand, water preci- pitates from their alcoholic solution those substances (e. g. resin and oil) not soluble in water. By the mixture of alcohol and water, heat is evolved, while air-bubbles are so copiously developed, that for a few moments the liquid appears turbid. When cold, the resulting compound is found to possess a greater density than the mean of its constituents: but as the condensation varies with the propor- tions of alcohol and water employed, the sp, gr. of the resulting compound can be ascertained by experiment only. The maximum condensation is obtained by mixing 54 vols, of alcohol with 49-77 vols, of water: the resulting compound measures 100 vols,, so that the condensation is 3-77. If we regard this as a definite compound of alcohol and water, its composition may thus be stated:— Rudberg. Eq. Alcohol................. 1 Water.................. 3 Eq. Wt. .. 23 . .. 27 . Per Cent Wt. ____ 40 ___ ---- 54 .... VoU. 5400 49-77 Weight. 42-91 49-77 Terhydrate of Alcohol... 1 50 100 ............ 10000 [condensation 3-77] 92-68 Alcohol combines with certain salts (as the chlorides and nitrates) to form definite compounds, which have been termed alcohates, in which the alcohol appears to act as a substitute for the water of crystallization. Alcohol is a solvent of many organic substances, as volatile oil, fixed oil, resin, extractive, most varieties of sugar, many nitrogenous organic acids, the vege- table alkalis, urea, caseum, gliadine, leucine, picromel, and osmazome. It pre- vents the putrefaction of animal substances, and is, in consequence, extensively employed in the preservation of anatomical preparations. Its efficacy is imper- fectly understood. It acts, in part at least, by excluding air (oxygen) and water,— the two powerful promoters of putrefaction; for when animal substances are im- mersed in spirit, this fluid abstracts water from the tissue which, in consequence, shrivels up, and thus prevents putrefaction, by removing one of ihe essential conditions to its production, namely, the presence of water. Its attraction for water, and its power of coagulating albuminous substances, are properties which probably assist powerfully in rendering it an antiseptic. Alcohol and rectified spirit of wine give greater firmness to, and whiten, the animal tissues. The lat- ter property is objectionable in the preservation of some morbid specimens, as gelatiniform cancer (cancer gelatiniforme or areo/aire of Cruveilhier,—the matiere colloid of Laennec.) A mixture of one part rectified spirit and three water will, however, preserve specimens of the last-mentioned disease in a transparent condition. Characteristic*.—Alcohol and ardent spirits are recognised by their inflamma- bility, odour, taste, and miscibility with water. They dissolve camphor, resin, &c. In order to detect alcohol in liquids supposed to contain it, let the suspected liquor be submitted to distillation with a gentle heat (a3 from a vapour or water- ALCOHOL. 315 bath,) and to the distilled liquid add dry carbonate of potash, to abstract the water. The alcohol floats on the surface of the alkaline solution, and may be recognised by the characters above mentioned. Composition.—The elementary constituents of alcohol are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Boullay | Eq. Wt. Per Cent. 6} Dumas. Saussure. rol. .. Vi ........ 5218 ........ 52-37 ........ 5198 .. 3 ....... 1304 ........ 13-31 ....... 13-70 .. 8 ....... 34-78 ........ 31-61 ... Atoms Carbon___ 2 Hydrogen.. 3 Oxygen.... 1 34-32 Carbon vapour... 1 Hydrogen gas.... 3 Oxygen gas......0 5 100 00 i Alcohol vapour. Alcohol.... 1 ........23 ........ 10000 ........ 10029 . Chemists are not agreed as to the manner in which these constituents are grouped. By some, these elements are regarded as forming one equivalent of defiant gas, and one equivalent of water; others consider alcohol to be a compound of one equivalent of a £■ carbo-hydrogen (elherine; telrato-carbo-hydrogcn; quadri-hydro- carburet,) and two equivalents of water; while some view this liquid as a hydrated oxide of a f carbo-hydrogen (efhvle;1 ethereum,) or as the hydrate of the oxide of ethule. The latter opinions involve the necessity of assuming the equivalent of alcohol to be 46; that is, double the amount stated above. The following table illustrates these views:— Eq. Per Atoms. Wt. Cent. Olefiantgas 1...14.. 60 7 Water.....1... 9.. 393 Ei/. Per Atoms, lit. Cent. Etherine. Water... 1...28. 2...18. 60-7 39 3 Eq. Per Atoms. Wt. Cent. Ethule... Oxygen.. Water... .63'04 i .17-39 1 .19-56 Alcohol.... 1...23..100-0 Alcohol.... 1....46..1U00 Alcohol.. 1...46..99-99 Ether .. Water.. Eq. Per Atoms. Wt. Cent. I...37..80-43 1... 9.. 19-56 Alcohol... 1...46. .99-99 Fig. Alcoholometry.—The value of ardent spirit is, of course, proportionate to the quantity of alcohol contained therein; and, therefore, a ready mode of estimating this is most desirable. The alcoho- lometrical method usually adopted consists in determining the sp. gr. of the liquid by an instrument called the hydrometer (from vefap, water; and fterpea), I measure.) That employed in this country, in the collection of the duties on spirits, is called Sikes's hydrometer (fig. 49.) Spirit having the sp. gr. 0-920, at 60° F., is called proof spirit; that which is heavier is said to be under proof, while that which is lighter is called over proof. The origin of these terms is as follows:—For- merly a very rude mode of ascertaining the strength of spirits was practised, called the proof: the spirit was poured upon gunpowder, in a dish, and inflamed. If at the end of the com- bustion the gunpowder took fire, the spirit was said to be above or over proof; but if the spirit contained much water, the powder was rendered so moist that it did not take fire: in this case the spirit was declared to be below or under proof. As spirit of different strengths will or will not inflame gun- powder, according to the quantity of spirit employed, it became necessary to fix the legal value of proof spirit: this has been done, and proof spirit (Spiritus tenuior, Ph. L.) is defined, by act of parliament, to be such, that at the temperature of 51° F., thirteen volumes of it weigh exactly as much as twelve volumes of water. According to this definition the sp. gr. at 60° F. is 0-920, and spirit of this strength consists of Hydrometer, with one of its ballast weights (a.) b. Another weight. By Wtight. Alcnhol.................... 49 ... Water .................... 51 ... Sp. Or. 0-791 1.000 Proof spirit 100 .......................... 0-920 « Ethylc, or ethule (from ether, and ukh, the material or stuff from which any thing is made,) is the hypo- thetical radical ofthe ethers. 316 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Spirit, which is of the strength of 43 per cent, over proof at the least, is recognised by the legislature (6 Geo. 4. cap. 80, Sects. 101 and 114) as spirits of wine. All spirit under this strength is known in trade as plain spirit. Distillers are not permitted (Ibid. Sect. 81.) to send out spirits at any other strengths than 25 or 11 per cent, above or 10 per cent below proof. Raw corn spirit, therefore, is sold at 25 or 11 per cent, above proof. Compounded spirits (as Gin) are not allowed (Ibid. Sect. 124.) to be kept or sent out stronger than 17 per cent, under proof; but Gin, as sold by the rectifier, is usually 22 per cent, under proof. Foreign or Colo- nial spirits (not being compounded colonial spirits) must not be kept or sent out of less strength than 17 per cent, underproof. (Ibid. Sect. 130.) Rum and Brandy, as commonly Bold, are 10 per cent, under proof. A series of carefully drawn up tables, showing the relation which exists be- tween the sp. gr. of spirit of different strengths, and the indications of Sikes's hydrometer, is a great desideratum. Mr. Gutteridge1 has published some tables; but several of his statements do not coincide with experiments which I have made on the subject. The following are extracts from his work:— SIKES S HYDROMETER. Sp. Or. at GO" F. -70 per centum....................... 0-8095 f 64 ................................ 0-8221 63.1 ................................ 08238 62 ................................ 08259 611 ................................ 08277 60 ................................ 08->98 591 ................................ 0 8315 58 ................................• 0-8336 571 ................................ 0-8354 56 ................................ 0-8376 55-9 ................................ 0-8379 55-7 ................................ 0-8383 550 ................................ 0-8396 541 ................................ 0-8413 501 ................................ 0-8482 431 ................................ 0-8537 25 ................................ 0-8869 111 ................................ 0-9060 fa 1 SIKES S HYDROMETER. Sp. Or. at 60" F. Proof................................ 0 5)200 5 pereentuin...................... 0-9259 10 ................................ 0-9318 II ................................ 0-9329 15-3 ................................ 0-9376 171 ................................ 09396 20 ................................ 0-9426 22-3 ................................ 0-9448 23'1 ................................. 0-9156 251................................ 0-9476 301 ................................ 0-9522 401 ................................ 0-9C03 503 ................................ 09073 liO 4 ................................ 0-9734 70-1 ................................ 0-9790 80-4 ................................ 09854 1902 ................................ 0-9922 Vj00(wat iter)........................... 1-0000 The sp. gr. of spirit may be readily ascertained by Lovi's beads, or by the speci- fic gravity bottle. Table* ofthe Specific Gravities of Mixtures of Spirit (0-825 at 60° F.) and Water at 60° F. Temperature 60 0 F. Spirit 100 + Water 0 . . 55 100 + 55 5 . . 55 100 + 55 10 . . 55 100 + 55 15 . . J) 100 + 55 20 . . 5) 100 + 55 25 . . 55 100 + »5 30 . . 55 100 + 55 35 . . 55 100 + 55 40 . . 55 100 + 55 45 . . 55 100 + 55 50 . . 55 100 + 5) 55 . . U 100 + 5) 60 . . 55 100 + 5) 65 . . 55 100 -t 55 70 . . 55 100 + 55 75 . . 5) 100 + 55 80 . . 55 100 + 55 85 . . 55 100 + 55 90 . . 55 100 4 >! 95 . . >5 100 -f 55 100 . . Sp. gr. 0-82500 0-83599 0-84568 0.85430 0-86208 0-86918 0-87568 0-88169 0-88720 0-89322 0-89707 0-90144 0-90549 0-90927 0-91287 0-91622 0-91933 0-92225 0-92499 0-92758 0-93002 Water erature 60° F. Sp. gr. 100 + Spirit 95 . . 0-93247 100 + 55 90 . . 0-93493 100 + 5) 85 . . 0-93749 100 -f 55 80 . . 0-94018 100 + 55 75 . . 0-94296 100 -f 55 70 . . 0-94579 100 + 55 65 . . . 0-94876 100 -f- 51 60 . . 0-95181 100 -f 55 55 . . 0-95493 100 -f 55 50 . . 0-95804 100 -f 55 45 . . 0-96122 100 -f 51 40 . . 0-96437 100 + 51 35 . . 0-96752 100 + 55 30 . . 0-97074 100 -f 55 25 . . 0-97409 100 + )) 20 . . 0-97771 100 -f 55 15 . . . 0-98176 100 -f 55 10 . . 0-98654 100 + 55 5 . . 0-99244 100 + 1) 0 . . . 1-00000 GutleTidgl? ^ondou^lrt^'1'''^' WciZkinS< Measuring, and Valuing of Spirituous Liquors, vol. ii. By W. ,' ^raWDKUF fr°m ^''P'"'8 Tahlcs in the Philosophical Transactions for 1792—The spirit, which Mr. Gilpin ealled alcohol, was composed of 89 alcohol (sp. gr. 0 796 at GO" F.) and 11 w atcr. ALCOHOL. 317 Another mode of judging ofthe strength of spirits is the phial test, technically called the bead; the preuve d'Hollande of the French. It consists in shaking the spirit in a phial, and observing the size, number, and bursting of the bubbles (or beads as they are termed:) the larger and more numerous the beads, as well as the more quickly they break, the stronger the spirit. Hitherto chemical analysis has been of little avail in determining the strength of spirit, at least for commercial purposes. For, on the one hand, we are yet in want of an accurate method of determining the relative quantities of alcohol and water in mixtures of these fluids; while, on the other, the combustion of spirit by the black oxide of copper, and the estimation of the quantity of alcohol by the carbonic acid produced, is impracticable for ordinary purposes. Physiological Effects. *. On Vegetables.—Alcohol acts on plants as a rapid and fatal poison. Its effects are analogous to those of hydrocyanic acid. /3. On Animals.—Leeches immersed in spirit die in two or three minutes. Their bodies are shrivelled or contracted, and before death they make but few movements; the head and tail of the animal are drawn together. Fontana (Trea- tise on the Venom of the Viper, translated by J. Skinner, vol. ii. p. 371, et seq.) found, that when half the body of a leech was plunged in spirit, this part lost all motion, whilst the other half continued in action. The same experimentalist ob- served, that spirit killed frogs, when administered by the stomach (in doses of 40 drops,) injected beneath the skin, or when applied to the brain or spinal mar- row. Plunging the heart of this animal into spirit caused its motion to cease in twenty seconds. Applied to the right crural nerve of a frog, it destroyed the power of moving in the right foot, on the application of stimulus. Monro (Es- says and Observ. Physic, and Literary, vol. iii. p. 340.) observed, that alcohol applied to the hind legs of a frog, rendered the pulsations of the heart less fre- quent, and diminished sensibility and mobility. Fontana (Op. cit. p. 365, et seq.) states, that turtles were killed by spirit administered by the stomach or by the anus, or injected beneath the skin: before death, the animal became motionless: applied to the heart of these animals it destroyed the contractility of this viscus. Some very interesting experiments were made with spirit on birds by Flourens.1 This distinguished physiologist administered six drops of alcohol to a sparrow, whose skull he had laid bare. In a few minutes the animal began to be unsteady both in walking and flying. After some time a dark-red spot appeared on the skull, in the region of the cerebellum, and became larger and deeper-coloured in proportion as the alcohol more powerfully affected the animal. I have given alcohol to birds, but havg hitherto been unable to discover the physical changes here stated. In some other experiments, Flourens observed that alcohol pro- duced the same effects on the movements of birds as the removal of the cerebel- lum occasioned, but that when alcohol was administered the animal lost the use of his senses and intellectual faculties; whereas, when the cerebellum was re- moved, no alcohol being given, he preserved them. From these and other ob- servations Flourens is of opinion, that alcohol, in a certain dose, acts specifically on the cerebellum, and that in larger doses it affects other parts also. Farther- more, he thinks the physical action of alcohol on the cerebellum to be absolutely the same as a mechanical lesion. The effect of alcohol on fishes is analogous to that on other animals. If a little spirit be added to water, in which are contained some minnows (Cyprinusphoxi- nus, Linn.,) the little animals make a few (spasmodic?) leaps, and become inca- pable of retaining their proper position in the water, but float on their sides or back. If removed into pure water they soon recover. The mammals, on which the effects of alcohol have been tried, are dogs, cats, horses, rabbits, and guinea-pigs. The principal experimentalists are, Courten, (Philosophical Transactions for 1712.) Fontana, (Op. supra cit.) Viborg, (Ab- ' Kecherches sur Us fonctions ct les proprictcs du systcme ncrveui dans les animauz vertebrei. Paris, 1824, 318 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. handl.fiir Thierdrzte, Theil II. quoted by Wibmer, Die TVivkung, &c.) Brodie, (Philosophical Transactions for 1811.) and Orfila. {Toxicologic Generate.) The results of their experiments may be thus briefly expressed:—Four drachms of alcohol, injected into the jugular vein of a dog, coagulated the blood, and caused instant death (Orfila.) Introduced into the stomach of cats, dogs, or rab- bits, it produces an apoplectic condition (Brodie and Orfila:) this state is preceded, according to Orfila, by a strong excitement of the brain. The same experimen- talist found that alcohol acts with less energy when injected into the cellular tex- ture than when introduced into the stomach; from which he infers, that its first effects are the result of the action which it exerts on the extremities of the nerves; though he admits that ultimately it becomes absorbed. On examining the bodies of animals killed by introducing alcohol into the stomach, this viscus has been found in a state of inflammation. y. On Man.—The effects of alcoholic liquors on man vary with the strength of the liquid? the substances with which the alcohol is combined, the quantity taken, and the constitution of the patient. etx. The local effects of alcohol or rectified spirit are those of a powerfully irri- tant and caustic poison. To whatever part of the body this agent is applied, it causes contraction and condensation of the tissue, and gives rise to pain, heat, redness, and other symptoms of inflammation. These effects depend partially or wholly on the chemical influence of alcohol over the constituents of the tis- sues: for the affinity of this liquid for water causes it to abstract the latter from soft living parts with which alcohol is placed in contact; and when these are of an albuminous or fibrinous nature, it coagulates the liquid albumen or fibrin, and increases the density and firmness of the solid albumen or fibrin. The irritation and inflammation set up in parts to which alcohol is applied, depends (in part) on the resistance which the living tissue makes to the chemical influence of the poison: in other words, it is the reaction of the vital powers brought about by the chemical action of alcohol. But besides the local influence of this liquid de- pendent on its affinity, we can hardly refuse to admit a dynamical action (vide p. 121,) in virtue of which it sets up local irritation and inflammation, independent of its chemical agency. The coagulation of the blood contained in the vessels of the part to which this liquid is applied (an effect which Orfila observed when he killed an animal by injecting alcohol into the cellular tissue of the thigh of a dog,) depends on the chemical influence of the poison. /3/3. The remote effects of ardent spirits on man may be conveniently consi- dered in the order of their intensity; and for this purpose we may divide them into three degrees or stages.1 1. First or Mildest degree. Excitement.—This is characterized by excitement of the vascular and nervous systems. The pulse is increased in frequency, the face flushed, the eyes animated and perhaps red, the intellectual functions are powerfully excited, the indivi- dual is more disposed to joy and pleasure; cares disappear; the ideas flow more easily and are more brilliant. At this period the most violent protestations of love and friendship are frequently nvide; there is a strong disposition to talk, and various indiscretions are oftentimes committed (In vino Veritas.) This degree of effect I presume to be the condition to which all persons aspire in drinking: the unfortunate drinks to drown his cares; the coward to give him courage; the bon vivant for the sake of enjoying the society of his friends; the drunkard from mere sensuality. None, perhaps, would wish to go beyond this, yet many, when they have got thus far, exceed their intended limit. 2. Second degree. Intoxication or Drunkenness.—The essential character of this stage is a disordered condition of the intellectual functions and volition; manifested by delirium, varying in its characters in different individuals, and by an incapability of governing the i The newspaper reports ofthe proceedings at the Metropolitan Police Offices furnish examples of the em- ployment, by the lower classes, of certain terms to designate the different degrees of the effects of fermented and spirituous liquors. When an individual is merely excited, he is described as fresh; but neither tipsy nor drunk. When the disordered intellect is just commencing, he is said lo be half seas over. When he is be- ginning to be unsteady in his gait, he is described as being tipsy. When he reels, falls about, is incapable of standing, but is yet sensible, lie is said to be drunk. And, lastly, when he is insensible or nearly so, he is described as dead drunk— Sir Walter Scott (Waverly) distinguishes fuddled or half seas ocer (cbriolus) from drunken (ebrius ) ALCOHOL. 319 action of the voluntary muscles. This state is accompanied with excitement of the vascular system, and frequently with nausea and vomiting: it is followed by an almost trreststible desire for sleep/which usually continues for several hours, and is attended with copious per. Bpiration. When the patient awak.-s he complains of headach, loathing of food, great thirst, and lassitude: the tongue is furred and the mouth clammy. During a paroxysm of drunkenness, certain peculiarities are observed in the character ol the delirium in different individuals. These appear to depend on what is commonly denomi- nated temperament. (Ste p. 148.) Mr. Macnish (The Anatomy of Drunkenness, p. 43,, 2nd ed. Glasgow, 1828.) has offered a classification of drunkards, founded on these peculiarities. He describes the sanguineous drunkard, the melancholy drunkard, the surly drunkard, the phlegmatic drunkard, the nervous drunkard, and the choleric drunkard. 3 Third degree. Coma or True ArorLEXv.-This condition is usually observed when excessive quantities of spirit have been swallowed in a short time. According to Dr. Ugston, the patient is sometimes capable of being roused; the pulse is generally slow, the pupils arc occasionally contracted, but more commonly dilated, and the breathing is for the most part slow: but exceptions exist to all these statements. Convulsions are rare: when they occur, the patients are usually young. In some cases actual apoplexy (with or without sanguineous extravasation) is brought on. The immediate cause of death appears to be either paralysis ot the muscles of respiration, or closure ofthe glottis.— (Tide pp. 180 and 181.) Consequences of Habitual Drunkenness.—The continued use of spirituous liquors gives rise to various morbid conditions of system, a few only of the most remarkable of which can be here referred to. One of these is the disease known by the various names of delirium tremens, d. potatorum, oinomania, &c, and which is characterized by delirium, tremor of the extremities, watchfulness and great frequency of pulse. The delirium is of a peculiar kind. It usually con- sists in the imagined presence of objects which the patient is anxious to seize or avoid. Its pathology is not understood. It is sometimes, but not constantly, connected with, or dependent on, an inflammatory condition of the brain or its membranes. Sometimes it is more allied to nervous fever. Opium has been found an important agent in relieving it. Insanity is another disease produced by the immoderate and habitual use of spirituous liquors. In 110 cases of this disease, occurring in male patients admitted into the Hanwell Asylum in 1840, no less than 31 are ascribed to in- temperance, while 34 are referred to combined causes, of which intemperance is stated as one. It is remarkable, however, that of 70 female patients, admitted during the same year, only four cases are ascribed to intemperance.1 Disease ofthe liver is frequently met with in drunkards, who use ardent spirits. It is generally of the kind termed, by Baillie, common tubercle of the liver ; by Dr. Eliiotson, (London Medical Gazette, vol. xii. p. 484.) the gin liver; by- others, granulated, lobulated, mamelluted, or scirrhous liver. Laennec calls it cirrhosis, (from x.tppor, yellowish,) in reference to its usual tawny, yellow colour. A. beautiful representation of it is given by Cruveilhier. (Anatom. Patholog. liv. 12p, pi. 1.) Dr. Carswell (Pathological Anatomy, art. Atrophy.) has de- scribed it as consisting in atrophy of the lobular structure of the liver, produced by the presence of a contractile fibrous tissue. It is not, therefore, a disease depending on the formation of a new tissue. The ascites, which so frequently accompanies it, arises from the compression to which the portal vessels are sub- jected by the fibrous tissue; and the jaundice, another frequent effect of it, doubt- less depends on compression of the gall ducts. Some excellent remarks on this disease have been made by the late Dr. Hope. (Principles and Illustrations of Morbid Anatomy. Lond. 1834.) Stoinach affections are common results of dram-drinking. Persons addicted to the use of ardent spirits suffer with loss of appetite, and aie usually dyspeptic; and chronic inflammation of the stomach, or even a scirrhous state of the pylorus, has been said to be occasionally produced by hard drinking. Dram-drinkers are sometimes affected with granular disease of the kidneys, ' Report of the Resident Physician [Dr. Conolly] of the Hanwell Lunatic Asylum, presented to the Court of Quarter Sessions at the Middlesex Sessions, 1840. 320 ELEMENTS OP MATERIA MEDICA. first described by Dr. Bright, and which is generally attended by albuminous urine. Dr. Hope regards this state as corresponding to the granular liver just described.1 Peculiarities of Intoxication from Spirit.—Different kinds of ardent spirits present some peculiarities in their operation on the system, which will be noticed hereafter (see Brandy, Rum, Gin, Whisky, and Arrack.) The effects of spirit agree, in a considerable number of circumstances, with those of wine, but present some peculiarities. Spirit more speedily induces ex- citement, which, however, is of shorter duration, being more rapidly followed by collapse, relaxation, or debility. Death is by no means an infrequent conse- quence of deep intoxication from spirit. Dram-drinkers suffer usually with loss of appetite, especially in the morning, when they are troubled with vomiting. Moreover they are usually thin, wasted, and emaciated. Wine-bibbers, on the other hand, often enjoy an unimpaired appetite, and are frequently plump or cor- pulent, plethoric individuals. Liver disease, from intemperance, is said to be peculiar to those who take ardent spirits. Organic disease of the stomach is also a consequence of spirit drinking. A somewhat similar distinction holds good between the effects of spirit and those of malt liquors. The latter possess nutritive properties in addition to nar- cotic powers: hence we frequently observe that the beer toper is a plethoric, corpulent individual.3 The effects of opium are readily distinguished from those of spirit when insen- sibility has not come on. The sleep which both these agents commonly induce is not usually preceded, in the case of opium, by delirium, thickness of voice, and peculiar difficulty of articulation. When delirium is produced by this drug (opium) it is rather of the ecstatic kind. "There is more poety in its visions- more mental aggrandizement—more range of imagination." (The Anatomy of Drunkenness, by Robert Macnish; p. 63, "2d ed. Glasgow, 1828.) But when insensibility is present the diagnosis is not always easy. The odour of the breath is in these cases an important diagnostic. Moreover, the pupil is usually (though not invariably) dilated by spirit, whereas it is contracted by opium. Modus Operandi.—That aleohol becomes absorbed is proved by the fact, that it has been found in the blood, in the urine, the breath, the bile, the fluid of the serous membranes, the brain, and the liver. Tiedemann and Gmelin (Uber die Wege aufwelchen Subsfanzen aus den Ma- gen ins Blut gelangen. Heidelberg, 1820.) recognised the odour of it in the blood ofthe splenic vein, though they were unable to detect it in the chyle. A similar observation is reported by Magendie. (Element. Compend. of Physiology, by Dr. Milligan, p.248. 1823.) Dr. Percy3 also found itin the blood of the animals towhom he had administered it. He likewise detected it in the urine and the bile. More- over, the recognition ofthe odour of alcoholic liquors in the breath of individuals who have swallowed them, as well as their detection by their smell in the fluid contained in the ventricles of the brain, in the pericardium, &c, prove indisputa- bly that alcohol becomes absorbed. Dr. Cooke (Treatise on Nervous Diseases, i. 222. Lond. 1820,) states, on the authority of Sir A. Carlisle, that in one case the fluid of the ventricles of the brain had the smell, taste, and inflammability of gin. Dr. Christison (Treatise on Poisons, p. 853. 3rd ed.) has questioned the correctness of this observation, on the ground that gin of sufficient strength to take fire could not enter the blood-vessels without coagulating the blood. But the objection appears to me to be groundless; for I find that a small quantity of undiluted commercial gin may be added to white of egg without causing either ' See also Dr. Christison On Granular Degeneration ofthe Kidneys, p. 110. Edinb. 1839. * Hogarth, in his Beer Alley and Oin Lane has well represented the differences between drunkards devoted to malt liquors, and those given to the use of spirit. The first are plump, rubicund, and bloated ; the latter are pale, tottering, emaciated, and miserable. a An Experimental Inquiry concerning the presence of Alcohol in the Ventricles of the Brain, after Poison- ing with that liquid, together with Experiments illustrative ofthe Physiological Action of Aleohol. Lond. 1P39. ALCOHOL. 321 coagulation or the slightest opacity. Dr. Ogston (Edinburgh Medical and Sur- gical Journal, vol. xl.) has confirmed the testimony of Carlisle, and states, that in one case he found about four ounces of fluid in the ventricles, having all the physical qualities of alcohol. Dr. Percy (Op. supra cit.) has recently set the question at rest, and satisfactorily proved the accuracy of the above statements, by his experiments on animals. ' He appears to think that some peculiar affinity exists between the substance of the brain and the spirit; more especially as, after analyzing a much larger quantity of blood than can possibly exist in the cranium, he could generally obtain much more alcohol from the brain than from this quan- tity of blood. He was unable to determine whether or not the fluid of the ven- tricles contained any alcohol. Dr. Percy also detected alcohol in the liver, and has endeavoured to connect this fact with the frequent occurrence of hepatic dis- ease in drunkards. Morbid Appearances.—On examining the bodies of individuals who have been poisoned by ardent spirits, redness and inflammation of the stomach are some- times, but not invariably, found. In old drunkards the mucous membrane of the stomach is often injected and thickened. Congestion of the cerebral vessels, with or without extravasation of blood or effusion of serum, is not unfrequently ob- served. Traces of spirit may or may not be found in the stomach, according to the rapidity with which death has been produced. The odour of spirit may per- haps be recognised in various parts of the body, especially in the brain and the serous cavities. Uses.—Spirit of wine is employed both for medicinal and pharmaceutical pur- poses. 1. Medicinal Uses.—Spirit is used both internally and externally:— ct. internally.—Spirit of Wine is rarely administered internally; for when ar- dent spirit is indicated, Brandy, Gin, or Whisky, is generally employed. The separate uses of each of these will be noticed presently: at present, therefore, I shall confine myself to some general remarks on the internal employment of spirit. I may observe, however, that Brandy is the ardent spirit usually adminis- tered for medicinal purposes; and, unless otherwise stated, is the spirit referred to in the following observations. As a stomachic stimulant, spirit is employed to relieve spasmodic pains and flatulency, to check vomiting (especially sea-sickness,) and to give temporary re- lief in some cases of indigestion, attended with pain after taking food. As a stimulant and restorative, it is given with considerable advantage in the latter stages of fever. As a powerful excitant, it is used to support the vital powers, to prevent fainting during a tedious operation, to relieve syncope and languor, and to assist the restoration of patients from a state of suspended animation. In de- lirium tremens it is not always advisable to leave off the employment of spiri- tuous liquors at once, since the sudden withdrawal of the long-accustomed stimu- lus may be attended with fatal consequences. In such cases it is advisable to allow, temporarily, the patient the moderate use of the particular kind of spirit which he has been in the habit of employing. In poisoning by foxglove and tobacco, spirit and ammonia are used to rouse the action of the heart. In mild cases of diarrhoea, attended with griping pain, but unaccompanied by any in- flammatory symptoms, a small quantity of spirit and water, taken warm, with nutmeg, is often a most efficacious remedy. /3. Externally.—Spirit of wine is used externally for several purposes, of which the following are the principal: —As a styptic, to restrain hemorrhage from weak and relaxed parts. It proves efficacious in two ways:—it coagulates the blood by its chemical influence on the liquid albumen and fibrin, and it causes the con- traction of the mouths of the bleeding vessels by its stimulant and astringent qualities. Sponge or soft linen, soaked in spirit and water, has been applied to the mouth ofthe uterus in uterine hemorrhage. (Richter, Ausfuhrliche Arzneimit- \ OL. I.—41 322 LLEMENTS OP MATERIA MEDICA. tellehre, 3er Bd. S. 256. Berlin, 1828.) Spirit is used to harden the cuticle over the lender and delicate parts. Thus, brandy is sometimes applied to the nipples, several weeks before delivery, in order to prevent the production of sore nipple from suckling in individuals predisposed to it. Spirit is also applied to the feet, when the skin is readily blistered by walking. The efficacy of spirit, in hardening the cuticle, depends, in part, on its chemical influence. Spirit gar- gles have been found serviceable in checking the tendency to inflammation and swelling of the tonsils. As a stimulant application, warm rectified spirit has been applied to burned or scalded parts, on the principles laid down for the treat- ment of these cases by Dr. Kentish. (An Essay on Burns. Lond. 1798.— A Second Essay on Burns. Newcastle, 1800.) Properly diluted, spirit has been employed as a wash in various skin diseases, and in ulcers of bed-ridden persons, and as a collyrium in chronic ophthalmia. Frictions with rectified spirits have been used in the abdominal region, to promote labour pains: on the chest, to excite the action of the heart, in fainting or suspended animation; on the hypogastric region, to stimulate the bladder, when retention of urine depends on inertia, or a paralytic condition of this viscus; on various parts of the body, to relieve the pain arising from bruises, or to stimulate paralyzed parts. The inhalation of the vapour of rectified spirit has been recommended to re- lieve the irritation produced by the inspiration of chlorine; but I have tried the practice on myself without benefit. The readiest mode of effecting it is to .drop some spirit on a lump of sugar, and hold this in the mouth during inspira- tion. Diluted spirit has been used as an injection for the radical cure of hydrocele. A mixture of wine and water, however, is commonly employed in this country. Spirit has been used to form cold lotions (see p. 64.) As the efficacy of it depends on its evaporation, it should be applied by means of a single layer of linen, and not by a compress. Evaporating lotions are applied,—to the head in cephalalgia, in phrenitis, in fever, in poisoning by opium, &c; to fractures of the extremities; to parts affected with erysipelatous inflammations, &c. Antidotes.—The first object in the treatment of poisoning by spirituous liquors is to evacuate the contents of the stomach. This is best effected by the stomach- pump; emetics being frequently unsuccessful. Stimulants are then to be em- ployed: the most effectual are the injection of cold water into the ears, cold affu- sion to the head and neck, warmth to the extremities, when these are cold, and the internal use either of ammonia, or of the solution of the acetate of ammonia, both of which agents have been found useful in relieving stupor. The cerebral congestion often requires the cautious employment of local blood-letting, and the application of cold to the head. If the patient appear to be dying from paralysis ofthe respiratory muscles, artificial respiration should be effected: if from closure ofthe larynx, tracheotomy may be performed (see pp. 180 and 181.) 1. SPIRITUS TIM GALLICI, L.; Brandy;' Eau-de-vie.—This is an ardent spirit obtained by the distillation of wine. Its properties are subject to some varia- tion, arising from different growths of the vine: " The brandies of Languedoc, Bordeaux, Armagnac, Cognac, Aunis, Saintonge, Rochelle, Orleans, Barcelona, Naples, &c. being each recognisable by an experienced dealer." (Ure's Dic- tionary of Arts and Manufactures, p. 164. Lond. 1839.) The most celebrated of the French brandies are those of Cognac and Armagnac. Genuine brandy has an agreeable, vinous, aromatic odour. Both its flavour and odour, however, are peculiar. Pale brandy has a very slight brownish yellow tint, derived from the cask in which it has been kept. The high coloured brandy, usually found in the shops of this country, is artificially coloured (before its' arrival in this pountry) by burnt sugar (caramel;) which is said to render the spirit mellow and i Brandy is a contraction for Brandy-wine (Branntwein, Germ.,) which literally signifies Burnt win* (Vinum adustum.) ALCOHOL. 323 more palatable. (M'Culloch's Dictionary of Commerce.) Saunders wood is also stated, by the same authority, to be frequently used as a colouring mgre- The constituents of brandy are alcohol, water, volatile oil, a minute portion of acetic acid, a little acetic ether, cenanthic ether, colouring matter, and tannin. The latter is said to be derived from the cask in which the spirit has been pre- served: but I find that the high coloured brandies react more powerfully on the salts of iron than pale brandy: whence I conclude that some astringent matter has been added to them. f . Brandy when just imported is usually above proof. I found a sample of pale brandy, in bond, supplied me by my friend, Mr. Gassiot, to be 1-5 over proof; and a coloured brandy, 22 over proof, as indicated by Sikes's hydrometer. By keepino- in the cask its alcoholic strength is diminished. I am informed that brandy" as usually sold, is 10 per cent, underproof. This would give, accord- ing to Gutteridge's table, a sp. gr. of 0-9318. But Soubeiran (Nouvcan Iraite de Pharmacie, t. i. p. 142, 2nde ed.) states, that the sp. gr. of eau-de-vie varies from about 0-902 to 0-941. Now according to Gilpin's tables a spirit having the sp. gr. of 093002 is composed of equal parts of alcohol (sp. gr. 0-825) and water. But Mr. Brande states that 100 parts by measure of brandy, contain 53-39 parts of alcohol, sp. gr. 0-825. The relative quantities of spirit contained in this and other ardent spirits, in wine, and in beer, have been already men- tioned. (See p. 95 and 311.) British Brandy is extensively manufactured, and sold as foreign brandy. Dr. Ure (Dictionary of Arts and Manufactures, p. 165.) gives the following formula for it:—" Dilute the pure alcohol to the proof pitch; add to every hundred pounds weight of it fiom half a pound to a pound of argol (crude winestone) dissolved in watei, a little acetic ether, and French-wine vinegar, some bruised French plums, and flavour-stuff from Cognac; then distil the mixture, with a gentle fire, in an alembic furnished with an agitator. The spirit which comes over may be coloured with nicely burned sugar (caramel) to the desired tint, and roughened in taste with a few drops of tincture of catechu or oak-bark." Acrid matters (as Grains of Paradise) are sometimes added to brandy to give it an artificial strength. They may be readily detected by evaporation. Sugar, also, may be discovered in the same way. The residue of the evaporation of genuine brandy yields a green colour Avith the salts of iron, indicating the pie- sence of tannin: and imitation brandy may be readily made to produce the same effect, by the addition of catechu, or some other astringent. The general effects and uses of brandy are those of alcohol already described. From the ardent spirits in ordinary use it is distinguished by its cordial and sto- machic properties; and it is, in consequence, the stimulant usually preferred for medicinal purposes. Burnt Brandy is a popular remedy for diarrhcea. 2. MISTURA SPIRITUS VIM GALLICI, L. (Brandy, Cinnamon Water, of each, f3iv.: the yelks of two Eggs; Purified Sugar, 3ss.; Oil of Cinnamon, Tr[ij. Mix.)—This mixture is an imitation of a well-known compound, termed Egg- Flip.1 It is an exceedingly valuable stimulant and restorative; and is employed in the latter stages of low fever, and in extreme exhaustion from uterine and other hemorrhages. The dose of it is from f3ss. to f3iss. 3. SPIRITUS SACCIIARI; Bum.—This is an ardent spirit obtained both in the West and East Indies, by distillation from the fermented skimmings ofthe sugar boilers, the drainings (called molasses) of the pots and hogsheads of sugar, the washings of the boilers,9 and the lees or spent wash of former distillations, called i The terms Egg flip. Egg hot, or simply Flip, are applied to a preparation of ale with egg and ardent spirit (spp Dr. Kitcheners Cook * Oracle.) •> The Civil and Xalural History of Jamaica, by P. Browne, M. D, p. 132. Lond. 1769. 324 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. dunder. (Dunder from the Spanish redundar, to overflow.) It is imported into this country in puncheons. In some parts of the West India islands it is customary to put slices of pine-apples in the puncheons of rum: hence the desig- nation pine-apple rum. The term Tafia, or Taffia, is applied to a spirit obtained, by distillation, from the fermented juice ofthe sugar-cane. (Merat and De Lens, Diet, de Mat. Med. t. vi. p. 150.) It is, there- fore, Cane Spirit (Spiritus Succi Sacchari.) Good rum is transparent and of a brownish tint. Its depth of colour, how- ever, varies considerably. The peculiar flavour of rum depends on volatile oil. The quantity of alcohol (sp. gr. 0-825) in 100 vols, of rum is, according to Mr. Brande, about 53-68 vols. As sent out, its strength is 10 per cent, under proof, in the language of Sikes's hydrometer. Jamaica rum is more highly esteemed than the Leeward Islands rum. The general effects and uses of rum are similar to those of alcohol already de- scribed.1 It is considered more heating and sudorific than the other kinds of ardent spirit, to which it has been popularly thought preferable in coughs, catarrhs, and rheumatism. 4. SPIRITUS FRUMENTI COMPOSITUS; Compound Corn Spirit.—The spirit ma- nufactured in British islands is usually obtained by distillation from fermented infusions of corn. The ardent spirits known as Gin, Whisky, and the various Compounds* are corn spirit differently flavoured. Gin owes its peculiar flavour to the Juniper, whence it is frequently denomi- nated Spiritus Juniperi. It is not allowed to be sent out stronger than 17 per cent, under proof; but it is usually sold to the trade at 22 per cent, under proof. The retail dealer always reduces its strength, and flavours it with sugar. Fre- quently also other additions are made to it. Gin possesses the general proper- ties of alcohol. On account of the oil of juniper which it holds in solution, it is more powerfully diuretic than brandy and rum; and hence it is a popular remedy in dropsical and other affections, where an augmentation of the renal secretions is considered desirable. Moreover, it is frequently used to promote menstrua- tion. It is the ordinary intoxicating spirit of the lower classes in this metropolis. At the London Hospital, gin is frequently administered medicinally, as a substi- tute for brandy, to patients who have been accustomed to its use. Whisky agrees in most of its properties with gin; from which it differs in its peculiar smoky flavour and odour: these it acquires from the malt, which is dried by turf fires. It is the national spirit of Ireland and Scotland. gS. ARRACK, or RACK.—This is a spirit obtained in various parts of the East. In Batavia, it is procured by distillation from fermented infusions of rice, whence it has been termed Rice Spirit (Spiritus Oryzfe.) In Ceylon,3 it is obtained by distillation from fermented cocoa-nut toddy (by some called Palm wine.) t " They talk of a common experiment here, [Jamaica,] that any Animal's Liver put. into Rum grows soft, and not so in Brandy, whence they argue this last less wholesome than that, but their Experiment, if true, proves no such thing. I think it may be said to have all good and bad qualities of Brandy, or any fermented or vinous spirit."—(Sloane's Jamaica, vol. i. p. xxx. Lond. 1707.) s By spirit dealers. British compounded spirits are denominated Compounds, while Foreign compounded spirits are called Liqueurs. Both class of liquors are sweetened spirits. The following list of Compounds, usually kept at the gin-shops of this metropolis, has been supplied me by the proprietor of one of these establishments:— Compounds. Under Proof. Gin................................ 17 Gin................................ 22 Mint (Peppermint).................. 64 Cloves............................. „ Bitters.............................., Raspberry .........................., Noyeau ........................... ,, Cinnamon......................... ,, "The above are permitted to us at the strengths approaching 80 U. P.—Those markt Compounds. Under Proof. Tent.............................. „ Aniseed.......................... „ Caraway ......................... ,. Lovage........................... ,, Usquebaugh (X)..................., Rum Shrub....................... „ Orange Cordial (X)................, Citron ditto (X) ............... named; but, in point of fact, are much nearer id thus (X) are seldom asked for." j The Coco* Nut Palm, its Uses and Cultivation. By J. W. Bennett, Esq. Lond. 1830 ALCOHOL. 325 " Pine apples, steeped in it, impart a most exquisite flavour to the spirit; and, by age, it becomes a delicious liqueur, which is unrivalled in the world for making nectarial punch." In England, arrack is never employed for medicinal purposes. In its general properties it agrees with the other ardent spirits; but is said to be distinguished bv its stimulating and narcotic properties. It is some- times used in this country to impart an agreeable flavour to punch. A mock arrack is made by dissolving twenty grains of benzoic acid in two pounds of rum. 2. Phannacentical Uses Of Alcohol,—The alcohol of the Pharmacopoeia (sp.gr. 0-815) is not employed in the preparation of any officinal substances, but it is a valuable agent in chemical analysis, and is used in determining the purity of cer- tain medicinal substances: as iodine, iodide of potassium, the vegetable alkalis, castor oil, &c. Rectified and proof spirits are most extensively employed in officinal pharmacy: as in the formation of Tinctures, Spirits, Ethers, Etherial, Oil, and Resinous Extracts, and in the manufacture of the Vegetable Alkalis. La3tly, spirit is added to various preparations to assist in preserving them. 1. TINCTURjE, L. D.; (U. S.) Tinctures, E.; Alcooles.—These are solutions of vegetable, animal, or mineral substances, in proof or rectified spirit. They are preparations of substances whose active principles are imperfectly or not at all soluble in water, or whose aqueous solutions readily undergo decomposition. Some are prepared by solution merely; as the Tinctura Iodinii composila, Ph. L.; Tinctura Camphorse, Ph. Ed.; and Tinctura Ferri Sesquichloridi. Some of the vegetable tinctures are prepared by adding rectified spirit to the expressed juices of plants. These preparations are frequently denominated pre- served vegetable juices. They have been long in use on the continent. In 1835, Mr. Squire (Pharmaceutical Transactions, No. iii. p. 94. Sept. 1841.) com- menced their manufacture. More recently, Mr. Bently (On the Best Method of obtaining the more powerful Vegetable Preparations for Medical Use.) has directed the attention of the profession to them. Mr. Squire states, that on an average the juice of the young plant just coming into flower, will yield only two-thirds ofthe amount of extract which is obtained from the same quantity of juice from the matured plant (" when more than half the flowers are fully blown,") and the strength of the product is also inferior. He also asserts (Op. supra cit.) that the leaves only should be used; and in the case of biennial plants, those of the second year's growth should exclusively be employed.' The mode of obtaining these preparations is as follows :—The leaves being bruised in a marble mortar, are placed in a powerful press. The expressed juice is allowed to stand for twenty-four hours, by which a considerable quantity of feculent matter is deposited. Rectified spirit [56 over proof] is then added, in the proportion of four fluid ounces to every sixteen fluid ounces of the juice, which is quite sufficient to render the preservation complete, and throw down any mucilage which may be mechanically suspended. After standing for twenty- four hours the liquor is to be filtered. (Bentley, op. supra cit.) Mr. Squire employs one measure of spirit to two measures of juice. These preserved expressed juices are superior preparations to the tinctures prepared by digestion from the same parts of either fresh or dried plants. In some cases (e. g. Aconite,) tinctures prepared with rectified spirit from the dried roots, by digestion, are greatly superior in activity to the preserved juices of the leaves. The ordinary method of preparing tinctures is by maceration or digestion. "Tinctures are usually made by reducing the solid ingredients to small fragments, coarse powder, or fine powder, macerating them for seven days or upwards in proof spirit or rectified spirit, straining the solution through linen or calico, and finally expressing the residuum strongly to obtain what fluid is still retained in the mast.-."— Ph. E. Ail Tinctures should be prepared in stoppered glass vessels, and frequently shaken during maceration.—PA. Lond. ' ^ 11a Mkl0 I1'J"":yamu3> for a" account of the relative quantities of juice and extract yielded by the 326 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. The tinctures which are made with resinous substances cannot in general be well prepared in any other way than by digestion. This remark applies to Tinctura Aloes, Tinctura Asafostidae, Tinctura Benzoini composila, 'Tinctura Guaiaci, and Tinctura Balsami Tolutani. Another and more expeditious method of preparing tinctures is by percolation or lixiviation (procede on methode de deplacement;) and which is also applicable to the preparation of etherial, as well as alcoholic, tinctures, and of infusions. The principle of this method has been adopted by the Scotch brewers; the pro- cess being called by them sparging. It has also been used in the preparation of coffee. It was first employed for pharmaceutical purposes by Boullay. (Journal de Pharmacie, t. xix. p. 393.) In the preparation of tinctures its professed ad- vantages are expedition, economy, and uniformity of strength. But it is more troublesome, requires more skill and attention; and is not equally applicable to all substances. It answers best for those tinctures made with woody and fibrous parts, as roots, barks, woods, leaves, fruits, seeds, and insects. The Tinctures of Catechu and Myrrh may also be prepared in this way. The Edinburgh Col- lege offers the following remarks on this mode of preparation:— "A much superior method, however, has been lately introduced, which answers well for most tinctures, namely, the method of displacement by percolation. According to this pro- cess, the solid materials, usually in coarse or moderately fine powder, arc moistened with a sufficiency of the solvent to form a thick pulp. In twelve hours, or frequently without any delay, the mass is put into a cylinder of glass, porcelain, or tinned iron, open at both ends, but obstructed at the lower end by a piece of calico or linen, tied tightly over it as a filler; and the pulp being packed by pressure, varying as to degree with various articles, the remainder ofthe solvent is poured into the upper part of the cylinder, and allowed gradually to percolate. In order to obtain the portion of the fluid which is kept in the residuum, an additional quantity of the solvent is poured into the cylinder, until the tincture, which has passed through, equals in amount the spirit originally prescribed : and the spirit employed for this purpose is then recovered for the most part by pouring over the residuum as much water as there is of spirit retained in it, which may be easily known by an obvious calcula- tion in each case. The method by percolation, where applicable, will be found much more convenient and expeditious than the mode hitherto commonly followed, and it exhausts the solid materials in general much more completely. As considerable practice, however, is re- quired for managing the details in different cases, more especially in regard lo the degree of firmness with which they are to be packed in the cylinder, we have thought it right to direct that the method of maceration, may be followed as an alternative. But the method of perco. lation is now preferred by all who have made sufficient trial of it to apply it correctly." The percolator is best made of tin plate or zinc. A simple tube (of glass, Fig. 50. porcelain, or tinned iron,) as stated by the Edinburgh College, answers for an extempo- raneous percolator. It is fitted into the mouth of a wide-mouthed bottle by means of a cork, in which is a small aperture to allow of the escape of air. One of the most convenient percolators is that proposed by Boullay. It is a simple cylinder of equal diameter, and terminating inferiorly in a cone or funnel. (Fig 50.) Mr. Deane's percolator (Pharma- ceutical Transactions, part ii.) is a modifica- tion of this: its lower end has a smaller cir- cumference than its upper one, is flat, and communicates with a tube, to which a stop- cock is fitted. Soubeiran (Nouveau Traite de Pharmacie, t. i. p. iii. 2nde ed.) has adapt- ed to Boullay's percolator a tin receiver, to which is fitted, at the most depending part, a stop-cock, by which the tincture may be drawn off. . SULPHURIC ETHER. 327 The size of the percolator must, of course, vary according to circumstances. The smallest may be half an inch in diameter and four inches long. Large ones are six inches in diameter and eighteen inches long. They should be furnished with two diaphragms (perforated metallic disks,) between which the ingredients are placed. When small percolators are used, a little cotton-wool, or even tow, may be substituted for the lower diaphragm,—or a piece of calico or linen may be tied over the end of the tube, as directed by the Edinburgh College. The lower extremity of the percolator should be furnished with a stop-cock, for regu- lating the discharge of the fluid. Considerable skill and experience are required in packing the ingredients. Indeed, the principal art of percolating has reference to this part of the process. Substances, as Rhubarb and Gentian, which yield a large quantity of mucilage, and are to be acted on by water, must be employed in the form of a very coarse powder, and should be placed loosely in the percolator, in order to allow them to swell. With alcohol or ether, however, the tissues swell less, the mucila- ginous matter is not dissolved, and the percolation is readily effected even with a finer powder and closer packing. Boullay imagined that one liquid may be employed to displace another liquid, without the two liquids becoming mixed: hence he called the process the dis- placement method. The Edinburgh College, I presume, has adopted his opinion, since it directs the tincture to be displaced by spirit, and the spirit by water. But Guilliermond (Journal de Pharmacie, t. xxi. p. 349.) has shown that this dis- placement cannot be effected without a certain degree of mixture.1 2, SPIRITUS, L. D. (U. S.) Spiritus, E. Alcoolats.—These are alcoholic solu- tions of volatile substances (usually of a vegetable nature) obtained by distilla- tion. Some of them are prepared with rectified spirit (e. g. Spiritus Rosrnarini,) but most of them with proof spirit. Several of the spirits which owe their peculiar flavour and odour to volatile oil may be, and usually are, imitated by dissolving the oil in the spirit without the aid of distillation; and, for all thera- peutical purposes, they are equally effective. 2, ^'THER SULPIIU'RICUS, L. E. D.—SULPHURIC ETHER. History and Synonymes.—This liquid is said to have been known to Raymond Lully,3 who lived in the 13th century; and to Basil Valentine,3 in the 15th cen- tury. In 1540, Valerius Cordus4 described the method of making it. He termed it (Jlenm Vilrioli dulce. The Germans call it Vitriolic Naphtha (Naphtha Vitrioli.) Natural History.—It is always an artificial product. Preparation.—All the British Colleges give directions for the preparation of sulphuric ether. The London College orders of Rectified Spirit, lbiij.; Sulphuric Acid, Ibij; Carbonate of Pot, ash, previously ignited, gj.: pour two pounds of the spirit into a glass retort, add the acid to it, and mix. Afterwards place it on sand, and raise the heat so that the liquor may quickly boil, and the Ether pass into a receiving vessel cooled with ice or water. Let the liquor dis- til until some heavier portion begirs to pass over. To the liquor which remains in the retort, after the heat has subsided, pour the remainder ofthe spirit, that ether may distil in the same manner. Mix the distilled liquors, then pour off the supernatant portion, and add to it the Carbonate of Potash, shaking them frequently during an hour. Lastly, let the ether distil Irom a large rctoit, and be kept in a stoppered vessel. The directions ofthe Edinburgh College are as follows :—» Take of Rectified Spirit, f ?l. ; Sulphuric Acid, lS*. Pour twelve fluid ounces of the spirit gently over the acid contained in an open vessel, and then stir them together briskly and thoroughly. Transfer the mixture sur Ummlimtoi «,T,Clj"tS P"co,lalion- c?nsult- tewjto the memoirs already quoted, Dausse, Mimoire >Du\"DUpZlViZpH rT Pha™aceutyeS,-.par la mitkode de ^placement. Paris. 1816. . ih.H ™«"«c*« Pharmakopoe ubcrs und erluuttrt, 2er Th S. 201. 2te Aufl LeiDZ i830 ■ Ibid. . Thomson, System of Chemistry, vol. ii. p. 296. 7th ed 831 328 elements or materia medica. immediately into a glass matrass connected with a refrigeratory, and raise the heat quickly to about 2y0°. As soon as the etlicrial fluid begins to distil over, supply fresh spirit through a tube into the matrass in a continuous stream, and in such quantity as to equal that of the fluid which distils over. This is best accomplished by connecting one end ofthe tube with a graduated vessel containing the spirit, passing the other end through a cork fitted into the matrass,—and having a slop cock on the tube to regulate the discharge. When forty.two ounces have distilled over, and the whole spirit has been added, the process may be stopped. Agitate the impure ether with sixteen fluid ounces of a saturated solution of muriate of lime, containing about half an ounce of lime recently slaked. When all odour of sulphurous acid has been thus removed, pour off the supernatant liquor, and distil it with a very gentle heat, so long as the liquid which passes over has a density not above 0-735. More ether ofthe same strength is then to be obtained from the solution of muriate of lime. From the residuum of both distillations, a weaker ether may be obtained in small quantity, which must be rectified by distilling it gently again," The Dublin College directs Sulphuric Ether to be prepared from the Liquor JElhereus Sul- phuricus, which is ordered to be made thus:—Take of Rectified Spirit, Sulphuric Acid, of each ^xxxij. by weight. Pour the spirit into a glass retort adapted to bearing a sudden heat, and then pour on the acid in an unbroken stream; mix them gradually, and let twenty ounces by measure ofthe liquor be distilled with a sudden and sufficiently strong heat, into a receiver kept cold. If sixteen ounces of rectified spirit be poured upon the acid remaining in the re- tort, sulphuric ethereal liquor will again come over by distillation. Take of this Sulphuric Etherial Liquor, f^xx.; Carbonate of Potash, dried and powdered, 5ij. Mix them, and, from a very high retort, distil, by a very gentle heat, twelve ounces by measure into a receiver kept cold. The sp. gr. of the liquor should be to that of distilled water as 0-765 to 1-000. (The U. S. Pharmocopoeia directs Alcohol, four pints; Sulphuric Acid, a pint; Potassa, six drachms; Distilled Water, three fluid ounces. To two pints of the Alcohol, in an open ves. sel, add gradually fourteen fluid ounces ofthe acid, stirring them frequently. Pour the mix- ture, while still hot, into a tubulated glass retort, placed upon a sand bath and connected by a long adapter with a receiver kept cold by ice or water, then raise the heat quickly until the liquid begins to boil. When about half a pint of ethereal liquid shall have passed over, intro- duce gradually into the retort, the remainder of the alcohol, previously mixed with two fluid ounces of the acid, taking care that the mixture shall enter in a continuous stream, and in such quantity as shall supply the place, as nearly as possible, of the liquid which distils over. This may be accomplished by connecting a vessel containing the alcoholic liquid within the retort, by means of a tube, provided with a stop cock, to regulate the discharge, and passing nearly to the bottom of the retort, through a cock accurately fitted into the tubulure. When all the alcohol has been thus added, continue the distillation until about three pints shall have passed over, or until white vapours shall appear in the retort. To the product thus obtained, add the potassa previously dissolved in the distilled water, and shake them frequently. At the end of twenty-four hours, pour off from the alkaline so- lution the supernatant ether, introduce it into a retort, and with a gentle heat, distil until two pints shall have passed over, or until the distilled liquor shall have the specific gravity of 0-750.) Theory of Etherification.—In order to convert two equivalents or 46 parts of alcohol into one equivalent or 37 parts of ether, we must abstract one equiva- lent or 9 parts of water. Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. 2 equivalents Alcohol are composed of...... 4 eq......... 6 eq......... 2eq. Abstract 1 equivalent Water composed of.... 0 eq......... leq......... leq. 1 equivalent Ether......................... 4 eq......... 5 eq......... leq. But, though the change thus far appears very simple, there are some accessory reactions which make the theory of etherification exceedingly complicated, and about the precise nature of which chemists are not quite agreed. That the sole or efficient cause of the conversion of alcohol into ether is not the mere ab- straction ofthe water, by the affinity ofthe sulphuric acid for that liquid, is proved by various circumstances, of which the following are some:—(Brande, Manual of Chemistry, p. 1284, 5th ed. 1841.) * a. Water maybe abstracted from alcohol by alkalis and chloride of calcium, yet nothing like ether is the result. #. Water passes over, during the whole process, along with the ether, with which the acid ought to combine in preference to dehydrating the alcohol. SULPHURIC ETHER. 329 y. Ether is not produced by the action of anhydrous sulphuric acid on alcohol. i. Ether is never produced except by the aid of heat. ,. When the oil of vitriol is mixed with rectified spirit, the saturating power of the acid is diminished. When oil of vitriol is added to rectified spirit, a new compound is formed, which contains, besides the elements of sulphuric acid, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. , ... . , , As this new compound reddens litmus, and forms salts with bases, it has been regarded as an acid (sulpho-vinic acid;) (Hennell, Philosoph. Trans. 1826 and 1828.) (ethereo-sulphuric acid.1) But as the sulphuric acid, by its union with the elements of the alcohol, has lost half its saturating power, the new compound is rather to be regarded as a supersalt (bisulphate of the oxide of ethule,) (Liebig, in Turner's Elements of Chemistry, p. 837, et seq. 7th ed. 1840.) combined with water; or as a double salt composed of sulphate of the oxide of ethule and sulphate of water. Carbo-hydrogen is the basic constituent of this salt, which, by the action of heat, is resolved into ether, sulphuric acid, and water. " On the ethule hypothesis, so ably advocated by Liebig, the following is an ex- planation ofthe changes attending the formation of ether: — Alcohol is regarded as the hydrate of the oxide of ethule, and its equivalent is assumed to be 46. On the addition of oil of vitriol, two equivalents or 80 parts of anhydrous sulphuric acid combine with one equivalent or 37 parts of oxide of ethule (ether,) contained in the alcohol, and form one equivalent or 117 parts of bisulphate of oxide of ethule (bisulphate of ether.) The water of the alcohol and of the oil of vitriol unites with the bisulphate. By the heat, which is sub- sequently applied to the mixture, the hydrated bisulphate is resolved into ether, water, and sulphuric acid. In the following diagram, the oil of vitriol (S O3 -f HO) is assumed to be the strongest procurable, and the alcohol to be uncombined with water: — MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. INTERMEDIATE COMPOUNDS. PRODUCTS. ». u i ap \ 1 eq. Water..... 9-----1 eq. Water....... 9---------------------1 eq Water 9 1 eq. Alcohol 46 \^q0x,Ethule 37 , [■---leq. Bisulphate of n eq Q/ Ethule 37---j eq Etfcer 37 ( 2 eq. Sulph Acid 80 ) °x,de Eth'jle- • u • ( 2 eq. Sulph. Acid 80 2en.Oilof ) \ Vitriol---W\ \ - 2 eq. Water .... \S-----2 eq. Water....... 18--------------\2 eq oil of Vitriol.. 98 114 "If we consider each particle of the [hydrated] bisulphate of oxide of ethule as composed of ether, [oxide of ethule,] anhydrous sulphuric acid, and water, it is clear that the anhydrous acid, at the moment of its separation from the ether, must seize on all water, free or com. bined, in the vicinity of the ether. Thus, at the moment the ether becomes free, the anhy- drous acid, also set free, prevents it from uniting with water to form alcohol. But when the gaseous ether passes through the undecomposed hydrated bisulphate of oxide of ethule, a cer- tain proportion of the water of that compound must evaporate in the dry gas; and in these circumstances the ether and water do not combine together. The surface ofthe effervescing liquid has the temperature at which [hydrated] bisulphate of oxide of ethule is decomposed; but at this temperature, 284°, the water of that compound is gaseous. There are thus pro- duced, simultaneously, water in the gaseous form by evaporation, and ether, also gaseous, by decomposition; whicli, as both are in the nascent state, unite to form alcohol. Thus the alcohol, always observed to distil over with the ether, is derived from the surface; and the ether and water, which distil over, proceed from the decomposition in the interior of the liquid. This explains why no ether is obtained when the liquid is not in brisk ebullition, no muller how high the temperature may be; it explains farther, why more alcohol is obtained when a current of dry air passes through the liquid, since in that case the same decomposi- tion goes cid = 22 1 eq. Aq. Vap. = 9 1 eq. Aq. Vap. = 9 pour consumes, in burning, six volumes of oxygen gas: the products are, four volumes of carbonic acid, and five volumes of aqueous vapour. By the slow combustion of ether vapour, by means of a coil of platinum wire, acetic, formic, and lnmpic [aldehydric] acids are produced. Ether is sparingly soluble in water: nine volumes of the latter dissolve one of the former. Ether, which has been washed with water, contains a small portion ofthe latter liquid. Alcohol dissolves ether in all proportions. Ether abstracts bichloride of mercury, terchloride of gold, and the sesquichlo- ride of iron, from their watery solutions. It readily dissolves bromine and iodine; but the solutions, by keeping, undergo decomposition. It sparingly dissolves sulphur and phosphorus: the ethereal solution of phosphorus is luminous in the dark, when poured on hot water. It dissolves the volatile oils, most ofthe fatty and resinous su'istances, some ofthe vegetable alkalis, urea, and osmazome. Characteristics.—Sulphuric ether may be recognised by its combustibility, its yellowish white flame, its volatility, its peculiar odour and taste, its complete solubility in alcohol, and its sparing solubility in water, in consequence of which, when mixed with water and agitated in a phial, the mixture speedily separates, on standing, into two layers. It dissolves most resins; the solutions, evaporated on the >urfac,e of water, leave a resinous film. 332 ELEMENTS OP MATERIA MEDICA, Composition1.—The following is the elementary composition of ether:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Dumas fy Boullay. Carbon . 4 . . . . 24 . . . 64.87.....65.05 Hydrogen 5 .... . 5 . . . 13 51.....13 85 Oxygen . 1 . . . . 8 . . . 21-62.....2124 Ether . . 1 . . . . 37 . . . 10000.....10014 Chemists are not agreed as to the manner in which these elements are asso- ciated. Ether has been considered at different times, as a dihydrale of olefiant g-ftS,—a hydrate of etherine,—or as the oxide of ethule (ethereum.) 2eq. Olefiant gas.............28 I 1 rq etherine.................. 2H 1 eq. Ethule................... 29 1 eq. Water.................. 9 I eq. Water................... 9 1 eq. Oxygen................ 8 leq Dihydrale of Olefiant gas 37 I 1 eq. Hydrate of Etherine......37 1 eq. Oxide of Ethule......... 37 In this table olefiant. gas is regarded as a § carbo-hydrogen, etherine as a ~ carbo-hy- drogen, and ethule as i carbo-hydrogen. Purity.—The ether of commerce is usually contaminated with small quanti- ties of either spirit or water, or both. These augment its sp. gr. but do not much affect its medicinal properties. The London College states that its sp. gr. should be 0750; but this is too high. The Edinburgh College fixes it at 0-735, or under. I think 0-740 would be sufficiently low. Ether which contains no alcohol does not coagulate the serum of the blood. Pure ether does not redden lit- mus, but the ether of the shops usually does so slightly, either from being imper- fectly prepared or being too long kept. Ten fluid ounces of water should not dis- solve more than one fluid ounce of ether, and the solution should be quite transpa- rent. It should speedily and totally evaporate in the air. It should not become milky when mixed with water. " When agitated in a minim measure, with half its volume of concentrated solution of muriate of lime, its volume is not lessened," Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects. ». On Vegetables.— Ether, like alcohol, acts as a powerful and rapid poison to plants. /3. On Animals.—The effects of it on dogs have been determined by Orfila, (Toxicolog. Generate.) who found that half an ounce introduced into the sto- mach, and the oscephagus tied, caused attempts to vomit, diminished muscular power, insensibility, and death in three hours. Three drachms and a half injected into the cellular tissue of the thigh, caused death on the fourth day. J'dger (Wibmer, in Die Wirkung, Sic.) found that a half an ounce of ether acted as a fatal poison to a crane: at the end of forty-eight hours its odour could be readily detected in the body. He made similar experiments with pigeons and ducks. One of the last-mentioned animals took altogether an ounce of ether, yet was not dead at the end of twenty-four hours. y. On Man.—The operation of ether is analogous to that of alcohol, but is much more rapid and transient. Swallowed in moderate doses it makes a power- ful impression on the mouth, throat and stomach; allays spasm, and relieves fla- tulence: but, according to some observers, it augments neither the heat of the body nor the frequency of the pulse. (Schwilgue, Traite de Mat. Med. 1818: also, Trousseau and Pidoux, Traite de Therap. 1836.) Its first effects on the cere- bral functions are those of an excitant, but the subsequent ones are those of a de- pressing agent. In somewhat larger doses it produces intoxication like that caused by alcohol. In excessive doses it occasions nausea, a copious flow of saliva, gid- diness, and stupefaction. The long and habitual use of ether diminishes the effect of this substance over the system, and, therefore, the dose must be proportionately increased. Dr. Christison mentions the case of an old gentleman who consumed sixteen ounces every eight or ten days, and had been in the habit of doing so for many years. SULPHURIC ETHER. 33 J Yet, with the exception of an asthma for which he took the ether, he enjoyed tolerable health. The chemist, Bucquet, who died of scirrhus of the colon, with inflammation of the stomach and of the intestines generally, took, before his death, a pint of ether daily, to alleviate his excruciating pains. (Merat and De Lens, Diet. Mat. Med.) When the vapour of ether, sufficiently diluted with atmospheric air, is inhaled, it causes irritation about the epiglottis, a sensation of fulness in the head, and effects analogous to those caused by the protoxide of nitrogen (vide p. 264;) moreover, persons peculiarly susceptible ofthe action ofthe one are also powei- fully affected by the other. (Journal of Science, vol. iv. p. 158.) If the air be too strongly impregnated with ether, stupefaction ensues. In one case this state continued with occasional periods of intermission for more than thirty hours: for many days the pulse was so much lowered that considerable fears were enter- tained for the safety ofthe patient (op. cit.) In another case, an apoplectic con- dition, which continued for some hours, was produced. Modus Operandi.—When ether is swallowed, it is rapidly absorbed, and sub- sequently thrown out of the system by the pulmonary surface. Magendie (Elem. Compcnd. Physiol, by Milligan.) says, that ether introduced into the cavity of the peritoneum is discoverable in the expired air by its odour. Thrown into the cavity of the pleura, it produces speedy death, and its odour is very obvious when we approach the mouth ofthe animal. (Lectures on. the Tissues, Lancet, Nov. 22, 1834.) In the case of a man poisoned by laudanum, and to whom be- fore death half an ounce of spirit of sulphuric ether was given, the ether was detected by its odour in the brain. (Lancet for 1836-7, vol. i. p. 271.) ILses.—Ether is employed both medicinally and for pharmaceutical purposes. 1, Medicinal I.'SCS. «. Internal.—Ether is principally valuable as a speedy and powerful agent in spasmodic and painful affections, not dependent on local vascular excitement, and which are accompanied by a pale, cold skin, and a small, feeble pulse. If administered during a paroxysm of spasmodic asthma, it generally gives relief, but has no tendency to prevent the recurrence of attacks. In cramp ofthe stomach, singultus, and flatulent colic, its happy effects are well established.1 It is sometimes highly advantageous in a paroxysm of angina pec- toris. During the passage of urinary or biliary calculi, it may be used as a sub- stitute for, or in combination with, opium, to overcome the spasm of the ducts or tubes through which the calculus is passing. In the latter stages of continued fever, ether is sometimes admissible. It is employed to relieve the subsultus tendinum and hiccup. Desbois de Rochefort (Cours Elem. de Matiere M'dicale. Paris, 1789.) administered it in intermit- tent fevers. He gave it about half an hour before the expected paroxysm; it acted as a mild diaphoretic, and prevented the recurrence of the attack. Headach of the kind popularly called nervous, that is, unconnected with vas- cular excitement, is sometimes speedily relieved by ether. I have found it bene- ficial principally in females of delicate habits. In such it occasionally gives immediate relief, even when the throbbing of the temporal vessels and suffusion of the eyes (symptoms which usually contra-indicate the employment of ether,) would seem to show the existence of excitement ofthe cerebral vessels. In flatulence of stomach it may be taken in combination with some aromatic water. Against sea-sickness it should be swallowed in a glass of white wine. Durande2 recommends a mixture of three parts ether and two oil of turpentine, as a solvent for biliary calculi. Bourdier (Med. de la Societe de Med.) employed ether to expel tape-worm. He administered it by the stomach and rectum, in an infusion of male fern, giving a dose of castor oil an hour after. In faintness and i On the Effer.ts of Ether in Spasmodic Affections of the Stomach, and in Intermittents. See Medical Facts and Observations, vol. v. Lond. » Observ sur I'Efficatite dn Melange d'Ether sulphuriq. et dHuile volatils du Tereb. dans Colliques hepatiq pr.duites pur des Pierres Bi.iaircs. Strasburg, 17W). 334 ELEMENTS OP MATERIA MEDICA. lowness of spirits, it is a popular remedy. In poisoning by hemlock and mush- rooms, it has been employed. (J. Frank, Toxicologic, s. 70, 108.) In asphyxia it has been used with benefit. The vapour of ether is inhaled in spasmodic asthma, chronic catarrh, and dyspnoea, hooping-cough, and to relieve the effects caused by the accidental inha- lation of chlorine gas. It may be used by dropping some ether in hot water, and inspiring the vapour mixed with steam, or it may be dropped on sugar, which is to be held in the mouth. The inhalation of the vapour of the ethereal tincture of hemlock is occasionally useful in relieving spasmodic affections of the respiratory organs, and has been recommended in phthisical cases. /3. External.—The principal external use of ether is to produce cold by its speedy evaporation. Thus, in strangulated hernia it may be dropped on the tumour and allowed to evaporate freely: by this means a considerable degree of cold is produced, and, in consequence, the bulk ofthe part diminished, whereby the reduction of the hernia is facilitated. Dropped on the forehead, or applied by means of a piece of thin muslin, ether diminishes vascular excitement, by the cold produced from its evaporation, and is exceedingly efficacious in headach and inflammatory conditions of the brain. In burns and scalds it may also be em- ployed as a refrigerant. If its evaporation be stopped or checked, as by covering it with a compress, it acts as a local irritant, causing rubefaction, and, by long- continued application, vesication. It is used with friction as a local stimulant. 2. Pharmaceutical Uses.—Ether is employed in the preparation of the Com- pound Spirit of Sulphuric Ether. Ether, or its alcoholic solution, is also used to extract the active principles of certain drugs, as of Lobelia, Aloes, Musk, &c. The solutions are called Ethereal Tinctures, (Tincturae Etherese,) or by the French pharmacologists Et he roles. These may be conveniently prepared by percolation (see p. 326.) Ether is of assistance in determining the purity of some medicinal substances, as of Aconitina and Veratria, which are very soluble in it. It is also employed in toxicological researches, to remove Bichloride of Mercury from organic mixtures. Administration.—It may be given in doses of from f3ss. to f3ij.:—a tea- spoonful is the ordinary quantity. This dose may be repeated at short intervals. It is usually exhibited in some aromatic water, and frequently in combination with other antispasmodics and stimulants, as ammonia, valerian, &c. "It may be perfectly incorporated with water, or any aqueous mixture, by rubbing it up with spermaceti employed in the proportion of two grains for each fluiddrachm of the ether." (United States Dispensatory, p. 727, 3 edit. Philadelphia, 1836.) Antidotes.—In cases of poisoning by ether, the same treatment is to be adopted as before recommended in cases of poisoning by alcohol. 1. SPIRITUS ETHERI8 SULPHURICI, E. Spirit of Sulphuric Ether. (Sulphuric Ether, Oj.; Rectified Spirit, Oij. Mix them. The density of this preparation ought to be 0-809. " It does not affect litmus paper, or render water muddy: when agitated with twice its volume of a concentrated solution of muriate of lime, 28 per cent, of ether separates by rest.")—Its medicinal properties are similar to, though somewhat less powerful than, those of ether, over which it has the advan- tage of being miscible with water in all proportions. The dose of it is f3j. to f3iij. mixed with some diluent. It is used in the preparation of the Tinctura Lobelias aetherea, E. I SPIRITUS iETHERIS SULPHURICI COMPOSITUS, L. (U. S.) Compound Spirit of Sulphuric Ether. (Sulphuric Ether, fSviij.; Rectified Spirit, f3xvj.; Etherial Oil, f3iij. Mix.)—This preparation is commonly called Hoffmann's Mineral Anodyne Liquor (Liquor anodynus mineralis Hoffmanni,-) being made in imi- tation of a preparation described by Hoffmann,1 and which it is said he was t De Acido Vitrioli Vinoso, 1732—Fr. Hoffmanni, Operum omnium Supplementum, p. 855. Geneva?, 1754. SULPHURIC ETHER. 335 taught by an apothecary of the name of Martmeier.1 This preparation is some- times employed as an adjunct to laudanum, to prevent the nausea which the latter excites in certain habits. Its dose is from f3ss. to f3ij. in any proper vehicle. 3. O'LEUM vETHE'REUM, L.—(U. S.) ETHEREAL OIL. (Liquor yEthereus Oleosus, D.) History and Synonymes.—This liquid is commonly termed heavy oil of nine, or simply oil of wine. Dumas (Traite. de Chimie, t. 5me, p. 543.) says it was known to Paracelsus, who designated it sweet oil of vitriol. Modern writers have given it various appellations founded on its supposed composition. Thus according to Mr. Hennell (Philosophical Transactions, 1826.) it is a sulphate, of hydrocarbon,—Dumas (Op. supra cit.) calls it sulphatic ether,—others a double sulphate of ether and hydrocarbon,—while Liebig (Turner's Elements of Che- mistry, p. 844 and 861,' 7th ed. 1841.) terms it sulphate of oxide of ethule and etherole. (The term etherole is applied to a | carbo-hydrogen, better known as Light Oil of Wine.) Preparation.—The following directions for procuring it are given in the Lon- don Pharmacopoeia:— "Take of Rectified Spirit, lb. ij.; Sulphuric Acid, lb. iv.; Solution or Potash, Distilled Water, of each f.^j.; or as much as may be sufficient. Mix the acid cautiously with the spirit. Let the liquor distil until a black froth arises; then immediately remove the retort from the fire. Separate the lighter supernatant liquor from the heavier one, and expose the former to the air for a day. Add to it the solution of potash first mixed with water, and shake them together. Lastly, when sufficiently washed, separate the ethereal oil which subsides." The Dublin College gives the following directions for its preparation :—" Take what remains in the retort after the distillation of sulphuric ether. Distil down to one half, with a moderate heat." [The U. S. Pharmacopoeia directs Alcohol, two pints; Sulphuric Acid, three pints ; Solution of Potassa, half a fluid ounce; Distilled water, a fluid ounce. Mix the acid cautiously with the Alcohol; allow the mixture to stand twelve hours, then pour it into a large glass retort, to which a receiver kept cool by ice or water is adapted, and distil by means of a sand-bath until a black froth arises, when the retort is to be removed im- mediately from the sand-bath. Separate the lighter supernatant liquid in the receiver from the heavier, and expose it to the air for a day ; then add to it the Solution of Potassa previously mixed with the Distilled Water, and shake them together. Lastly, separate the Ethereal oil as soon as it shall have subsided.] The process ofthe London Parmacopceia is that followed at Apothecaries' Hall, London. Mr. Hennell informs me that 331bs. avoird. of Rectified Spirit, and 64lbs. avoird. of Oil of Vitriol, yielded in one operation 17 ounces avoird. of ethereal oil. There is, therefore, an immense loss in the operation. Theory of the Process.—When oil of vitriol and alcohol are mixed, bi- sulphate of oxide of ethule (C4 H5 O, 2S03) and water are formed (see p. 329.) Under the influence of heat the bisulphate suffers decomposition; but the reac- tions vary with the temperature. When the sulphuric acid is greatly in excess, and the boiling point of the liquid has attained 320° F., the principal products of the decomposition are sulphurous acid, olefiant gas (carbo-hydrogen,) water, and carbon (see p. 330.) At this period of the process heavy oil of wine is also pro- duced in small quantity. Its formation may be accounted for by supposing that two equivalents of the bisulphate of oxide of ethule and water react on one ano- ther, and that the carbo-hydrogen (C4 H4 = 1 eq. Etherole) ofthe one is substi- tuted for the water of the other; the products being heavy oil of wine (oleum mthereum, Ph. L.) sulphuric acid, and water. ' Wigtellt), I'ollstandiges System der Ar-.neymUt llehre, Bd. ii. 3«« Abt. S. 3d. Leipzig. 1817 336 elements ok materia meoica. Material. J eq. Bisulphate of Oxide Et and Water phate ( I eq thule < .... 12 See some remarks on these animalcules by Professor Owen, in the Cyclopedia of Anatomy and Physiology, vol. ii. p 1W. Lond. 1839. r "' ACETIC ACID. 345 nourished in vinegar. They may be destroyed by submitting the liquid in which they are contained to heat. Vinegar is also infested by a small fly (Musca cellaris.) Malt vinegar consists of water, acetic acid, acetic ether, colouring matter, a peculiar organic matter, commonly denominated mucilage, a small portion of alcohol and sulphuric acid. Vinegar makers are allowed to add one-thousandth part by weight of sulphuric acid. This may be detected by a solution of chlo- ride of barium, which forms a white precipitate (sulphate of baryta,) insoluble in nitric acid. The quantity of sulphate of baryta thrown down from a fluid ounce of vinegar, by the addition of solution of chloride of barium, should not exeeed 1-14 grains,1 (Ph. L.) If the vinegar be free from copper, lead, tin, and other metallic matter, it yields no precipitate on the addition of hydrosulphuric acid (sulphuretted hydrogen.) The presence of hydrochloric acid may be recog- nised by nitrate of silver, which produces a white precipitate (chloride of silver) with it, insoluble in nitric acid. The presence of nitric acid in vinegar may be recognised by boiling this liquid with indigo, which is rendered yellow by nitric acid. Or it may be detected by saturating the suspected acid with potash or soda, and evaporating to dryness: the residue deflagrates, when thrown on red- hot coals, if nitric acid be present. In the London Pharmacopoeia the detection of nitric acid is directed to be effected by immersing a plate of silver in the sus- pected acid: if nitric acid be present, a solution of nitrate of silver will be ob- tained, which is recognised by the white precipitate (chloride of silver) caused by the subsequent addition of hydrochloric acid. Pepper, or other acrid sub- stances, may be detected by neutralizing the vinegar with carbonate of soda, when their acrid taste becomes very obvious. 2. Wine Vinegar (Acefum Gallicum, or French Vinegar, E.; Acetum Vini, D.)—In wine countries, vinegar is obtained from inferior wines. In France, wine vinegar is prepared in casks, which are placed in a stoved chamber, heated to between 68° and 77° F. Each vat communicates with the air by two aper- tures. Every eight or ten days the liquor in the vats must be changed. Either red or white wine may be used, but the latter is generally employed.3 Wine Vinegar is of two kinds, white and red, according as it is prepared from white or red wine. White wine vinegar is usually preferred, as it keeps better. That which is made at Orleans is regarded as the best. According to the Edin- burgh Pharmacopoeia its density varies from 1014 to 1-022. A sample of it, examined by Mr. Phillips, had a density of 1-016; and 100 minims of it saturated nearly 14 grains of crystallized carbonate of soda, while an equal quantity of English vinegar, exclusive of the sulphuric acid which it contains, saturated little more than 12 grains; consequently, the French is stronger than the English vine- gar by nearly one-sixth. (London Medical Gazette, Aug. 3, 1839.) The constituents of wine vinegar are very similar to those of malt vinegar. It contains a small quantity of bitartrate and sulphate of potash. Both these salts occasion precipitates with barytic solutions: but that produced by the bitartrate is soluble in nitric acid. The Edinburgh College states that " Ammonia, in slight excess, causes a purplish mudefiness, and slowly a purplish precipitate. In four fluid ounces, complete precipitation takes place with 30 minims of Solution of - Nitrate of Baryta," Ph. Ed. But Mr. Phillips (Op. supra cit.) has shown that this quantity of nitrate is more than twice as much as is requisite. 3. Improved, German, or Quick Method of Vinegar-making.—As acetifica- tion is essentially the oxidation of alcohol, the German chemists have contrived an improved method of effecting it, by which the time necessary to the produc- ' The Edinburgh Collegp states, that "In four fluid ounces [of British vinegar] complete precipitation taki-s place with thirty minims of Solution of Nitrate of Baryta," Ph. Ed. But Mr. Phillips (Lond. Med. Gaz. Auif. 3, 1839) has nliown, that more than three times thin quantity of nitrate is required. » See (Juibourt. Hist ire Abrigie des Drogues Simples, 3rd. ed. t. ii. p. 630, Paris, 1836; Ure's Dictionary of Arts. p. 3. Lond. IP39; and Dono\an op. supra cit p 3-W V0L. I—44 346 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. tion of vinegar is greatly curtailed. It consists in greatly enlarging the surface of the liquid exposed to the air. This is effected by causing a mixture of one part of alcohol at 80 per cent., four to six parts water, _!_ of ferment, honey, or extract of malt, to trickle down through a mass of beech shavings steeped in vinegar, and contained in a vessel called P)G 5J a Vinegar Generator (Essigbilder,) or Graduation Vessel. '______ It is an oaken tub, narrower at the bottom than at the top, |^Tjrt| furnished with a loose lid or cover, below which is a perfo- THlBllIlW rated shelf (colender or false bottom,) having a number of small holes loosely filled with packthread about six inches long, and prevented from falling through by a knot at the upper end. The shelf is also perforated with four open glass tubes, as air vents, each having their ends projecting above and below the shelf. The tub, at its lower part, is pierced with a horizontal Si 1111111 | in I in' row of eight equidistant round holes, to admit atmospheric air. .. 1 ^ric mcn aD0Ve ,ne bottom is a syphon-formed discharge pipe, Willi 1 j [ 1 | IHHII whose upper curvature stands one inch below the level of the m Vli",ii, i i iii .. ir.-^g—. air-holes in the side of the tub, The body of the tub being fwj " |Y| filled with beech chips, the alcoholic liquor (first healed to be- j£i-----^-J----• tween 75° F. and 83° F.) is placed on the shelf. It trickles slowly through the holes by means of the packthreads, diffuses Vinegar Generator. itself over the chips, slowly collects at the bottom of the tub, and then runs off by the syphon pipe. The air enters by the ^^.TnrtSTJSX circumferential holes, circulates freely through the tub and of the tub.) escapes by the glass tubes. As the oxygen is absorbed, the temperature of the liquid rises to t00° or 104° F., and remains stationary at that point while the action goes on favourably. The liquid requires to be passed three or four times through the cask before acetification is complete, which is in general effected jn from twenty-four to thirty-six hours.1 Theory of Acetification.—A remarkable distinction between the acetous and vinous fermentation is, that for the former to be perfectly established, the pre- sence of atmospheric air (or of oxygen) is essential, while for the latter this is not necessary. During the acetous fermentation the alcohol is converted into acetic acid, by the absorption of atmospheric oxygen. Two equivalents or 46 parts of alcohol, with four equivalents or 32 parts of atmospheric oxygen, con- tain the elements of one equivalent or 51 parts of anhydrous acetic acid, and of three equivalents or 27 parts of water; or one equivalent or 60 parts of hydrous acetic acid, and two equivalents or 18 parts of water. According to Liebig, however, the transformation of alcohol into acetic acid is not immediate and direct. The atmospheric oxygen first oxidizes part of its hy- drogen, forming water and aldehyd; and the latter absorbing oxygen, is converted into acetic acid, materials. composition. pRonccTS. 4 eq. Atmospheric j 2 eq. Oxygen....................... 16 ------------— 2 eq. Water .. 18 Oxygen = 32 j 2 eq. Oxygen....................... 16 !2 eq. Hydrogen..................... 2 4 eq. Hydrogen = 4 ) 4 eq. Carbon = 24 V 1 eq. Aldehyd 44 — - 1 eq. Hydrous 2 eq. Oxygen z= 16) Acetic Acid 60 78 78 78 The student will observe that the theory of acetification above given doe3 not account for the evolution of carbonic acid during the process, and which is gene- rally considered to be accidental, and not essential to the formation of acetic acid. 3. By the Destructive Distillation of Wood.-By the destructive distillation of the hard woods (oak, beech, hornbeam, ash, and birch,) in iron cylinders, an impure acid, called Pyroligneous Acid, is obtained. The woods should be dried i For farther details consult Pro's Dictionary of Arts, pp. 4 and 617 ; Mitscherlich, Lehrbuch der Chemie, Bd. ler, s. 549, 2te Aufl. Berlin, 1834, and Liebig, in Turner's Elements of Chemistry, p. 876, 7th ed. ACETIC ACID. 347 Section of a Pyroligneous Acid Still. during several months. The lighter woods, as fir, and old ship timber, do not pay to distil, as the acid product is too weak. Sometimes the still is a cast-iron cylinder, placed horizontally in a furnace, the fire of which plays around the cylinder, as in fig. 52. Another form of still is used at a large manufactory in the neighbourhood of London. It is a short cylinder of large diameter, placed upright in the furnace. The wood, cut up into convenient lengths, is introduced into wrought- iron canisters, in each of which is a hole, to allow of the escape of volatile matters. By the aid of a crane, these canisters are raised and deposited in the cylindrical still, the top of which is then carefully closed and made air-tight by luting. The still com- municates with a large iron pipe which passes suc- cessively through two tanks of cold water, in which it is variously convoluted, and terminates in an under- ground reservoir, where tar and an acid liquor are deposited. The incondensible products are carbonic acid and some iuflammable gases, (carbonic oxide, light carburetted hydrogen, and olefiant gas,) which escape. When no more volatile matter comes over, the still is opened, and the canisters being removed while still hot, the apertures in them are carefully closed by damp sand, to ex- clude air. The tar obtained by the above process yields, on distillation, oil of tar, and a residuum called English asphalt, or pitch. The acid liquor, which rests on the tar in the reservoir, consists of acetic acid, water, tar, and pyroxilic spirit. A light tarry matter usually floats on the top of it. By means of a pump, the acid liquor is raised and introduced into a cop- per still, where it is subjected to distillation. The first runnings contain pyroxilic spirit. After this has come over, an impure dilute acetic acid, called pyroligne- ous acid, distils over. The residue in the retort is English asphalt, or pitch. The pyroligneous acid thus obtained is mixed with cream of lime, and the mixture evaporated to dryness in shallow wrought-iron pans, when it forms a grayish mass, called pyrolignite of lime. If this be submitted to distillation with sulphuric acid, it yields an impure acetic acid, which is used in the manufacture of acetate of lead, and for making carbonate of lead by the Dutch process. If pyrolignite of lime be mixed with a solution of sulphate of soda, double de- composition is effected, and sulphate of lime and acetate of soda are the products. The latter is repeatedly crystallized until it is colourless, and is then in a fit state for the manufacture of pure concentrated acetic acid. 1. Pyroxilic Spirit; Pyroligneous Ether; Hydrate of Oxide of Methule; Bihydrate of Methylene. Sometimes, but improperly, termed Naphtha. The first runnings of the distilla- tion ofthe acid liquor above referred to, are redistilled once or twice, and the product is sold under the name of pyroligneous ether. It is an impure liquor, containing, besides hydrate of the oxide of methule, acetone and other inflammable liquors. It is employed by chemists as a substitute for spirit of wine for burning in lamps, and by hatters and varnish-makers for dissolving resinous substances. Drs. Babington and Rees (Guy's Hospital Reports, Oct. 1839; and London Medical Gazette, N. S. vol. i. for 1839-40.) have suggested its use for the preser- vation of subjects for anatomical purposes. The spirit is to be injected into the aorta, the rectum, and the peritoneum. It was tried at the London Hospitil, but the smell arising from the spirit was so intolerable, that, even if there were no other objections to its use, this alone would be fatal to it. Pure pyroxilic spirit is obtained by introducing it into a retort with excess of chloride of calcium, and distilling the mixture by a water-bath, as long as volatile matter passes off. A quantity of water, equal to the spirit employed, is then added, and the distillation continued. The product is now pure pyroxilic spirit, carrying along wilh it a little water, which is removed by a second distillation wilh quicklime (Liebig.) 348 ELKML.vra or materia medica. Pure pyroxilic spirit is a very mobile, colourless, inflammable liquid, which has a peculiar odour, somewhat resembling that of alcohol and acetic ether. It boils at 150° F. It dis- solves many resins, mixes with most essential oils, and forms crystalline compounds with baryta, lime, and chloride of calcium. Its composition is as follows :— Atoms. Eq. Wt Or, Atoms. Eq. Wt. Carbon................ 2 .......... 12 Oxide of Methule.......... 1 ........ 23 Hydrogen ............. 4 .......... 4 Water..................... 1 ........ 9 Oxygen ............... 2 .......... 10 Pyroxilic Spirit ........ 1 .......... 32 Hydrate of Oxide of Methule 1 ........ 32 Methule (Ca H3) is the hypothetical radical of pyroxilic spirit. Oxide of Methule, or Methylic Ether (Ca H* O) is a colourless gas. The repeated use of small quantities of pyroxilic spirit caused colicy pains, and acted as an anthelmintic. (Dierbach, Neuesten Entdeck. in d. Mat. Med„ Bd. i. S. 314, 2te Ausg. 1837.) 2. Eblanin; Pyroxanthine ; Pyroxilene.—This substance was obtained by Scan Ian from raw pyroxilic spirit. It is a crystalline substance, of an orange red colour. Oil of vitriol dissolves it, and assumes a reddish blue colour. Concentrated hydrochloric acid also dis. solves it, and acquires an intense purple colour. (For farther details, see Thomson's Che. mistry of Organic Bodies, p. 751. Lond. 1838.) Eblanin has the following composition :__ Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Carbon....................... 21 ............ 126 ............ 7545 Hydrogen .................... 9 ............ 9 ............ 539 Oxygen....................... 4 ............ 32 ............ 1916 Eblanin ...................... 1 ............ 167............ 10000 Preparation of Acetic acid.—All the British colleges give directions for the preparation of a concentrated solution of acetic acid, which they simply term acetic acid. The London College orders Acetate of Soda, lb. ij.; Sulphuric Acid, .fix.; Distilled Water, fgix. Add the sulphuric acid, first mixed with the water, lo the acetate of soda put into a glass retort, then let the acid distil in a sand-bath. Care is to be taken that the heat, towards the end, be not too much increased. The Edinburgh College gives the following directions :—" Take of Acetate of Lead any convenient quantity; heat it gradually in a porcelain basin, by means of a bath of oil, or fusible metal (8 tin, 4 lead, 3 bismuth) to 320° F.; and stir till the fused mass concretes again : pulverize this when cold, and heat the powder again to 320°, with frequent stirring, till the particles cease to accrete. Add six ounces of the powder to nine fluiddrachms and a- half of pure sulphuric acid, contained in a glass matrass:, attach a proper tube and refrigera. tory, and distil from a fusible-metal-bath, with a heat of 320°, to complete dryness. Agitate the distilled liquid with a grain or two of red oxide of lead to remove a little sulphurous acid; allow the vessel to rest a few minutes, pour off the clear liquor, and redistil it. The density should be not above lOGS." The directions of the Dublin College are as follows r— Take of Acetate of Potash, 100 parts, Sulphuric Acid, 52 parts. Put the acid into a tubulated retort, then gradually, and at diffe- rent intervals of time, add the Acetate of Potash, wailing, after each addition, until the mix- lure becomes cool. Lastly, with a moderate heat, distil the acid until the residuum is dry. The specific gravity of this acid is to that of distilled water as 1074 to 1000. [The U. S. Pharmacopoeia directs, Acetate of Soda in powder a pound; Sulphuric Acid half a pound; Red Oxide of Lead a drachm. Pour the Sulphuric Acid into a glass retort, and gradually add the Acetate of Soda; then by means of a sand-bath distil at a moderate heat into a glass receiver till the residuum becomes dry. Mix the resulting liquid with the Red Oxide of Lead, and again distil at a moderate heat to dryness.] The proportions of acetate of soda, sulphuric acid, and water, used by the Lon- don College, are nearly equal to one equivalent or 137 parts of crystallized ace- tate of soda, one equivalent or 49 parts of the strongest oil of vitriol (protohy- drate of sulphuric acid,) and six equivalents or 54 parts of water. The results of the distillation, on this calculation, will be the formation of one equivalent or 72 parts of anhydrous sulphate of soda, and the disengagement of one equivalent or 51 parts of anhydrous acetic acid, and thirteen equivalents or 117 parts of water. r ACETIC acid. 349 MATERIALS. 6eq. Water ............54 COMPOSITION. TO eq Water.... 1 eq. Crystd. Acet. Soda 137 •< I eq. Acetic Acid 51 ( 1 eq. Soda......... 32 1 ea Oil Vitriol 49 i1 *?• Water....... 9 I eq.uil vunoi ....... 49 j l gq Sulphc Acid 40 240 PRODOCTS. 13 eq. Water............ 117 1 eq. Acetic Acid ........ 51 1 eq. Sulphate Soda..... 72 240 The calculated results agree very closely with the actual products. The resulting acid consists of 51 real acetic acid and 114-58 water; so that 117—11458 = 2-42 of water must remain in the retort with the sulphate of soda. The Edinburgh College substitutes acetate of lead for acetate of soda. The salt is first dried to expel the water of crystallization, and the anhydrous salt thus obtained is subjected to distillation along with pure oil of vitriol, with the view, I presume, of obtaining glacial acetic acid. Hydrated acetic acid distils over, and sulphate of lead is left in the retort To remove any sulphurous acid which may be formed, red oxide of lead is ordered to be added to the acetic acid, by which sulphate and sulphite of lead are formed, and the acetic acid is then to be redistilled.1 The Dublin College employs acetate of potash to yield acetic acid. The reac- tions are similar to those of the London process. The distillation of acetic acid is usually effected in glass or earthenware stills. On the large scale, silver condensers are sometimes used. Properties.—Glacial Acetic Acid is the strongest acetic acid procurable. It crystallizes at 45° F. when we throw into it any particle of solid matter (a crys- tal of acetic acid answers best,) and the thermometer plunged into it rises at the Bame time from 45° to 51°. These crystals are brilliant, broad flat plates, of a pearly lustre. They melt at a temperature somewhat below 60° F. The sp. gr. ofthe liquid at 60° is 1-06296. When crystals of glacial acetic acid are dissolved in water we obtain a solution which by way of distinction, we may denominate liquid acetic acid. The fol- lowing table, drawn up by Dr. Thomson, (First Principles of Chemistry vol. ii. p. 135.) shows the specific gravity of various atomic compounds of this acid and water:— Water. Sp. gr. at 60°. 1 atom.......1-06296 2........107060 3 ........ . 107084 4........107132 5 ....... . 106820 6....... . 1-06708 7.........106349 8 ....... . 105974 9 ......... . 105794 10........105439 More recently Mohr (Pharmaceutisches Central-Blatt fur 1839, S. 840-41.)' has published the following table, exhibiting the sp. gr. of acetic acid of different strengths:— » The process ofthe Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia has been critically examined by Mr. R. Phillips (London Me- dical Gazette, N. S. vol. ii. for 1839-40, p. 271.) It cannot be denied that several unnecessary refinements have been introduced into it, which render the operation troublesome, wasteful, and expensive. Such are the use of a bath of oil or fusible metal,—the addition of red lead, and subsequent redistillation ofthe acid to- get rid of a quantity of sulphurous acid, which, judging from the quantity of red oxide to be used, cannot exceed the ~rjr Part of the product. Moreover, the whole process is objectionable on the ground that acid of this strength is not required for medicinal or pharmaceutical purposes. Acid. I atom . . + + + . + ■ + + . + . + + + 350 elements ok .materia medica. Per Cent, of Per Cent of Per Cent of Qlacial Acid Sp. Or. Qlacial Acid Sp. Or. Qlacial Acid. Sp. Or. (C H» 0» + Aq. (C« H3 03 + Aq. (C« H* 0» t Aqv 100 106 5 66 1069 32 10424 90 l-0::55 65 1-008 31 1 041 98 1067 64 1068 30 1 040 97 1 0680 63 1 068 2il 1-039 or, 1 0(5!) 62 1067 28 1-038 95 1 070 01 10-67 27 1030 94 10706 60 I 007 26 1-035 93 10708 50 1-066 25 1 034 92 I 0716 58 106'i 24 1033 91 1 0721 57 1 065 23 1032 90 10730 56 1 064 22 1031 89 10730 55 10li4 21 102!) 88 1 0730 51 1003 20 1 027 87 1 0730 53 1-063 19 1-026 80 10730 5-2 1062 18 1-0-25 8.5 1-07'fO 51 1061 17 1 024 84 1 0730 50 1.060 16 1 023 83 1 0730 41 1 050 15 1-022 8-2 1-0730 48 1-058 14 1020 81 10732 47 1056 13 1018 80 1 0735 46 1055 12 1017 79 107'5 45 1 055 11 1 016 78 10732 44 1 054 10 1 015 77 10732 43 11)53 9 1013 76 1 073 42 1 0.5-2 8 1012 75 107-2 41 10515 7 1010 « 74 107-2 40 10513 6 1-008 73 1 072 30 1050 5 10067 72 1071 *8 1-049 4 10055 71 1071 37 1 048 3 1004 70 1070 36 1047 2 1002 69 1070 35 1046 1 1001 63 1 070 34 1 045 0 1000 67 1069 33 1044 From these tables it is obvious that density is no criterion of the strength of liquid acetic acid. The Acidum Aceticum of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia is stated in one part of that work (p. 44) to have a sp. gr. of not above 1-065, in another (p. 2) to have a sp. gr. of not above 1-0685: moreover, in the same work, the density of the acid is said to be increased by [Jthe addition of] 20 per cent, of water. There are, however, some obvious mistakes in these statements. (See Mr. R. Phillips, in the London Medical Gazette, N. S. for 1838--9, vol. ii. p. 688.) The Acidum Aceticum of the London Pharmacopoeia has a sp. gr. of 1-048. One hundred grains of it are saturated by eighty-seven grains of crystals of car- bonate of soda. Hence it contains 30-8 per cent, of real or anhydrous acetic acid. It is a limpid, colourless liquid, having a pungent but agreeable odour, and an acrid taste. It possesses the usual properties of an acid;—such as red- dening litmus, causing effervescence with the alkaline or earthy carbonates, and saturating bases. It is volatile, and by heat evolves an inflammable vapour. Characteristics.—Free acetic acid is known by it peculiar odour and by its volatility. Its vapour reddens litmus, and fumes with ammonia. It does not occasion any precipitate with lime water, solutions of the barytic salts, or a solu- tion of nitrate of silver. It forms with potash a very deliquescent salt. Con- centrated acetic acid does not cause effervescence when marble is dropped into it, unless water be added. The neutral acetates are all soluble, save those of molybdenum and tungsten. The acetates of silver and protoxide of mercury are slightly soluble. The acetates are known by the acetic odour which they emit on the addition of sulphuric acid, and by the white lamellar and pearly precipitates which many of them produce with the nitrate of silver and the protonitrate of mercury. They redden solutions of the sesquisalts of iron (foiming sesquiacetate of iron.) All the acetates are decomposed by heat, and give results which vary somewhat according to the nature of the base. Some of the acetates, as those of potash, lead, and copper, ACETIC acid. 351 evolve, when heated, an inflammable fluid, called acetone or pyro-acetic spirit, whose composition is C9, H3, O9. Composition.—Anhydrous or real acetic acid consists of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, in the following proportions:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Prout. Berzelius. Carbon.....4 . . 24 . . 47-06 . . 4705 . . 46-83 Hydrogen . . . , 3 . . 3 . . 5-88 . . 588 . . 6-35 Oxygen.....3 . . 24 . . 47-06 . . 4707 . . 4682 Anhydrous Acetic Acid 1 . . 51 , . 100-00 . . 100-00 . . 100-00 The Acidum Aceticum of the pharmacopoeias is a compound of Anhydrous or Real Acetic Acid and Water. Prepared according to the London Pharmacopoeia, 100 grs. of it contain 30-8 grs. of real acetic acid; or very nearly one equivalent of real acetic acid, and 13 equivalents of water. Atoms. Eq. Wt. Theory. Experiment. Anhydrous Acetic Acid........ 1 ........ 51 ........ 30 35 ........ 308 Water........................ 13 ........ 117 ........ 69-65 ........ 69-2 Acidum Aceticum, Ph.L....... 1 ........ 168 ........ 10000 ........ 1000 Owing to the errors before alluded to in the statements ofthe Edinburgh College, it is impossible to estimate, correctly, the strength of the acid intended to be ob- tained by the process given in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia. If, however, the acid had a sp. gr. of 1-068, and 100 minims of it required 216 grs. of crystallized carbonate of soda to saturate it, as stated by the College, its per-centage quantity of real acetic acid would be 78-65. Acetometry.—The strength of acetic acid is best determined by ascertaining the quantity of alkaline carbonate which is required to saturate a given quantity of acid. Crystallized carbonate of soda, or crystallized bicarbonate of potash, are salts of uniform constitution, and may be employed for this purpose. Every 144 grs. of the crystallized carbonate of soda, or 101 grs. of crystallized bicar- bonate of potash, are equal to 51 grs. of real acetic acid, or 60 grs. of glacial acetic acid. Marble or carbonate of lime is objectionable, since concentrated acetic acid will not decompose it without the addition of water. I have already shown that specific gravity is no criterion ofthe strength ofthe hydrated acid; since two acids of very unequal strength may have the same density. Moreover, the foreign matters (i. e. mucilage and alcohol) contained in vinegar, alter the density of this fluid, though they do not affect its acetometrical strength. The acetometrical method employed by the Excise is that recom- mended by Messrs. J. and P. Taylor, (Quarterly Journal of Science, vol. vi. p. 255.) and consists in estimating the strength of the acid by the sp. gr. which it acquires when saturated by hydrate of lime. Acid, which contains 5 per cent. of real acetic acid, is equal in strength to the best malt vinegar, called by the makers No. 24, and is assumed as the standard of vinegar strength, under the denomination of proof vinegar. (58 Geo. 3. c. 65.) Acid, which contains 40 per cent, of real acetic acid, is, therefore, in the language of the revenue, 35 per cent, over proof: it is the strongest acid on which duty is charged by the Aceto- meter. Vinegars, which have not been distilled, contain mucilage, and require an allowance for the increase of weight from this cause. Hence in the Acetometer sold by Bate, a weight marked M is provided, and is used in trying such vine- gars.1 As the hydrate of lime employed causes the precipitation of part of the mucilaginous matter in the vinegar, it serves to get rid of part of the difficulty above referred to. Impurities.—The presence of sulphuric, hydrochloric, or nitric acid,—of i See Description of the Acetometer for determining the Strengths of Acetic Acid made for the Revenue of the United Kingdom, by R. B. Bate, 21, Poultry, London. J 352 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. metallic matter,—and of acrid substances in acetic acid, may be detected by the same methods as have already been pointed out for vinegar (see p. 345.) Sul- phurous acid is recognised by the white precipitate (sulphate of lead) produced on the addition of peroxide of lead. The presence of lead in acetic acid is known by the yellow precipitate (iodide of lead) occasioned by the addition of iodide of potassium. Physiological Effects.—Before proceeding to notice the operation of acetic acid on vegetables and animals, it may be useful to point out such of its effects on dead organic matters as have reference to its influence on living beings. In the first place, it is a well-known and powerful antiseptic, and is employed, partly on this account, in the ordinary operation of pickling, and in the preservation of animal food, and of anatomical preparations. The impure acetic acid obtained in the distillation of wood, aets more efficaciously in this respect than the pure acid, on account of the creasote which it contains. Secondly, the action of acetic acid on albumen, fibrin, and blood-disks, deserves especial notice. Liquid albumen (as serum of blood and white of egg) is not coagulated by the ordinary acetic acid of the shops. Coagulated albumen is readily dissolved by it with the evolution of nitrogen, especially with the assistance of heat. Fibrin, as muscle or the cras- samentum of the blood, also dissolve in it: the solution, by evaporation, yields a gelatiniform mass. Caseum is coagulated by it. It changes the form of the red particles of frog's blood, and dissolves part of the red colouring matter. (Mid- ler's Physiology, p. 106.) It is an excellent solvent of gelatine. Diluted and mixed with mucus, it acts as a digestive fluid. (Muller, op. cit. p. 545.) *, On Vegetables.—Distilled vinegar is ranked, by Achard, among vegetable poisons. (De Candolle, Phys. Veget.) /3. On Animals generally.—Concentrated acetic acid acts as a caustic poison to dogs. It causes blackening of the mucous lining"of the stomach, analogous to that produced by sulphuric aeid. (Orfila, Journ. de Chim. Med. t. vii. p. 449.) Four or five ounces of common vinegar proved fatal to dogs in ten or fifteen hours, when vomiting was prevented by tying the oesophagus. (Ibid.) Injected into the veins, vinegar does not appear to act energetically. Viborg threw two ounces and a-half of wine vinegar into the jugular vein of a horse; the next day the ani- mal was well. (Wibmer, Die Wirkung der Arzneimittel. und Gifte, Bd. i. S. 11.) Analogous results have been obtained by Courten and Hertwich (quoted by Wibmer) and by Pommer. (Christison, Treatise on Poisons.) The impure acetic acid obtained by the distillation of wood, has been usually regarded as possessing much more activity than pure acetic acid of the same strength, in consequence of the presence of empyreumatic oil. An extensive series of experiments have been made with it on amphibials, birds, and mam- mals, by Berres, Kerner, and Schubarth. From these it appears that pyroligne- ous acid is a caustic poison; and that it destroys some of the lower animals, viz. amphibials, merely by contact with the external skin. Large doses affect the cerebro-spinal system, and cause giddiness, insensibility, paralysis, and convul- sions. A very constant effect of it was an affection of the windpipe and lungs. The acid was detected by its odour, in the blood and secretions. (Wibmer, op. supra cit.) y. On Man.—In the concentrated state acetic acid is an irritant and corrosive poison (see p. 208.) Its chemical influence depends principally on its power of dissolving fibrin, albumen, and gelatine, as before mentioned, by which it is ena- bled to dissolve many of the animal tissues. Applied to the skin it acts as a rubefacient and vesicant (see p. 209.) Only one fatal case of poisoning by ils internal use is known. The patient (a girl) appeared to be intoxicated, com- plained of acute pain, and was violently convulsed. (Orfila, Journ. Chim. Med. t. ii.) Swallowed in a very dilute form, and in moderate doses, it proves refreshing, allays thirst, diminishes preternatural heat, lowers the pulse, and augments the ACETIC acid. 353 urine. In its general effects, therefore, it appears to lower the powers of life and to prove antiphlogistic. It agrees in its operation with the diluted mineral acids (see pp. 189, 192, 198, and 207.) Its local operation is astringent. Used mo- derately it assists the digestive process, and is, therefore, taken as a condiment. It is in repute with young ladies for diminishing obesity. " Every one knows," says Giacomini, (Lond. Med. Gaz., N. S. vol. ii. for 1838-9, p. 175.) "that when habitually taken, it produces leanness, from a sort of languor of the diges- tive process." The following is a case, quoted by this author, from Portal:— "A few years ago, a young lady, in easy circumstances, enjoyed good health; she was very plump, had a good appetite, and a complexion blooming with roses and lilies. She began to look upon her plumpness with suspicion; for her mother was very fat, and she was afraid of becoming like her. Accordingly, she consulted a woman, who advised her to drink a small glass of vinegar daily : the young lady followed her advice, and her plumpness diminished. She was delighted with the success of the remedy, and continued it for more than a month. She began to have a cough ; but it was dry at its commencement, and was considered as a Blight cold, which would go off. Meantime, from dry it became moist; a slow fever came on, and a difficulty of breathing; her body became le.in, and wasted away; night sweats, swelling of the feet and of the legs, succeeded, and a diarrhoea terminated her life. On ex. amination, all the lobes of the lungs were found filled wtth tubercles, and somewhat resem- bled a bunch of grapes." It is said that the long-continued use of it, in full doses, will induce chronic diseases of the gastro-intestinal mucous membrane; and Morgagni says, it has even given rise to scirrhus of the pylorus. Vinegar may be taken in considerable quantity at one time without inconveni- ence. Dr. Christison (Christison, Treatise on Poisons.) knew a case in which eight ounces were swallowed without injury. The vapour of strong acetic acid is very pungent and irritating. The long- continued inhalation of acetic vapours by the workmen employed at vinegar- works, is said by Sundelin (Handb. d. Heilmittellehre.) to be injurious to the lungs, and to bring on chronic inflammation of these organs. On inquiry among the workmen of a large vinegar-manufactory, I find the notion of the injurious influence of the vapour generally repudiated. Both at these works, and at a pyroligneous acid manufactory, the workmen appeared in excellent health. Uses.—The uses of acetic acid and vinegar, to the medical practitioner, are of two kinds,—medicinal and pharmaceutical. L Medicinal.—Taken internally, common vinegar, or acetic acid properly diluted, is used for various purposes: the most important of these are, to allay febrile heat by its refrigerant qualities; to diminish inordinate vascular action; to relieve certain affections of the brain supposed to depend on, or be connected with, venous congestion; and to act by its chemical properties of an acid. Thus, in fevers, whether simple or eruptive, but especially in those varieties commonly denominated putrid and bilious, vinegar (more or less diluted with water) is a most refreshing drink, allaying thirst, and diminishing excessive heat. In hemorrhages, as from the nose, lungs, stomach, or uterus, it is particularly bene- ficial by its refrigerant, sedative, and astringent qualities. It diminishes exces- sive vascular action, and promotes contraction of the bleeding vessels. As a local astringent, it is injected into the nose in epistaxis, and is used as a wash in profuse hemorrhoidal discharges. The benefit obtained by the application of vinegar and water to the abdomen, vulva, and thighs, in uterine hemorrhages, arises principally from the cold produced. In phthisis pulmonalis, vinegar, diluted with water, is sometimes serviceable as a palliative, by its refrigerant qualities: it relieves the hectic symptoms, diminishes or puts a stop to the night sweats, checks bronchial hemorrhage, and prevents diarrhoea. In mania, it has been recommended as a means of allaying cerebral excitement. In poisoning by opium, it is used as a counter-poison; but as acetic acid forms very soluble, and, therefore, powerful compounds with morphia, it ought not to be exhibited until the contents of the stomach have been evacuated. In poisoning by the alkalis^ Vol. I.—45 3J-1 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. and their carbonates, and by lime, vinegar is the safest and most efficacious acidu- lous substance that can be administered. In diseases attended with phosphatic deposites in the urine, it may be advantageously used either as a medicine or condiment. As an adjunct to the acetate of lead, acetic acid is recommended by Dr. A. T. Thomson, to prevent the formation of carbonate of lead, which is more apt to produce lead colic than the acetate. In scurvy, acetic acid has been found serviceable. Clysters containing vinegar have been employed for the purpose of provoking alvine evacuations in obstinate constipation and strangulated hernia; of expelling the small round worm (Ascaris vermicular is;) of checking uterine and intestinal hemorrhage; and of relieving inflammation or congestive conditions of the brain. As a stimulant, disinfectant, and antiseptic, diluted acetic acid is used in gan- grenous and other ill-conditioned ulcers. For these purposes crude pyroligneous acid is more efficacious than ordinary vinegar, on account of the creasote and other substances which it contains. In ulceration of the throat, in scarlatina, and in cynanche, gargles containing acetic acid or vinegar are sometimes used with good effect. Acetic collyria are useful, as mild astringents, in chronic ophthalmia, and for removing lime-dust adhering to any part of the globe or lid of the eye. Sponging the face, trunk, or extremities, with cold or tepid vinegar and water, usually proves refreshing -and grateful in febrile disorders with a hot skin. It diminishes preternatural heat, promotes the cutaneous functions, and operates as a beneficial stimulant to the nervous system. Fomentations containing vinegar are used in bruises, sprains, &c. The concentrated acetic acid, known in the shops as Beaufoy's, is a valuable remedy for the cure of the different forms of porrigo, popularly called ring-worm or scalled head. Its application, which may be effected by means of a piece of lint wrapped around a wooden stick, causes acute but temporary pain, redness of the skin, and whitening of the abraded spots. One or two applications are usually sufficient to effect a cure. Strong acetic acid is also employed as a caustic to destroy corns and warts. It has been proposed as a speedy means of exciting rubefaction and vesication, and, for this purpose, blotting-paper or cambric, moistened with this acid, has been applied to the neck in cases of croup. Administration.—Vinegar is used as a condiment ad libitum. Medicinally it is given in doses of from f3j. or f 3ij. to fgss. As an enema f3j. or fjij. have been used. A refrigerant drink in fevers is made by adding f3j. or f3ij. of vine- gar to a quart of water. A vinegar wash is prepared by mixing f3iij. of vinegar and f 3v. of water. Antidotes.—In poisoning by strong acetic acid, the treatment is the same as that for poisoning by other acids. (See p. 262. Also Acidum Sulphuricum.) 1. ACETUM DESTILLATUM, L. E. D. (U. S.) Distilled Vinegar.—All the British colleges give directions for the preparation of this liquid. The London College directs us to take of Vinegar a gallon. Let the Vinegar distil in a pand-bath, from a glass retort into a glass receiver. Keep the seven pints first distilled for use. [This process has been adopted by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia.] The Edinburgh College says, " Take of Vinegar (French, by preference) eight parts: distil over with a gentle heat six parts: dilute the product, if necessary, with distilled water till the density is 1-005." The Dublin College takes of Wine vinegar, by measure, ten parts. Distil with a slow fire eight parts by measure. In the distillation, glass vessels should be employed, and the first portion which comes over, in quantity amounting to one part, rejected. The first portions which distil over are alcohol, acetic ether, water, and a little acetic acid. Hence the Dublin College directs the first tenth part to be rejected. Prepared according to the pharmacopoeias, distilled vinegar has a yellowish tint, and contains, besides acetic acid and water, a little alcohol, acetic ether, and an organic substance called mucilage. Hence, when it is saturated with alkalis, the ACETIC ACID. 355 solution becomes brown by heat, and deposites a dark-coloured substance, pro- bably arising from the decomposition of the mucilage. One hundred grains of acetum destillatum, Ph. Lond. saturate, thirteen grains of crystals of carbonate of soda. This indicates the per-centage quantity of real acetic acid in it to be 4-6. But the acetum destillatum, Ph. Ed. is not so strong, in consequence of the College directing only fths of the vinegar to be distilled. Its density is stated to be 1-005; and one hundred minims of it neutralize eight grains of crystallized carbonate of soda, indicating the per-centage quantity of real acid to be 3-07.1 In order to prevent the distilled vinegar from acquiring a metallic impregnation, the head of the still and the worm or condensing pipe should be of glass or earth- enware. I was informed at one vinegar works that a silver worm was em- ployed. A mixture of acetic acid and water may be advantageously substituted for dis- tilled vinegar. If the acetic acid be of the strength directed in the London Phar- macopoeia, the proportions will be, of acetic acid 15 parts, of water 85 parts, to form a dilute acid equal in strength to that of distilled vinegar. The effects and uses of distilled vinegar have been noticed under the head of Acetic Acid. [I ACIDUM ACETICUM DILUTUM, U. S.—Take of Acetic Acid half a pint; Dis- tilled Water five pints. Mix them. One fluid ounce is saturated by 36 grains of crystallized Bicarbonate of Potassa. This preparation is used as a substitute for distilled vinegar where nicety is requisite, as it is free from mucilage, and therefore does not change colour, from the action of an alkali that may be used to saturate the acid.] 3. ACIDUM ACETICUM AROMATICUM, £.—(Rosemary, and Origanum, of each gj., dried; Lavender, dried, §ss.; Cloves, bruised, |ss.; Acetic Acid, Oiss. Mace- rate for seven days, strain and express strongly, and filter the liquor.) In the former Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia there was contained, under the same name, a somewhat similar but weaker preparation, made with diluted acetic acid, (i. e. distilled vinegar,) in imitation of the celebrated Marseilles Vinegar, or Vinegar of the Four Thieves2 (Vinaigre des Quatre-Voleurs ; Acetum quatuor Fur urn,) once supposed to be a prophylactic against the plague and other contagious dis- eases. It was a very useless preparation. In the present Edinburgh Pharma- copoeia, concentrated acetic acid has been substituted for distilled vinegar, and Origanum for Sage. It is now a pungent perfume, and may be used as a substi- tute for Henry's Aromatic Vinegar. But it appears to me to be a very unneces- sary preparation. The Acetum aromaticum, or Aromatic Vinegar of the shops, is made in imi- tation of Henry's Aromatic Vinegar. At Apothecaries' Hall it is prepared by dissolving the Oils of Cloves, Lavender, Rosemary, and Acorus Calamus, in crystallizable Acetic Acid. It is a very volatile and corrosive preparation, and requires to be kept in carefully-stoppered bottles. Some manufacturers add cam- phor. The addition of water to it causes the precipitation of the greater part of the camphor. It is a much perfumed pungent perfume, whose vapour is snuffed up the nostrils, to produce a powerful excitant impression, in fainting, languor, headach, and nervous debility. For this purpose it is dropped on sponge, which i See Mr. R. Phillips, in London Medical Gazette, N. S. vol. ii. for 133d--3a, p. 688; and vol. ii. for 1839-40 p. i!7l. » "The repute of this preparation as a prophylactic in contagious fevers, is said to have arisen from the ronfession of four thieves, who, during the plague of Marseilles, plundered the dead bodies with perfect security, and, upon being arrested, stated, on condition of their lives being spared, that the use of aromatic vinegar hail preserved them from the influence of contagion. It is on this account sometimes called " Le Vinaigre des quatre Voleurs." It was, however, long used before the plague of Marseilles, for it was the constant custom of Cardinal Wolsev to carry in his hand an orange, deprived of its contents, and filled wilh n r*pongn which had been soaked in vinegar impregnated with various spices, in order to pres rve himself from infection, when p.issing through the crowds which his splendour or office attracted. The first plague raged in 161'.', whereau Wolsey died in 1531." (Paris, Pharmacologia, vol. ii. p. 18,6th ed. I.ond. 1825.) 356 ELEMENTS OK MATERIA MEDICA. is preserved in smelling-bottles or vinaigrettes. It is also used for the purpose of correcting unpleasant odours, which it does, not by destroying, but by disguising them (see p. 210) An extemporaneous aromatic vinegar may be prepared by putting into a stoppered bottle f3j. of acetate of potash, three drops of some essential oil, (as Lavender or Lemon) and twenty drops of oil of vitriol. 4. ACIDUM ACETICUM CAMPHORATUM, E. D.—(Camphor, ^ss.; Acetic Acid, f3viss. [f3yj. Z).] Pulverize the camphor with the aid of a little rectified spirit, and dissolve it in the acid.)—This preparation is an officinal substitute for Henry's Aromatic Vinegar. The spirit is used merely to assist in reducing the camphor to powder. Camphorated acetic acid is exceedingly pungent and cor- rosive. Its vapour is snuffed up the nostrils as a powerful stimulant in syncope. It is never used internally. 5. OXYMEL, L. D. Syrupus Acefi, E.; Oxymel Simplex or Simple Oxymel. (The London College directs of Honey [clarified,] lb. x.; Acetic Acid, Oiss. Mix the acid with the honey made hot.1—The Dublin College orders of Honey, by weight, lb. ij.; Distilled Vinegar, Oj. [wine measure.] Boil them in a glass vessel, with a slow fire, to the thickness of syrup, removing the scum.—The Edinburgh College substitutes sugar for honey:—Take of Vinegar, French in preference, f3xj.; Pure Sugar, 3xiv. Boil them together.)—It is employed as a detergent and pectoral. It is frequently added to gargles; but is moie com- monly used as an expectorant in slight colds and coughs. Diffused through bar- ley-water, it forms an agreeable refrigerant drink in febrile and inflammatory complaints. It is sometimes used as a vehicle for other medicines. Dose from 3j. to 3ss. or 3j- 2. Pharmaceutical Uses.—Vinegar or acetic acid is employed for extracting the virtues of various medicinal substances, as Squills, Opium, Colchicum, and Can- tharides: the solutions are called Medicated Vinegars, (Acelica,) or, by the French pharmacologists, Oxeoles (from ofar, vinegar.) A small quantity of spirit is usually added to them for the purpose of preventing the decomposition of the vinegar, and, in consequence of this, a small portion of acetic ether is generated. They are usually prepared by marceration. The preparations into the composition of which acetic acid and honey enter, are called Oxymels, (Oxy- mellites,) or the Acid Mellites. Acetic acid is employed also in the manufacture of the salts called Acetates. It is a powerful solvent of the gum-resins, and is used, on this account, in the preparation of the Emplastrum Ammoniaci. Lastly, distilled vinegar is used in the preparation of Cataplasma Sinapis, Ceratum, Sa- ponis, Linimentum iEruginis, and Unguentum Plumbi compositum. 8. ACIDUM CI'TICUM, L. E. D. (U. S.)—CITRIC ACID. History.—This acid was first procured in the solid state by Scheele in 1781. It is sometimes termed the Concrete Acid of Lemons. Natural History.—Citric acid is peculiar to the vegetable kingdom. It is found in many acid juices of fruits usually free, but sometimes in combination with either potash or lime. Besides the fruits of the genus Citrus, it is found, with little or no malic acid, in the fruits of Dulcamara, Dog rose, Cranberry, Bird cherry, and Whortleberry. Mixed with an equal quantity of malic acid, it is found in the Gooseberry, Red Currant, Strawberry, Raspberry, Cherry, &c. In the Tamarind it exists with both malic and tartaric acids. Preparation.—All the British colleges give directions for the preparation of this acid. i There is a mistake in the formula ofthe London College ; the quantity of acetic acid directed lo he used being much too large. Prepared according to the London Fharmacctcna ox\ mel is an acrid preparation. The quantity of acetic acid employed should be sufficient to give the preparation nn agreeable flavour. When the honey is very thick, a little water f hould be employed. A very fine oxymel which I examined. was prepared with 132lhs. 12 oz. of honey, and 8lbs. 2oz (Avoirdupois) of acetic acid. citric acid. 357 The Lond on College orders of Lemon Juice, Oiv.; Prepared Chalk, ^ivss.; Diluted Sul- phuric Acid, f^xxviiss.; Distilled Water, Oij. Add the Chalk gradually to the Lemon Juice made hot, and mix. Set by, that the powder may subside: afterwards pour off the superna- tant liquor. Wash the Citrate of Lime frequently with warm water. Then pour upon it the diluted Sulphuric Acid and the distilled Water, and boil for a quarter of an hour. Press the liquor strongly through linen, and strain it; evaporate the strained liquor with a gentle heat, and set it by, that crystals may be formed. Dissolve the crystals, that they may be pure, again and a third time in water, and as often strain the solution, boil down and set it aside. The Edinburgh College employs the same quantity of Lemon Juice and Chalk (or of the latter a sufficiency,) and " Diluted Sulphuric Acid, f^xxvii., or in the same proportion to the chalk required." ' The lemon juice is to be boiled twice, and allowed to rest once before the chalk is added. After the sulphuric acid has been added, the filtered liquor is to be tested with a solutiou of nitrate of baryta, and if the precipitate thereby obtained be not "almost entirely soluble in nitric acid,1' more citrate of lime is to be added [to saturate the great excess of sulphuric acid.] The process ofthe Dublin College is essentially similar to that ofthe London College. The juice of lemons and limes is imported for citric acid manufacturers, in pipes and hogsheads. It is saturated with chalk or whiting in a large vat. By this means a citrate of lime is formed. This is precipitated, while the carbonic acid of the chalk escapes, and the mucilage of the juice for the most part remains in solution. MATERIALS. Chalk....... Lemon Juice. COMPOSITION. Carbonic Acid. Lime. Water. Mucilage, ire. Citric Acid........... PRODUCTS. -Carbonic Acid Gas. -Water, Mucilage, Slc. "Citrate of Lime. The supernatant liquor is then drawn off, and the citrate of lime is passed through a sieve and frequently washed with warm water, until the mucilage and other soluble impurities are for the most part got rid of. Sulphuric acid, diluted with water, is afterwards added: sulphate of lime separates, and citric acid is left in solution. MATERIALS. Citrate of Lime. Sulphuric Acid.. COMPOSITION. Citric Acid..- Lime. PRODUCTS. -Citric Acid. *3ulphate of Lime. The clear solution is then evaporated in leaden boilers, and the concentrated solution set aside to crystallize. The crystals are afterwards purified by re-solu- tion and re-crystallization. (For farther details, consult Parkes's Chemical Es- says, vol. i. p. 539, 2d ed. 1823.) Properties.—Citric acid crystallizes in colourless, odourless, very sour, trans- parent, short, rhomboidal prisms, whose extremities are terminated by four trapezoidal faces, and which belong to the right prismatic system. (Brooke, Annals of Philoso- phy, N. S. vol. vi. p. 119.) Crystallized citric acid be- comes damp by exposure to a moist atmosphere, though Dumas, and other French chemists, state it to be unaltera- ble by the air. According to Vauquelin, it is soluble in 75 parts of cold and 50 of boiling water. The solution is strongly acid, and becomes mouldy by keeping. Crys- tallized citric acid is much less soluble in alcohol than in water. Its sp. gr. is 1-617. Heated with potash, it is converted into oxalic and acetic acids and water. Treated with oil of vitriol it evolves sulphurous acid, carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, acetic acid, and water. Heated with nitric acid, it becomes oxalic acid. Crystal of Citric Acid. > The Edinburgh College employs half an ounce of diluted sulphuric acid less than the London College- whereas, it ought lo have been increased by eight ounces, in consequence of the diluted sulphuric acid of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia being weaker than that of the London Pharmacopoeia (Mr R Phillips London Medical Gazette, N. 8. vol. it. 1838-8, p. 690.) 358 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. According to Crasso, crystallized citric acid, when exposed to heat, exhibits four stages of decomposition. During the first, the water of crystallization alone is given off, and the residue contains unaltered citric acid. The second stage is characterized by white vapours, and the production of acetone, carbonic oxide, and carbonic acid, while the residue consists of hydrated aconitic acid (C4 H 0s -f Aq.,) which is the true pyrocitric acid. In the third stage, the aconitic acid, not being volatile, is itself decomposed, yielding carbonic acid and an oily liquid which soon crystallizes. This is the pyroaconitic acid, the citricic of Baup, for which Crasso proposes the name of itaconic acid (C5 H2 O3 -f H O.) Thi3 acid, when heated, yields citraconic acid (C5 H2 O3 -f H O,) the citribic acid of Baup. In the fourth period empyreumatic oil is produced, and a voluminous coal re- mains behind. (Crasso, quoted by Liebig, in Turner's Elements of Chemistry, 7th ed.) Characteristics.—When added in excess to lime water, no precipitate is pro- duced. " When a few drops of a solution of citric acid are added to lime water, a clear liquid results, which, when heated, deposites a white powder, soluble in acids without effervescence," (Liebig.) It does not yield a crystalline precipitate when added in excess to a solution of carbonate of potash. It forms, with barytic water, a white precipitate (citrate of baryta.) With a solution of acetate of lead it also furnishes a white precipitate (citrate of lead,) soluble in ammonia, which forms with it a double salt (ammoniacal citrate of lead.) Added to a solution of nitrate of silver it produces a white precipitate (citrate of silver,) which, when heated, becomes brown, froths up, deflagrates, discharges white fumes, and leaves an abundant, ash-gray, coarsely fibrous, crumbly residue, which by heat becomes pure silver. Composition.—The following is the composition of crystallized citric acid:— Atoms Carbon....................... 4 Hydrogen .................... 3 . Oxygen....................... 5 . Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Dumas. Prout. Vre. . 24 . 3 .. . 40 .. ... 35 8 .. .. 4-5 .. ,.. 59 7 .. 36-28 .. .. 4-45 .. .. 59-27 .. .. 34-28 .. 4-76 .. .. 60-96 .. .. 3300 .. 4-63 .. 62-37 Citric Acid crystallized by \ cooling a solution satu- \ 1 .... 67 .... 100-0 .... 10000 .... 10000 .... 100 00 rated at 212"...........> Crystallized citric acid of commerce contains, however, somewhat more oxy- gen and hydrogen (elements of water) than the above:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Dumas. Carbon................. 4 .......... -24 .......... 3429 .......... 3475 Hydrogen............... 3} .......... 333 .r........ 476 ......... 4-72 Oxygen................ 5^.......... 4266 .......... 6095 .......... 6053 *npcTdfc^fefth^^" 7oo°..........ioooo~..........iooo° According to Berzelius, hypothetical dry citric acid is composed of C4 Ha O4 (=58;) and, therefore, the acid, crystallized by cooling, consists of Ci -f Aq. (58 + 9 = 67,) and the commercial acid of Ci -f 1| Aq. (58 -f 12 = 70.) But Liebig (Turner's Elements of Chemistry, 7th edit.) regards the hypothe- tical dry citric acid as composed of C13 H5 O11 (= 165.) On this supposition, the acid, crystallized by cooling, is composed of Ci -f 3 HO 4 Aq. (165 4 36 = 201;) and the commercial crystals of Ci + 3 HO + 2 Aq.(165 4- 45 = 210.) On this view of its constitution citric acid is a tribasic acid; that is, it combines with three equivalents of base: its equivalent weight being three times the amount assumed in the above tables. Purity.—Powdered citric acid is sometimes adulterated with powdered tartaric acid. The fraud may be readily detected by dissolving the suspected acid in a small quantity of water, and adding cautiously to it a solution of carbonate of pot- ash, taking care that the acid be in excess. If any tartaric acid be present, a TARTARIC ACID. 359 white crystalline precipitate (bitartrate of potash) is formed. The directions of the London and Edinburgh Colleges for ascertaining the purity of the acid are as follows:— This acid is soluble in water; what is precipitated from the solution by acetate of lead is dissolved by nitric acid. No salt of potash, except the tartrate, is precipitated by solution of citric acid. It is totally dissipated in the fire (Ph. Lond.) The solubility of the plumbeous precipitate in nitric acid shows the absence of sulphuric acid or a sulphate. A solution, in four parts of water, is not precipitated by carbonate of potash : when inci- nerated with the aid ofthe red oxide of mercury, no ash is left, or a mere trace (Ph. Ed.) The elements of citric acid (viz. oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon) are dissipated by a red heat. But this dissipation is promoted by agents (ex. red oxide of mer- cury) capable of supplying oxygen without leaving any fixed residuum. Physiological Effects.—Orfila (Toxicologic Generate.) ranks citric acid among the irritant poisons: but Drs. Christison (Christison, On Poisons, p. 208, 3rd edit.) and Coindet gave drachm doses of it to cats without observing that the animals suffered any inconvenience therefrom. The effects of large doses of this acid on man I am not acquainted with. Small quantities of it, dissolved in water, form an agreeable beverage, which allays thirst, diminishes preternatural heat, checks profuse sweating, and promotes the secretion of urine. (See pp. 192, 198, and 207.) Vogt (Pharrnakodyn, Bd. ii. S. 72. 2te Aufl.) considers it to act more powerfully on the skin, and less so on the alimentary canal and urinary organs, than tartaric acid. In its action on the skin it agrees with acetic acid. The continued employment of it, as well as of other acids, disturbs the functions of the digestive organs.1 Uses.—Citric acid is employed in medicine, as a substitute for lemon juice, in the preparation of refrigerant drinks and effervescing draughts, and as antiscor- butic, anti-narcotic, and anti-alkaline. (See Lemon Juice.) 1. ARTIFICIAL LEMON JUICE—This is prepared by dissolving Citric Acid 3viijss., in Water fjxvj., and flavouring with a few drops of Essence of Lemons. This is less apt to undergo decomposition than the genuine juice, for which the artifi- cial juice may be employed in the preparation of cooling beverages. I EFFERVESCING CITRATES.—Citric acid, with the alkaline carbonates, is fre- quently employed in the preparation of effervescing draughts. The following are the relative proportions of acid and base required to form a neutral compound. 20 grs. of Commercial Crystals of Citric Acid are saturated by about— Crystallized Bicarbonate of Potash......29 grs. Carbonate of Potash of Commerce......24 „ Hydrated Sesquicarbonate of Ammonia .... 17 „ Crystallized Carbonate of Soda.......41 „ Sesquicarbonate of Soda of Commerce.....24 „ The most agreeable effervescing citrate is that prepared with bicarbonate of potash, flavoured with tincture of orange peel and syrup (see Potassse Citras.) Sometimes an effervescing citrate is prepared with the hydrated sesquicarbonate of ammonia (see Ammoniae Citras, p. 295.) The carbonates of soda are rarely employed with citric acid. 9. ACIDUM TARTAR'ICUM, L.E.D. (U. S.)—TARTARIC ACID. History.—Tartaric acid was first procured in a separate state by Scheele, in 1770. It is sometimes termed the crystallized acid of tartar. Natural History.—It is peculiar to the vegetable kingdom. i For some further observations on its effects, see the article Lemon Juice, in a subsequent part of tliis work. 360 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. In the free state it exists in tamarinds, grapes, the pine apple, and pepper. It is also found native in combination wilh bases : thus, bitartrate of potash exists in tamarinds, grapes, niul- berries, &c, and tartrate of lime in the fruit of Rhus typhinum. Preparation.—All the British colleges give formulae for its preparation. The London College directs us to take of Bitartrate of Potash, lb. iv.: Boiling Distilled Water, Cong, iiss.; Prepared Chalk, %xxv. and £vj. Diluted Sulphuric Acid, Ovij. and f^xvij.j Hydrochloric Acid, f^xxviss., or as much as may be sufficient. Boil the Bitartrate of Potash with two gallons of Distilled Water, and add, gradually, half the prepared Chalk; then, the effervescence having ceased, add the remainder of the Chalk, previously dissolved in the Hydrochloric Acid with four pints of the Distilled Water. Lastly, set aside, that the Tar- trate of Lime may subside; pour off the liquor, and wash frequently the Tartrate of Lime, with Distilled Water, until it be void of taste; then pour on it the diluted Sulphuric Acid, and boil for a quarter of an hour. Evaporate the strained liquor by a gentle heat, that crystal! may be formed. Dissolve the crystals, that they may be pure, again, and a third time, in water, and, as often, strain the liquor, boil down, and set it aside. The process ofthe Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia is essentially the same.' The Dublin College uses of Bitartrate of Potash, reduced to powder, ten parts; Prepared Chalk, four parts; Sulphuric Acid, seven parts; Water, one hundred and twenty parts. The process is otherwise similar to that of the London Pharmacopoeia. The following is the theory of the process for making tartaric acid:—By the mutual action of bitartrate of potash and carbonate of lime (chalk,) we obtain tartrate of potash in solution and tartrate of lime precipitated, while carbonic acid escapes.—The following diagram explains these changes:— MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. PRODUCTS. «■. .1 rn\ 1 «« Carbonic Acid.... 22--------------------------1 eq. Carbonic Acid := 22 1 eq. Chalk = 50 ) , ^ Lime............ 33. 1 eq. Bitartrate I 1 eq. Tartrate Potash.. 114_______ ——- .^___^---1 eq. Tartrate Potash = 114 Potash =180/1 eq. Tartrate Acid.... 66----------------- —-1 eq. Tartrate Lime = 94 230 230 230 If to the solution of tartrate of potash we add chloride of calcium (obtained by dissolving chalk in hydrochloric acid,) double decomposition ensues; tartrate of lime is precipitated, and chloride of potassium remains in solution. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. PRODUCTS. 1™ ra™ n.i..-,. — «S !«?• Chlorine................. 36—----------—p=»l eq. Chlor. Potasm = 76 leq. Chlor. Calc.um = 56 | , e* Calcium................. 20vn^^--~^^ leq. Tartrate Potash =114^ ■ **«* «j )%[%%$* *l^ Ann. d r Pharm. vix. p 178; also, Pharmaccutisches Central-Blalt fur 1839, p. 233; and Liebig, in Tur- ner's Elements of Chemistry, 7th edit. p. 781. » For some practical remarks on the preparation of this acid, see Eulcr and Horberger, in Pharmaceutisches Ceutral-Blalt fur 1840, p. 106. CREASOTE. 365 lime-water, and is precipitated from its solution by hydrochloric acid (Pharm. Physiological Effects.—The local action of benzoic acid is that of an acrid. When swallowed it occasions a sensation of heat and acridity in the back part of the mouth and throat, and heat at the stomach. The inhalation of its vapour causes violent coughing. . When taken into the stomach benzoic acid becomes absorbed, and operates on the general system as a stimulant, whose influence is, however, principally di- rected to the mucous surfaces, especially the aerian membrane. According to Dr. Alexander Ure\ hippuric acid (C" NH8 O5 + Aq.) is found in the urine two hours after taking benzoic acid, while not a trace of uric acid is recog- nizable. This effect does not always take place. I have found it produced readily in a rheumatic subject. Uses.—Benzoic acid is a constituent of the Tinctura Camphorse Composite- otherwise is but little employed in medicine. It is sometimes employed in chronic bronchial affections. I have repeatedly tried it, but have seldom seen benefit result from its use. I have more frequently seen it augment than relieve the cough. Dr. A. Ure has suggested the employment of benzoic acid, or a ben- zoate, in the gouty diathesis, to prevent the formation of the tophaceous con- cretions commonly called chalk stones, and which consist of urate of soda.— Dose, grs. v. to 9j. 11. CREASO'TON, L.—CREASOTE. Creazotum, E. (U. S.) r An Oxyhydro-carburet; prepared from pyroxillic oil, L.) History.—This substance was discovered a few years since by Reichenbach, who termed it Creosote (from xat*r, flesh, and o-«£«, I preserve, or the flesh-pre- server, on account of its antiseptic property. Its name is sometimes written Creosote, or Kreosote. Natural History.—It is an artificial product; and is obtained by the destruc- tive distillation of organic substances. It is found in pyroligneous acid, in tar, in Dippel's oil, in wood smoke, and empyreumatic waters. Preparation.—The preparation of creasote is a very troublesome and tedious process. The following concise abstract of it is taken from Turner's Elements of Chemistry (5th ed. p. 872.) Those portions of the oil (called in the Pharma- copoeia pyroxilic oil) distilled from wood-tar, which are heavier than water, are first freed from adhering acetic acid by carbonate of potash, and, after separation from the acetate, are distilled. A little phosphoric acid is mixed with the pro- duct to neutralize ammonia, and another distillation resorted to. It is next mixed with a strong solution of potash, which combines with creasote, allows any eupion which may be present to collect on its surface, and by digestion decom- poses other organic matter: the alkaline solution is then neutralized by sulphuric acid, and the oil which separates is collected and distilled. For the complete purification of the creasote, this treatment with potash, followed by neutraliza- tion and distillation, requires to be frequently repeated.3 The oil from which creasote is prepared, is that obtained by the distillation of wood-tar, and is either imported from Stockholm, Archangel, and America, or is made in the manufac- ture of pyroligneous acid. Properties.—Pure creasote is colourless and transparent; and has a high refrac- tive power, and an oleaginous consistence. Its odour is that of smoked meat, its taste burning and caustic, its sp. gr. 1.037 at 68° F. It boils at 397° F.; and is fluid at —16-6° F. It is combustible, burning with a sooty flame. It absorbs chlorine, and is resinified by it. Nitric acid is decomposed by it, with the evo- i Proceedings ofthe Royal Medical and Surgical Society, in the London Medical Gazette,^. S. vol. 184-041, p. 735; also, Pharmaceutical Transactions, No. 1. p. 24. Lond. 1641. o For farther details I must refer to Dumas' Traite de Chimie; the Ann. de Chim. ct Physiq. t. 57, 1834 ; and 1,'ozzi, in the Journal de Pharmacie, t. xxviii. p. 029. 366 elements of materia medica. lution of nitrous fumes. Sulphuric acid in small quantity reddens, and in large quantity blackens it. Potassium decomposes it, with the evolution of gas (hy- drogen?) and the formation of potash, which combines with some inspissated creasote. It is soluble in alcohol, ether, sulphuret of carbon, eupion, naptha, acetic acid, and acetic ether. It dissolves resins, various colouring matters (as of cochineal, saffron, and madder,) and some salts (as the acetate of potash.) It has very little action on caoutchouc, and does not possess any acid or alka- line reaction on test paper. Mixed with water, it forms two combinations: one is a solution of 125 parts of creasote in 100 of water; the other, on the con- trary, is a solution of 10 parts of water in 100 of creasote. It coagulates the albumen of eggs and of the blood. Concentrated albuminous liquids are immediately coagulated by it; diluted ones, gradually. Fibrin is not altered by it. It is powerfully antiseptic with respect to meat and fish. Tar, smoke, and crude pyroligneous acid, owe part if not the whole, of their antiseptic properties to it. According to Mr. J. R. Cormack, (Treatise on Creasote. Edin- burgh, 1836.) the only essential part of the mummifying process practised by the ancient Egyptians was the application of such a heat as would first dry up the body, and then decompose the tarry matters which had been previously introduced, and thus generate creasote. A patent has been taken out by Mr. Flockton, for the preservation of wood, &c. by creasote. The liquid actually used under this patent is the impure oily liquor obtained by distillation from tar, and in which old iron has been digested, so that it is a mixture of various volatile oils and acetate of iron. Characteristics.—The odour of creasote is its most characteristic property. To this must be added its combustibility, its oleaginous appearance, its complete solu- bility in acetic acid and caustic potash, and its action on albumen before men- tioned. Impurity.—Creasote, when pure, is perfectly colourless; but that met with in commerce has frequently a more or less brownish tinge. Rectified oil of tar, cap- nomor, and a substance like almond oil, are substances which have been mixed with it. (Cormack, op. cit.) These impurities are readily detected by mixing separate portions ofthe suspected liquid with acetic acid and caustic potash: pure creasote is completely soluble in these fluids; not so the adulterated. Capnomor is similar to creasote in many of its physical and chemical properties, and is fre- quently associated with the creasote of the shops. Composition.—Ettling (Ann. de Chimie, liii, p. 333.) analyzed creasote which was supposed to contain three per cent, of water. Making allowance for this im- purity, its composition, as determined by this chemist, is nearly as follows:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Carbon .............. 14 ................ 84 ................ 7742 Hydrogen............ 9................ 9 ................ 812 Oxygen................ 2 ................ 16 ................ 1446 Creasote............... 1 ................ 109 ................ 10000 At present, however, the equivalent of creasote must be considered as uncertain, since no definite compound of this substance has been analyzed, by which the com- bining proportion could be ascertained. Physiological Effects, a. On Vegetables.—Plants moistened with creasote water fade and die. (Miguet, Recherches sur la Creasote, 1834.) The injurious effects of smoke on vegetation are probably to be referred principally to the crea- sote which it contains. /3. On Animals generally.—Insects (as flies,) spiders, and small fishes, die in two minutes after their immersion in water containing a few drops of creasote suspended in it. According to Mr. Cormack, the effects of creasote on dogs are remarkably similar to those of hydrocyanic acid, and are much less apparent when this sub- stance is injected into the carotid arteries than into the veins. When thrown into creasote. 367 the latter it suddenly stops the heart's action and causes hurried respiration, one or two convulsive fits, shrill cries, and death. Injected into the carotid artery it produces coma. Introduced into the stomach it gives rise to dimness and fixation of the eyes, vertigo, and coma: when given in large quantities it also affects the heart. (Cormack, op. cit. p. 66, et seq ) Corneliani (Jour. Chem. Med. t. ii. ser. 10; and Brit, fy For. Med. Rev. vol. i. p. 265.) and Miguet have observed in- flammation of the gastro-intestinal mucous membrane of dogs poisoned by creasote, but which survived some time after its administration. y. On Man.—Creasote operates locally as an irritant and caustic. Applied to the skin it causes heat, redness, and the destruction of the cuticle, which comes away in the form of furfuraceous scales. On the tongue it produces a painful sen- sation. Dropped into the eye it occasions acute pain. Placed in contact with a suppurating surface it whitens the part, like nitrate of silver. Swallowed in large doses it causes vomiting and purging. The caustic effect of creasote depends on its union with albumen. Unless largely diluted, it occasions, when swallowed, heat in the pharynx, oeso- phagus, and stomach. Small doses, as one or two minims, produce in most indi- viduals no other unpleasant effect than that just mentioned. Larger doses give rise to nausea, vomiting, vertigo, headach, and heat of head. Dr. Eliiotson (Medico- Chirur. Trans, vol. xix.) knew a lady who increased the dose of creasote to forty drops before it disagreed: the addition of a single drop beyond this produced ex- treme giddiness, insensibility, and vomiting, followed by headach for several days. When given in moderate doses it does not affect the bowels; so that, as Dr. Elliot- son has observed, "aperients are as requisite as if it was not taken." When, however, the dose has been considerably augmented, diarrhoea or even dysentery, has been produced. (Cormack, op. cit. p. 93.) The influence of creasote on the urinary organs is sometimes very marked. Dr. Macleod (Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xvi. p. 599; and vol. xvii. p. 653.) was, I believe, the first who noticed that the urine, acquired a blackish colour by the use of it. A similar effect is referred to by Dr. Eliiotson. In some cases creasote is recognised, by its odour, in the urine, snowing that it has been absorbed. Occasionally it increases the quantity of this secretion, but in diabetes it sometimes has an opposite effect. In some instances it has caused micturition and strangury, so that in its influence over the urinary organs it bears some resemblance to turpentine. Some other effects which have been ascribed to it require farther evidence to establish them. In the dose of two drachms creasote proved fatal in thirty-six hours. It caused acute pain. (See The Times of June 17, 1839. I presume the mental faculties were unaffected.) Uses.—Various substances, some known to contain creasote, others supposed to do so, have long been used in medicine, in the same diseases in which crea- sote itself is now employed; and, in consequence, it has been imagined that they owe part of whatever efficacy they really possess to this substance. These re- marks apply to Tar, (Tar will be described hereafter.) Soot,J, Crude Pyroligne- i Wood Soot (Fuligo Ligni) was formerly contained in the list of the materia medica ofthe British Phar- macopoeias. U is still in use on the continent, and statements of its efficacy are occasionally met wilh in the periodicals. It is a mixture of distilled products from the imperfectly burnt wood and of ashes, or other fixed matters, carried up Ihe chimney by the current of air. It consists of a pyrogenous or empyreumatic resin called pyretin, combined with acetic acid, which also saturates the bases (potash, lime, and magnesia) of the ashes which are carried up the chimney. Besides these, there are small quantities of sesquioxide of iron, silica, and carbon. Acetate of ammonia, chloride of calcium, and sulphate of lime, are also contained in soot! Moreover, there is extractive matter, part of which is insoluble in alcohol. Lastly, to these constituents must be added creosote. Braconnot (Ann. Chim. et Phys. t. xxxi. p. 37) mentions a bitter principle, which he calls asbolin, (from aw/goxx, soot) in soot; but Berzelius (Traite de Chimie, t. vi. p. 725) considers it to be a mix- ture of different matters with the acid pyretine. The matters Insoluble in water constitute about 0-44 of soot. Formerly soot was esteemed tonic, antispasmodic, and emmenagogue. It is now principally employed as an external remedy, chiefly in ringworm and other analogous eruptions, and obstinate ulcers. It is em- ployed in Ihe form of decoction (prepared by boiling two handfuls of soot in a pint of water for half an hour) and of ointment (composed of a drachm of soot to an ounce of lard.) The decoction has been used as an injec- tion in chronic cystitis, (Lond. Med. Qaz. 1839-40, vol. i. p. 864.) The Tincture of Soot, fnrmeily in the Lon- don Pharmacopoeia, consists of Wood Soot, 3ij.; Asal'cBlida, ^j ; and proof Spirit, flxxxij. It is some- time* called Soot Dropi or Hysteric Mixture, and is prescribed in doses uf one or two tea-snoonsful in h\'9- liria. 368 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. ous Acid, Aqua Binelli,1 the Empyreumatic Water of Runge and ITanke, Pyro- thonide,3 and Animal or Dippel's Oil. To this list should be added, according to Mr. Cormack, (op. cit.,) Mummy. As an internal remedy, creasote has been principally celebrated, in this coun- try, as a remedy possessing extraordinary powers of arresting vomiting. It has, however, been greatly overrated. It is decidedly injurious in inflammatory con- ditions and structural disease of the stomach, and frequently fails in allaying the sickness dependent on organic diseases, as of the heart and kidneys. It is most successful in hysterical cases, and sometimes succeeds in pregnancy. Creasote was first employed to relieve vomiting by Dr. Eliiotson, (Medico-Chirurg. Trans. vol. xix.) to whose paper, as well as to that of Mr. Taylor, apothecary of the North London Hospital, (Lancet, August 15, 1835.) I must refer for cases illus- trative of extraordinary success with it. It is regarded by Dr. Macleod (London Medical Gazette, vol." xvi. p. 598, and vol. xvii. p. 653.) as of doubtful efficacy; and has completely failed in the hands of Dr. Paris. (Appendix to the 8th edit. of the Pharmacologia, 1838.) Dr. Burne, (London Medical Gazette, August 18th, 1838.) however, found it efficacious in gastro-enteritic irritation. I have found it much more frequently fail than succeed in alleviating irritable stomach. It sometimes relieves the chronic vomiting connected with granular disease of the kidneys when other means fail. (See Christison, On Granular Degenera- tion of the Kidneys. Edinb. 1839.) In gastrodynia or flatulence it occasionally succeeds, but is admissible in those cases only in which local stimulants are usually found beneficial. Where both hydrocyanic acid and creasote have been separately tried without success, Dr. Eliiotson advises their union. Creasote has been tried in a few cases of diabetes. In some it diminished both the quantity and saccharine quality of the urine. (Dr. Eliiotson, Med-Chi- rurg. Trans., and Professor Berndt, Lancet, July 18, 1835.) I have tried it at the London Hospital, but without obtaining benefit from its use. In neuralgia, hysteria, and pulmonary diseases, it has also been used with occasional advantage: but a more extended experience is required to establish its efficacy in these cases. As an external agent creasote may frequently be employed with great advan- tage. It has been successfully applied to relieve toothach. After carefully cleaning out the cavity of the tooth, a drop of creasote, or an alcoholic solution of this principle, may be introduced by means of a camel's hair pencil, and the cavity filled with cotton soaked in this liquid. As a local application to chronic skin diseases (particularly the different forms of porrigo, impetigo, eczema) it is of considerable value. Where a caustic application is required, it may be applied undiluted; but for other purposes it is used either in the form of ointment, or dis- solved in water as a wash. Creasote may be beneficially used as an application to foul and indolent ulcers. It serves the double purpose of stimulating the living surface, (and thereby of changing the quality of actions going on in the part,) and also of preventing the putrefaction of the secreted matters. It is sometimes applied pure, but more commonly diluted with water. Lupus is said to have healed under the employment of an ointment of creasote. (Mr. Browne, in the London Medical Gazette, for April 7, 1838.) In hemorrhages creasote acts as a most efficient styptic, partly in consequence of its power of coagulating albu- minous liquids, and thereby of causing the formation of a clot, and partly by i AojOa Binelm, or Aqua arterialis balsamiea Doctoris Bcnelli, a once-celebrated styptic, discovered bv a physician (Dr. Binelli) of Turin, in 17ii7 (Dierbach, Weuesten Entdeck. in d. Mat. Med. 2te Ausg. 1837. See also Dr. J. Davy, Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journ. July, 1833.) » Pvrothonide, from 7rvp, fire; and c8ov», linen,) or liquor pyro-oleosus e linteo paratus, is a very popular remedy for toothach and skin diseases. It is sometimes prepared by distilling rags, and is then called rag oil; but the common mode of procuring it is to bum a cone of paper on a plate or other cold body; it is then termed paper oil. It has been analyzed by Herberger (Buchner, Rcpertorium, Bd. 32, S. 347.) For farther particulars concerning it, consult M.rat and Do Lens, Diet. Mat. Med.; Diurbudi, op. cit.; Schwartz, Pharme. Tabell. ~l- Aus.; L. Kichler, Ausfuhrl. Arsncim. Supplem. Bd. CREASOTE. 369 causing contraction of the bleeding vessels. Creasote water (prepared by mixing one part of creasote with eighty parts of water) may be applied either to bleeding wounds and leech-bites, or introduced into the vagina in uterine hemorrhage, by means of pledgets of lint soaked in it. There are many other purposes for which creasote has been applied as a local agent, but which I think it sufficient merely to name, referring the reader to the various papers and works before quoted for farther information. It has been employed to check caries, to restrain excessive suppuration, and to repress fungous granulations in burns and scalds; to act as a counter-irritant in chronic ophthalmia, in which disease it is sometimes dropped into the eye on the same principle that nitrate of silver and other local stimulants are used; and to remove condylomatous and other excrescences. The inhalation of creasote vapour is occasionally useful in relieving excessive bronchial secre- tion. Dr. Eliiotson cured two cases of chronic glanders in the human subject, by injecting an aqueous solution of creasote up the affected nostril. (See also Lancet, vol. ii. for 1834-5, p. 398.) Administration.—Creasote may be given, at the commencement of its use, in doses of one or two drops diffused through an ounce of some aromatic water by the aid of mucilage: the dose should be gradually increased. As before men- tioned, in one case forty drops were given with impunity: in another instance, ninety drops were administered in less than half a day without any bad symp- tom. (Mr. Taylor, Lancet, August 15, 1835.) As a caustic, undiluted creasote is sometimes applied by means of a camel's hair pencil. Lotions, gargles, or injections of creasote, are prepared by dissolving from two to six drops (according to the circumstances of each case) in an ounce of water. A solution of this kind is sometimes mixed with poultices. The inhalation of creasote vapour may be effected by diffusing a few drops of creasote through water or a mucilaginous liquid, and breathing through this, by means ofthe ordinary inhaling bottle (see p. 159.) Antidotes.—In a case of poisoning by creasote, the depression of the vital powers is to be counteracted by ammonia and other stimulants. Mr. Cormack suggests the use of chlorine, but the value of this agent has not been determined by actual experiment. Oleaginous and mucilaginous drinks are recommended by Corneliani, for the purpose of preventing the local action of creasote on the mucous lining of the stomach and intestines. Vinegar does not diminish, but according to Corneliani, increases its activity. Mr. Cormack says albumen aug- ments [?] its poisonous operation. Bleeding is suggested by this writer, in order to relieve the distention, and thereby to excite the contractions, of the heart. Artificial respiration should on no account be omitted. Any inflammatory symp- toms which may subsequently appear are of course to be treated by the usual antiphlogistic measures. 1. MISTURA CREASOTI. Mistura Creazotge, E. (" Take of Creazote and Acetic Acid, of each, tt[xvj.; Compound Spirit of Juniper, and Syrup, of each, f3j.; Water, fjxiv.; mix the creazote with the acid, then gradually [add} the water, and lastly the syrup and spirit.) Dose f 3j- to f 3ij. or more. I UNGUEXTDl CREASOTI, L. (IT. S.) Unguentum Creasoti, E. (Creasote, f^s.s.; Lard, 3j- rub and mix them, L. (U. S.)—Axunge, 3iij.; Creazote, 3j. Melt the axunge, add the creazote, stir them briskly, and continue to do so as the mixture concretes on cooling, E.)—It is used principally in skin diseases, as ring-worm. The quantity of creasote may be augmented or lessened according to circumstances. Vol. 1.—47 370 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. 12. PETRO'LEUM, L. E. D.—PETROLEUM OR ROCK OIL. Petroleum (Barbadense,) L. (Bitumen Petroleum. Petroleum Barbadense, D.) History.—Herodotus (Melpomene, cxcv.) mentions the petroleum springs of Zacynthus (now called Zante) more than 400 years before Christ. Plutarch, in his Life of Alexander, speaks of a lake of naphtha at Ecbatana (now llamedan,) in Media. The substance known to mineralogists as petroleum is the black naphtha (vxQSct puteivct) of Dioscorides (lib. i.,) the bitumen liquidum of Pliny (lib. xxxv.) Natural History.—There are two varieties of liquid bitumen or mineral oil: one is transparent and nearly colourless, or only slightly yellow, and when burnt leaves no residuum; the other is thick, of a reddish brown colour or blackish, and leaves, after combustion, a black coal. The first is called naphtha (a Chaldaean word;) the second petroleum (from pelra, a rock; and oleum, oil) or rock oil, be- cause it is frequently found exuding in the form of an oily liquid from rocks. Both kinds are supposed to be produced by the decomposition of organic (vege- table) matter, for they are always found in Neptunian rocks, and they appear sometimes to be one of the products of the decomposition of coal. (Berzelius, Traite de Chim. t. 6me.) From the investigation of Drs. Christison and Gregory, (Trans, of the Roy. Soc. Edinb. vol. xiii. p. 1.) it appears probable that some varieties of petroleum, as that of Rangoon, are products of destructive distillation, since they contain parafline and eupion, substances obtained from organic bodies by heat. Petroleum is found in this country at Ormskirk in Lancashire, at Colebrook Dale, and at St. Catherine's Well, near Edinburgh. In France it is produced at the village of Gabian in Languedoc, and hence it was termed Oleum Gabianum. It is also found in various other parts of Europe, especially in Italy. In the United States of America it is met with in various places: that from the shore of Seneka Lake in New York is called Seneka oil. Several of the West India Islands, especially Barbadoes and Trinidad, yield it. The Barbadoes petroleum (Petroleum Barbadense, L. D.; Pisselseum Indicurn, Dale) is commonly termed Barbadoes Tar, or Barbadoes Naphtha. Mr. Hughes (The Natural History of Barbadoes, p. 50. Lond. 1750.) speaks of two kinds of it; one of a dirty black, inclining to a green, issuing from some hills in St. Andrew's and St. Joseph's parishes; and one of a blacker colour, in St. Joseph's parish. That imported by Mr. Clarke professes to be the produce of the springs on Mount Hall estate, in Barbadoes. In various localities of Asia, petroleum is met with in great abundance. Extraction.—Mr. Hughes says that the mode of procuring the green tar of Barbadoes is to dig a hole or trench in, or very near, the place where it oozes out ofthe earth. This by degrees becomes filled with water, having a thick film or cream of this liquid bitumen swimming upon the surface; from whence it is skimmed off", and preserved in earthen jars or other vessels. The most conve- nient season for gathering it is in the months of January, February, and March. Properties.—Barbadoes petroleum, at ordinary temperatures, has the consis- tence of treacle: its colour is reddish brown or blackish; its odour and taste are bituminous. It floats on water: is combustible, yielding a thick black smoke, and leaving a carbonaceous residuum. It is insoluble in water. Composition.—The ultimate constituents of Barbadoes petroleum are carbon and hydrogen, with small quantities of oxygen and nitrogen. The latter proba- bly are accidental. By distillation, five parts by measure yield rather more than four parts of a yellow oily fluid, somewhat similar in appearance to the liquid carbo-hydrogen obtained in the manufacture of oil-gas, but dissimilar to naphtha. The residuum AMBER. 371 in the retort is a substance analogous to asphaflum. It yields by destructive dis- tillation traces of ammonia. Some kinds of petroleum contain paraffine and eupion. Physiological Effects.—Petroleum possesses stimulating properties, which are principally observed in its effects on the organs of secretion (the skin, the kidneys, and the mucous membranes,) the activity of which it promotes: hence it has been called sudorific, diuretic, expectorant, &c. It becomes absorbed, and in this way probably acts topically on the secreting organs; for Mr. Hughes ob- serves, that when a horse " that has been dosed with it begins to be warm upon his journey, the rider will smell the tar strongly." It is said to be an excitant to the lymphatic vessels and glands. Uses.—As an internal remedy it is employed in chronic pulmonary affections (as winter coughs, old asthmas, &c.,) in obstinate skin diseases (as lepra, psoriasis, and impetigo,) and against tape-worm. Mr. Hughes says it is used in paralytic and nervous disorders. As an external agent it is applied to obstinate ulcers, as lupus and cutaneous diseases, and is employed as a stimulating liniment in chronic rheumatism, para- lysis, and chilblains. Administration.—The dose of Barbadoes petroleum is a small tea-spoonful given in any convenient vehicle (as some aromatic water, tea, or spirit.) The quantity should be gradually increased. An ounce has been taken in the day without any inconvenience. 13. SUCCINUM, L. D. (U. S.)— AMBER. History.—Amber was known to Thales of Miletus, 600 years before Christ. He was the first who noticed that, when rubbed, it acquired the power of attract- ing light bodies. Hence arose the term electricity, from yteitTgov, amber. Theo- phrastus (De Lapidibus.) also mentions this property. Natural History.—Amber is found in different parts of the world. The principal portion of that met with in commerce comes from the southern coasts of the Baltic, in Prussia, and is cast on the shore between Konigsberg and Memel. It is supposed to be disengaged, by the action of the sea, from beds of lignite. The vegetable origin of amber is shown by various facts. It is usually asso- ciated with substances (bituminous wood, coal, &c.) known to be derived from plants. Externally we observe on it various impressions of the branches and bark of trees; and enclosed in it are insects and parts of plants (as the wood, leaves, flowers, and fruit.) According to Sir David Brewster, (Edinburgh Phi- losophical Journal, vol. ii.) its optical properties are those of an indurated vege- table juice. From these circumstances, as well as from its chemical composition, amber is supposed to have been a resinous exudation from some tree. Now/ as the wood, leaves, blossoms, and fruit of some coniferous plant are found in am- ber, this plant has been supposed to be the amber tree: and a microscopic exami- nation ofthe wood leads to the conclusion that the amber tree is a species, though probably an extinct one, of the genus Pinus, closely allied to P. balsamea.1 On chemical grounds, however, Liebig (Turner's Elements of Chemistry, 7th edit. p. 1050.) suggests that it is a product of wax, or of some other substance allied to the fats or fixed oils; since succinic acid is formed by the oxidation of stearic and margaric acids.8 Properties.—It occurs in irregular shaped pieces, usually flat and somewhat rounded at the sides. Its colour is yellowish white (succinum album,) yellow (succinum citrinum,) or reddish (succinum rubrum.) It is usually translucent, sometimes opaque or transparent: it is tasteless and odourless. Its sp. gr. is ' Hope, On Succinic Insects, in Trans. Entom. Soc., vols. i. and ii. See also Sendelius, Historia Succinorum Lips. 1742. » For farther detail* respecting the Natural History of Amber, consult John's JVaturgeschichte d. Sucisns, Coin. 1816; and Graflenhauer'a Histoire Naturelle, chimique, et technique, du Sucein Paris, 1824. 372 elements of materia medica. about 1-07. It is brittle, yields readily to the knife, has a conchoidal vitreous or resinous fracture, and becomes negatively electrical by friction: it contains various insects which, apparently, must have become entangled in it while it was soft and viscid. (For an account of these, consult Mr. Hope's paper before quoted; also Burmeistet's Manual of Entomology, p. 574.) Heated in the air, amber fuses at about 550° F., then inflames, and burns with a yellow flame, emitting a peculiar odour, and leaving behind a light shiny black coal. It cannot be fused without undergoing some chemical change. It evolves water, volatile oil, and succinic acid: the residual mass is termed colophonium succini. By destructive distillation in a retort or alembic, amber yields first an acid liquor (which contains succinic acid and acetic acids,) then some succinic deposites in the neck ofthe retort, and an empyreumatic oil (oleum succini) comes over, at first thin and yellowish, afterwards brown and thick: towards the end ofthe operation a yellow light sublimate is observed in the neck ofthe retort; this is called, by Berzelius, crystallized pyreline; by Vogel, volatile resin of amber; by Gmelin, amber-camphor. An inflammable gas is evolved during the whole time ofthe operation. Composition.—The ultimate constituents of amber are Carbon, Hydro gen, and Oxygen. The proximate principles are, a Volatile Oil, two Resins, Succinic ficid, and a Bituminous substance. Ultimate Constituents. j Proximate Constituents. Drassier. Ure, Carbon.......,.................80-59 ............ 7068 Hydrogen ...................... 731 ............ n-62 Oxygen........................ 073 ............ 7 77 Ashes (silica, lime, and alumina) 3-27 ............ ___ Amber..........................97-90 ............ 9007 (Berzelius.) Volatile Oil. Two Resins. Succinic Acid. Bitumen. Amber. According to Hunefeldt, hydrochloric acid extracts from amber, besides suc- cinic acid, another acid, very similar to mellitic acid. The volatile oil has a strong but agreeable odour. The resins are soluble in both alcohol and ether: if an alcoholic solution of the two resins be prepared by heat, and then allowed to cool, one of the resins deposites. The bituminous matter constitutes the principal part of amber: it is insoluble in alcohol, ether, the oils both volatile and fixed, and alkaline solutions. Characteristics and Purity.—The resins copal and animi are sometimes substi- tuted for amber. They may be distinguished by the difference in their colour and fracture, and by their not emitting the peculiar odour of amber when thrown upon hot iron. (United States' Dispensatory.) They do not yield succinic acid when submitted to distillation. Copal, during its combustion is constantly falling in drops; and by this character may be distinguished from amber. (Kidd's Outlines of Mineralogy, vol. ii. p. 38. Oxford, 1809.) Physiological Effects.-—Amber was formerly celebrated as a stimulant and antispasmodic. It probably possesses little or no medicinal power. Uses.—It is not employed as a medicine in this country. It was formerly used in chronic catarrhs, amenorrhoea, hysteria, &c, and was given either in the form of powder, in doses of from ten grains to a drachm, or in that of tincture, a formula for which is contained both in the French Codex and Prussian Pharmaco- poeia. ■ 1. OLEUM SUCCINI, L. D. (U. S.) Oil of Amber.-The following are the directions for the preparation of this oil:— The London College orders Amber to be pot into an alembic, so that an acid liquor, an oil, and a salj, contaminated with: the oil, may distil in a sand-bath, with a heat gradual^ creased. Afterwards let the oil distil ag-ain, and a third time gradually in The Dublin College'directsof Amber reduced to a coarse powder, Tore Sand, of each one part On the application of heat gradually increased, an acid liquor, oil and an acid in the crystallized form, will distil over. The latter should be received on bibulou8 paper and «! AMBER. 373 poged to strong pressure to expel the oil, and again sublimed. By filtration through bibulous paper, the oil may be obtained separate from the acid liquor. [Th'j U. S. P. directs to take of Amber in powder any quantity. Put the Amber, previously mixed with an equal weight of sand, into a glass retort, which is to be only half filled, then distil by means of a sand-bath, with a gradually increasing heat, an acid liquor, an oil and a concrete acid impregnated wilh uiL Separate the oil from the other matters and keep it in well stopped bottles. . To obtain Oleum Succini Rectificatum, Rectified Oil of Amber, the same authority directs Oil of Amber, a pint; Water, six pints. Mix them in a glass retort and distil until four pints of the water shall have passed with the oil into the receiver; then separate the oil from the water, arid keep it in well-stopped bottles.] The following mode of preparing this oil I have seen practised by an experienced manufacturer:—The amber is distilled in a large iron still or retort, set in brick- work over a proper fire, and connected with an earthen globe, which opens into an old oil jar for a receiver. Three distilled products are obtained: impure suc- cinic acid, called volatile salt of amber,- an aqueous liquor, termed volatile spirit of amber, consisting of water, acetic and succinic acid, and pyrogenous oil; and volatile oil of amber. The residue in the retort is a kind of pitch; and is called English asphalt. The oil is afterwards rectified by distillation in an iron pot, to which an earthen head is adapted. A very gentle heat suffices for re-distillation. Scrapings of Copal and the resin Dammar are frequently substituted for amber. They yield no succinic acid, but a volatile oil scarcely distinguishable from genuine oil of amber. Volatile oil of amber, when fresh drawn, has a pale yellowish colour, which deepens by age, and a strong and remarkable, but agreeable odour. It is a pow- erful local irritant. When rubbed on the skin it acts as a rubefacient, and is sometimes employed in liniments in rheumatism and paralysis. Taken inter- nally it operates, like most other empyreumatic oils, on the nervous system, and is used as a stimulant, antispasmodic, and emmenagogue, in hysteria and ame- norrhoea. The dose is from ten to fifteen drops. It is a constituent of the Tinc- tura Ammoniae composita (see p. 280.) which is made in imitation of Eau de Luce, the history of which has been fully detailed by Beckmann. (History of Inventions and Discoveries, vol. iv. p. 595, 2d. edit. Lond. 1814.) Artificial Musk (Moschus artijicialis; Moschus factitius) is prepared by adding gradually f^iijss. of concentrated nitric acid to f^j. of oil of amber, in a large glass tumbler. When the acid is not of sufficient strength, its action must be assisted by heat. The oil is gradually resinified at the expense of the oxygen of the acid, nitrous fumes being evolved. An orange yellow resin, having a peculiar musky odour, is obtained; which is to be well washed with water to remove all traces of acid. Artificial musk is reputed antispasmodic and nervine, and has been employed in hooping-cough and low nervous fevers. A tincture of it (Tinctura Moschi artijicialis) is prepared by dissolving gj. of artificial musk in fgx. of rectified spirit. The dose is fgj. I ACIDUM SUCCINICUM, D. Succinic Acid or the Acid of Amber; Sal Succini.— This acid is obtained in the distillation of amber. The mode of purifying it has been already stated. It may also be procured by the oxidation of stearic and margaric acids. It crystallizes in colourless white scales or prisms, which are quite volatile. Anhydrous succinic acid is composed of C4 H3 O3 = 50. The sublimed acid is composed of 2 S -f aq. = 109. It is soluble in water; scarcely so in cold, but more so in boiling alcohol. It is almost insoluble in oil of tur- pentine, by which it is distinguished from benzoic acid. Succinate of ammonia produces, with the salts of the sesquioxide of iron, a brownish red, flaky precipi- tate (persuccinate of iron,) and, with the salts of lead, a white precipitate (suc- cinate of lead.) Succinic acid is said to possess stimulant and antispasmodic properties, and to promote perspiration and urine. It was formerly employed in rheumatism, gout, suppressed or repressed eruptions, cramps, &c. It is now never used in medicine. The dose in which it was formerly given was grs. v. to grs. xv. >T4 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. IV. COMPOUNDS CONTAINING CARBON AND NITROGEN. 1. OLE'UxM ANIMA'LE EMPYREUMAT'ICUM.—EMPYREUMATIC ANIMAL OIL. When animal substances (as bone or hartshorn) are subjected to destructive distillation, a fetid volatile oil is obtained, which is commonly called Animal or Dippel's Oil. That which is found in commerce is obtained in the manufacture of bone black (see p. 290.) It is identical in its nature with the Oleum Cornu Cervi, or Oil of Hartshorn, formerly used in medicine. As usually met with it is a thick, brown, viscid oil, having a most repulsive odour. By distillation, however, it may be rendered colourless and limpid, but is soon altered by the action of air and light. Its ultimate constituents are, Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitro- gen, and Oxygen. It contains ammonia, and therefore has an alkaline re-action. Unverdorben alleges that it contains four oily salifiable bases, to which he has given the names of odorine, animine, alanine, and ammoline. Reichenbach has obtained creasote from it, and ascribes to this principle the supposed virtues of animal oil. Whatever may be its active principle, animal oil is undoubtedly a very powerful agent. In large doses it acts an energetic poison, operating in two ways, locally as an irritant, remotely as a narcotic. (Christison, Treatise on Poisons.) Swallowed in moderate doses, it stimulates the vascular and nervous systems, and is esteemed antispasmodic. It has been employed as a local agent in bruises, gangrene, porrigo, &c. Internally, it has been used to prevent an attack of epilepsy or ague, as a stimulant in low fevers, and as anti- spasmodic in hysteria and other affections of the nervous system accompanied with convulsive movements. Bremser (Traite sur les Vers Inteslin. Paris, 1824.) used ChaberCs oil (prepared by mixing three parts oil of turpentine with one part Dippel's oil, and distilling three parts) as an anthelmintic in tape-worm. The dose of animal oil is a few drops, cautiously increased. 2. ACIDUM HYDROCYAN'ICUM DILU'TUM, L.—DILUTED HYDROCYANIC OR PRUSSIC ACID. (Acidum Hydrocyanicum, E. (U. S.)—Acidum Prussicum, D.) History.—The substance called Prussian or Berlin blue (Cseruleum Borus- sicum seu Berolinense) was accidentally discovered by Driesbach at the com- mencement of the 18th century, and various conjectures were soon offered regarding its nature. In 1746, Dr. Brown Langrish published some experiments made with laurel water in order to investigate its effects on animals. (Physical Experiments upon Brutes. Lond. 1716.) In 1752, Macquer announced that Prussian blue was a compound of oxide of iron, and some colouring principle which he could not isolate; and in 1772, Guyton Morveau concluded that this principle was of an acid nature. Scheele, in 1782, removed some of the mystery connected with Prussian blue, by obtaining hydrous prussic acid from it. In 1787 Berthollet ascertained this acid to be a compound of carbon, nitrogen, and hydrogen. In 1800 and 1802, Bohn and Schrader discovered it in laurel-water. Borda, Brugnatelli, and Rasori, first employed the acid in medicine, from 1801 to 1806. In 1815, Gay-Lussac obtained the acid in its pure anhydrous state, and explained its composition.1 Synonymes and Etymology.—It has been denominated Prussic (Acidum Bo- russicum,) Zootic (Acidum Zooticum,) Hydrocyanic or Cyanohydric Acid: the first name indicates the substance (Prussian blue) from which it was obtained, the second refers to its animal origin, and the third indicates its constituents, t The chemical history of hydrocyanic acid is fully detailed in Thomson's Siistem of Inorganic Chemistry, vol. ii. 7th edition. The medical history of it is contained in Dr. Granville'g Hist, and Pract. Treatise on thil acid, 2d. ed. 1820. PRUSSIC ACID. 375 hydrogen and cyanogen (so called from kvxvot, blue,- and ym«„-_,,, „.. ^- x H J II eq. Ferrosesquicyan- 4 eq. Sesquisul- [% «*• £"? ,„ tP \ i ide Ir0n (*■"«" phate Iron 400 \\ e£ %**?*" ".; $_______\4Pq Sesquicyandelron 268 ) bl«e)...............«0 1222 1222 1222 3. Nitrate of Silver.—This is by far the most delicate test of the presence of hydrocyanic acid. It causes a white precipitate of cyanide of silver, which is soluble in boiling nitric acid. By this latter character cyanide is distinguished from chloride of silver. If carefully dried cyanide of silver be heated in a small glass tube, it evolves cyanogen gas, known by its combustibility and the colour (violet or bluish red) of its flame. 4. Sulphate of Copper.—This test is applied as follows:—Super-saturate with potash, then add sulphate of copper. A greenish blue precipitate is obtained, which, by the cautious addition of a few drops of hydrochloric acid, becomes white, if hydrocyanic acid be present. The objections to the test are, that the results are not sufficiently striking, and that an inexperienced manipulator may fail in getting any evidence of hydrocyanic acid. When excess of potash is added to hydrocyanic acid, we obtain water, cyanide of potassium, and free pot- ash. On the addition of sulphate of copper, hydrated oxide of copper, sulphate of potash in solution, and white cyanide of copper, are formed. The hydro- chloric acid is added to redissolve the oxide of copper, leaving the white cyanide of this metal. 5. Tincture of Guaiacum and Sulphate of Copper.—If tincture of guaiacum be added to a very dilute aqueous solution of hydrocyanic acid, a whitish preci- pitate (resin of guaiacum) is thrown down. If now a few drops of a solution of sulphate of copper be added, a blue colour is produced, which is rendered more intense by the addition of rectified spirit. Pagenstecher, (Quarterly Journal of Science, vol. x. p. 182.) of Berne, first proposed tincture of guaiacum and hydro- cyanic acid as a test for copper. I find that tincture of guaiacum and sulphate of copper, applied as directed above, form a very sensible test of the presence of hydrocyanic acid: but unfortunately it is not characteristic, since other agents also develope a blue colour with it. Thus spirit of nitric ether produces a blue colour with tincture of guaiacum. Detection of this Acid in Cases of Poisoning.—As hydrocyanic acid is a sub- stance which readily undergoes decomposition, it is not likely to be met with in bodies which have been interred for many days. It has, however, been recog- nised in one case, seven days after death, notwithstanding that the trunk had not been buried, but had been lying in a drain. (Chevallier, Ann. d'Hygiene Publiq. ix. 337.) In reeent cases the acid is readily distinguished by its odour, PRUSSIC ALII). 381 with which, in some instances, the whole body is impregnated. The tests for this acid, already mentioned, will sometimes detect the poison in the filtered contents of the stomach; but the foreign matters present may, occasionally, prevent their characteristic action. The best mode of proceeding in that case, is, to introduce them into a tubulated retort, to add some sulphuric acid to neutralize any ammo- nia which might be generated by the process of putrefaction, and to distil by means of a vapour or water bath; then apply the tests already mentioned. It has been suggested, that hydrocyanic acid may be formed during the pro- cess of distillation by the decomposition of the animal matters. But, as Dr. Christison has justly observed, the objection appears only to rest on conjecture, or presumption at farthest. It is to be recollected, that unsound cheese has, under certain circumstances, been found to contain this acid, as already men- tioned. It is not improbable that it may be found in many animal substances during their spontaneous decomposition. It is said to have been detected in ergot of rye. Physiological Effects. «. On Vegetables.—Hydrocyanic acid is a poison to plants. The stamina of Berberis vulgaris and the leaves of Mimosa pudica lose their irritability when the stems bearing them are emersed in the diluted acid. (Macaire, 'Biblioth. Universelle, xxxi. 244.) Seeds lose the power of germination by immersion in this acid. In those parts of lactescent plants which are poisoned by it, the milky juice does not flow from the cells or vessels in which it is con- tained. By chemical means it has been shown that the acid becomes absorbed. (De Candolle, Physiol. Veget. p. 1357.) Ammonia has, in some cases, appeared to favour the recovery of plants which had been exposed to the vapour of the acid. (Macaire, op. cit.) /3. On Animals generally.—Hydrocyanic acid is an energetic poison to ani- mals. Experiments have been made with it on the following:—Mammalia, Aves, Reptilia, Amphibia, Pisces, Gasteropoda, Annelida, Crustacea, Insecta, and Infusoria. (Coullon, quoted by Wibmer, Wirkung d. Arzneim. 3 Bd. p. 110.) The general effects are very similar on all classes, and consist essentially of loss of sensation and voluntary motion, with convulsive movements. Mr. Gray, however, states that some of the larvae ofthe common Musca having been put into hydrocyanic acid, remained uninjured after two or three days exposure. (Athenaeum for 1837, p. 671.) The cold-blooded animals are more slowly af- fected by hydrocyanic acid than the hot-blooded ones. Dr. Christison states that 25 grs. of the strong acid, applied to the mouth, killed a rabbit within ten seconds. I once caused the almost instantaneous death of a rabbit by applying its nose to a receiver filled with the vapour of the pure acid: the animal died without the least struggle. If a drop of the pure acid be placed on the throat of a dog, or applied to the eye, death takes place in a few seconds. Inhaling the vapour decidedly produces death more quickly than any other mode of using the acid.1 If the pure acid be applied to the eye of a dog, it causes opacity and whiteness of the cornea, and a copious flow of tears. In a very short time it gives rise to constitutional symptoms. y. On Alan. ««. In small or medicinal doses.—Small doses of hydrocyanic acid sometimes relieve certain morbid conditions (as of the stomach,) without producing any remarkable alteration in the condition of the general system. If the dose be cautiously increased, and its operation carefully watched, the follow- ing effects are usually observed:—a bitter but peculiar taste; increased secretion of saliva; irritation in the throat; frequently nausea; disordered and laborious re- spiration (sometimes quick, at others slow and deep;) pain in the head, giddiness, obscured vision, and sleepiness. The vascular system is in some cases not ob- viously, but in others much, affected, though not uniformly; its action being sometimes quickened, at others reduced in frequency. In some instances faint- • I'or some remarks on the period of time which intervenes between the application of a poison and the flrtt eymptoms of in action, see p. 129. 382 elements of materia medica. ness is experienced. Drs. Macleod and Granville (Lond. Med. and Phys. Journ. vol. xlvi. pp. 359 and 363.) have noticed salivation and ulceration of the mouth during its medicinal use. /3/3. In poisonous doses: convulsions and insensibility (Epilepsy?:) if death occur, it takes place slowly.—Immediately after swallowing the acid, a remarka- bly bitter taste is experienced; this is soon followed by a sensation of faintness and giddiness, with salivation, and is succeeded by tetanic convulsions and insen- sibility; the respiration is difficult and spasmodic; the odour of hydrocyanic acid may be recognised in the breath; the pupils are usually dilated, though some- times contracted; the pulse is small or imperceptible. AVhen recovery takes place it is usually very rapid, and the whole period of suffering seldom exceeds half an hour. However, exceptions to this exist, in which the symptoms have been prolonged for several hours. The following case, related by Dr. Geoghegan, (Dublin Med. Jour. Nov. 1835.) is an illustration of these effects:—A gentleman, aged 21, having been for some time subject to an uneasiness in the stomach, not actually amounting to gastrodynia, after having tried many remedies in vain, was induced to have recourse to hydrocyanic acid. He com- menced with one minim of the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, sp. gr. 0998: this dose he re- peated twelve times the first day, without any perceptible effect. On the following day he took half a drachm, with the same result. The third day his dose was a drachm, which he repeated the fourth day. On the fifth day he took a drachm and a half; still no effect of any kind. On the sixth day he increased his dose to two drachms. In about two minutes after taking this quantity, he experienced a sensation of extreme bitterness in the mouth, and having walked a few paces, was affected with great confusion, head- ach, and loud ringing in his ears. He now with difficulty retraced his steps, and leaning forward on a table, became insensible and fell backwards. In this state he remained alto- gether between three and four minutes, during which time he was violently convulsed. Two drachms of the spiritus ammoniae aromaticus were diluted with a little water, and applied as quickly as possible to the mouth, but as the teeth were clenched it could not be swallowed. The solid sesqui-carbonate of ammonia was then applied assiduously to the nostrils; its beneficial effects were soon apparent, and he was shortly able to swallow a little fluid. Sensibility now speedily returned, and vomiting supervened, from which he experienced great relief; and at the expiration of half an hour he was quite well, with the exception of pain and feeling of distention in the head, which continued for the re- mainder ofthe day. After he had become insensible, and while leaning on the table, hia thighs became rigid, and were drawn up on the abdomen; and as he was about falling, he was caught and placed on the ground. The upper extremities were then observed to be also rigid, and on drawing them from the side, they forcibly reverted to their former posi- tion ; the eyes were shut, the teeth clenched, and the muscles of the face violently con- vulsed. It is deserving of notice that the old complaint was completely removed by this extraordinary dose. yy. In poisonous doses: death rapid wilh or without convulsions.—In these cases the death is so rapid that, in the human subject, the symptoms have scarcely been observed. They are probably similar to those noticed in animals,—viz. imperceptible pulse, breathing not obvious, or there may be two or three deep, hurried inspirations, insensibility, and death. Convulsions may or may not be present. The presence or absence of convulsions, as connected with the time within which death occurs in these cases, is sometimes a matter of great moment. Some years ago the life of a prisoner almost turned on this point. The following is an outline of the case:1—An apothecary's maid-servant at Leicester, was found one morning dead in bed. The body lay in a composed posture—the arms crossed over the trunk, and the bed-clothes pulled smoothly up to the chin. At her right side lay a phial, from which about five drachms ofthe medicinal hydrocyanic acid had been taken, and which was corked and wrapped in paper. It was suspected that she took the acid to occasion miscarriage, and that the ap- prentice was accessory to its administration; in consequence of which he was put on his trial. Now, the important question for the consideration of the medical witnesses was, ' More fully developed in Dr. Christison's Treatise on Poisons, and in the Medical Gazette, vol. viii. pp. 577 and 707. PRUSSIC ACID. 383 could the deceased, after having drunk the poison, have had time to cork the phial, wrap it up, and adjust the bed-clothes, before insensibility came on? It was supposed that if the death were of that slow description to allow of these acts of volition, convulsions would have occurred, and the bed-clothes would have been found disordered. On the other hand, those cases in which no convulsions occur usually terminate too quickly to allow of the above acts. The medical witnesses in the above case were not agreed in opinion: the majority thought that it was impossible the deceased could have had the power of corking the bottle. The jury very properly found the prisoner not guilty. There are two points of inquiry connected with the action of this acid, which are interesting, more particularly in a medico-legal point of view—-namely, the time at which the poison begins to operate, and the period in which it proves fatal. No absolute answer can be given to either of these questions, since the strength and quantity of the acid exhibited, and peculiarities (not known or un- derstood) affect the result. Very strong acid, in large doses, begins to operate very speedily, especially if its vapour be inhaled. The diluted acid, on the other hand, sometimes does not produce any obvious effect for several minutes, and death may not occur for nearly half an hour. Of seven epileptic patients killed in one of the Parisian hospitals by hydrocyanic acid, some did not die for forty-five minutes. (Annates d?Hygiene Publ. et de Med. Leg. t. ii.) But I have not found the same quantity of the same acid kill different animals of the same species in the same period of time. Morbid Appearances.—The post-mortem appearances in cases of poisoning by this acid are the following:—Glistening and staring expression of the eyes, but which, however, is not a constant phenomenon, since it was not observed in the seven Parisian epileptics: nor is it peculiar to this poison, for the same is ob- served after death by carbonic acid, and in other cases (Christison:) the odour of the acid is oftentimes very obvious in the blood, brain, chest, or stomach: the venous system is usually gorged with blood, while the arteries are empty: the blood is, in many cases, fluid, dark, or bluish black, and viscid or oily: the ves- sels of the brain and spinal marrow are frequently gorged with blood; and the cerebral ventricles sometimes contain a serous or sanguineous liquor; the lungs are, in some instances, natural—in others, turgid with blood: the internal lining of the stomach is sometimes red. It has been stated by Magendie, that, after death by the strong acid, the mus- cles are not sensible to the galvanic influence. But this condition is very rarely present; indeed I have never observed it in animals killed by this acid; though Dr. Christison has occasionally found it. I. have examined a considerable num- ber of animals (principally rabbits) destroyed by hydrocyanic acid, and have always found the muscles to be powerfully affected by the galvanic influence: nor have I once met with a single case in which the heart had ceased to beat when the chest had been laid open immediately after death. Modus Operandi.—There are several interesting subjects of inquiry connected with the operation of hydrocyanic acid, which, as they are principallv theoretical I shall briefly notice under this head. *. Local action.—Dr. Christison says that Robiquet's fingers became affected with numbness, which lasted several days, in consequence of their exposure for some time to the vapour of this acid. (Treatise on Poisons, 3d ed. p. 698.) This effect would appear to depend on the local action of the poison on the nerves,'—a mode of operation which we are constrained likewise to admit in the case of some other narcotics. (See p. 13; also Midler's Pbysiologi/, by Baly, vol. i. p. 630.) The alleviation of gastrodynia by hydrocyanic acid depends probably on this benumbing effect. Some of the local effects produced by hydro- cyanic acid are those of an irritant: such are, the acrid impression made by the vapour on the nose and mouth—the ptyalism—the vomiting and purging__and the redness of the mucous membrane of the stomach. p. Absorption.—That hydrocyanic acid becomes absorbed, is proved by its 381 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. having been detected by Krimer (quoted by Dr. Christison, p. 15,) in the blood of animals poisoned with it, and by the odour of it exhaled by various parts of the body. The exhalation by the breath of the odour of the acid may sometimes serve to recognise the presence of the poison in the system. (Dr. Lonsdale, in the Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journ. for Jan. 1839.) y. Are the remote effects of this acid caused by its absorption?—-In many cases the operation of hydrocyanic acid on the system is so rapid, and death so speedily follows the application of the poison, that doubt has been entertained of its action being dependent on its absorption. (See pp. 126, 133, and 137.) The principal arguments which have been addueed in favour of the agency of absorp- tion are the following:—-first, that the acid produces no remote effects when applied either to the nerves or brain: secondly, that applied to the tongue or sto- mach, it operates as an energetic poison, although the nerves of these parts were previously divided: thirdly, that if the acid be applied to a part where circulation is arrested, the operation ofthe poison is prevented: fourthly, the activity of the acid is in proportion to the absorbing powers of the part with which it is placed in contact: fifthly, a sufficient time always elapses between its application to the body and the first symptom of it3 action, to admit of its operation by absorp- tion. (See p. 128.) 0s. Organs affected.—The parts specifically affected by this acid are the brain and true spinal system. The pain in the head, the insensibility, and the coma, are evidence of the cerebral affection; while the tetanic convulsions depend on the disorder of the true spinal system. Marx (Die Lehre von d. Giften, ler Bd. 2de Abt. S. 154.) mentions the following experiment performed by Wedemeyer (Virsuche ilber das Nervensystem, S. 241, Vers. 7.) and which shows the inde- pendent action of the acid on the spinal marrow: the spinal cord of a dog was divided between the last dorsal and first lumbar vertebrae, so that the hind legs were completely paralyzed and insensible to mechanical irritants: hydrocyanic acid was then introduced into one of the hind legs;—in one minute, symptoms of poisoning commenced, the hind as well as the fore legs were violently con- vulsed,—and in twelve minutes the animal was dead. The affection of the respiratory and circulatory system produced by hydrocyanic acid is probably only secondary: that is, is the result of the influence of this agent over those parts of the nervous system from which the respiratory organs and heart derive their nervous power. The insensibility caused by hydrocyanic acid occurs too rapidly, in many cases, to be the result of asphyxia caused by paralysis of the muscles of respiration. e. Condition ofthe brain and spinal marrow induced by this acid.—The pre- cise pathological condition of the brain and spinal cord of an animal under the influence of hydrocyanic acid, cannot be positively determined, and is, therefore, a matter of conjecture. Whatever it may be, it is probably identical with that which occurs during an epileptic paroxysm, and with that produced by loss of blood: for the essential symptoms (insensibility and convulsions occurring sud- denly) are the same in all three states,—and ammonia has been found to relieve them. Now Dr. Hall (Led. on the Nerv. Syst. p. 139.) has shown that the convulsion from hemorrhage is spinal. Dr. Hoist, Professor of Materia Medica in the University of Christiana, Norway, told me of a case of epilepsy which had been under his care, and in which it was observed that the pulse in one arm was always imperceptible during the paroxysm. On a post-mortem examination it was discovered that an anomalous distribution of the arteries existed,—so that this arm was supplied with blood by the vertebral arteries, which derived it, through the basilar artery, from the carotids. Now the cessation of the pulse during the paroxysm proved that the circulation through these vessels was tem- porarily interrupted. Does any similar interruption occur in poisoning by hy- drocyanic acid? h Cause of death.—In most cases the immediate cause of death is obstruction PRUSSIC ACID. 385 of respiration. In some instances it is stoppage of the heart s action. There are cases, however, in which the death is too immediate to be produced by ob- structed respiration, while, on opening the chest, the heart is found still beating: this I have observed in experiments on rabbits with strong hydrocyanic acid. n. Cumulative effects.—Hydrocyanic acid is not usually regarded as a cumu- lative poison; but a case mentioned by Dr. Baumgartner (quoted by Dr. Christi- son,) as well as some other circumstances, seem to favour the reverse opinion. (See Dr. Christison's Treatise.) .v. . Uses.—We are indebted to the Italians (Borda, Brugnatelh, and Rasori) lor the introduction of hydrocyanic acid into the Materia Medica. It was first employed by them at the commencement of the present century; namely, from 1801 to 1806. (Granville, Treatise on Hydrocyanic Acid, 2d edit. 1820.) *. Internal—By the founders of the theory of contra-stimulus this acid was regarded as a powerful asthenic or contra-stimulant, and, therefore, as peculiarly- useful in all diseases dependent on, or connected with, excitement. Hence it was employed in inflammatory affections. But subsequent experience has fully shown that in these cases it possesses little or no remedial power. In this country the reputation of hydrocyanic acid, as a medicinal agent, is chiefly founded on its effects in alleviating certain painful (neuralgic) and spasmo- dic stomach complaints. It appears, from Dr. Granville's statements, (Op. cit.) that laurel-water (which contains this acid) was used in these affections by Hufe- land, Ilaller, Thuessen, Swediaur, and Sprengel, between the years 1780 and 1796. But the first person who actually recommends hydrocyanic acid for them is Sprengel, (Pharmacologia.) in 1814. In 1819, Dr. A. T. Thomson detailed a case, which led him to infer that this acid would be an important agent in the treatment of dyspeptic affections. But the profession are principally indebted to Dr. Eliiotson1 for a full investigation of its powers in these complaints. Every practitioner is familiar with a stomach complaint in which pain of a spasmodic character is the leading symptom, but which is not essentially accom- panied by pyrexia, as in gastritis—by tendency to faint, as in cardialgia—by in- digestion, as in dyspepsia, nor by loss of appetite; though one or more of these conditions may attend it. By some nosologists (as Sauvages and Sagar) it has been regarded as a distinct disease, and has been termed gastrodynia. It is not unfrequently accompanied by vomiting and precordial tenderness, which, how- ever, cannot be regarded as indicative of inflammation, for various reasons; one of which is the alleviation of it often obtained by the use of stimulants and anti- spasmodics. What may be the precise pathological condition of this malady I know not. Dr. Barlow (Cyclopaedia of Practical Medicine, art. Gastrodynia.) thinks the primary disease to be irritation or excitement ofthe mucous membrane of the stomach, whereby a redundant, dense, membranous, and opaque mucus is secreted, which accumulates and oppresses the stomach. The pain he supposes to arise from a contractile effort of the stomach to detach and expel the offending matter: but the immediate and permanent relief sometimes obtained by the use of hydrocyanic acid, is, I conceive, almost fatal to this hypothesis. Some time since I prescribed the acid for a lady who had suffered for months with gastro- dynia, and who was persuaded, from her sensations, she had some organic dis- ease. The remedy acted in the most surprising manner: in a few hours, to the astonishment of herself and friends, she was apparently quite well, and has since had no return of her complaint. It can hardly be imagined, that irritation of sto- mach can be rapidly removed by a substance which is itself an irritant. For my own part, I conceive the affection to be, essentially, a disordered condition ofthe nerves supplying the stomach, or of the nervous centres from whence those nerves are derived; in other words, it is a gastric neuralgia. It is frequently, but not in- Xumerous Cate* illustrative ofthe Efficacy ofthe Hydrocyanic Acidin Affections ofthe Stomach. 1820 Vol. I.—49 386 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. variably, accompanied by the irritation of stomach alluded to by Dr. Barlow. But be the proximate cause of the disease what it may, the beneficial effects of the hydrocyanic acid, in some instances of it, are most astonishing, while in others it totally fails. In all the cases in which I have tried it, I have obtained either perfect success or complete failure: I have met with no cases of partial relief. It not only allays pain, but relieves vomiting; and in the latter cases, fre- quently when all other remedies fail. Dr. Eliiotson mentions the following as the stomach affections relieved by it:—1st, those in which pain at the stomach was the leading symptom: 2dly, those in which the gastrodynia was accompa- nied by a discharge of fluid, constituting what is called pyrosis, or the water- brash: 3dly, when the excessive irritability of the stomach produces vomiting; and, 4thly, those disorders of the stomach which, in some of their symptoms, resemble affections of the heart. Dr. Prout has found it useful in gastrodynia connected with colica pictonum. I have also found it useful in a painful affection of the bowels, analogous to that of the stomach, and which, therefore, might with propriety be termed enlerodynia. The most remarkable case of this kind which I have met with, was that of a gentleman, a relative of one of my pupils. He had suffered, for several months, excruciating pain in the bowels, commencing daily about two o'clock, and only ceasing at night. It was, apparently, a consequence of an ague. He had been under the care of several country practitioners, and had tried a number of remedies (including opium and disulphate of quinia) without the least benefit. I advised the employment of the hydrocyanic acid, and accordingly five minims were administered at the commencement of a paroxysm: the remedy acted like a charm: all the unpleasant symptoms immediately disappeared. Several doses of the acid were given before the period of the succeeding paroxysm, but the disease never returned; and after employing the acid for a few days longer, he went back to the country completely cured. I have seen hydrocyanic acid used with great success to allay vomiting and purging in severe forms of the ordinary English cholera, when opium has com- pletely failed. In Asiatic or malignant cholera it has occasionally appeared to be serviceable. I have found it successful in checking the diairhcea of phthisical subjects, when log-wood, chalk, and opium had failed. As a remedy for affections of the pulmonary organs, hydrocyanic acid was at one time in great repute. It was said to be capable of curing slight inflammation ofthe lungs, without the necessity of blood-letting; of suspending or curing inci- pient phthisis, while in confirmed cases it smoothed the approach of death; of curing hooping-cough, and of removing all the symptoms of spasmodic asthma.1 Experience has shown the fallacy of most of these statements. I have employed hydrocyanic acid in a considerable number of cases of phthisis, and have occa- sionally fancied that it relieved the cough and night-sweats; but these effects were only temporary. Cases of genuine spasmodic asthma are rare; but in two in- stances in which I have seen the acid employed, no relief was obtained. In allaying cough (especially the kind called spasmodic) I have, on several occa- sions, found it useful; but it has so frequently disappointed my expectations, that I now rarely employ it in any pulmonary diseases. I have never observed any ill effects from its use in these cases, though others assert they have. Dr. Roe {A Treatise on the Nature and Treatment ofthe Hooping-Gough. Lond. 1838.) ascribes to this acid the power of curing simple hooping-cough, that is, convul- sive cough unaccompanied by inflammatory symptoms. He gives it in conjunc- tion with ipecacuanha and tartarized antimony. In two or three days after the use of these remedies, the violence of the paroxysms, he says, is perceptibly diminished, and their duration shortened. To a girl of ten years of age he o-ave before referred to; and also Magendie's Rtcherches sur Vemploi de I'Acide PRUSSIC acid. 38? a minim and a-half of the acid every quarter of an hour for twelve hours. I have not found this practice so successful as Dr. Roe's reports would lead us to "it has been employed in affections of the nervous system. Cases of hysteria, epilepsy, chorea, and tetanus, have been published, in which this remedy has been found beneficial. I have seen it employed in the first three of these affec- tions, but without anv evident relief. It has been repeatedly used in hydro- phobia, at the London Hospital, but without success. A most interesting case of its employment in this malady has been published in the Lancet (for May 10th, 1839.) Under its use the hydrophobic symptoms subsided, and typhus fever supervened, of which the patient, after some days, died. Dr. Hall (Lect. ontheNerv. Sysl. p. 155.) proposes that in addition to the use of this acid, tracheotomy, as suggested by Mr. Mayo, should be tried. Hydrocyanic acid has been administered as an anodyne in several painful affections; namely, cancer, tic-douloureux, rheumatism, &c, but, with a few exceptions, it has not been found serviceable. As an anthelmintic it has been extolled by Brera; but the following fact, men- tioned by Dr. Eliiotson, will, I imagine, show its true value:—" I have frequently employed it perseveringly without expelling one worm, when a dose of calomel has instantly brought away hundreds." jS. External.—The local employment of the acid has not been attended with very great success. In chronic skin diseases, especially impetigo, prurigo, and psoriasis, the acid has been recommended by Dr. A. T. Thomson to allay pain and irritation. Schneider, of Dusscldorf, has employed one drachm and a-half of hydrocyanic acid, six ounces of spirit, and as much rose water, in scaly diseases attended with severe itching, especially in eruptions upon the genital organs. On several occasions I have tried hydrocyanic washes in prurigo, but without obtaining any relief. Dr. Eliiotson says he has found it efficacious in sores behind the ears, and in scabs of the face; and adds, to an irritable face it is very soothing, if employed before and after shaving. In cancer of the uterus, lotions containing this acid have been employed to allay the pain, by Frisch, of Nyborg. Osiander has also employed, in the same disease, cherry-laurel water, the active principle of which is this acid. In gonor- rhoea, injections containing hydrocyanic acid have been employed with benefit. Schlegel has tried also the cherry-laurel water with the same result. Lastly, the dilute acid has been proposed as an effectual and agreeable mode of destroying vermin. Administration.—The best mode of exhibiting this acid internally is in the form of mixture. I generally give from three to five minims of the diluted acid, Ph. L., three or four times a day, in about an ounce of some mild vehicle (sim- ple water answers very well.) Gum or syrup, and some flavouring ingredients (as orange-flower water, which is used on the continent) may be added. Some persons give it in almond emulsion. In some cases of irritable stomach this is objectionable. As a wash, two fluid-drachms ofthe dilute acid ofthe shops may be employed mixed with half a pint of distilled (or rose) water as a lotion in skin diseases. Frequently about half an ounce of rectified spirit is added, and Dr. A. T. Thom- son recommends, in addition to this, sixteen grains of acetate of lead. The ex- ternal use of this acid, in all cases (more especially if there be sores) requires great caution. Its effects on the nervous system and on the pulse must be care- fully watched. In some cases it causes giddiness and faintppss, and Mr. Plumbe says, in two instances it produced intermission ofthe puls^. Amidotes.—The most important agents in the treatment of poisoning by hy- drocyanic acid, as well as by the substances which contain it, (viz. the cherry- laurel, bitter almonds, the volatile oil of these substances, &c.,) are chlorine, am- monia, cold affusion, and artificial respiration. 388 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. ». Chlorine is the most powerful of these. It was first proposed by Riauz in 1822. It has been subsequently strongly recommended by Buchner, Simeon, and Orfila. It should be applied both internally and externally if possible. If chlorine water be at hand, this should be given in doses of one or two tea- spoonsful properly diluted with water. In the absence of this, weak solutions of the chloride [hypochlorite] of lime, or the chloride [hypochlorite] of soda, may be administered. Nitro-hydrochloric acid, largely diluted, might be given where none of the above agents could be procured. The patient should be allowed to inhale, very cautiously, air impregnated with chlorine gas (developed by the action of dilute hydrochloric acid on chloride of lime.) Enemata, con- taining chlorine water, or a solution of chloride of lime, should also be em- ployed. /3. Ammonia.—The spirit of sal ammoniac was proposed by Mead (Mechan. Account of Poisons, 5th edit. p. 275, 1756.) as an antidote for laurel-water. In 1822, ammonia was recommended by Mr. J. Murray as an antidote for hydro- cyanic acid; and its value has been admitted by Buchner, Orfila, Dupuy, and Herbst: but it is certainly inferior to chlorine; and, therefore, should be used only in the absence of this. If the patient be able to swallow, the liquor am- moniae, diluted with eight or ten parts of water, should be exhibited, and the vapour of ammonia or its carbonate inhaled: the latter practice is most important, and should not be omitted. Orfila says that ammonia is of no use when intro- duced into the stomach, but that the inhalation of the vapour will sometimes pre- serve life. Great caution is requisite in the employment of it (see p. 276.) In the absence of ammonia the inhalation of the vapour of burnt feathers might be employed. Ammonia cannot be useful, as an antidote, by its chemical proper- ties merely, since hydrocyanate of ammonia is a powerful poison. y. Cold Affusion has been strongly recommended by Herbst, (Archiv.f. Anat. et Phys. 1828; quoted by Dr. Christison.) and is admitted by Orfila to be a valu- able remedy, though he thinks it is inferior to chlorine. Herbst says that its efficacy is almost certain when it is employed before the convulsive stage of poi- soning is over, and that it is often successful even in the stage of insensibility and paralysis. J1. Artificial respiration ought never to be omitted. Of its efficacy I am con- vinced from repeated experiments on animals. I once recovered a rabbit by this means only, after the convulsions had ceased, and the animal was apparently dead. It is an operation easily effected, and will be found a powerful assistant to chlorine or ammonia, by enabling it to get into the lungs when natural respiration is suspended. To produce respiration, make powerful pressure with both hands on the anterior surface of the chest, the diaphragm being at the same time pushed upward by an assistant. Inspiration is effected by the removal of the pressure and the consequent resiliency of the ribs. Other remedies (as turpentine) have been recommended, but they will not bear comparison (if, indeed, they possess any efficacy) with those now mentioned. Blood-letting has been advised, in vigorous subjects, when respiration has been established, and the skin is livid. (Devergie, Med. Leg. t. ii. p. 825; also Lons- dale, op. supra cit.) Order VIII. COMPOUND OF BORON AND OXYGEN. ACIDUM BORA'CICUM.—BORACIC ACID. History.—Beccher (Thomson's History of Chemistry, vol. i. p. 248. Lond. 1830.) "was undoubtedly the first discoverer of boracic acid, though the credit of the discovery has usually been given to Homberg," who, in 1702, (Histoire de PAcademie Royale des Sciences, 1702; Memoires, p. 50.) obtained it in small shining plates, which have been called Sedative or Narcotic Salt (Sal sedativum Hombergi.) In the year 1776 it was discovered in the lagoons (Lagoni) of BORACIC ACID. 389 Tuscany by Hoefer1 and Mascagni,2 and more recently by Mr. Smithson Ten- nant,8 Dr. Holland,4 and Mr. Lucas,5 in the crater of Volcano, one of the Lipari Islands. . . T Natural History.—Boracic acid is peculiar to the inorganized kingdom. It is found both free and combined. a Free Boracic Acid.—The boracic acid lagoons of Tuscany are spread over a surface of about thirty miles. There are nine establishments for the manufacture of this acid; viz. at Monte Cerboli, Monte Rotondo, Sasso, Serazzano, Castelnuovo, San Frederigo, Lust.gnano, Lurderello, and Lago. They are the property of one individual (M. Tarderel now Count de Pomerance,) to whom they are the source of great wealth. The earth (principally calcareous) of this pait continually evolves aqueous and sulphurous vapours, which, when they burst with a fierce explosion, produce boracic acid.« The phenomena are explicable on the supposition, that water gains access to immense masses of sulphuret of boron contained in the interior ot the earth. By the mutual reaction of these substances, great heat, boracic acid, and sulphu- retted hydrogen, would be evolved. The latter taking fire would produce water, sulphur, and sulphurous acid. (Dumas, Traite de Chimie, t. i. p. 380. Paris, 1828.) In consequence of being found at Sasso, native boracic acid has obtained the name of Sassoline. /g. Combined with bases.—Boracic acid is found native combined with soda (forming Tincal,) (See Soda Biboras.) and with magnesia (constituting Boracite.) It is also found in the mi- nerals called Datholite, Botryolite, Schorl, Apyrite, and Axynite. Process op Manufacture.—Boracic acid is obtained in Tuscany in the follow- ing manner:—" Round the more considerable fissures a circular basin is dug, about four feet deep, and usually three or four yards across. These basins, which are called lagoni, being situated at different levels, the water of a rivulet is admitted into them, which, mixing with the black mud at the bottom, is made to boil up violently by the issues of vapour within its circuit. The water is ge- nerally confined in each basin for twelve [twenty-four, Payen] hours at a time, during which period it becomes saturated to a certain extent with acid from the steam which has passed through it. It is then drawn off from the higher basin to one beneath it, where it remains an equal length of time, till at length it reaches a building at the bottom of the hill, in which the process of evaporation is con- ducted." Here it enters a reservoir or cistern, where it is allowed to repose till it has deposited the mud which it held in suspension. Having cleared itself of impurities, the water is then drawn off from the cistern into flat leaden pans, under which some of the natural steam is conducted by brick drains about two feet under ground, and by this heat is evaporated. This process requires about sixty hours, the water passing successively from the pans at the upper extremity into others at the centre, and from thence into others at the lower extremity of the building, by means of leaden siphons. r Memoria sopra il sale sedativo di Toscana ed il Borace, &.C. Firenze, 1778. Uebers von B. F. Hermann. Wien. 17f2. » Memnrie delta Societa Italiana, viii. 487. • Transactions of the Geological Society, vol. i. p. 388. 1811. 4 Travels in the Ionian Islands, Albania, Thessaly, Macedonia, b}c. during the years 1812 and 1813, p. 9. Lond. 1815. » Ann Chim. et de Physiq. t. ii. p. 443. 1819. • For farther details consult Tancred, On the Collection of Boracic Acid from the Lagoni of Tuscany, in the Transactions of the Ashmolean Society, vol. i., Oxford, 1837; Dr. Bowring, On the Boracic Acid Lagoons of Tus- cany, in The Lond and Edinb. Philosoph. Magazine, vol. xv. p. 21. Lond. 1839; and Payen, Ann. Chim. et Phys. 1841. 390 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Fig. 56. Boracic Acid Lagoons of Tuscany. A, B. C, D. Lagoons.—The vapours enter at the bottom, and escape through the water into the air. When the water in the upper lagoon, A, is sufficiently charged with acid, it is allowed to run through the tube, o, into the lower lagoon, B. In this way it passes successively from B to C, from t! to D, and from D into the reservoir, E. E, F. Reservoirs or Cisterns.—In these the solution is allowed to rest, and deposite mechanical impurities. By the removal of the upper plug, p, the solution escapes into the upper evaporating pan, G. G, G. Leaden Evaporating Pans.—They are supported by rafters, and are heated by the aqueous vapours, which enter at .H and are confined in drains. The acid solution is conveyed from one pan to ano- ther by means of leaden siphons, i i. Having arrived at a proper state of concentration, it is then conducted into wooden tubs, in which it cools for about five days, during which the crystallization of boracic acid takes place on the sides of the tubs, and on the stick in the centre. The acid having been removed from the tubs is placed in a basket to drain, and is then spread on the floor of a closed chamber, heated by vapour, to dry. The acid, thus prepared, is sent in casks to Leghorn. (Tancred, op. supra cit.; also Bowring, op. supra cit.; and Payen, op. supra cit.) 07 BORACIC ACID. 391 Fig. 57. Crystallization and Drying Chambers. A, A, A. Wooden tubs lined with lead, in which the acid crystallizes. B, B. Mother liquor. ... u u C. Basket in which the crystallized acid is placed to drain before it is conveyed to the drying chamber. D, D. Drying chamber. E, E. Boracic acid drying on the floor (F,) between which and the lower floor (H) the hot vapour circulates. Boracic Acid may also be obtained by dissolving borax in hot water, and add- ing half its weight of oil of vitriol. As the solution cools, crystals of boracic acid (retaining a little sulphuric acid) are deposited, which must be well washed. Or borax may be decomposed by hydrochloric acid, by which a purer boracic acid is procured. Properties.—Crystallized boracic acid occurs in the form of white, transpa- rent, pearly, hexagonal scales, which are odourless, have a weak, scarcely acid, taste, and communicate a wine-red tint to litmus. At 60° the crystallized acid requires 25-66 times its weight of water to dissolve it, but only 2-97 times at 212.° It dissolves readily in spirit of wine. When sufficiently heated it evolves its water of crystallization, melts, forming a transparent liquid, which, by cooling, becomes a brittle glass (vitrified boracic acid.) Characteristics.—An alcoholic solution of boracic acid burns with a beautiful green flame. A hot aqueous solution of the acid renders turmeric paper brown, like the alkalis. (Faraday, Quarterly Journal of Science, vol. ix. p. 403.) Be- fore the blowpipe, boracic acid fuses, and forms a glass which may be tinged blue by chloride of cobalt, and rose-red by the terchloride of gold. A mixture of one part of vitrified boracic acid, finely pulverized, two parts of fluor spar, and twelve parts of oil of vitriol, evolves, by heat, the fluoride of boron, recognised by its forming dense white fumes in the air, and by its charring paper, wood, &c. Composition.—The following is the composition of boracic acid:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Ct. Berzelius. Boron........... 1 ___10 ... 2941___3118 Oxygen..........3---24---70 59 .... 68 82 Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Ct. Berzelius Dry Boracic Acid... 1 ___34 .... 5574 ... 50 Water............ 3---27___44 26___44 Dry Boracic Acid 1___34 ... 100-00___10000 Oracle Acid j-- 1 — 61 ....10000 ....100 Physiological Effects and Uses.—Though sedative properties were formerly ascribed to this acid, it is probably inert, or nearly so. Cullen (Materia Medica, p. 341.) gave it in large doses without observing that it produced any effect on the human body. It is, therefore, not employed in medicine; but it is extensively used in the manufacture of borax. (See Sodte Biboras.) Order IX. PHOSPHORUS AND PHOSPHORIC ACID. 1. PHOSPHORUS, L— PHOSPHORUS. History.—This substance was discovered, in 1669, by Brandt, an alchymist at Hamburgh; and received its name from being luminous in the dark (from r, light, and Qie», I carry.) i'.->2 ELEMENTS of materia medica. Natural History.—Phosphorus is found in both kingdoms of nature. ized KiNGDOM.-It is comparatively rare in the mineral kingdom. ind native, but in small quantities: those of Lime, Lead, Iron.Uof Va- rious phospliateV'are found"naUve',''but"in'smairquantities: those of Lime, Lead, Iron.Uopper, Manganese, Uranium, and Yttria, may be mentioned as examples. Phosphate ol Lime is an important constituent ofthe organic exuviae entombed in the fossihferous rocks. 1. In the Organized KiNonoM.-Phosphoric acid, free, or combined with lime, potash, or iron, is found in various vegetable.. (De Candolle, Phys. Veget pp. 383, 387, and 3J0) Phosphorus is a constituent of animals: in some cases it is in combination with oxygen, and a base, as in the bones, urine, &c; in other instances, as in the brain.it is uncertain in what form it exists. Preparation.—Phosphorus is obtained from bone-ash, which is principally composed of the sub- or six-eighths phosphate of lime. The bones of the sheep are preferred, as the ash which thev yield is less compact, and more easily at- tacked by the acid. Sulphuric acid" is' gradually added to the bone-ash previously made into a thin pap with water. Carbonic acid is evolved, while sulphate and a soluble superphosphate of lime are formed. Water is added, and at the end of twenty-four hours the liquor is filtered and evaporated in leaden or copper pans to the consistence of sirup or honey. It is then mixed with charcoal, dried, and distilled in an earthen retort. The charcoal abstracts the oxygen from the phos- phoric acid of the superphosphate, setting free the phosphorus, which is vola- tilized, and condensed in water contained in a copper receiver. It is afterwards purified by pressing it through shamoy leather under water. It is subsequently moulded for sale into cylinders, by melting it in water, and sucking it up a slightly conical glass tube, which is then immersed in cold water, when the solidified stick of phosphorus falls out.1 Properties.—It is a pale yellow, semitransparent, crystallizable, highly com- bustible solid. Mitscherlich says the crystals are rhombic dodecahedrons; so that they belong to the regular or cubic system. Light, especially violet light, reddens it. Its sp. gr. is 1-77. At ordinary temperatures it is flexible, but at 32° is brittle. It melts at 108°, and boils at 550° F. It gives off a small quantity of vapour at ordinary temperatures. In the atmosphere its fumes are luminous in the dark, in consequence of a slow combustion: they have the odour of garlic. By keep- ing in water, phosphorus becomes coated by a white substance, by some regarded as an oxide, by others as the hydrate of phosphorus. By Rose it is considered to be phosphorus in a peculiar mechanical state. Phosphorus is insoluble in water, but soluble in ether, and the oils both fixed and volatile. It may be re- duced to powder by melting it under water, and shaking in a closed vessel until cold. Its equivalent by weight is 16. Characteristics.—Phosphorus, in substance, is easily recognised by its waxy appearance and garlic-like odour; by its fuming in the air, and being phospho- rescent or luminous in the dark; by friction or gentle heat causing it to inflame; and, lastly, by its burning with a most intense white light and a white smoke of phosphoric acid, in air, or still better in oxygen gas. A solution of phosphorus in oil or ether, may be known by its garlic-like odour, and, when rubbed on the skin, by its rendering the latter luminous in the dark. Physiological Effects, a. On Vegetables.—According to Marcet it is poison- ous to plants. p. On Animals generally.—Water impregnated with phosphorus acts as an aphrodisiac to drakes. (Alph. Leroy, quoted by Bayle, Biblioth. de Therap. t. ii. p. 28. Paris, 1830.) Phosphuretted oil is a stimulant to horses: blood drawn from the veins of horses under its influence has a phosphoric odour. (Pilger. quoted by Bayle.) If phosphuretted oil be injected into the jugular vein, or into the cavity of the pleura of a dog, white vapours of phosphorus are evolved from i For farther details consult Soubeiran, JVouveau Traitt de Pharmacie, t ii. p 260, 2d« ^d . also lire, Diet. of Arts. PHOSPHORUS. 393 the mouth, and death shortly takes place. The phosphorous acid (formed by the combustion of the phosphorus) inflames the lungs in its passage through the deli- cate pulmonary vessels. Introduced into the stomach of animals, phosphorus acts as a caustic poison. The corrosion is supposed to depend oh the action of the phosphorous acid (formed by the combination of the phosphorus with the oxygen of the air contained in the pulmonary canal) oh the tissue with which it is in con- tact. (Orfila, Toxicol. Gener.) y. On Man.—In small doses, phosphorus acts as a powerful and diffusible sti- mulant, exciting the nervous, vascular, and secreting organs. It creates an agree- able feeling of warmth at the epigastrium, increases the frequency and fulness of the pulse, augments the heat of skin, heightens the mental activity and the mus- cular powers, and operates as a powerful sudorific and diuretic. Its aphrodisiac operation has been recognised by Alphonse Leroy, and Bouttatz, (Bayle, op. cit.) by experiments made onthemselves. In somewhat larger doses it causes burning pain, vomiting and purging, with extreme sensibility of the stomach, which lasts for several days. (See an experiment made by Sundelin on himself, Handb. der. Heilmittellehre, 2C. Bd. S. 213.) In still larger doses, it causes inflammation of the stomach and bowels. Its activity as a caustic poison depends, according to Orfila, on its absorbing oxygen, and thus becoming converted into an acid which acts as a corrosive, like the other mineral acids. Hence, therefore, etherial and oleaginous solutions are more active poisons, inasmuch as the oxidation of the phosphorus is effected more rapidly. Comparatively small doses have in some cases proved fatal. Dr. Christison (Treatise on Poisons.) mentions one instance in which J £ grains, in another instance 3 grains, caused death.1 Cases, however, are reported, in which 6, 10, and even 12 grains have been swallowed without any hurtful effects; but doubts have been entertained as to the correctness of the statements. Thus Merat and De Lens (Dictionnaire de Matiere Medicale.) think that the phosphorus employed in these cases must have undergone some chemical change. I once administered 16 grains of apparently good phosphorus to a man without any injurious effect. The person here alluded to was Chabert, some years ago renowned in London under the name ofthe " Fire King." I carefully weighed the above quantity, which was placed in a spoon, introduced into his mouth, and washed down by a tumblerful of water. He offered to take this dose daily. Within ten minutes after swallowing the phosphorus, he left the room for about a quarter of an hour. Uses.—In this country, phosphorus is rarely employed, and therefore, it will be unnecessary to enter minutely into its uses. It has been strongly recommended in those cases attended with great prostration ofthe vital powers, as in the latter stages of typhus fever, dropsies, &c.; in some chronic diseases ofthe nervous sys- tem (as epilepsy, paralysis, melancholy, mania, amaurosis, &c.,) occurring in de- bilitated subjects. In some of the exanthemata, as measles, it has been administered to promote the re-appearance of the eruption when this, from some cause, had receded from the skin. In impotentia virilis of old and debilitated subjects, in cholera, and in some other maladies, it has also been exhibited. Paillard recom- mends phosphorus as a caustic, in the place of moxa, than which, he says, it is more convenient and safe. (Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. ii. p. 254.) Administration.—Phosphorus cannot be given with safety in the solid form. It may be administered dissolved in ether, or, still better, in oil. Antidotes.—In poisoning by phosphorus, large quantities of mild demulcent liquids are to be exhibited, so as to envelop the phosphorus and exclude it from the air contained in the alimentary canal. Magnesia should be given, in order to neutralize the phosphorous and phosphoric acids which may be formed. Parts ' In the Morning Herald of June 17,1840, iff a report of an inquest held'on the body of a child killed by Bucking the phosphoric end3 of lucifer matches. Vol. 1—50 394 elements of materia medica. burned with phosphorus are to be washed with a weak alkaline solution, to re- move any adhering acid which might serve to keep up irritation. 1. TKCTURA 2ETHEREA CUM P1I0SPII0R0, French Codex.—(Phosphorus 4 parts, Sulphuric Ether 200 parts by weight. Macerate for a month, in well-stoppered bottles covered with black paper, occasionally shaking. Preserve it in small bot- tles, well stoppered and covered with black paper. The quantity of phosphorus dissolved is about 4 grains for each ounce of ether. Dose from 5 to 10 drops. Some objection has been raised to the use of this preparation on the ground that, by the evaporation ofthe ether, the phosphorus will be set free in the stomach, and might ignite. 2. OLEUM PhWHORATUM, Ph. j?oruss« 1 • »«**■ ™< ™ \ \ 1% 2#L Z—^ 6 eq. Sulph. 96 291 ^loi ~291 SILPHURIC ACID. 401 Precipitated sulphur agrees in most of its properties with sublimed sulphur, but is much whiter, and is in a finely pulverulent form. Berzelius says, that when melted, it gives out a little sulphuretted hydrogen; and on cooling, resumes the yellow colour it had before it was boiled with the alkali. H. Rose (Poggen- dorfs Annalen, xlvii.; also, Pharm. Cenlral-Blatt. fur 1839, S. 441.) ascribes the whiteness of precipitated sulphur to its containing sulphuretted hydrogen in the state of persulphuret of hydrogen. It is composed of sulphur with a little water; and hence it is frequently termed hydrate of sulphur. According to Bucholz, however, when well dried, it con- tains hardly a trace of water, and, therefore, that which, under ordinary circum- stances, is contained in it, must be regarded as hygroscopic; so that the term hydrate is not strictly applicable to it. On account of the extensive adulteration of this preparation, it has been omit- ted from all the British pharmacopoeias. In the preparation of nearly the whole of the precipitated sulphur of the shops, sulphuric acid is substituted for hydro- chloric acid, by which the product contains about two-thirds of its weight of sul- phate of lime. Mr. Schweitzer (British Annals of Medicine, vol. i. p. 618.) analyzed a sample, and found its composition to be as follows: — SiUphate of Lime.................................. 50 Water of Crystallization of ditto.................. 13 1 Sulphur .......................................... 36-9 Lac Sulphuris of the shops ........................ 1000 I was informed by an extensive manufacturer of this article, that he prepares both kinds, the pure and the adulterated, and that the firm of Messrs. Barry 410 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. tion, the symptoms were those of local irritation, with vomiting and purging ol blood. The patient recovered. (Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. x\v. p. 944.) I UNGUENTUM ACIDI SULPHURICI, D. Sulphuric Acid Ointment.—(Sulphuric Acid, 3j.; Prepared Hog's Lard, 3j. Mix.) The ingredients should be mixed in a glass or earthenware mortar. The precise changes which sulphuric acid effects on lard have not been studied : they are most likely analogous to those effected by the acid on olive oil. The sulphuric acid probably unites on the one hand with the glycerine (oxide ofglycerule) ofthe lard to form bisulphate of glycerine,—and on the other with the fatty acids (oleic, margaric (1) and stearic acids) ofthe lard. This ointment is of a buff colour. It is a powerful stimulant, and has been em- ployed in paralysis, hemorrhages, and scabies, as before mentioned (see p. 408.) 3. A'CIDUM SULPHUIIO'SUM.—SULPHUROUS ACIP. History.—Homer (Iliad, xvi.) mentions sulphur fumigations. Stahl, Scheele, and Priestley, were the first to submit this acid to an accurate examination. It has been termed Volatile Sulphurous Acid, and, from the old mode of procuring it, Spirit of Sulphur by the Bell (Spiritus Sulphuris per Campanan.) Natural History.—It escapes from the earth in a gaseous form, in the neigh- bourhood of volcanoes. Preparation.—For chemical purposes it is prepared by mixing two parts of mercury with three parts of strong sulphuric acid, applying heat, and collecting over mercury. The results are, the bipersulphate of mercury and sulphurous acid. For medicinal purposes, however, it is rarely, if ever, necessary to procure it in this way. By the combustion of sulphur in atmospheric air this gas is readily ob- tained ; and when we are about to employ it, either as a disinfectant or vapour bath, this method is always followed. Properties.—At ordinary temperatures and pressures it is a colourless and transparent gas, and has a remarkable and well-known odour. It is neither com- bustible nor a supporter of combustion. It reddens litmus and bleaches some colouring matters, especially infusion of roses, but the colour is restored by sulphu- ric acid. It is irrespirable, and has a sp. gr. of 2-2. It readily dissolves in water: recently boiled water takes up 33 times its volume of this gas. By cold and pres- sure it is readily condensed into a liquid. Characteristics.—This acid is readily known by its peculiar odour (that of burn- ing sulphur.) If the puce-coloured or binoxide of lead be added to it, the white protosulphate of lead is formed. An aqueous solution of this acid mixed with iodic acid, deoxidizes the latter, and sets iodine free, which may be recognised by its producing a blue colour with starch. A solution of an alkaline sulphate causes, with a soluble salt of barium, a white precipitate (sulphate of baryta.) Resulting The sulphites evolve sulphurous acid by the action of '• strong sulphuric acid. Composition.—If 16 parts by weight of sulphur be burned in one volume or 16 parts (by weight) of oxy- gen gas, we obtain one volume or 32 parts (by weight) of sulphurous acid gas. The composition of this substance, may, therefore, be thus expressed :— Atoms. Eq Wt. Per Cent. Berzelius. S^'Ph'"-............1 .......... 16 .......... 50 .......... 49-968 °x>gen............2 .......... 16 .......... 50 .......... 50032 Sulphurous Acid.... 1 .......... 32 .......... inn. .......... 10n 000 Physiological Effects, a. On Vegetables.—It is a most powerful poison to plants, even in very minute quantities. (Christison, On Poisons, 3d ed. p. 750.) iodide of sulphur. 411 $. On Animals generally.—The effects on animals have not been examined ; but they are probably those of an irritant and asphyxiating agent. y. On Man.—Applied to the skin this acid gas causes heat, pain, and itching. If an attempt be made to inhale it in the pure state, it excites spasm of the glottis. Diluted with air it may be taken into the lungs, and there acts as a local irritant, causing cough, heat, and pain. Uses.—It has been used as a disinfectant, as a remedy for the cure of itch, and as a nasal stimulant in syncope. As a disinfectant it is mentioned by Homer. The mode of using it for this pur- pose is very simple. A pot containing burning sulphur is introduced into the room or place to be fumigated, and the doors and windows are carefully closed. As a remedy for itch, baths of sulphurous acid gas are mentioned by Glauber in 1659. They are commonly termed sulphur ba'hs, and may be had at most of the bathing establishments ofthe principal towns of this country. At the Hopital St.-Louis, in Paris', a very complete apparatus for the application of this remedy in diseases ofthe skin has been erected by D'Arcet.1 It is a kind of box, enclosing the whole body with the exception of the head. The sulphur is placed on a heated plate in the lower part of the box. From ten to twenty baths, or even more, are requisite for the cure of itch. " Sulphurous fumigations," says Rayer, (Treatise on Diseases of the Skin, by Dr. Willis, p. 347.) " which are employed in some hospitals are not attended with expense, leave no unpleasant smell, and do not soil the linen; but the long continuance of the treatment necessary to relieve the disease, more than counter-balances these generally insignificant recommenda- tions." There are various other diseases ofthe skin in which baths of sulphurous acid have been found more or less successful, such as chronic eczema, lepra, pso- riasis, impetigo, and pityriasis.3 As a stimulant in syncope or asphyxia this gas has been recommended by Nysten. It is readily applied by holding a burning sulphur match under the nose. Antidotes.—When sulphurous acid gas has been inhaled, the patient should be made to respire the vapour of ammonia. A few drops t>f the solution of this sub- stance should be swallowed. 4. SUL'PHURIS IO'DIDUM.fU.S.)—IODIDE OF SULPHUR. History.—This compound was first described by Gay-Lussac. (Ann de Chimie, xci. 22. 1814.) Preparation.—It is prepared by heating gently, in a clean oil flask, four parts of iodine with one part of sulphur until fusion is effected. Part of the iodine volatilizes, and the remainder unites with the sulphur. Properties.—It is a black crystallizable compound, having the colour and radiated appearance of sesquisulphuret of antimony. It has the odour of iodine, and stains the cuticle, paper, &c. like this substance. Its elements are easily separated by heat. Characteristics.—Boiled in water the iodine volatilizes with the steam, and the sulphur is deposited nearly in a state of purity. Composition.—Its composition has not been determined. It is, probably, the following:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Iodine................ 1 ............ 126 ............ 79 75 Sulphur............... 2 ............ 3-3 ............ '20-J5 Iodide of Sulphur...... 1 ............ 158 ............ IOUUU Physiological Fffects. a. On Animals.—Dr. Cogswell (Experimental Essay i Des ription desAppareils d Fumigations etablis sur ses Dessins d fHopi'al Saint-Louis en 1814, et successive- mrnt Hans plusieurs Hopitaux de Paris, pour le Traitement des Maladies de la Peau. Paris, 1818. I nn ill io'1'nforinat'°n °" this subject consult Mcmoire et Rapports sur les Fumigations Sulfureuses. par J. C.t.alei, I, 16; Obscnations on Sulphurous Fumigations, by W. Wallace; An Essay on Diseases ofthe Skin. 412 elements of materia medica. on Iodine and its Compounds.) gave three drachms to a bitch: the animal lost her appetite, was dull, and on the fourth day could not support herself properly upon her legs. On the twelfth day she was well. /S. On Man.—It has not been exhibited internally. It probably operates like iodine. Its local operation is that of a powerful stimulant and resolvent. Uses.—Iodide of sulphur has been principally employed in the form of oint- ment, in various skin diseases. In lupus it has been found most efficacious by Biett, (Cazenove and Schedel, Abregi pratiq. sur les Malad. de la Peau.) as well as Rayer. (Treatise on Diseases of the Skin, translated by Dr. Willis.) The last mentioned writer places it in the foremost rank of local remedies for this dis- ease. In acne indurata and rosacea it has proved highly useful in the hands of Biett, (Op. cit.) Rayer, (Op. cit. p. 476.) and Dr. Copland. (Diet, of Pract. Med. art. Acne, p. 31.) In lepra, Rayer has observed good effects from its use; but in one case in which I tried it, it caused so much irritation that its use was obliged to be discontinued. In herpes pustulosus lubialis it has been employed with great success by Dr. Volmar. (Dierbach, Die neuesten Entdeck in d. Mat. Med. 2te Ausg. ler B. S. 449.) In tinea capitis it has also been recommended. (Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xx. p. 879.) Dr. Copland (Op. cit. art. Asthma, p. 149.) has employed the inhalation of the vapour of this substance in humoral asthma with temporary advantage. UNGUENTUM SULPHURIS IODIDI; Ointment of Iodide of Sulphur.—This is com- posed of Iodide of sulphur and lard. The proportions vary according to circum- stances : usually from 10 to 30 grains ofthe iodide to an ounce of lard. Magendie recommends 1 part of iodide to 18 or 19 of lard. 5. AMMO'NIJE HYDROSUL'PHAS.-HYDROSULPHATE OF AMMONIA. , (Ammonia; Hydrosulphuretum, Z>.) t History and Synonymes.—This compound is said to have been first prepared in the seventeenth century by Boyle or Beguin: hence the terms Boyle's fuming liquor and Beguin,s sulphuretted spirit, applied to one variety of it. The ordi- nary designation of it is hydrosulphuret of ammonia, or hepalized ammonia. Berzelius calls it sulphuret of ammonia. Natural History.—It is evolved from decomposing animal matter (as in privies,) along with hydrosulphuric acid and nitrogen. Preparation.—The following are the directions given by the Dublin College for the preparation of this compound:— Take of Sulphuret of Iron, reduced to a coarse powder, five parts; Sulphuric Acid, seven parts; Water, thirty.two parts; Water of Caustic Ammonia, four parts. Pass the sulphuret into a retort, then gradually pour on it the acid, first diluted with water, and, in a suitable apparatus, cause the elastic fluid to pass through the Water of Ammonia. Toward the end of the process, apply a moderate heat to the retort. In this process the iron ofthe sulphuret is oxidized by the oxygen of the water, and the oxide of iron thus formed combines with the sulphuric acid to form sul- phate of iron. The hydrogen of the water uniting with the sulphur of the sul- phuret forms hydrosulphuric acid (sulphuretted hydrogen.) MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. PRODrCTS. 1 eq. Sulphuret Iron __ 44 \\ e? s"lPhur J6-------------~^---1 eq. Sulphuretted Hydrog. 17 ( 1 eq. Iron.... 2S>^ ^_^—---- 1 eq. Water............ 9* \eq. Hydrogen 1 / 1 eq. Oxygen., b c , . . , ., „, lr""-™'l eq. Sulphate of Iron 1 eq. Sulphuric Acid___40------_____-------------------( H v 93 93 The sulphuretted hydrogen thus produced is conveyed into a solution of ammonia, with which it combines. HYDR08ULPHATE ok ammonia. 413 Properties.—As thus prepared, the solution of hydrosulphuret of ammonia is a liquid, having a greenish yellow colour, a very fetid odour, and an acrid disagree- able taste The mineral acids decompose it, evolve hydrosulphuric acid, and pre- cipitate sulphur. It forms with a considerable number of metallic solutions, pre- cipitates. With the salts of lead, bismuth, silver, and copper, the precipitates are blackish; with those of antimony, red; with those of cadmium and tin (persalts.) and with the arsenites (on the addition of an^cid,) yellow; lastly, with the salts of zinc, white. In these cases the precipitates are either sulphurets or hydrated sul- phurets of the respective metals. By exposure to the air part of the ammonia flies off, and some sulphur is de- posited. It is now a bi- or poly-sulphuret of ammonium, and yields a red pre- cipitate with the salts of lead, a yellow one with tartar emetic, and a white one with arsenious acid. Characteristics.—-Its odour will readily distinguish it. As a sulphuret or hy- drosulphuret it is known by its actions on the metallic solutions already noticed. Caustic potash causes the evolution of ammonia. Composition.—Neutral hydrosulphate of ammonia has the following composi- tion:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Hydrosulphuric Acid.............. 1 ........ 17........ 6000 Ammonia........................ 1 ........ 17........ 5000 Hydrosulphuric Acid Gas...... 1 Ammoniacal Gas ............. 2 Hydrosulphate of Ammonia....... 1........ 34........100 00 Or it may regarded as a Sulphuret of Ammonia (S -f- NH*.) The fuming liquor (Liquor Fumans Boyli) obtained by distilling four parts of slaked lime, two of hydrochlorate of ammonia, and one of sulphur, contains, according to Gay-Lussac, (Cours de Chimie, Lecon 2fJe.) hydrosulphate of ammonia, with excess of sulphur; but in what slate of combination has not been determined. Physiological Effects. _. On Vegetables.—The vapour of this compound is injurious to vegetation. /3. On Animals.—I am unacquainted with any experiments made with it on animals; but analogy leads us to believe that its action is that of a powerful poi- son, analogous to other alkaline sulphurets, and to hydrosulphuric acid. y. On Man.—In small but repeated doses it acts powerfully on the secreting organs, the action of which it promotes, but at the same time modifies. Its prin- cipal influence is directed to the skin, (on which it acts as a sudorific,) and to the pulmonary mucous membrane. In somewhat larger doses it occasions nausea and giddiness. In still larger doses it causes nausea, vomiting, diminished fre- quency of pulse, giddiness, extreme languor, drowsiness, and sleep. Excessive doses would, of course, produce death, though I am unacquainted with any case of this kind. In the gaseous state it acts, when inhaled, as a powerfully asphyxiating agent. Instances of its deleterious operation, in conjunction with hydrosulphuric acid, have occurred in France, in workmen exposed to the vapours from the pits (cess- pools) of the necessaries. The symptoms are, sudden weakness, insensibility, and death; or where the vapours are less concentrated, there are sometimes de- lirium and convulsions. Uses.—In this country it has been principally employed in diabetes mellitus, with the view of reducing the morbid appetite and increased action of the stomach, as well as of the system in general. (Rollo, on Diabetes Mellitus, p. 28, ed. 2nd ) Combined with alcohol, F. Hoffmann administered it under the name of liquor anti-podagricus, as a powerful sudorific in gout. It has also been used in old pulmonary catarrhs; and by Brauw and Gruithuisen in vesical catarrh. (Vogt, Pliarmacotlynamik.) Administration.—It is given in doses of from four to six drops, in some pro- per vehicle (distilled water is the best.) On account of its speedy decomposition, it should be dropped from the bottle at the time of using it. 414 elements of materia medica. Antidotes.—The antidotes for hydrosulphate of ammonia, as well as for hy- drosulphuric acid, are chlorine and the chlorides of lime and soda. In cases of asphyxia by the inhalation of these substances, the treatment consists in placing the patient on his back in the open air, with his head somewhat elevated; apply. ing cold affusion to the face and breast; producing artificial respiration of air, through which chlorine is diffused, by pressing down the ribs and forcing tip the diaphragm, and then suddenly removing the pressure; using strong friction in the course of the vertebral column, chest, soles of the feet, &c, and injecting into the stomach, stimulants; as, a weak solution of chlorine (or of chloride of lime) or brandy, &c. In the event of hydrosulphuret of ammonia being by accident swallowed in poisonous doses, dilute solutions of chlorine, or of the chlorides of lime and soda, should be immediately given, and the contents of the stomach re- moved by the stomach-pump a3 soon as possible. <£to XX. Jftetartlfc Sufcstatum Order XI. COMPOUNDS OF POTASSIUM. 1. POTAS'SJS HY'DRAS, L.—HYDRATE OF POTASH. (Potassa, E. (TJ. S.)—Potassa caustica, D.) History.—-Caustic alkaline solutions were probably known to the Greeks and Romans. We learn from Pliny (Hist. Nat. lib. xxviii. cap. 51.) that soap was made in his time from tallow and wood-ashes; and we may therefore conclude that some method was known of depriving the alkaline carbonate of its carbonic acid. Geber (Invention of Verity, ch. iv.) describes the method of making caustic alkali. Black, however, in the year 1756, first distinguished, chemically, the caustic alkalis from their carbonates. Potash was formerly called kali, or the vegetable alkali. It is the Protoxide of Potassium. Natural History.—Potash in combination with acids is found in both king- doms of nature. tt. In the Inorganized Kirgdom.—Potash is found, in the mineral kingdom, in combina- tion with sulphuric, nitric, silicic, and perhaps carbonic acids. As an ingredient of rocks, it is more abundant than soda. /8. In the Organized Kingdom.—In organized beings potash is met with in combination with phosphoric, sulphuric, nitric, carbonic, and various organic acids. It occurs more abun- dantly in vegetables than in animals. Preparation.—All the British Colleges give directions for the preparation of hydrate of potash. The London College orders, of Solution of Potash, a gallon. Evaporate the water in a clean iron vessel over the fire, until the ebullition being finished, the Hydrate of Potash lique. fies: pour this into proper moulds. [This is the direction ofthe U.S. P.] The Edinburgh College directs any convenient quantity of aqua Potassae to be evaporated in a clean and covered iron vessel, increasing gradually the heat till an oily-looking fluid re- mains; a drop of which, when removed on a rod, becomes hard on cooling; then pour out the liquid upon a bright iron plate, and as soon as it solidifies break it quickly, and put it into glass bottles secured with glass stoppers. The process ofthe Dublin College is essentially the same as that of the Edinburgh College, except that the evaporation is to be effected in vessels of silver or iron, and the liquefied potash is to be poured out on a plate of silver or iron. Properties.—The solid hydrate of potash ofthe shops, known as Potassa fusa (Kalipurum; Lapis Infernalissive Septicus; Cauterium Potentiale) is usually more or less coloured (brownish, grayish, or bluish,) and not completely soluble in water and alcohol in consequence of the presence of foreign matters. Pure hydrate of potash, however, is white, and dissolves in both water and alcohol. During its solution in water, heat is evolved. Its solubility in alcohol enables us to separate it from the carbonate and bicarbonate of potash, both of which are insoluble in this liquid. It has a strong affinity for both water and carbonic acid, which it rapidly attracts from the atmosphere, and in consequence becomes liquid. At a low red hydrate of potash. 415 heat it fuses, and at a higher temperature is volatilized. It is odourless, but has a caustic, urinous taste. It rapidly decomposes organic substances. It possesses the properties of an alkali in an eminent degree. Characteristics.—Potash, free or combined with an acid to form a neutral salt, is recognised by the following characters:—The hydrosulphurets, ferrocyanides, and carbonates, produce no precipitate with its solutions. Tartaric (in excess,) perch- loric, and carbazotic acids, occasion precipitates of the bitartrate, perchlorate, and carbazotate of potash respectively. Chloride of plantinum throws down a yel- low precipitate. Lastly, the potash salts communicate a violet tinge to the name of alcohol. . A. ^i-„- Free potash is distinguished from its salts by its communicating a green colour to the infusion of red cabbage or syrup of violets; by its reddening turmeric, and restoring the blue colour of litmus reddened by an acid ; by its not whitening lime water, or effervescing on the addition of an acid; by its soapy feel; by its solubility in alcohol; and by its dissolving alumina. Impurities.—Potassa fusa of the shops contains various impurities, such as ses- quioxide of iron, carbonate of potash, and silica. These, however, do not mate- rially affect its medicinal value. "Boiling water commonly leaves oxide of iron undissolved, which should not exceed 1-25 per cent.: the solution neutrallized with nitric acid gives a faint precipitate with a solution ot nitrate of baryta, and more with solution of nitrate of silver,—owing to the presence of impu- rities" Ph. Ed. The nitrate of baryta detects sulphates, while nitrate of silver is a test for chlo- rides. Composition.—Pure anhydrous potash has the following composition:— Atoms. Eq Wt. Per Cent Berzelius. Potassium............ 1 ........ 40 ........ 8334 ........ 8305 Oxygen............... 1 ........ 8 ........ 10 66 ........ 16-95 Potash................ 1 ........ 48 ........ 100-00 ........ 100-00 The hydrate of potash is thus composed:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berzelius. Potash................ 1 ........ 48 ........ 842 ........ 84 Water................ 1 ........ 9 ........ 15 8 ........ Ifi Hydrate of Potash .... 1 ........ 57 ........ 100.0 ........ 100 Physiological Effects, ct. On Vegetables.—Caustic potash promptly destroys the parts of living plants with which it is placed in contact, and even in the dilute state kills haricots (Phaseolus vulgaris) in a few hours. (Marcet, in De Candolle, Phys. Vegit.) |8. On animals generally.—It acts on animals generally as an energetic caustic poison. It is, says Orfila, (Toxicol. Gener.) of all poisons, that which most fre- quently perforates the stomach. He found, that injected into the jugular vein of a dog, it coagulated the blood, and caused speedy death. It is, however, remark- able, that when mixed with the blood out of the body, it not only does not coagu- late it, but actually prevents its spontaneous coagulation. Magendie has observed, that by the exhibition of alknlis to dogs, the urine acquires alkaline properties. y. On Man.—The general operation of alkalis has been already noticed (see pp. 194 and 207.) The local action of caustic potash, especially when in the solid form, is exceedingly energetic. It neutralizes any free acid in the part to which it is applied, and decomposes whatever ammoniacal salts may be present, causing the evolution of ammoniacal gas. It combines with fibrin and albumen, forming soluble compounds (fibrate and albuminate of potash.) Hence, rubbed between the fingers, it corrodes and dissolves the epidermis, and thereby gives rise to a soapy feel. Gelatine is also readily dissolved by it, and any phosphate of lime which may be present is de- posited. These phenomena are to a certain extent comparable to those of saponi- fication. As, then, potash and the other alkalis form soluble compounds with sub- stances which enter largely into the composition of the organized tissues, we can 416 llements of materia medica. readily explain an observation of Orfila, that alkalis are, of all corrosive poisons, those which most frequently perforate the stomach; for the intestinal mucus readily dissolves in alkalis, whereas it is coagulated by acids; so that the former are much more quickly brought in contact with the living tissues. These resist, lor a certain time, the chemical influence of the caustics, but the affinities being powerful, the vital properties soon cease to offer opposition-the part dies, and the tissues are speedily dissolved. Hence, if a large quantity of potash be swallowed the most violent symptoms are observed, though they are ofthe same general kind as when the mineral acids have been taken (seep. 122.) When liquor potassae is taken in small doses, and properly diluted, it saturates the free acids contained in the stomach, and which the recent investigations of physiologists have shown to be essential to the digestive functions. Hence the continued use of this or of any other alkali must be always injurious, since it dis- orders the assimilative process by altering the chemical properties of the healthy ventricular secretion. If the quantity of potash swallowed be more than sufficient to neutralize the free hydrochloric acid, but insufficient to exert any important chemical action on the living tissues, it acts as a slight irritant, augments the secretions of the ali- mentary canal, becomes absorbed, and alters the qualities of the secreted fluids, more particularly those of the urine (see pp. 120 and 125.) Moreover, the modi- fication thus produced in the quality of the renal secretion is accompanied by an increase in the quantity, so that the alkalis rank among our most powerful diure- tics—an effect which may be in part owing to the local stimulus which they com- municate to the secreting vessels in their passage through them. Bv continued use, the alkalis give rise to increased activity ol the different secreting organs, and ofthe absorbing vessels and glands; effects which are ana- logous to those eaused by mercury. In other words, they act as liquefacients and resolvents (see p. 194.) After some time the digestive function becomes disor- dered, the appetite fails, the blood becomes thinner and darker coloured, and loses its power of spontaneous coagulation when drawn from the body: the whole system, and more particularly the digestive organs, become enfeebled; and a state precisely similar to that of scurvy is brought on. It is said if the alkalis be temporarily suspended the blood speedily re-acquires its coagulability, but loses it again when we resume their employment. These phenomena deserve especial notice, as being precisely analogous to those of scurvy—a disease which has been usually supposed to be brought on by the use of salt and salted provi- sions, and to be prevented or cured by vegetable acids (especially the citric) and fresh provisions. It appears, therefore, in the highest degree probable, that scurvy, and the effects caused by the long-continued employment of the alkalis, are analogous conditions of system (see the effects of ammonia, p. 285.) Uses.—Caustic potash, is" employed for various purposes in medicine, the principal of which are the following:— . „. As an escharotic.—Potassa fusa is sometimes used as a caustic, though its employment is not free from objection; for its great deliquescence occasions some difficulty in localizing its action. It may be employed for the production of an issue, but we must proceed thus:—Apply to the part one or two layers of adhe- sive plaster, in the middle of which is an aperture of the exact size of the intended issue. Then moisten the potassa fusa, or the potassa cum cake, and rub on the part until discolouration is observed. Wash, and apply a linseed-meal poultice; and when the eschar is detached, insert the pea. Issues, however, are speedily and more conveniently made by the lancet than by caustic. In bites by poison- ous animals—as venomous serpents, mad dogs, &c, this escharotic may be used with advantage. Mr. Whateley (An Improved Method of Treating Strictures of the Urethra. Lond. 1804.) recommends the potassa fusa as the agent for arming caustic bougies to be applied in strictures of the urethra; but the practice appears so dangerous (particularly on account of the deliquescence and violent action of HYDRATE OF POTASH. 417 the caustic,) that I believe it is now rarely, if ever, resorted to. There are many other cases in which this substance is employed as a caustic: for example, to destroy warts and fungoid growths of various kinds, and to open abscesses, more especially those in the groin; but for the latter purpose the lancet is to be pre- ferred. p. As an antacid we resort to the liquor potasscein various affections ofthe diges- tive organs, which are attended with an inordinate secretion of acid, known by the acid eructations, cardialgia, and other dyspeptic symptoms. It must, how- ever, be evident, that the neutralization of the acid is merely palliative. But the continued employment of alkalis frequently diminishes, temporarily, the tendency to acid secretion. Commonly it is found that the cases calling for the employ- ment of alkalis are those benefited by tonics, and hence I believe the alkali is, in most cases, best given in some mild or tonic infusion; such, for example, as the infusion of calumba, or of gentian, or of quassia; the disulphate of quinia often- times disagreeing with the stomach in these cases: besides which, it would be decomposed by the alkali. The beneficial effects of alkalis are said to be par- ticularly observed in those forms of dyspepsia which result from the inordinate use of spirituous liquors. Of course the liquor potassae would equally neutralize acid which may have been accidentally or purposely swallowed; but it is rarely given for this purpose, on account of its irritant qualities, and because many other agents (as chalk, whiting, magnesia, and soap) are equally efficacious as antacids, while they are free from the objections which exist in these cases to the use of the caustic alkalis. y. To modify the quality of the urine, liquor potassa? is a most valuable agent. I have already stated (see p. 198) that, under the employment of alkalis, not only may the natural acidity of the urine be destroyed, but even an alkaline property be communicated to it: so that, whenever trie secretion of lithic acid, or of the lithates, is inordinate, the alkalis present themselves to our notice as chemical agents for counteracting this condition. It has been supposed by some that the efficacy ofthe caustic alkalis in preventing the deposition of lithic acid gravel, consists in their holding it in solution—an explanation apparently inconsistent with the fact that the carbonated alkalis and magnesia are equally efficacious, though they are incapable of dissolving it. We are, therefore, led to the conclusion, that the alkalis by their chemical influence, actually prevent the formation of this acid, or neutralize the free acid in the urine, which is the immediate cause of the precipi- tation of the lithic acid; whether by an action on the digestive organs or otherwise we know not. In resorting to these agents in urinary deposites, we should be careful to avoid employing them when there is any tendency to the deposition of the phosphates. The phosphate of lime, which naturally exists in the urine, is precipitated by the addition of a caustic alkali. It is generally admitted that the use of alkalis may actually cause the-appearance of white sand (phosphates) in the urine; and in patients predisposed to its formation, its quantity may be in- creased by alkalis. These facts, then, have an important bearing on practice. " I have known," says Mr. Brande, (Quart. Journ. of Science, vol. vi. p. 198.) " soda-water exhibited in a case of stone in the bladder, produce abundance of white sand, which the ignorance of the patient and his medical attendant led them to refer to the solvent power of the medicine upon the stone, which they thought was gradually giving way and being voided; whereas great mischief was doing, by giving the urine more than its usual tendency to deposite the phosphates, and, consequently, to augment the size of the calculus." In the treatment of the lithic acid diathesis, it is to be remembered that the use of alkalis is, to a cer- tain extent, a palliative mode of treatment, and that, to be successful, it should be conjoined with other means of cure. }. As a liquefacient and resolvent (see p. 194.)—The alkalis have been lately celebrated for producing beneficial effects in those inflammations which have a Vol. I.—53 418 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. disposition to terminate in exudation and adhesion; that is to say, those that fre- quently give rise to the formation of false membranes or of adhesions; such, for example, as croup, pleurisy, and peritonitis. If experience should subsequently confirm the assertions already made respecting their efficacy, we shall have ano- ther analogy between the operation of alkalis and of mercury. Theoretically, it has been argued, the alkalis are likely to be beneficial in these diseases on two accounts; first, they have a tendency to diminish the supposed plasticity of the blood, which some have assumed (though without proof) to be connected with the exudation; and, secondly, we find these albuminous deposites readily dissolve, out ofthe body, in alkaline liquids: but arguments of this kind are to be received with great caution. In conclusion, I may add that Eggert recommends the alkalis as specifics against croup, though Sundelin (Heilmittell. ler Bd. S. 182.) found them ineffective. Hell wag employed them to cause the removal of the deposited lymph; Memminger gave them with benefit in hooping-cough ; Mascagni in pleurisy and peripneumony. (Vogt, Lehrbuch d. Pharmakodyn. 2er Bd. p. 529.) In the lat- ter complaints the alkalis render the expectorated matter less viscid, and at the same time act on the kidneys and skin. e. In induration and enlargement of the lymphatic and secreting glands the alkalis have also been recommended: for example, in bronchocele, mammary tumours, affection of the testicle, diseases of the mesenteric glands, induration of the liver and salivary glands, &c. I have seen the liquor potassae remarkably beneficial in excessive enlargement of the lenticular or glandular papilla? at the base ofthe tongue. £. In syphilis and scrofula also the alkalis have been employed with advantage. Some of the most obstinate and troublesome forms of the venereal disease fre- quently occur in scrofulous subjects, in whom mercury is not only useless, but absolutely prejudicial. In several cases of this kind I have seen the liquor po- tassae, taken in the compound decoction of sarsaparilla, of great benefit. In scro- fula the long-continued use of the caustic alkalis (as potash and ammonia) has been attended with remarkably beneficial effects. Caustic potash was most extensively employed by Mr. Brandish,1 during many years, in the treatment of scrofula and other chronic diseases, and, according to his report, with singular success. It is, however, more successful in young than in old persons,—and in those of fair and light complexion than in the dark and the swarthy. That, in a number of instances, scrofulous patients are greatly benefited by its use, cannot be denied; but I doubt whether this, or any other medicine, has the power of eradicating the disease from the system. vi. The alkalis have been employed as diuretics in dropsy, especially when this disease arises from glandular enlargements, or other causes likely to be relieved by these remedies. .9-. In irritable conditions of the urinary organs a combination of liquor po- tassa? and tincture of opium will be frequently found most beneficial, notwithstand- ing that alkalis are classed among the incompatibles of opium. /. There are several other diseases in which the employment of alkalis has been recommended; such as skin diseases, which are scaly (as lepra and psoriasis;) chronic rheumatism; in uterine complaints, as an emmenagogue; and in some chronic diseases of the lungs. Sometimes a very dilute solution of potash has been used as a stimulating wash to ulcers. Antidotes.—In poisoning by the alkalis, the antidotes are either acids or oil, both of which form salts with the alkalis, and diminish their cauticity. Chereau prefers oil. Vinegar, lemon or orange juice, even the very diluted mineral acids, should be resorted to, if oil be not at hand. 1. LIQUOR POTASStE, L.; (U. S.) Polassx Aqua, E.; Potassse Causticse Aqua, i Observations on the Use of Caustic Alkali in. Scrofula and other Chronic Diseases. Lond. 1811. HYDRATE OF POTASH. 419 D.; Solution of Potash; Water of Caustic Potash; Lixivium Saponarium.— This is a solution of caustic potash. The London College orders of Carbonate of Potash, |xv.; Lime, 3viij.; Distilled Water, boiling, Cong. j. Dissolve the Carbonate of Potash in half a gallon of the water. Sprinkle a little of the water upon the lime in an earthen vessel, and the lime being slaked, add the rent of the water. The liquors being immediately mixed together in a close vessel, shake Ihem frequently until they are cold. Then set by [the mixture,] that the Carbonate of Lime may subside. Lastly, keep the supernatant liquor, when poured off, in a well-stoppered green glass bottle. [The only difference between these and the directions of the U.S. P. is ^xvi. Carb. Potassce instead of ?xv.] ___ The Edinburgh College directs of Carbonate of Potash, dry giv.; Lime recently burnt, £ij.; Water, f^xlv. Let the lime be slaked and converted into milk of lime, with seven ounces of the water. Dissolve the carbonate in the remaining thirty-eight fluid ounces of water; boil this solution, and add to it the milk of lime in successive portions, about an eighth at a time,— boiling briskly for a few minules after each addition. Pour the whole into a deep narrow glass vessel for twenty-four hours; and then withdraw with a syphon the clear liquid, which should amount to at least thirty-five fluid ounces, and ought to have a density of 1-072. The Dublin College employs of Carbonate of Potash, from Potashes of Commerce; Fresh burnt Lime, of each, two parts; Water, fifteen parts.—The process is not essentially different from that ofthe London College. The specific gravity of this product is 1-080. In all these processes the lime abstracts carbonic acid from the carbonate of potash, forming carbonate of lime, and the potash thus set free dissolves in the water. MATERIALS. Water----------------------------- 1 eq. Carbonate j 1 eq. Potash....... 48 Potash......70 j 1 eg. Carbonic Acid 22 1 eq. Lime .... 28 98 98 The liquid should be decanted or drawn off by a syphon. Filters are objec- tionable, as the potash decomposes and partially dissolves them. Cotton and linen are less acted on by il than paper or woollen cloth, which are readily de- composed by it. The air must be excluded as much as possible during the pro- cess of filtration, as the liquor abstracts carbonic acid from the air. Liquor potassae is a limpid, colourless, transparent, inodorous liquid, having an acrid taste. Prepared according to the London Pharmacopoeia its sp. gr. is 1-063; according to the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, 1*072; while, according to the Dublin College, it is 1080. It has a soapy feel when rubbed between the fingers, and reddens yellow turmeric paper. It strongly attracts carbonic acid from the atmosphere, and, therefore, should be kept in closed vessels. It cor- rodes flint glass, and on that account should be preserved in green glass bottles. It usually contains a small quantity of carbonate of potash, which may be de- tected by lime water, which renders the liquid turbid, or by a diluted mineral (sulphuric or nitric) acid, which causes effervescence. When pure liquor po- tassa? has been saturated with diluted nitric acid, it gives no precipitate on the addition of carbonate of soda, chloride of barium, or nitrate of silver: if the first cause a precipitate, it would indicate some earthy or metallic impregnation; if there be a precipitate, insoluble in nitric acid with the second, we infer the pre- sence of a sulphate; and, lastly, if the third occasions a precipitate, soluble in ammonia, but insoluble in nitric acid, a chloride is present. The effects and uses of this liquid have been above described. The dose of it is ten drops, gradually increased to the extent of a fluid-drachm, or even more, carefully watching its effects. It may be conveniently exhibited in the infusion of orange-peel. Table beer completely disguises the nauseous flavour ofthe alkali, but the vegetable acid of the beer partly neutralizes the alkali, especially when the beer is sour. Veal broth is another liquid for its administration. Dr. Chittick's nostrum for the stone is said to be a solution of alkali in veal broth. PRODUCTS . Water. -1 eq. Potash, . 48H| 11 eq.Carbonate Lime......... 50 420 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. 2. POTASSA CUM CA1CE, L. E.; Potassa Caustica cum Cake, D.—Potash with Lime. The following are the directions for preparing this compound:— According to the London College, Hydrate of Potash, and Lime, of each an ounce, are to be rubbed together, and kept in a well-sloppercd vessel. The Edinburgh College directs, that any convenient quantity of Aqua Potassse be evapo- rated in a clean covered iron vessel to one-third of its volume; add slaked lime till the fluid has the consistence of firm pulp: preserve the product in carefully covered vessels. The process ofthe Dublin College is similar to that of the Edinburgh College. By admixture with lime, hydrate of potash is rendered less deliquescent. Potassa cum Calce is employed as an escharotic in the same cases as Potassa fusa. When used it is made into a paste with rectified spirit, and applied to the part to be cauterized. Brandish's Alkaline Solution.—Take of best American Pearlashes, lbvj.; Quicklime, fresh prepared ; Woodashes (from the Ash,) of each Ibij.; Boiling Water, Cong. vj. Add first the lime, then the pearlashes, and afterwards the woodashes to the boiling water; then mix. In twenty-four hours the clear liquor may be drawn off.—In this process the lime decomposes the carbonate of potash contained in pearlashes and woodashes, and combines with the car- bonic acid, setting free the potash. The liquid, therefore, is a solution of caustic potash con. laminated with some soluble alkaline salts (sulphate of potash and chloride of potassium.) The solution is stronger than the officinal liquor potassce, but is liable to vary in strength, in consequence of the varying quality of the ashes used.—Dose, according to Mr. Brandish, for an adult, is three (or even four) tea-spoonsful; for children, of from four to six years of age, one small teaspoonful; from six to eight years, a teaspoonful and a-half; from eight to fifteen, two teaspoonsful; and from fifteen to eighteen years, two teaspoonsful and a-half. The dose is to be taken twice daily, between breakfast and dinner, and at bed time, in fresh small beer or ale. A drop or two of oil of juniper covers the saponaceous taste, and gives a- grateful smell. A generous regimen, and a careful avoidance of acids, were employed by Mr. Brandish, in conjunction with the alkaline liquor. In scrofulous tumours mercurial ointment was rubbed in. 2. POTAS'SII IO'DIDUM, L. E. (U. S.)—IODIDE OF POTASSIUM. (Potassse Hydriodas, D.) History.—This salt, called also ioduret of potassium, and more commonly hydriodate of potash, was first employed in medicine by Dr. Coindet. Natural History.—Iodine and potassium are contained in sea-water as well as in sea-weeds, but whether the iodine is in combination with potassium or with some other metal (sodium or magnesium) it is impossible to say with certainty (see p. 223.) Preparation.—All the British Colleges give directions for the preparation of this salt. The London College orders of iodine !sjvj.; Carbonate of Potash, §iv.; Iron Filings, §ij.; Distilled Water, Ovj. Mix the Iodine with four pints of the Water, and add the Iron, stir. ring them frequently with a spatula for half an hour. Apply a gentle heat, and, when a greenish colour appears, add four ounces of carbonate of potash, first dissolved in two pints of water, and strain. Wash the residue with two pints of boiling distilled water, and again strain. Let the mixed liquor be evaporated, that crystals may be formed. The Edinburgh College employs of Iodine (dry) §v.; Fine Iron-Wire, 3iij.; Water, Oiv.; Carbonate of Potash (dry) gij. and £vj. The process is much the same as that of the Lon- don College, except that the solution of iodide of potassium is to be concentrated " till a dry salt be obtained, which is to be purified from a little red oxide of iron and other impurities, by dissolving it in less than its own weight of boiling water, or, still better, by boilirg it in twice its weight of rectified spirit, filtering the solution, and setting it aside to crystallize. More crystals will be obtained by concentrating and cooling the residual liquor." [The U. S. Pharmacopoeia directs, Iodine, six ounces; Iron Filings, three ounces; Carbo- nate of Potassa, four ounces or a sufficient quantity ; Distilled Water, four pints. Mix the iodine with three pints of the distilled water, and add the iron filings, stirring frequently with a spatula for half an hour. Apply a gentle heat, and when the liquor assumes a green- ish colour add gradually the carbonate of potassa, previously dissolved in half a pint of the distilled water, until it ceases to produce a precipitate. Continue the he.it for half an hour and then filter. Wash the residuum with half a pint of the distilled water boiling hot and filter. Mix the filtered liquors, and evaporate so that crystals may form. Pour off the liquid and dry the crystals on bibulous paper.] IODIDE OF POTASSIUM. 421 The following is the theory of the above processes:-One equivalent or 126 parts of iodine combine with one equivalent or 28 parts of iron. The resulting iodide of iron is decomposed by one equivalent or 70 parts of carbonate of potash, by which one equivalent or 106 parts of iodide of potassium and one equivalent or 58 parts of protocarbonate of iron are procured. The following diagram illustrates the reaction between iodide of iron and car- bonate of potash. PRODCCTS. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION___________________________ j ^.^ q{ p(> 1 eq. Iodide { 1 e«-Iodme ''' 126 -------- ^^^^ tassium .... = 166 of Iron.. 154jle? /ron _. 28 i _, fo-hnnte r 1 eq. Potassium 40 "- . pf0tox. Iron__36___ S'pI.,, 70 i 1 '1- Oxygen.. 8 ....... 1 eq. rre ____________^ Carbonate of ofPotash .TO\la}.Carbonic.22-----------------Iron........= 58 224 224 "^ Prepared by this process, iodide of potassium is apt to be contaminated with carbonate of potash. The process ofthe Dublin College is as follows:—Take of Iodine, 1 part; Sulphuret of Iron, reduced to coarse powder, 5 parts; Sulphuric Acid, 7 parts; Distilled Water 48 parts; Water of Carbonate of Potash, a sufficient quantity; Rectified Spirit, 6 parts. Mix the iodine, by trituration, wilh 16 parts ofthe water, and put the mixture into a glass vessel. Four the acid, previously diluted with 32 parts of water, upon the sulphuret in a matrass, and Irom a tube, adapted to the neck ofthe matrass, and reaching to the bottom of the vessel containing the iodine and water, let the gas pass through the mixture until the iodine disappears. Having filtered the liquor, evaporate it without delay, by a superior heat, to one-eighth part, and then filter it again. Then add gradually as much water of carbonate of potash as will be sufficient to saturate the acid, which is known by the cessation of the effervescence. I hen expose the mixture to heat until the residual salt is dry and of a white colour; on this pour the spirit, and dissolve it with heat. Lastly, evaporate to dryness the liquor poured o_ Irom the residual salt, and preserve the residuum in a well stoppered vessel. By the mutual action of sulphuret of iron, water, and sulphuric acid, we obtain, in this process, sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphate of iron. The sul- phuretted hydrogen being conveyed into water with which iodine is mixed, a solution of hydriodic acid is obtained, and sulphur is deposited. When the hy- driodic acid and carbonate of potash are mixed, mutual re-action occurs, and the products are iodide of potassium, water, and free carbonic acid. Another mode of preparing this salt was proposed by the late Dr. Turner. It consists in adding to a hot solution of caustic potash as much iodine as the liquid will dissolve, by which means a reddish-brown fluid is obtained. Then pass hydrosulphuric acid through the liquid until it becomes colourless. Apply a gentle heat, to expel any excess of the acid; filter, to get rid of the free sulphur, and exactly neutralize the free acid present, with potash; then crystallize. When the potash comes in contact with iodine two salts are formed, iodide of potassium and iodate of potash: the latter is decomposed by the hydrosulphuric acid, the hydrogen of which forms water, by combining with the oxygen of the iodate; sulphur is precipitated, and iodide of potassium remains in solution. Instead of decomposing, by sulphuretted hydrogen, the mixture of iodate of patash and iodide of potassium, it may be subjected to a red heat, in a crucible of platinum or iron. The iodate gives out six equivalents of oxygen, and is con- verted into iodide of potassium. A. little iodate is, however, apt to escape decom- position. Mr. Scanlan informs me, that if powdered charcoal be intermixed with the two salts before they are subjected to heat, the deoxidation ofthe iodate is easily effected. Properties.—This salt occurs in white, somewhat shining, transparent, or semi-opaque cubes, or octohedrons, belonging to the regular system. Its taste is acrid saline, somewhat similar to common salt: it is without odour. It fuses at a red heat, and at a high temperature volatilizes unchanged. It decicpitates when 422 elements of materia medica. heated. Both water and alcohol readily dissolve it: it requires only two-thirds of its weight of water to dissolve it at 60° F. Its aqueous solution dissolves iodine, forming a liquid called ioduretted iodide of potassium. Characteristics.—A solution of this salt is known to contain an iodide by the following tests:— _. A solution of bichloride of mercury occasions a vermilion-red precipitate, (biniodide of mercury,) soluble in excess of iodide of potassium. /8. A solution of acetate of lead produces a yellow precipitate (iodide of lead.) y. A solution of nitrate of silver causes a pale yellow precipitate (iodide of silver.) (T. Protonitrate of mercury or calomel occasions a grayish or a greenish yellow precipitate (protiodide of mercury.) t. On the addition of a cold solution of starch and a few drops of nitric acid (or solution of chlorine, or, still better, according to Devergie, a mixture of chlorine and nitric acid) a blue compound (iodide of starch) is formed, whicli is decolourized at a boiling temperature, or by caustic alkali. \h Bichloride of platinum renders the solution brownish red (biniodide of platinum.) That the base of the salt is potassium (or potash) is proved by the following characters:— _. Perchloric acid occasions a white precipitate, (perchlorate of potash,) while the super. natant liquor becomes yellowish brown, from a little free iodine. 0. Excess of a strong solution of tartaric acid produces a white crystalline precipitate (bitartrate of potash.) y. Carbazotic acid forms yellow needle-like crystals (carbazotate of potash.) f. If a clean pack-thread be soaked in a solution of the iodide, and the wetted end be im- mersed in melted tallow and applied to the exterior or blue cone ofthe flame of a candle, this cone assumes a pale or whitish violet tint. Composition.—This salt consists, as its name indicates, of iodine and potas- sium. Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Gay-Lussac. Iodine............... 1 ........126........ 76........ 762 Potassium ........... 1........ 40........ 24........ 23-8 Iodide Potassium .... 1........166........100........100-0 The crystals contain no water of crystallization. Adulteration.—Iodide of potassium is often largely adulterated with carbonate of potash. In 1829 I analyzed a sample, which contained 77 per cent, of the latter salt. (Med. and Phys. Journ. Sept. 1829.) In one specimen Dr. Chris- tison procured 74-5 per cent, of carbonate of potash, 16 of water, and only 9*5 of iodide of potassium. (Treatise on Poisons, 3d edit. p. 182.) The impure salt may be distinguished by its wanting any regular crystalline form; by adding a few particles of it to lime-water, a milky fluid (carbonate of lime) is obtained, whereas the liquid remains transparent if the iodide be pure; by its destroying the colour of tincture of iodine, whereas the pure salt does not affect it; and lastly, by alcohol, which dissolves iodide of potassium, but not carbonate of potash. Traces of the chlorides and sulphates are not unfrequent in commercial iodide of potassium. To detect the chlorides, add nitrate of silver, which precipitates the carbonates, chlorides, and iodides, and digest the precipitate in ammonia, which redissolves the chloride, but not the iodide of silver. On the addition of nitric acid to the ammoniacal solution, the chloride is thrown down, while the carbonate is converted into nitrate of silver. The sulphates may be detected by chloride of barium, which will occasion a white precipitate (sulphate of baryta) insoluble in nitric acid. In the first edition of this work I mentioned that I had met with a variety of iodide of potassium, which, by keeping, underwent decomposition, evolved an odour of iodine, and became yellow. As it yielded me, on analysis, iodine and potash only, I was unable to account for the changes just referred to. Mr. Scanlan (Lancet, Aug. 29, 1840, p. 816.) has since explained them; and shown that this variety of iodide of potassium is contaminated with iodate of potash, IODIDE OP POTASSIUM. 423 the presence of which has been already accounted for (see p. 420.) It may be readily detected, by adding to a solution ofthe suspected iodide a solution of tar- taric acid. If the iodide be pure, the resulting liquor is at first colourless, but becomes quickly yellow by the action of atmospheric oxygen on the hydriodic acid which is thus generated. If, however, iodate of potash be also present, a quantity of free iodine is instantly developed. This arises from the mutual re- action of the disengaged hydriodic and iodic acids by which water and free iodine are generated. Whether iodate be present or absent, the addition of tartaric acid causes the precipitation of crystals of bitartrate of potash. Iodide of potassium is readily contaminated with metallic matter derived from the vessels in which it is crystallized. I have samples of it, in octohedrai crys- tals, which contain traces of lead and tin, derived, I presume, from the metallic vessels in which they have been prepared. The following are the characters of pure iodide of potassium according to the London College: Totally soluble in water and in alcohol. It alters the colour of turmeric cither not at all or very slightly. It does not alter the colour of litmus. Subjected to heat it loses no weight. Sulphuric acid and starch added together it becomes blue. Ten grains of this salt are suffi- cient lo decompose 10-24 grains of nitrate of silver: what is precipitated is partly dissolved by nitric acid, and partly altered in appearance; which is not the case when ammonia is added. The non-action on turmeric proves the absence of alkali (or its carbonate) and acid. If it decompose more than the above quantity of nitrate of silver, the pre- sence of chloride of potassium may be suspected. The Edinburgh College gives the following characters of the pure iodide:— Its solution is not affected, or is merely rendered hazy, by solution of nitrate of baryta. A solution of five grains, in a fluid ounce of distilled water, precipitated by an excess of solution of nitrate of silver, and then agitated in a bottle with a little aqua ammonias, yields quickly, by subsidence, a clear supernatant liquor, which is not altered by an excess of nitric acid, or is rendered merely hazy. The nitrate of baryta will form a white precipitate with either an alkaline car- bonate or sulphate. The nitrate of silver is used to detect any chloride. . Physiological Effects, ct. On Vegetables.—The effects of this salt on vege- tables have not been ascertained. p>. On Animals generally.—The experiments of Devergie (Medecine Legale, t. ii. p. 536.) on dogs, as well as those of Dr. Cogswell (Experimental Essay on Iodine. Edinb. 1837.) on rabbits, have shown that, to these animals, iodide of potassium is a powerful poison. It operates as a local irritant, and thereby in- flames the tissues with which it is placed in contact. Four grains injected into the jugular vein of a dog caused convulsions and death within a minute. Two drachms introduced into the stomach gave rise to vomiting aad great depression; the latter increased until death, which occurred on the third day: after death, ecchymosis, ulceration, and redness ofthe stomach, were observed. (Devergie, op. cit. p. 506.) Dr. Cogswell injected three drachms ofthe iodide beneath the skin of the back of a dog; the animal died on the third day. On chemical ex- amination, iodine was detected in the blood from the heart, in the br_in and spinal cord, the liver, spleen, stomach, muscles, tongue, and the bones freed from their appendages; likewise in the contents ofthe bladder. (Cogswell, op. cit. p. 91.) y. On Man.—Both the physiological effects and therapeutical uses of iodide of potassium show that its operation is analogous to that of iodine. The local action of iodide of potassium is that of an irritant. When taken in- ternally, in large doses, it not unfrequently occasions nausea, vomiting, pain and heat of stomach, and purging. Applied to the skin in the form of ointment, it sometimes produces slight redness. It is much less energetic in its action than free iodine; and, therefore, may be given in larger doses, and continued for a longer period, without evincing the same tendency to produce disorder of the 424 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. stomach and intestinal canal. Lugol1 found that baths at 100° F., containing three ounces of iodide of potassium, produced temporary itching only; whereas baths at the same temperature, containing ten scruples of iodine, caused prick- ling, then itchiness, smarting, rubefaction (which was not commensurate with the itchiness,) punctuated, separated, or confluent, and subsequently desquama- tion of the epidermis. The chemical action of iodide of potassium on the tissues is slight, as, indeed, might be expected, seeing that no obvious changes are pro- duced when a solution of this salt is mixed with albumen, fibrin, or gelatine, the three most abundant organic constituents of the animal body. Iodide of potassium becomes absorbed and is carried out of the system by the different secretions, in which, as well as in the blood, it may be easily detected.3 Moreover, it deserves especial notice, that it has been found in the urine several days after it has been swallowed. (Christison, Treatise on Poisons, 3rd. ed. p. 185.) To detect it in the urine, add first starch to the cold secretion, then a few drops of nitric acid (or solution of chlorine,) and the blue iodide of starch will be formed if the iodide be present. The remote or constitutional effects of iodide of potassium are very analogous to those of iodine. Diuresis is a common consequence of its use. Relaxation of bowels is not unfrequent. Occasionally ptyalism has been observed.8 Dr. Wallace mentions that irritation of throat is produced by this salt. Atrophy of the mammae is a very rare effect of it, but a case is mentioned by Mr. Nesse Hill. (Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journ. vol. xxv. 1826, p. 282.) Wasting ofthe testicle also is said to have resulted from its use. (Lancet, Oct. 16, 1841.) Headach, watchfulness, and other symptoms indicative of the action of this salt on the nervous system, have been noticed by Dr. Clendinning and Dr. Wallace. Increased secretion from, and pain of, the mucous membrane lining the nasal passages, have been observed. I have repeatedly remarked, that the pocket- handkerchiefs used by patients, who are taking this salt, acquire a distinct odour of iodine. Great discrepancy exists in the statements of authors as to the effects of given doses of iodide of potassium. " The average dose of this medicine," says Dr. Williams, (Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xiv. p. 42.—See also Lancet, Oct. 16, 1841.) " is eight grains; carried beyond that quantity it purges; and even limited to that quantity, it requires some management to obviate nausea." In two cases men- tioned by Dr. Wallace (Lancet, for 1835-6, vol. ii. p. 9.) a drachm of this salt taken in divided doses caused vomiting, colicky pains, slight diarrhoea, frequency of pulse, and exhaustion. These statements, then, show that this salt possesses very active properties, and coincide with the experience of many practitioners, and with the results obtained from the experiments on animals. But we have, in opposition to the above, the evidence of Dr. Eliiotson (Lancet, vol. i. 1831-2, p. 728.) and of Dr. Buchanan (Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xviii. p. 519.) The first tells us that six drachms may be given daily (in doses of two drachms) for many weeks without inconvenience; and the second states half an ounce may be given at a dose without, producing pain of the stomach or bowels, purging, or any hurt- ful effect. Farthermore, both physicians vouch for the purity of the salt em- ployed. It Is difficult to explain such discrepancies. But I cannot help think- ing that peculiarities of constitution and morbid conditions of system (especially affections ofthe stomach) are principally concerned in modifying (either increasing or diminishing) the tolerance to this salt. I do not think that the different effects observed can be wholly ascribed to alterations in the quality or adulterations of the medicine employed, though I have published a case, (Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xvii. p. 839.) showing that the adulterated is much less active than the pure salt. i Essays on the Effects of Iodine in Scrofulous Diseases, translated by Dr. O'Shaughnessy p 65 Lond 1831. a Buchanan, Lond. Med. Gat. vol. xviii. p. 519; Wallace, Lancet, for 1835-6, vol. ii. p. 6 : the latter autho. rity failed to detect it in the blood. * Dr. Clendinning, Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xv. p. 869; and Dr. Wallace, Lancet, for 1835 and 1836, vol. ii. p. 8. IODIDE OF POTASSIUM. 425 Uses.—Having so fully detailed (p. 228 et. seq.) the uses of iodine, it is unne- cessary to notice at any length those of iodide of potassium, since they are for the most part identical. Thus it has been employed in bronchocele, scrofula, in chronic diseases accompanied with induration and enlargement of various organs, in leucorrhoea, secondary syphilis, periostitis, articular rheumatism, dropsies, &c. As a remedy for the hard periosteal node brought on by syphilis, it was first em- ployed by Dr. Williams, (Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xiv. p. 42.) who obtained with it uniform success. At the end of from five to ten days its mitigating effects are felt; the pains are relieved, the node begins to subside, and in the majority of cases disappears altogether. In these cases Dr. Clendinning (Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xv. p. 833.) has also borne testimony to its efficacy. In the tubercular forms of venereal eruptions, Dr. Williams found it beneficial. In Dr. Wallace's lec- tures (Lancet, for 1835-6, vol. ii. and for 1836 and 1837, vols. i. and ii.) are some valuable observations on the use of iodide of potassium in venereal diseases. In chronic rheumatism accompanied with alteration in the condition of the tex- tures of the joint, it is, in some cases, remarkably successful.1 As an ingredient for baths, Lugol (Essays, p. 75.) found the iodide would not answer alone, but that it was useful as a solvent means for iodine. Administration.—Iodide of potassium may be employed alone or in conjunction with iodine, forming what is called ioduretted iodide of potassium. Internally it has been given alone in doses varying from three grains to half an ounce (see p. 424.) To be beneficial, some think it should be given in small, others in large doses. Not having had any experience ofthe effects ofthe enormous doses before referred to, I can offer no opinion thereon. It may be administered dissolved in simple or medicated water, or in some bitter infusion. The more usual mode of exhibiting it is in combination with iodine. Antidotes.—No chemical antidote is known. In a case of poisoning, therefore, the first object will be to evacuate the contents of the stomach, exhibit demulcent and emollient drinks, combat the inflammation by the usual antiphlogistic mea- sures, and appease the pain by opiates. 1. INuTENTDI POTASSII IODIDI; Unguentum Potassse Hydriodatis,B. Oint- ment of Iodide of Potassium. (Iodide of potassium, 3J.; Prepared Hog's Lard, 3j. Mix.)—By keeping, this ointment is apt to acquire a yellowish colour, obviously from a little iodine being set free. In some cases this may depend on the iodide being contaminated with a little iodate of potash. It usually, however, arises from the action of the fatty acid (contained in the rancid fat) on the potassium of the iodide. When pure and fresh made, this ointment does not stain the skin like the compound ointment of iodine. It is, however, seldom employed. If used, its strength should be twice or thrice that ofthe Dublin preparation. I rNGl'EXTni IODIMI COMPOSITDI, L. Unguentum lodinei, E. [Unguentum lodini Compositum, U. S.] Compound Ointment of Iodine; Ointment of Iodu- retted Iodide of Pot as num. (Iodine, 3ss.; Iodide of Potassium, 3j.; Rectified Spirit, f 3j.; Lard, 3ij. First rub the iodine and iodide of potassium with the spirit, then mix with the lard, L. (and U. S.) The Edinburgh College omits the spirit, but uses the same proportions of the other ingredients.)—This ointment is employed in bronchocele, enlargement of the lymphatic glands, &c. 3. TINCTURA IODIMI COMPOSITA, L. Compound Tincture of Iodine. (Iodine, 5j.; Iodide of Potassium, 3ij.; Rectified Spirit, Oij. Macerate until they are dis- solved, and strain.)—This solution may be mixed with water, without any depo- sition of iodine. The dose at the commencement is tt[x., which maybe gradually increased to f 3j. or more. When wine is admissible, sherry is a good vehicle for its exhibition. [The Tinctura lodini Composita (U. S.) is the same as this, half the proportions are directed.] ■ Or Clendinning Ijond. Med Gaz. vol. xv. p. ?66; and Dr. Macleod, Lond Mid Gai. vol. xxi. p. 361. Vol.. I. —54 426 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. 4. LIQOUR POTASSII IODIDI COMPOSITUS, L. Compound Solution of Iodicleqf Potassium; Solution of Ioduretted Iodide of Potassium. (Iodide ol Potassium, grs. x.; Iodine, grs. v.;" Distilled Water, Oj. Mix, that they may be dissolved.)— It is a brown-coloured solution, having the peculiar smell and taste ot iodine, it may be diluted with water without suffering any change. It may be usetuiiy em- ployed in the diseases of children.—Dose for adults, from f 3rj. to t _vj., 01 even beyond this. [S. LINIMENT OF HYDRIODATE OF POTASH—This preparation for the external use ofthe Hydriodate of Potash is made by taking Iodide of Potassium, _i.; Soap of Animal Oil, 3iss.; Alcohol at 20° f 3viij. Dissolve the iodide and soap each sepa- rately in half the alcohol, the latter solution being made upon a sand bath at a moderate temperature, and mix the two together. Flavour with a few drops of oil of lavender, and before congelation takes place pour into wide mouthed bot- tles. The above formula is that given by Mr. Duhamel. (American Journal of Pharmacy, vol. xiv. No. ij. p. 102, and is a modification of one in the Journal de Pharmacie.) The liniment is similar to solid opodeldoc and is used by friction in the same way. It is stated to have been used with success in Lausaune as an application to goitre. It possesses the recommendation of not staining the skin, and is stated to keep a long time without undergoing decomposition.—J. C] Solutions of Ioduretted Iodide of Potassium, of various strengths, have been employed for different purposes by Lugol.1 The following are the most important:— _. LugoVs Concentrated Solution of Iodine in Iodide of Potassium consists of Iodine, Qj.; Iodide of Potassium, ^ij.; Distilled Water, gvij. Mixed with 3 pints and 13 fluid ounces of water, it forms a solution equal in strength to the Liquor Potassii Iodidi compositus, L. /6. LugoVs Ioduretted Mineral Water is prepared of three degrees of strength :— No. 2. Iodine.................. gr. i Iodide of Potassium..... gr. i^ Distilled Water......... 5viii ij iii I viii. The solutions are yellowish or orange-coloured, and are quite transparent. When sweetened it is readily taken by children, but the sugar should be added at the time of administration, as in the course of a few hours it effects a chemical change in the solution. From six to eight ounces should be taken daily. y. LugoVs Caustic, Rubefacient, and Stimulant Solutions, are composed ofthe same ingre- dients, but in different proportions. Stimulating Washes. Rubefacient. Solution. Caustic Solution. i No 1. Iodine............gr. ii. Hydriodate Potash gr. iv. Distilled Water____lb. i. 2. gr. iii. gr. vi. lb. i. 3. gr. iv. gr. viii. lb. i. V": 1 ;• Lugol uses the stimulating washes in scrofulous ulcers, ophthalmia, fistulous abscesses, &c. When the scrofulous surfaces require stronger excitement than usual, he employs the rube- facient solution. In tubercular tumors which have obstinately resisted all other forms of treat- ment, the rubefacient solution may be applied in admixture with linseed meal (forming the ioduretted cataplasm of Lugol.) To prepare the mixture, the poultice is first made in the ordinary manner; and when moderately cool, a sufficient quantity of the rubefacient liquid is poured on it with a wooden measure. The caustic solution is used for touching the eyelids and nasal fossa?, to repress excessive granulations, &,c. Lugol's Essays on the Effects of Iodine in Scrofulous Diseases; translated by Dr. O'Shaughnessy, p. 167. Lond. 1831. BROMIDE OK POTASSIUM. 427 IODURETTED BATHS FOR CHILDREN. IODURETTED BATHS FOR ADULTS. Age. Water. Iodine. Iodide of Potassium. Degree. Water. Iodine. iodide ot Potassium. 4 to 7 7 „ 11 11 „ 14 (auarts.) 36 75 125 (Troy Grains.) 30 to 36 48 .. 60 .. 62 72 .. 96 (Troy Grains.) 60 to 72 96 .. 120 .. 144 144 .. 192 No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. (ttrts.) 200 240 300 (Dr~». Troy) 2to2i 2 .. 2i .. 3 3 .. 3i (Dr_». Troy.) 4 to 5 4 .. 5 .. 6 C .. 7 3. POTAS'SII BRO'MIDUM, L.-BROMIDE OF POTASSIUM. History.—This salt, also called hydrobromate of potash, was first described by Balard in 1826. (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. xxxii.) Preparation.—The London College directs it to be prepared a follows :— Take of Bromine, ?ij.; Carbonate of Potash, gij. and 3j.; Iron Filings, ^j;; Distilled VVater, Oiij. First add the Iron, and afterwards the Bromine, to a pint and a half ot the distilled water. Set them by for half an hour, frequently stirring with a spatula Apply a gentle heat, and when a greenish colour occurs, pour in the carbonate of potash dissolved in a pint and a half of water. Strain and wash what remains in two pints of boiling distilled water, and again strain. Let the mixed liquors be evaporated so that crystals may be formed. In this process bromide of iron is first formed: this is afterwards decomposed by carbonate of potash, by which protocarbonate of iron and bromide of potassium are produced. MATERIALS. 1 eq. Brome Iron 106 1 eq. Carb. Poth 70 TOMPOSITION. 1 eq. Bromine.. 1 eq. Iron...... 1 eq. Potassium I eq. Oxygen... 1 eq. Carb. Acid 22 176 PRODDCTS. 1 eq. Bromide of Potassium...... 118 eq. Carbonate of Iron....... 58 176 Another mode of procuring this salt is to mix bromine with a solution of caustic potash, by which bromide of potassium and bromate of potash are formed. The bromate of potash may be converted into bromide of potassium by heat or by hydrosulphuric acid (see Iodide of Potassium, p. 420.) Properties.—This salt crystallizes in whitish transparent cubes, or rectangular prisms. It is inodorous: its taste is pungent, saline, and similar to common salt, but more acrid. It is permanent in the air. When heated it decrepitates, and at a red heat fuses without suffering decomposition. It is very soluble in both cold and hot water, and slightly so in alcohol. Characteristics.—That this salt is a bromide is known by the characters before mentioned (see p. 236) for this class of salts. That its base is potassium (or potash) is shown by the tests already given for this substance (see p. 415.) Composition.—This salt consists of bromine and potassium in the following proportions:— Atoms. Eq Wt. Per Cent. Balard. Liebig. Bromine.............. 1 ............ 78 ............ 661 ............ 6556 ............ 67-42 Potassium ............ 1 ............ 40 ............ 33'9 ............ 34-44 ........... 32-58 Bromide of Potassium. 1 ............ 118 1000 10000 ............ 100-00 The crystals may contain water, lodged mechanically between their plates, but no combined water (water of crystallization.) Purity.—The purity and goodness of this salt may be known by the following characters:—the form of the crystals, their freedom from colour, and their neutrality with respect to litmus and turmeric. A solution of this salt should give no pre- cipitate with chloride of barium, showing the absence of carbonates and sulphates. The method employed by Rose (Journ. de Pharm. t. 23, p. 489.) for detecting minute quantities of the chlorides in bromides, is the following:—If pure bromide of potassium mixed with execssof bichromate of potash be distilled with concen- 428 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. trated sulphuric acid in a tubulated retort, to which is adapted a receiver contain- ing excess of solution of caustic ammonia, pure bromine distils over, and the ammoniacal liquor remains perfectly colourless. But if the bromide contains a chloride, both bromine and the chromate of chloride of chromium distil over, and the ammoniacal liquor becomes yellow: chromic acid may be detected in the solu- tion by the usual tests. The characters of good bromide of potassium are, according to the London College, as follows:— Totally dissolved by water. It does not alter the colour of litmus or turmeric. Chloride of barium throws down nothing from the solution. Sulphuric acid and starch added together render it yellow. Subjected to heat it loses no weight. Ten grains of this salt are capable of acting upon 14-28 grains of nitrate of silver, and precipitating a yellowish bromide of silver, which is dissolved by ammonia, and but very little by nitric acid. If more nitrate of silver than the quantity above stated be decomposed by the bromide, the presence of a chloride may be suspected. Physiological Effects. ~. On Vegetables.—The effects on plants have not been ascertained. /3, On Animals.—Thirteen grains of bromide of potassium dissolved in water, and injected into the jugular vein of a dog, coagulated the blood, caused convul- sions and death in a few minutes. (Barthez. Journ. de Chim. Med. t. 5me, p. 214.) The same experimenter introduced a drachm of the salt into the stomach of a dog without any ill effects, save vomiting. But two drachms, and even a drachm and a hal£ killed dogs in three days, when retained in the stomach by a ligature ofthe gullet, with marks of inflammation in the gastro-intestinal membrane. Maillet (Journ. de Chim. Med. t. 3, 2e Serie, p. 225.) gave two ounces to a dog without any ill effect; and he observes, that according to the principle, that the dose of a saline substance for the horse should be eight times that for the dog, a pound of bromide of potassium would have no ill effect on horses. y. On Man.—The effects of bromide of potassium on man require farther in- vestigation. They appear to be analogous to those of iodide of potassium. Dr. Williams (Elements of Medicine, vol. i. p. 338.) gave five grains of this salt three times daily for fourteen months, without any injurious effect. I have given the same dose to a boy of about 14 years old, affected with enlarged spleen conse- quent on intermittent fever, for several weeks, without any marked effect. By the application of starch and a few drops of chlorine to the urine, a yellow bromide of starch was obtained, showing the presence of a bromide in the urine. The case is now under treatment; but the volume of the spleen appears to be lessening. In most cases it acts as a diuretic. In irritable conditions of the alimentary tube it is apt to occasion diarrhcea. Three cases are mentioned by Dr. Williams, in which, on account of this state of the bowels, more than four or five grains could not be exhibited at a time, and even then it was occasionally necessary to give opium. Under the continued use of it, enlargements of the spleen and liver, and swellings of the lymphatic glands, have disappeared; so that it appears to agree with iodine, mercury, and the alkalis, in being liquefacient and resolvent (see p. 194.) Dr. Williams thinks that it possesses "unusual, if not specific, powers in the cure of diseases ofthe spleen." Uses.—In 1828, Pourche (Journ. de Chim. Med. t. iv. p. 594.) employed this salt with benefit in the treatment of bronchocele and scrofula: it was taken inter- nally, and applied externally in the form of ointment. In 1836 it was intro- duced into the London Pharmacopoeia, in consequence of the great success ob- tained from the use of it in a case of enlarged spleen, under the care of Dr. Wil- liams. (Op. cit.) In this, and in three other successful cases of the same dis- ease, it was used internally only. Dr. Williams also gave it with success in a case of ascites. Magendie (Formulaire, 8*"e ed. 1835.) employs it as an anti- scrofulous remedy, as an emmenagogue, and against hypertrophy of the ventri- SLLPHURET of potassium. 429 cles. Prieger (Dierbach, Die neusten Entdeck. in der Mat. Med. 1837.) applied it externally in the form of ointment in tinea capitis. Administration.—It is exhibited in the form of pill or solution in doses of from four to ten grains three times a day. Antidotes.—In a case of poisoning by this salt the treatment will be the same as for iodide of potassium. UNGUENTUM POTASSII BROMIDL Ointment of Bromide of Potassium.—-This is composed of from 3j. to 3ij. of bromide to 3j. of lard. Bromine is sometimes added. 4. POTAS'SII SULPHURE'TUM, L. E. (U. S.)—SULPHURET OF POTASSIUM. (Potassie Sulphuretum, D) History.—Geber (Invention of Verity, ch. vi.) was acquainted with the solu- bility of sulphur in an alkaline solution; but Albertus Magnus taught the method of procuring sulphuret of potassium by fusion. The preparation kept in the shops is a mixture of the sulphuret of potassium and sulphate of potash, and was formerly called Sulphuret of Potash, or Liver of Sulphur. Preparation.—The process for the preparation of this compound is the same in all the British pharmacopoeias. Take of Sulphur, gj.; Carbonate of Potass, |iv. (Jij. U. S.) Rub them together, and place them upon the tire, in a covered crucible, until they have united. When sulphur and commercial carbonate of potash are fused together, water and carbonic acid are evolved. Part of the potash is decomposed; its potassium combining with sulphur to form a sulphuret of potassium; while its oxygen unites with sulphur to form one or more acids which combine with some unde- composed potash. A portion of the carbonate of potash remains undecomposed. Properties.—When fresh prepared, it has a liver-brown colour; and hence its name hepar sulphuris. Its taste is acrid, bitter, and akaline. If quite dry it is inodorous, but when moistened it acquires the odour of hydrosulphuric acid. Exposed to the air it undergoes decomposition, from the action of the aqueous vapour and oxygen. It becomes green and moist, and ultimately whitish. This change depends on the absorption of oxygen, in consequence of which part of the sulphur is deposited, while a portion of the sulphuret of potassium is con- verted into hyposulphite, afterwards into sulphite, and ultimately into sulphate of potash. Sulphuret of potassium is soluble in water. Characteristics.—Hydrochloric acid causes the evolution of hydrosulphuric acid gas and the precipitation of sulphur; the solution of the sulphuret in water produces a reddish or black precipitate with a solution of lead. That it contains potassium may be determined thus:—Add excess of hydrochloric acid to a solu- tion of it; boil, and filter. The before-mentioned tests for potash (see p. 415) may then be applied. "Fresh broken it exhibits a brownish-yellow colour. Dissolved in water, or in almost any acid, it exhales a smell of hydrosulphuric acid. The aqueous solution is of a yellow colour. What is thrown down by acetate of lead is first red," and it afterwards black- ens." Ph. L. Composition.—Berzelius (Traite de Chimie, t. ii. p. 301. Paris, 1831.) says, that if 100 parts of carbonate of potash be fused with 58-22 of sulphur, the pro- duct is a mixture of three equivalents of tersulphuret of potassium and one equi- valent of sulphate of potash; and he adds, that if less than the above proportion of sulphur be employed, a portion of carbonate of potash remains undecomposed. But Winckler3 has shown, that if the carbonate employed be quite pure, and the " The precipitate with acetate of lead l find may be red, reddish black, or black. Tht* alkaline monosul- phuret3 cause a black, the polysulphurets a red, precipitate with solutions of lead. (See Hydrosulphuret of Ammonia, p. 412.) » Berliniehes Jahrbuch, Band. XLI. S. 321; 1839.—A corrected abstract of this paper is contained in the Pharmaceutischcs Central Blattfur 1839, S. 547. 430 elements of materia meuica. operation be very carefully conducted, no sulphate is obtained, but hyposulphite and sulphite of potash. He fused together 900 grs. of crystallized basic car- bonate of potash (dried at 212° F.) with 518 grs. of washed flowers of sulphur. The per-centage composition of the product was as follows:— 53-2905 29-4580 6-8613 0-7730 2-8780 67392 1000000 Tersulphuret of Potassium . Hyposulphite of Potash Sulphite of Potash Sulphate of Potash Carbonate of Potash . Loss ..... Hepar Sulphuris . Physiological Effects, ct. On Vegetables.—There can be no doubt but that this compound is a powerful poison to plants, though I am not acquainted with any experiments made with it. /3. On Animals Generally.—From the experiments of Orfila (Toxicologie Generate.) on dogs, sulphuret of potassium appears to be a powerful narcotico-acrid poison. Six drachms and a half, dissolved in water, and introduced into the stomach, caused convulsions and death in seven minutes. y. On Man.—In small doses (as from four to ten grains) it acts as a general stimulant; increasing the frequency of the pulse, augmenting the heat of the body, promoting the different secretions, more especially those of the mucous membranes, and sometimes exciting local irritation, marked by pain, vomiting, and purging. By continued use it acts as a resolvent or alterative; and, on this account, is em- ployed in certain forms of inflammation. In large doses it is an energetic narcotico-acrid poison. In two instances it proved fatal in fifteen minutes; the symptoms were, acrid taste, slight vomiting, mortal faintness, and convulsions, with an important chemical sign, the tainting the air of the chamber with the odour of hydrosulphuric acid. (Christison, Treatise on Poisons, p. 228.) Its local action is that of a powerful irritant: hence the acrid taste, burning pain, and constriction in the throat, gullet, and stomach, with vomiting and purging. But the nervous system also becomes affected; as is proved by the faintness, the almost imperceptible pulse, the convulsions, and (in some cases) sopor. These symptoms are analogous to those caused by hydrosulphuric acid; which, in fact, is copiously developed in the stomach. tjses.—Internally, it has been administered in very obstinate skin diseases, such as lepra and psoriasis, which have resisted all the ordinary means of cure. It has also been employed as a resolvent in inflammations attended with lympathic exu- dation, as croup, and in glandular enlargements. In chronic rheumatism, gout, hooping-cough, and various other diseases, against which it was formerly employed, it is now rarely if ever administered. It ought not to be given as an antidote for metallic poisoning, since it is itself a powerful poison. Externally, it is applied in the form of lotions, baths, or ointment, in chronic skin diseases, such as eczema, scabies, lepra, &c. Administration.—Internally it may be administered in the dose of three or four grains gradually increased. It may be given either in solution, or in the form of pill made with soap. For external use it is employed in solution in water, either as a bath or wash, or in the form of ointment. Lotions are sometimes made by dissolving an ounce of the sulphuret in two or three quarts of water. The oint- ment is composed of 3ss. of sulphuret to 3j- of lard. Antidotes.—In the event of poisoning by this substance, the antidote is a solu- tion of chloride of soda, or of chloride of lime. 1. SOLUTIO POTASSII SULPHURET ; Potassae Sulphureti Aqua, D. (Washed Sulphur, 1 part; Water of Caustic Potash, 11 parts. Boil during ten minutes, and BISULPHATE OF POTASH. 431 filter through paper. Let the liquor be kept in well-closed vessels. The sp. gr. of this liquid is 1*117.)—By the mutual reaction of sulphur and potassa, aided by the water and heat, a solution of sulphuret of potassium and hyposulphite of potash is obtained. The colour of this preparation is deep orange. It is sometimes ad- ministered in scabies, tinea capitis, and other allied eruptive diseases.—Dose from tt[ x. to f3J., sufficiently diluted with water. I BALNEUM SULPHURATUM; Sulphurated or Sulphurous Bath. This is prepared by dissolving ^iv. of sulphuret of potassium in 30 gallons of water (Rayer.) It should be prepared in a wooden bathing vessel.—Used in obstinate skin diseases, as lepra and scabies. If an acid be added to this bath, sulphur is precipitated and sulphuretted hydrogen evolved. Care must be taken, lest asphyxia be produced by the inhalation of the latter. 8. BALNEUM SULPHURATUM ET GELATINOSUM; Dupuytren's Gelatino-Sulphurous Bath. This is prepared by adding one pound of Flanders glue (previously dis- solved in water) to the sulphuretted bath above described.—It may be used as a substitute for the waters of Bareges; the glue representing the Baregine, an organic matter found in these waters. Bareges waters have been celebrated for cleansing foul ulcers, healing old wounds, and curing obstinate skin diseases. 5. POTAS'SiE BISULP'HAS, L. E. D.—BISULPHATE OF POTASH. History and Synonymes,—The mode of preparing this salt was taught by Lowitz and Link, at the latter end of the last century. The salt has had various names, such as Supersulphate of Potash, Sal Enixum, Acid Vitriolated Tartar, and Sal Auri Philosophicum. Preparation.—All the British Colleges give formulae for the preparation of this salt. The London and Edinburgh Colleges direct it to be prepared by adding sulphuric acid to a solution of the salt which remains after the distillation of [pure, E.] nitric acid. The Lon. don College uses Ibij. of the salt, lbj. of sulphuric acid, and Ovj. of boiling water. The Edinburgh College employs the same quantity of salt and water, but only f ?vij. and zj. of acid. The Dublin College prepares it from Sulphuric Acid of commerce, two parts; Carbonate of Potash, from Potashes, as much as may be sufficient; Water, six parts. Let one portion of the sulphuric acid, mixed with the water, be saturated by the carbonate of potash, then let another portion ofthe acid be added to the mixture. Let the liquor evaporate until on cooling crystals are formed. The salt which remains in the retort after the preparation of the Acidum Nitri- cum, L. & E., is bisulphate of potash. When " the solution is allowed to crystal- lize, it occasionally happens that some sulphate and sesquisulphate are mixed with the bisulphate, owing to the partition of the excess of sulphuric acid between the water and the sulphate of potash. This inconvenience is remedied by the addition of sulphuric acid now directed to be employed." (Mr. R. Phillips, Translation of the Pharmacopoeia, p. 295, 4th edit. Fig. 61. Properties.—It is crystallizable; the crystals belong to the right prismatic system. It has a very acid taste, and reacts strongly as an acid on vegetable colours, and decomposes the carbonates with effervescence. It is so- luble in about twice its weight of water at 60°. By a red heat it evolves sulphuric acid, and is converted into Prism of Bisulphate the neutral sulphate of potash. of Potash. Composition.—It consists of— 432 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent Sulphuric Acid...................... 2 ...... 80 ...... 5480 Potauli.............................. 1 ...... 48 ...... 32-K7 Water............................... 2 ...... 18 .,..,. 1233 Crystallized Bisulphate Potash....... 1 ......146 .--- 100-00 Characteristics.—The presence of sulphuric acid may be recognised by the chloride of barium (see p. 406.) When subjected to a red heat, bisulphate of potash loses half of its acid. The residue is the neutral sulphate; the potash of which may be detected by the characters already mentioned for this substance (see p. 415.) From the neutral sulphate of potash it is distinguished by its acid taste, its action on litmus and on the alkaline carbonates, and by its greater solu- bility. Physiological Effects and Uses.—It is rarely used as a medicine. It pos- sesses the combined properties of sulphuric acid and sulphate of potash. The excess of acid renders its local operation that of an astringent. When swallowed it operates as a mild purgative, and may be employed in the same cases as the sulphate, over which it has the advantage of greater solubility. Conjoined with rhubarb it covers the bitter taste of the latter without injuring its medicinal pro- perties. Dr. Barker (Observations of the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, p. 138. Dub- lin, 1830.) says it may be used to form a cheap effervescing purgative salt, as follows:—73 grains of bisulphate of potash and 72 grains of crystallized carbonate of soda, to be separately dissolved in two ounces of water, and taken in a state of effervescence. Administration.—The dose of it is from gr. x. to 3ij. properly diluted. 6. POTAS'S„_ SUL'PHAS, L. E. D. (U. S.)—SULPHATE OF POTASH. History and Synonymes.—The mode of preparing this salt was taught by Oswald Croll, in 1643. It has been known by various appellations, such as Specificum Purgans Paracelsi, Arcanum duplicatum, Vitriolated Kali, J'itrio- lated Tartar, Sal Polychrest (literally signifying salts of many uses or virtues,) Sal de Dubous, &c. Natural History.—Sulphate of potash is found in both kingdoms of nature. _. In the Inorganized Kingdom.—It has been met with in small quantities in some mineral waters of Saxony and Bohemia, in native alum, in alumstone, and in a mineral called poly- halite, in which Stromeyer found no less than 27-6 per cent, ofthe sulphate of potash. 0. In the Organized Kingdom.—It has been found in the root of Polygala Senega, Win- ter's bark, the bulb of garlic, myrrh, opium, &.c. The blood and urine of man also contain it. Preparation.—It is prepared from the residuum ofthe distillation of nitric acid. The London College orders of the salt which remains after the distillation of Nitric Acid, Ibij.; Boiling Water, Cong. ij. Ignite the salt in a crucible until the excess of sulphuric acid is entirely expelled, then boil it in the two gallons of water until a pellicle floats, and the liquor being strained, set it aside that crystals may be formed. The liquor being poured off, dry them. The Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges order the salt left after the distillation of nitric acid to be dissolved in water, and its excess of acid to be saturated. The Edinburgh College em- ploys for this purpose white marble (carbonate of lime;) while the Dublin College uses car- bonate of potash. The neutral solution of sulphate of potash is then to be evaporated and crystallized. The heat employed by the London College is to drive off the excess of sulphuric acid. Properties.—It usually crystallizes in single or double six-sided pyramids. The Geiger. . 5477 . 32-53 . 12-70 SULPHATE of potash. 433 two pyramids are sometimes united at a common base, or are separated by a short Fig. 62. Fig. 63. Fig. 64. Common bipyramidal crystal. intervening prism (fig. 62.) Fig. 65. Ditto modified. Compound crystal composed of three so united that their upper edges meet at angles of 120°. These forms agree very closely with those belonging to the rhombohedral system. But they have been shown by Dr. Brewster1 to be composite crystals; being composed of several crystals belonging to the right prismatic system, agglutinated so as to simulate the forms ofthe rhombohedral system. If a plate, cut perpendicular to the axis of the double pyramid, be examined by polarized light, it presents the tessellated structure shown in fig. 65; and each of the six equi- Tessellated appearance of a lateral triangles are found to have two axes of double plate of sulphate of potash refraction. seen by polarized light. Crystals of sulphate of potash are hard, inodorous, have a saline bitter taste, and are unchanged by exposure to the air. When heated they decrepitate. At 60° F. they require sixteen times their weight of water to dissolve them: they are insoluble in alcohol. A solution of them is decomposed by tartaric acid, which forms crystals of bitartrate of potash. • Characteristics.—I have already stated these, when describing the bisulphate. Composition.—The crystals contain no water of crystallization. They are thus composed:— Sulphuric Acid. Potash......... Atoms. .. 1 . .. 1 . Eq. Wt. .. 40 Per Cent. Wenzel. . 45-45 ........ 45-25 . 54-55 ........ 54-75 Sulphate of Potash.. 1 ........ 88 ........10000 ........ 10000 Physiological Effects.—It acts as a very mild purgative, without occasioning any heat, pain, or other symptoms of irritation. Its operation is, in fact, too mild for ordinary use. Uses.—It is particularly serviceable as a laxative in disordered conditions of the alimentary canal, as diarrhoea and dyspepsia, in hepatic disorders, and in hemorrhoidal affections. It is best given in combination with rhubarb. Thus, from five to ten grains of rhubarb, with from fifteen grain? to two drachms of this salt, will be found to act mildly and efficiently in many cases of dyspepsia and diarrhcea. It is an excellent aperient for children. The objections to its employ- ment are its slight solubility, and that when given in large doses to children it is apt to produce vomiting. It is useful, on account of its hardness, for triturating and dividing powders, as in the pulvis ipecacuanha? compositus. Its powder is an excellent dentifrice: the only objection to its use is its taste. Dose.—It is given in doses of from fifteen grains to four or five drachms. POTASSE SULPHAS CUM SULPHURE, E.; Sal Polychrestum Glascri; Glaser's Sal ' Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, vol. i. p. 6. Edinb. 1819.—See also Mr. W. Phillips, Annals of Philoso- phy, N. S vol. iv. p. 342, Lond. 1822; Levy, Quarterly Journal of Science, vol. xv. p. 285, Lond. 1823; and Mr. Dronkes, Ibid. N. S. vol. vii. p. 20, 1821. Vol. 1.—5r. 434 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Polychrest. (Nitrate of Potash, and Sulphur, equal parts; mix them thoroughly; throw the mixture, in small successive portions, into a red-hot crucible; and when the deflagration is over, and the salt has cooled, reduce it to powder, and preserve it in welbclosed bottles.)—The sulphur is oxidized at the expense of the oxygen of the nitric acid, and the resulting compound consists principally of sulphate of potash,, mixed probably with some sulphite; but the precise nature of the com- pound has not been carefully determined. Dr. Duncan (Edinburgh Dhpensa- tory.) says, " that in its medical effects and exhibition it agrees with the sulphureous mineral waters, which contain a portion of neutral salt."—Dose, 5ss. to 3j. 7. POTAS'SiE NI'TRAS, L. E. D. (U. S.)-NITRATE OF POTASH. History.—At what time this salt became known is difficult now to determine. As it is found in various parts of the East, on the surface of the earth, it appears probable that it must have been known at a very early period. Furthermore, if the Chinese and Hindoos were acquainted with the art of making gunpowder and fireworks at a very early period of history, they must have employed, and, there- fore been acquainted with, nitre. Geber, (Invention of Verity, ch. xxiii.) how- ever, is the first who distinctly mentions it. He describes the mode of making nitric acid from it. But the terms neter ofthe Old Testament, (Proverbs, ch. xxv. 20; Jeremiah, ch. ii. 22.) translated nitre,—virpov of Herodotus (Euterpe, lxxxvii.) and Theophrastus (De Igne.)—and nilrum of Pliny, (Hist. Nat. xxx. i.) appear to have been applied either partially or exclusively to natron. (See Beckman's History of Inveyitions and Discoveries, vol. iv.) The word saltpetre, usually applied to nitre, is evidently derived from sal pelrx, literally signifying rock salt. (See Sodae Carbonas and Sodse Sesquicarbonas.) Natural History.—This salt occurs in both kingdoms of nature. „. In the Inorganized Kingdom.—In the East Indies, Egypt, Persia, Spain, and other parts of the world, large quantities of nitre are found in the soil. It would appear to be formed below, and to be brought to the surface of the soil by efflorescence. Il has been usually sup. posed that the nitric acid was formed by the direct union of the nitrogen and oxygen of the air; but there are no facts which justify this opinion. It is much more probable that it is formed by the oxidation of ammonia (which is a constant constituent ofthe atmosphere ;) the products being nitric acid and water. The simultaneous oxidation of hydrogen is necessary to effect the union of oxygen with nitrogen. The cause of this is that the acid and water unite, so that water may be said to be a condition of nitrification} Azotised animal matter is no farther necessary than as yielding ammonia. In a nitre-cave in Ceylon, Dr. Davy (Account of the Interior of Ceylon.) found nitre without animal matter. The potash of the nitrate is in most cases easily accounted for, being found in some of the constituents of the soil, as feldspar and mica. /3. In the Organized Kingdom.—This salt has been found in various plants, as in the roots of Cissampelos Pareira, Geum urbanum, &c. (De Candolle, Phys. Veget. p. 387.) Extraction.—The nitrate of potash consumed in this country is imported from India, where it is obtained from natural sources. In some parts of Europe it is obtained artificially. The district of Tirhut, in Bengal, is more productive of nitre than any other place in India. It is most abundant in those parts containing a redundancy of carbonate of lime. An average sample of the soil analyzed by Mr. Stevenson (Journ. ofthe Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. ii. p. 23.) gave the following com- position:— Matter insoluble in three Mineral Acids Matter soluble in ditto................. Matter soluble in water................ 1000 Silex..........................500- Carbonateof Lime.............443 Sulphate of Soda .............. 2-7 Muriate of ditto............... 14 Nitrate of Lime ............... 09 Nitrate of Potash.............. 0-7 ^Liebig, Organic Chemistry r» its Application to Agriculture and Physiology, edited by L. Playfair. Lond. NITRATE OF POTASH. 435 " In the month of November the leonahs, or native manufacturers of saltpetre, commence their operations, by scraping off the surface from old mud heaps, mud buildings, waste grounds, &c, where the saltpetre has developed itself in a thin white efflorescence, resembling frost rind. This saline earth being collected at the factories, the operator first subjects it to the process of solution and filtration. This is effected by a large mud filter, lined on the inside with stiff clay." It has a false bottom of bamboo, covered with close wrought grass mats, on which are placed vegetable ashes. Upon these the nitrous earth is laid. Water is then added to dissolve the saline matters of the earth, and the solution thus obtained, filtering through the mats, drops into the empty space between the real and false bottom, and is conveyed away into an earthen receiver. In its passage through the wood-ashes the carbonate of potash contained in the latter reacts on the nitrate of lime of the solution, and produces nitrate of potash and carbonate of lime. The solution is afterwards evaporated in earthen pots, filtered, and put aside to crystal- lize. The impure nitre thus procured is termed dhouah: it contains from 45 to 70 per cent, of pure nitrate of potash. It is redissolved and crystallized by the native merchants, who supply the Calcutta bazaars, and when thus purified is called by the natives kalmee.1 Rough Nitre.—Saltpetre is imported into this country principally from Cal- cutta, but some comes from Madras. It is brought over in cloth bags, which contain from 150 to 175 lbs. each. Its quality varies considerably. It is always . more or less impure: but the common varieties, which have a dirty yellowish appearance, are termed rough or crude saltpetre, or grough petre, while the purer and cleaner looking kinds are called East India refined. The loss which it suffers in refining, or, in other words, the impurities which it contains, are technically designated refraction. This varies greatly in different samples, but is usually between 5 and 15 per cent.2 Purification.—Refined rough nitre is purified by dissolving it in water, boiling the solution, removing the scum, and, after the liquid has been allowed to settle, it is strained, while hot, through a hempen cloth, and set aside to crystallize. At the Waltham Abbey powder-mills the crystallization is effected in copper pans. When it has been dissolved and crystallized once only it is called singly refined nitre: when twice, doubly refined.3 Its purity may be ascertained by testing it with nitrate of silver, chloride of barium, and oxalate of ammonia. The first detects the chlorides, the second the sulphates, and the third the calcareous salts. The Dublin College orders Purified Nitrate of Potash (Potasses Nitras purificatum) to be thus prepared : Take of Nitrate of Potash, one part. Dissolve in two parts of hot water, filter the liquor, and set it aside, that, on cooling, crystals may be formed. Nitre from artificial sources.—The artificial preparation of nitre is practised in several parts of Europe. The establishments in which it is carried on are called Artificial Nitrieres.* The mode adopted varies, however, in different places. At Appenzel, a canton in Switzerland, nitre is formed from the urine of ani- mals. A hole is dug near to stables, and in this is put a sandy kind of earth, which is kept moistened with the water running from the stables. In two or three years this earth yields nitre. In Sweden, (Berzelius, Traite de Chimie, t. iii. p. 391.3 where each landed proprietor is compelled to furnish a certain quantity of nitre, it is prepared as follows:—Decomposing animal and vegetable matters, mixed with cinders, lime, or marl, are placed in heaps (called nitre beds) under cover, the mass being occa- > See Stevenson, op. cit.; also, India Journal of Med. and Phys. Science, new series, vol. i. p. 10. 1836. 4 For the methods of determining it, consult Dumas, Traite de Chimie, t. 2»"!) p. 762; Brande's Manual of Chemistry, 4th ed. p. 549. » Colonel Moody informs me that the rough nitre now supplied to the Waltham Abbey powder-mills has about 3 per cent, refraction, and requires one crystallization only to render it sufficiently pure for the manu- facture of gunpowder. * For full details of this process consult Thepard, Traiti de Chimie, t. iii. p. 239, 5<«"> ed. Paris, 1827; Du mav op. supra cit.; and Kuhlmann, Mim. Acad. Sciences de Lille, 1838. and in Liebig's Annalen, xxix. 272 436 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. sionally moved, or holes made in it, so that they are exposed to the air. From time to time they are watered with urine. At the end of two or three years the nitrogen has combined with oxygen, and this with bases to form nitrates. By lixiviation the salts may be separated, and any nitrate of lime present may be converted into nitrate of potash by adding wood-ashes, which contain carbonate of potash. In Prussia nitre-walls are employed instead of nitre-beds. These have two advantages,—they economize land, and they expose a large surface to the air. (Dumas, op. cit.) Properties.—Nitrate of potash usually crystallizes in the form of a six-sided Fig. 65. Fig. 66. Crystal of Nitre. Primitive right rhombic prism. prism with diedral summits, which belongs to the right prismatic system.1 It has, therefore, two axes of double refraction, and presents a double system of rings in polarized light (see figs. 35 and 36, p. 169.) When pure the crystals are transparent and colourless, have a sharp cooling taste, and undergo no change by exposure to the air. When heated, nitrate of potash fuses, and when cast in moulds forms the Nitrum Tabulatum, or, from its having formerly been cast into small balls, and stained of a plum colour, Sal Prunetle. At a strong red heat it is decomposed, with the evolution of oxygen and the formation of hyponi- trite of potash, which, when rubbed to powder and mixed with sulphuric acid, emits red fumes (composed of nitrous acid and binoxide of nitrogen.) One hun- dred parts of water at 32° dissolve 13-32 parts.of this salt, but at 77° they dis- solve 38 parts. During the solution cold is generated. In pure alcohol nitre is insoluble. Characteristics.—This salt is known to be a nitrate by the characters already detailed (p. 267) for this class of salts. That its base is potash is shown by the tests before mentioned (p. 415) for this substance. Composition.—Nitrate of potash has the following composition:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Ct. .. 529 . .. 471 .. Wollaston. .. 53 332 .. 46-668 Atoms. .... 1 . Eq. Wt. .. 14 .. .. 48 .. .. 40 Per Ct. . 13-75 ( Potassium.. .... 1 . . 3915 Nitrate of Potash........ i .1*2___100-00___100-000 .102 10000 Physiological Effects, ct. On Vegetables.—Nitrate of potash dissolved in 300 times its weight of water promotes vegetation: but a solution containing -L part of nitre is injurious to the growth of plants. (Davy, Agricultural Chemis- try.) /3. On Animals generally.—Orfila (Toxicol. Generate.) found that when intro- duced into the stomach of dogs it acts as an irritant poison. If administered in doses of two or three drachms, it is capable, when not vomited up, of causing death. Its operation is that of a narcotico-acrid poison. When applied to the cellular tissue it produces, according to this experimentalist, local effects only, and does not become absorbed. But Devergie (Medecine Legale.) states, on the •Levy, Quarterly Journal of Science, vol. xv. p. 284 ; also, Miller, in Philosophical Magazine, for July, 1840. NITRATE OF POTASH. 437 authority of J. E. M. Smith, that half an ounce applied to the thigh killed a dog in thirtvUx hours. Eight ounces dissolved in a pint of water, and swallowed, killed a horse in twenty-four hours with all the symptoms of violent intestinal irritation (Moiroud Pharmacologic Veterinaire. Pans, 1831.) Veterinarians use nitre as a diuretic and refrigerant in doses of from two to four drachms. v On Man—-In very large doses (such, for example, as one ounce or more) nitre has in several instances caused death; but the effects of it are not uniform, since, in other cases, this quantity has not appeared to have any very remarkable or obvious effect. For example, Dr. Christison knew an instance in which one ounce was taken without occasioning any other unpleasant symptom than vomit- ing- and it was retained on the stomach for above a quarter of an hour. In those cases where violent effects followed the ingestion of it, the symptoms were two- fold- on the one hand, those indicating inflammation of the alimentary canal (such as pain, vomiting and purging;) on the other hand, an affection of the ner- vous svstem (marked by giddiness, convulsions, failure of pulse, tendency to fainting, dilated pupil, insensibility, and palsy.) It is probable that the opera- tion of nitre is influenced by the quantity of aqueous liquid in which the salt is dissolved, and that the more we dilute, the less powerfully does it act as a poi- son. In no other way can we reconcile the discrepant statements in regard to the effects produced by an ounce of nitre. If nitre (or any other neutral alkaline salt) be mixed with dark-coloured venous blood out of the body, it communicates to it a florid or arterial hue. Now as this salt, when taken into the stomach, becomes absorbed, it is not unreasonable to suppose that while mixed with the circulating blood it might have an analogous effect. Dr. Stevens (Observations on the Blood, p. 298. Lond. 1832.) asserts, that in the last stage of fever, when the blood is black, it has this effect. More- over, he tells us (p. 154,) that in a case which occurred in America, where a per- son swallowed an ounce of nitre, by mistake, in place of Glauber's salts, the blood when drawn from a vein was completely florid, and remained as fluid as if the nitre had been added to it out of the body.1 In moderate doses nitre acts as a refrigerant, diuretic, and diaphoretic. Its refrigerant properties are best seen when the body is preternaturally hot, as in febrile disorders. Mr. Alexander, (Essays, p. 105, et seq. Edinb. 1768.) in his trials with it, made on himself, experienced a sensation of chilliness after each dose, but he could not recognise by the thermometer any diminution of heat in the external parts of his body. He found, in most of his experiments, that it had a powerful influence over the vascular system, and surprisingly diminished, in a very short period of time, the number of pulsations. Thus, on several oc- casions, a drachm of this salt, within a few minutes, reduced the frequency of the pulse from 70 to 60 beats. Sundelin (Heilmitlell. Bd. i. S. 59.) says nitre di- minishes the orgasm and plasticity of the blood, perhaps by a chemical action on the cruor and fibrin. Diuresis is another, and very generally observed effect. As the nitre can be detected in the urine, its operation as a diuretic depends, perhaps, on the local stimulus which is communicated to the renal vessels while the salt is passing through them. Like most of the neutral salts of the alkalis, the continued use of it promotes alvine evacuations. Full doses frequently pro- duce pain in the stomach. As a diaphoretic it is usually given in combination with emetic tartar. Uses.—It follows, from what has been now stated in regard to the physiological effects of nitre, that this substance is indicated when we wish to diminish preter- natural heat, and to reduce the force and frequency of the pulse, as in febrile dis- orders, inflammatory affections, (except, perhaps, those of the stomach, bowels, • For some remarks on the effects of nitre on the blood, by Mr. Carlyon, see Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. viii. p. 626; and on nitre as a therapeutic agent, by Dr. Hancock, see Lancet for 1831-2, vol. ii. p. 766. 438 elements of materia medica. kidneys, and bladder,) and hemorrhages1 (especially hemopytysis.) In continued fever it is frequently given in combination with emetic tartar, and sometimes also with calomel. It is not often used as a diuretic, because its activity in this respect is not very great; but it is adapted for those cases which are accompanied with arterial excitement. In sore throat it is mixed with white sugar, and gradually swal- lowed. A mixture of nitre and powdered gum has long been a favourite remedy for diminishing the scalding of gonorrhoea. Nitre is rarely employed as an exter- nal agent, except as a means of producing cold. Thus, five ounces of nitrate of potash, with five ounces of muriate of ammonia, dissolved in sixteen ounces of water, reduces the temperature 40° F.; that is, from 50° to 10°, according to Mr. Walker. Hence, therefore, we sometimes employ this mixture, placed in a blad- der, as an external application (see p. 66.) On the belief that fever, cholera, and other malignant diseases, were produced by a deranged state ofthe blood, and that this derangement depended on, or con- sisted in, a diminution or entire loss of the saline parts of the blood. Dr. Stevens employed nitre, chloride of sodium, and other alkaline salts, in the treatment of these diseases. (Op. supra cit. pp. 296, 298, &c.) Nitre, in large doses, has been employed in the treatment of scurvy, and with considerable success, according to the statement of Mr. Cameron. (Medico-Chirur. Review, March, 1830, p. 483.) Administration.—It may be given in doses of from ten grains to half a drachm, in the form of powder, mixed with sugar, or in solution. If administered as a refri- gerant, it should be dissolved in water and immediately swallowed, in order that the coldness of the solution may assist the action of the salt. If employed as a diuretic, we ought to give mild liquids plentifully, and keep the skin cool. Antidote.—No chemical antidote for this salt is known. In case of poisoning, therefore, we should remove the poison from the stomach as speedily as possible, and administer tepid emollient drinks. Opiates, perhaps, may be advantageously administered. The inflammatory symptoms are to be combated by the usual anti- phlogistic measures. 8. POTAS'SjE CHLO'RAS, L.—CHLORATE OF POTASH. History.—Chlorate of potash (also called oxymuriate or hyperoxymuriate of potash) was first procured by Mr. Higgins, who seems to have confounded it with muriate of potash. In 1786 it was distinguished by Berthollet. Preparation.—It is prepared by passing chlorine gas slowly through a cold solution of carbonate of potash placed in a Woulfe's bottle. The liquid is allowed to stand for twenty-four hours in a cool place, and is then found to have deposited crystals of chlorate of potash. These are to be drained, washed with cold water, dissolved in hot water, and re-crystallized. When chlorine gas comes in contact with a solution of carbonate of potash, three salts are formed: chloride of potassium, hypochlorite of potash, and bicar- bonate of potash. MATERIALS PRODUCTS. 2eq. Carbonate Potash 140..........................---------------r___-=---- 2eq. Bicarbtc Potash 184 !2 eq. Carbonic Acid.. 44 ------ leq. Potash.......... 48 --- ----- , 1 eq. Oxygen........ 8 —-7 leq.Hypochloi" Ad 44 j 1 eq. Hypochlte poth 92 1 eq. Potassium...... 40 ~~yC.. 2eq. Chlorine ........ 72 i l ea- Chlorine........ 36 I 1 eq. Chlorine........ 36---------------------_____ 1 eq. Chloride Potas- 76 352 352 In proportion as the quantity of chlorine increases, the bicarbonate becomes de- composed: carbonic acid is evolved, and a farther quantity of hypochlorite of pot- i Gibbons, Medical Cases and Remarks, Part If. On Jfitre in Hamorrhagy, 2d ed. Sudbury, 1811. CHLORATE OF POTASH. 439 ash and chloride of potassium is produced. By the reaction of the carbonic acid on some hypochlorite of potash, a portion of hypochlorous acid is set free, which gives the liquor a yellow tinge. (Delmar, in Lond. Edinb. and Dubl. Phil. Mag. for June, 1841, p. 422.) When the solution is strongly charged with hypochlorite, the action of the chlo- rine on the potash is somewhat changed: it abstracts the potassium from the potash, and thereby forms chloride of potassium, while the oxygen thus set free combines with some hypochlorite of potash, and thereby converts it into the chlorate, the greater part of which crystallizes. MATERIALS. PRODUCTS. 4eq. Chlorine............144..................-------_______ -^4eq. Chlorde Potassium 304 a _, «„„.i, ,no ( 4 eq. Pjtassm 160------------------ 4eq. Potash..............m\ie\.Oxygen 32-____________ 1 eq. Hypochlorite Poth .. 92................. ------— 1 eq. Chlorate Potash.. 124 lia 428 The residual liquor contains a little chlorate, some free hypochlorous acid, and a considerable quantity of hypochlorite of potash and chloride of potassium. The preceding process is attended with some practical difficulties, to obviate which Professor Graham (Proceedings of the Chemical Society, No. 1.) recom- mends that carbonate of potash be mixed intimately with an equivalent quantity of dry hydrate of lime, and the mixture exposed to chlorine gas: the products are carbonate of lime, chlorate of potash, and chloride of potassium. Properties.—Chlorate of potash crystallizes in nearly rhomboidal plates belong- ing to the oblique prismatic system. Its taste is cool, and somewhat similar to nitre. When rubbed in the dark it becomes luminous. 100 parts of water at 32° F. dissolve 3-5 parts of chlorate: at 59° F. 6 parts: at 120° F. 19 parts. Characteristics.—This salt is known to be a chlorate by the following charac- ters:—When heated, it fuses, gives out oxygen, and is converted into chloride of potassium: when thrown on a red-hot coal it deflagrates—a property, however, common to several other salts. Sulphuric acid gives it an orange-red colour, evolves chlorous acid (peroxide of chlorine,) known by its yellow colour, and great explosive power when heated. Rubbed with sulphur or phosphorus it explodes violently. Mixed with hydrochloric acid and then with water, it forms a bleach- ing liquid. The base of the salt is known to be potash, by the tests for this sub- stance already mentioned (see p. 414.) Composition.—It is an anhydrous salt. Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berzelius. Chloric Acid............. 1 ...... 76...... 6130 ...... 61-5083 Potash................... 1 ...... 48 ...... 38-70 ...... 384917 Chlorate of Potash........ 1 ...... 124 ...... 100-00 ......100-0000 Impurity.—Chloride of potassium is the usual impurity. This may be detected by a solution of nitrate of silver producing a white precipitate (chloride of silver.) Pure chlorate of potash undergoes no obvious change on the addition of nitrate of silver to its solution. Physiological Effects. ~. On Animals generally.—In one series of experi- ments, Dr. O'Shaughnessy (Lancet for 1831-2, vol. ii*. p. 369.) injected from 10 to 60 grains of chlorate of potash dissolved in three ounces of tepid water, into the cervical vein of a dog: no ill effect was observed; the pulse rose in fulness and frequency, the urine was found in a short time to contain traces of the salt, and the blood of the tracheal veins had a fine scarlet colour. In another series of experi- ments the animal wns stupefied by hydrocyanic acid or hydrosulphuric acid gas: the brachial vein was opened, and a few drops of excessively dark blood could with difficulty be procured. Half a drachm of the chlorate dissolved in water of the temperature ofthe blood was injected slowly into the jugular vein: the pulsation of 440 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. the heart almost immediately began to return, and in the course of eight minutes scarlet blood issued from the divided brachial veins. In twenty minutes the ani- mal was nearly recovered, and passed urine copiously, which was found to contain the chlorate. /3. On Man.—The action of this salt on man requires farther investigation. It appears to be refrigerant and diuretic, analogous to nitrate of potash. Wdhler and Stehberger have recognised chlorate of potash in the urine of patients to whom it had been exhibited, so that it does not appear to undergo any chemical change in its passage through the system. This fact is fatal to the hypothesis of the chemico-physiologists, who fancied that it gave oxygen to the system, and was, therefore, well adapted for patients affected with scorbutic con- ditions, which were supposed to depend on a deficiency of this principle. Exces- sive doses ofthe chlorate, like those of the nitrate, would probably produce an affec- tion of the nervous system; but I am not acquainted with any satisfactory case in proof. Duchateau (Merat and de Lens, Diet. Mat. Med.) says that 18 grains taken at thrice caused convulsions and delirium; but the observation is probably erro- neous ; for others have not experienced these effects from much larger doses. Dr. Stevens (On the Blood, p. 155.) says chlorate of potash gives a beautiful arterial colour to the venous blood, and reddens the gums much faster than mercury. Uses.—Chlorate of potash was originally employed as a medicine for sup- plying oxygen to the system, where a deficiency of that principle was supposed to exist. With that view it was successfully administered by Dr. Garnett (Duncan's Annals of medicine, 1797.) in a case of chronic scorbutus. Dr. Ferriar also tried it in scurvy with success. (Med. Hist, and Reflect, vol. iii. p. 250.) It was sub- sequently applied in the venereal disease and liver complaints as a substitute for mercurials, whose beneficial effects were thought to depend on the oxygen which they communicated to the system.* It has also been tried in cases of general debility on account of its supposed tonic effects, but failed in the hands of Dr. Fer- riar. (Op. cit.) In a case of dropsy under the care of the latter gentleman, it operated successfully as a diuretic. More recently it has been used by Dr. Stevens (Op. supra cit. p. 296.) and others, as a remedy for fever, cholera, and other ma- lignant diseases, which he supposes depend on a deficiency of saline matters in the blood, but as it is usually employed in conjunction with common salt (see Chloride of Sodium) and carbonate of soda, it is impossible to determine what share the chlorate had in producing the beneficial effects said to have been obtained by what is called the saline treatment of these diseases. Kbhler (Lancet for 1836-7, vol. i. p. 33.) tried it in phthisis, without experiencing benefit from it. It appears, then, that most of the uses of this salt have been founded on certain views of chemical pathology, some of which are now considered untenable. It is very desirable, therefore, that some person, unbiassed by theoretical opinions, would carefully investigate its effects and uses, which I am inclined to think have been much overrated. Administration.—The usual dose of it is from ten or fifteen grains to half a drachm. Dr. Wittman, in one case, gave 160 grains daily, with a little hydroch- loric acid immediately after it, to decompose it: the effects were hot skin, headach, quick, full, and hard pulse, white tongue, and augmentation of urine. 9. POTAS'S__ CAR'BONAS, L. E. D. (U. S.)—CARBONATE OF POTASH. History.—It is probable that the ancient Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians, were acquainted with this salt. Pliny (Hist. Nat. lib. xiv. and xxviii.) describes some of the uses of wood-ashes, and mentions a lye of them (cinis lixivius.) For a long period carbonate of potash was confounded with carbonate of soda. Geber, (Invent, of Verity, ch. iv.) in the eighth century, describes the method of pro- lo's Cases of Diabetes Mcllitus, 2d edit. ice, p. x. CARBONATE OF POTASH. 441 curing it by the combustion of tartar. It has been known by various names: such as, Salt of Tartar, Mild Vegetable Alkali, Fixed Nitre and Subcarbonate of Potash . Natural History.—Reuss (Gairdner, On Mineral Springs, p. 18.) found carbonate of potash in the waters of the Wuissokow, and in the chalybeate of Twer. It is formed during the combustion of inland plants, by the decomposition of the vegetable ■alts of potash (the acetate, the malate, and the oxalate, but principally the first.) Hence it is procured in great abundance from wood-ashes. In some few cases it has been supposed to exist ready formed in plants, as in a fern referred to by Mr. Parkes, (ChemicalEssays, vol. it. p. 17.) the expressed juice of which is employed by the poor weavers of Yorkshire, in the cleansing of cloth at the fulling-mills. Preparation, et. Of Potashes and Pearlashes.—It is principally obtained from Wood-ashes (Cineres Vegetabilium seu Cineres e Lignis combustis.) These are procured by burning wood piled in heaps on the ground, sheltered from the wind, or in pits.1 The soluble constituents of the ashes are, carbonate, sulphate, phosphate, and silicate of potash, and chlorides of potassium and sodium. The insoluble constituents are, carbonate and suhphosphate of lime, alumina, silica, the oxides of iron and manganese, and a dark carbonaceous matter. In America the ashes are lixivated in barrels with lime, and the solution evaporated in large iron pots or kettles, until the mass has become of a black colour, and ofthe con- sistence of brown sugar. In this state it is called by the American manufacturers Black Salts (Cineres cluvellati crudi.) The dark colour is said by Dumas to be owing to ulmate of potash. To convert this substance into the Potashes of commerce (Cineres clavellati cakinati,) it is heated for several hours, until the fusion is complete, and the liquid becomes quiescent. It is then transferred by large iron ladles into iron pots, where it congeals in cakes. These are broken up, packed in tight barrels, and constitute the Potashes of commerce. Its colour varies somewhat, but it is usually reddish, in consequence of the presence of sesquioxide of iron. To make the substance called Pearlash (Potassa impura, Ph. L.; Lixivus Cinis, Ph. D.) (Potassa; Carbonas impurus, U. S.) the mass called black salts, instead of being fused, is transferred from the kettles to a large oven-shaped fur- nace, constructed so that the flame is made to play over the alkaline mass, which in the meantime is stirred by means of an iron rod. The ignition is in this way continued until the combustible impurities are burnt out, and the mass, from being black, becomes dirty bluish white: this is pearlash. (United States Dis- pensatory.) The colouring matter is probably manganesiate of potash. The following table shows the composition of various kinds of potash and pearlash, according to Vauquelin:—(Ann de Chim. xl. 273.) Kinds of Potash. Caustic Hydrate of Potash. Sulphate of Potash. Chloride of Potassium. Insoluble residue. Carbonic Acid and Water. ! 154 65 80 165 152 148 20 5 4 44 14 510 2 56 6 24 79 34 1 19 2 54 308 199 :<04 16 In this table it will be observed, that the American potash contains the largest quantity of caustic potash: this arises, probably, from the use of lime in its manu- tacture. Moreover, pearlash contains more carbonate of potash than potashes: L^or ?.n account ofthe proportion and composition of wood-ashes, see Berthier, Traite des Essais, t. 1" p 259. Paris, 1834. ' Vol. I—56 442 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. this must arise from the absorption of carbonic acid during its preparation.1 The potash and pearlash employed in this country are principally imported from the Bri- tish North American colonies, from Russia, and from the United States of America. p. of Refined Potashes; Potassae Carbonas, L.E.; (U. S.) Potassae Carbonas e Lixivo Cinere, D.—The London and Dublin Colleges give directions for the preparation of this substance. The London College orders of impure Carbonate of Potash, Ibij.; Distilled Water, Oiss. Dissolve the impure Carbonate of Potash in the water, and strain; then pour it into a proper vessel, and evaporate the water, that the liquor may thicken; afterwards stir it constantly with a spatula until the salt concretes. The Dublin College directs of Pearlash, in course powder, of Cold Water, each, one part. Mix, by rubbing them together, and macerate during a week in any open vessel, occasionally shaking the mixture. Then filter the lixivium, and let it evaporate to dryness in a perfectly clean silver or iron vessel. Towards the end of the evaporation let the saline mass be conti- nually stirred with an iron rod. Thus reduced to a coarse powder, let it be laid by in close vessels. If the Potashes be not sufficiently pure, before they are dissolved, let them be roasted in a crucible until they become white. [The U. S. Pharmacopoeia directs Impure Carbonate of Potassa three pounds, water two pints and a half. Dissolve the Impure Carbonate of Potassa in the water and filter the solution, then pour it into a clean iron vessel, and evaporate the water over a gentle fire till the solution thickens ; lastly, remove it from the fire and stir it constantly with an iron spatula till the salt granulates.] By the above proceedings the earthy impurities, insoluble in water, are got rid of. y. Of Pure Carbonate of Potash; Potassa? Carbonas purum, E.; Potassa Car- bonas e Tartari Crystallis, D.; (Potassa Carbonas purus, U. S.)—All the British Colleges give directions for the preparation of this substance. The London College states that Carbonate of Potass may be prepared more pure from the crystals of Bicarbonate of Potash, heated to redness. The Edinburgh College observes, that Pure Carbonate of Potash may be most readily obtained by heating crystallized Bicarbonate of Potash to redness in a crucible, but more cheaply by dissolving Bitartrate of Potash in thirty parts of boiling water, separating and washing the crystals which form on cooling; heating those in a loosely.covered crucible to redness so long as fumes are discharged; breaking down the mass and roasting it in an open crucible for two hours, with occasional stirring, lixiviating the product with distilled water, filtering the solution thus obtained, evaporating the solution to dryness, granulating the salt towards the close by brisk agitation, and heating the granular salt nearly to redness. The product of either process must be kept in well-closed vessels. The process ofthe Dublin College is as follows:—Take of Crystals of Tartar any required quantity; heat them to redness in a silver crucible lightly covered, until they cease to emit Vapours. Let the residue be reduced to a coarse powder, and roasted in the same crucible without a cover, with frequent stirring, during two hours ; then boil it with twice its weight of water during a quarter of an hour, and after the requisite subsidence pour off the clear liquor. Let this be done three times. Filter the mixed washings, and let them evaporate in a silver vessel. Let the residual salt, whilst becoming dry, be reduced by frequent stirrings to a granular form; then let it be heated to an obscure red. Before it has perfectly cooled take it from the vessel, and preserve it in well-stoppered bottles. [The U. S. Pharmacopoeia directs, Bitartrate of Potassa, two pounds; Nitrate of Potassa, a pound. Rub them separately into powder; then mix and throw them into a brass vessel heated nearly to redness, that they may undergo combustion. From the residue prepare the Pure Carbonate of Potassa in the manner directed for the Carbonate. The salts undergo decomposition by the deflagration to which they are subjected, the tar- taric and nitric acids are completely decomposed, and sufficient carbonic acid is formed by their decomposition to saturate the potassa of both salts, and form the Carbonate of Potassa.] When bicarbonate of potash is submitted to a low red heat it loses half its car- bonic acid, and is converted into the carbonate. When bitartrate is ignited various volatile substances are evolved, and the resi- due in the crucible is a mixture of charcoal and carbonate of potash, and is deno- minated black flux. "If made with raw tartar, which contains nitrogen, it is contaminated with bicyanide of potassium" (Turner.) By roasting, the charcoal is burnt off, and nearly pure carbonate of .potash is obtained from the residue by lixiviation. ■ For the mode of estimating the quantity of alkali present, see Mr. Faraday's Chemical Manipulation art Alkalimetry; also, Brande's Manual of Chemistry, 5th edit. ' CARBONATE OP POTASH. 443 The high price of pearlash has occasionally led to the manufacture of carbonate of ootash from Sal Enixum, (bisulphate of potash,) by heating it in a reverbera- torv furnace with charcoal. This yields a sulphuret of potassium, in conse- quence of the carbon deoxidizing the bisulphate. By roasting, this sulphuret is decomposed, and converted into carbonate of potash; the sulphur being dissi- pated, and the potassium combining with oxygen and carbonic acid. Properties.—Carbonate of potash is usually kept in a granular condition, on account of the difficulty of crystallizing it. In this state it is commonly denomi- nated Subcarbonate of Potash (Potassa Subcarbonas) or Salt of lartar (Sal Tarlari • Sal Absinthii; Kali praeparatum.) It is white, inodorous, and strongly alkaline to the taste. It reacts powerfully as an alkali on turmeric. It renders the red sulphate of red cabbage blue, and restores the blue colour of red- dened litmus. It is fusible at a red heat; has a strong affinity for water, so that by exposure to the air it attracts water, and becomes liquid, forming the Oleum Tarlari per deliquium. It is insoluble in alcohol, but is very soluble in water. Pure carbonate of potash may, though with some difficulty, be crystallized from its aqueous solution. The crystals are rhombic octohedrons, and belong to the right prismatic system. Characteristics.—It is known to be a carbonate by its effervescing with the strong acids, and by a solution of it causing a white precipitate (soluble in acetic acid) with lime water or with chloride of barium (see the tests for the carbonates, p. 332.) That it is a potash salt is determined by the tests for potash already men- tioned (see p. 415.) From the bicarbonate of potash it is distinguished by a solution of bichloride of mercury causing a brick-red precipitate. The presence of chloride of sodium checks or prevents the formation of this precipitate. Sul- phate of magnesia produces a white precipitate with the carbonate of potash, and not with the bicarbonate. This test, however, will not recognise the carbonate when mixed with a large quantity of bicarbonate. Composition.—Mr. Phillips (Translation of the Pharmacopoeia, p. 284. 4th ed. 1841.) says, 100 parts ofthe carbonate of potash of the shops loses about 16 parts of water when heated to redness. Hence, supposing the carbonate to have been pure, (which that of commerce never is,) its composition would be as fol- lows:— Per Atoms. Eq. Wt. Cent. Potash............... 1 --- 48 ___ 57-6 fiarbonic Acid........ 1 .... 22 .... 264 Water ............... 11 .... 135--- 160 Atoms. Eq. Wt. Carbonate Potash.............. 1 ........ 70 Water......................... 2 ........ 18 Pure Granulated Carb. j 835 ....100 0 Potash............ ) Crystallized Carbonate Potash .. 1 Impurities.—The ordinary impurities in this salt are water, silicic acid, the chlorides, and sulphates. The first is detected by the loss of weight which the salt suffers by heat; the second is recognised by supersaturating with hydro- chloric acid, evaporating, and igniting the residue: the silicic acid is insoluble in water. The other impurities are detected by supersaturating the salt with nitric acid: if the resulting solution give a white precipitate with nitrate of silver, the presence of a chloride is to be inferred; if it produce a white precipitate with chloride of barium a sulphate is present. The London College states the following to be the characters of good carbonate of potash:— Almost entirely dissolved by water; in an open vessel it spontaneously liquefies. It changes the colour of turmeric brown. When supersaturated with nitric acid, neither carbonate of soda nor chloride of barium throws down any thing, and nitrate of silver but little. 100 parts lose 16 of water by a strung heat; and the same quantity loses 26-3 parts of carbonic acid on the addition of dilute sulphuric acid. The Edinburgh College states, that— " 100 grains [of commercial carbonate of potash] lose not more than 20 on exposure to a red heat: and, when dissolved and supersaturated by pure nitric acid, the solution gives a faint 444 ELEMENTS OP .MATERIA MEDICA. haze with solution of nitrate of baryta, and is entirely precipitated by 100 minims of solution uf nitrate of silver [Ph. Ed.]" Pure Carbonate of Potash "does not lose weight at a low red heat: and a solution super. saturated with pure nitric acid is precipitated either faintly, or not at all, by solution of nitrate of baryta or nitrate of silver." Physiological Effects.—Its effects are in quality precisely those of caustic potash already described, but their intensity is much less, on account of the pre- sence of carbonic acid, which diminishes the alkaline properties of the base. When it is taken into the stomach in large quantities, it acts as a powerfully caustic poison, sometimes inducing death in twelve hours, and producing symp- toms similar to those caused by the mineral acids: at othes times, however, the patient recovers from the immediate effect of the alkali, but, in consequence of the altered condition of die alimentary canal, the assimilative process cannot be carried on; and, after dragging on a miserable existence for a few weeks, the un- fortunate sufferer dies of absolute starvation. And, lastly, in some cases, the caustic operation of the poison is principally confined to the oesophagus, causing stricture and death. In one case, related by Sir Charles Bell, (Surgical Obser- vations, part i. p. 82.) a patient swallowed soap lees: this produced inflamma- tion, which terminated in stricture. She lingered for twenty years, and died literally starved. Several other cases have been detailed. (Christison, On Poisons.) In one case no vomiting occurred, but death took place from suffoca- tion. (Lancet, 1834-5, vol. ii. p. 660.) A weak solution of carbonate of potash produces no change in the sanguineous particles drawn from the body: a satu- rated solution slightly and gradually diminishes their size. Uses.—This salt is employed, in medicine, in most of the cases already men- tioned when describing the uses of caustic potash. For example, as an antacid in dyspeptic affections; as a diuretic; as an antacid in that form of lithiasis which is accompanied with an increased secretion of lithic acid, or the lithates; in those forms of inflammation in which there is a tendency to the formation of false membranes; in gout, &c. On the recommendation of Mascagni,1 it has been employed in peripneumonia and other inflammatory diseases with benefit. (See pp. 194, 416, and 418,) Mixed with cochineal it is a popular remedy for hoop- ing-cough. Externally, it has been applied in the form of a solution to wounds; as an injection in gonorrhoea; as a collyrium in some affections of the cornea, &c. Lastly, it is sometimes employed in the manufacture of the common effervescing draught, made with either the citric or tartaric acid. 20 grs. of Carbonate of Potash are \ }l grS* °!>mm?rci?>?rystals f^™ Acid, saturated by about.......i\8 .-"-of crystals of Tartaric Acid, I i 31V- °* Lemon Juice. Administration.—It may be given either in the solid or liquid state. In the solid state it is given in doses of from gr. x. to Jss. Antidotes.—When swallowed as a poison, the antidotes are oils or acids, as already mentioned for caustic potash. LIQUOR POTASSiE CARBONATIS, L.; (U. S.) Potassse Carbonatis Aqua, D.; Aqua Kali; Solution of Carbonate of Potash. (Carbonate of Potash, _xx.; Distilled Water, Oj., dissolve and strain, L. (U. S.)—Carbonate of Potash form crystals of Tartar, one part; Distilled Water, two parts. Dissolve and filter. The sp. gr. of this solution is 1-320.) A colourless, inodorous solution. Prepared ac- cording to the London.Pharmacopceia, its sp. gr. is 1-473.—Dose, Tt^x. to f 3j. 10. POTAS'S^ BICAR'BONAS, L. E. D. (U. S.)-BICARBONATE OF POTASH. History.—This salt, formerly called carbonate of potash or aerated kali, was first prepared by Cartheuser, in 1752. i Memoria delta Societd Italiana delle Scienze, t. si. Modena, 1801—Negri, Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xiv. p 713. bicarbonate of potash. 445 The London College orders it to be prepared with Carbonate of Potash, lbvj.; Distilled Water, Cong. j. Dissolve the Carbonate of Potash in the Water, afterwards pass Carbonic Acid through the solution to saturation. Apply a gentle heat, so that whatever crystals have been formed may be re-dissolved. Then set aside (the solution,) that the crystals may be again produced : the liquor being poured off, dry them. Carbonic Acid is very easily obtained from chalk, rubbed to powder, and mixed with water, to the consistence of a sirup, upon which Sulphuric Acid is then poured, diluted with an equal weight of water. The process ofthe Dublin College is similar, except that when the solution becomes turbid [from the precipitation of silicic acid,] it is to be filtered, and again exposed to the stream of carbonic acid gas. The gas is ordered to be generated by the action of diluted muriatic acid on white marble. [The U. S. Pharmacopoeia directs Carbonate of Potassa, four pounds; Distilled Water, ten pints. The process is the same, except to filter the saturated solution before evaporation, and a heat above 160° should not be used.] In this process each equivalent of carbonate of potash unites with an additional equivalent of carbonic acid, and thereby forms the bicarbonate. The silicic acid is separated partly while the carbonic acid is passing through the solution, and partly during the crystallization of the bicarbonate. At Apothecaries' Hall, London, the process is conducted in two iron vessels; in one of which carbonic acid is generated (by the action of sulphuric acid on whiting,) in the other is contained the solution of carbonate of potash, through which the carbonic acid is passed. " The following proportions may be used for the preparation of bicarbonate of potassa upon the large scale:—100 lbs. of purified carbonate of potassa are dissolved in 17 gallons of water, which, when saturated with carbonic acid, yield from 35 to 40 lbs. of crystallized bicarbonate; 50 lbs. of carbonate of potassa are then added to the mother-liquor, with a suffi- cient quantity of water to make up 17 gallons, and the operation repeated (Hen- nell.") (Brande, Manual of Chemistry, 5th ed. p. 642. Lond. 1841.) Sul- phuric is preferable to muriatic acid for generating carbonic acid, as being both cheaper and less volatile. The Edinburgh College directs it to be prepared from Carbonate of Potash, ?vj.; and Car- bonate [Hydrated Sesquicarbonate] of Ammonia, grijss. Triturate the Carbonate of Ammo- nia to a very fine powder; mix with it the Carbonate of Potash; triturate them thoroughly together, adding by degrees a very little Water, till a smooth and uniform pulp be formed Dry thts gradually at a temperature not exceeding 140°, triturating occasionally towards the close, and continue the desiccation till a fine powder be obtained, entirely free of ammoniacal odour. In this process the volatility of the ammonia, and the affinity of the carbonate of potash for more carbonic acid, together cause the decomposition of the sesqui- carbonate of ammonia: the ammonia with a small portion of carbonic acid is dis- engaged, while the remaining acid converts the carbonate into the bicarbonate of potash. The process adopted by the Edinburgh College is that commonly known as £0fi An? Sr°C£M,fl,nE He°ry and Guibourt (Pharmacopee Raisonee, 3« nP" ? JET18*! W g,VVhe f°Il0winS directions ^ its performance:- Dissolve 500 parts of (pure) carbonate of potash in 1000 parts of distilled water, and filter: place the solution in a porcelain capsule in a salt-water bath and gradually add 300 parts of pulverized carbonate of ammonia: slightly a2 otiTVi A °nIy f f6efIe disen^ement °f ^monia is perceived, /eSer over a heated vessel, and put aside to cool. The proportions employedI bv Geiger (Handbuch der Pharmacie, 3"! Aufl.) are somewhat different they are a nTofimo^ia316 °f ^^ '*"* °nnC" °f ^ *nd six ounL of^arbo- Properties.-^ is a crystalline, colourless solid. The crvstals belong- to the It is inodorous, has an alkaline taste, and reacts very feebly as an alkali on vege- 446 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MBDICA. table colours. It is soluble in four times its weight of water at 60° F., but is in- soluble in alcohol. When exposed to the air it undergoes no change. When Fig. 67. Fig. 68. Modified Prism of Carbonate of Potash. Prism derived by Cleavage. exposed to a red heat it gives out half its carbonic acid, and becomes the carbo- nate. Characteristics.—The presence of carbonic acid and potash in this salt is known by the tests for these substances before mentioned. From the carbonate of potash it is best distinguished by a solution of bichloride of mercury, which causes a slight white precipitate or opalescence with it: whereas, with the carbo- nate it causes a copious brick-red precipitate. This test, however, will not, under all circumstances, detect the carbonate; as when the quantity is very small; or when chloride of sodium is present. Sulphate of magnesia will not prove the absence of all carbonate, as I have before stated (p. 443.) Composition.—The composition of this salt is as follows:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berard. Potash........................ 1........ 48 ........ 4758 ........ 4892 Carbonic Acid................. 2........ 44 ........ 4360........ 4201 Water......................... 1 ........ 9 ........ 882........ 907 Crystallized Bicarbonate Potash 1........101........10000........ 100 00 Impurities.—The presence of chlorides and sulphates may be recognised in this salt as in carbonate of potash (see p. 443.) Bichloride of mercury may be employed to detect carbonate of potash, with which it forms a brick-red coloured precipitate. Totally dissolved by water, the solution changes the colour of turmeric. Sulphate of mag- nesia throws down nothing from this solution, unless it be heated. From 100 parts, 30-7 are expelled by a red heat. After the addition of excess of nitric acid, chloride of barium throws down nothing, and nitrate of silver very little, if any thing, PA. Lond. " A solution in 40 parts of water does not give a brick-red precipitate with solution of cor- rosive sublimate; and when supersaturated with nitric acid, is not affected by solution of nitrate of baryta or nitrate of silver," Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects.—The effects of this salt are similar to those of the car- bonate of potash, except that its local action is much less energetic, in conse- quence of the additional equivalent of carbonic acid. Hence it is an exceedingly eligible preparation in lithiasis and other cases where we want its constitutional, and not its local, action. UsEs.^-It may be employed for the same purposes that we use caustic potash (vide Potash,) except that of acting as an escharotic. Thus, it is used as an an- tacid, to modify the quality of urine, in plastic inflammation, in glandular dis- eases, affections of the urinary organs, &c. But its most frequent use is that for making effervescing draughts, with either citric or tartaric acid. The pro- portions are as follows:— 20 grs. of Crystallized Bicarbonate of Potash are saturated by about 14 grs. of Commercial Crystals of Citric Acid, 15 grs. of Crystallized Tartaric Acid, -jiijss. of Lemon Juice. ACETATE OF POTASH. 447 Where there is great irritability of stomach, I believe the effervescing draught, made with bicarbonate of potash and citric acid, to be more efficacious than that made with carbonate of soda and tartaric acid; the resulting Citrate of Potash (Potassx Citras) being, in my opinion, a milder preparation than the tartrate of soda. The citrate promotes slightly the secretions of the alimentary canal, the cutaneous transpiration, and the renal secretion; and, like other vegetable salts of potash, renders the urine alkaline. Administration.—This salt may be given in doses of from gr. x. to gr. xv., or to the extent of half a drachm, or even a drachm. 1. LIQUOR P0TASS1 EFFERVESCENS, L.—Potassse Aqua Effervescens, E.; Effer- vescing Solution of Potash. (Bicarbonate of Potash, 3j.; Distilled Water, Oj. Dissolve the Bicarbonate of Potash in the Water, and pass into it of Carbonic Acid, compressed by force, more than sufficient for saturation. Keep the solu- tion in a well-stoppered vessel.) This is a solution of bicarbonate of potash, surcharged with carbonic acid. It is an agreeable mode of exhibiting bicarbo- nate of potash, without injuring its medicinal power. It may be extempora- neously imitated by pouring a bottle of soda water (i. e. carbonic acid water) into a tumbler containing grs. xx. of bicarbonate of potash. 2. LEMON AND KALI.—Under this name is kept in the shops a mixture of pow- dered white sugar, dried and powdered citric acid, and powdered bicarbonate of potash. It is employed as an extemporaneous effervescing draught. As it abstracts water from the atmosphere, it must be preserved in a well-stoppered bottle (See Pulveres Effervesccntes, Ph. Ed.) POTAS'S__ ACETAS, L. E. D. (U. S.)—ACETATE OF POTASH. History.—It appears to have been first clearly described by Raymond Lully, in the thirteenth century, and has been known by several appellations; such as Terra Foliata Tarlari, Diuretic Salt, &c. Natural History.—Geiger (Handbuch der Pharmacie.) says this salt is found in some mineral springs. It probably exists in most of those plants which by incineration, yield carbonate of potash. The sap of the elm, and of most trees, Winter's bark, linseed, senna leaves, the rhizome of ginger, &c. are said to con- tain it. Preparation.—All the British Colleges give directions for the preparation of this salt. The London College orders of Carbonate of Potash, Ibj.; Acetic Acid.f^xxvj.; Distilled Water, f^xij. Add the carbonate of potash to the acid, first mixed with water, to satu- ration, then strain. Evaporate the liquor in a sand-bath, the heat being cautiously ap- plied, until the salt is dried. The Edinburgh College orders of Pyroligneous Acid, Oiss.; Carbonate of Potash (dry.) _; vij.,or a sufficiency. Add the carbonate gradually to the acid till complete neu- tralization is accomplished. Evaporate the solution over the vapour-bath till it is so concentrated, as to form a concrete mass when cold. Allow it to cool and crystallize in a 6olid cake; which must be broken up, and immediately put into well-closed bottles. The Dublin College gives the following directions for its preparation :—Take of Car- bonate of Potash from Crystals of Tartar any required quantity. Pour on it, by repeated additions, Distilled Vinegar of a medium heat, and in quantity about five times the weight of the salt. When the effervescence shall have ceased, and the liquor have given off va- pours during some time, let the additions of distilled vinegar be repeated at intervals, until effervescence shall have completely ceased. By continued evaporation the salt will become dry, and by a moderate increase of the heat it is to be cautiously liquefied. When the salt has cooled, let it be dissolved in water: filter the liquor, and boil it down until, when removed from the fire, on cooling, it forms a mass of crystals. [The U. S. Pharmacopoeia directs acetic acid a pint, Carbonate of Potassa a sufficient quantity. Add the Carbonate of Potassa gradually to the acetic acid till it is saturated; 448 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. then filter and evaporate cautiously, by means of a sand-bath, until a dry salt re- mains, keep this in closely stopped bottles.] In this process the acid unites with the potash ofthe carbonate, and disengages carbonic acid. Properties.—It is usually met with as a colourless, white solid, with a foliated texture (which is given to it by fusion and cooling,) odourless, but having a pun- gent saline taste, and a soapy feel. It is exceedingly deliquescent; and, therefore, ought to be preserved in a well-stoppered bottle. It is very soluble both in water and alcohol; indeed, in water, it is one ofthe most soluble salts we are acquainted with. At 60°, 100 parts of the salt will dissolve in 102 parts of water. When heated, it fuses, and is decomposed into acetone or pyroacetic spirit (C3 H8 O) and carbonate of potash. One equivalent of this spirit contains the elements of one equivalent of acetic acid, minus those of one equivalent of carbonic acid. Characteristics.—See the tests for the acetates, p. 350, and for potash, p. 415. Its deliquescence is a characteristic. Composition.—Its composition is as follows:— Atoms. Eg. Wt. Per Cent. Wenicl. Potash.................... 1 ...... 48 ...... 48-5 ...... 50 15 Acetic Acid (dry)........, 1 ...... 51 ...... 515 ...... 4985 Acetate of Potash......... 1 ...... 99 ...... 1000 ...... 10000 Impurity.—It should be white and perfectly neutral. Frequently, however, it re-acts as an alkali, owing to a slight excess of potash. The presence of chlorides may be detected by nitrate of silver; of sulphates, by chloride of barium; of metals, by hydrosulphuric acid, or ferrocyanide of potassium. Physiological Effects.—Two or three drachms cause purging, which is some- times accompanied with griping. In smaller cases, more especially if largely diluted, this salt acts as a mild diaphoretic. In its passage to the kidneys it be- comes decomposed, and is converted into the carbonate of potash, which may be detected in the urine. Probably the pulmonary excretions of those who employ it also become impregnated with this salt, since it has been said that in persons with • delicate lungs it acts as an irritant to these organs. Uses.—In this country it is rarely employed, except as a diuretic in dropsical complaints. It is a valuable adjunct to other renal excitants. On the continent, it is administered in various diseases, as an alterative or resolvent. Thus in schir- rhus of the pylorus, chlorosis, and visceral and glandular enlargements. It may be employed in the lithic acid diathesis, to render the urine alkaline. It is of course improper when phosphatic deposites are observed in the urine. Administration.—It is given as a diuretic in doses of from a scruple to a drachm and a half, dissolved in some mild diluent. In larger doses, as two or three drachms, it acts as a purgative. 12, POTAS'SiE BITAR'TRAS, L. E. D. (U. S.)—BITARTRATE OF POTASH. History.—In its impure form as a deposite from wine, it must have been known at a very early period. " It is called tartar," says Paracelsus, " because it produces oil, water, tincture, and salt, which burn the patient as hell does." Scheele, in 1769, first explained its nature. Its synonymes are Cream of Tartar, Superlartrate of Potash, and acidulous Tartrate of Potash. Natural History.—It is a constituent of many vegetables: thus it is' found in Grapes, Tamarinds, Cetraria Islandica, &c. Production.—All the bitartrate of commerce is obtained during the vinous fer- mentation. It exists in solution in grape juice; but being very slightly soluble in a mixture of alcohol and water, it deposites during fermentation (that is, when alcohol is produced,) and forms a crust on the sides of the cask. In this state it is known in commerce under the name of Crude Tartar (Tartarus crudus>) or bitartrate of potash. 449 Argol, and which is termed White or Red (Tartarus albus vel Tartarus ruber,) according as it is obtained from white or red wine. Ar*ol, or Crude Tartar, occurs in crystalline cakes of a reddish colour, and is composed of the bitartrate of potash, tartrate of lime (and sometimes biracemate of potash,) colouring and extractive matter, &c. . At Montpellier, bitartrate of potash is procured fhus:-Argol is boiled in water, and the solution allowed to cool, by which a deposite of crystals is obtained: these are washed with cold water, and dissolved in boiling water, containing charcoal and alumina (clay;) the latter substances being employed to remove the colouring matter with which they precipitate. The clear liquor is allowed to cool slowly, by which crystals of the bitartrate are formed. These constitute the lartarus ae- puratus or Crystalli Tarlari of the older chemists. If a hot saturated solution of tartar be cooled, the surface ofthe liquid becomes coated by a layer ol very tine crystals of bitartrate: hence this crust was called Cream of Tartar (Cremor 1 ai- tari.) ... Properties,—As met with in commerce, this salt forms a white crystalline mass, without odour, but having an acidulous and gritty taste. According to Mr. Fig. 69. Fig. 70. An ordinary perfect Crystal of Bitartrate of Potash. Common Crystal of ditto. Brooke (Ann. of Phil. N. S. vol. vii. p. 161.) its crystals are right rhombic prisms (figs. 69 and 70.) Liebig, (Turner's Chemistry, 7th ed.) however, says they are oblique rhombic prisms. It is unaltered by exposure to the air; but when heated, it decomposes, swells up, evolves various volatile products, gives out an odour of caramel, and is converted into Black Flux (Fluor niger,)—a compound of char- coal and carbonate of potash (see p. 442.) If the bitartrate be deflagrated with nitrate of potash, the residue is While Flux (Fluor albus,) or carbonate of potash (see p. 442.) Bitartrate of potash is very slightly soluble in water, and is insoluble in alcohol. Characteristics.—One character of this salt is derived from the phenomena at- tending its conversion into black flux, as above mentioned. If black flux be di- gested in water we obtain a solution of carbonate of potash, known by the proper- ties before mentioned (p. 443.) Another character of the bitartrate is its slight solubility in water, and' its solution reddening litmus. The addition of caustic potash increases its solubility, whereas alcohol diminishes it. Acetate of lead added to a solution of the bitartrate forms a copious white precipitate; lime water has the same effect. Mixed with alkaline carbonates it produces effervescence. Boracic acid, or borax, very much increases the solubility of this salt in water, forming what has been termed Soluble Cream of Tartar (Cremor Tartari solu- bilis,) or Tartarus Boraxalus of some writers. Composition.—Crystallized bitartrate of potash has the following composition:— Potash ................ Atoms. Eq Wt. ___ 48 ... Per Cent. .. . 25 3 . Berzelius .......... 2 .... .... 1.12 ... 9 ... .... 47 .... .... 70.45 .... 475 Crystallized Bitartrate of Potash I Vol. I.—57 1M 100-0 ........ 10000 450 elements of materia medica. Impurity.—Bitartrate of potash usually contains from 2 to 5 per cent, of tar- trate of lime, and hence a little carbonate of lime may be detected in black flux. This is of no material consequence in a medicinal point of view. If the powdered bitartrate be adulterated with either alum or bisulphate of potash, the fraud may be detected by chloride of barium, which causes a white precipitate (sulphate of baryta) insoluble in nitric acid. It is sparingly dissolved by water. It renders the colour of litmus red. At a red heat it is converted into carbonate of potash. Ph. Lond. " Entirely soluble in 40 parts of boiling water : forty grains in solution are neutralized with 30 grains of crystallized carbonate of soda; and when then precipitated by 70 grains of nitrate of lead, the liquid remains preeipitable by more ofthe test." Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects.—When taken in small doses, diluted with water, it acts as a refrigerant and diuretic : in larger doses (as two or three drachms) it purges, and frequently creates flatulence and griping. By continued use it dis- orders the digestive functions, and causes emaciation, most probably from defective nutrition. In excessive doses it produces inflammation of the stomach and intes- tines. A fatal case has been recorded by Mr. Tyson. (Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xxi. p. 177.) A man, to relieve the effects of drunkenness, swallowed four or five table-spoonsful of cream of tartar. It caused violent vomiting and purging, and other symptoms of gastro-enteritis, and pain in the loins. The thighs and legs ap- peared paralyzed. He died on the third day. On a post-mortem examination the stomach and intestines were found inflamed. Uses.—Bitartrate of potash is frequently employed to form a refrigerant drink in febrile and inflammatory diseases. It allays thirst, diminishes preternatural heat, and reduces vascular action. As a diuretic in dropsical complaints it is used either in the same way, or taken in the form of an electuary. As a purga- tive it is not usually exhibited alone, but, in general, with jalap, sulphur, senna, or some other purgative. Thus, in dropsical complaints, a very valuable hydra- gogue cathartic is a mixture of jalap and bitartrate of potash. In skin diseases and affections of the rectum (as piles, stricture, and prolapsus,) a very useful purgative is an electuary composed of sulphur, bitartrate of potash, and confec- tion of senna. An effervescing aperient may be prepared by mixing three drachms of the bitartrate with two and a half drachms of carbonate of soda: the resulting salt is the potash-tartrate of soda. As a tooth-powder, bitartrate of potash is sometimes used on account of its gritty qualities: a very good dentrifice consists of equal parts of bitartrate, powdered rhatany root, and myrrh (see some observa- tions on dentrifices at p. 211.) Administration.—As a hydragogue cathartic the dose is from four to eight drachms: as an aperient, one or two drachms: as a diuretic, in repeated doses of a scruple to a drachm (See Pulvis Jalapce Compositus.) 1. IMPERIAL; Tisana Imperialis.—It is formed by dissolving one drachm or a drachm and a half of cream of tartar in a pint of boiling water, and flavouring with lemon peel and sugar. When cold the solution may be taken, ad libitum, as a refrigerant drink in febrile complaints, and as a diuretic. 8. SERUM LACTIS TARTARIZATUM; Cream of Tartar Whey.—This is prepared by adding about two drachms of the bitartrate to a pint of milk. It may be diluted with water, and taken in febrile and dropsical complaints. 13. POTASS„E TAR'TRAS,/,. E. D. (U. S.)—TARTRATE OF POTASH. History.—This salt was known to Lemery. It has been termed Tartarized Tartar, Tartarized Kali, Soluble Tartar, or Vegetable Salt. Preparation.—All the British Colleges give directions for the preparation of this salt. The London College orders of Bitartrate of Potash, powdered, lbiij.; Carbonate of Polash, 1 xvj., or as much as may be sufficient; Boiling Water, Ovj. Dissolve the carbonate of potash TARTRATE of potash. 451 in the boiling water, then add the bitartrate of potash, and boil. S ram the liquor, and after- war s boil it down until a pellicle floats, and set it aside that crys als may be formed The liquor being poured off, dry these, and again evaporate the liquor that crystals may be pro- dUTr,de processes of the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges are essentially the same. [And also that of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia.] In this process the excess of acid in the bitartrate is saturated by the potash of the carbonate; the carbonic acid escapes. PROPERTiEs.-In is usually met with in the shops in a granular state, but it ought to be crystallized. Its crystals are right rhombic Fig 71. prisms. To the taste this salt is saline, and somewhat bitter. It deliquesces when exposed to the air, and is soluble in its own weight of water at 50°; the solution decomposes by keeping. _ Characteristics.—When heated to redness it is de- composed, leaving as a residue charcoal and carbonate of potash. A solution of the tartrate produces white precipitates with solutions of acetates of lead, nitrate of silver, and chloride of calcium; the precipitates being Crystal of Tartrate of soluble in nitric acid. Bichloride of platinum, assisted Potash. by heat, causes a black precipitate in a solution ot this salt. When heated, the salt evolves the odour of cara- mel. If an excess of any strong acid (as the sulphuric) be added to a solution of this salt, we obtain crystals of the bitartrate. Hence acids, and most acidulous salts, are incompatible with it: as also are tamarinds. The tartrate is readily dis- tinguished from the bitartrate by its deliquescent property, its greater solubility, and its want of acidity. Composition.—The following is the composition of this salt:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berzeliu*. Potash.............. 1 ........ 4"! ........ 421 ........ 4131 TartaricAcid....... 1 ........ 66 ........ 579 ........ 5869 Tartrate of Potash. 1 ........ 114 ........ 1000 ........ 100 00 The large crystals contain, according to Dr. Thomson, (First Principles of Chemistry, vol. ii. p. 264.) two equivalents of water. The same authority states, that he has had crystals of this salt in needles which seemed to contain no water of crystalization. Impurity.—It may contain excess of acid or of base, either of which is easily recognised ; the one by litmus, the other by turmeric. The sulphates may be detected by chloride'of barium throwing down a white precipitate insoluble in nitric acid. Physiological Effects.—This salt is a gentle purgative, analogous in its action to the sulphate of potash, from which it differs in being milder in its operation, and partially digestible; for, like the other vegetable salts ofthe alkalis, it is decomposed in the system, and converted into the carbonate, in which state it is found in the urine. It is said to have the power of preventing the griping of other more active cathartics, as senna and scammony; but, from my own personal observations, I doubt the correctness of this statement. Cses.—It is employed as a mild purgative in dyspepsia, at the commencement of diarrhcea, in some liver complaints, &c. Sometimes it is used as an adjunct to other more active purgatives; as the infusion of senna. Administration.—it may be given in doses of from two or three drachms to half an ounce, or even an ounce. 452 ELEMENTS OT MATERIA MEDICA. Order XII.—COMPOUNDS OF SODIUM. I. SO'DII CHLO R1DUM, L. (U. S.)_CliLORIDE OF SODIUM. (Soda' Murias, E D.) History.—As this salt is a necessary and indispensable seasoning to our food, it doubtless must have been known to, and employed by, the first indinduals of our race. The earliest notice of it occurs in the writings of Moses, ( Gen. xix. 26; Lev. ii. 13.) and Homer. (Iliad, lib. ix. 214.) It has received various names, such as Common Salt, Culinary Salt, and Muriate or Hydrochlorate of Soda. Natural History.—It occurs in both kingdoms of nature. «. In the Inorganized Kingdom.—An enormous quantity of this salt is contained in the waters of the ocean. At an average calculation sea water contains 2-5 per cent, of chloride of sodium. (Vide p. 246 ) It is found also in great abundance in mineral waters. (Gairdner, On Mineral Springs, p. 12.) It has not hitherto been found in the oldest stratified rocks, (De la Bache, Researches in Theoret. Geol. p. 31.) but is met with in all the later formations. Thus Mr. Featherstonhaugh (Phil. Mag. N. S. vol. v. p. 139 ; vol. vi. p. 75; and vol. vii. p. 198.) states, that salt or brine springs occur in certain parts of the United States,1 in the old Iran. sition slate rocks. Salt springs occur in various parts of England, in the coal measures. (Bakewell, Ittlrod. to Geology, 4th ed. p. 252.) The rock salt of Cheshire, and the brine springs of Worcestershire, occur in the old red sandstone group. (Trans. Geol. Society, vol. i. p. 38, and vol. ii. p. 94.) The salt of Ischel, in the Austrian Alps, belongs lo the oolitic group, (Sedgwick and Murchison, Phil. Mag. N. S. vol. viii. p. 102.) as does also that found in the lias in Switzerland. (Bakewell, op. cit. p. 253.) The immense mass or bed of salt near Cardona, in Spain, and which has been described by Dr. Traill, (Trans. Geolog. Society, vol. iii. p. 404.) occurs in the cretaceous group. (De la Bache, op. cit. p. 293.) The salt deposite of Wieliczka, near Cracow, belongs to the supracretaceous group. (Ibid, p. 270.) Lastly, in the Crimea, salt is said to be daily accumulating in the inland lakes. 0. In the Organized Kidgdom.—It is found in plants which grow by the sea side, in the blood and urine of man, &c. Preparation.—The salt consumed in this country is procured by the evapora- tion of the water of brine springs. The salt districts are, North wich, Middlewich, and Nantwich, in Cheshire; Shirley wich, in Staffordshire; and droitwich, in Wor- cestershire. In Cheshire the rock salt (called also Fossil Salt, Sal Fos.silis or Sal Gemmce) constitutes two beds, which vary in thickness from 4 to 130 feet, and are separated by a bed of clay, 10 or 12 feet thick; the uppermost bed of salt being 30 or more feet from the surface of the earth. It is for the most part of a reddish colour, but is also met with in transparent colourless masses. It is called in com- merce, Prussia rock, and is largely exported for purification. Brine springs are met with both above and below the level ofthe beds of rock salt. The brine is pumped up into cisterns or reservoirs, from which it is drawn when wanted into large oblong wrought-iron evaporating pans, which are usually worked with four or more fires. If the brine be not completely saturated with chloride of sodium, a little rock salt is added to it. By the evaporation of the water the salt deposites in crystals. The impurities separate in the form of a scum (which is removed by a skimming-dish,) and of a sediment called pan-scale, pan- scratch, or pan-bake. The grains or crystals of salt vary in size, according to the degree of heat employed in their preparation. The small-grained salt is formed by the strongest heat, and constitutes the butter, stoved, lump, or basket salt of commerce; while the larger crystals, forming the bay and fishery salts of com- merce, are formed at a lower temperature.2 In some parts of the world chloride of sodium is obtained from sea water: but ' For an account of the American salt formation, consult J. Van Rensselaer's Essay on Salt containing JVotices of its origin. Formation. Geological Position, and principal Localities, embracing a particular Vescnption of the American Salines. New York, 1823.-This author stales that the American fait formation occurs in the old red sand stone. * For farther information on the manufacture of common salt, consult Aikin's Dictionary of Chemistry, vol. ii. p 118; Holland's Agricultural Survey of Cheshire; Dr. Henry, Phil. Trans. 1810- Mr Purnivafi WTiarton andMirston Patent Salt Refineries, l^ri, Dr. Brownrigg's Art of making Common Salt 1748' and Dr. Jackson, Phil. Trans. No. 53, p. Id 0. CHLORIDE OF SODIUM. 453 the mode of extracting it varies according to circumstances. In France and on the shores of the Mediterranean, it is procured by solar evaporation, and is then called Bay Salt. 'Ihe French salt marshes are shallowtoasins or pans of clay, excavated along the sea shore. The water is admitted, by a sluice, into a reservoir, where evapo- ration goes on while mechanical impurities are "deposited. It then passes by a subterraneous communication into a series of rectangular pans, and proceeds by a very circuitous route through them to another subterranean gutter, by which it is conveyed into a long, narrow, circuitous canal. From this it passes into a second, and subsequently into a third series of salt pans. During the whole of this time it is undergoing evaporation, and when it arrives at the third series of pans it is so far concentrated that crystallization is soon effected. The salt is known to be on the point of crystallizing when the liquid assumes a reddish tint. It is then with- drawn from the pans, and collected upon the borders, in conical or pyramidal heaps, when it drains and dries. These operations begin in March and finish in September.1 At Lymington,2 in Hampshire, salt is prepared from the sea water, which is ad- mited into a reservoir or pond, and from this successively into three series of brine- pits or salt-pans, where the water is partly evaporated by solar heat. When the liquid has acquired a sufficient density, it is conveyed into rectangular iron pans, where it is evaporated. Eight hours are required to boil each charge to dryness. The salt is then removed into wooden troughs or cisterns, perforated by holes in the bottom, where it is allowed to drain, and is afterwards removed to the ware- house, where it also drains. The drainings from the wooden trough drop on up- right stakes (old broom handles, &c.,) and on these the salt concretes, in the course often or twelve days, forming large stalactitic masses called salt-cats, each weighing 60 or 80 lbs. The residual liquor (bittern or the bitter liquor) is received into underground pits, and during the winter season is used in the manufacture of Epsom salt (see Sulphate of Magnesia.) In cold countries, congelation is resorted to as a means of concentrating sea water; for when a weak saline solution is exposed to great cold, it separates into two parts: one almost pure water, which freezes, and the other which remains liquid, and contains the larger proportion of salt. Another method of concentra- tion is by graduating houses: these are skeletons of houses, in which the water is pumped up, and allowed to fall on heaps of brushwood, thorns, &c, by which it is divided and agitated with the air, and evaporation promoted. The farther con- centration is effected by heat. Purification.—The Edinburgh College gives the following directions for the preparation of Pure Chloride of Sodium, (Sodae Murias purum, E.) "Take any convenient quantity of Muriate of Soda; dissolve it in boiling water; filter the solution, and boil it down over the fire,skimming off the crystals which form; wash the crys- tals quickly with cold water and dry them." A solution of this pure salt "is not precipitated by solution of carbonate of ammonia fol- lowed by solution of phosphate of soda : a solution of 9 grains in distilled water, is not en- tirely precipitated by a solution of 26 grains of nitrate of silver." The carbonate of ammonia and phosphate of soda are employed to detect the presence of any magnesian salt. Properties.—It crystallizes in colourless cubes, or more rarely in regular octo- hedrons. In the salt pans the little cubes are frequently so aggregated as to form hollow, four-sided pyramids, whose sides have some resemblance to a series of steps: these are technically called hoppers. The specific weight of salt is 2-17. The 1 For farther details, are Phil. Trans. No. 51, p. 1025: and Dumas Trait* d, nh;mi. » •• 454 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. taste is pure saline. When free from all foreign matters, chloride of sodium is permanent in the air, but ordinary salt is slightly deliquescent, owing to the pre- sence of small quantities of chloride of magnesium. When heated it decrepitates (more especially the coarse-grained or bay salt,) at a red heat fuses, and at a still higher temperature volatilizes. Rock salt is transcalent or diathermanous: that is, it transmits radiant heat much more readdy than many other transparent bodies, as glass (see p. 45.) It is soluble in water, and slightly so in alcohol. Hot and even boiling water dissolves very little more salt than cold water. At 60° it requires about twice and a-half its weight of water to dissolve it. Characteristics.—Its characters as a soda salt are the following:— Its solution produces no precipitate with the hydrosulphurets, ferrocyanides, phosphates, or carbonates. From the salts of potash it is distinguished by causing no precipitate with perchloric or tartaric acid, or with bichloride of platinum, and by the yellow tinge which it communicates to the flame of alcohol. As a chloride it is known by nitrate of silver throwing down a white precipitate (chloride of silver,) soluble in ammonia, but insoluble in nitric acid. Lastly, chloride of sodium is odourless, and devoid of bleaching properties. Composition.—Pure chloride of sodium has the following composition :— Atoms. .. 1 ... Eq. Wt. ..... 24 ... ..... 36 ... Per Cent. ..... 40 ..... ..... 60 ..... Ure. ... 39-98 .. 1 ... ... 6002 Chloride of Sodium. .. 1 ... ..... 60 ... ....100 ..... .. 100-00 The crystals contain no water in chemical combination with them, but a little is frequently mechanically lodged between their plates. Impurities.—The commercial salt of this country is sufficiently pure for all dietetical and therapeutical purposes; and its low price is a sufficient guarantee against adulteration. In France, however, serious accidents have happened in consequence of the use of sophisticated salt. (Christison's Treatise on Poisons, 3d ed. p. 604; and Devergie, Med. Leg. t. ii. p. 876.) COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS KINDS OF SALT (HENRY.) 1000 Parts by Weight consist of Kind of Salt. ea _ f St. Ube's___ Martin's. - (St. a { St. w I Ole Scotch (common)...... I Scotch (Sunday)....... I Lymington (common). Ditto (cat)............ Crushed rock. I Fishery...... I Common..... Stoved......., 3 T5 960 959| 964^ 9351 971 937 983i 983-J 9621 S trace do. do. O'Ta 0-i 0-i 0-i 28 111 11 5 0| 28 Hi 11 5 0'i 1 1 1 -3 231 19 191 61 Hi 151 -5 171 41 35 5 a a 28 25 23J 321 161 50 61 HI 141 151 40 35} 4 641 1 29 2 63 1 I 12 Physiological Effects ~. On Vegetables.—In minute quantity chloride of sodium is injurious to very few, if any, plants, and to some it appears to be bene- ficial. Used moderately it is a most excellent manure to certain soils. In large quantities it is injurious, though unequally so, to all plants. (Davy, Agricull. Chem.; and De Candolle, Phys. Veg. pp. 1262 and 1343.) CHLORIDE OF SODIUM. 455 fi On Animals.—To marine animals, common salt is a necessary constituent of their drink. It is relished by most land animals. " The eagerness with which many quadrupeds and birds press towards salt springs and lakes, situated in inland districts, for the purpose of tasting their contents, indicates," says Dr. Fleming, (Philosophy of Zoology, vol. i. p. 316.) " a constitutional fondness for salt." In the Ruminanlia the salutary effects of salt are especially observed "They con- tribute powerfully," observes Moiroud, (Pharmac. Vetenn. p. 410.) "to prevent, in these animals, the influence of rainy seasons and wet pasturage, as well as damaged fodder. Given to animals intended for fattening, it gives more con- sistence to the fat and more taste to the meat." It appears to be offensive and injurious to many of the lower animals: hence when rubbed on meat, it prevents the attack of insects, and when applied to the skin of leeches causes vomiting. # v On Mm.—Chloride of sodium serves some important and essential uses in the animal economy. It is employed, on account of its agreeable taste, by the peo- ple of all nations, from the most refined to the most barbarous; but the quantity taken varies with different individuals (see the Dietetical Effects of Salt at p. 97.) It is an invariable constituent of the healthy blood. Dr. Stevens (On the Blood.) has shown that in certain states of disease (as cholera) there is a deficiency of the saline matter in the blood, and in those cases the blood has a very dark or black appearance. Some of the properties of the sanguineous fluid, such as its fluidity, its stimulating qualities, and its power of self-preservation, are probably more or less connected with its saline constituents. The chloride of sodium found in some of the secretions, as the bile and tears, doubtless serves some important purposes. It is said that persons who take little or no salt with their food are very sub- ject to intestinal worms. Lord Somerville, in his address to the Board of Agri- culture, states that the ancient laws of Holland " ordained men to be kept on bread alone unmixed with salt, as the severest punishment that could be inflicted upon them in their moist climate; the effect was horrible: these wretched crimi- nals are said to have been devoured by worms engendered in their own stomachs." Mr. Marshall (Med. and Phys. Journal, vol. xxxix.) tells us of a lady who had a natural aversion to salt: she was most dreadfully affected with worms during the whole of her life. Considered in a therapeutical point of view, it is an irritant in its local opera- tion. Thus, applied to the skin and the mucous membranes, it causes redness. Taken into the stomach in large quantity (as in the dose of a table-spoonful or more) it excites vomiting; and, when thrown into the large intestines, produces purging. In moderate quantities it promotes the appetite, and assists digestion and assimilation. If used too freely it occasions thirst. The long-continued em- ployment of salted provisions occasions scurvy: of the correctness of this state- ment there cannot exist, I think, a shadow of doubt, notwithstanding the bold denial given to it by Dr. Stevens; (Op. cit. p. 262.) a denial the more remarka- ble, since Dr. Stevens admits he has never seen a single case of the diseaseT His opinion is evidently founded on hypothetical grounds, and is in direct oppo- sition to the best medical testimony we possess. In large doses it operates as an irritant poison. A man swallowed a pound of it in a pint of ale, and died within twenty-four hours, with all the symptoms of irritant poisoning. His stomach and intestines were found excessively inflamed. (Christison, Treatise on Poi- sons.) In some diseases the moderate use of salt produces the effects of a tonic. It acts as a stimulant to the mucous membranes, the absorbent vessels, and glands. Occasionally, it seems to merit the designation of liquefaoient, alterative, and re- solvent (see p. KM.) I have already explained (see p. 123) Liebig's notion of the action of the alkaline salts on the tissues. 456 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Properly diluted and injected into the veins, in cholera, it acts as a powerful stimulant and restorative; the pulse, which was before imperceptible, usually be- comes almost immediately restored, and, in some cases, reaction and recovery follow. A solution of common salt produces no change in the size and form of the sanguineous particles out of the body. (Mtiller's Physiology.) Dr. Mac- leod injected a solution of common salt into the jugular vein of a rabbit which had been asphyxied, but without restoring or producing resuscitation. (Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. ix. p. 358.) Uses.—The following are some of the most important therapeutical uses of chloride of sodium. As a vomit it has been recommended in malignant cholera, in preference to other emetics.1 In narcotic poisoning, in the absence of the stomach-pump and the ordinary emetic substances, it may also be employed. The dose of it is one or two table-spoonsful in a tumblerful of water. A tea-spoonful of flour of mus- tard assists its action. As a purgative it is seldom employed except in the form of enema. One or two table-spoonsful of common salt dissolved in a pint of gruel form a very useful clyster for promoting evacuations from the bowels. It has been used, in some diseases, with the view of restoring the saline quali- ties of the blood. In cholera the blood is remarkably black, incapable of coagu- lating, and contains more albumen and hematosine, but less water and saline parts, than natural; while the enormous discharges from the bowels consist of a weak solution of albumen containing the salts of the blood.3 The obvious indications, therefore, in the treatment of this disease, are to restore the water and saline mat- ters to the blood. Hence originated what has been called the saline treatment of cholera. This, at first, consisted in the exhibition of certain alkaline salts by the mouth, and in the form of enemata. The following are formulae which have been recommended:— Take of Carbonate of soda .... half a drachm. Chloride of Sodium.... a scruple. Chlorate of Potash___seven grains. Dissolve in half a tumblerful of water. This to be repeated at intervals of from 15 minutes to an hour, according to circumstances. (Dr. Stevens, op. cit. p. 459.) Take of Phosphate of Soda........10 grains. Chlurrde of Sodium........10 grains. Carbonate of Soda........ 5 grains. Sulphate of Soda..........10 grain*. Dissolve in six ounces of water. The mixture to be repeated every second hour. (Dr. O'ihaughnessy, op. cit. p. 54.) This plan, however, was followed by that of injecting saline solutions into the veins: which was, I believe, first practised by Dr. Latta. (Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. x. p. 257.) The quantity of saline solution which has been in some cases injected is enormous, and almost incredible. In one case " 120 ounces were in- jected at once, and repeated to the amount of 330 ounces in twelve hours. In another, 376 ounces were thrown into the veins between Sunday at 11 o'clock, a. m., and Tuesday at 4, p. m.: that is, in the course of fifty-three hours, upwards of thirty-one pounds. The solution that was used consisted of two drachms of muriate and two scruples of carbonate of soda to sixty ounces of water. It was at the temperature of 108 or 110 deg. F." (Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. x. p. 257.) In another series of cases 40 lbs. were injected in twenty hours: 132 ounces in the first two hours; 8 lbs. in half an hour! (Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. x. pp. 379-80.) The immediate effects of these injections, in a large majority of cases, were most astonishing: restoration of pulse, improvement in the respiration, voice, and ge- neral appearance, return of consciousness, and a feeling of comfort. In many instances, however, these effects were only temporary, and were followed by collapse and death. In some, injurious consequences resulted, as phlebitis, * Searle, Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. viii. p. 538; Sir D. Barry, ibid. vol. ix. pp. 321 and 407; BrailofTand Isenbeck, ibid, p 490* a Dr. OShaughnessy, Report on the Chemical Pathology of the Malignant Cholera, 1832. HYPOCHLORITE OF SODA. 457 (Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. x. p. 453.) drowsiness, &c. (Lond. Med. Gaz. p. 447.) The reports as to the ultimate benefit of the saline treatment in cholera are so contradictory, that it is exceedingly difficult to offer the student a correct and impartial estimate of its value. That it failed in a large proportion of cases after an extensive trial, and greatly disappointed some of its staunchest supporters, cannot be doubted. (Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. x. p. 717.) Dr. Griffin (Dr. Grif- fin, Recollections of Cholera, in Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xxii. p. 319.) states, that all the published cases of injection which he can find recorded amount to 282, of which 221 died, while 61 only recovered: but he thinks that the average reco- veries from collapse by this method of treatment " far exceeded the amount of any other treatment in the same disease and under the same circumstances." Common salt has been employed as an anthelmintic. For this purpose it is exhibited in large doses by the mouth, or, when the worms are lodged in the rectum, a strong solution is administered in the form of enema. When leeches have crept into the rectum, or have been accidentally swallowed, a solution of salt should be immediately used. As a chemical antidote chloride of sodium may be administered in poisoning by nitrate of silver. As an alterative and tonic it is useful in scrofula and glandular diseases. As an astringent, in hemor- rhages, dysentery, and diarrhoea, it has been administered in combination with lime juice or lemon juice. (Memoir of the late Dr. Wright, p. 322.) It is fre- quently used as a dentifrice (see p. 212.) As an external application salt has been used for various purposes. Thus, a saturated solution, applied with friction, is employed, as a counter-irritant and discutient, in glandular enlargements and chronic diseases of the joint; as a stimu- lant, it is rubbed on the chest in fainting and asphyxia. A solution of salt is employed for baths, (cold and warm,) affusion, the douche, &c. (See Sea Wa- ter, p. 247.) Administration.—As a tonic and alterative, the dose of salt is from ten grains to a drachm. As an emetic, from two to three table-spoonsful in five or six ounces of warm water. As a cathartic, from half an ounce to an ounce. In the form of clyster, it is used to the extent of two or even three table-spoonsful. (See Saline or Brine Waters, p. 252.) 2. SO'DA' HYPOCHLO'RIS.—HYPOCHLORITE OF SODA. (Liquor Sodie ChlorinatEe, L.) (U. S.) History.—The disinfecting power of this substance was discovered by Labar- raque about 1820. (Alcock, Essay on the the of the Chlorurels, p. vi. Lond. 1827.) In the French Codex this solution is called Hypochloris Sodicus Aqua solutus. It is commonly known in the shops under the name of Chloride of Soda, Liqueur de Labarraque, or Labarraque''s Soda Disinfecting Liquid. Other synonymes for it are Chloruret ofthe Oxide of Sodium, and Oxymuriate of Soda. Preparation.—There are two methods in use for preparing a solution of hypo- chlorite of soda. The following is the ptoccss of the London Pharmacopoeia :—Take of Carbonate of Soda, Ihj.; Distilled \V;iter, f^xlviij.; Chloride of Sodium, §iv.; Binoxide of Manganese, ^iij.; Sulphuric Acid, ^iv. Dissolve the Carbonate of Soda in two pints of Water; then put the Chloride of Sodium and Binoxide of Manganese, rubbed to powder, into a retort; and add to them the Sulphuric Acid, previously mixed with three fluid-ounces of the Water, and cooled. Heat, (the mixture,) and pass the Chlorine first through five fluid-ounces of the Water, and afterwards into the solution ofthe Carbonate of Soda above directed. When chlorine gas comes in contact with a solution of carbonate of soda, three salts are formed: chloride of sodium, hypochlorite of soda, and bicarbonate of soda. Vol. I.—5fc 458 ELEMENTS OP MATERIA MEDICA. leq Hypochloro.Acid44 \ X '*■ HyP°ch,orite 8oda .1 eq. Chloride Sodium .. 152 76 MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. PRODUCTS. 2eq. Carbo Soda 108....................------ -° "1 Bicarbonate Soda !2 eq. Carlfi- Acid 44- 1 eq. Soda......32- 1 eq.Oiygen.... 8- 1 eq. Sodium.... 24 . 2 eq. Chlorine . 72 j J «?• Chl°rine. (1 eq. Chlorine. 888 288 The essential and characteristic properties of this solution depend on the hypo- chlorite of soda. The changes which take place in the manufacture of chlorine have been already explained (p. 217.) In the French Codex this solution is directed to be prepared as follows :—Diffuse one part of dry chloride of lime (hypochlorite of lime) through 30 parts of water. Then add two parts of crystallized carbonate of soda, previously dissolved in 15 parts of water. Filter the mix- ture. [The formula of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia is as follows:—Take of Chlorinated Lime, a pound; Carbonate of Soda, two pounds ; Water, a gallon and a-half. Dissolve the Carbonate of Soda in three pints of Water with the aid of heat. To the remainder ofthe Water add by small portions at a time the Chlorinated Lime previously well triturated, stirring the mixture after each addition. Set the mixture by for several hours, that the dregs may subside, then decant the clear liquid, and mix with the solution of Carbonate of Soda. Lastly, decant the clear liquor from the precipitated Carbonate of Lime, pass it through a linen cloth, and keep it in bottles secluded from the light.] In this process a double decomposition is effected; hypochlorite of soda is formed in solution, while carbonate of lime precipitates. This process is more easy of execution than the previous one. By using the proportions here directed the solution is weaker than that prepared by the process of the London Pharma- copoeia. Properties.—The solution of hypochlorite of soda (Liquor Sodce Chlorinalce, L.) has a yellowish colour, an astringent taste, and an odour of hypochlorous acid. It destroys the colour of vegetable substances; as litmus, turmeric, and sulphate of indigo. Previous to bleaching them, it reacts as an alkali on turmeric paper, and infusion of red cabbage. By evaporation, crystals are obtained, which by resolution in water re-produce the disinfecting liquid. By exposure to the air the solution undergoes decomposition, and crystals of carbonate of soda are formed. Characteristics.—The following are the essential characters of this solution :— It decolourizes sulphate of indigo. On the addition of hydrochloric acid it evolves chlorine and carbonic acid. A solution of nitrate of silver throws down a white precipitate (chloride of silver,) soluble in ammonia, but insoluble in nitric acid. Lime water causes a white precipitate (carbonate of lime.) Oxalate of ammonia occasions no precipitate, showing the absence of lime. Bichloride of plantinum produces no yellow precipitate, proving the absence of potash and ammonia. That the base of the solution is soda may be shown in two ways: evaporated to dry- ness, we obtain a residuum which renders the outer cone ofthe flame of a candle, or the flame of a spirit lamp, yellow; saturated with hydrochloric acid and evapo- rated to dryness, common salt is procured: this may be recognised by the charac- ters before mentioned (p. 456.) Composition.—Some chemists regard this compound as a mixture of chloride of soda and bicarbonate of soda. But the view usually taken of if is that it consists the hypochlorite of soda, chloride of sodium, and bicarbonate of soda. Physiological Effects. «. On Animals.—A solution of the chloride of soda acts more or less powerfully as a local irritant, according to the degree of its con- centration. From the experiments of Segalas (Journ. de Chim. Med, t. ler, p. 271.) it appears, that, besides the irritant operation, and its direct and sympathetic action on the organic solids, it exercise.s an evident influence over the blood, and, in consequence, over the whole economy, by means of absorption. In an experi- HYPOCHLORITE OF SODA. 459 ment referred to by Dr. Christison, (Treatise on Poisons, 3d edit. p. 221.) two ounces of Labarraque's solution introduced into the peritoneum of a dog excited palpitation, oppressed breathing, constant restlessness, and death in ten minutes. /3. On Man.—I am unacquainted with any experiments made to determine the physiological effects of chloride of soda on man. That it would, in large doses, act as a powerful local irritant, and if swallowed give rise to symptoms of gastro- enteritis, cannot, I think, be doubted. Merat and De Lens (Diet. Mat. Med. t. ii. p. 257.) state that the immediate consequence of, and predominating symptom pro- duced by, a glassful of Eau de Javelle (a solution of chloride of potash) was gene- ral rigidity, which gave way to demulcent drinks. This observation agrees with one made by Segalas (Christison, op. cit. p. 221.) in his experiments on dogs, namely, that chloride of soda caused tetanic spasms. It is probable, therefore, that the chlorides (hypochlorites) of the alkalis exercise a specific influence over the ner- vous system. Chloride of soda, in moderate or small doses, has been denominated stimulant, tonic, astringent, antiseptic, and febrifuge. But these terms give no real explanation of the nature of those organic changes produced by it, whereby we obtain such benefit from its employment in various diseases. In fever, I have seen dampness of the skin follow its use. Increased secretion of urine is a common effect of it. In fevers it improves the qualities of the evacuations. Under the continued em- ployment of it, glandular enlargements and chronic mucous discharges have disap- peared, from which circumstance chloride of soda has been denominated altera- tive and resolvent. All these effects depend probably on the alteration which the chloride gives rise to in the condition of the blood, and the change thereby pro- duced in the action of the different organs. We must not overlook the impor- tant fact that the solution of chloride of soda used in medicine contains bicarbo- nate of soda, to which perhaps in many cases its beneficial effects, are, in part at least, to be referred. Uses.—The solution of chloride of soda is employed as a disinfectant, antiseptic, and antidote (in cases of poisoning by the hydrosulphurets, and hydrosulphuric and hydrocyanic acids.) But for most of these purposes the chloride of lime is em- ployed instead of chloride of soda, since its properties are analogous, and being manufactured on a very extensive scale for the use of bleachers, it can be obtained more conveniently and cheaply. On this account, therefore, and to avoid repe- tition, I must refer to the article Hypochlorite of Lime for information respecting the above uses of chloride (hypochlorite) of soda. I would remark, however, that in several cases where I have carefully tried and compared the two chlorides (hypochlorites,) I give the decided preference to the chloride of soda. As an anti- septic, Lebarraque also preferred the latter preparation, on the ground that by the process of disinfection it becomes chloride of sodium, which is not a deliquescent salt; whereas the chloride of calcium generated by chloride (hypochlorite) of lime, attracts water from the atmosphere, and thereby furnishes one of the conditions (viz. moisture) necessary to the putrefactive process. Hence, in his opinion, while chloride of lime will serve equally well for mere disinfection, chloride of soda is preferable where we wish at the same time to prevent a renewal of putrefaction. Chloride of soda is employed internally in all diseases commonly termed putrid or malignant, as typhus fever, scarlatina maligna, &c. It is indicated where there are great prostration of strength, fetid evacuations, and a dry and furred tongue. In such cases I have seen it of essential service, improving the quality of the secre- tions, producing a moist state ofthe skin, preventing collapse, and altogether acting most beneficially. It may be administered both by the mouth and the rectum. There are many other diseases in which it has been administered internally with apparent success, but in which a more extended experience of its effects is required to enable us to place confidence in the results. I refer now to its employment as a 4G0 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. substitute for the disulphate of quinia, in intermittents, recommended by Lalesque and Gouzee; (Brit, and For. Med. Rev. April, 1838.) to its use in the treatment of secondary syphilis, as practised by Dr. Scott, (Lond. Mnl. Rep. N. S. vol. ii. 1836, p. 139.) and by Cazenove : (Journ. de Chim. M>d. t. iv. p. 140.) to its administra- tion in chronic skin diseases, and as a substitute for chlorine in bilious disorders, by Dr. Darling; (Lond. Med. Rep. N. S. vol. ii.) in scrofula, by Godier; (Journ. Gen. de Med. 1829.) and in plague, byNeljoubin. (Richter, Ausf. Arzneim. Suppl.-Bd. p. 539.) In some of these cases 'as in syphilis and scrofula) the benefit obtained may have resulted from the bicarbonate of soda present in the chloride ofthe shops. As a local remedy, we employ chloride of soda in all cases attended with fetid discharges, not merely as a disinfectant and antiseptic—that is, as a chemical agent destroying fetor, and preventing the putrefaction of dead matters (as gangrenous parts, the discharges from wounds and ulcers, &c.,) though in these respects it is most valuable—but as a means of stopping or relieving morbid action by an im- pression produced on the living tissues. It frequently puts a stop to the farther progress of gangrene; promotes the separation of the dead from the living parts; improves the quality of the secretions; and, at the same time, diminishes their quantity, when this is excessive. We apply it to ulcers of all kinds (whether com- mon, phagedenic, cancerous, syphilitic, or scrofulous) when attended with foul discharges or a disposition to slough. We employ it with the greatest benefit in affections of the mucous surfaces. Thus it is used as a gargle to check ptyalism and ulceration of the mouth, whether arising from mercury or other causes. In scar- latina maligna we apply it to check ulceration and sloughing of the throat. In coryza and ozoena it has been injected into the nostrils with considerable benefit. In fetid and excessive discharges from the vagina, and neck of the uterus or blad- der, it is employed as an injection with, at least, temporary relief. It has also been applied in some skin diseases, as tinea capitis, eczema, scabies, prurigo pudendi muliebris, &c. The above are only a few of the cases in which chloride of soda has been used with most marked benefit. In conclusion, I may add, that there are few, if any, remedies the uses of which, as local agents, are so valuable and extensive as the chlorides of soda and lime. Administration.—The liquor sodce chlorinatse, Ph. L. may be administered internally in doses of twenty drops or more, diluted with three or four ounces of some mild aqueous liquid. When used as a gargle, it should be diluted with eight or ten parts of water: as an injection into the vagina, it is to be mixed with from fifteen to thirty parts of water: as a lotion, its strength must vary according to circumstances. In some sloughing ulcers I have used it mixed with its own volume of water, but in most cases it should, at the commencement of its use, be largely diluted, as with five or six parts of water. A cataplasm of chlorinated soda is prepared with linseed meal and equal parts of the liquor sodae chlorinate and water. Antidote.—(See Calcis Hypochloris.) 3. SO DM SUL PHAS, L. E. D. (U. S.)—SULPHATE OF SODA. History.—Sulphate of soda (also called Natron Vitriolatum, Glauber's Salt, Sal Catharticus Glauberi, or Sal Mirabile Glauberi,) was discovered in 1658 by Glauber. Natural History.—It occurs in both kingdoms of nature. _. In the Inorganized Kingdom.—As an efflorescence, the hydrous sulphate of soda is met with in various parts of the world. In the anhydrous state, mixed with a minute portion of carbonate of soda, it constitutes the mineral called Thenardite. Sulphate of soda is a con- stituent of many mineral waters; as those of Cheltenham, Leamington, and Spital (See p. 252.) &. In the Organized Kingdom.—It is found in the ashes of some plants which grow by the sea-shore; as the Tamarix gallica. Lastly, it is found in some of the animal fluids; as the blood and urine. SULPHATE OF SODA. 461 Preparation.—Sulphate of soda is a product of several processes, especially of, the manufacture of hydrochloric acid. The London College order of the salt which remains after the distillation of Hydrochloric Acid Ibij; Boiling Water, Oij.; Carbonate of Soda as much as is necessary Dissolve the salt m he w- er, add the carbonate of soda so long as effervescence takes place, bo, the liquid and when neutral filter it, wash the insoluble mailer w.th boiling water adding the water to The original liquid; concentrate till a pellicle begins to form, and then let the liquid cool and "Tb^Edinburgh Collge order ofthe salt which remains, after preparing Pure Muriatic Acid Ibij.; Boiling Water, Oiij.; White Marble, in powder, a sufficiency. Dissolve the Salt m the Water, then gradually add as much Carbonate of Soda as is sufficient to saturate the Add. Boil down until a pellicle appears, and the solution being strained, set it aside that the crys- tals may be formed. The liquor being poured off, dry them. _ The directions of the Dublin College are as follows :-Let the salt which remains after the distillation of Muriatic Acid be dissolved in a sufficient quantity of hot water. Put aside the filtered liquor, that, after due evaporation, crystals may be formed by slow cooling. The salt which remains after the distillation of hydrochloric acid is sulphate of soda usually contaminated with some free sulphuric acid, to neutralize which the London College uses Carbonate of Soda, the Edinburgh College, Marble (carbo- nate of lime.) In consequence of the enormous consumption of sulphate of soda in the manu- facture of carbonate of soda, makers of the latter article are obliged to procure sulphate purposely, by the addition of sulphuric acid to chloride of sodium. Properties.—It crystallizes in oblique rhombic prisms, which belong to the oblique prismatic system. To the taste this salt is cooling, Fig. 72. and bitterish saline. By exposure to the air it effloresces. When heated it undergoes the watery fusion, gives out its water of crystallization, and thereby becomes a white solid, and at a red heat it again becomes liquid. One part of it dissolves in three parts of water at 60°, or one part of water at 212°. It is insoluble in alcohol. Characteristics.—Its constituents, sulphuric acid and soda, may be detected by the tests of these substances before men- tioned (pp. 406 and 456.) From the bisulphate of soda it is Prism of Sulphate distinguished by its not reddening litmus, and by its less of Soda. solubility. Crystals of anhydrous sulphate of soda are dis- tinguished by their form being the rhombic octahedron, and by their not losing weight when heated. Composition.—The ordinary crystals of sulphate of soda have the following composition:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berzelius. Wemel. Soda ............................... 1 ........ 32........ 19-75........ 1924........ 195 Sulphuric Acid...................... 1........ 40........ 2469........ 2476........ 243 Wilier.............................. 10........ 90........ 55-56........ 5600 ........ 552 Ordinary Crystals of Sulphate of Soda 1 ........ 162........10000........ 10000___.... 990 Purity.—The crystallized sulphate of soda of the shops is usually sufficiently pure for medical purposes. The presence of chlorides in it may be detected by nitrate of silver. Exposed to the air it falls to powder. Totally dissolved by water; very slightly by alcohol. It does not alter the colour of litmus or turmeric. Nitrate of silver throws down scarcely any thing from a dilute solution; nitrate of barytes more, which is not dissolved by nitric acid. 100 parts of this salt lose 55-5 parts by a strong heat.—Ph. L. Physiological Effects.—It is a mild but efficient cooling laxative or purgative salt, promoting secretion and exhalation from the mucous membrane of the sto- mach and bowels, without causing inflammation or fever. Uses.—It is employed as a common purgative, either alone or added to other 462 ELEMENTS of materia medica. purgatives. It is applicable in fevers and inflammatory affections, where we want to evacuate the bowels without increasing or causing febrile disorder. Administration.—The usual dose of it is from six to eight drachms. When dried so as to expel the water of crystallization, three and a-half drachms act as an efficient purgative. 4. SO'DiE BIBO'RAS, L._BIBORATE OF SODA OR BORAX. (Soda; Boras, E. D) (U. S.) History.—Pliny (Hist. Nat. lib. xxxiii.) describes a substance under the name of Chrysocolla, which has been supposed by some to be biborate of soda. The term Bauracon or Baurach (from which our word Borax is derived) first occurs in the writings of the Arabians. By some of these authors (as Mesue and Avi- cenna) it was applied to nitre: (Beckmann, Hist, of Invent, and Discov. vol. iv. p. 539.) it is not improbable, however, that Geber (Search of Perfection, ch. iii.) used it to indicate our borax. By modern chemists the salt has been termed Bi- borate, Borate, or Sub-borate of Soda. Natural History.—Borax is a substance peculiar to the mineral kingdom. It has been found in some mineral waters; as those of San Restituta, in Ischia. (Gairdner, On Mineral Springs, p. 414.) It occurs also in the waters of certain lakes, especially those of Thibet and Persia. Preparation. —Borax is obtained in two ways:—1st, by refining native borax; 2dly, by saturating native boracic acid with soda. _. By refining Tincal.—About fifteen days' journey north from Teeshoo Lomboo [Tissoolumboo,] in Thibet, is a lake, said to be about twenty miles in circumference, and supplied by brackish springs rising from the bottom of the lake itself. In consequence of its high situation, during a part of the year this lake is frozen over. The water of it contains, in solution, both common salt and borax. The latter crystallizes on the edges and shallows of the lake, and is taken up in large masses, which are broken and dried.1 It is stated that the natives mix it with an earth thinly covered with butter, to prevent the borax eva- porating!2 It is imported, usually from Calcutta, under the name of Tincal3 or Crude Borax (Borax cruda seu natiua,) in the form of flattened six-sided prisms, co- loured with a greasy unctuous substance, said, by Vauquelin, to be a fatty mat- ter, saponified by soda; the colour is yellowish, bluish, or greenish. Mojon states that the greenish gray matter which surrounds some kinds of rough borax, contains native boron. Various methods have been contrived for refining borax: some calcine it, to destroy the fatty matter, others wash it with an alkaline solu- tion (soda or lime,) and then dissolve and crystallize. The product is called Refined Borax (Borax depurata seu purificata.) /3. By saturating Aative Boracic Acid ivilh Soda.—The mode of preparing boracic acid in Tuscany has been already described (see p. 391.) The rough acid usually contains from 17 to 20 per cent, of impurities (water, sulphates of ammonia, magnesia, lime, and alumina, chloride of iron, sal ammoniac, traces of sulphuretted hydrogen, clay, sand, sulphur, a yellow colouring matter, and an azotized matter soluble in alcohol.) It is converted into borax in the following way:—Dissolve carbonate of soda in water contained in tubs, lined with lead, and heated by steam. Add greatly pulverulent boracic acid. The evolved gas is passed through sulphuric acid to detain any carbonate of ammonia which may be contained in it. Boil the liquor, and let it stand for 10 or 12 hours. Then draw it off into wooden crystallizing vessels lined with lead. Here Rough or Crude Borax is deposited. This is lefined by dissolving it in water, contained i Turner's Account of an Embassy to the Court of Teshoo Lama, in Thibet, p. 400. Lond. 1800. a Anderson's periodical called The Bee. vol. xvii. p 22. Edinb. 1793. » From Tincana, the Sancrit name for borax; Royle's Essay on Medicine, p. 97. BIBORATE OF SODA. 463 in a tub lined with lead, and heated by steam; add carbonate of soda, and crys- tallize The crystals are allowed to drain, and, when dry, are packed m chests. Oclohedral borax is obtained by employing more concentrated solutions: it de- posites at from 174 to 133 deg. F.1 Properties.—It usually occurs in large, colourless, transparent prisms, belong- ing to the oblique prismatic svstem (Prismatic Borax.) It also occurs in octo- hedrons (Oclohedral Borax.) In commerce we frequently meet with it in irre- gular shaped masses. Its taste is saline, cooling, and somewhat alkaline. It reacts on turmeric paper like an alkali. By exposure to the air it effloresces slowly and slightly. When heated it melts in its water of crystallization, swells up, and forms a light, white, porous substance, called Calcined Borax (Borax usta seu cakinata.) At a higher temperature it fuses into a transparent glass (Glass of Borax,) which is anhydrous borax. It is soluble m twelve parts of cold, or in two parts of hot water. Characteristics.—Borax may be recognised by the following characters: it red- dens turmeric paper; it fuses before the blow-pipe into a glass, which may be readily tinged by various metallic solutions—thus, rose red by terchloride of gold, and blue by solutions of cobalt: if a few drops of sulphuric acid be added to powdered borax, and then spirit of wine, the latter will, when fired, burn with a green-coloured flame; lastly, if, to a strong hot solution of borax, sulphuric acid be added, boracic acid will be deposited in crystals as the liquid cools. The tests now mentioned for the most part only prove the salt to be a borate: the nature of the base is determinable by the tests for soda before described (p. 456.) Composition.—The following is the composition of borax:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. L. Gmelin. Kirwan. Berzelius. Soda....................... 1 ........ 32........ 1684........ 178........ 17........ 1631 Boracic Acid ............... 2........ 68........ 3579........ 35-6........ 34........ 3659 Water..................... 10........ 90........ 4737........ 466........ 49........ 4710 Crystal^. Prismatic Borax ... 1 ........ 190........ 10000 ........100 0........ 100 ........ 10000 Oclohedral borax contains only five equivalents of water. It offers several advantages in the arts over the prismatic variety. (Guibourt, Hist, des Drog. t. i. p. 191, ed. 3me.) Physiological Effects.—The effects of borax have been imperfectly ascer- tained. Its local action is that of a mild irritant: applied to sores it excites smart- ing, and, taken into the stomach in large doses, causes vomiting. The constitutional effects are probably those of a mild refrigerant and diuretic. Wohler and Stehberger detected it in the urine, so that it passes out of the sys- tem unchanged. By some writers it is regarded as an agent exercising a specific influence over the uterus; promoting menstruation, alleviating the pain which sometimes attends this process, facilitating parturition, diminishing the pain of accouchement, and favouring the expulsion of the placenta and lochia. (Vogt's Pharmacodinamik.) Farther evidence, however, is wanting to enable us either to admit or deny the supposed uterine influence of borax. Some recent English writers seem to en- tertain no doubt as to its promoting uterine contractions.3 Homberg was a sedative, borax was supposed to possess similar properties. Uses.—As a local agent, borax is employed, as a detergent, in aphtha? and ulceration ofthe mouth. In some skin diseases it has been used with hpnpfit- ,8 ' I'nyen, Ann. de Chem. et de Physique, 3me $e.r. torn? ii. p. 322. Juillet 1841 Re\ fur'jX^'p! 86. ^"^ ** "l" AboHion: and an anon>'™»s reviewer in the Brit, and For. Med. 464 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. pityriasis versicolor (called also liver spots or chloasma.) A solution of it in rose-water is employed as a cosmetic. In gonorrhoea and leucorrhoea an aqueous solution has been occasionally used, as an injection, with success. Lastly, in the form of ointment, (composed of Jj. of borax to 3j. of lard,) it has been ap- plied to inflamed and painful hemorrhoidal tumours. Internally, it has been used to diminish the secretion of uric acid; to act as a diuretic in dropical affections; and to influence the uterus in the cases before' mentioned. Dr. Copland recommends it, in conjunction with ergot of rye, to promote uterine contractions. Administration.—The dose of it is from half a drachm to a drachm. As a de- tergent in aphtha? it may be used in powder, mixed with sugar or with honey. MEL BORACIS, L. E. D. Honey of Borax; Mellite of Borax. (Borax, pow- dered, 3j.; Honey, [clarified, L. D.~\ 3j.; Mix.) A convenient form for the em- ployment of borax in the aphtha? of children. Dissolved in water it may be employed as a gargle in ulceration of the mouth and throat. 5. SO'DM NI'TRAS.—NITRATE OF SODA. History.—Duhamel, (Memoires de VAcademie Royale de Sciences, 1736, p. 215.) probably, was the discoverer of this salt, in 1736. It was first analyzed by Margraff (Opusc. ii. 331.) in 1761. It has been termed Cubic, Quadrangu- lar or Rhomboidal Nitre (Nitrurn cubicum, quadrangulare vel rhomboidale.) Natural History.—It is peculiar to the mineral kingdom. Native nitrate of soda is found in South Peru. It exists in large beds, a few feet below the saline soil, or forming that soil in various places, from Arica on the north and west, to the course of the river Loa on the south. It is found in distinct strata, a thin layer of brown loam separating the parts.' Native nitrate of soda, in fractured masses, has a granular structure, arising from the aggregation of irregular rhombic crystals, varying from fine grained to coarse grained. Co- lour, from snow white to reddish brown or gray. Odour peculiar; and,when warmed, resem- bling chloride of iodine dissolved in water. Its average composition is nitrate of soda, 64-98; sulphate of soda, 300; chloride of sodium, 28-69 ; iodic salts, 0-63 ; shells and marl, 2-68 = 99-90. (Ibid.) Extraction.—" The richest masses of the native salt are blasted or broken, and divided into small portions; with these copper kettles are in part filled, and water, or the mother water of former operations, is added, and heat applied, until a boiling and saturated solution is obtained. The solution is transferred to wooden coolers, where the nitrate of soda crystallizes. The undissolved salt remaining in the kettles is thrown aside, fresh salt being used each time, although not one half of the nitrate of soda is dissolved. The coolers are emptied after the crystals of nitrate have ceased to form: it is dried, packed in bags, and sent to the coast on mules." Commerce.—In 1839, duty (6d. per cwt.) was paid on 107,922 cwts. In 1840, on 130,211 cwts. (Trade List, Jan. 5, 1841.) Purification.—Rough nitrate of soda is purified, after its arrival in this coun- try, by solution and re-crystallization. Properties.—It usually crystallizes in obtuse rhombohedral crystals, which be- long to the rhombohedral system. Its taste is somewhat bitter. In moist air it is slightly deliquescent. It is soluble in about two parts of cold water, and in less than its own weight at 212°. It fuses by heat. Characteristics.—As a nitrate it is known by the characters of this class of salts already stated (p. 267.) The nature of its base is recognised by the tests for soda already described (p. 456.) The yellow colour which it communicates to flame, as well as the shape of its crystals, readily distinguish it from nitrate of potash. Composition.—Crystallized nitrate of soda is anhydrous. i Hayes, in Silliman's Journal; also in The Chemist, for February, 1841, N°. xiv. p. 43. Rivero, in the Edinb. Phil. Journ. vol. vii. p. 184. Edinb. 1822. phosphate of soda. 465 Atoms Kq- Wt. rer utm. rrmzn. _.,.,-.._., , 32 ......... 372 ........ 37-5 ........ 3765 •• [ ;;;;;;;; 54 ........ 62-8 ........ 625 ........ 63-25 ac ..... 100-0 ........ 1000 ........ 10000 CrystallizedNitrateofSoda.. 1 ....... 86 ........ lwu " Physiological Effects—Us effects are similar to those of nitrate of potash According to Wolfers, (Richter, Ausfuhr. Arzneim. Bd iv. S. 251.) from two to four drachms of it may be taken daily without any hurtful effect. Velsen states, that it does not so readily disturb digestion as nitrate of potash. UsEs.-It is not employed in medicine in this country. As a substitute for nitrate of potash, it is used in the manufacture of nitric and sulphuric acids. It is employed by fire-work makers; and also as a manure, especially for^ wheat. (Journal ofthe Royal Agricultural Society of England, for 1840 and 1841.) 6. SO'DyE PHOS'PHAS, L. E. D. (U. S.)-PHOSPHATE OF SODA. History.—This salt was long known before its true nature was understood. In 1737, Hellot found it in the urine. It has been known by various names, such as Afcali Minerale and Sal Mirabile Perlalum. In the shops it is sold as Taste- less Purging Salts. Dr. Turner calls it Triphosphate of Soda and Basic Water. It is sometimes termed the Rhombic Phosphate of Soda, and not unfrequently Neutral Phosphate of Soda. Natural History.—Phosphate of soda occurs in both kingdoms of nature. ot. In the Inorganized Kingdom.—It is a constituent of some mineral waters, viz. those of Steinbad at Toplitz, of Geilneu, Fachingen, Selters, and Neundorf. (Gairdner, On Mineral Springs, p. 19.) &. In the Organized Kingdom.—It is a constituent of some animal fluids, as human urine. Preparation.—The Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges give each a formula for its preparation. The London College admits it as an article of the Materia Medica; that is, to be bought ready prepared. The Edinburgh College orders of Bones burnt to whiteness, lbx.; Sulphuric Acid, Oij. and f 5iv.; Carbonate of Soda, a sufficiency; Pulverize the bones and mix them with the acid; add gradually six pints of water; digest for three days, replacing the water which evaporates; add Bix pints of boiling water, and strain through strong linen; pass more boiling water through Ihe mass on the filter till it comes away nearly tasteless. Let the impurities subside in the united liquors, pour off the clear fluid, and concentrate to six pints. Let the impurities again settle j and to the clear liquor, whicli is to be poured off and healed to ebullition, add carbonate of soda, previously dissolved in boiling water, until the acid is completely neutralized. Set the solution aside to cool and crystallize. More crystals will be obtained by successively evaporating, adding a little carbonate of soda till the liquid exerts a feeble alkaline reaction on [reddened] litmus paper, and then allowing it to cool. Preserve the crystals in well-closed vessels. The Dublin College orders of Bone Ashes, reduced to powder, ten parts ; Sulphuric Acid, of commerce seven parts ; and carbonate of soda, dissolved in hot water, eight parts. The directions for conducting the process arc essentially the same as those of the Edinburgh College. [The directions ofthe U. S. P. arc similar to those ofthe Edinburgh College.] The products obtained by the mutual reaction of sulphuric acid and bone-ash are sulphate of lime and superphosphate of lime; the latter remains in solution, while the former is, for the most part, precipitated. On the addition of car- bonate of soda to the liquor, phosphate of soda is formed in solution, subphos- phate of lime is precipitated, and carbonic acid gas escapes. A slight excess of carbonate of soda promotes the formation of crystals of phosphate. Properties.—This salt crystallizes in oblique rhombic prisms, which are trans- parent, but by exposure to the air effloresce and" become opaque. Their taste is cooling saline. They react feebly on vegetable colours like alkalis. When heated, thoy undergo the watery fusion, give out water, and form a white mass called pyrophosphate of soda: at a red heat this melts into a transparent glass, called Vol. 1—59 466 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. metaphosphate of soda. The crystals of phosphate of soda require, for their solu- tion, four times their weight of cold or twice their weight of hot water: they are nearly insoluble in alcohol. Characteristics.—The presence of soda in this salt is known by the tests for this base before mentioned (p. 456.) The phosphoric acid in it is recognised as follows: a solution ofthe phosphate throws down a white precipitate with acetate of lead, as well as with chloride of barium: the precipitate in both cases is a phosphate, and dissolves in nitric acid without effervescence: with nitrate of silver, the phosphate of soda occasions a yellow precipitate (subsesquiphosphate of silver, called by Graham tribasic phosphate of silver) soluble both in nitric acid and ammonia: pyrophosphate of soda, obtained by heating the phosphate, produces, with nitrate of silver, a white precipitate (neutral phosphate of silver,- pyrophosphate of silver; dipyrophosphate of oxide of silver:) hydrosulphuric acid, as well as the hydrosul- phates, occasion no change in a solution of phosphate of soda. Phosphate of soda fuses upon charcoal, in the outer flame of the blowpipe, and becomes distinctly crystalline upon cooling. Composition.—The following is the composition of this salt:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berzelius. Soda...................... 1 ...... 32 ...... 1773 ...... 1767 Phosphoric Acid........... 1 ...... 36 ...... 19 94 ...... 20-33 Water..................... 12J...... 112-5 ...... 62 33 ...... 6200 Crystallized Phosphate Soda. 1 ...... 180 5 ......100-00 ...... 10000 By Graham, (The equivalent of phosphorus is, according to Graham, 31-44.) Turner, and some other chemists, the equivalent weight of phosphoric acid is assumed to be about double (viz. 71-44) that which I have adopted. On this hypo- thesis, the above salt contains 2 equivalents of soda, and 25 equivalents of water. Of this quantity of water, 1 equivalent is assumed to be basic, and the remaining 24 equivalents to be water of crystallization: so that the following is the constitu- tion ofthe salt: HO, 2 NaO, Pa O5 + 24 HO. Impurity.—As met with in commerce, this salt is usually tolerably pure. Exposed to the air it slightly effloresces. It is totally dissolved by water, but not by alco. hoi. What is thrown down from the solution by chloride of barium is white : the precipitate by nitrate of silver is yellow, unless the phosphate has been previously made red hot. Both precipitates are soluble in nitric acid. Ph. Lond. If the precipitate caused by the chloride of barium be not totally soluble in nitric acid, a sulphate is present. If that caused by nitrate of silver do not entirely dissolve in nitric acid, a chloride is present. " An efflorescent salt: 45 grains dissolved in two fluid ounces of boiling distilled water, and precipitated by a solution of 50 grains of carbonate of lead in a fluid ounce of pyroligneoui acid, will remain precipitable by solution of acetate of lead." Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects.—In doses of an ounce, or an ounce and a half, it acts as a mild antiphlogistic purgative, like sulphate of soda. In small and continued doses it has been used with the view of altering the composition of the blood, and of promoting the deposition of phosphate of lime in the bones. Uses.—As a purgative it is employed in the diseases of children and delicate per- sons, in preference to other saline substances, on account of its slight taste and mild action on the stomach. It is well adapted for febrile and inflammatory dis- orders. It is one of the substances which have been employed in cholera, to restore to the blood its deficient saline matters. (Dr. O'Shaughnessy, Report on the Chemi- cal Pathology of the Malignant Cholera, p. 54.) On account of the phosphoric acid which it contains it has been supposed to be particularly applicable in those diseases in which there is a deficiency of phosphate of lime in the bones. It has also been administered in diabetes. Administration.—As a purgative it is given in doses of from six to twelve CARBONATE OF SODA. 467 drachms. It is best taken in broth or soup. As an alterative the dose is one or two scruples three or four times a day. SOLUTIO S0D_3 PIIOSPHATIS, E. Solution of Phosphate of Soda. (Phosphate of Soda, [free of efflorescence,] grs. clxxv.; distilled Water, f3viij. Dissolve the salt in the water, and keep the solution in well-closed bottles.)—Used only as a test (see Lilhargyrum, Plumbi Acetas, Plumbi Carbonas and Magnesiae Sulphas.) 7. SO'D__ CARBONAS. (U. S.)—CARBONATE OF SODA. History.—This salt, as well as the sesquicarbonate of soda, was probably known to the ancients under the term of me°»or nilrum. (Vide Potassce Nitras, p. 434; also Sodas Sesquicarbonas.) The Salt Alkali, or Sagimen Vitri of Geber (Invent, of Verity, ch. iv.; and Search of Perfection, ch. iii.) was a carbonate of soda: the word Sagimen is a corruption of the Hindee term Sajjiloon. (Dr. Royle, Essay on Hindoo Medicine, p. 41.) In modern times this salt has had various appellations, such as Mild Mineral or Fossil Alkali, Aerated Mineral Alkali, Subcarbonate of Soda, and Nit rum Carbonicum. Natural History.—This salt is peculiar to the inorganized kingdom. It is found in crystals, or in the form of an efflorescent powder, in several parts of the world. According to Klaprolh (Dr. Thomson, Outlines of Mineralogy, vol. i. p. 96.) it occurs at Debre- zin, in Hungary, and Montenuovo, near Naples. Beudant (Necker, in his Regne Mineral, t. 2nd», p. 667.) has analyzed three native carbonates of soda; one fron Lac Blanc, in Hungary ; a second from Egypt; and a third from Vesuvius. Carbonate of soda is a constituent of some mineral waters, which are in consequence, termed alkaline, or, when they also contain a large excess of carbonic acid, acidulo alkaline. (See pp. 250 and 253.) Preparation.—It may be procured from Barilla, from Kelp, or from Sulphate of Soda. l. Preparation of Barilla.-The substance called Barilla, (Sodce Carbonas ve- nale, Barilla, D.) is an ash usually obtained by the combustion of plants belonging to the order Chenopodiacece; as the Salsolas, Salicornias, and Chenopodiums. These are cultivated on the coasts, and when ripe are cut, dried, and burned in heaps: the resulting ash is barilla. It is a hard grayish or bluish mass, not deli- quescent, having an alkaline acrid taste, and a peculiar odour. It consists of Carbonate and Sulphate of Soda, Sulphuret and Chloride of Sodium, Carbo- nate of Lime, Alumina, Silica, Oxide of Iron, and Carbonaceous matter which has escaped combustion. The carbonate of soda is produced by the decomposi- tion of the oxalate and other organic salts of soda contained in the plants before combustion. Several varieties of barilla are known in the market: they are dis- tinguished by the names ofthe places from whence they are imported; namely, the Grand Canary and Teneriffe Islands, Alicant, Sicily, Carthagena, and the East Indies. Canary Barilla is procured from Salsola Kali; (Loudon Encyclopsedia of Agriculture.) Alicant Barilla (Soda Hispanica; Soda Alicantina) is obtained from Salsola saliva, Chenopodium setigerum, and other species. (Lagasca, quoted in De Candolle's Phys. Veg. p. 388.) It yields from 25 to 40 per cent, of carbonate of soda. Sicily Barilla is procured principally from Salsola saliva: it furnishes, according to Fee, (Cours d'Hist. Nat. t. 2nd, p. 488.) 55 per cent, of carbonate of soda. Ofthe French Barillas two only deserve notice; namely, that of Narbonne, obtained from Salicornia herbacea, and which yields 14 or 15 per cent, of carbonate; and that of Aiguemortes, called Blanquette, and which con- tains from 3 to 8 per cent, only of alkaline carbonate. The importation of barilla has very much fallen off of late vears, in conse- quence of the extraction of carbonate of soda from sulphate of soda. In 1827 the quantity imported was 326,239 cwts.;1 whereas, in 1840, it was only 284 tons. (Trade List, Jan. 5, 1841.) ' .* General Statement of the Imparts and Exports, printed by order ofthe House of Commons, 24th Feb. 1829. 468 ELEMENTS of materia medica. a. Preparation of Kelp.—Kelp (called by the French Varec or Normandy Soda) is procured by the combustion of cryptogamic plants of the order Algacese. According to Dr. Greville, (Algce Britannicce, p. xxi.) the species most valued for this purpose are Fucus vesiculosus nodosus and serratus, Laminaria digi- tata (see fig. 47, p. 223) and bulbosa, Himanthalia lorea, and Chorda Filum. These are burned in coffeis of stone or in kilns. About 24 tons of sea-weed are required to produce one ton of kelp. (Macculloch's Western Islands, vol. i. p. 123.) The resulting ash is kelp. As met with in commerce, it consists of hard, dark gray or bluish masses, which have an acrid caustic taste, and are composed of Chloride of Sodium, about five per cent, of Carbonate of Soda, (formed by the decomposition of the oxalate and other organic salts of soda,) Sulphates of Soda and Potash, Chloride of Potassium, Iodide of Potassium or Sodium, and Insoluble and Colouring Matters. By digesting kelp in a small quantity of water, and filtering and evaporating the solution, crystals of carbonate of soda may be procured. But as this salt can be procured at a lower price and of finer quality from artificial soda, kelp is now of little value as a source of soda. In the Orkney islands, about 20,000 persons were, a few years since, occupied in the manufacture of kelp. (Greville, op. cit.) 3* Preparation of Soda-Ash from Sulphate of Soda.—The principal manufacto- ries are situated in the northern parts of the kingdom, and are conducted on a most extensive scale. The process adopted varies in some of its details in diffe- rent places. The sulphate of soda employed is, in part, obtained from manufacturers of chloride of lime, who procure a considerable quantity in the process for genera- ting chlorine. But the greater part of it is made expressly, by adding sulphuric acid to common salt (chloride of sodium.) The hydrochloric acid gas evolved in this process is highly injurious to vegetable and animal life,1 and various contri- vances have been resoited to, to prevent its escape into the atmosphere, as by absorbing it by water or lime. The sulphate of soda, reduced to powder, is usually decomposed by mixing it with an equal weight of ground chalk and half its weight of small coal ground and sifted, and heating the mixture in a very hot reverberatory furnace. During the operation it is frequently stirred. The pro- duct has a dark gray or blackish appearance, and is called British Barilla or Ball Alkali. It consists of carbonate of soda and oxisulphuret of calcium. During the ope- ration carbonic oxide gas escapes. The following diagram explains the re- actions:— MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. PRODUCTS. 9 eq. Carbon .. 54----------------------------------------------^-~^T 1° e1- Carbonic ^^-r^^y Oxide ......140 1 eq. Carbonic J 1 eq. Carbon 6. Acid.......22 ) 2 eq. Oxygen 16- 2 eq. Carbonic Acid...........44 2 eq. Oxygen 16 2 eq. Calcium 40 r 3eq. Chalk ... 150 < * e?" ^»»«* ■•••••;•••• «• 2 eq. Lime .... 56 \l •»• °**P* I6' * ( 2 eq. Calcium 40—.. x t 1 eq.Lime....................28 /^':'*^-------leq Lime .... 28 1 J S 2 po SulDhate ( 2 eq'.^ulPhuric \ 6 «?• Oxygen 48 ' '''\......- 2 eq. Sulphuret > §1 Soda .. .? 144 ) MA.......80 j 2 e?. Sulphur 32-------------*^ Calcium .... 72 ) .1 g ' 2 eq. Seda . ..........._.........64________________!_.- 2 eq. Carbonate q --- Soda ......108 348 --- 348 By theory, the ball alkali should contain about 30 per cent, of carbonate of soda; but the quantity is in general only 22 per cent. Ball alkali is lixiviated with water, and the carbonate of soda thereby separated from the more difficultly soluble oxisulphuret of calcium. The solution, by evaporation, yields a dark crystalline mass, composed of carbonate of soda, « See p. 257 et seq.—A very humorous account of the unpleasant effects of this gas is contained in the report of a trial at Lancaster, March 21, 1838, the Queen » Airey, in the Times newspaper. CARBONATE OF SODA. 469 caustic soda, and some sulphuret of sod mm. This is roasted ma^^verberatory furnace, to get rid of the sulphur. Or it is calcined with saw-dust The pro duct is cahed soda-ash or soda-salt, and contains about 50 per cent, of alkali.1 PcR.F'cAT.ON.-The London and Dublin Colleges give directions for the purifi- cation ofthe impure carbonate of soda of commerce. The London College orders of impure Carbonate of Soda, lb ij.; Distilled WateryOiv Boil the impure carbonate of soda in the water, and strain it whue hot. Lastly, set it by, that "ffe'SnC^^directs Carbonate of Soda to be prepared from Barilla, in the same way. The operations are to be repeated until the crystals are sufficiently pure. On the large scale crystallized carbonate of soda is obtained from Soda-ash by lixiviating the latter with water, straining the solution, and evaporating. 1 ne sail is usually crystallized in iron pans. -uu~„_ Properties.—Carbonate of soda usually forms large crystals, which are oblique rhombic prisms. They are transparent, and have a cooling alkaline taste. t»y Fig. 73. Fig. 74. Crystal reduced in height. Ordinary Crystal. exposure to the air they effloresce. When heated they undergo the watery fusion, and give out their water of crystallization: at a red heat, the whole of the water is expelled. Carbonate of soda is insoluble in alcohol. It dissolves in twice its weight of water at 60°, and in less than its own weight at 212° F. The solu- tion reacts as an alkali on vegetable colours. Characteristics.—As a carbonate it is known by the tests for this class of salts already stated (vide p. 302.) From the bicarbonate it is distinguished by the brick-red precipitate which it throws down with bichloride of mercury. Sulphate of magnesia causes a white precipitate with it. As a soda salt it is recognised by the tests for this class of salts already stated (p. 456.) Composition.—The perfect crystals of the ordinary carbonate of soda of com- merce have the following composition:— Atoms. Soda.......................... 1 , Carbonic Acid................. 1 , Water........................ 10 . Eq. Wt. Per Cent. .. 32 ........ 22-25 .. 22 ........ 15-25 .. 90 ........ 62-5 Klaproth. ... 22 ... 16 ... 62 Crystallized Carbonate of Soda.. 144 10000 100 Impurity.—The ordinary impurities of this salt are sulphates and chlorides. These are detected as follows:—Supersaturate with nitric acid, and then add, to separate portions ofthe diluted solution, chloride of barium and nitrate of silver: if the first occasion a white precipitate, it indicates the presence of a sulphate—if the < For farther details consult Dumas, Traite de Chimie, t. ii.; Graham, Elements of Chemistry , Manual qf Chemistry, Duncan, Edinburgh Dispensatory; and Ure's Dictionary of Arte. Brande, 470 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. second also produce a white precipitate, soluble in ammonia, but insoluble in nitric acid, it shows the presence of a chloride. When freshly prepared it [Crystallized Carbonate of Soda] io translucent, but in an open vessel it in a short time falls to powder. It is totally soluble in water, but not at all in alcohol, It alters the colour of turmeric like an alkali. Ph. L. " A solution of 21 grains in a fluid ounce of distilled water, precipitated by 19 grains of nitrate of baryta, remains precipitable by more of the test; and the precipitate is entirely soluble in nitric acid. Little subject to adulteration." Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects.—Carbonate of soda is less acrid, and has a milder and less unpleasant taste, than carbonate of potash ; but in other respects the effects of these two salts on both vegetables and animals are the same. Uses.—Carbonate of soda is used in the same cases as carbonate of potash, over which it has the advantage of a less disagreeable taste. Fourcroy imagined that as soda is contained in animals in larger proportion than potash, it was a bet- ter agent for medicinal use. Experience, however, has not confirmed this opi- nion, but has proved the reverse; for both Sir G. Blane1 and Mr. Brande3 state that they obtained beneficial effects, in calculous complaints, from the use of pot- ash, where soda failed to give any relief! Sir G. Blane accounted for this by assuming that soda becomes applied to the purposes of the economy before it reaches the kidneys, whereas potash is carried to these organs in order to be thrown out of the system. Administration.—Crystallized carbonate of soda is exhibited in doses of from ten grains to half a drachm or a drachm. It is sometimes employed in the manu- facture of the effervescing draught. 20 grains of Crystallized t 9| grs. of Commercial Crystals of Citric Acid. Carbonate of Soda are < 10^ grs. of Crystals of Tartaric Acid. saturated by about . . f f gijss. of Lemon Juice. Antidotes.—See Potassa, p. 414. mM CARBONAS EXSICCATA, L. Sodae Carbonas siccatum, E. D. [Sodae Car- bonas Exsiccatus, U. S.] Dried Carbonate of Soda. Carbonate of Soda, lbj. Apply heat to the Carbonate of Soda in a proper vessel, until it is dried, and after- wards heat it to redness. Lastly, rub it to powder, L.—The processes of the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges are essentially the same. Fifty-four grains of this preparation are equal to one hundred and forty-four grains of the crystallized carbonate. It may be exhibited either in powder or pDls. Dose from grs. v. So 9J. 8. SO'D^E SESQUICAR'BONAS, L.—SESQUICARBONATE OF SODA. In the province of Sukena, near Tripoli, is found a substance which the Afri- cans call Trona—a word from which are probably derived the terms mrp**, nitrum, and nitron. (Vide Potassae Nitras and Sodae Carbonas.) But the analyses of Klaproth, (Beitrage, iii. 83.) Phillips, (Quarterly Journal of Science, vol. vii. 297.) and Beudant, (Quoted by Necker, Regne Mineral, ii. 668.) show that the proportion of carbonic acid which it contains is that of a sesquicarbonate. From the analysis of MM. Mariano de Rivero and Boussingault (Ann. de Chim. et Phys. xxix. 110.) it appears that the substance termed Urao, and which occurs at the bottom of a lake at Lagunillas, near Marida, in South America, has a simi- lar composition. (For an account of this lake, see Quarterly Journal of Science, vol. i. p. 188.) The white powder sold in the shops of this country for making Soda Pow- ders, and which is denominated Carbonate, Bicarbonate, or Sesquicarbonate of Soda (Sodae Sesquicarbonas, Ph. L.) consists either of bicarbonate of soda or of i Transactions of a Society for the Improvement of Med. and Chirurg. Knowledge, iii. 347 s Quarterly Journal of Science, vol. vi. p. 205. BICARBONATE OF SODA. 471 a mixture of carbonate and bicarbonate of soda, in varying proportions. The lat- ter two substances may be detected as follows:—Wash the so-cal ed sesquicar- bonate with a small quantity of distilled water, and filter: the solution usually contains carbonate of soda (known by its throwing down a brick-red precipitate on the addition of a solution of bichloride of mercury)—while there remains on the filter bicarbonate of soda (recognised by its causing a white precipitate, or a Blight milkiness or opalescence with a solution of bichloride of mercury.) Some- times the substance sold as sesquicarbonate of soda (For farther details, see Sodae Bicarbonas.) consists wholly of bicarbonate. The composition of native crystallized sesquicarbonate of soda is as follows:— Atoms Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Boussingault. Klaproth. Urao. Trona. HnHB i ........ 32 ........ 3855 ........ 3862 ........ 37-0 ^fEEE: !'::::•::: 5 :::::::: _S ::::::." -« ■■■■■■■■ f Sulphate Soda. 2-5 Native Sesquicarbonate Soda 1 83 ........ 10000 ........ 99-99 ........ 1000 Like the so-called hydrated sesquicarbonate of ammonia (pp. 284 and 285) it is probably a double salt, composed of one equivalent of the carbonate and one equivalent of the bicarbonate of soda. 9. SO'DiE BICAR'BONAS, E. D. (U. S.)—BICARBONATE OF SODA. History.—This salt was discovered by Valentine Rose. In some works it is termed Natron Carbonicum perfecle saturatum seu acidulum. Alone or mixed with carbonate of soda it constitutes the Sodae Sesquicarbonas of the London Pharmacopoeia,—the Carbonate or Bicarbonate of Soda of the shops. Natural History.—It is a constituent of the mineral waters called acidulo- alkaline, as those of Carlsbad and Seltzer (see pp. 268 and 271.) Preparation.—All the British Colleges give formulae for the prepaiation of bi- carbonate or sesquicarbonate of soda. The London College orders the sesquicarbonate to be prepared with Carbonate of Soda, Ibvij.; Distilled Water, Cong. j. Dissolve the Carbonate of Soda in the Water, and strain ; then pass Carbonic Acid into the solution to saturation, that the salt may subside. Wrapped and pressed in cloth, dry this with a gentle heat. The Edinburgh College orders the bicarbonate to be prepared as follows :—Fill with frag- ments of marble a glass jar, open at the bottom and tubulated at the top; close the bottom in such a way as lo keep in the marble without preventing the free passage of a fluid; con. nect the tubulature closely by a bent tube and corks with an empty bottle, and this in like manner with another bottle filled with one part of Carbonate of Soda, and two parts of Dried Carbonate of Soda, well triturated together; and let the tube be long enough to reach the bottom of the bottle. Before closing the last cork closely, immerse the jar to the top in di- luted muriatic acid contained in any convenient vessel; when the whole apparatus is thus filled with carbonic acid gas, secure the last cork tightly, and let the action go on till next morning, or till gas is no longer absorbed by the salt. Remove the damp salt which is formed, and dry if, either in the air without heat, or at a temperature not above 120°. The Dublin College orders of Carbonate of Soda, two parts; Water, five parts. Dissolve. Let the liquor be exposed in a suitable apparatus to the stream of Carbonic Acid Gas, which escapes during the solution of white marble in diluted Muriatic Acid, until it shall have ceased to absorb gas, and let it rest until crystals form: then, with a heat not exceeding 120°, let the liquor evaporate and crystals be formed by cooling; these are to be mixed with the former, dried and preserved in a close vessel. [The mode of preparing this salt, according to the U. S. P., is Ihe following. Take of Car- bonate of Soda, in crystals, a convenient quantity. Break the crystals in pieces, and put them into a wooden box, having a transverse partition near the bottom pierced with numerous small holes, and a cover which can be tightly fitted on. To a bottle having two tubulures, and half filled with water, adapt two tubes, one connected with an apparatus for generating Carbonic Acid and terminating under the water in the bottle, the other commencing at the tubulure in which it is inserted, and entering the box by an opening near the bottom, beneath the partition. Then lute all the joints and cause a stream of Carbonic Acid to pass through 472 ELEMENTS of materia MEDICA. the water into the box until the Carbonate of Soda is fully saturated. Carbonic Acid is ob- tained from marble by the addition of dilute Sulphuric Acid. This process is the one adopted in Philadelphia and is " economical, efficient, and to be relied on."—Report of Committee of Philadelphia College of Pharmacy.) " In the manufacture of this bicarbonate for the purpose of commerce, 160 lbs. of carbonate may be dissolved in 13 gallons of water, and carbonic acid thrown into the solution in a proper apparatus. The bicarbonate falls, as it forms, to the amount of about 50 lbs., and being separated from the solution, may be con- veniently dried by pressure in an hydraulic press. A fresh portion of carbonate is dissolved in the mother liquor, and the operation repeated as before." (Brande, Manual of Chemistry, 5th edit 1841.) The carbonic acid used in this process is usually procured artificially, by the action of diluted sulphuric acid on carbonate of lime. In some countries, how- ever, it is obtained from natural sources; as at Vichy, where it is collected from the mineral waters.1 Smith's process for the preparation of bicarbonate of soda consists in placing the ordinary carbonate of soda in a box, and surrounding it by an atmosphere of carbonic acid gas under pressure. As the bicarbonate combines with much less water of crystallization than is contained in the carbonate, a considerable portion of water is liberated, which, saturated with part of the salt, is allowed to drain off: when the gas ceases to be absorbed, the salt is taken out and dried. On examination it is found to have retained the original form of the pieces; but they have become of a porous and loose texture, presenting the appearance of nume- rous crystalline grains, aggregated together, and having a snow-white colour.8 At Glasgow, sesquicarbonate [bicarbonate ?] of soda is prepared by exposing the carbonate, dry, and in powder, to an atmosphere of carbonic acid gas: it ab- sorbs the requisite quantity to be converted into a sesquicarbonate. (Dr. T. Thomson, Athenaeum for 1840, p. 771.) In the London Pharmacopoeia for 1809, it was ordered to be prepared by adding the hydrated sesquicarbonate of ammo- nia to a solution of carbonate of soda, and applying a heat of about 100° F., to drive off the ammonia: the solution is then to be set aside to crystallize. The proportions of the ingredients employed were a pound of carbonate of soda, three ounces of sesquicarbonate of ammonia, and a pint of distilled water. Winckler (Lehrb. d. Pharm. Chemie, ler Th. S. 292.) directs 4 parts of crystallized car- bonate of soda, li parts of sesquicarbonate of ammonia, and 10 parts of water. The proportions ordered by MM. Henry and Guibourt (Pharm. Raisonnee, t. 2nd, p. 409, ed. 2nde.) are 6 parts of the crystallized carbonate of soda, 2 parts of sesquicarbonate of ammonia, and 4 parts of water. Properties.—Perfect crystals of bicarbonate of soda are, according to Dr. Thomson, (Chem. of Inorg. Bodies, vol. ii. p. 54.) oblique rectangular prisms. As usually met with, this salt constitutes a white crystalline mass, or a whitish powder. In the latter state it is usually contaminated with a small portion of the carbonate. The taste of this salt, and its reaction on vegetable colours, are slightly alkaline. By exposure to the air it effloresces superficially. When heated it evolves carbonic acid and water, and becomes the anhydrous carbonate. It dis- solves in 13 parts, according to Rose, or 8 parts, according to Berthollet, of cold water. By heat the solution loses first one quarter, and subsequently one-half of its carbonic acid. Characteristics.—To recognise the carbonic acid and soda of this salt, the tests are the same as before described (vide p. 456) for the carbonate of soda. From the latter salt the bicarbonate of soda is distinguished by its more difficult solu- » For a description and sketch of the apparatus used in the collection of the gas by D'Arcet, see Diet, di /'Must. 3me. t. p. 61. » Journ. of the Philadelphia College of Pharm. vol. i , quoted by Dr. Bache. in the United States' Dispensatory. For a sketch ofthe apparatus employed hy Souberain, in performing Smith's process, see his Nouv. Traite at Pharm. t. 2~«, pp. 289 and 284, 2nd* ed. Paris, 1840. BICARBONATE OF SODA. 473 bility in water, by its causing neither a brick-red precipitate with the bichloride of mercury, nor a white precipitate with the sulphate of magnesia ofthe shops. Composition.—Crystallized bicarbonate of soda has the following composi- tion :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Rose. Berthollet. Berard. Soda..................... ..... 1...... 32 ...... 3404 ...... 37 ...... 3T75 ...... 29-85 44 ..... 4IS-80 ...... 49 ...... 44--40 ...... 49 95 \v^::::::::::::;:::::;:::::: _ :::::: «......w-h......h ...-.-.. 2385 ....... 2020 irbonic Acid.................. 2 Crysl. Bicarb. Sola.............. 1 ...... 94 ...... 9998 ...... 100 ......100 00 ......10000 According to Dr. Thomson (First Principles of Chemistry, vol. ii. p. 268.) this salt contains only one equivalent of water of crystallization.- Purity.—When quite pure this salt occasions no precipitate with bichloride of platinum, perchloric acid, or tartaric acid, by which its freedom from potash is de- monstrated. When supersaturated with pure nitric acid, it gives no precipitate with cither chloride of barium or nitrate of silver, by which the absence of sulphates and chlorides is shown. Lastly, it occasions a white precipitate, or opalescence, with bichloride of mercury, by which the freedom from a simple or mono-carbonate is shown. It is totally dissolved by water. Neither chloride of platina nor sulphate of magnesia, unices heated, throws down any thing from this solution. By a strong fire it is converted into anhydrous carbonate of soda. Ph. Lond. "A solution in 40 parts of water does not give an orange precipitate with solution of cor- rosive sublimate." Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects.—The effects of this salt are analogous to those of bicar- bonate of potash, than which it is regarded as having a somewhat less disagree- able taste and a slighter local action. It is less caustic and irritant than the car- bonate of soda. Its remote or constitutional effects are analogous to those of the caustic alkalis. (Vide Potassa, p. 416.) Uses.—It is employed as an antacid in those forms of dyspepsia which are attended with an inordinate quantity of acid in the stomach; as a lithontriptic in those kinds of lithiasis which are accompanied with an excessive secretion of uric acid and the urates ; as a resolvent or alterative in certain forms of inflammation, in glandular affections, in syphilis, and scrofula ; and as a diuretic in some dropsical complaints. (See Potash, p. 416, and Carbonate of Soda, p. 467.) The principal consumption of bicarbonate of soda (Sodae Sesquicarbonas, Ph. L.) is in the preparation of the effervescing draught, soda-powders, and Seidlitz powders: in these the bicarbonate is mixed with a vegetable acid (either citric or tartaric, usually the latter.) Taken in a state of effervescence, a solution of this kind is an agreeable and refreshing drink for allaying thirst, checking sickness, and diminishing febrile heat, as I have before mentioned (see pp. 304, 359, and .'162.) The resulting soda-salt (tartrate or citrate) undergoes partial digestion in its passage through the system, and is converted into carbonate, which is found in the urine. Hence, therefore, these effervescing preparations may be employed as diuretics and lithontriptics, instead of the simple carbonate or bicarbonate of soda, than which they are more agreeable. On the other hand they are highly objectionable, and are to be carefully avoided, in the treatment of phosphatic de- p< isites in the urine. Allud ing to these cases, Dr. Prout1 observes, " were I required to name the remedy calculated to do the most mischief, I should name the com- mon saline draught, formed of potash or soda, and some vegetable acid" Administration.—The dose of this salt is from ten grains to a drachm. In preparation of effervescing draughts, a scruple ofthe powder sold in the shops bicarbonate of soda (Sodae Sesquicarbonas, Ph. L.) usually requires about the as 18 ' Inquiry into the Xatur,. and Treatment of Affections ofthe Urinary Organs 2;l ud p 145 Vol. I.—60 474 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. grains of crystallized tartaric acid, or about 17 grains of the ordinary crystals of citric acid, or four fluid-drachms of lemon juice, to saturate it. 1. PUIVERES EFFERYESCENTES, E. Effervescing Powders. (Tartaric Acid, _j.; Bicarbonate of Soda, _j. and grs. liv.; or, Bicarbonate of Potash, 3j- and grs. clx. Reduce the acid and either bicarbonate separately to fine powder, and divide each into sixteen powders; preserve the acid and alkaline powders in separate papers of different colours.)—The Soda Powders of the shops consist of 30 grains of bicarbonate of soda, contained in a blue paper, and 25 grains of tartaric acid, in a white paper. When taken they should be dissolved in half a pint of water. The flavour of the solution is improved by adding to the water, before dissolving the acid, one or two drachms of simple syrup, and either half a drachm of the tinc- ture of orange-peel, or two or three drops ofthe essence of lemon. Ginger-beer Powders are made in the same way as soda powders, except that five grains of powdered ginger and a drachm of white sugar are mixed with the bicarbonate of soda. I SEIDLITZ POWDERS.—These consist of two drachms of Tartarized Soda and two scruples of Bicarbonate of soda contained in a blue paper, and half a drachm of powdered Tartaric Acid in a white paper. These are to be taken dissolved in half a pint of water, while the liquid is in a state of effervescence. These form an agreeable and mild aperient. Why they are called Seidlitz powders I cannot divine, as they have no analogy to Seidlitz water. I LIQUOR SODjE EFFERVESCENT, L. Sodae Aqua Ejfervescens, E.; Aqua Car- bonatis Sodae Acidulct, D.; Effervescing Solution of Super carbonate of Soda; Soda Water, properly so called. (Sesquicarbonate [Bicarbonate, E.~] of Soda, 3j.; Distilled Water, Oj. Dissolve the carbonate in the water, and pass into it, compressed by force, more carbonic acid than is sufficient for saturation. Keep the solution in a well-stoppered vessel, L. E.—The process of the Dublin Phar- macopoeia is essentially similar, except that carbonate of soda is substituted for the bicarbonate.)—This solution is employed in the same cases as bicarbonate of soda. The additional quantity of carbonic acid contained in it renders it more agreeable, and not less effectual, as an alkaline agent, in its operation on the sys- tem generally. It is employed to counteract or prevent the inordinate secretion of uric acid and the urates; but both this and soda water powders are highly in- jurious in phosphatic deposites (see p. 473.) The Bottled Soda Water of the shops is in general only carbonic acid water (see p. 306.) If, after it has ceased to effervesce, tartaric acid be added, the effervescence is not renewed unless an alkaline carbonate be present. Liquor sodae effervescens may be extemporaneously made, by pouring car- bonic acid water into a tumbler containing half a drachm of bicarbonate of soda. A fraudulent imitation of soda water is said to have been practised, by adding a few drops of sulphuric acid to a solution of carbonate of soda in water, and instantly corking the bottle. The fraud may be detected by chloride of barium, which throws down a white precipitate insoluble in nitric acid. 4. SOM CARBONATIS AQUA, D. Solution of Carbonate of Soda. (Take of Carbonate of Soda any required quantity; dissolve in water, and let the specific gravity of the liquor be to that of distilled water as 1024 to 1000. A liquor of the same specific gravity is prepared by dissolving an ounce of [crystallized] carbonate of soda in a [wine] pint of distilled water.) Dose from f 3iij. to f3ij. 5. TROCHISCI SODiE BICARBONATIS, E. Soda Lozenges. (Bicarbonate of Soda, %.\ Pure Sugar, _uj.; Gum Arabic, _ss. Pulverize them, and, with mucilage, beat them into a proper mass for making lozenges.) Employed to relieve too great acidity of stomach. TARTRATE OF POTASH AND SODA. 473 I'OTAS'S.-E ET SO'DiE TAR'TRAS, E. D.-TARTRATE OF POTASH AND SODA (Sods PotassioTartras, L) (Sodas et Potassa; Tartras, U. S.) History.—This salt was discovered by Seignette, an apothecary at Rochelle, in 1672, and hence it is frequently termed Seignette's Salt, or Set de Seignette. (Heckmann's Hist, of Invent, vol. iv. p. 616.) He called it Alkaline Salt, Sal Potqchrest, and Rochelle Salt (Sal Rupellensis.) To distinguish it from the sal polychrest (sulphate of potash) of other writers, it is sometimes denominated Sal Potychreslum Seignelli. It is often called Tartarized Soda (Soda Tartanzafa seu Natron Tartarizalum.) Preparation.—All the British Colleges give directions for its preparation. The London College orders of Bitartrate of Potash, powdered, gxvj.; Carbonate of Soda, §xij.; Boiling Water, Oiv. Dissolve the carbonate of soda in the boiling water, and add gradually the bitartrate of potash. Strain the liquor; then apply a gentle heat until a pellicle floats, and set it aside that crystals may be formed. The liquor being poured off, dry them. Evaporate the liquor again that it may yield crystals. [The Formula of the U. S. Pharma. copoeia is the same.] The Edinburgh College orders the same quantities. The Dublin College employs Carbonate of Soda, Jive parts; Bitartrate of Potash, reduced to the finest powder, seven parts; Hot Water, fifty parts. In this process the excess of acid in the bitartrate of potash is saturated by the soda of the carbonate, while the carbonic acid of the latter is disengaged. Properties.—This salt is met with in large, transparent, and regularly-shaped right rhombic prisms; but curiously enough, the crystals are frequently produced in halves (as in fig. 76.) Their taste is mildly saline and bitter. Exposed to the Fig. 76. w Natural Half of ditto. air they slightly effloresce. When heated they undergo the watery fusion, evolve their water of crystallization, and are decomposed: the residue consists of char- coal and the carbonates of potash and soda. They are readily soluble in cold, and still more so in hot water. Characteristics.—This salt may be recognised by the shape and size of the crystals. Sulphuric acid added to the aqueous solution throws down small crys- tals of bitartrate of potash; perchloric acid throws down perchlorate of potash: the chlorides of barium and calcium occasion white precipitates, soluble in excess of water, and composed of soda, tartaric acid, and, in the one case, baryta, in the other, lime: bichloride of platinum produces a yellow precipitate of the platinum- chloride of potassium. Heated with the bichloride of platinum it yields a black precipitate. Nitrate of silver occasions a white precipitate, (tartrate of silver,) soluble in excess of water. When heated, Rochelle salt is decomposed, various volatile substances are evolved, and the odour of caramel is given out (see p. 361.) If the residuum be digested in hydrochloric acid, we obtain a solution ofthe chlo- rides of sodium and potassium: the chloride of potassium maybe precipitated by bichloride of platinum, leaving chloride of sodium in solution, which may be detected by the tests already mentioned for this salt (p. 456.) Composition.—The composition of this salt is as follows: — Fig. 75. 1'rism of Rochelle Salt. 476 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Atoms. Eq Wt. Per Cent. Schulze. At*. Eq. Wt. ?0,,la--.................•...... \ •- 32— ]«!••"• !n) l^trjlePol^l. 1.. 114 £otfh. ■•:■:■................... _•— ,S—' «S "" i?2U-> Tartrate S...la.. 1-- »H Tartaric Acid................. 2---132--- 437--- 41J ( i .., , ,0 (J0 Water........................ 10.... 90.... 29-8.... 311) ( U aler......... Crystli Tarto of Potash & Soda. 1___302___ 99 7--- 1000...................... 1.. 302 Dr. Thomson (First Principles, ii. 440.) says, that when the crystals are free from all adhering moisture, they contain only eight equivalents of water of crys- tallization, and their atomic weight is then 284. Physiological Effects.—It is a mild, laxative, cooling salt, very analogous in its effects to the tartrate of potash. Sundelin (Hand. d. Heilmittellehre.) says it is uncertain as a purgative, sometimes failing, at others acting very slowly, but strongly, and with violent abdominal pain. He thinks it may be completely replaced in practice by a mixture of magnesia and sulphate of magnesia. Like the other vegetable alkaline salts, it undergoes partial decomposition in the sys- tem, and is converted into the carbonate, in which state it is found in the mine. Hence its use should be carefully avoided in persons suffering with phosphatic deposites in the urine. Uses.—It is commonly employed as a mild aperient for females and other deli- cate persons. It may be used with advantage by those who are subject to ex- cessive secretion of uric acid or the urates. Administration.—It is given in doses of from 3ij, to 3yj. or 3j. Tt should be exhibited largely diluted with water. A very convenient mode of exhibition is in combination with bicarbonate of soda and tartaric acid in an effervescing con- dition (vide Seidlitz Powders, p. 474.) 11. SO'DJE ACE'TAS, L. D.—ACETATE OF SODA. History.—This salt was first described by Baron, in 1747: (Thomson's Che- mist, of Inorg. Bod. vol. ii. p. 464.) but according to Dnlk (Die Preuss. Pharm. iibers. u. erldut.) its real discoverer was F. Meyer, in 1677. It was formerly called Terra Foliata Tartari Crystallisata, or 'Terra Foliata Mineralis. Preparation.—The preparation of acetate of soda by manufacturers of pyro- ligneous acid has been before described (see p. 347.) The Dublin College orders it to be prepared by saturating Carbonate of Soda wilh Distilled Vinegar. The filtered liquor is to be evaporated until it has attained the sp. gr. of 1276. By cooling, crystals are formed, which are to ie.'eautiously dried irlid ^ejpi in a close vessel. Properties.—This salt crystallizes in oblique rhombic prisms. Geiger (Handb. d. Pharm. 1 Bd. 150, 3 Aufl.) says that a saturated solution of this salt does not readily crystallize when cooled in a tall glass vessel, unless some pointed or angular body be introduced. Its taste is cooling, saline, and bitterish. Exposed to the air, at ordinary temperatures, the crystals undergo little change; but in dry and warm air they effloresce and become anhydrous. When hqated they first undergo the watery fusion, then give out their water of crystallization, and afterwards undergo the igneous fusion. At a red heat they are decomposed, and yield, as a residue, a mixture of charcoal and carbonate of soda. . They are solu- ble in about three parts of cold water; and are slightly soluble in alcohol. Characteristics.—As an acetate it is recognised by the tests before mentioned (p. 347) for this class of salts. That the base is soda is shown by the characters already described (p. 533) for the soda salts. Composition.—The following is the composition of this salt:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berzelius. Soda....................... 1 ........ 32 ........ 23-36 ........ 2294 Acetic Acid ................ 1 ........ 51 ........ 37-22 ........ 3695 Water...................... 6 ........ 54 ........ 3941 ........ 4011 Crystallized Acetate of Soda. 1 ........ 137 ........ 99-99 ........ 10000 SOAP. 477 PrRITY _It should be white and perfectly neutral to test-papers (litmus and turmeric ) The presence of sulphuric acid may be recognised by chloride of barium which occasions, with this acid, a white precipitate insoluble in nitric acid If nitrate of silver cause a white precipitate insoluble in both water and nitric acid, but soluble in ammonia, the presence of a chloride is to be inferred. Potash may be recognised by the before-mentioned tests for this base (p. 415,) as well as by the deliquescence of the suspected acetate. Physiological Effects.—Acetate of soda operates on the body like acetate of potash, but is probably somewhat milder in its action. r Uses—It is rarely employed for medicinal purposes. It may, however, be used as a substitute for acetate of potash, over which it has the advantage of not being deliquescent. . In pharmacy and the arts it is largely employed in the manufacture of acetic acid (vide p. 348,) and on this account has been introduced into the Pharmaco- peia, as the officinal source of this acid. Ai»MiNisiRATiON.--Tlie dose of it, as a diuretic, is from a scruple to two drachms. 12. SA'PO.—SOAP. 1. Sapo. Sapo ei olivte oleo el soda confectus, _.— Sapo durus. Spanish or Castile Soap, made with olive oil and soda, E-—Sapo durus, D— [Sapo, U. S] 2 Sapo mollis. Sapo i-x olivte oleo et potai-sa confectus, _.—Sapo mollis. Soft soap made with olive oil and potash, A'.—Sapo mollis, £>.—[Sapo vulgaris, U. S.J History.__The Hebrew word Borith, translated in our version of the Bible (Jer. ii. 22, and Mai. iii. 2.) Soap, is, by most commentators, supposed to refer to a plant, or to the alkaline ashes of some plant. Pliny,1 who mentions soap, s:iys it is made of tallow and ashes, ascribes its invention to the Gauls, and adds, that the Germans employed both thick and liquid soap (hard and soft soap?) In the excavations made at Pompeii, a complete soap-boiler's shop was discovered, with the soap still perfect, though it must have been manufactured for more than 1700 years? (Parkes, Chem. Essays, ii. 5, 2nd ed.) The term Snap is usually applied to the product of the action of alkalis on fixed oils and fats: while the term Plaster is commonly applied to the product of the action of oxide of lead on fixed oils and fats. The former is frequently termed a soluble soap, while a plaster is denominated an insoluble soap. The term soap is also applied to alkaline resinates. Natural History.—Soap is always an artificial product, unless the sponta- neous formation of adipocire, from dead animal matter, be considered an excep- tion to this statement. This substance appears, from the analysis of Chevreul, to consist of a small quantity of ammonia, of potash, and lime, united to much margaric acid, and a very little oleic acid. Preparation.—The following is a concise account of the principles of soap- making:—" In order to form soap, the oil or fat is boiled with a solution of caustic potash or soda, till the whole forms a thick viscid emulsion, which can be drawn out into long clear threads. If not clear, either water or alkali must be added, according as the turbidity depends on undecomposed oil, or on a defi- ciency of water. When the saponification is complete, the next step is to sepa- rate the soap from the excess of' alkali, the glycerine, and the superfluous water. This may be effected by boiling down till the alkaline ley becomes very concen- trated, when the soap becomes insoluble, and rises to the surface. The same end is attained by adding very strong ley, or common salt, both of which render the soap insoluble when added in sufficient quantity; soap being absolutely inso- luble in alkaline ley of a certain strength, as well as in a saturated solution of common salt. The separation is known to be complete when the liquid ceases ■ Historia Jfaturalis, lib. xxviii. cap. 51, ed. Valp. " Fit ex sevo et cinere." " Duobus modis, spissus ac liquidus." 478 elements of materia medica. to froth in boiling; and the soap is ladled off into moulds, where it is well stirred to favour the separation of the liquid, which should run off from its surface like water from fat. The soap brought to this state in the first operation is called grain soap, from its separating in grainy particles at first. It may be farther purified by repeating the process of dissolving in alkaline ley, and separating it by the addition of salt. In this process the impurities subside, and the soap ge- nerally takes up more water: so that although whiter it is less strong. White soap, for example, commonly contains 45 to 60 per cent, of water, while grain soap contains 25 to 30 per cent. No doubt it may be again procured with as little water as at first; but it is the fluidity caused by the additional water that allows the impurities to subside, and the soap to become white. What is called marbled soap is grain soap which has not been subjected to purification; and the gray, blue, and green colours in it arise principally from the presence of insolu- ble soaps of oxide of iron or of copper." (Liebig, in Turner's Elements of Che- mistry, 7th edit. p. 1076.) Theory of Saponification.—The fixed oils and fats, as they occur in nature, are for the most part mixtures or compounds of two or more fatty salts. Stea- rine, Margarine, and O/eine, are the fatty salts of most frequent occurrence. They are each composed of a sweet basic substance, called Glycerine (C6 H" O5 -4- Aq.,) and a fatty acid. Stearine contains Stearic Acid (C68 H66 O5;) while Margarine contains Margaric Acid (C68 H66 O6;) and Oleine, Oleic Acid (C44 Has 04) Tallow consists chiefly of Stearine with a 1 ittie Oleine. Olive Oil is composed of Marga- rine and Oleine. Almond Oil contains less Margarine than Olive Oil. Palm Oil contains Oleine, Margarine (?), and about two-thirds of its weight of a white solid fat, which is Palmi- tine, and which contains Palmitic Acid. When the oils and fats are acted on by a solution of the caustic alkali, the lat- ter unites with the fatty acid, forming a soap, and disengages the glycerine which combines with water. The following diagram illustrates the action of soda on stearine:— materials. products. 4 eq. Soda........ 126--------------------------^______2 eq. Stearate Soda--- 1 l.«> ( 2 eq. Stearic Acid 1028---'---' 1 eq. Stearine.....1129 \ 2eq. Water___ 18--------------2 eq. Water........... 18 (leq. Glycerine.. 83--------------1 eq. Glycerine ........ 8:1 1257 1257 In the conversion of resin into soap the phenomena are different. Resins usually consist of one or more acids, which combine with alkalis to form resinous salts or soaps. Thus, ordinary Yellow Resin (or Rosin) consists of two acids, called respectively Pinic and Silvio acids; and a soda soap made of this substance would, therefore, be a mixture of pinate and silvate of soda. Properties.—The consistence, colour, odour, and sp. gr. of soap vary in the different varieties of this substance. The taste of all is slightly alkaline. All the alkaline soaps are soluble both in water and alcohol. The substance called transparent soap is prepared by evaporating an alcoholic solution of pure soap. When heated, soap fuses, swells up, and is decomposed, leaving a residuum of charcoal and alkaline carbonate. Most of the acids decompose soap: they unite with the alkaline base, and separate the fatty acids. The earthy salts (as sulphate of lime, sulphate of magnesia, alum, &c.) also decompose soap: the fatty acids unite with the earth to form an insoluble earthy soap, while the alkali of the soap combines with the acid of the salt. The hardness of sea, spring, and well water, depends on the earthy salts, (principally sulphate of lime,) which decompose soap: (see p. 244) hence tincture of soap may be used as a test ofthe hardness or softness of common waters. The metallic salts decompose soap, and give rise to metalline insoluble soaps. SOAP. 479 Characterestics.—Soap may be partly recognised by its physical properties, especially by its feel, which is so well known that it is usually called soapy. The solubility of soap in water and alcohol is an important character, as well as its detergent quality, which depends on its power of rendering fatty and other matters soluble in water. The effect of heat on it also deserves notice: if the car- bonaceous residuum be digested in weak hydrochloric acid, and the solution fil- tered and concentrated by evaporation, the nature of the alkaline base may be ascertained by applying the tests for potash and soda before mentioned (pp. 415 and 456.) Lastly, the action of acids and earthy and metallic salts on a solution of soap, as already noticed, serves to recognise soap. Varieties.—A considerable number of soaps are met with in commerce. Of these, however, two1 only are employed in medicine, viz. Castile Soap and Soft Soap. The soaps of commerce are either hard or soft; the former are prepared with soda, the latter with potash. This circumstance, therefore, forms the ground of their division into two classes. Class 1. Hard or Soda Soaps; SapO SodiaCUS ; SapO WltrinUS ; Sapo (lurilS ; Sapo spissus, Pliny?—The qualities of the hard or soda soaps vary according to the nature of the fatty or resinous matters with which these substances are pre- pared. 1. Castile or Spanish Soap; Sapo, L.; Sapo durus, E. D.; Sapo Hispanicus; Marseilles Soap; Olive Oil Soda Soap.—This is prepared with olive oil and a solution of caustic soda. When pure it has very little odour. It is hard, but in the fresh state may be easily worked or kneaded between the fingers: by keeping in warm air it becomes dry and pulverizable. It should not feel greasy, have a .rancid odour, communicate an oily stain to paper, nor be covered with a saline efflorescence; but should dissolve completely and readily in both water and alcohol. Two varieties of it are known in commerce—the white, and the marbled. et. While Castile Soap.—This is purer than the following variety, but it is a weaker soap (i. e. it contains more water.) yS. Marbled Castile Soap.—This variety is harder than the white kind. The marbled ap- pearance is produced by adding to the soap, as soon as it is completely made and separated from the spent ley, a fresh quantity of ley, and immediately after a solution of sulphate of iron. The black oxide of iron is precipitated, and gives the dark-coloured streaks to the soap. By exposure to the air these streaks become red, in consequence of the conversion of the black oxide into the red or sesquioxide of iron. 2. Almond Soap; Almond-oil Soda-soap; Sapo amygdalinus, French Codex.—This is the medicinal soap of the French. It is prepared with ten parts of soap boilers' ley (a solution of caustic soda) and twenty-one parts of almond oil. (Soubeiran, Nouveau Trade de Phar- macie, t. ii. p. 582, 2nde edit.) In this country it is used as a toilet soap. 3. Common Soap; Sapo vulgaris, United Slates Pharmacopoeia; Sapo sebaceus, Geiger ; Animal-oil Soda soap.—This is prepared wilh tallow and soda. Two kinds of it are in com- mon use, curd soap and mottled soap. a. White Curd Soap.—This is made with pure or white tallow or curd soap. Windsor Soap is rnndc with one part of olive oil and nine parts of tallow, and scented. 0. Mottled Soap.—This is the common or domestic soap. Refuse kitchen grease, called kitchen stuff, is used in its preparation. 4. Yellow Soap; Rosin Soap; Resin Soda soap.—This is prepared with tallow, rosin and caustic soda. Palm.oil is frequently employed in its manufacture. In addition to the above there are many varieties of soap, termed Fancy or Toilet Soaps which are sold by perfumers. The patent Silica Soap is hard soap mixed with silicate of soda. a. o« Soft or Potash Soaps; Sapo potassicus ; Sapo kalinus; Sapo mollis • Sapo liquidus, Pliny?—This kind of soap is made with caustic potash and acid oil or fat. 1. Common Soft SoAP.-Sapo mollis, D.; Animal-oil Potash Soap.-Tbh is prepared with nsn oil, (whale, seal, or cod,) tallow, and potash. Its colour is brownish or yellowish • trans- parent, interspersed with white specks or grains of stearic soap formed by the tallow, and whicli give the soap a granular texture like that of the fig. • Linimentum Ammonia (p. 286) is an ammoniacal saponaceous liquid. Linimentum Calcis herparW m _> de.cr.bed, .. sometime* termed a calcareous soap (see Calx.) B^lan^P^^^^^^ 480 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. 2. Olive-Oil Potash Soap.—Sapo mollis, L. E.—Though ordered in the London and Edin- burgh Pharmacopoeias, I have not been able to meet with it; and Messrs. Rowe, soap manu- facturers, of Brentford, inform me they are unacquainted with it.' Composition.—The following is the composition of several varieties of soap:— (See Gmelin's Handbuch der Chemie.) OLIVE OIL SODA SOAP. ANIMAL OIL POTASH SOAP. Marsailles white. Marsailles marbled. Foieign Castile, very dry. London-made Castile, very dry. Glasgow soft soap. Margaric Acid... 9-20 Water.......... 21-30 6 | 60 34 6 64 30 90 76-5 145 10-5 75-2 14-3 °^oap0il S°da | ,000° (Braconnot.) 100 (O'Arcet. 100 (Thenard.) 1000 (Ure.) 1000 (Ure.) Animal oil potash ) soap.............j ]U0'° (Ure.) Purity.—The adulterations of soap are excess of water, lime, gyp9um, or pipe- clay. The first may be known by the consistence of the soap, and the great loss of weight which this substance undergoes in dry air. The other impurities may be detected by alcohol, which leaves them undissolved. Physiological Effects, ct. On Vegetables.—Soap, used as a manure, appears to promote vegetation. (De Candolle, Physiol. Veget. p. 1343.) /3. On Animals.—It does not appear to be poisonous to animals. Veterina- rians employ it'as a diuretic, and, in large doses, as a purgative. y. On Man.—Soap acts very much like the alkalis (vide pp. 194, 207, and 416J Its local operation, however, is much less energetic than either the caustic or even the carbonated alkalis. Hence, it may be administered in considerable doses without causing irritation or inflammation. When swallowed it very readily palls the appetite and disturbs the digestive functions, and in these qualities it is more powerful than the alkalis. Perhaps these effects depend on the fatty acids which must be disengaged in the stomach, ir> consequence of the union of the alkali of the soap with the free acids of the gastric juice. Probably the fatty acids be- come more or less completely digested, for soap acts on the general system like the alkalis; it promotes the secretion of urine, and communicates alkaline proper- ties to this fluid. In large doses it acts as a purgative. I knew an idiot who had frequently eaten large lumps of soap without any ill effects ; and I have heard of a pound of it being swallowed for a wager! Uses.—As an antacid, soap is employed in poisoning by the mineral acids: it should be administered in the form of a strong solution, which effectually neu- tralizes the acid without acting as an irritant. So also in those forms of dyspepsia which are attended with an excessive formation of acid, soap may be usefully em- ployed to neutralize it. External parts burnt with the strong mineral acids, or with phosphorus, should be washed with a solution of soap. As a lithonlriptic, soap has been used in those forms of lithiasis in which uric acid or the urates pre- vail. A mixture of soap and lime-water was once considered a most powerful solvent for urinary calculi. The Hon. Horace Walpole (Philosophical Transac- tions, xlvii. 43 & 472.) gained great relief from it. By the action of lime-water on it, an insoluble calcareous soap and a solution of caustic soda are formed. As a purgative, soap is rarely exhibited alone: in combination with rhubarb it may be 1 Druggists generally substitute common soft soap for olive-oil potash-soap. At Apothecaries' Hall, Lon- don, a white soft soap is employed in the preparation ofthe Unguentum Sulphuris Compositum, L. This soap is prepared by Mr. Taylor, 13, Newington Causeway, who tells me there is very little demand for it, the principal consumption being at Apothecaries' Hall. He also informed me that it was made from three fatty substances, (olive oil, tallow, and some otlmr oil,) and two alkalis (potash and soda.) Its consistence is that of butier, but by keeping it becomes harder. I have been informed that olive-oil potash soap i.i prepared at Liverpool. SOAP. 481 employed with considerable benefit in habitual constipation and disordered condi- tions of the biliary functions. In the form of enema, a strong solution of it is some- times used with great relief to dissolve hardened faeces, and to relieve obstinate constipation. As a resolvent or alterative, it was once much esteemed in enlarge- ments and various chronic disorders of the viscera and glands; and as the alkalis have been found useful in the same diseases, any good effects which may have been obtained by it are probably referrible to its alkaline base. Externally, soap is frequently employed on account of its detergent, lubricating, and discutient qualities. Thus, in tinea capitis, scabies, and various other skin diseases, ablution night and morning with soap-water greatly contributes to the cure. On account of its lubricating qualities it is a most convenient adjunct to liniments. The uses of the liniment, cerate, and plaster of soap, are noticed below. Lastly, soap is useful in pharmacy to render other medicines more soluble, or to give a proper consistence to various substances for the making of pills. Thus it is a constituent of various pills (e. g. Pilulae Rhei compositae; Pilulae Saponis compositae; and Pilulm Scillce composite.) In some cases it acts as the adjuvans, assisting and promoting the operation of other medicines; as a corrigens, correct- ing their operation ; and, as a constiluens, imparting an agreeable or convenient form. The addition of soap to aloes or extract of jalap is cited by Dr. Paris, (Phar- macologia.) as an instance in which soap fulfils all three of these objects. Administration.—The usual dose of soap, taken in a pilular form, is from grs. v. to 3ss. In cases of poisoning by the mineral acids, half a pint of strong solution of soap should be instantly administered. 1. LINIMENTUM SAPONIS, L. E. D. Soap Liniment; Opodeldoc. (Soap [Cas- tile,] 3iij.; Camphor, 3j.; Spirit of Rosemary, f 3xvj. L. D.—Castile Soap; 3iv.; Camphor, 3ij.; Volatile Oil of Rosemary, f 3v.; Rectified Spirit, Oj. and f 3xij. E.—The London College orders the camphor to be dissolved in the spirit, and the soap to be added afterwards: but the Edinburgh and Dublin College direct the soap to be first dissolved, and the camphor [and oil, E.] subsequently. The Edin- burgh College orders the mixture to be agitated briskly.)—If made with hard soap, as directed by the Pharmacopoeias, this preparation is apt to solidify in cold weather. On this account druggists usually substitute common soft soap. The only objection to this is its unpleasant smell.—Soap liniment is used as a stimulant discutient, as well on account of its lubricating qualities, in local pains, sprains, bruises, rheumatism, &c. It is a constituent of Linimentum Opii: [[The Linimentum Saponis Camphoratum of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia is a preparation founded on the same basis as the preceding, it differs slightly from it. Take of Common Soap, three ounces, Camphor an ounce; Oil of Rosemary, Oil of Origanum, each a fluid drachm ; alcohol a pint. Digest the soap with the alcohol, by means of a sand bath, till it is dissolved; then add the camphor and oils, and when they are dissolved, pour the liquid into broad mouthed bottles.] [An analogous preparation is the Tinctura Saponis Camphorata, U. S. It is made as follows:—Soap in shavings, four ounces; Camphor, two ounces; Oil of Rosemary, half a fluid-ounce; Alcohol, two pints. Digest the Soap with the Alcohol by means of a water bath till it is dissolved, then filter and add the Cam- phor and Oil. This preparation retains its fluidity, not becoming consistent upon cooling, this is owing to its formation from a soap fabricated with vegetable oil and not with an animal soap as in the case of the liniment.] 2. CERATOM SAPflMS, L. (U. S.) Soap Cerate (Soap, 3_..; Wax, 3xijss.; Oxide of Lead, powdered, 3xv.; Olive Oil, Oj.; Vinegar, Cong.]. Boil the Vinegar with the Oxide of Load, over a slow fire, constantly stirring them until they in- corporate; then add the soap, and boil again in like manner, until all the moisture is evaporated; lastly, with these mix the Wax first dissolved in the Oil.)—The sub-acetate of lead formed by boiling the oxide of lead with vinegar, is decom- Vol. 1.-1)1 & 482 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEUlCA. posed by the soap, the soda of which combines with the acetic acid, and the fatty acids with the oxide of lead. The wax and oil serve to give consistence to the preparation. It is used as a mild cooling dressing for scrofulous swellings, and other local inflammations, as well as for fractured limbs: in the latter case its principal use is as a mechanical support. [The U. S. Pharmacopoeia dircets to take of solution of sub-acetate of Lead, two pints; Soap, six ounces; white Wax, ten ounces; Olive Oil, a pint. Boil the solution of sub-acetate of Lead with the Soap, over a slow fire, to the consistence of honey : then transfer to a water bath and evaporate until all the moisture is dissipated; lastly, add the Wax previously melted with the Oil and mix.] S. EMPLASTRUM SAPOMS, L. E. D. (U. S.;) Soap Plaster. (Soap, sliced, lbss.; Litharge Plaster, lbiij. L. D. (U. S.)—Litharge Plaster, 3iv.; Gum Plaster, 3ij.; Castile Soap, in shavings, _j. Mix the soap with the liquefied plaster, and boil down to a proper consistence.) The quantity of soap here ordered is said by Mr. Scanlan1 to be too much by one-half; as when prepared by the formula of the London and Dublin pharmacopoeias it is quite pulverizable and falls into crumbs. The Cum Plaster ordered by the Edinburgh College will tend to ob- viate this defect. Boiling is unnecessary. This plaster, spread on leather, is used as a discutient and mechanical support. 4. EMPLASTRUM SAPONIS COMPOSITUM VEL ADHERENS, D. Adhesive Plaster. (Soap Plaster, 3h\; Litharge Plaster with resin, 3iij. Make a plaster, which should be melted and spread on linen.)—This plaster is less apt to irritate than the litharge plaster with resin, " owing to the much smaller proportion of resin. It is a very useful application to those abrasions of the skin which take place in consequence of long confinement to bed."3 Order XIII.—COMPOUNDS OF BARIUM. 1. BARY'T_S SULPHAS, E. D.-SULPHATE OF BA.RYTA. History.—Native sulphate of baryta, called Ponderous or Heavy Spar (Spa- thum ponderosum,) was formerly confounded with sulphate of lime. In 1774 Scheele discovered baryta, and in the year following, Gahn analyzed heavy spar, and found that it was composed of sulphuric acid and baryta. Natural History.—It is peculiar to the mineral kingdom. It frequently occurs crystallized in forms belonging- to the right prismatic system. The crystals are commonly tabular. The Straight lamellar Heavy Spar forms splendid groups of crystals. It occurs in Cumberland, Durham, Westmorland, &c. The Curved lamellar Heavy Spar is generally known as Cock's Comb Barytes. It is common in Scotland, Derbyshire, &c. Compact or Earthy Sulphate of Baryta occurs in Staffordshire and Derbyshire, and is called Catch. The Bolognese Spar, from Monte Paterno, near Bologna, is Radiated Sulphate of Baryta. Properties.—Sulphate of baryta has a density of from 4-41 to 4*67. It is in- odorous and tasteless. When pure it is, in the pulverulent form, quite white. The form of its crystals has been above noticed. " White or flesh-red; heavy ; lamellar; brittle." Ph. Ed. Characteristics.—Before the blowpipe it decrepitates, but is not easily fused. " This difficult fusibility constitutes a good mark of distinction between this mi- neral and sulphate of lime or of strontian."3 Ultimately it melts into a hard white enamel. It is insoluble in nitric acid. Reduced to powder, mixed with charcoal, and ignited, it is converted into sulphuret of barium, which, on the ad- dition of hydrochloric acid, evolves sulphuretted hydrogen (see p. 406,) and yields a solution of chloride of barium (See the tests for this salt at p. 485.) i Dr. Montgomery, Observations on the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, p. 596 » Ibid o 597 ' Dr. Thomson, Outlines of Mineralogy, Geology, and Mineral Analysis, vol. i. p. 104. Lond. 1836. CARBONATE OF BARYTA. 483 Composition.—Sulphate of baryta has the following composition:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berzelius. Baryta.................... 1 ...... 77 ...... 65-8 ...... 65 643 Sulphuric Acid............ 1 ...... 40 ...... 342 ...... 34.357 Sulphate of Baryta........ 1 ......117 ...... WOO ...... 100000 Physiological Effects.—According to the experiments of Orfila (Toxicologie Generale.) it is inert. Uses.—Sulphate of baryta, on account of its cheapness, is the usual source from whence the other salts of baryta are obtained; and on this account it has been introduced into the Edinburgh and Dublin Pharmacopoeias. In its pure state it is sometimes employed as a pigment. 2. BARY'TjE CAR'BONAS, L. E. (U. S.)—CARBONATE OF BARYTA. History.—In 1783, Dr. "Withering recognised the native carbonate, which has, in consequence, been called, after its discoverer, Witherite. Natural History.—It is peculiar to the mineral kingdom. Witherite occurs in the lead mines of the North of Kngland; as of Anglesark, in Lan- cashire. Baryto Calcite, a compound of carbonate of lime and carbonate of baryta, is met with at Alston Moor, Cumberland.' Preparation.—The native carbonate of baryta is sufficiently pure for the pre- paration of the other barytic salts, and is the kind meant in the London Pharma- copoeia. Absolutely pure carbonate may be prepared by the addition of a pure alkaline carbonate to a solution of chloride of barium. It may also be obtained by igniting (or boiling in water) finely-powdered sul- phate of baryta with three parts of carbonate of potash, or carbonate of soda, and washing away the resulting alkaline sulphate. Properties.—Native carbonate of baryta occurs massive, stalactitic, and crys- tallized. Its crystals belong to the right prismatic system. The sp. gr. of this mineral is 4-3. Heated before the blow-pipe it melts into a white enamel, with the evolution of much light and the loss of carbonic acid. Artificially prepared carbonate is a fine, tasteless, odourless powder. It is almost insoluble in both hot and cold water; 4,304 parts of cold, or 2,304 parts of hot water, being required to dissolve one part of carbonate. It is more soluble in carbonic acid water. Characteristics.—It dissolves with effervescence in hydrochloric acid: the evolved gas is carbonic acid: (see p. 302) the solution contains chloride of barium (see p. 485 for its characteristics.) Composition.—The following is the composition of this salt:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berzelius. Berard. Daryta............ 1 ........ 77 ........ 77-7........ 779........ 78 Carbonic Acid..... 1 ........ 22........ 22 2........ 22 1 ........ 22 Carbonate Baryta.. 1 ........ 99........ 99-9........ 100-0........ 100 Purity.—It should be white, odourless, tasteless, and entirely soluble in hy- drochloric or nitric acid, by which its freedom from sulphate of baryta is demon- strated. Neither caustic ammonia nor hydrosulphuric acid should produce any precipitate or change of colour in the hydrochloric solution, by which the absence of alumina and metallic matter (lead or iron, or copper) may be inferred. If ex- cess of sulphuric acid be added to this solution, the whole of the baryta is thrown down in combination with the acid, and no precipitate should be occasioned by the subsequent addition of carbonate of soda, by which the absence of lime is shown. > For pome curious anecdotes respecting its discovery at this place, see Parkes's Chemical Essays, vol. i p, 324, 2d edit. London, 18211. 484 ELEMENTS of materia medica. Totally soluble in diluted hydrochloric acid. This solution on the addition of ammonia or hydrosulphuric acid, does not give any precipitate, and it remains colourless; when more sulphuric acid is added than is necessary to saturation, nothing is afterwards thrown down by carbonate of soda.—Ph. Lond. "One hundred grains dissolved in an excess of nitric acid are not entirely precipitated with sixtyone grains of [anhydrous) sulphate of magnesia [or one hundred and tvveuty-five grains ofthe crystallized sulphate of magnesia."]—PA. Ed. Physiological Effects, ct. On Vegetables.—Germination does not take place in carbonate of baryta. (Vogel, in De Candolle, Phys. Veget. p. 1341.) £. On Animals.—Cows and fowls have been destroyed by swallowing the native carbonate. (Parkes, Chem. Essays, vol. i. p. 330.) Orfila (Toxicol. Generate.) says a drachm of the powder killed a dog in six hours; but C. G. Gmelin (Versuche iiber d. Wirk. des Baryls, &c, p. 8.) gave two drachms to a dog: vomiting took place, and the animal was well the next day. A drachm killed a rabbit in three hours. When applied to a wound it has proved fatal. (Campbell, quoted by Christison, Treatise on Poisons, 3d ed, p. 532.) From the above experiments carbonate of baryta appears to act as an acro-narcotic poison: when swallowed it causes vomiting, inflames the alimentary tube, be- comes absorbed, and acts specifically on the nervous system, causing convul- sions, paralysis, and insensibility. y. On Man,—Only one case illustrating its action on the human subject has been published. (Dr. Wilson, Lond, Med. Gaz, vol. xiv. p. 487.) A young woman swallowed half a tea-cupful ofthe powdered carbonate: in two hours she had dimness of sight, double vision, ringing in the ears, pain in the head, and throbbing in the temples, a sensation of distention and weight at the epigastrium, distention of stomach, and palpitation. Subsequently she had pains in the legs and knees, and cramps in the calves. A day or two after the cramps became more severe. These symptoms, slightly modified, continued for a long time. Uses.—Carbonate of baryta is employed in the preparation of the chloride of barium. It is not administered as a medicine. Antidote.—(Vide Barii Chloridum.) 3. BA'RII CHLO'RIDUM, L. (U. S.)—CHLORIDE OF BARIUM. (Barytae Murias, E. D.) History.—This compound was discovered by Scheele in 1775. It was at first termed Terra Ponderosa Salita, and afterwards Muriate of Barytes. Preparation.—All the British Colleges give directions for the preparation of this salt. The formula of the London College is as follows:—Take of Carbonate of Barytes, broken into small pieces, j$x.; Hydrochloric Acid, Oss.; Distilled Water, Oij.—Mix the Acid with the Water, and add the Carbonate of B iryles gradually to them. Then, heat being applied, and the effervescence finished, strain and boil down the liquor, that crystals may be formed. The Edinburgh College directs it to be prepared either in the same way as the London College, or as follows:—Take of Sulphate of Baryta, Ibij.; Charcoal, in fine powder, Jiv.; Pure Muriatic Acid, a sufficiency. Heat the sulphate to redness, reduce it to a fine powder, mix the charcoal with it thoroughly, heat the mixture in a covered crucible for three hours at a low white heat. Pulverize the product, put it gradually into five pints of boiling water; boil for a few minutes; let it rest for a little over a vapour-bath; pour off the clear liquor, and filter it if necessary, keeping it hot. Pour three pints of boiling water over the residuum, and roceed as before. Unite the two liquids; and while they are still hot, or, if cooled, after eating them again, add pure muriatic acid gradually so long as effervescence is occasioned. In this process the solutions ought to be as little exposed to the air as possible; and, in the last stage, the disengaged gas should be discharged by a proper tube into a chimney or the ash- pit of a furnace. Strain the liquor, concentrate it, and set it aside to crystallize. The Dublin College also prepares it from the sulphate. The process is as follows:—Take of Sulphate of Baryta, ten paits; Charcoal, reduced to the most subtle powder, or of Lamp- black, one part. Let the Sulphate of Baryta be roasted in the fire, and whilst red hot thrown into water; then let it be reduced to the finest powder, in the manner directed for Prepared Chalk. Let the powders, intimately mixed together, be passed into a crucible, and exposed chloride op barium. 485 to a strong heat until they become red hot, during four hour. Let the mass,^ent cold, be dissolved in a quantity of boiling distilled water arnount,„g ^n Umes the we ^ SS£ aBXTay £ SIS ZSSt th^yt^ien lef the liquors be filtered, ^mM^^ Carbonate of Baryta, a pound; Muriatic Acid, twelve fluid ounces, Water, three pint_j When hydrochloric acid and carbonate of baryta are ^^ ^edier one equi- valent or 37 parts of hydrochloric acid react on one equivalent c 99 parts of carbonate of baryta; and the products are one equivalent or 22 parts ot carbonic acid, which escape; one equivalent or 9 parts of water, and one equivalent or 105 parts of chloride of barium. PRODUCTS. COMPOSITION. . _„ 1 eq. Carbonic Acid.... 5« !1 eq. Carbonic Acta,.......... — Q .........................:-i en Water. 1 ea Baruta 77 \ 1 ^ W at - ' ' 1 ej. Baryta u | j c? Barium 69-----^v- 1 eq. Hydrochlo. 1 eq. Hydrogen............. 1-----------_____-j eq chloride Barium.. 105 Acid........ 37 leq.Chlorine................ 36 136 136 136 When a mixture of sulphate of baryta and charcoal is submitted to an intense heat, the carbon combines with the oxygen of the sulphuric acid and of the ba- ryta, and forms carbonic oxide, which escapes. The residue, digested in water forms a solution of sulphuret of barium. On the addition of hydrochloric acid, hydrosulphuric acid gas is evolved, and the solution by evaporation yields crys- tals of chloride of barium. Properties.—Chloride of barium crystallizes in right rhombic plates or tables, sometimes in double eight-sided pyramids, which belong to the right prismatic system. To the taste this salt is' disagreeable and bitter. Its sp. gr. is 2-825. In dry warm air the crystals effloresce, but in the ordinary states of the air they undergo no change. When heated they decrepitate, lose their water of crystal- lization, and at a red heat fuse. At a white heat, according to Planiava, this salt volatilizes. It is soluble in both cold and hot water: 100 parts of water at 60° dissolve 43-5 of the crystallized salt,—at 222°, 78 parts. It is slightly soluble in ordinary rectified spirit, but is said to be insoluble in pure alcohol. Characteristics.—Nitrate of silver added to a solution of chloride of barium causes a white precipitate (chloride of silver) soluble in ammonia, but insoluble in nitric acid (see p. 218.) As a barytic salt it is known by the following tests:— No precipitate is produced in a dilute solution of chloride of barium by ammonia, hydrosulphuric acid, or ferrocyanide of potassium. But the soluble sulphates, phosphate, and carbonates, occasion with chloride of barium white precipitates (which are respectively sulphate, phosphate, and carbonate of baryta.) The sulphate of baryta is insoluble in nitric acid. Chloride of barium communicates a greenish-yellow tint to flame. Composition.—Crystallized chloride of barium has the following composi- tion:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berzelius. Phillips. B?ri"m ............................. } ........ gj ........ *%0» { 85-201 ........ 85-5 Chlorine............................ 1 ........ 36 ........ 29 2b ) Water.............................. 2 ........ 18 ........ 1463 11799 ........ 145 Crystallized Chloride Barium......... 1 ........ 123 ........ 99-98 100000___....100-0 Purity.—The crystals should be colourless, neutral to test paper, permanent in the ordinary states of the air, (if they become moist or are deliquescent, the presence of chloride of calcium, or chloride of strontium, may be suspected,) and their dilute aqueous solution should undergo no alteration of colour by the addi- tion of ferrocyanide of potassium, hydrosulphuric acid, tincture of nutgalls, or caustic ammonia, by which the absence of metallic matter (as iron, lead, or cop- per) may be inferred. If excess of sulphuric acid be added, the filtered solution 486 ELEMENTS op materia medica. should be completely volatile when heated, and should occasion no precipitate on the addition of carbonate of soda, by which the absence of lime or magnesia is proved. " Ninety grains in solution, acidulated with nitric acid, are not entirely precipitated by forty-nine [forty-four] grains of [anhydrous] sulphate of magnesia," [or ninety grains of crys- tallized sulphate] Ph. Ed. It is unnecessary to acidulate with nitric acid, as the pure chloride is perfectly soluble in simple water. Physiological Effects, ct. On Vegetables.—This salt is poisonous to plants. (Marcet, quoted by De Candolle, Phys. Veget.) /3. On Animals.—The action of chloride of barium on animals is, according to Sir B. Brodie, (Phil. Trans. 1812, p. 205.) analogous to that of arsenic. Locally, it operates as an irritant. After absorption it affects the nervous system, the organs of circulation, and the stomach. Its action on the nervous system is manifested by staggering, convulsions, paralysis, and insensibility; on the circu- lating system, by palpitations, with feeble and intermittent pulse; on the stomach, by vomiting, from its application to a wound. According to Sir B. Brodie, the affection of the stomach is slighter than that caused by arsenic.1 y. On Man.—Administered in small doses, it at first produces no very obvious effects. In some cases the appetite appears to be improved. Soon we observe an increased secretion of urine, tendency to sweating, and not unfrequently loose stools; so that it appears to operate as a liquefacient (see p. 194.) With no other obvious symptoms than these, glandular swellings or enlargements sometimes become softer and smaller: hence it is resolvent. If we persevere in the use of gradually augmented doses, the appetite becomes disordered, nausea and vomit- ing, with not unfrequently griping and purging, come on: a febrile state, with dry tongue, is produced, the nervous system becomes affected, and the patient complains of giddiness and muscular weakness. Sometimes, according to Schwilgue, (Traite de Mat. Med. vol. i. p. 441, 3me ed.) under the continued use of it, catarrhal discharges from the eye, nose, ear, &c. take place; inflamed or suppurating lymphatic glands evince signs of an augmented excitation, wounds assume a more healthy appearance, and, in some cases, cicatrize. In large medicinal doses very unpleasant effects have been occasionally ob- served from its use: such as vomiting, purging, sometimes griping, contracted pulse, giddiness, and great muscular debility, almost amounting to paralysis, with trem- bling. (See an illustrative case in Medical Commentaries, xix. 267.) In excessive or poisonous doses (as an ounce) the affection of the nervous sys- tem is more obvious. In one recorded case the symptoms were convulsions, ain in the head, deafness, and, within an hour, death. (Journ. of Science, vol. ix. p. 382.) In conclusion, it may be observed, that considered medicinally chloride of ba- rium is most analogous to, though more powerful than, chloride of calcium, and is applicable in the same cases: regarded toxicologically, it may be compared to arsenic, but it acts less energetically on the stomach, and more rapidly on the ner- vous system, and causes death in a shorter time. Uses.—The principal medicinal use of chloride of barium is in the treatment of scrofula, for which it was introduced into medicine by Dr. Crawford in 1790,aand was subsequently used by Hufeland3 with great benefit. The latter writer has employed it in all the forms of this disease, but especially in excited and inflamed conditions, (particularly of delicate and sensible parts, as of the lungs and eyes,) in painful ulcers, indurations which are disposed to inflame, and cutaneous affec- tions. It has also been administered as a resolvent, deobstruent, or alterative, in ' See also the experiments of Orfila in the Toxicol. Oener., and of C. G. Gmelin in his Versuche iiber die Wirkungen, &c. * Medical Commentaries. Dec. 2d, vol, iv. p. 433; and Medical Communications, vol. ii. » Erfahr. ub. d Oebr. u. d Krufte d, sahs. Schwererde, Berl. 1794; and VolUtl. Darstell. d. med. Krafleu. d. Oebr. d. salzs. Schwererde, Rerl. 1'94. LIME. 487 some other diseases; for example, scirrhus and cancer, cutaneous diseases, bron- chocele, &c. As a local application, a solution of it has been used as a wash in herpetic eruptions, and as a collyrium in scrofulous ophthalmia. In pharmacy and chemistry it is extensively employed as a test for sulphuric acid and the sulphates. Administration.—It is used in the form of aqueous solution. Antidotes.—The antidotes for the barytic salts are the sulphates, which form therewith an insoluble sulphate of baryta. Hence, sulphate of soda, sulphate of magnesia, alum, or well or spring water (which contains sulphate of lime) should be copiously administered. Of course the poison should be removed from the stomach as speedily as possible. To appease any unpleasant symptoms caused by the continued use of large medicinal doses, opiates may be employed. LIQUOR BARII CHLORIDI,- L. (U. S.;) Solutio Barytoe Muriatis, E.; Barytae Muriatis Aqua, D.; Solution of Chloride of Barium.—(Chloride of Barium, 3j.; Distilled Water, f 3j.; L. E.—Muriate of Baryta, one part; [3j. U. S.] Distilled Water, three parts; [_iij. U. S.] D. Dissolve.) Dose of the solution of the London Pharmacopoeia, ten drops, gradually and cautiously increased until nausea or giddiness is experienced. It is employed also as a test for sulphuric acid or the sulphates. Common water, and all liquids containing sulphates, carbonates, or phosphates in solution, are incompatible with it. 4. BARY'TZE NI'TRAS, E.—NITRATE OF BARYTA. History.—This salt was formed soon after the discovery of baryta. Preparation.—It " is to be prepared like the muriate of baryta [chloride of barium, see p. 484,] substituting pure nitric acid for the muriatic acid."—Ph. Ed. Properties.—It crystallizes in octohedrons. It is soluble in water, but insolu- ble in alcohol. It is decomposed, with decrepitation, by a bright red heat, and furnishes pure baryta. Characteristics.—As a nitrate, it is known by the tests for this class of salts already mentioned (see p. 267.) The characters of the barytic salts have been before stated (see p. 485.) Composition.—The crystallized salt is anhydrous. Its composition is as fol- lows :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berzelius. Baryta............... 1 ........ 77 ........ 587 ........ 58-8 Nitric Acid.......... 1 ........ 54 ........ 413 ........ 4[-2 Nitrate of Baryta--- 1 ........ 131 ........ 100 0 ........ 1000 Physiological Effects.—Similar to those ofthe chloride of barium. Uses.—It is employed as a test. Fire-work makers use it to communicate a green tinge to flame. SOLUTIO MMTE NITRATIS, E. Solution of Nitrate of Baryta. (Nitrate of Baryta, 40 grs.; Distilled Water, 800 grs. Dissolve the salt in the water ; and keep the solution in well-closed bottles.) Employed as a test for sulphuric acid. Order XIV.—COMPOUNDS OP CALCIUM. 1. CALX, L. E. (U. S.)—LIME. (Calx recens usta, D.) History.—Lime, and the mode of obtaining it by burning the carbonate, were known in the most remote periods of antiquity. Hippocrates (Popularium, ii. sect, o.) employed this earth in medicine. Dr. Black, in 1755, first explained the nature of the process for making it. In 1808 Davy showed that this substance was a metallic oxide, and hence it has been termed the Oxide of Calcium. To distinguish it from the hydrate of lime, it is called Caustic Lime, or Quicklime (Calx viva,) or Burned Lime (Calx usta.) 488 elements of materia medica. Natural History.—It occurs in both kingdoms of nature. *. In the Inorganized Kingdom.—In the mineral kingdom lime is found in the form of carbonate, sulphate, phosphate, silicate, arseniate, tungstale, borate, and titanate. Its base, calcium, occurs in combination with fluorine. " Lime is also disseminated through sea water, though in small quantities; so that calcium is widely distributed in land and water, being principally abundant in the central and higher parts of the fossiliferous rocks, and widely dispersed, in small quantities, throughout the more ancient rocks, and in the waters of the ocean." (De la Beche, Research, in Theor. Geol. p. 21.) /3. In the Organized Kingdom.—In vegetables, lime (or calcium) is an invariable ingre- dient, except, it is said, in the case of Salsola Kali. (De Candolle, Phys. Veget. p. 382.) It is found combined with carbonic, sulphuric, phosphoric, nitric, and various organic acids (as oxalic, malic, citric, tartaric, and kinic;) calcium occurs in combination with chlorine. In animals, lime is found principally as carbonate and phosphate. Preparation.—For use in the arts lime is usually obtained by burning the car- bonate with coals, coke, and other fuel, in a kind of wind furnace called a kiln.1 All the British Colleges admit, as officinal, the lime of commerce; but the London and Edinburgh Colleges also give directions for the preparation of pure lime. The London College orders of Chalk, lbj. Break it into small pieces, and burn it in a very strong fire for an hour. The Edinburgh College orders White Marble, broken into small fragments, to be heated " in a covered crucible at a full red heat for three hours, or till the residuum when slaked and suspended in water no longer effervesces on the addition of muriatic acid." By the heat employed the carbonic acid of the carbonate is expelled. It is well known that water or a current of air facilitates the escape of the carbonic acid- their effect is probably mechanical, and is due to the diffusion of one gas or vapour in another. (See Gay-Lussac, in Jameson's Journal, vol. xxii. 1837.) Iceland Spar or White Carrara Marble yields the purest lime. Properties.—Lime (commonly termed Quicklime) when pure is a white or grayish solid, having a sp. gr. of 2-3. A variety of commercial lime has a gray colour, and is called gray lime. Lime has an acrid, alkaline taste, and reacts powerfully on vegetable colours as an alkali. It is difficult of fusion: but by the oxy-hydrogen flame it may be both fused and volatilized. Exposed to the air it attracts water and carbonic acid. If a small portion of water be thrown on lime, part of it combines with the lime, and thereby causes the evolution of a conside- rable degree of heat, by which another portion of the water is vaporized. The lime swells up, cracks, and subsequently falls to powder: in this state it is called Slaked Lime (Calx extincta,) or the Hydrate of Lime (Calcis Hydras, L.) By heat the water may be again expelled. Lime is slightly soluble in water. Its solubility in this liquid is very remarkable; cold water dissolving more than hot. According to Mr. Phillips, A pint of Water at 32" dissolves 13 25 grains of lime. nitto........ 60° ........ i]-6 ditto. Ditto........212°........ 6 7 ditto. So that water at 32° dissolves nearly twice as much lime as water at 212°. Characteristics.—An aqueous solution of lime is recognised by its reddening yellow turmeric paper, and rendering the infusion.of red cabbage green; by the milkiness produced in it on the addition of carbonic acid or a soluble carbonate, and by the white precipitate (oxalate of lime) on the addition of a solution of oxalic acid or an oxalate. Sulphuric acid affords no precipitate with lime water. Solutions of the calcareous salts are known by the following characters:__The hydrosulphurets, and, if the solution be dilute, the sulphates, occasion neither a precipitate nor a change of colour: the soluble carbonates, phosphates, and oxa- lates, produce white precipitates. The calcareous salts (especially chloride of calcium) give an orange tinge to the flame of alcohol. i Vide Loudon's Encycl. ofAgricult. 3d ed. p. G25 ; Gray's Operative Chemist; and lire's Diet, of Arts. LIME. 489 Composition.—The following is the composition of lime and its hydrate:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Ct. Berzelius. Calcium .. 1 .... 20 .... 7142 .... 7191 Oxygen .. 1 .... 8 .... 28 57 .... 28 09 Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Lime............ 1 ...•-• 23 ...... 75-67 Water............ 1 ...... 9 ...... 2432 Li-e...... l ___ 23 ___ 2999 ___100 00 Hydrate of Lime.. 1 ...... 37 ...... 9999 Purity.—The lime used in the arts is never absolutely pure, but usually con- tains variable quantities of carbonate of lime, silica, alumina, and oxide of iron, and sometimes magnesia. Water being added it [time] cracks and falls to powder. Its other properties are as hydrate of lime. Ph. L. It is slaked by water: muriatic acid then dissolves it entirely, without any effervescence; and the solution does not precipitate with ammonia. Physiological Effects. *. On Vegetables.—Quicklime is poisonous to plants. Notwithstanding this, however, it is used as a manure, its efficacy depending on its decomposing and rendering soluble the vegetable matter of the soil, during which the lime attracts carbonic acid and becomes innocuous. (Davy, Agricult. Chemistry.) /3. On Animals.—On dogs, Orfila (Toxicol. Generate.) found that quicklime acted as a caustic poison, but not very energetically; and that it occasions death by producing inflammation of the texture with which it comes in contact. y. On Man.—Quicklime, like the fixed alkalis, is a powerful escharotic. Its use in promoting the decomposition of the bodies of persons who have died of con- tagious diseases, or on the field of battle, and its employment by the tanner to separate the cuticle and hair from skins, sufficiently establish its causticity. Its escharotic and irritant action is well seen in the ophthalmia produced by the lodgment of small particles of lime in the eye. When applied to suppurating or mucous surfaces, lime water checks or stops secretion, and produces dryness of the part: hence it is termed a desicCant. In this it differs from the fixed alkalis. When administered internally, it neutralizes the free acid of the gastric juice, diminishes the secretions of the gastro-intestinal membrane, and thereby occa- sions thirst and constipation. It frequently gives rise to uneasiness of stomach, disordered digestion, and not unfrequently to vomiting. After its absorption it increases the secretion of urine, and diminishes the excessive formation or deposi- tion of uric acid and the urates. With this exception, it does not, as the alkalis, promote the action ofthe different secreting organs, but, on the other hand, dimi- nishes it, and has in consequence been termed an astringent. But it does not possess the corrugating action of the astringent vegetables, or of many ofthe me- tallic salts: it is rather a drying remedy, or desiccant. In this respect lime differs from the alkalis, but is analogous to the oxide of zinc (see p. 210.) Vogt (Phar- makodynamik.) considers it to be intermediate between the two. Weickard and others have ascribed to lime an antispasmodic property: and if this be true, its relation to zinc is still farther proved. A power of exciting and changing the mode of action of the absorbing vessels and glands has been ascribed to lime water, and probably with foundation. At any rate, under the use of it, glandular enlargements have become softer and smaller. In other words, it operates as a resolvent. Sundelin (Heilmittellehre.) says that the excessive use of lime does not, as in the case of the alkalis, bring about a scorbutic diathesis, but a general drying and constriction, analogous to that caused by zinc. Lime in large doses, acts as a poison : the symptoms in one case were thirst, burning in the mouth, burning pain in the belly, obstinate constipation, and death in nine days. (Christison, Treatise on Poisons.) Uses.—Quicklime has been employed as a caustic, but alone is now rarely resorted to. It is sometimes applied in the form of Potassa cum Cake (see p. Vol. I.—62 490 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. 420,) and is a constituent of the ordinary depilatories (see p. 211.) As an anti- dote, lime water, in conjunction with milk, was recommended by Navier (Contre- poison de V Arsenic, &c. 1777, quoted by Richter, Ausf. Arzneimittellehre,) in poisoning by arsenious acid. In the absence of more appropriate antidotes, lime water may be administered in poisoning by the common mineral and oxalic acids. As a lithontriptic it possessed at one time considerable celebrity, partly from its being one ofthe active ingredients of Miss Joanna Stephens' Receipt for the Stone and Gravel, as well as from experiments and reports of professional men. As this lady had acquired no slight fame by her mode of treatment, a great desire was manifested to know the nature of her remedies, and she therefore offered to discover them on the payment of a suitable reward. A committee of professional men was appointed to examine the efficacy of her treatment, and her medicines were given to patients known to have calculi. The report made by the commit- tee, (Gentleman's Magazine for 1740, vol. x. p. 185.) as to the effects, was so favourable, that Parliament was induced to grant a reward of ,£5000, a notice of which appeared in the London Gazette of March 18, 1739! (D'Escherny, ;1 Treatise of the Causes and Symptoms of the Stone, 1755.) The essential parts of her remedies were lime (prepared by calcining egg-shells and snails,) soap, and some aromatic bitters; viz. camomile flowers, sweet fennel, parsley, and burdock leaves, &c. (Gentleman's Magazine for 1739, vol. ix. p. 298.) That the patients submitted to treatment obtained relief by the remedies employed cannot, I think, be doubted, but no cure was effected; that is, no calculus was dissolved, for in the bladder of each of the four persons whose cure was certified by the trustees, the stone was found after their death. (Alston's Ledures on the Materia Medica, vol. i. p. 268. London, 1770.) Notwithstanding the favourable reports to the contrary, (Chevallier, Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xx. p. 460.) it appears to me that no rational ground of hope can now be entertained that lime water is capable of dis- solving urinary calculi in the kidneys or bladder: but there is abundant evidence to prove that patients afflicted with the uric acid diathesis have sometimes ex- perienced extraordinary benefit from its use. (Van Swieten's Commentaries upon Boerhaave's Aphorisms, vol. xvi. p. 299.) Chevallier (Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xx. p. 584.) accounts for its efficacy in the treatment of gravel and stone by the cir- cumstance of the combination of the lime with uric acid forming a very soluble salt, viz. urate of lime; and he even thinks that lime water may be useful in phos- phatic calculi, either by depriving them of a portion of the uric acid which they con- tain, and thus rendering them less dense; by decomposing the ammoniacal salt which enters into the composition of some; or by acting on the animal matter which holds the molecules of these calculi together. As an antacid in dyspepsia, accompanied by acidity of stomach, it is sometimes useful. " Mixed with an equal measure of milk, which completely covers its offensive taste, it is one of the best remedies in our possession for nausea and vomiting dependent on irritability of stomach. We have found a diet, exclusively of lime water and milk, to be more effectual than any other plan of treatment in dyspepsia, accompanied with vomiting of food. In this case one part of the solution to two or three of milk, is usually suf- ficient" (United States' Dispensatory.) In the dyspepsia of gouty and rheumatic subjects, and which is usually accompanied with a copious secretion of uric acid by the kidneys, I have seen lime water serviceable. As a desiccant or astringent, it is useful as a wash for ulcers attended with excessive secretion. In some scro- fulous ulcers in which I have employed it, its power of checking secretion has been most marked. In diarrhcea, when the mucous discharge is great, and the inflam- matory symptoms have subsided, lime water is useful as an astringent. As an injection in leucorrhoea and gleet it sometimes succeeds where other remedies have failed. The internal use of lime water has also been serviceable in checking secretion from various other parts, as from the bronchial membranes, the blad- der, &c. CHLORIDE OF CALCIUM. 491 Besides the above, lime water has been employed for various other purposes. Thus, as an antispasmodic, in hypochondriasis and hysteria, with habitual ex- cessive sensibility of the nervous system, it has been found useful by Weickard. (Iiichtci's Ausf. Arzneim. iii. 585.) It has also been given as an alterative in glandular enlargements and venereal affections, and to promote the deposite of bone earth in diseases accompanied with a deficiency of this substance. In skin diseases (tinea capitis, scabies, prurigo, &c.) it has been applied as a wash. Administration.—From half an ounce to three or four ounces may be taken three times a-day. As already mentioned, it may be conveniently administered in combination with milk. 1. LIQUOR CALCIS, L. (U. S.;) Aqua Calcis, E. D.; Lime Water (Lime, lbss.; Dis- tilled Water, Oxij. Upon the lime, first slaked with a little water, pour the remain- ing water, and shake them together; then immediately cover the vessel, and set it by for three hours: afterwards, keep the solution, with the remaining lime, in stoppered glass vessels; and, when it is to be used, take from the clear solution.— The Edinburgh College uses Lime one part, and Water twenty parts.—The Dublin College employs of fresh-burnt Lime one part, and Water thirty-one parts ; one of which is to be hot, and added just to slake the lime, the other is to be cold, and is added afterwards.) [The U. S. Pharmacopoeia orders Lime, four ounces; Distilled Water, a gallon.] Lime water is colourless and transpa- rent; but, by exposure to the air, becomes covered with a film of carbonate of lime, which is deposited on the sides and bottom of the vessel, and is succeeded by another. Hence lime water should be preserved in well-stoppered vessels with some undissolved lime, and, when used, the clear liquor poured off. Its taste is unpleasant and alkaline, and it has an alkaline re-action on vegetable colours. The dose of lime water is from f _ss. to f3hj- or f_iv. three times a day. It may be conveniently administered in milk. Its uses have been above stated. 2. LINIMENTUM CALCIS, E. D.; (U. S.) Liniment of Lime; Carron Oil.—(Lin- seed Oil, (E. U. S.) [Olive Oil, D.,~] Lime Water, of each equal measures; Mix and agitate them together.) Linseed and olive oils are each composed of oleic and margaric acids and glycerine. When mixed with lime water an oleo-marga- rate of lime (calcareous soap) is formed. It has long been celebrated as an appli- cation to burns and scalds, and is employed for this purpose at the Carron Iron- works—hence one of its names. Though the Dublin College orders olive oil, it is almost invariably prepared with linseed oil. Turpentine is sometimes advan- tageously added to it. 2. CAL/CII CflLO'RIDUM, L (U. S.)—CHLORIDE OF CALCIUM. (Calcis Murias, E. _>.) History.—This salt, obtained in the decomposition of sal ammoniac by lime, was known, according to Dulk, (Die Preuss. Pharm. iibersetst. &c. ii. 293, 2te Aufl. Leipsig, 1830.) in the fifteenth century, to the two Hollands, who called it Fixed Sal Ammoniac (Sal Ammoniacum fixum.) Its composition was not understood until the eighteenth century, when it was ascertained by Bergman, Kirwan, and Wenzel. It is commonly termed Muriate of Lime. Natural History.—It occurs in both kingdoms of nature. _. In the Inohganjzed Kingdom.—It is found, in small quantity, in sea and many mineral and well waters. $. In the Organized Kingdom.—It has been detected, in a few instances, in vegetables. Thus Pallas recognised it in the root of Aconitum Lycoctonum. Preparation.—The following are the methods of preparing it: 492 ELEMENT8 OF MATERIA MEDICA. The London College orders it to be obtained as follows:—Take of Chalk, g v.; Hydro- chloric Acid, Distilled Water, of each, Oss. Mix the acid with the water, and to these gra- dually add the chalk to saturation. Then, the effervescence being finished, strain; evaporato the liquor until the salt is dried. Put this into a crucible, and, having melted it in the fire, pour it out upon a flat clean stone. Lastly, when it is cold, break it into small pieces, and keep it in a well-closed vessel. The Edinburgh College orders of While Marble, in fragments, 3x.; Muriatic Acid (com- mercial) and Water, of each, Oj. Mix the acid and water; add the marble by degrees; and, when the effervescence is over, add a little marble in fine powder till the liquid no longer red- dens litmus. Filter, and concentrate to one-half. Put the remaining fluid in a cold place to crystallize. Preserve the crystals in a well^closed bottle. More crystals will be obtained by concentrating the mother liquor. Chloride of calcium is a secondary product in the manufacture ofthe hydrated sesquicarbonate of ammonia, (see p. 283) as well as of solution of ammonia; (see p. 274) and from this source it is usually procured. The Dublin College orders of the liquor which remains after the distillation of the water of caustic ammonia any requisite quantity. Filter the liquor, and expose it in an open vessel to heat until the muriate of lime becomes perfectly dry. Let it be preserved in a vessel com. pletely closed. In this process one equivalent or 37 parts of hydrochloric acid react on one equivalent or 50 parts of carbonate of lime, and produce one equivalent or 22 parts of carbonic acid, which escape in a gaseous form, one equivalent or 9 parts of water, and one equivalent or 56 part3 of chloride of calcium. 1 eq Carbonate of J Lime..........SO j 1 eq. Hydrochloric Acid........... 37 COMPOSITION. 1 eq. Carb' Acid 22 - 1 eq. Oxygen.... 8 1 eq. Calcium... 20 1 eq. Hydrogen.. 1 1 eq. Chlorine... 36 87 1 eq. Carbonic Acid.... 22 1 eq. Water............ 9 1 eq. Chloride Calcium.. 56 87 By heat the crystals of this salt lose their water, and the anhydrous chloride of calcium is obtained. Properties.—Anhydrous chloride of calcium is a white translucent solid, of a crystalline texture. Its taste is bitter and acrid saline. It is fusible, but not vola- tile. It deliquesces in the air, and becomes what has been called Oil of Lime (Oleum Calcis.) When put into water it evolves heat, and readily dissolves in a quarter of its weight of this fluid at 60° F., or in a much less quantity of hot water. By evaporation the solution yields striated crystals (Hydrated Chloride of Cal- cium,) having the form of regular six-sided prisms, and which, therefore, belong to the rhombohedric system. These crystals undergo the watery fusion, when heated, are deliquescent, readily dissolve in water with the production of great cold, and, when mixed with ice or snow, form a powerful frigorific mixture. Both anhydrous and hydrous chloride of calcium are readily soluble in alcohol. Characteristics.—This salt is known to be a chloride by the tests for this class of salts before mentioned (p. 218.) The nature of its base is ascertained by the tests for lime (p. 488.) Composition.—The composition of this salt is as follows:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Calcium............. 1 ...... 20 . Chlorine............ 1 ...... 36 . Per Cent. Ure. .. 35-71 ...... 3C-7 .. 64 28 ...... 633 Chloride of Calcium. 99-99 ...... 100-0 Atoms. Chloride Calcium.... 1 Water......,........ 6 Eq. Wt. .... 56 .... 54 Crystal^ Chide Calcm 1 ...... 110 Purity.—Chloride of calcium, when pure, is colourless, evolves no ammonia when mixed with lime, and undergoes no change of colour nor gives any precipi- tate with caustic ammonia, chloride of barium, or hydrosulphuric acid. CHLORIDE OF CALCIUM. 493 The fused chloride is free from colour; slightly translucent; hard and friable; totally solu- ble in water: the solution gives no precipitate on the addition of ammonia or chloride of barium, nor, when diluted with much water, with ferrocyanide of potassium. Ph. Lond. The crystallized salt is » extremely deliquescent. A solution of 76 grains in one fluid ounce of distilled water, precipitated by 49 grains of oxalate of ammonia, remains preciptlable by more of the test." Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects, ct. On Animals.—-Three drachms and a-half given to a dog caused quick breathing and snorting, with convulsive but vain efforts to vomit, a profuse secretion of saliva, and death in six hours. The mucous mem- brane ofthe stomach and small intestines was very blood-shot and in many places almost black, and converted into a gelatinous mass. (Beddoes, Duncan's Annals of Medicine, vol. i. Lustr. ii. 208.) |3. On Man.—In small doses it promotes the secretions of mucus, urine, and perspiration. It operates, therefore, as a liquefacient (see p. 193.) By continued use it appears to exercise a specific influence over the lymphatic vessels and glands, the activity of which it increases; for under its use glandular and other swellings and indurations have become smaller and softer, and ultimately disap- peared altogether. In larger doses it excites nausea, vomiting, and sometimes purging; causes tenderness ofthe praecordium, quickens the pulse, and occasions faintness, weakness, anxiety, trembling, and giddiness. In excessive doses the disorder of the nervous system is manifested by failure and trembling of the limbs, giddiness, small contracted pulse, cold sweats, convulsions, paralysis, insensibility, and death. (Vogt, Pharmakodynamik.) Considered in reference to other medicines, it has the closest resemblance in its operation to chloride of of barium. Hufeland (Quoted by Wibmer, Die Wirkung, &c.) says its opera- tion is more irritant than the last mentioned substance, and that its use requires greater caution,—a statement which is directly opposed to the experience of Dr. Wood, (Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journ. i. 147.) and of most other practitioners. Uses.—It has been principally employed in scrofulous affections, especially those attended with glandular enlargements. Beddoes (Op. cit.) gave it to nearly a hundred patients, and he tells us there are few of the common forms of scrofula in which he has not had successful experience of it. Dr. Wood (Op. cit.) tried it on an extensive scale, and with decided benefit. It has been found most effi- cacious in the treatment of tabes mesenterica, checking purging, diminishing the hectic fever, allaying the inordinate appetite, and in many cases, ultimately re- storing the patient to perfect health. It has also been recommended in chronic arthritic complaints, in bronchocele, in some chronic affections of the brain (as paralysis,) and in other cases where the object was to excite the action of the ab- sorbents. Occasionally, though rarely, it has been employed externally. Thus a bath containing two or three ounces of it, either alone or with chloride of sodium, has been used in scrofula. (Vogt, op. supra cit.) In pharmacy fused chloride of calcium is used in the rectification of spirit (p, 313,) on account of its strong affinity for water; and in chemistry it is employed in the drying of gases. In the crystallized state, mixed with half or two-thirds of its weight of ice or snow, it is used for producing an intense degree of cold. Its solution is used as a salt water bath for chemical purposes. Administration.—Chloride of calcium is always used medicinally in the form of aqueous solution. LIQUOR CALCII CHLORIDI, L. (U. S.;) Calcis Muriatis Solutio, E.; Calcis Mu- riatis Aqua, D. (Chloride of Calcium [fused,] 3iv.; Distilled Water, f _xij. L.— Muriate of Lime [crystals,] _viij; Water, f_xij. E.—Muriate of Lime [dry,] two parts; Distilled Water, seven parts, D.—Dissolve and [if necessary] strain.) Dose from Tr[ xl. or Ttj.1. to f 3ij., or gradually increased until nausea is produced. 494 elements of materia medica. The uses of it have been above noticed. [The IT. S. Pharmacopeeia orders Marble in fragments, nine ounces: Muriatic Acid, a pint; Distilled Water, a suffi- cient quantity. Mix the Acid with half a pint of the Distilled Water and gra- dually add the Marble. Towards the close of the effervescence apply a gentle heat, and when the action has ceased pour off the clear liquor and evaporate to dryness. Dissolve the residuum in its weight and a-half of Distilled Water, and filter the solution.] 3. CALCIS HYPOCHLO RIS.—HYPOCHLORITE OF LIME. (Calx Chlorinata, _. E.) (U. S.) History.—In 1798, Mr. Tennant of Glasgow, took out a patent for the manu- facture of this substance as a bleaching powder, which in consequence was long known as TennanVs Bleaching Powder. According to the views entertained of its composition it has been successfully termed Oxymuriate of IJme, Chloride of Lime or Chloruret ofthe Oxide of Calcium, Chlorite of Lime (Berzelius,) and Chlorinated Lime. Preparation.—Chloride of lime is prepared on a very large scale for the use of bleachers. The London College, however, has thought fit to give the following directions for its preparation:— Take of Hydrate of Lime, lbj.; Chlorine as much as may be sufficient; pass Chlorine to the Lime, spread in a proper vessel, until it is saturated. Chlorine is very readily evolved from Hydrochloric Acid added to binoxide of Manganese, with a gentle heat (see p. 217.) On the large scale the gas is generated in large, nearly spherical, leaden vessels heated by steam. The ingredients employed are binoxide of manganese, chloride of sodium, and diluted sulphuric acid. The gas is washed by passing it through water, and is then conveyed by a leaden tube into the combination room, where the slaked lime is placed in shelves or trays, piled over one another to the height of five or six feet, cross bars below each, keeping them about an inch asunder, that the gas may have free room to circulate. The combination room is built of siliceous sandstone, and is furnished with windows to allow the operator to judge how the impregnation is going on. Four days are usually required, at the ordi- nary rate of working, for making good marketable chloride of lime. (Ure, Quart. Journ. of Science, xiii. 1.) At Mr. Tennant's manufactory at Glasgow, the lime is placed in shallow boxes on the floor of the combination chambers, and is agitated once during the process by iron rakes; the handles of which pass through boxes filled with lime, which serves as a valve.1 The supply of chlorine is then shut off, and a man enters the chambers and rakes the lime over. The chambers are then closed, and more chlorine introduced, until the lime is saturated. Theory of the Process.—Chemists are by no means agreed as to the constitu- tion ofthe substance called chloride of lime, and, therefore, as to the nature of the changes which occur during its preparation. a. Some regard it as a compound of chlorine, water, and lime. On this view, when chlorine gas comes into contact with slaked lime, the two substances are supposed to enter into combination. An objection to this view is, that the odour of chloride of lime is that of hypochlorous acid, and not that of mere chlorine. /3. Another view supported by the discoveries of Balard, (Researches in Taylor's Scientific Memoirs, vol. i. p. 269.) is, that chloride of lime is a mixture or compound of hypochlorite of lime and chloride of calcium. Its formation may, then, be ex- plained as follows:—When chlorine comes into contact with slaked lime, a portion of the latter is decomposed : its base (calcium) combines with chlorine, to form chloride of calcium, while its oxygen unites with another portion of chlorine and forms hypochlorous acid, which combines with some undecomposed lime, to form hypochlorite of lime. ' American Journ. of Science, vol. x. No. 2, Feb. 1826, and Dumas' Traite de Chimie, ii. 806. hypochlorite of lime 495 PRODfCTS. _at»-UI.. C°™8™K_______________________—_ 1 eq. Chloride Cal- *l«g. CA„nne36------------- ^^_^-— cium............ 56 2en.Clorine72< ^^-— 1 ( 1 ej. Chlorine 36 ... ^— ,„„„„.„ fi/4: g" —^»•»h^.a.^4^leaTt„,?pattlo, 1 eq. Hy.irnie i 3 ^ x.ime. - 84---------------------------------£te ,jme J28 Linie---148 | ___________________4 eq. Water . . . 36 (4 eg. Water... 36 220 220 -"" The odour of hypochlorous acid which chloride of lime possesses, strongly sup- ports this view On the other hand it may be objected, that if chloride of lime contained so large a quantity of chloride of calcium, it would be deliquescent. But to this it may be replied, that the chloride of calcium maybe m chemical com- bination with the hypochlorite of lime. m 10OHNV, y More recently, Millon (Journal de Pharmacie, t. xxv. p. 595. 1839.) has discovered some new facts which he asserts are inexplicable on the view just ex- plained ; and he suggests that chloride of lime is a substance analogous to peroxide of calcium, but in which one equivalent of the oxygen of the peroxide is replaced by an equivalent of chlorine. His view, which Professor Graham (Elements of Chemistry, vol. i. p. 501.) regards as " simpler " than the preceding, is supported by the fact that many ofthe precipitates formed in metallic solutions by a solution of chloride of lime, are composed of one equivalent of the metallic oxide and one equivalent of chlorine. Properties.—Chloride of lime, as met with in commerce, is a white or brownish white powder, having a feeble odour of hypochlorous acid, and a strong bitter and acrid taste. Exposed to the air it attracts carbonic acid, evolves chlorine, and is thereby converted into a mixture of carbonate of lime and chloride of cal- cium, the latter of which deliquesces. Digested in water the chloride or hypoch- lorite of lime dissolves, as well as any chloride of calcium present, and a small portion of caustic lime: any carbonate and the excess of caustic lime remain undissolved. The solution, which has a slight yellow colour, first reacts on vegetable colours as an alkali, and afterwards bleaches them, especially if an acid be added. Its bleaching and disinfecting properties depend either on the oxidizement or on the dehydrogenization of the colouring or infectious matter: if an acid be employed in the process, chlorine is evolved, which produces oxygen at the expense of the elements of water: if, on the contrary, no acid be used, Balard (Researches, in Taylor's Scientific Memoirs, vol. i. p. 269.) supposes that both the hypochlorous acid and lime give out their oxygen, and thereby become chloride of calcium. When chloride of lime is heated it evolves first chlorine and subsequently oxygen. Characteristics.—Its smell and bleaching properties are most characteristic of it. The acids (as sulphuric or hydrochloric) separate chlorine from it. An aqueous solution of it throws down white precipitates with nitrate of silver, the alkaline carbonates, and with oxalic acid or the oxalates. The supernatant liquor from which chloride of silver has been thrown down by nitrate of silver possesses a decolourizing property. Composition.—The quantity of chlorine absorbed by slaked lime varies with the pressure, the degree of exposure, and the quantity of water present. Hence the substance sold as chloride of lime is not a uniform product. Moreover, it would appear from Dr. Ure's experiments, not to have any definite atomic constitution. The following table contains the most important results of his experiments:— 496 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Prepared with Protohydrate of Lime, without pneumatic pressure. The process was carried on until the Lime ceased to absorb Chlorine. Synthesis. Chlorine....... 39 39 Lime............ 46 00 Water.......... 14G0 Chlord of Lime 100 00 1»< Analysis. 4000 44 74 lo'Jti 10000 2nd Analysis. 40-62 46-07 13-31 10000 Mean. 4031 4540 1428 10000 Commercial Specimens. 1. 2. 3. 23 46 31 22 j 78 28 71 100 100 100 Mr. Brande1 and Mr. Philips (Translation ofthe Pharmacopoeia, 4th ed. p. 234.) give the following as the atomic proportions of chlorine, lime, and water, in chloride of lime ofthe best quality:— Atoms. ... 1 . . Eq. Wt. .. 36 ... 36 .. .. 18 .. Per Cent. .. 32 73 .. 50-91 .. 10-36 Constitution, according to Mr.Philips. Atoms. Bihydrated Chloride of Lime .... 1 Eq. Wt. o •••• 82 .... 28 ... 2 . Chloride of Lime.. ..110 .. .. 10 000'] 1 .... 110 " AVhen water is added to this, the chloride of lime dissolves, leaving nearly all the lime insoluble." (Philips.) If, with Berzelius and Balard, we regard bleaching powder as constituted of hypochlorite of lime, chloride of calcium, and water, its composition, correspond- ing with the proportions assumed by Mr. Brande and Mr. Philips, will be as follows:— Atoms. Tiishypochlorite of Lime......... 1 ... Chloride of Calcium.............. 1 ... Water........................... 4 ... Eq. Wt. Per Ct. . 128 ........ 5818 . 56 ........ 25-45 . 36........ 16 36 Chloride of Lime 220 99-99 Fig. 77. When bleaching powder is digested in water, a bleaching liquor is obtained, while a portion of lime remains undissolved. The trishypochlorite is supposed to be decomposed by the action of water; and to deposite two equivalents of lime, while one equivalent of chloride of calcium, and one equivalent of neutral hypo- chlorite of lime are dissolved. Chlorometry.—In order to estimate the bleaching power ofthe chloride of lime of commerce, various chlorometrical methods have been devised. One method is to determine the quantity of chlorine gas which is given out by a certain weight of chloride on the addition of liquid hydrochloric acid. (Ure, Quarterly Journal ®f Science, vol. xiii.) The liquid may be brought into contact with the chloride placed over mercury, contained in a graduated syphon-tube, closed at one end, (Fig. 77, a.) When the gas is evolved, the mercury flows out, by the orifice b, into a basin ready to receive it. The resulting film of chloride of calcium protects the surface of the metal from the action of the chlorine. If carbonic acid be suspected, the mercury by agitation absorbs the chlorine, leaving the carbonic acid. Ten grains of bleach- ing powder yield from three to four cubic inches of chlorine, equivalent to twenty or thirty per cent, by weight. Another chlorometrical method is to ascertain the bleaching power of the chloride on a standard solution of indigo; (Gay-Lussac, Ann. of Phil. \\J J xxiv- 218 ; also in Alcock's Essay, before quoted, p. 135.) but it is not >—/ susceptible of accuracy. syphon-tubefor A chlorometrical method, whicli Professor Graham (Elements of Che- chlTur\1Zal mis^y, p. 502.) considers to be entitled to preference," is founded on i Manual of Chemistry. 5th ed -J). 676. "Upon the whole." gays Mr. Brande. " it is not improbable that bleaching powder consists of a chloride of lime, containing one proportion of chlorine and one of lime, mixed wuh a varying proportion of hydrate of lime." ' HYPOCHLORITE OF LIME. 497 the fact, that chloride of lime converts sulphate of the protoxide of iron mto sul- phate of the peroxide. Red ferroprussiate of potash (ferrosesquicyanide of potas- sium) is employed to ascertain the change in the degree of the oxidation of the iron, since it gives a blue precipitate with the protosahs, but not with the persalts, of this metal. A quantity of solution of chloride of lime capable of neroxidising 78 grains of sulphate of iron, contains 10 grains of chlorine. The Edinburgh College gives the following characteristics of good chloride of lime:— » Pale grayish white : dry : 50 grains are nearly all soluble in two fluid ounces of water forming agsJution ofthe density 1027, and of which 100 measures treated with an excess of oxalic Lid, give off much chlorine, and if then boiled and a lowed to rest twenty-four hours, yield a precipitate which occupies nineteen measures ofthe liquid. The precipitate produced in the solution by oxalic acid is oxalate of lime, and, therefore, this process is one for the detection of lime (or calcium.) The London College merely observes that chlorinated lime— "Dissolves in dilute hydrochloric acid, emitting chlorine." Neither College, therefore, gives directions for estimating the real value of chlo- ride of lime. Physiological Effects.—The local action of chloride of lime is that of an irri- tant and caustic. A solution of it applied to suppurating and mucous surfaces is a powerful desitcant, probably in part at least from the uncombined lime in solu- tion. When the secretions are excessive and extremely fetid, it not only dimi- nishes their quantity, but much improves their quality; so that, considered in reference to suppurating and mucous surfaces, it is not only a desiccant, but, in morbid conditions of these parts, a promoter of healthy action. Applied in the form of ointment (composed of a drachm of chloride to an ounce of fatty matter) to scrofulous swellings, Cima1 found that it provoked suppuration, caused strong redness, promoted the suppurating process, and dispersed the surrounding hard- ness. Taken internally, in small doses (as from 3 to 6 grains, dissolved in one or two ounces of water,) it sometimes causes pain and heat in the stomach, and occa- sionally, according to Cima, purging. Under the continued use of it, hard and enlarged absorbent glands have become softer and smaller, from which circum- stance it has been supposed to exercise a specific influence over, and to promote the healthy action of, the lymphatic system. During its employment, Cima says he did not find it necessary to give purgatives. Dr. Reid3 gave it in the epi- demic fever, which raged in Ireland in 1826, and he tells us that it rendered the tongue cleaner, abated the delirium, and promoted the cutaneous functions.. In dysentery it soon put a stop to the bloody evacuations, the umbilical pain, and the tenesmus. I am not acquainted with any facts respecting the effects of chloride of lime in large or poisonous doses. Analogy would lead us to expect that it would pro- duce the combined effects of a caustic and of an agent specifically affecting the nervous system. Uses.—The chlorides (hypochlorites) of lime and soda are extensively employed as disinfectants and antiseptics. I have already stated (p. 221) that chlorine gas stands unrivalled for its power of destroying putrid odours and checking putrefac- tion, and where uninhabited chambers or buildings are to be purified, fumigations with this gas should be adopted. But its powerful action on the organs of respi- ration precludes its use in inhabited places; and, in such cases, the alkaline chlo- rides (chloride of lime, on account of its cheapness) are to be substituted. When those substances are in contact with organic matter, it is supposed the hypochlo- 1 Conngliachi and Brugnatelli's Qiornale di Fisica, 1823; quoted by Dierbach, d. neust. Entd. in d. Mat. Med. 1828, 2'' Abt 597. ' Ti-ans. ofthe As.-wciat. of Fellows and Licentiates ofthe College of Physicians in Ireland, vol. v. 1828 Vol. L—63 493 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEUICA. rite gives out oxygen, and is converted into a metallic chloride; the oxygen being the effective disinfecting and antiseptic agent; or it may act by abstracting hydro- gen. When, however, the solution of the chloride (hypochlorite) is exposed to the air, carbonic acid is attracted by the lime, and hypochlorous acid set free, which immediately reacts on any organic matter present. Hence, these chlo- rides (hypochlorites,) when exposed to the air, evolve chlorine so slowly and in such moderate quantities, as not to produce any noxious effects, though their action on organic matters is very powerful. Then; most obvious effect is that of destroying the unpleasant odour of putrid matter. Their action on hydro- sulphuric acid, ammonia and hydrosulphate of ammonia (substances evolved by decomposing animal matters) can be readily and easily demonstrated. Other odorous principles given out by putrid matters are, by the experience of most per- sons, admitted to be destroyed by the alkaline chlorides, though Piorry \Journ. Chim. Med. ii. 601.) has asserted, they are only overpowered by the stronger smell of the chlorine. The alkaline chlorides (hypochlorites) possess another valuable property,— that of stopping or checking the putrefactive process; and hence they are called antiseptics.1 These two properties, viz. that of destroying offensive odours and that of pre- venting putrefaction, render the alkaline chlorides most valuable agents to the medical practitioner. We apply them to gangrenous parts, to ulcers of all kinds attended with foul secretions, to compound fractures accompanied with offensive discharges, to the uterus in various diseases of this viscus attended with fetid evacuations: in a word, we apply ihem in all cases accompanied with offensive and fetid odours. As I have before remarked, with respect to chloride of soda (p. 461,) their efficacy is not confined to an action on dead parts, or on the dis- charges from wounds and ulcers; they are of the greatest benefit to living parts, in which they induce more healthy action, and the consequent secretion of less offensive matters. Farthermore, in the sick chamber, many other occasions pre- sent themselves on which the power of the chlorides to destroy offensive odours will be found of the highest value: as, to counteract the unpleasant smell of dress- ings or bandages, of the urine in various diseases of the bladder, of the alvine evacuations, &c. In typhus fever a handkerchief, or piece of calico, dipped in a weak solution of an alkaline chloride, and suspended in the sick chamber, will be often of considerable service both to the patient and the attendants. The power of the chlorides (hypochlorites) to destroy infection or contagion, and to prevent the propagation of epidemic diseases, is less obviously and satis- factorily ascertained than their capability of destroying odour. Various state- ments have been made by Labarraque, and others, (Vide Alcock's Essay, p. 155, et. seq.) in order to prove the disinfecting power of the chlorides with respect to typhus and other infectious fevers. But, without denying the utility of these agents in destroying bad smells in the sick chamber, and in promoting the reco- very of the patient by their influence over the general system, I may observe that I have met with no facts which are satisfactory to my mind as to the chemi- cal powers of the chlorides to destroy the infectious matter of fever. Nor am 1 convinced by the experiments made by Pariset and his colleagues, (Bullet, des Sciences Med. xix. 233.) that these medicines are preservative against the plague. Six individuals clothed themselves with impunity in the garments of men who had died of plague, but which garments had been plunged for six hours in a solution of chloride of soda. But, as Bouillaud (Diet, de Med. Prat., art. Contagion.) has truly observed, the experiments, to be decisive, should have been made with clothing which had already communicated the plague to the wearers of it. In Moscow, chlorine was extensively tried and found unavailing, i For various facts in proof of this, I must refer to the late Mr. Alcock's Essay on the Use ofthe Chlorureti Lond. 1827. HYPOCHLORITE OF LIME. 499 nay, apparently injurious, in cholera. « At the time," says Dr. Albers, (Lond. Med Gaz viii 410.) that the cholera hospital was filled with clouds of chlorine, then'it was that the greatest number of the attendants were attacked." (See also Dierbach, Die neust. Enid, in d. Mat. Med. i. 411, 2» Ausg. 1837 ) Some years affo chlorine was tried at the Small-Pox Hospital, with a view of arresting the progress of erysipelas: all offensive smell, as usual, was overcome, but the power of communicating the disease remained behind. (Lond. Med Gaz vin. 472.) Bousquet (Rev. Med. Fev. 1830, p. 264.) mixed equal parts of a solution of chloride of soda and the vaccine lymph, and found that the latter still pos- sessed the power of producing the usual cow-pock vesicle. These are a few of the facts which are adverse to trfe opinion that chlorine or the alkaline chlorides possess the power of preventing the propagation of infectious, contagious, or epidemic diseases. In opposition to them there are but few positive facts to be adduced. Coster (Richter, Ausf. Arzneimittel/. Suppl. Band. 539.) found that a solution of chloride of soda destroyed the infectious properties of the syphilitic poison, and of the poison of rabid animals. The statements of Labarraque (Al- cock's Essay, pp. 56, 58, &c.) and others as to the preservative powers of the chlorides in typhus, measles, &c. are too loose and general to enable us to attach much value to them. Considered in reference to medical police, the power of the alkaline chlorides (hypochlorites) to destroy putrid odours and prevent putrefaction is of vast im- portance. Thus chloride of lime may be employed to prevent the putrefaction of corpses previously to interment, to destroy the odour of exhumed bodies during medico-legal investigations, to destroy bad smells, and prevent putrefac- tion in dissecting-rooms and workshops in which animal substances are employed (as cat-gut manufactories,) to destroy the unpleasant odour from privies, sewers, drains, wells, docks, .—2. Marmor, L. E. D. (U. S.)—3. Testa? prseparata:, _.) History.—Some varieties of carbonate of lime were distinguished and em- ployed in the most remote periods of antiquity. Marble was probably used for carbonate of lime. 501 building 1050 years before Christ. (1 Chron. xxix. 2.) Pliny (Hist. Nat. xxxvi.) tells us that Dipoenus and Scyllis were renowned as statuaries of marble in the 50th Olympiad (i. e. 557 years before Christ.) The Creta, mentioned by Horace (Sat. iii. lib. 2.) and Pliny was probably identical with our chalk. (On the chalk ofthe ancients, consult Beckmann's History of Invent, i. 212.) Natural History.—Carbonate of lime occurs in both kingdoms of nature. *. In the Inorganized Kingdom.—It forms a considerable portion of the known crust of the earth, and occurs in rocks of various ages. It is found in the inferior stratified rocks, but more abundantly in the different groups of the fossiliferous rocks, particularly towards the central and higher parts of the series. (De la Bache, Researches in Theoretical Geo- logy, 21.) In the crystallized form it constitutes Calcareous Spar and Arragonite. The first of these is most extensively distributed, and presents itself under many hundred varieties of shapes. (See Bournon's Traite Complet de la Chaux Carbonatee. Londres, 1808.) Granular carbonate ot lime (the Granular Limestone of mineralogists) more commonly occurs in beds, but sometimes constitutes entire mountains. The whitest and most esteemed primitive limestone is that called Statuary Marble, or, from its resemblance to white sugar, Saccharoid Carbonate of Lime. That from Carrara, on the eastern coast of the Gulf of Genoa, is the kind usually employed by the statuary, and being very pure, should be employed for pharmaceutical purposes; it is the Marmor ofthe British pharmacopoeias. Chalk constitutes the newest ofthe secondary rocks, and occurs abundantly in the southern parts of England. It lies in beds, and contains abundance of marine as well as terrestrial organic remains. The upper part of a considerable portion ofthe chalk of England contains numerous flints, which are supposed to have belonged lo poriferous animals. (Dr. Grant, Led. on Comp. Anat. in the Lancet, Nov. 2, 1833.) There are various other native forms of carbonate of lime constituting the substances called by the mineralogists Schiefer Spar, Rock Milk, Earth Foam, Slalactitic Carbonate of Lime, Anthraconite, Oolite, Pisolite, Marl, Tufa, &c. Carbonate of lime is an ordinary ingredient in mineral and common waters, being held in solution by carbonic acid, and, therefore, deposited when this is expelled by boiling or other- wise. /S. In the Organized Kidgdom.—Carbonate of lime is found in some plants, and is obtained from the ashc3 of most. It is an abundant constituent, of animals, especially of the lower classes. Thus in the Radiate animals we find it in the hard parts of Corals, Madrepores, &o; in the Molluscs (as the Oyster,) it is in the shells. In the articulated animals it forms, with phosphate of lime, the crusts which envelop these animals (as the Crab and Lobster;) in the higher classes it is found in bone, but the quantity of it is very small. Preparation.—Several forms of carbonate of lime are employed in medicine; viz. Marble, Chalk, Precipitated Carbonate of Lime, and Carbonate of Lime from Animals. Most of these require to be submitted to some preparation before they are fitted for use. i. itiari>ie; Marmor. Carbonas Calcis (dura,) L. Massive Crystalline Car- bonate of Lime: White Marble, E. Marmor album, D.—This is employed for the preparation of carbonic acid (p. 301) and for other purposes. White or sta- tuary marble from Carrara should be selected on account of its freedom from Iron. It requires no preparation. 2. chalk; Creta. Calcis Carbonas (friabilis,) L.—Creta. Friable Carbo- nate of Lime: Chalk, E. (and U. S.)—Creta alba, D.—This is found in great abundance in the southern parts of England. It is ground in a mill, and the finer particles separated by washing them over in water, letting the water settle, and making up the sediment into flat cakes, which are dried in this air. In this state it is called Whiting. All the British Colleges give directions for the preparation of chalk by elutriation. By this means it is separated from siliceous and ferrugi- nous particles. The product is called Prepared Chalk (Creta Prceparata, L. E. D.) and (U. S.) It is usually made up into little conical loaves. The London College orders of Chalk, Ibj.; Water as much as may be sufficient; add a little Water to the Chalk, and rub it that it may become fine powder. Put this in a large vessel with the rest of the Water; then stir it, and after a short interval pour off the supernatant water, still turbid, into another vessel, and set it by that the powder may subside; lastly, the 502 Ll.KMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Water being poured oft', dry this powder and keep it for use. In the same way shells, first freed from impurities and washed with boiling water, are prepared. The directions ofthe Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges are essentially the same, except that no mention is made ofthe preparation of chalk from shells. 3. Precipitated Carbonate of Lime. (Calcis Carbonas prsecipifalum, D.)— Carbonate of lime prepared by precipitation is employed by some druggists in the preparation of Aromatic Confection. It is also preferred to the ordinary prepared chalk for making Camphorated Cretaceous Tooth-powder. The Dublin College directs it to be employed in the preparation of the Hydrargyrum cum Creta, D. The following is the mode of preparing it:— Take of Solution of Muriate of Lime, Jive parts; add of Carbonate of Soda dissolved in four times its weight of distilled water, three parts. Let the precip.tate be mixed with water, and suffered to subside, and let this operation be three times repeated with a sufficiently large quantity of water: lastly, when collected, let the powder be dried on a chalk stone or on paper. Ph. Dub. It should be prepared with cold solutions, otherwise the deposite is finely gra- nular. _. Carbonate ofLime from Animals.—Carbonate of lime is obtained from va- rious animal substances; as from Oyster shells, Crab's claws, Crab's stones, and Red Coral. These substances yield carbonate of lime intimately blended with ani- mal matter. _. Prepared Oyster Shells ; Testes praparata, L.—See Ostrea edulis. 0. Prepared Crab's Claws; Lapilli Cancrorum praparati; Chela Cancrorumpraparata. —See Cancer Pagurus, y. Prepared Crab's Stones ; Lapides Cancrorum praparati; Prepared Crab's Eyes; Oculi Cancrorum praparati.—See Aslacus fluviatilis. ef. Prepared Red Coral; Corallium rubrum praparalum.—See Corallium rubrum. Properties.—Pure carbonate of lime is a tasteless, odourless solid. When heated to redness in a current of air its carbonic acid is expelled, leaving quick- lime. It is almost insoluble in water; one part of carbonate requiring 1600 parts of water to dissolve it. It is much more soluble in carbonic acid water: the solu- tion reddens litmus, but changes the yellow colour of turmeric paper to brown; and by boiling, or exposure to the air, gives out its carbonic acid, by which the carbonate of lime is deposited. Carbonate of lime is a dimorphous substance; that is, it crystallizes in two dis- tinct and incompatible series of forms. Thus the forms of Calcareous Spar be- long to the rhombohedric system, while Arragonite belongs to the right rectangu- lar prismatic system. According to Gustav Rose, (Lond. and Edinb. Phil. Mag. June 1838.) both calcareous spar and arragonite may be formed in the humid way, but the first at a lower, the latter at a higher temperature r1 in the dry way, cal- careous spar alone is formed. Both minerals doubly refract the rays of light, and expand unequally in their different parts when heated; but calcareous spar has only one axis of no double refraction (see p. 168, figs. 29 and 30,) whereas arra- gonite has two. Granular limestone (of which white marble is the purest kind) is massive, and consists of small grains of minute crystals, presenting a lamellar structure and brilliant lustre, but intersecting each other in every direction, and thereby giving a glimmering lustre to the mass. Chalk is massive, opaque when pure white, and has an earthy fracture. It is usually soft to the touch, and adheres to the tongue. Characteristics.—Carbonate of lime is recognised as a carbonate by the tests already mentioned for this class of salts (p. 302.) As a calcareous salt it is known by the characters before described (p. 489) for lime. i Colonel Yorke states that the deposite made by water on the interior of a copper boiler ii artificial arragonite (Proceedings of the Chemical Society, No. 1.) CARBONATE of lime. 503 Composition.—Carbonate of lime has the following composition:— Berzelius. Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Marcet. Stromeyer. Ure. ,;_„ i ...... 28 ........ 56 ........ 56-1 ........ 5(5-35 ........ 56 4 an;c Acid:::::::::::: i :::::::: 1........** ... ..-■■ 439........4365........436 . 1 ....... 50 ....... 100 ........ 1000 ........ 10000 ........ 1000 Carbonate of Lime. pURITY._Pure marble or chalk should be perfectly soluble, with effervescence, in hydrochloric acid, by which the absence of silica is shown. Ammonia should not cause any precipitate with this solution, by which its freedom from alumina, oxide of iron, &c. may be inferred: nor should a solution of sulphate of lime throw down any thing by which the absence of baryta and strontia is proved. Totally soluble in hydrochloric acid, with effervescence. From this solution, after it has been boiled, when ammonia is dropped in, it throws down nothing, Ph. Lond. " A solution of 25 grains in ten fluid-drachms of pyroligneous acid,' when neutralized by carbonate of soda, and precipitated by 32 grains of oxalate of ammonia, continues precipitable after filtration by more of the test." Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects.—The local effects of chalk are those of an absorbent, antacid, and mild desiccant (see p. 209.) When swallowed it neutralizes the free acid of the gastric juice, and in this way alone must, by continued use, in- jure the digestive functions. It causes constipation, an effect commonly observed from the use of a few doses in diarrhcea. By the action of the free acids (acetic and hydrochloric) of the alimentary canal, it is converted into two soluble calca- reous salts (acetate of lime and chloride of calcium,) which become absorbed. Hence the continued use of carbonate of lime is attended with the constitutional effects of the calcareous salts, and consequently the statements which have been made as to the influence of chalk over the lymphatic vessels and glands, and its effect in diminishing excessive secretion, may be correct. Sundelin (Heilmit- tellehre, i. 179.) thinks it may even promote the deposite of bone-earth in dis- eases attended with a deficiency of this substance. Carbonate of lime, prepared from animal matter, has been erroneously supposed to be more digestible than chalk, and, therefore, less likely to occasion dyspeptic symptoms. ("Wibmer, Die Wirkung, &c. ii. 10.) Dr. A. T. Thomson (Elements of Materia Medica, ii. 82.) says, that " after chalk has been used for some time, the bowels should be cleared out, as it is apt to form into hard balls, and to lodge in the folds ofthe intestines." Uses.—As an absorbent and desiccant, prepared chalk is used as a dusting powder in moist excoriations, ulcers, the intertrigo of children, burns and scalds, erysipelatous inflammation, &c; In the form of ointment it has been recom- mended by Mr. Spender (Observations on Ulcers.) in ulcers. As an antacid it is exhibited in those forms of dyspepsia accompanied with excessive secretion of acid; and as an antidote in poisoning by the mineral and oxalic acids. It has also been used in some diseases which have been supposed to depend on, or be accompanied by, excess of acid in the system—as in gouty affections, which are usually attended with the excessive production of uric acid, and in rachitis, which some have ascribed to a preponderance of phosphoric acid, or to a deficiency of lime in the system. To diminish alvine evacuations, it is employed in diarrhcea. Its efficacy can hardly be referred solely to its antacid properties, for other antacids are not equally successful; but to its desiccating properties already referred to. Moreover, in many cases of diarrhcea in which chalk is serviceable, no excess of acidity can be shown to exist in the bowels. Aromatics are useful adjuncts to chalk in most cases of diarrhoea. In old obstinate cases, astringents (as catechu or kino) may 'This quantity of acid is unnecessarily large. According to Mr. Phillips {Lond. Med. Gaz. N. 3. vol ii. 1838-11, |> 759,) it is capable of dissolving more than four times the above quantity of chalk. 504 ELEMENTS of materia medica. be conjoined with great advantage; and in severe cases, accompanied with griping pains, opium. Administration.—Prepared chalk is given in the form of powder or mixture, in doses of from ten grains to one or two drachms. It enters into a considerable number of officinal preparations. 1. MISTURA CRETjE, L. E. D.; (U. S.) Chalk Mixture; Cretaceous Mixture. (Prepared Chalk, _ss.; Sugar, 3iij.; Mixture of Acacia, f _iss.; Cinnamon Water, f_xviij. Mix. L.—Prepared Chalk, Jx.: Pure Sugar, 3v.; Mucilage, fjiij-; Spirit of Cinnamon, _ij.; Water, Oij. Triturate the chalk, sugar, and mucilage together; and then add gradually the water and spirit of cinnamon, E.—Prepared Chalk, 3ss.; Refined Sugar, 3iij.; Mucilage of Gum Arabic, 3j.; Water, Oj. [wine measure.'] Mix. D.)—[Prepared Chalk, half an ounce; Sugar, Gum Arabic, in powder, aa two drachms; Cinnamon Water, Water, aa four fluid ounces.—U. S. P.]—A convenient and agreeable form for the exhibition of chalk. It is in very common use for diarrhcea. Aromatics (as aromatic confection,) astringents (as kino or catechu,) and narcotics (opium,) are frequently combined with it. Dose, f _ss. to f _ij. 2. PULVIS CRIM COMPOSITUS. L. E. D. Compound Power of Chalk. (Pre- pared Chalk, lbss.; Cinnamon, _iv.; Tormentil Root; Acacia Gum, of each, Jiij.; Long Pepper, _ss. L. D.—Prepared Chalk, Jiv.; Cinnamon, in fine powder, 3iss.; Nutmeg, in fine powder, 3j. Triturate them well together.)—Aromatic and astringent. Used in diarrhcea. Dose, grs. x. to 9j. &. TROCHISCI CRET$, E. Chalk Lozenges. (Prepared Chalk, giv.; Gum Arabic, Jj.; Nutmeg, 3j. Pure Sugar, ^vj. Reduce them to powder, and beat them with a little water into a proper mass for making lozenges.)—Mildly antacid and astringent Used in acidity of stomach and diarrhcea. 4. CAMPHORATED CRETACEOUS TOOTH-POWDER. (Precipitated Carbonate of Lime, three parts; Camphor, finely pulverized, one part. Mix.)—Extensively used as a dentifrice (see p. 211.) 5. CAL'CIS SUBPHOS'PHAS.—SUBPHOSPHATE OF LIME. History.—In 1769 Scheele discovered that bones contained an earthy salt composed of phosphoric acid and lime. As these two substances combine together in several proportions to form phosphates, chemists distinguish the com- bination found in bones by the name of the Bone Phosphate, or the Subphos- phate of Lime. Natural History.—Subphosphate of lime constitutes the principal part ofthe earthy matter of the bones of the Vertebrata and of the crustaceous envelopes of the Articulata. According to Dr. Wollaston (Phil. Trans, for 1797.) the same subphosphate is found in the ossification of the arteries, veins, valves of the heart, bronchiae, and tendinous portion of the diaphragm. Moreover, the tartar of the teeth is composed of it. The calcareous phosphate found in urine, and which is sometimes deposited from this fluid in a pulverulent form, is the neutral phosphate of lime (C a O + PO2^.) The phosphate of lime calculus, prostatic calculi, and pineal concretion, also contain, according lo Dr. Wol- laston, the neutral phosphate. The same salt is held in solution by carbonic acid in some mineral waters. (Berzelius Traite de Chimie, t. iv.) The calcareous phosphate found crys. tallized in some plants is probably the neutral phosphate. The mineral called Apatite is the subsesquiphosphate of lime (X2 a O -\- *P O2).) Preparation.—When bones are ignited in close vessels, they yield as a fixed residue Bone Black (see p. 290 and 299.) If, however, they be calcined in open vessels, the whole of the carbonaceous matter is burnt off, and the white product SUBPHOSPHATE OF LIME. 505 is called Bone Ash (Ossa usta alba; Ossa de usta; Ossa ad albedinem usta; Ossa calcinata; Spodium album,) or the Bone Earth (Terra Ossium.) A similar product is obtained by calcining the antlers (Cornua) of the Deer (Cervw.) In this case the product, when reduced to a fine powder, is called Burnt Hartshorn. (Cornu ustum, L.; Pulvis Cornu Cervim usti, D.) Finely powdered Bone Ash is, however, usually substituted in the shops for Burnt Hartshorn. c D The Dublin College gives the following directions for the preparation ot Pre- cipitated Phosphate of Lime (Calcis Phosphas pnecipitatum, D.) Take of Bones, burnt and reduced to powder, one part; Diluted Muriatic Acid; Water, of each two parts. Digest them together during twelve hours, and filter the liquor : ado to tnis, of water of Caustic Ammonia as much as may be sufficient to throw down the Phosphate ot Lime. Let this be washed with a sufficiently large quantity of Water, and then dried. Bone ash is composed principally of subphosphate with a little carbonate of lime. By digestion with hydrochloric acid, the subphosphate is dissolved, and the carbonate is decomposed with the evolution of carbonic acid and the forma- tion of water and chloride of calcium. On the addition of ammonia, the sub- phosphate is precipitated. It is washed to deprive it of all traces of chloride of calcium and muriate of ammonia. Properties.—Subphosphate of lime is white, tasteless, odourless, insoluble in water, but soluble in nitric, hydrochloric, and acetic acids, from which solutions it is thrown down, unchanged in composition, by ammonia, potash, and their carbonates. When exposed to a very intense heat, it fuses, and undergoes no other change. Characteristics.—It is known to be a phosphate by its solubility in hydrochloric acid, and its being again thrown down as a white precipitate when the acid solu- tion is supersaturated with caustic ammonia. If it be digested in a'mixture of sulphuric acid and alcohol, sulphate of lime is precipitated, and an alcoholic solu- tion of phosphoric acid obtained. The acid may then be recognised by the tests for it already mentioned (p. 394.) If the precipitated sulphate of lime be dis- solved in water, the solution may be known to contain lime by the tests before described for the calcareous salts (p. 488.) The subphosphate of lime of bones is distinguished from the neutral phosphate by its fusing with greater difficulty, and dissolving more readily in hydrochloric acid. A very delicate test of the neutral phosphate is its crystallizing from hydrochloric acid by evaporation. (Wollaston, Phil. Trans, for 1797, p. 396 and 397.) Composition.—The composition of subphosphate of lime is as follows:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berzelius. Lime....................... 8 ........ 224 ........ 510 ........ 5155 Phosphoric Acid............ 6 ........ 216 ........ 490 ........ 4845 Bone Subphosphate of Lime.. 1 ........ 240 ........ 100-0 ........ 10000 Physiological Effects.—Its effects are not very obvious. " As phosphate of lime is very difficultly soluble," observes Wibmer, (Die Wirkung, &c. ii. 9.) " it is absorbed in small quantity only, and then acts more or less like lime, as a slight astringent on the tissues and secretions, and increases, incontestably, the presence of calcareous salts in the bones, the blood, and the urine. Large doses disorder the stomach and digestion by their difficult solubility." Usks.—It has been administered in rickets, with the view of promoting the deposition of bone-earth in the bones. The sesquioxide of iron may be advan- tageously conjoined with it. Its principal use is in the preparation of phos- phorus (p. 392) and phosphate of soda (p. 465.) In the arts it is employed for polishing, for the preparation of cupels, &c. Administration.—Dose from grs. x. to 3ss. For internal use the preparation of the Dublin College is to be preferred. Vol. I.—64 506 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Order XV.—COMPOUNDS OF MAGNESIUM. 1. MAGNESIA, L. E. D. (U. S.)—MAGNESIA. History.—It was first chemically distinguished from lime in 1755, by Dr. Black, who also showed the difference between magnesia and its carbonate. From the mode of procuring it, it is frequently termed Calcined or Burnt Mag- nesia (Magnesia catcinata seu usta.) It is sometimes called Talc Earth (Tal- kerde,) or Bitter Earth (Bittersalzcrde.) Natural History.—It occurs in both kingdoms of nature. *. Is the Inorganized Kingdom.—Magnesia is found native, in the solid state or in solu- tion, in sea or some mineral waters, in combination with water and various acids (carbonic, sulphuric, boracic, silicic, and nitric.) Chloride of magnesium exists in sea water, as also in some springs. &. In the Organized Kingdom.—Combined with acids it is found in some vegetables, (as Salsola Kali and Fucus vesiculosus,) and animals (as in the urine and some urinary calculi of man.) Preparation.—It is prepared by submitting the common carbonate of magnesia to heat, whereby the carbonic acid is driven off. The Edinburgh College gives the following directions for il:—" Take any convenient quantity of Carbonate of Magnesia, expose it in a crucible to a full red heat for two hours, or till the powder, when suspended in water, presents no effervescence on the addition of muriatic acid. Preserve the product in well-closed bottles." The directions uf the London and Dublin Colleges are essentially similar. [And so are those ofthe U.S. Pharmacopoeia.] The operation is usually conducted in large, porous, covered crucibles, placed in a furnace expressly devoted to this operation, and heated by coke. Properties.—It is a light, fine, white, colourless, odourless, and tasteless pow- der, having a sp. gr. 2-3. When moistened with water it reacts as an alkali on test papers. It is very slightly soluble in water, and like lime is more soluble in"cold than in hot water. Dr. Fyffe states that it requires 5142 parts of cold, and 36000 parts of hot water to dissolve it. Unlike lime it evolves scarcely any heat when mixed with water. By the combined voltaic and oxy-hydrogen flamps it-has been fused by Mr. Brande. (Manual of Chemistry.) It absorbs carbonic acid slowly from the atmosphere. Characteristics.—It is soluble in the dilute mineral acids without effervescence. The dilute solution does not occasion any precipitate with the ferrocyanides, hydrosulphurets, oxalates, or bicarbonates. The neutral alkaline carbonates, when unmixed with any bicarbonate, throw down a white precipitate (carbonate of magnesia.) Ammonia with phosphate of soda causes a white precipitate (ammoniacal-phosphate of magnesia.) Magnesia is insoluble in alkaline solu- tions, and is thereby distinguished from alumina. Its solution in sulphuric acid is remarkable for its great bitterness. Composition.—Magnesia has the following composition:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Wollastx>n. Oay-Lussac. Berzelius. Magnesium............ 1........ 12........ 60........ 59 3........ 59-5........ 6129 Oxygen...........--- 1........ 8 ........ 40........ 40 7 ........ 405 ........ 3871 Magnesia.............. 1........20........100........1000___.... 1000........ 10000 Purity.—Its freedom from any carbonate is shown by its dissolving in dilute mineral acids without effervescence. Its hydrochloric solution should occasion no precipitate with the oxalates, bicarbonates, and barytic salts, by which the absence of lime and sulphates may be infened. Dissolves in hydrochloric acid without effervescence. Neither bicarbonate of potash nor chloride of barium throws down any thing from the solution. It turns turmeric slightly brown. Ph. Lond. MAGNESIA. 507 « Fifty grains arc entirely soluble, without effervescence in a fluid ounce of pure]m»naU acid an Tcess of ammonia occasions in the solution only a scanty precipitate of alum.na: the 61tered fluid is not precipitated by solution of oxalate of ammonia. The quantity of hydrochloric acid directed to be used by the Edinburgh Col- lege is unnecessarily large. . Physiological Effects -When taken into the stomach, magnesia neutralizes the free acids contained in the stomach and intestines, and forms therewith solu- ble magnesian salts. In full doses it acts as a laxative; but as it occasions very little serous discharge, Dr. Paris (Pharmacologia, vol. i. art. Cathartics.) ranks it among purgatives " which urge the bowels to evacuate their contents by an mp^rcegptible action upon the muscular fibres." Part of its laxative effect pro- bably depends on the action of the soluble magnesian salts which it forms by union with the acids of the alimentary canal. Magnesia exercises an influence over the urine analogous to that of the alkalis: that is, it diminishes the quantity of uric acid in the urine, and when continued for too long a period occasions the deposite of the earthy phosphates in the form of white sand. (W. P. Brande, Phil. Trans. 1810, p. 136; and 1813, p. 213.) On account of its greater insolu- bility, it requires a longer time to produce these effects than the alkalis. When taken in too large quantities and for a long period it has sometimes accumulated in the bowels to an enormous extent, and being concreted by the mucus of the bowels, has created unpleasant effects. A lady took every night during two years and a half, from one to two tea-spoonsful of Henry's calcined magnesia (in all between 9 and 10 lbs. troy) for a nephritic attack, accompanied with the passage of gravel; subsequently she became sensible of a tenderness in the left side just above the groin, connected with a deep-seated tumour, obscurely to be felt on pressure, and subject to attacks of constipation, with painful spasmodic action of the bowels, tenesmus, and a highly irritable state of stomach. During one of these attacks she evacuated two pints of " sand;" and on another occasion voided soft light brown lumps, which were found to consist entirely of carbonate of magnesia concreted by the mucus of the bowels, in the proportion of 40 per cent. In another case a "mass of a similar description, weighing from 4 to 6 lbs., was found imbedded in the head of the colon, six months after the patient had ceased lo employ any magnesia. (E. Brande, Quart, Journ. of Science, i. 297.) Uses.__As an antacid it is as efficacious as the alkalis, while it has an advan- tage over them in being less irritant, and thereby is not so apt to occasion dis- order of the digestive organs. It may be employed to neutralize acids introduced into the stomach from without, (as in cases of poisoning by the mineral acids) or to prevent the excessive formation of, or to neutralize when formed, acid in the animal economy. Thus it is administered to relieve heartburn arising from, or connected with, the secretion of an abnormal quantity of acid by the stomach; its efficacy is best seen in persons of a gouty or rheumatic diathesis, in which the uiine contains excess of uric acid. It often relieves the headach to which such individuals are not unfrequently subject. It is most efficacious in diminish- ing the quantity of uric acid in the urine, in calculous complaints, and according to Air. W. T. Brande (Phil. Trans. 1813, p. 213.) it is sometimes effectual where the alkalis have failed. It will be found of great value in those urinary affections in which alkaline remedies are indicated, but in which potash and soda have created dyspeptic symptoms. It is a most valuable anti-emetic in cases of svinpathetic vomiting, especially that which occurs during pregnancy.1 It should be given in doses of from a scruple to a drachm in simple water or chicken broth. As a laxative, magnesia is much employed in the treatment of the diseases of children. It is tasteless, mild in its operation, and antacid,—qualities which render it most valuable as an infant's purgative. Independently of these, Hufe- ' Or. WaUotl, in the Medical Obscrv. and Inquiries, vol. iii. p. 335. Lond. 171.0, 2d cd. 508 elements of materia medica. land ascribes to it _ specific property of diminishing gastro-intestinal irritation by a directly sedative influence. In flatulency it is combined with some carminative water (dill or anise;) in diarrhcea, with rhubarb. It is employed as a purgative by adults in dyspeptic cases—in affections of the rectum, as piles and stricture— and in diarrhoea. It is associated with the carminative waters—with some neu- tral salts, as sulphate of magnesia, to increase its cathartic operation—or, in diar- rhoea, with rhubarb. Administration.—As a purgative, the dose, for adults, is from a scruple to a drachm; for infants, from two to ten grains. As an antacid, the dose is from ten to thirty grains twice a-day. It may be conveniently given in milk. It is some- times administered in combination with lemon juice: the citrate of magnesia thus formed acts as a pleasant and mild aperient. 2. MAGNE'SIiK CARBONAS, L E. D. (U. S.)—CARBONATE OF MAGNESIA. History.—Carbonate of magnesia, also called Magnesia Alba and Subcarbo- nate of Magnesia, was exposed for sale at Rome at the commencement of the 18th century, by Count di Palma, in consequence of which it was termed Comi- tissce Palmce pulvis. In 1707, Valentini informed the public how it might be prepared. Natural History.—Native, anhydrous, neutral carbonate of magnesia is found in various parts of Europe, Asia, and America. Carbonate of magnesia is found in some mineral waters. The native neutral carbonate of magnesia constitutes a range of low hills in Hindostan. Some years ago a cargo of it was brought ever by Mr. Babington. Dr. Henry (Annals of Philosophy, N. S. vol. i. p. 252.) analyzed a sample of it, and found its constituents to be mag- nesia, 46; carbonic acid, 51; insoluble matter, 1-5; water, 0-5 ; and loss, 1- _= 100. Native carbonate of magnesia, from India, has been imported in considerable quantities into this country; but has been found, as I am informed, unsaleable here. The samples offered for sale in the year 1837 consisted of renifonn, opaque, dull masses, adherent to the tongue, having a conchoidal fracture, and considerable hardness. Internally, they were whitish; externally, ihey were grayish, or yellowish white. The same substance (I presume) was brought over in 1838 in the calcined state, and was offered for sale as Indian Calcined Magnesia. It was nearly white. Preparation.—All the British Colleges give directions for the preparation of carbonate of magnesia. The London College orders of Sulphate of Magnesia, Ibiv.; Carbonate of Soda, lbiv. and §viij.; Distilled Water, Cong. iv. Dissolve separately the carbonate of soda and sulphate of magnesia in two gallons ofthe water, and strain; then mix and boil the liquors, stirring con- stantly with a spatula for a quarter of an hour; lastly, the liquor being pouired off, wash the precipitated powder with boiling distilled water, and dry it. The Edinburgh College employs the same proportions of ingredients, and gives similar directions for the preparation of this compound. The Dublin College uses of Sulphate of Magnesia, twenty Jive parts; Carbonate of Potash, twenty four parts ; Boiling Water, four hundred parts. Two kinds of carbonate of magnesia are known and kept in the shops;—the light and the heavy. et. Light Carbonate of Magnesia; Common Magnesia.—This is manufactured in the northern parts of this island, and is commonly known as Scotch Magnesia. It is said to be prepared from the residuary liquor (bittern) of sea water, after the extraction of common salt (see p. 452.) /3. Heavy Carbonate of Magnesia; Magnesia Ponderosa.—The following is the method which I have seen followed in a large and esteemed manufactory:— Add one volume of a cold saturated solution of carbonate of soda to a boiling mixture of one volume of a saturated solution of sulphate magnesia, and three volumes of water. Boil until effervescence has ceased, constantly stirring with a spatula. Then dilute with boiling water, set aside, pour off the' supernatant carbonate of magnesia. 509 liquor, and wash the precipitate with hot water on a linen cloth: afterwards dry it by heat in an iron pot. -i,,:-- A heavy and s-riz/y Carbonate of Magnesia is prepared by separately dissolving twelve parts of sulphate magnesia and thirteen parts of crystallized carbonate ot soda in as small a quantity of water as possible, mixing the hot solutions, and washing the precipitate. . , When cold solutions of sulphate of magnesia and carbonate of soda are mixed, and no heat is employed, the product is apt to be gritty. According to Profes- sor Graham, (Elements of Chemistry, p. 505.) carbonate of soda is not so suita- ble as carbonate of potash for precipitating magnesia, " as a portion ot it is apt to go down in combination with the magnesian carbonate? but it may be used provided the quantity applied be less than is required to decompose the whole magnesian salt in solution." By the mutual reaction of solutions of sulphate of magnesia and carbonate of soda, we obtain, by double decomposition, sulphate of soda and carbonate of magnesia. COMPOSITION. „ . t », „r, 1 1 eq. Sulphuric Acid 40 I eq. Sulphate Magnesia CO j 1 ^ Ma^nesia..... 2r 1 eq. Carbonate Soda. 54 114 leq. Soda.......... 3! 1 eq. Carbonic Acid.. 22_ 114 PRODUCTS. 1 eq Sulpttate Soda 7- 1 eq Carb. Magnesia 42 114" During the ebullition, however, part of the carbonic acid escapes, and the pro- duct, therefore, is not a neutral carbonate, as will be shown presently. Berzelius (Traite de Chimie, t. iv.) states, that the neutral carbonate is de- composed by cold water into bicarbonate, which is dissolved in the liquid, and a subsalt which is precipitated. Boiling water, he adds, causes the disengage- ment of carbonic acid without dissolving any thing. " The crystallized carbo- nate of magnesia loses a third of its carbonic acid, and two-thirds of its water, when it is decomposed by boiling water " (Berzelius.) The compound obtained by ebullition is fixed and unalterable. Properties.—Carbonate of magnesia, as usually met with, is in the form of a white, inodorous, and almost tasteless powder. The common or light variety occurs in commerce as a very fine light powder, of which 48 grains lightly fill an ounce measure. (West, Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. ix. p. 356.) It is also met with in large rectangular masses with bevelled edges, or in smaller cubical cakes. The light powder mixes imperfectly with water. Its taste, in a copious draught, is somewhat disagreeable, owing probably to its having been imperfectly washed. The heavy carbonate is, as its name indicates, of greater specific gravity than the light. 160 grains of it lightly fill an ounce measure. It is tasteless, or nearly so. Both kinds mixed with water have a feebly alkaline reaction on test paper. Carbonate of magnesia is nearly insoluble in water: it readily dissolves in carbo- nic acid water. Characteristics.—It is distinguished from" caustic or calcined magnesia by the effervescence which takes place on the addition of a dilute mineral acid. Its other characteristics are the same as for the latter substance (vide p. 506.) Composition.—The following is the composition of Carbonate of Magnesia of the shops:— Airman. Bergman. Klaproth. Mflgnesia--- 45 ........ 45 ........ 40 Carbonic Acid 34 ........ 25 ........ 33 Waier....... 21 ........ 30 ........ 27 Mugnesia alba 100 ........ 100 ........ 100 Bucholi Berzelius. Light. 33 32 35 Heavy. 42........ 44-75 35" ........ 35 77 23 ........ 1948 100 Phillips. 40-8 360 23-2 100 100 00........ 1000 510 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Several reasons have led chemists to reject the idea of this compound being an ordinary subsalt. (Vide Berzelius, Traite de Chim. vi. 101.) Mr. Philips (Translation of the Pharmacopoeia, 4th ed.) considers it to be pro- bably a compound of Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. „.. , „, ) i Carbonic Acid.................... 30 3 Bihydrated Magnesia............ 1 ........ 38 f or J Magnesia........................ 413 Hydrated Carbonate of Magnesia 4........204 $ ( water............................ 22-4 Carbonate Magnesia, Ph L...... 1........242 ......................................... 100 U Mr. Brande, (Manual of Chemistry, 5th edit. p. 714.) on the other hand, says that it probably consists " of 1 atom quadrihydrate and 1 atom of carbonate," or perhaps of 1 atom terhydrate and 1 atom of hydrated carbonate. Purity.—Carbonate of magnesia should be perfectly white and tasteless. The water in which it has been boiled should have no alkaline reaction on turmeric paper, nor throw down any thing on the addition of chloride of barium or nitrate of silver: by which the absence of alkaline carbonates, sulphates, and chlorides, is proved. Dissolved in dilute acetic acid the soluble oxalates and carbonates should occasion no precipitate, by which the non-existence of any calcareous salt is shown. The water in which it is boiled does not alter the colour of turmeric : chloride of barium or nitrate of silver, added to the water, does not precipitate any thing. One hundred parts dis- solved in dilute sulphuric acid lose 36-6 parts in weight. When the effervescence has ceased, bicarbonate of potash does not precipitate any thing from this solution. Ph. Lond. " When dissolved in an excess of muriatic acid, an excess of ammonia occasions only a scanty precipitate of alumina; and the filtered fluid is not precipitated by oxalate of ammonia." Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects.—The effects of carbonate of magnesia are nearly the same as those of pure magnesia. We can readily conceive that the local opera- tion of the first is somewhat milder than that of the latter (as in the case of the alkalis and their carbonates,) but the difference is hardly perceptible in practice. As the carbonate effervesces with acids it is more apt to create flatulence when swallowed. Uses.—The uses of the carbonate are the same as those of calcined magnesia: except where the object is to neutralize acid in the alimentary canal (as in cardi- algia and in poisoning by the mineral acids,) when the latter preparation is to be preferred on account of its not effervescing with acids, and thereby not causing flatulency. It is employed in the preparation of medicated waters (see p. 242.) Administration.—The dose of carbonate of magnesia, as a purgative, is from fen grains to a drachm; as an antacid, from five grains to a scruple. It is some- times given with citric acid in an effervescing form. I find that 9j. of crystallized citric acid saturates about 14 grs. of either light or heavy magnesia. The pro- duct of their reaction is citrate of magnesia. I. TROCHISCI MAGNESI-G, E. Magnesia Lozenges. (Carbonate of Magnesia, Xvj. ; Pure Sugar, 5iij.; Nutmeg, 9j. Pulverize them, and, with mucilage of Tragacanth, beat them into a proper mass for making lozenges.)—Employed to counteract acidity of stomach. 2. AQUA MAGNESLE BICARBONATIS; Carbonated Magnesia Water; Aerated Magnesia Water: Condensed Solution of Magnesia; Fluid Magnesia.—This is a solution of carbonate of magnesia in carbonic acid water. Mr. Dinneford prepares it as follows:—Howard's heavy carbonate of magnesia and distilled water (in the proportion of 17| grs. of the former to f 5j. ofthe latter) are introduced into a cylindrical tinned copper vessel, and carbonic acid (generated by the action of sulphuric acid on whiting) is forced into it, by means of steam power, for five hours and a half, during the whole of which time the cylinder is kept revolving. The SULPHATE OE MAGNESIA 511 liquid, which is then perfectly clear and transparent, is drawn off, and preserved in cylindrical zinc canisters, each closed by a cork covered by a lid. When this solution is exposed for some time to the air, carbonic acid escapes, and minute prismatic crystals are deposited, which Dr. Davy (Lond. and Edinb. Phil. Mag. vol. xvii. p. 346. 1840.) analyzed, and found to consist of— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Dr. Davy. Magnesia.......................... 1-J- .......... 30 .......... 2961 Carbonic Acid...................... 1-J-.......... 33 .......... 32-22 Water expelled at 212°.............. 1 .......... 9 .......... 10 27 Ditto ditto byignition............ 3 .......... 27 .......... 2790 Hydrated Carbonate of Magnesia..... 1 .......... 99 .......... 10000 An extemporaneous solution of carbonate of magnesia may be prepared by pouring the ordinary soda water (carbonic acid water) over the common carbonate of magnesia contained in a tumbler. Or a mixture of crystallized sulphate of magnesia and crystallized carbonate of soda, in powder, and in atomic proportions (viz. 123 parts of the former to 144 parts of the latter salt) maybe substituted for the carbonate of magnesia. Carbonated magnesia water is a very agreeable and effective form for the administration of magnesia. 3. MAGNE'SLE SUL'PIIAS, L. E. D. (U. S.)—SULPHATE OF MAGNESIA. History.—This salt was originally procured from the Epsom waters by Dr. Grew. (A Treatise of the Nature and Use of the Bitter Purging Salt. Lond. 1697.) It has had a variety of names, such as Epsom or the Bitter Purging^ Salt, Sal Anglicum, Sal Seidlitzense, Sal Catharlicum, and Vitriolated Magnesia. Natural History.—It is a constituent of sea and many mineral waters: it occurs as an efflorescence on other minerals, forming the Hair Salt of mineral- ogists^ and with sulphate of soda and a little chloride of magnesium, constitutes Reussite. Preparation.—The two great sources of the sulphate of magnesia of English commerce are Dolomite and Bittern et. From Dolomite—Dolomite or Magnesian Limestone is a mixture or com- bination of the carbonates of magnesia and lime. It crystallizes in rhombohe- drons. It occurs in enormous quantities in various counties of England (as those of Somerset, York, and Nottingham,) and is employed for building: York Minster and Westminster Hall are built of it. Various methods of manufacturing sulphate of magnesia from dolomite have been proposed and practised. One method is to heat this mineral with dilute sul- phuric acid: carbonic acid escapes, and a residue, composed of sulphate of mag- nesia and sulphate of lime, is obtained. These two salts are separated from each other by crystallization. In 1816, Dr. William Henry, of Manchester, (Repert. of Arts, vol. xxx d 112, 2d Sor.) took out a patent for the following process:-Calcine maonesian limestone, so as to expel the carbonic acid; then convert the caustic lime and magnesia into hydrates by moistening them with water. Afterwards add a suffi- cient quantity of hydrochloric (or nitric or acetic) acid (or chlorine,) to dissolve the lime, but not the magnesia, which, after being washed, is converted into sul- phate by sulphuric acid (or, where the cost of this is objectionable, by sulphate of iron, which is easily decomposed by magnesia.) Or the mixed hydrates of lime and magnesia are to be added to bittern: chloride of calcium is formed in solution, while two portions of magnesia (one from the bittern, the other from the magnesian lime) are left unacted on. Or hydrochlorate of ammonia may be used instead o bittern: by the reaction of this on the hydrated magnesian Urne! chloride ol calcium and caustic ammonia remain in solution, while magnesia 512 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. is left undissolved: the ammonia is separated from the decanted liquor by distil- lation. Carbonate of ammonia has also been employed to separate lime from magnesia: carbonate of lime is precipitated, and the magnesia remains in solution, from which it may be easily separated by ebullition. (Journ. of Science, iii. 217; vi. 313; ix. 177.) p. From Bittern.—Bittern ox the Bitter Liquor is the residual liquor of sea- water, from which common salt (chloride of sodium) has been separated (see p. 452.) At Lymington, in Hampshire, sulphate of magnesia (called physical salt) is manufactured from bittern during the winter season. The liquor is boiled for some hours in the pans used during the summer for the preparation of common salt. During the ebullition some common salt is deposited. The lighter impu- rities are removed by skimming, and the concentrated solution is removed into wooden coolers, where in 24 hours one-eighth part of crystals of sulphate (called Single Epsom Salts, or simply Singles) are deposited. These are drained, dis- solved, and recrystallized: they are then denominated Double Epsom Salts, or simply Doubles. Four or five tons of sulphate are obtained from brine which has yielded 100 tons of common salt and 1 ton of cat salt. (Henry, Phil. Trans, for 1810.) No sulphuric acid is employed in the process at Lymington; but, if this acid be added to the residual liquor, a farther quantity of sulphate may be ob- tained by the decomposition of the chloride of magnesium. At Monte della Guardia, near Genoa, sulphate of magnesia is manufactured from schistose minerals, containing sulphur, magnesia, copper, and iron. After being roasted, and moistened to convert them into sulphates, they are lixiviated, and the solution is deprived, first, of cop- per by refuse of iron, and afterwards of iron by lime. (Pr. Holland, Phil. Trans. 1816, p. 294.) In Bohemia, sulphate of magnesia is procured, by evaporation, from the waters of Seidlitz and Saidschiitz. Hermann (Poggendorff's Annalen. xi.249.) extracts it from liquids containing chloride of magnesium, by means of sulphate of soda. At Baltimore, sulphate of magnesia is procured from the siliceous hydrate of magnesia or marmolite, by reducing the mineral to powder, saturating with sulphuric acid, and calcining the dried mass to peroxidize the iron. It is then re-dissolved in water (from which solution the remaining iron is separated by sulphuret of lime,) and crystallized. By a second crystallization it is obtained nearly pure. (D. B. Smith, in the Dispensatory ofthe U. S. of America.) Properties.—The sulphate usually met with in the shops is in small acicular crystals. By solution and re-crystallization we readily obtain tolerably large four-sided rhombic prisms, with reversed diedral summits, or four-sided pyra- mids: the crystals belong to the right prismatic system. Both large and small Fig. 78. Fio. 79. 7' Common Crystal. Crystal with diedral reversed summits. crystals are colourless, transparent, and odourless, but have an extremely bitter taste. When heated they undergo the watery fusion, then give out their water of crystallization, become anhydrous, and at a high temperature undergo the igneous fusion, and run into a white enamel, but without suffering decomposition. Ex- SULPHATE OF MAGNESIA. 513 posed to the air they very slowly and slightly effloresce. They dissolve in their own weight of water at 60°, and in three-fourths of their weight of boiling water. They are insoluble in alcohol. Characteristics.—Sulphate of magnesia is known to contain sulphuric acid by the tests for the sulphates already mentioned (p. 406.) The nature of its base i3 shown by the tests for magnesia before described (p. 506.) Composition.—The following is the composition of crystallized sulphate of magnesia:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Gay-Lussac. Wenzel. Magnmia........................... 1 ...... 20 ...... 1626 ...... 1604 ...... 1686 Sulphuric Acid...................... 1 ...... 40 ...... 3252 ...... 3253 ...... 3064 Water.............................. 7 ...... 63 ...... 51i2 ...... 5143 ...... 5250 Crystal Sulphate of Magnesia ...... 1 ...... 123 ......10000 ...... 100-00 ...... 10000 Purity.—The sulphate of magnesia met with in 4he shops is usually suffi- ciently pure for all medicinal and pharmaceutical purposes. It should be colour- less, and its dilute solution should undergo no change when mixed with ferrocy- anides or hydrosulphurets. When obtained from bittern it is sometimes conta- minated with chloride of magnesium, which, by its affinity for water, keeps the sulphate in a damp state. By digestion in alcohol the chloride is dissolved; and, by evaporation, the spirituous solution may be obtained in the solid state. It is said, that occasionally small crystals of sulphate of soda are intermixed with those of sulphate of magnesia—a fraud I have never met with in English commerce, nor is it likely to occur at the present low price of the magnesian salt. Should such an adulteration be suspected, there are several methods of detecting it: the sophisticated salt would effloresce more rapidly than the pure salt, and would communicate a yellow tinge to the flame of alcohol. Boiled with caustic lime and water, all the magnesian sulphate would be decomposed, and the liquor being filtered (to separate the precipitated magnesia and sulphate of lime) would yield, on evaporation, sulphate of soda. If shaken in the cold with carbonate of baryta, a solution of carbonate of soda would be obtained, easily recognised by its alka- line properties. Very readily dissolved by water. Sulphuric acid dropped into the solution does not expel any hydrochloric acid. 100 grs. dissolved in water, and mixed with a boiling solution of car- bonate of aoda, yield 31 grains of carbonate of magnesia when dried. Ph. Lond. The evolution of hydrochloric acid gas would be a proof of the presence of a chloride. If less than 34 grs. of carbonate of magnesia be obtained, the presence of sulphate of soda may be suspected. "Ten grains dissolved in a fluid-ounce of water, and treated with a solution of carbonate of ammonia, arc not entirely precipitated by 280 minims of solution of phosphate of soda." Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects.—Sulphate of magnesia is a mild and perfectly safe antiphlogistic purgative, which promotes the secretion as well as the peristaltic motion of the alimentary canal. It is very similar in its operation to sulphate of soda, than which it is less likely to nauseate, or otherwise disorder the digestive functions, while it acts somewhat more speedily on the bowels. It does not oc- casion nausea and griping, like some of the vegetable purgatives, nor has it any tendency to create febrile disorder or inflammatory symptoms; but, on the other hand, has a refrigerant influence: hence it is commonly termed a cooling purga- tive. In small doses, largely diluted with aqueous fluids, it slightly promotes the action of other emunctories: thus, if the skin be kept cool, and moderate exer- cise be conjoined, it acts as a diuretic; whereas, if the skin be warm, it operates as a diaphoieiie. Dr. Christison (Treatise on Poisons, 3d edit. p. 603.) men- tions a case of supposed poisoning, in a boy of ten years old, by two ounces of Epsom salt3. The symptoms were staggering, imperceptible pulse, slow and difficult breathing, extreme debility, and death within ten minutes, without vo- Vol. I.—6.^ 514 ELEMENTS OP MATERIA MEDICA. miting. It may, however, be fairly doubted whether the Epsom salts were chargeable with these effects. Uses.—On account of the mildness and safety of its operation, its ready solu- bility, and its cheapness, sulphate of magnesia is by far the most commonly em- ployed purgative, both by the public and the profession.1 The only objection to its use is its bitter and unpleasant taste. To state all the cases in which it is ad- ministered, would be to enumerate nearly the whole catalogue of known dis- eases. It must, therefore, be sufficient to mention, that it is excellently well adapted as a purgative for febrile and inflammatory diseases, obstinate constipa- tion, ileus, lead colic, even incarcerated hernia, narcotic poisoning, &c. It may be used as an antidote in poisoning by the salts of lead and baryta. Administration.—As a purgative it is usually administered in doses of from half an ounce to an ounce and a-half; but if dissolved in a large quantity of water, a smaller dose will suffice. Thus, two drachms in half a pint or more of water, taken in the morning fasting, will act speedily, sufficiently, and mildly, in ordi- nary cases; and in delicate females, a drachm, or even less, in the above quan- tity of water, will usually produce the desired effect. Some carminative or aro- matic (as peppermint water or tincture of ginger) is frequently conjoined, to obviate flatulency. In febrile and inflammatory diseases the solution may be acidulated with dilute sulphuric acid with great advantage; or the sulphate may be dissolved in the compound infusion of roses. It is frequently used as an ad- junct to the compound infusion of senna, whose purgative effect it promotes, but whose griping tendency it is said to check. In dyspeptic cases, accompanied with constipation, it is conjoined with bitter infusions (as of quassia, gentian, calumba, &c.) As a purgative enema, an ounce or more of it may be added to the ordinary clyster. The bitter purging saline waters (see p. 252) contain sul- phate of magnesia. PULVIS SALINUS COMPOSITUS, E.; Compound Saline Powder. (Take of Pure Muriate of Soda, and Sulphate of Magnesia [of each,] _iv.; Sulphate of Potash, §iij. Dry the salts separately with a gentle heat, and pulverize each, then tritu- rate them well together, and preserve the mixture in well-closed vessels.)—A mild, cooling, saline aperient. May be employed in habitual constipation. Dose, 3ij. or 3iij- It may be taken dissolved in half a pint of plain water, or in bottled soda water (carbonic acid water.) Order XVI.—COMPOUNDS OF ALUMINUM. ALUMEN, L. E. D. (U. S.)—ALUM. (Sulphas Aluminas et Potassa;, L. E. D.) History.—Although the term alum (Alumen of the Romans—trrvTrryeiot ofthe Greeks) occurs in the writings of Herodotus, (Euterpe, clxxx.) Hippocrates, (De Fistulis De Ulceribus, &c.) Pliny, (Hist. Arat. xxxv.) Dioscorides, (Lib. v. cap. 123.) and other ancient writers, yet it is not satisfactorily proved that our alum was the substance referred to. On the contrary, the learned Beckmann (Hist, of Invent, i. 288.) has asserted that the alum of the Greeks and Romans was sul- phate of iron, and that the invention of our alum was certainly later than the 12th century. But Geber, (Search of Perfection, ch. iii.; and Invention of Verity, ch. iv.) who is supposed to have lived in the 8th century, was acquainted with'three kinds of our alum, and describes the method of preparing burnt alum; and it is not, I think, improbable, that even Pliny was acquainted with our alum, but did not dis- t Sulphate of magnesia is extensively used in the diseases of cattle. In a letter which I have received from Mr. Youatt Veterinary Surgeon to the Zoological Gardens, he says--For cattle we use the sulphate of magnesia or soda. The former is preferable, on account of its easier solution. I purge the larger elephant, whenever I please, by giving him a drachm of calomel at night, and a pound and a-half of Epsom salts in ALUM. 515 tinguish it from sulphate of iron, for he tells us that one kind of alum was white, and was used for dyeing wool of bright colours.1 Natural History.—It is found native in the neighbourhood of volcanoes, and constitutes the mineral called Native Alum. Preparation.—The method of preparing alum varies somewhat in different places. The mineral from which (in this country) it is procured is called Alumi- nous Slate, Aluminous Shale, or Aluminous Schist (Schistus Aluminaris.) This substance varies somewhat in its composition in different localities, but always contains sulphuret of iron, alumina, carbon, and sometimes a salt of potash. In the neighbourhood of Glasgow there are two alum manufactories, one at Hurlet, the other at Campsie. The most extensive alum manufactory in Great Britain is at Hurlet, near Paisley. Here the aluminous schist lies between the stratum of coal and limestone. (Williams, Nat. Hist, of the Mineral Kingdom, 2d edit. ii. 315.) By the action of the air it undergoes decomposition, and falls down on the floor of the mine. The sulphur attracts oxygen, and is converted into sulphuric acid, which combines partly with the iron (oxidized by the air,) and partly with the alumina. The solution obtained by lixiviating the decomposed schist is eva- porated, and the sulphate of iron allowed to crystallize: to the mother liquor, which contains sulphate of alumina, sulphate of potash, or chloride of potassium, obtained from soap-boilers, is added, by which crystals of alum are procured, which are purified by a second crystallization. Of late years, sulphate of ammonia, ob- tained from gas liquor, has been employed as a substitute for the sulphate of pot- ash or chloride of potassium. In general the alum made at Hurlet contains both potash and ammonia. (Dr. T. Thomson, in Athenasum for 1840, p. 771.) At Whitby, in Yorkshire, the method of making alum is somewhat different. The schist is piled in heaps, and burnt by means of a slow smothered fire. The calcined ore is lixiviated, and a salt of potash added to the solution after it has deposited sulphates of lime and iron, and earthy matters. (Winter, in Nicholson's Journal, vol. xxv.) Properties.—Alum crystallizes usually in regular octohedrons, frequently with truncated edges and angles, and sometimes in cubes. The ordinary alum of the shops consists of large crystalline masses, which do not present Fig. 80. any regular geometrical form; but, by immersion in water during a few days, octohedral and rectangular forms are developed on its surfaces. (Daniell, Quart. Journ. i. 24.) Alum has an as- tringent and sweetish acid taste: its reaction on vegetable colours is that of an acid. Its sp. gr. is 1 -7. By exposure to the air it slowly and slightly effloresces. Its transcalent or diathermanous power is very slight. When heated, alum undergoes the watery fusion, swells up, gives out its water of crystallization, and be- Ct°Ai r°n comes a white spongy mass, called Dried Alum. When sub- mitted to a very strong heat, a portion of the acid is expelled, and escapes, partly as sulphuric acid, partly in the form of oxygen and sulphurous acid, and the residue consists of alumina and sulphate of potash: the acid liquor obtained by heating alum was formerly termed Spirit of Alum. When alum is calcined with charcoal or some carbonaceous substance, as sugar, we obtain a spontaneously inflammable substance called Homberg's Pyrophorus, composed of sulphur, potassium, aluminum or alumina, and charcoal. Alum dissolves in 18 times its weight of cold and less than its own weight of boiling water. The alum procured at Tolfa and other parts of Italy, and called Roman Alum (Alumen Romanum,) is covered with a pale, rose-coloured efflorescence, com- posed of oxide of iron and an aluminous sulphate of potash. Under the name of Roche or Rock Alum (Alumen Rupeum, seu Alumen de Rochi, so called from For farther information, consult Parkes' Chemical Essays, i. 625; and Thomson's History of Chemistry, 516 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Roccha, in Syria, whence a red-coloured alum was formerly brought,) we find in English commerce crystalline fragments of alum not larger than almonds, coloured externally with bole or rose pink. Characteristics.—That alum is a sulphate is shown by the tests for the soluble sulphates already mentioned (p. 406.) It reddens litmus, and forms sulphate of lead when mixed with pure carbonate of lead: in these properties it agrees with the supersulphates. The nature of its basic constituents is shown by the following tests:—The ferrocyanides, the oxalates, and hydrosulphuric acid, occasion no pre- cipitate in a solution of alum. Hydrosulphuret of ammonia, the caustic alkalis and their carbonates, and phosphate of soda, throw down white precipitates: that pro- duced by the alkalis is soluble in an excess of alkali, but is insoluble in solutions of the carbonated alkalis: these characters show the presence of alumina. Potash is recognised by perchloric acid and bichloride of platinum (vide p. 415.) Lastly, the crystalline form of the salt assists in recognising it. Composition.—The composition of alum is as follows:— Eq. Atoms. Wt. Per Cent. Thomson. Bcrzel Alumina............ 3.. 54 .. 110^8 .. 11-00.. 107(5-. f Potash.............. 1.. 48.. 9-85G .. 9-86.. 9-95 Sulphate of Alumina 3 .. 174 .. 35-728 Sulphuric Acid...... 4 .. 160 .. 32 854 .. 32 85.. 33 74 l0r-J Sulphate of Potash.. 1 .. 68 .. ISOli'J Water..............25 .. 225 .. 46-201 .. 46-20.. 4555 [ | Water.............25 .. 225 .. 46-201 Crystd. Potash-Alum. 1 .. 4S7 .. 99 999 .. 100-00 .. 10000-1 i-Crystd Potash-Alum 1 . . 487 .. 99998 In the above table I have assumed, with Thomson and Phillips, that alumina is a protoxide of aluminum, (1 eq. Aluminum = 10, and 1 eq. Oxygen = 8,) and that its equivalent is 18. But, according to Berzelius, it is a sesquioxide (composed of 2 eq. Aluminum = 2644, and 3 eq. Oxygen = 24.) Moreover, he found only 24 eq. of water in crystals of alum. Hence alum is composed, according to him, of KO, SO3 -f Al3 O3 3S03 -f 24 HO. Purity.—Alum should be colourless, completely soluble in water (by which the absence of uncombined earthy matter is shown;) with a solution of caustic potash or ammonia should form a colourless precipitate of hydrate of alumina soluble in excess of potash; and should not suffer any change of colour by the addition of tincture of nutgalls or hydrosulphuric acid. The ferro-sulphate of potash, sometimes mixed with alum, cannot be distinguished from the latter by its form, colour, or taste; but is readily detected by potash, which throws down oxide of iron, and by tincture of nutgalls, which communicates a bluish black colour to it. It is entirely soluble in water. From the solution, ammonia or potash, when added, throws down alumina free from colour, which again dissolves when the potash is added in excess. Ph.L. 8 V Physiological Effects, ct. On Vegetables.—Alum is probably injurious to plants. (De Candolle, Physiol. Veget. 1341.) /3. On Animals.—Dogs support large doses of alum with impunity. Orfila (Ann. d'Hyg. Pttbliq. et de Med. Ug. i. 235.) gave seven drachms of crystal- lized alum in powder to dogs: the animals retained it for from ten to thirty mi- nutes, then vomited, and in an hour or two were apparently well. Two ounces of burnt alum in four ounces of cold water occasioned vomiting only. When the oesophagus was tied to prevent vomiting, death took place in five hours with symptoms of great exhaustion and diminished sensibility. On a post-mortem examination the mucous membrane of the stomach was found inflamed in the whole of its extent. One ounce of finely-powdered burnt alum applied to the sub-cutaneous cellular tissue of the thigh, caused excessive suppuration, and death in fifteen hours. Devergie (Med. Legale, ii. 653.) found burnt alum somewhat more active: he says 6,1 drachms killed a dog when the ossophagus was tied, and two ounces when it was not tied. Moreover, he found burnt alum suspended in cold water, more active than when dissolved in warm water. Ve- Eq Per Atoms. Wt. Cent. ALUM. 517 terinarians employ it in doses of from 1 to 6 drachms for large animals. Bour- gelat has seen a phthisical condition induced in horses by the use of alum in too great quantities. (Moiroud, Pharm. Veter. 225.) y. On Man.—-The immediate topical effect of a solution of alum is that of an astringent, namely, corrugation of fibres and contraction of small vessels, by virtue of which it checks or temporarily stops exhalation and secretion, and pro- duces paleness of parts by diminishing the diameters of the small blood-vessels. It is by these local effects that alum, when taken internally, causes dryness of the mouth and throat, somewhat increases thirst, checks the secretions of the alimentary canal, and thereby diminishes the frequency and increases the consis- tency of the stools, as observed by Wibmer (Die Wirkung, &c. i. 114.) in his experiments made on himself, with alum in doses of 3 grains dissolved in 5 drachms of water, and taken several times during the day. But when alum is applied to a part in larger quantities, and for a longer period, the astriction is soon followed by irritation, and the paleness by preternatural redness. And thus taken internally in large doses, alum excites nausea, vomit- ing, griping, purging, and even an inflammatory condition of the intestinal canal,—effects which may be perhaps induced by small quantities in persons endowed with unusual or morbid sensibility of the stomach and bowels, as in the case of the lady in whom dangerous gastro-enteritis was apparently induced by a single dose of a solution containing between ten and twenty grains of burnt alum. (Ann. d'Hyg. Publique et de Med. Leg. i.) Ordinarily, however, tole- rably large doses of alum may be given without any unpleasant effects. Thus, Professor Dumeril has given a drachm, properly diluted, in chronic diarrhoeas, within twenty-four hours: Professor Marc, two drachms, in passive hemorrhages, within the same period of time: and MM. Kapeler and Gendrin have adminis- tered three drachms at one dose, in colica pictonum. (Devergie, Mid. Leg. ii. 656.) After its absorption, alum appears to act as an astringent, or astringent-tonic, on the system generally, and to produce more or less general astriction of the tissues and fibres, and a diminution of secretion. Such at least appears to be its effects in some passive hemorrhages and mucous discharges. Barbier (Traite Element, de Mat. Mid. 2d ed. i. 440.) says, alum "irritates the lungs, and often produces cough," but I am not aware of any other practitioner having confirmed this statement. Kraus (Heilmittellehre, 255.) observes, that the urine becomes remarkably acid from the use of alum. Uses.—Alum is employed both as an external or topical, and as an internal remedy. _. As a topical remedy.—Solutions of alum are sometimes employed to pro- duce contraction or corrugation of the tissues, and thereby to prevent displace- ments of parts, especially when accompanied with excessive secretion. Thus, it is used as a gargle in relaxation of the uvula with evident advantage. In the early stage of prolapsus of the rectum, a solution of alum, applied as a wash, is sometimes of service, especially when the disease occurs in infants. Washes or injections containing alum are of occasional benefit in prolapsus of the uterus. In hemorrhages, whether proceeding from an exhalation or exudation from the extremities or pores ofthe minute vessels, or from the rupture of a blood-vessel, a solution, or, in some cases, the powder of alum, may be used with advantage as a styptic, lo constringe the capillary vessels, and close their bleeding orifices. Thus in epistaxis, when it is considered advisable to arrest the hemorrhage, as- sistance may be gained by the injection of a solution of alum into the nostrils, or by the Introduction of lint moistened with the solution. Where this fails to give relief, finely-powdered alum may be employed in the manner of snuff. In he- morrhage from the mouth or throat, gargles containing alum are useful. In hae- matemesis, as well as in intestinal hemorrhage, alum whey may be administered; though, of course, no reliance can be placed on it, as the hemorrhage usually 518 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. depends on circumstances which astringents merely cannot be expected to obviate. In uterine hemorrhage, a sponge soaked in a solution of alum may be introduced into the vagina with good effect. To check the hemorrhoidal flux wdien immo- derate, washes or enemata containing alum may be employed. To stop the bleeding after leech bites in children, a saturated solution, or the powder of alum, may be applied to the punctures. In certain inflammations, alum has been used as a repellent; that is, it has been applied to the inflamed part in order to produce contraction of the distended ves- sels, and thereby to diminish the quantity of blood in the seat ofthe disease in a manner almost mechanical. Thus, in the first stage of ophthalmia, it is some- times considered expedient to cut short the disease by the application of a strong astringent solution (as a saturated solution of alum or of acetate of lead.) " It is not to be denied," observes Dr. Jacob, (Cyclopaedia of Pract. Med. art. Ophthal- mia.) " that such applications may have the effect of arresting the progress of the disease at once; but, if they have not that effect, they are liable to produce an increase of irritation." But, as the details necessary for making the student ac> quainted with all the circumstances respecting the use of stimulating or astrin- gent applications, in the first stage of ophthalmia, are too lengthened and nume- rous to admit of their proper discussion in this work, I must refer, for farther particulars, to the essay of Dr. Jacob before quoted, as well as to the treatises of writers on ophthalmic surgery. I may, however, add, that whatever difference of opinion exists as to the propriety of these applications in the first stage of oph- thalmia, all are agreed as to their value after the violence of vascular action has been subdued. In the treatment of the purulent ophthalmia of infants, no remedy is perhaps equal to an alum wash. In angina membranacea. called by Bretonneau (Rech. sur Vlnflam. spec, du Tissu Muqueux, 1826.) diphtheritis, great importance has been attached to the employment of local applications. Of these, hydrochloric acid, calomel, and alum, have, in succession, been highly praised by this writer. In order to pro- mote the expulsion of the false membrane, he recommends the insufflation of finely-powdered alum. This is effected by placing a drachm of it in a tube, and blowing it into the throat. (See also Trousseau and Pidoux, Traite de Therap. ii. 291.) Velpeau has subsequently confirmed the statements of Bretonneau, and extended the use of alum to other inflammatory affections of the throat, as those arising in scarlatina, small-pox, &c. In these cases powdered alum may be applied to the affected parts by means of the index finger. Gargles contain- ing this salt will be found useful in most kinds of sore throat, ulcerations of the mouth and gums, aphtha, &c. In inflammation of the uvula, accompanied with membraniform exudation, alum washes are serviceable both in children and adults. (Trousseau and Pidoux, op. cit.) Alum has been employed as an astringent, to diminish or stop excessive se- cretion from the mucous surfaces. Thus, a weak solution of this salt is used to repress the discharge in the latter stages of conjunctival inflammation; to check profuse ptyalism, whether from the use of mercury or other causes; and to re- move gleet or leucorrhoea. In old-standing diarrhruas it has been administered, in combination with the vegetable astringents (kino, for example,) with occa- sional advantage. It is also applied to check profuse secretion from ulcers. /3. As an internal remedy.—Alum has been employed, in conjunction with nutmeg, as a remedy for intermittents. Given just before the expected paroxysm, it has in some cases prevented it. (Cullen, Materia Medica.) In the treatment of lead colic, alum has been found more successful than any other agent or class of remedies. It was first used in this disease by a Dutch physician, named Grashuis, (De Colica Pictonum, Amst. 1752, et Append. 1755.) and was afterwards administered in fifteen cases by Dr. Percival (Essays, Med. und Exper. ii. 194.) with great success. Its efficacy has been fully established by Kapeler, physician to the Hopital St. Antoine, in Paris, and Gendrin, (Quoted ALUM. 519 bv Trousseau and Pidoux, op. cit.) and by Dr. Copland, (Did. of Med. i. 374.) as well as by several other distinguished authorities. It allays vomiting, abates flatulence, mitigates pain, and opens the bowels more certainly than any other medicine, and frequently when other powerful remedies have failed. It should be given in full doses (as from a scruple to two drachms,) dissolved in some de- mulcent liquid (as gum-water) every three or four hours. Opium and (accord- ing to Dr. Copland) camphor may be advantageously conjoined. Kapeler also employs oleaginous enemata. The modus operandi of alum in lead colic is not very clear. The benefit has been ascribed by some to the chemical action of the sulphuric acid on the lead supposed to be contained in the intestines; and in sup- port of this view must be mentioned the fact, that other sulphates (as those ol magnesia, soda, zinc, and copper,) as well as free sulphuric acid, have been suc- cessfully employed in lead colic. But, on the other hand, the presence of lead in the prima? viae or evacuations, and, consequently, the formation of sulphate of lead in saturnine colic, have not been demonstrated; though the experiments of Dr. C. G. Mitscherlich (Mailer's Archiv. No. V. 353, 1836, quoted in Brit. Ann. of Med. vol. i. 204, 1837.) have shown, that when the acetate of lead is swallowed, the greater part of it forms an insoluble combination with the gastro- intestinal mucus, and in this state may remain some time in the alimentary canal. Moreover, alum has been found successful by Kopp (Denkwurdigkeit, i. 342, quoted by G. A. Richter, Ausfiihr. Arzneim. Suppl. Bd. 515.) in other varieties of colic not caused by lead, and unaccompanied by constipation. Dr. Copland is disposed to ascribe the benefit of alum, and other sulphates, in lead colic, to their "exciting the action ofthe partially paralyzed muscular coat ofthe bowels, and thereby enabling them to expel retained matters of a morbid or noxious de- scription,"—an explanation which is inconsistent with the observation of Kopp just quoted. Alum is administered internally in several other diseases, of which a brief no- tice only can be given. In passive or asthenic hemorrhages from distant organs; as haemoptysis, menorrhagia and other uterine hemorrhages, haematuria, &c. In colliquative sweating, diabetes, gleet, gonorrhoea, and leucorrhoea. In the three latter diseases it may be combined with cubebs. Kreysig (Die Krankh. d. Herzens, Bd. ii. Abt. 2, S. 714, in Richter, op. cit.) has advised its use in dilata- tion of the heart and aortic aneurism. More recently Dzondi (Aeskulap. Bd. 1, St. 1, 1821, in Richter.) has also recommended it in these diseases; and Sundelin (Heilmittellehre, ii. 278.) has mentioned a case of supposed dilatation of the heart, in which relief was gained by the use of alum. In chronic diarrhcea, alum is occasionally serviceable. Administration.—The dose of alum is from ten grains to one or two scruples. It may be taken in the form of powder, or made into pills with some tonic ex- tract, or in solution. To prevent nausea, an aromatic (as nutmeg) should be con- joined. A pleasant mode of exhibition is in the form of Alum Whey (Serum Aluminosum, seu Serum Lactis Aluminatum,) prepared by boiling two drachms of powdered alum with a pint of milk, then straining: the dose is a wine-glassful. The Saccbarum Aluminatum of the Prussian Pharmacopoeia is composed of equal parts of white sugar and alum: it may be given to children as well as adults. In prescribing alum, it is to be recollected that the vegetable astrin- gents decompose it; by which the astringent property of the mixture is probably diminished. For topical uses, alum is used in the form of powder, solution, and poultice. Powder of crystallized alum is applied to the mouth and throat as before men- tioned. Solutions of alum are made, for topical purposes, of various strengths, according to the object in view. Antidote.—In a case of poisoning by alum, let the contents of the stomach be immediately evacuated. Promote vomiting by the use of tepid diluents. The 520 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. inflammatory symptoms are to be combated by the usual antiphlogistic means. Magnesia has been employed, but is said by Devergie to be altogether useless. 1. ALUMEN EXSICCATUM, L. E. (U. S.) Alumen siccntum, D.; Dried Alum; Alumen upturn; Burnt Alum. (Let Alum liquefy in an earthen vessel overthe fire: then let the fire be increased, until the ebullition has ceased, L.—The direc- tions of the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges are essentially the same; except that they order the dried alum to be reduced to powder.)—In the preparation of this substance care must be taken not to apply too great a heat, lest a portion of the acid be driven off" as well as the water. On this account a shallow earthen vessel is preferable to a crucible. Dried alum has a more astringent taste and does not dissolve so readily in water as the crystallized salt. It is employed as a mild escharotic to destroy exuberant spongy granulations; as those commonly known under the name of proud flesh. 2. LIQUOR ALUMINIS COMPOSITUS, L.; Compound Solution of Alum.; Aqua Aht- minosu Bateana, or Bates's Alum Water. (Alum, Sulphate of Zinc, each 3j.; Boiling Water, Oiij. Dissolve the Alum and Sulphate of Zinc together in the Water; afterwards strain.)—This solution is used as a detergent and astringent wash in old ulcers; when diluted, as a collyrium in mild conjunctival inflamma- tion, as an injection in gleet and leuconhcea, and as an application to chilblains and slight excoriations. I PULVIS ALUMINIS COMPOSITUS, E.: Compound Powder of Alum. (Alum, _iv.; Kino, _j. Mix them, and reduce them to fine powder.)—Astringent. Em- ployed in hemorrhages from the stomach, bowels, and uterus; in old diarrhoeas; and as an application to flabby indolent ulcers. 4. CATAPLASMA ALUMINIS, D.; Cataplasm of Alum; Alum Poultice; Albumen Aluminosum. (Whites of two Eggs; Alum, 3j. Shake them together to make a coagulum.)—" In cases of chronic and purulent ophthalmia, it is applied to the eye between two folds of old linen. It has been praised as a good application to chilblains which are not broken." (Montgomery's Observations on the Dublin Pharmacopoeia.) " Another kind of alum poultice in use is made by coagulating milk with alum, and using the curd as a poultice." OTHER COMPOUNDS OF ALUMINUM. RED ARMENIAN BOLE; Bolus Armena rubra.—This is found in Armenia (whence its name,) as well as in various parts of Europe. Bergmann found it to consist of silica 47, a/u- mina 19, magnesia 6-2, lime 5-4, iron 5-4, water, 7-5. The substance sold by druggists as Red Armenian Bole is prepared by grinding together, in a mill, Pipe Clay and Red Oxide of Iron, and afterwards levigating. It is principally used in the preparation of tooth powder, (see p. 212.) The Lemnian Earth (Terra Lemnia) is very similar to Armenian Bole. It is not, however, always red. It is dug up at Lemnos, formed into flat cylindrical pieces, which are stamped and sold under the name of Terra Sigillata. Order XVII.—COMPOUNDS OF ARSENICUM. ACIDUM ARSENIO'SUM,/,. (£/.&)—ARSENIOUS ACID. (Arsenicum album, E.—Arsenici Oxydum album, D.) History.—Arsenious acid, commonly termed White Arsenic (Arsenicum album) or Oxide of Arsenic, is first distinctly mentioned by Geber, (Invent, of Verity, ch. vii.) who seems to have been also acquainted with Metallic Arsenic. (Sum of ARSENIOUS ACID. 521 Perfection, book i. part iv. chap, ii.) Hippocrates (De Llcenbus.) employed 'AiLitu* (Orpiment) and 2«>J-,«x* (Realgar) as topical remedies. Dioscorides (Lib. v. chap, xxi.) is the first author who uses the word 'Ae™<*0, (Orpiment.) Natural History.—Arsenious acid is found at Andreasberg in the Hartz, at Joachimsthal in Bohemia, and at some few other places. It is a rare mineral. Metallic arsenic (Arsenicum) is found native either alone or associated with other metals, or their sulphurets. It forms two native sulphurets, viz. Orpiment and (Realgar.) I here arc two native compounds of it with oxygen, namely, Arsenious and Arsenic acids : the latter is found in combination with bases forming native Arseniates. . Orfila1 asserts that arsenic exists in the bones of man and of several other animals. But the experiments of Dr. G. O. Rees, (Guy's Hospital Reports, No. xn.) of MM. Danger and Flandin, and ofthe commissioners appointed by the French Academy of Sciences (Journal de Pharmacie, I. xxvii. p. 428. Juillet 1841.) to report on Marsh's apparatus, have failed to corroborate his statements. Preparation.—Arsenious acid is prepared in Silesia, Bohemia, Saxony, and Crom- wall. At Altenberg, in Silesia, it is obtained from arsenical iron (Mispickel,) composed of sulphur 20-65, iron 35-62, and arsenicum 43-73. (Dumas, Traite de Chimie, t. iv. p. 120.) After being reduced to powder, the ore is roasted in a muffle furnace by which the arsenicum is converted into arsenious acid, which is conveyed, in the state of vapour called Flowers of Arsenic or Smelting-house Smoke (Hutten- rauch,) into a condensing chamber, where it is deposited in a pulverulent form, and in this state is called Rough Arsenious Acid or Poison-flour (Giftmehl.) The rough acid is refined by sublimation. This is effected in cast-iron pots, to which cylindrical iron heads are attached, which at the tops are contracted into cones, each terminating in a pipe made of sheet iron, and communicating with the condensing chamber. Heat is applied for twelve hours, by which the acid is sub- limed and condensed on the sides of the iron head in the form of a glassy mass, called Glacial White Arsenic (Weissen Arsenikglas,) which is sometimes purified by a second, or even a third sublimation. If it contain any sulphuret of arsenicum, a little potash is mixed with it, to prevent the sublimation of the sulphur. At Reichenstein, arsenious acid is procured from an arseniuret of iron, composed of iron 32-35, arsenic 65-88, and sulphur 1-77. Arsenious acid is procured in some parts of Saxony as a secondary product in the roasting of cobalt ores (the arseniurets of cobalt.) It is deposited in long horizontal flues. (Poison-flues, or Gifffungen,) and is purified by sublimation.3 Arsenious acid is manufactured in Cornwall, from the White Mundic or Mis- pickel found with the tin ore. In the impure state it is deposited in the long hori- zontal flues ofthe burning houses; (Mr. J. Taylor, Ann. Phil. N.S. iii. 452.) from which it is taken for the use of refiners, its value being about ten shillings per ton.3 In this condition it has a gray colour, and is either pulverulent or in soft crystalline masses. There are two arsenic works in the neighbourhood of Truro; one in the parish of Perran Arworthall, the other belonging to Mr. Conn, near Bissow Bridge, in the parish of Kea; the former about half a mile, the latter more than a mile, from the Devoran and Carnon steam-works. More recently a third manu- factory has been set at work in the parish of Illogan, near Redruth. The rough arsenious acid is brought to these works from the burning-houses in all parts of Cornwall. It is first separated from sulphur in a common reverbe- ratory furnace, having a flue several hundred yards in length. The heat is low at first, and is gradually increased. By this means the sulphur is dissipated before the arsenic is volatilized. The process is carried on for several weeks, or even months. The fire is then extinguished, and the arsenic removed from the flue. The \*.iste rubbish is used for destroying weeds, &c, in garden walks. \ 'irinsJo' ^ Chimic AkdtcaU- '• v- H° Serie, p. 032. Dec. 1839.—Also, the Lond. and Edinb. Phil. Mag. for •■» For farther particulars consult the paper of J. H. Vivian, Trans. Royal Geol. Society of Cornwall, i. b(). » quart. Mm. Rev. vol. ii. p. fc<; and Mr. Davies Cilbert, Puroch. Hist, of Cornwall, iii. 30.'). \ ol. I.—66 522 ELEMENT? OF .MATERIA MEDICA. The arsenious acid thus obtained is then sublimed in conical cast-iron kettles, about 2^ feet high, and from 15 to 18 inches in diameter at the base. These kettles are hollow truncated cones, closed at the top by an iron plate perforated for an iron stopper; but open at the bottom. Ten or twelve of these kettles aie placed in a circular form on an iron plate, to which they are clamped by a flanch. This plate forms the bottom to all the kettles, and is heated by a fire beneath. The rough arsenic is then introduced through the top aperture, and, heat being applied, is sublimed. Several charges are in this way introduced, until a suffi- ciently thick crust has been deposited within: the clamps are then taken off, and the kettle conveyed into the open air, where the crust is removed.1 The fumes from these works are most injurious to neighbouring vegetables and animals. In the human subject eruptions, principally about the lips and nose are produced by them.3 In 1826, eighty-three tons of manufactured arsenic were shipped at Penryn.3 At present, says Mr. Henwood, I believe not less than from 600 to 800 tons are prepared annually. Properties.—When recently prepared, arsenious acid is in the form of large, glassy, transparent cakes, sometimes colourless, at others having a yellowish tinge. Frequently the cakes consist of concentric laminae, formed by successive sublima- tions. These masses soon become opaque and white externally, like enamel, the opacity gradually extending towards the centre; and, in some cases, the acid be- comes friable pulverulent. Kriiger (Kastn. Arch. ii. 473, quoted in Gmelin's Handb. d. Chem.) ascribes the change to the absorption of water from the atmosphere, for he says it only takes place in moist air, and is attended with an increase of weight, but only to the extent of T}^ of the whole mass. Mr. Phillips (Transl. of the Pharm. 4th ed.) has taken the same view of the subject. I have some arsenious acid which has remained transparent for more than two years, in a glass tube her- metically sealed. This fact is confirmatory ofthe opinion just stated.4 Professor Guibourt, (Journal de Chimie Mid. t. ii. p. 57. Paris, 1826.) Mr. Phillips, and Mr. Taylor, have each found the density of the opaque variety to be less than that of the transparent. Transparent arsenious acid has a sp. gr. of 3-7391, according to Guibourt (3.715, Phillips; 3-208 to 3-333, Mitchell and Durand; 3-798, Taylor.) It dissolves, according to the same authority, in 103 parts of water at 59°, or in 9-33 parts of boiling water, and the solution feebly reddens litmus. Opaque arsenious acid, on the other hand, according to Guibourt, has a sp. gr. of 3.695 (3-529, Taylor; 3620, Phillips,) is soluble in 80 parts of water at 59°, or in 7-72 parts of boiling water, and the solution restores the blue colour of reddened litmus: but I find both kinds redden litmus, and Dr. Christison has ob- served the same. Mr. Taylor (Guy's Hospital Reports, vol. ii. p. 83.) did not find any difference in the solubility of the two varieties. He found that water boiled for an hour on this substance, dissolved ^\ of its weight; that this water, on perfect cooling, did not retain more than T\ of its weight; and that water at ordi- nary temperatures will dissolve from about TT)t_- to -g-fo of its weight. It appears, then, that water perfectly cooled from a boiling saturated solution will retain from ten to twenty or more times the quantity of acid in solution than it will take up at common temperatures without heat,—a fact which is as curious as it is in- explicable. (Op. cit. p. 96.) Arsenious acid is soluble in alcohol and oils. It is of importance to know that the presence of organic matters very much impairs the solvent power of water for this acid—a circumstance by which he readily explains why arsenious acid has not, in some cases, been found in the liquid contents of • Henwood, in the Seventh Annual Report ofthe Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society. Falmouth, IKW. Part of the above information was obligingly communicated to me, viva voce, by Mr. Henwood. . a For this and some other information, as well as for samples ofthe rough arsenious acid from Wneal Vor tin mine, I am indebted to Mr. Ferris, surgeon, of Truro. » Transactions of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, iii. 360. « In the first edition of this work I stated that arsenious acid became opaque in an air-tii;lit vegfwl. I have since had reason to believe that the bottle referred to was not completely air-tight, though covered by a var- nished bladder. ARSENIOUS ACID. 523 the stomach of persons poisoned by it. Arsenious acid has little or no taste, as Plenck, (Toxicologia, ed. 2"da, 26.) Addison, and Christison, have remarked: and neither in the solid nor vaporous form has it odour. The acid may be readily obtained in a crystalline condition by sublimation, or by cooling a boiling satu- rated solution: the crystals are transparent, usually regular octohedra, sometimes tetrahedra or acicular. At a temperature of 380° F. it volatilizes: when heated under pressure it liquefies, and is converted into a transparent glass. Characteristics.—These may be conveniently and usefully discussed under throe heads:—*. The characteristics of solid arsenious acid;—/3. the characteris- tics of a pure solution of arsenious acid;—y. The characteristics of arsenious acid in organic mixtures. a. or solid Arsenious Acid.-The characteristics of solid arsenious acid are, (besides its physical properties before mentioned,) principally three,—its vola- tility, the garlic odour evolved by throwing it on ignited charcoal or cinder, and the qualities of the metallic crust obtained by reducing the acid. 1. Its volatility.—Heated on the point of a penknife in the flame of a spirit- lamp, arsenious acid produces a white smoke, and speedily disappears. If the acid be heated in a test tube, a crystalline sublimate is obtained: the crystals are sparkling, and, when examined by a magnifying glass, are found to be regular octohedra. The impediments to the operation of this test are alkaline or earthy bases which retain a portion of the arsenious acid, and prevent its risirg in vapour: boracic acid may be used to counteract their influence. The fallacy of this test, is, that other white solids (as hydrochlorate of ammonia, oxalic acid, &.c.) are volatile, and produce a white smoke when heated. 2. Garlic odour.—If arsenious acid, or an arsenite, be put on a piece of red- hot cinder or charcoal, (placed for convenience in a saucer,) it evolves a scarcely visible vapour, (metallic arsenicum,) having a garlic odour, and which, at the distance of an inch or two from the cinder, is converted into a dense, white, odourless smoke (arsenious acid.) The deoxidation of the acid is essential to the production of the garlic odour: hence no odour is perceived when arsenious acid is placed on a heated metallic or glass plate. The impediment to the action of this test is the presence of organic matter (as flour:) this, by burning, developes a strong odour, which masks the smell ofthe va| our of arsenicum. The fallacy attending it is, that some other bodies (as phosphorus, with certain of its com- pounds and some organic matters) evolve when heated a garlic odour. Vauquelin, Barruel, and Orfila, have shown that a compound of albumen and fat, which exhaled this odour when heated, did not contain a pnrticle of arsenious acid. " It is true," say these experimenters, "that arsenicum does evolve a garlic odour when volatilized; but even when this is well characterized, it is insufficient to establish the existence of the oxide of arsenic, since it be- longs to some other substances; and it is not impossible that there may be developed in the stomach, during digestion, substances which exhale an analogous odour, when heated." 3. Formation of a metallic crust. Reduction test.—If arsenious acid be inti- p,0 gl mately mixed with freshly-ignited but cold charcoal, and heated in a glass-tube, the acid is deoxidized, and yields arsenicum, which is sublimed into a cooler portion of the tube, where it condenses, and forms a metallic crust. A common cylindrical test tube an- swers very well, but the reduction tube of Berzelius (fig. 81) is to be preferred. The characters of the arsenical crust are—the brilliancy of its outer sur- face, which is frequently equal to polished steel or looking-glass; the crystalline appearance and grayish- white colour of its inner surface; its volatility; its conversion, by sublimation, up and down the tube, Berzelius's reduction tube ?l° ^^f. C^Sta!f °/ ™?™™ acid, which may be dissolved in distilled water, and tested by the 524 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. liquid re-agents presently to be mentioned; and its yielding ar.-cnic acid by dis- solving it in nitro-hydrochloric acid, and carefully evaporating the solution to dryness. The arsenic acid is known by the red precipitate (arseniate of silver) produced on the addition of nitrate of silver: but if the evaporation has not been carried on sufficiently far, some hydrochloric acid or chlorine will be left, which will form a white precipitate (chloride of silver) with nitrate of silver. The arseniate of silver may be reduced, if necessary, by mixing it with charcoal and boracic acid, and heating it in a glass tube. In some cases the metallic crust is imperfectly formed, or is masked by some decomposed organic matter. Whenever any doubt respecting its nature is entertained, proceed as fol- lows:—Cut off with a file the portion ofthe tube which contains the suspected crust, roughly powder it, introduce it into another glass tube, and apply heat. The metallic character of the crust is sometimes rendered more evident by applying to it, for a few seconds, the flame of the spirit-lamp, which drives off a black powder (black oxide of arsenic) and leaves the brilliant metal. If the heat be continued too long the metal itself sublimes. The fallacies to which this test is liable are principally two—a charcoal crust may, by an inexperienced experimenter, be mistaken for the arsenical crust; and I have seen students confound a stratum of globules of mercury (obtained by reducing calomel) with the arsenical crust. Careful examination, especially by a magnifying glass, will, however, easily enable the experimenter to distinguish them : the inner surface ofthe charcoal crust is brown, pow- dery, and dull, whereas that of the arsenical crust has a crystalline texture, iron-gray colour, and shiny appearance; the sublimate obtained by reducing calomel or mercurial compounds has all the brilliancy of arsenicum, but by a glass is found to consist of minute globules which may be made to coalesce by the point of a knife. Lastly, the arsenical may be distinguished from all other crusts by oxidating it, as before directed, and converting it into arsenious or arsenic acid, which can be readily recognised by the tests already mentioned :—a proceeding which ought never to be omitted. As a deoxidizing agent I have directed freshly ignited charcoal to be employed to convert arsenious acid into arsenicum. If carbonate of soda or of potash be mixed with the charcoal, a part only of the arsenicum is disengaged, an arseniuret. of sodium or of potassium being formed: hence, when the quantity of acid to be reduced is small, charcoal only should be employed. " Where the quantity of material, however, is considerable, it is preferable to em- ploy the black flux, or still better, as not being deliquescent, a mixture of charcoal and car- honale of soda, deprived of water of crystallization by heat." (Christison's Treatise on Piosons, 3d ed. 237.) If the substance to be reduced be an arsenite, (as of silver, copper, or lime,) or an arseniate, (as of silver,) a mixture of charcoal and boracic acid should be used. For the reduction of the arsenical sulphurets (as the precipitate obtained by passing hydrosulphuric acid gas through a solution of arsenious acid) a mixture of two parts of ignited carbonate of soda and one of charcoal should be employed. The alkali is here essential, in order to com- bine with the sulphur. Black flux (see p. 442 and 449) is objectionable on account of its deliquescent property. Various other deoxidizing agents have been recommended; as for- mate of soda by Goebel, (Griffin's Chem. Recreat. 8th ed. 140.) oxalate of lime by Du Menil, (Hand. d. Reag. u. Zerlegungslehre, ii. 268. Lemgo, 1836.) and oxalate of soda by Dr. M'Gregor. (Lond. Med. Gaz. xxii. 613.) I find that quadroxalate of potash (see p. 309) answers very well. None of these, however, present any advantage over charcoal save that of not soiling the tube, (an occurrence easily avoided by using a glass funnel, as recom- mended by Dr. Christison, or which may be obviated by wiping the tube, after the intro- duction ofthe mixture, with a wisp of paper or feather,) while their comparative scarcity and greater cost are objections to their employment. (For farther details concerning the reduc- tion process, consult Dr. Christison's Treatise, so frequently referred to.) /3. Characters of a pure Aqueous Solution of Arsenious Acid.—A clear Water)' solution of white arsenic may be recognised by certain liquid re-agents which give rise to peculiar precipitates, as well as by nascent hydrogen, which causes the formation of a gas (arseniuretted hydrogen) possessed of remarkable and peculiar properties. The liquid re-agents, which deserve notice, are four only—namely, lime water, ammoniaco-sulphale of copper, ammoniaco-nilrate of silver, and hy- drosulphuric acid. Their relative delicacy, as stated by Devergie, (Med. Le'g. ii. 718.) and the delicacy of the nascent hydrogen test, as ascertained by Mohr, (Journ. de Pharm. xxiii. 566.) and by the commissioners (MM. Thenard, Dumas, Boussingault, and Regnalt.) of the French Academy of Sciences, are as follows:— J ARSENIOUS ACID. 525 Dilution of arsenious solution. Lime water cenwi to act at....................... 2 000 Ainmoniaco-sulphate of copper, ditto at............ 5-200 Hydrosulphuric acid, ditto at...................... 200 000 Ammoniaco-nitrate of silTOr, ditto at.............. 400 000 Marsh's nascent hydrogen test, ditto at............ 500 000 according to Mohr. Ditto ditto dittoat............... 1000-000 according to the Commissioners. 1. Lime Water.—Lime water occasions a white precipitate (arsenile of Lime,) with a solution of arsenious acid. The precipitate is soluble in most acids. The impediments to the operation of this test are, a large quantity of water and free acids, which hold it in solution, and gelatinous and oleaginous liquids, which keep it suspended. The fallacies of this test are, carbonates, oxalates, tartrates, &c. which also throw down white precipitates with lime water. On the whole, it is a test of very little value, 2. Ammoniaco-sulphale of Copper.—If a dilute solution of ammoniaco-sul- phate of copper be added to a solution of arsenious acid, a pale green precipitate (arsenile of copper, or Scheele's green) is obtained, and sulphate of ammonia re- mains in solution. This test is prepared as follows:—Add (cautiously) liquor ammonias to a solution of the sulphate of copper, so as to re-dissolve the oxide of copper, which it at first throws down. Care must be taken not to employ too .much alkali, otherwise the test will not act. Moreover, the solution must not be concentrated, or no precipitate will be obtained. The impediments to the action of this test are astringents, as tea, infusion of galls, &c. which prevent its acting characteristically. The fallacies to be guarded against are, yellow coloured and other organic fluids, which pive a green colour, and slight precipitate, even though no arsenic be present. 3. Ammoniaco-nitrate of silver: Hume's test.—If a solution of ammoniaco- nitrate of silver be added to a solution of arsenious acid, a yellow precipitate (arsenile of silver) takes place, and nitrate of ammonia remains in solution. The precipitate is soluble in liquid nitric acid, solution of ammonia, and a solution of nitrate of ammonia. The mode of preparing this test is as follows:—Add a few drops of liquor ammonias to a solution of nitrate of silver, so that the oxide of silver which the alkali at first throws down may be nearly, but not entirely, re- dissolved (see Solutio Argenti Ammoniati, E.) Great care is requisite to add neither too much nor too little; for if too much be employed, the solution will not occasion any precipitate with arsenious acid; and if too little, it will produce a precipitate with phosphate of soda similar in colour to that produced with arse- nious acid. The only certain way of knowing when the proper quantity has been employed is to test it. Arsenious acid, but not phosphate of soda, ought to occasion a precipitate with it. The impediments to the operation of this test, are, free acids (as hydrochloric, nitric, acetic, cilric, or tartaric,) chlorides, and organic matters. The acids may be readily neutralized by an alkali. If common salt, or other metallic chloride, be present, ammoniaco-nitrate of silver throws down a white precipitate (chloride of silver,) even though a considerable quantity of arsenic be present. To obviate this, add a few drops of nitric acid, then an excess of a solu- tion of nitrate of silver. Filter to get rid of the precipitated chloride of silver, and apply the ammoniaco-nitrate of silver. The presence of much organic matter impedes the action of this test. Ammoniaco-nitrate of silver, when properly prepared, does not occasion a yellow preci- pitate with any substance save arsenious acid; and hence is not subject to any fallacy of that kind. If, however, it be not properly prepared, it may occasion a yellow precipitate (subses- quiphosphate of silver) with phosphate of soda. There is an optical fallacy, against which the student should be put on his guard : if ammoniaco-nitrate of silver be added to certain yellow liquids containing common salt, a white precipitate (chloride of silver) is produced, which, Been through a yellow medium, might, by a careless observer, be mistaken for a yellow pre- cipitate. 1. Hydrosulphuric Acid (Sulphuretted Hydrogen.)—If this gas be passed through a solution of arsenious acid, a yellow precipitate (sesquisulphuret of arsenicum or orpiment) is produced, while the oxygen of the arsenious acid, and 526 ELEMENTS OP MATERIA MEDICA. Fig the-hydrogen of the hydrosulphuric acid, unite to form water. In order, how- ever, for this effect to be produced, it is necessary that the liquid be slightly acidified by some acid (as the hydrochloric.) If the liquid be already acid, we must neutralize it by cautiously adding an alkali, and then acidify by hydro- chloric acid. In applying this test we may place the suspected liquid in a test-tube, or coni- cal wine or ale-glass; the gas being developed in a common Florence flask (or two-necked bottle, as recommended by Dr. Christison:) the mouth ofthe flask is closed by a cork, perforated by a tube curved twice at right angles. The gas should, if possible, be passed through water contained in a double-necked bottle, before it is conveyed into the arsenical liquor, as a portion of iron is apt to be carried over. The ingredients for developing the gas are a metallic sulphuret (as of iron or antimony) and sulphuric or hydrochloric acid. I prefer the sulphuret of iron with sulphuric acid diluted with water. These are to be introduced into the flask previous to the adapta- tion of the cork. After the gas has passed through the arsenical liquid for a few minutes, portions of the yellow sesquisulphuret of arsenicum (orpiment) begin to fall down. The separation of the precipitate is promoted by ebullition, and the exposure of the solution for a few hours to the air. ' The essential characters of the precipitate are, its yellow colour, its rapid solution in liquor ammoniae, forming a colourless and very limpid liquid, and its yielding metallic arsenicum when dried and heated with black flux, or a mixture of ignited carbonate of soda and charcoal. When the quantity of sesquisulphuret is small, some difficulty may be experienced in removing it from the filter for reduc- tion. The readiest way is that recommended by De- vergie:—Collect it on the filter in as small a space as pos- sible, then wash it with liquor ammoniae, which dissolves it. The filtered liquid may then be evaporated in a capsule or watch-glass: die ammonia flies off", and leaves the sesquisulphuret. The fallacies ofthe hydrosulphuric acid test are, the salts of cadmium, the per-salts of tin, the antimonial compounds, and selenic acid, which occasion precipitates with hydrosulphuric acid, more or less analogous in colour to that produced by arsenious acid. The precipitate with cadmium closely resembles that with arsenic, but it is not soluble in alkaline solutions. This metal (cadmium) has been detected in some of the preparations of zinc. (Fide Thom- son's History of Chemistry, ii. 220.) The perchloride of tin, sold for the use of dyers under the nameof spirit of tin, occasions a yellow precipitate (bisulphuret of tin) somewhat resem- bling sesquisulphuret of arsenicum. Very weak solutions of emetic tartar form a reddish- yellow liquid, or throw down a reddish precipitate (hydrated sesquisulphuret of antimony) somewhat analogous in appearance to that formed by an arsenical liquid. If hydrosulphuric acid be transmitted through a liquid in which pvlvis antimonialis has been boiled, the solution acquires a yellowish-red colour, from the formation of some sesqui- or bisulphuret of anti- mony. From all the above precipitates sesquisulphuret of arsenicum is readily distinguished by the reduction test already mentioned. Hydrosulphate of ammonia (described at p. 413) is sometimes employed as a substitute for hydrosulphuric acid, an acid being added at the time of applying it, to neutralize the ammo. nia; but it is liable to several serious objections. When fresh prepared it causes a yellowish precipitate with arsenious acid, red with emetic tartar, and black with solutions of lead; but by exposure lo the air for a day or two, it forms a white precipitate with arsenious acid, yellow with emetic tartar, and red with lead. 5. Nascent Hydrogen: Marsh's lest.—If arsenious acid be submitted to the action of nascent hydrogen, it is deoxidized, and the metallic arsenicum thereby obtained, combining with hydrogen, forms arseniuretted hydrogen gas. This test, which is the discovery of Mr. Marsh, of Woolwich, (Trans, ofthe Soc. of Arts, li. G6; also Lond. Med. Gaz. xviii. 650.) may thus be applied:—Mix a small portion of the suspected liquid with some diluted sulphuric acid (1 oil of Mode of passing Hy. drosulphuric acid through an arseni- cal solution. ARSENIOUS ACID. 527 vitriol and 7 water,) and pour the mixture over some pieces of zinc previously introduced into a proper apparatus: bubbles of gas immediately make their ap- pearance. If no arsenious acid be present, the eiolved gas is hydrogen; but if the liquor hold arsenic in solution, arseniuretted hydrogen gas is formed. This gas is recognised by the following characters:— «. It has an alliaceous odour. p. It burns with a bluish white flame and the evolution of a whitish smoke. If a plate of mica (commonly termed talc) or of common window glass, or of por- celain (as a white saucer or dinner plate,) be held a short distance above the flame, arsenious acid in a finely pulverulent state is deposited on it, forming a white crust: if the plate be depressed so as to cut the flame, and thereby slightly to impede the combustion of the gas, a blackish deposite (metallic arsenicum) is obtained. Or both these deposites may be readily and simultaneously procured by holding vertically over the flame a tube of glass, nine or ten inches long, and a quarter or half an inch in diameter: the tube becomes lined for the space of several inches with metallic arsenicum and arsenious acid, and the garlic odour can be detected at either end of the tube. To obtain solutions of the acid, let the flame successively play beneath three or four drops of water placed on the under side of a plate of mica; then apply the liquid tests for arsenic before mentioned. (Hera- path, Ijond. Med. Gaz. vol. xviii. p. 889.) Or apply separate drops of the liquid tests themselves to the plate, and then let the flame play on them successively for a few minutes, the characteristic effects of arsenious acid will be obtained. Care must be taken not to apply a lighted taper to the jet of gas before the air is expelled, or an explosion may be the result. Various forms of apparatus may be used for this experiment. That employed by Mr. Marsh is a simple glass tube, bent like a syphon (fig. 83.) A bit of glass rod is dropped into the shorter leg, then a piece of clean sheet zinc : the stop cock and jet are afterwards to be in- Berted. The suspected liquid, mixed with the dilute acid before mentioned, is to be then poured into the long leg. Effervescence is then produced, and after allowing the air to be expelled, the stop cock is to be closed, and when a sufficient accumulation of gas has taken place, it is again to be opened, and the gas ignited. Where the matter to be examined is very small in quantity, Mr. Marsh puts the suspected liquid, the acid, and the zinc, in a little glass bucket (fig. 84,) attached to the stopcock by a platinum wire, and then introduces it into the short leg ofthe syphon, previously filled with common water. When the quantity of arsenical liquor to be tested is large, an inverted bell-glass with a stop- cock attached may be used. The zinc is suspended within. The bell-glass is immersed in the diluted acid to which the suspected liquor is added. This apparatus is similar to that used for obtaining fire by the aid of a stream of hydrogen gas thrown on spongy platinum. 528 Fig. 84. ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Fig. 83. Fig. 85. Modification of Marsh's Apparatus. Fig. 86. Marsh's Apparatus. Fig. 83. a. A syphon tube. 6. Stopcock. c. Wooden block. d. The pillar. e, e. Caoutchouc slips, to fasten the tube to the pillar. /. Plate of mica or glass. Fig. 84. g. Small glass bucket. Simple mode of applying Marsh's Test. A modification (fig. 85) of Mr. Marsh's apparatus is supplied with two bulbs, one in each leg of the instrument, and presents some advantages over the simple syphon tube: thus it enables us to collect a larger quantity of gas, while the bulb assists in checking the frothing by breaking the bubbles. But the simplest, cheapest, and often the most useful form of appa- ratus, is a two-ounce wide-mouthed phial, with a cork perforated with a glass tube or tobacco. pipe (as in fig. 86.) It presents this great advantage that we can employ a fresh apparatus for every experiment, and thus avoid all possibility of contamination from arsenical liquids used in previous experiments. y. If arseniuretted hydrogen be subjected to a red heat it is decomposed into arsenicum, which is deposited, and hydrogen gas, which escapes. The gas may be generated in a double-necked bottle, or in a wide-mouthed bottle, closed by a cork bored with two holes; and may be allowed to escape by a horizontal tube (made of difficultly fusible glass,) which may be heated by a large-wicked spirit lamp. The gas is decomposed by the heat; and the arsenicum is deposited in the form of a metallic ring, beyond the flame and nearer the aperture. ARSENIOUS ACID. 52S Fig. 87. G^?MMm^& '"_M& Apparatus for subjecting Arseniuretted Hydrogen to the action of Heat or Nitrate of Silver. a. Bottle for generating the arseniuretted hydro- gen. b. Funnel, or tube, by which the sulphuric acid and arsenical liquor are introduced into the bottle. e. Escape tube, supplied with a bulb to con- dense any liquid which may arise from the bottle. rf. Wider tube loosely filled with asbestos, to im pede the passage of any water. This is not essential. e. Narrow tube of difficultly fusible glass, dra'wn out to a fine point at the extremity. /. Spirit lamp. g. Curved and perforated metallic plate (copper, zinc, or tinned rrori,) to support the glass tube in the event of its softening by the heat. h. Curved glass tube, which may be substituted for the tube e, when the gas is to be passed through a solution of nitrate of silver. i. Test-glass, containing a solution of nitrate of silver. The detection of arseniuretted hydrogen by heat was suggested by Liebig, (Journal de Pharmacie, t. xxiii. p. 568.) Berzelius, (Ibid, t. xiiv. p. 180.) and Chevallier. (Journ. de Chim. Med. t. v. He Ser. p. 383.) Some useful and practical improvements in the mode of applying ihis test were suggested by MM. Koeppelin and Kampmann. (Journ. de Pharmacie, t. xxvii. p. 480; Lond. Med. Gaz. Aug. 20, 1841.) The Commissioners appointed by the French Academy introduced some additional modifications ofthe experiment. (Ibid, t. xxvii. p. 425.) The latter recommend that the tube e should be coated with gold or silver leaf, and subjected to the heat of a coal fire, which is preferred to the spirit lamp flame, as it more effectually decomposes the gas. But it complicates the operation, and renders it mtich more difficult of performance. The arsenicum deposited in the tube may be recognised by its physical and chemical pro- perties before described (see p. 523.)^ If the arseniuretted hydrogen by completely decomposed, hydrogen only will be evolved by the extremity of the tube e. But as a portion of the gas may escape decomposition, the jet should be set fire to, and attempts made to obtain arsenical spots on a plate of porcelain. £ If the arseniuretted hydrogen be passed through a solution of nitrate of silver, a mutual re-action between these substances is effected, Black metallic flocculi are deposited, and a solution of arsenious acid is obtained, mixed with free nitric acid. Hydrochloric acid is then to be cautiously added to the decanted liquor, to convert the excess of nitrate of silver into the insoluble white chloride of silver. The fil- tered liquor may then be tested for arsenious acid. Or it may be evaporated to dryness, during which operation the nitric acid oxidizes the arsenious acid, and converts it into arsenic acid, which constitutes the dry residuum. This yields a brick-red precipitate, with a solution of nitrate of silver. Or the concentrated solution may be transferred to a very small Marsh's apparatus. This test was suggested by Lassuigne. (Journal de Chimie Med. t. vii. He Ser, p. 638.) It has been adopted by the Commissioners appointed by the French Academy. (Journal de Pharmacie, t. xxvii. p. 425.—Also, Lond. Med. Gaz. Aug. 20, 1841. It is a very valuable mode of using .Marsh's test, and prevents the loss ofthe first portions of gas. The apparatus fitted for performing Lassaigne's test has been already described and figured. The black flocculi produced in a solution of nitrate of silver by arseniuretted hydrogen are regarded by Lassaignc as metallic silver, by Graham (Elements of Chemistry, p. 635.) as Vol. I.—67 530 ELEMENTS 0E MATERIA MEDICA. arseniuret of silver. It appears to me to be metallic silver contaminated by some intimately adherent arsenious acid, which can be removed by repeated washing and boiling in water, and especially by washing with an alkaline solution. In the performance of Marsh's test there are several impediments and fallacies, with which the student should be acquainted. *. The impediments to the operation of Marsh's test are, organic liquids (as porter, soup, contents of the stomach, &c.,) which occasion great frothing, and choke up the jet. To obviate these, various methods have been advised ; such as greasing or oiling the interior of the short leg ofthe apparatus; putting a layer of alcohol or oil on the surface ofthe liquid in the short limb, and placing Ihe apparatus aside for an hour or two, to allow the bubbles to burst. These methods are all more or less objectionable. They either imperfectly fulfil Ihe object intended, or they mask somewhat the qualities of the arseniuretted hydrogen. Tho best mode of proceeding is to evaporate the arsenical liquor to dryness, and char it eilher by heat very cautiously applied, or by means of oil of vitriol. Danger and Flandin (Journal dt Pharmacie, t. xxvii. p. 411-412.) give the following directions for its execution :—Add to the organic matter contained in a porcelain capsule, ^ of its weight of sulphuric acid, and heat until vapours of sulphuric acid appear. The matter is first dissolved, but during Ihe concen- tration it is charred. The liquor is to be constantly stirred wilh a glass rod. The carbo- nization is effected without any swelling or frothing, and is to he continued until the charcoal is friable and almost dry. A small quantity of concentrated nitric acid or nitromuriatic acid is to be added, by means of a pipette, when the capsule is cold. This converts the arsenious acid into the more soluble arsenic acid. The mixture is then to be evaporated lo dryness, treated with boiling water, and the limpid liquor introduced into Marsh's apparatus, in which it never froths. Nitric acid or nitrate of potash is sometimes used to char organic matter; but it is lees manageable than sulphuric acid; for towards the end of the experiment it is difficult to pre- vent deflagration, by which part ofthe arsenic is lost. 8>. The fallacies of this test arise from the presence of either antimony or imperfectly charred organic matter in the suspected liquid, or from the employment of eilher zinc or sulphuric acid contaminated wilh arsenic. A solution of Emetic Tartar, placed in Marsh's apparatus (with zinc and dilute sulphuric acid) evolves antimoniuretted hydrogen gas, whicli agrees in several of its characters wilh arseniuretted hydrogen.1 Thus it has a marked odour (dependent probably on the hydrogen,) and which might be confounded with that of arseniuretted hydro- gen. It burns in the air with a yellowish flame, and the deposition of a black crust of me- tallic antimony surrounded by a white one of oxide (on mica or glass held over it,) resembling arsenicum and arsenious acid deposited by arseniuretted hydrogen, moreover, the action of hydrosulphuric acid and of arnmoniaco-sulphate of copper on the oxide of antimony, produces colours similar to those generated by the action of these tests on arsenious acid. Furthermore, when heated during its passage through a glass tube, antimoniuretted hydrogen is decom- posed, and forms a dark metallic crust. It also occasions a black deposite in a solution of nitrate of silver. The antimonial, may be distinguished from the arsenical, crust by adding a drop of nitric acid, and evaporating to dryness : a white powder is left in each instance. A few drops of a dilute solution of the nitrate of silver being now added, and the whole exposed to the fumes arising from a stopper moistened with ammonia, the arsenical crust will give the well-known canary-yellow flocculi. (Mr. L. Thompson, op. cit.) Moreover the greater volatility of arsenicum, and its conversion into octohedral crystals of arsenious acid, (Dr. E. Turner's Chemistry, by W.Turner.) may serve in some cases lo distinguish it from antimony. Farther- more, the solubility ofthe arsenious acid, and the reaction ofthe before.mentioned liquid lests on thesolution, will distinguish it from oxide of antimony, which is insoluble. If anlimonittrelted hydrogen be conveyed into a solution of nitrate of silver, no arsenious or arsenic acid can be detected by the tests before directtd to be used for arseniuretted hydrogen. Lastly, the me- tallic crust obtained by submitting a current of the gas to heat presents some distinguishing characters: the arsenical crust is always deposited in the more distant or anterior part of Ihe tube, whereas the antimonial one is first deposited on the heated part ofthe tube, and by con- tinuing the heat we obtain two rings, one in the anterior or more distant, the other in the posterior or less distant part of the tube. In performing Marsh's test great care must be taken that the apparatus be perfectly clean, and that fresh zinc and acid liquor be used for every experiment. It has been already stated (p. 406) that sulphuric acid frequently contains arsenious acid. The experimenter should also be fully alive to the possibility of the zinc, or even the brasswork of the apparatus, con- taining minute traces of arsenic; hence the necessity of examining the qualities of the hydro- gen flame before adding the suspected arsenical liquid. It has been shown by Mohr (Journ. Mr. L. Thompson, Lond. and Edinb. Phil. Mag. May, 1837.-Also Pfaff, Pharmaeeutisckes Central Blattfi ARSENIOUS ACID. 531 de Pharm. xxiii. p. 563.) that zinc which had been once used, but afterwards carefully washed both in water and acid, retained sufficient arsenic to produce the usual effects on the hydro- gen flame. Messrs. Danger and Flandin (Journal de Pharmacie, t. xxvii. p. 410.) have asserted, and Iheir statements are confirmed by the report of the commissioners of the French Academy, (Ibid. p. 428.) that imperfectly carbonized organic matter introduced into Marsh's apparatus may deposite on glass or porcelain crusts which strongly simulate those obtained from arsen- ical substances. These non-arsenical spots are composed of sulphite and phosphite of ammo- nia mixed with a small quantity of organic matter. They dissolve with difficulty in nitric acid, and the residue, obtained by evaporating the nitric solution to dryness, yields, on the addition of nitrate of silver, a yellow precipitate of phosphate of silver. The true arseni. cal spots, on the other hand, dissolve readily in nitric acid, and the residue obtained by evapo- rating the nitric solution to dryness forms, with nitrate of silver, a brick-red precipitate of arseniate of silver. y. Detection of Arsenious Acid in Organic Mixtures.—I shall confine myself to a brief notice of detecting arsenious acid when mixed with the contents and tissues of the stomach, and must refer the reader to the works of Dr. Christison (Treatise on Poisons; also Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journ. xxii. 60.) and De- vergie (Medecine Legale, ii. 718.) for farther details, especially in reference to other organic mixtures. When the stomach is laid open we sometimes observe in it a white powder or white particles; these are, of course, to be carefully removed; and if they b« arsenious acid, no difficulty will be experienced in recognising them by the tests already mentioned (p. 523.) If no solid arsenious acid be observed, cut the stomach into small pieces, and boil it with the contents of this viscus for half an hour in distilled water, to which a small quantity of liquor potassfe has been added: then filter, first through muslin, and afterwards through paper. Fibrin is insoluble in water, and, by boiling, albu- men is coagulated, so that (with the exception of small portions of these principles held in solution by the alkali) the filtered liquor is free from both fibrin and albu- men. A little acetic acid is now to be added, and the liquid boiled, by which any caseum present will be coagulated, and got rid of by filtering a second time. Sometimes the liquor is now found sufficiently free from organic matters to enable us to detect the arsenious acid very readily by the ammoniaco-nitrate of silver. Dr. Christison says, that if this test act characteristically, that is, gives a copious yellow precipitate, the liquid is sufficiently free from foreign matter. If, how- ever, it give no indication, or at least only imperfect ones, of arsenious acid, evaporate to dryness by a gentle heat (as a water-bath,) and boil the residue in repeated portions of distilled water. We thus obtain a solution of arsenious acid which, after being acidulated with acetic or hydrochloric acid, is to be decom- posed by passing a current of hydrosulphuric acid through it. The precipitated orpiment (sesquisulphuret of arsenicum) is to be collected, and reduced in the way already described (pp. 523 and 526.) Arsenious acid in organic liquids may sometimes be readily detected by the development of arseniuretted hydrogen when zinc and sulphuric acid are added to the suspected liquor (vide p. 526,) but the frothing produced by the organic matter creates considerable difficulty. I have already pointed out the best me- thod of obviating this (see p. 630.) Composition.—The following is the composition of arsenious acid:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berzelius. Jllitscherlich. Arsenicum___ 1 ........ 38 ........ 76 ........ 75782 ........ 7573 Oxygen........ 1J ........ 12 ........ 24 ........ 24218 ........ 24 27 Arsenious Acid 1 ........ 50 ........ 100 ........ 100000 ........ 100 00 Purity.—Powdered arsenious acid is sometimes adulterated with chalk or sul- phate of lime. The fraud is readily detected by heat, which volatilizes the acid but leaves the impurities. 532 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. It is entirely 6ubliined when heated. Mixed with charcoal and exposed to heat, it emits an alliaceous smell. It in dissolved by boiling water ; and hydrosulphuric, when added, throws down a yellow precipitate, and lime-water yields a white one. Ph. L. The Edinburgh College merely observes, that arsenious acid " is entirely sublimed by heat." Physiological Effects. et. On Vegetables.—The effects of arsenious acid on plants have been studied by J'ager, (Diss. Inaug. Tubingae, 1808; quoted by Marx, in his Die Lehre von den Giften, ii. 98.) Marcet, Macaire, (Mem. de la Soc. de Phys. et d'Hist. Nat. de Geneve, t. iii.) and by others, and from their observations we learn that it is poisonous to all the higher, and most of the lower, families of plants. It appears that seeds which have been soaked in a solution of arsenious acid are incapable of germinating, and that buds which have been plunged in it are no longer capable of expanding. If roots or stems be immersed in this solution the plants perish: death being preceded by drooping of the leaves and petals, and the appearance of brownish patches on the leaves, the veins and mid- ribs of which are discoloured. If the stem of the Common Barberry (Barberis vul- garis) be placed in a solution of arsenious acid, the plant dies, but the stamens ac- cording to Macaire, become stiff, hard, and retracted, and on any attempts being made to alter their position, they readily break. On repeating the experiment,how- ever, I did not observe this condition of the stamens. I found them not at all brit- tle, but quite flexible, and difficult to break by the point of a knife. The leaves when burnt evolved a garlic odour. J'ager has seen a small plant, supposed by De Candolle (Phys. Veg. p. 1329.) to be Mucor imperceptibilis, growing in water which contained -^ of its weight of arsenic. And, more recently, Gilgen- krantz (Journ. de Pharm. xxiii. 38.) says he has seen an algaceous plant, ofthe germs either Leptomitus or Hygrocrocis, develope itself in a solution of arsenic. These are most remarkable exceptions to the general effects of this poison on vegetables, and deserve farther examination, J'iger has shown that arsenic is ab- sorbed by plants; for he found that, on burning vegetables destroyed by this poison, he obtained a garlic odour, as I have also done. /3. On Animals generally.—Arsenious acid is poisonous to all classes of ani- mals. No exceptions, I believp, are known to exist to this statement. The roost extensive series of experiments on this subject are those performed by J'ager. (Op. cit.) From them we learn, that in all animals, from the infusoria up to man, death from arsenic is invariably preceded by inordinate actions and increased evacuations, especially from the mucous membranes. In most animals the stools were frequent and fluid; and in thpse in which muous is secreted on the surface, it was remarkably increased. The power of voluntary motion and susceptibility of external stimuli were decreased; and after death the musdes soon Geased to be influenced by the galvanic agency. In animals which breathe by lungs, respiration became difficult and laborious; and in warm-blooded animals great thirst was experienced. In birds and mammals convulsions came on, pre- ceded by vomiting, except in those animals (as the rabbit) which cannot vomit (see p. 118.) Enormous quantities of arsenious acid have been sometimes admi- nistered to horses with impunity. Berthe (Recue.il de Med. Vet. Oct. 1825.) gave two, and afterwards three, drachms to a mare, for the cure of an obstinate skin disease, without any injurious effects. Beissenhirz (Quoted by Wibmer, Die Wirkung, Sic. i. 317.) gave successively, on different days, one, four, three, two, and eight drachms of arsenious acid to a horse: the anjmal did not die until the ninth day taking the last-mentioned dose. Yet, notwithstanding these and some other analogous facts, which seem to prove that arsenic has comparatively little effect on horses, the best informed veterinarians agree in considering it an energetic poison to these animals. (See the evidence of Mr. Bowles, in the Ed. Med. and Surg. Journ. viii. 351.) y. On Man. ux. Of very small or therapeutical doses.—In very small quan- tities (as one-sixteenth or one-twelfth of a grain) no obvious effects are usually ARSENIOUS ACID. 533 produced by the use of arsenic, unless it be continued for a long period. Indeed some writers (Vogt, Pharmakodynamik.) go so far as to assert that it is a strengthening remedy, and that it improves the appetite, invigorates digestion, promotes assimilation and secretion, excites the muscular and nervous functions,— in a word, acts as a tonic. I cannot, however, subscribe to this doctrine. It is, indeed, true that patients sometimes experience a temporary increase of appetite from the use of small doses of arsenic: and it is also certain that this remedy is frequently beneficial in agues and other diseases in which tonics have been found efficacious. But the analogy between the action of arsenious acid and that of the vegetable tonics, as cinchona (to which Vogt compares it,) stops here. I have sought in vain for other evidences of a tonic operation. I have seen very minute doses of arsenic given to patients affected with lepra, and continued for many days, without being able to detect the least indication of its action on the system, except the amelioration of the disease. When the dose was slightly increased, the appetite in some cases appeared to be increased; but the effect was neither universal nor continued. Very shortly afterwards, a sensation of heat in the throat, oesophagus, and stomach, came on, occasionally with nausea, but seldom with vomiting; in a few cases with gastrodynia; a febrile condition of the body was set up; there were dryness of the skin, increased secretion of urine, relaxed bowels, sometimes with griping; the patients usually complained of great languor, inaptitude for employment, and want of sleep; and sometimes these symptoms were accompanied with, or followed by, redness of the eyes, and certain swell- ings, especially of the face (cedema arsenicalis)—effects which are so different from those produced by the remedies called strengthening, that I cannot regard arsenic as a tonic. In proof of the beneficial effects of this substance, we are gravely told that the country-people of Upper Styria, in Austria, use arsenic as a stomachic, and condiment for many kinds of food—for example, cheese; and a healthy peasant himself tells us, that he was accustomed to take two grains of arsenic daily, without which, he assures us, he could not live! (Med. Jahrb. d. osterr. Staates, 1822, i. 96, quoted from Wibmer.) In farther proof of this strengthening action of arsenic, Vogt says that it promotes the appetite, the acti- vity, and the power of old enfeebled horses, and mentions that J'ager noticed the same effects on a pigeon. To the first of these statements, namely, the benefi- cial effects from the use of arsenic as a condiment, I confess I do not give cre- dence; and, with respect to the action of arsenic on horses, every well-informed veterinarian knows that it operates on these animals as a poison. Dr. Fowler (Med. Reports of the Effects of Arsenic, p. 98. Lond. 1786.) gives the following summary of the effects of the arsenical solution in more than 320 cases:—In about one-third no operation: " somewhat more than one-third were attended with nausea; and nearly one-third with an open body; and about one- third with griping. Vomiting, purgings, swellings, and anorexia, were but rare in comparison with the preceding effects, and their less frequent occurrence was generally found in the order in which they are here enumerated, swellings and anorexia being the seldomest. About one-fifth of the cases attended with nausea, and one-quarter of those attended with an open body, were unconnected with any other effects. Griping did not often occur alone; purging and anorexia seldom or never; and vomiting was always accompanied with more or less nausea." In some cases salivation has been produced by the medicinal use of arsenic, as will be noticed presently. /3. Of long-continued small doses, or of large medicinal doses (Slow or Chro- nic Poisoning.)—Small doses of arsenious acid continued for a long period, act as a slow poison: and, if persevered in, will ultimately occasion death. The same effects take place, in a shorter period, from the administration of large me- dicinal doses. Sometimes the digestive apparatus, at other times the nervous system, first shows symptoms of the poisonous operation of this agent. Hahnemann (quoted by Dr. Christison) has graphically described the condi- 534 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. tion of slow poisoning by arsenic as " a gradual sinking of the powers of life, without any violent symptom; a nameless feeling of illness, failure of the strength, an aversion to food and drink, and all the other enjoyments of life." On some occasions the first symptoms which I have observed of its poisonous operation have been thirst, redness of the conjunctiva and eyelids, followed by a cutaneous eruption. At other times irritation of the stomach is the leading symp- tom. In some cases ptyalism is brought on. Marcus (Ephemeriden, 1809.) noticed this effect; as also Dr. Ferriar. (Med. Hist, and Refl. iii. 306.) Mr. Furley (Lond. Med. Gaz. xvi.) has published five illustrative cases of it. Trousseau and Pidoux (Traite de Therap. ii. 148.) also mention this symptom as produced by the long-continued use of feeble doses of arsenic. Another in- stance of this effect has been published by Mr. Jones. (Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xxvi. p. 266.) This effect acquired some importance in the celebrated Bristol case of poisoning. (Lond. Med. Gaz. xv. 519; and Trans. Prov. Assoc, iii. 432.) The following is an abstract of the symptoms produced by the long-continued employment of small doses of arsenious acid, but which are more or less modi- fied in different cases:—Disorder of the digestive functions, characterized by flatulence, sensation of warmth, or actual pain in the stomach and bowels; loss of appetite; thirst, nausea, and vomiting; purging, or at least a relaxed condition of the bowels, and griping; furred tongue, with dryness and tightness of the mouth and throat, or with salivation. Quick, small, and sometimes irregular, pulse; oppressed respiration, with a dry cough. The body wastes; the stomach being frequently so irritable that no food can be retained in it. Headach, giddi- dess, and want of sleep, are frequently observed. The limbs become painful, feeble, trembling, subject to convulsions; occasionally benumbed, and ultimately paralyzed. The cutaneous system is, in some cases, affected, an eruption makes its appearance, and now and then the hair and nails fall off. Swelling of the feet and of the face is not unfrequently observed; and under these symptoms the patient gradually sinks, in some cases retaining his consciousness to the last, but at other times delirium or stupor supervening. y. Of excessive or poisonous doses (Acute Poisoning.)—The symptoms pro- duced by the ingestion of a large dose of arsenious acid are not invariably alike, but put on three forms. In some cases the principal or leading ones are those indicating gastro-enteritis; the nervous system being not obviously, or at least only slightly, affected. In others, the gastro-enteritic symptoms are absent, and the principal operation of the poison is on the vascular and nervous systems. Lastly, there are other cases in which we have gastro-enteritic symptoms, with an affection of the nervous and vascular systems. Form 1st: Acute poisoning wilh symptoms of gastro-enteritis.—In this form of arsenical poisoning, nausea and vomiting come on soon after the poison has been swallowed, and are attended with burning pain in the throat and stomach, which soon extends over the whole abdomen. Pain and vomiting, however, are not invariably present. The matters vomited vary in their n iture and appearance; sometimes being bilious, at other times tinged with blood. Frequently there is a sense of heat, dryness, tightness, and constriction ofthe throat, accompanied with incessant thirst, and occasionally with an almost hydrophobic difficulty of swallowing. The lower part ofthe alimentary canal soon becomes affected, indicated by the burning pain, which is increased on pressure—by the hard and tense condition of the abdo- men— by the diarrhoea (the stools occasionally being bloody)—by the tenesmus—and by the occasional heat and excoriation ofthe anus. When the lower part of the alimentary canal is powerfully irritated, the urino-genital apparatus becomes affected ; and thus there may be difficulty in passing the water, with burning pain in the genital organs. The constitutional symptoms are, in part, such as might be expected from this violent local disorder: thus the pulse is quick, but at the same time small, feeble, and irregular: there are cold clammy sweats; the action ofthe heart is irregular, giving rise to palpitation; the breathing is short, laborious, and often painful; the tongue is dry and furred ; and the membrane lining the air- passages feels hot, and oftentimes painful. Although, in this form of acute arsenical poisoning, the gastro-enteritis is the principal, and, in some cases, almost the only affection, yet there are generally observed some symp- toms indicative of disorder ofthe cerebrospinal system : sometimes in the form of tremblings ARSENIOUS ACID. 535 or cramps of the limbs, or delirium, and even, in the last stage, insensibility. Occasionally, also, eruptions take place. , In this form of poisoning, death usually occurs in from twenty-four hours to three days after the administration of arsenic; but Dr. Christison says that Pyl has recorded a case where death occurred in three hours after swallowing the poison. Form 2d: Acute poisoning with narcotism, without any remarkable symptoms of gaslro- enteritis.—In some cases of poisoning, in both man and animals, the symptoms are those other times, delirium. These symptoms constitute the state called narcotism. Ut tins form of arsenical poisoning (which is somewhat rare) Dr. Christison has given an abstract of twelve recorded cases. In most of them ihe quantity of arsenious acid taken was very large ; for example, half an ounce, or even an ounce. _■ • e l Form 3d: Acute poisoning with symptoms of gastro enteritis, followed by an affection oj the cerebro spinal system.—In this form of poisoning we have at first the usual gastro-enteritic symptoms, and which I have already described under the first form of poisoning. When, from the smallness of the dose, or from other circumstances, the patient recovers from the gastro enteritis, symptoms of a cerebro spinal affection sometimes make their appearance. The kind of disorder, however, varies considerably in difFetent individuals. "The most for- midable," says Dr. Christison, "is coma; the slightest, a peculiar imperfect palsy ofthe arms or legs, resembling what is occasioned by the poison of lead; and between these extremes have been observed epileptic fits, or tetanus, or an affection resembling hysteria, or mad- ness." In a medico-legal point of view it is important to determine what is the small- est fatal dose of arsenious acid.1 It is not easy, however, to give a positive answer to this question. Dr. Christison says, "■ the smallest actually-fatal dose I have hitherto found recorded is 4| grains. The subject was a child four years old, and death occurred in six hours. In this instance, however, the poison was taken in solution." The powerful effects sometimes produced by s, |, or j a grain, lead us to suspect that 1 grain might produce death; but we have no recorded case of this. Hahnemann says, 1 or 2 grains may prove fatal in a few days; and Dr. Christison remarks, that this statement cannot be very wide ofthe truth. Of course a repetition of much smaller quantities might cause death. However, under certain circumstances, enormous quantities have been swallowed with very trivial effects. Some years ago I opened the body of a man who de- stroyed himself by taking arsenic, and I was informed by the friends that about a fortnighf previous to his death, he made an attempt to destroy himself by swal- lowing a quantity of powdered arsenic, which they found, on inquiry at the druggist's of whom it was purchased, to have weighed half an ounce. It was taken immediately after dinner, and the only effect produced was violent vomit- ing. Here it is evident that the distention of the stomach with food saved the patient's life. This unfortunate individual repeated the attempt, and death was the result. Another remarkable case of recovery, after the ingestion of half an ounce, has been recorded by Dr. Skillman.3 Morbid appearances produced by Arsenious Acid.—When arsenious acid kills by its narcotic operation, (constituting the second form of arsenical poisoning,) no morbid condition is observable after death. In other cases, however, various alterations are observed, which may be most conveniently arranged under the following heads:— *. Morbid appearances of the alimentary canal.—The alterations observed in the condition of the intestinal canal vary with the quantity of the poison taken, and probably with other circumstances, but they are all indicative of inflamma- tion: thus we have redness as one symptom, sometimes accompanied with ex- travasations of blood into the tissue of the canal; ulceration is also frequently observed, sometimes softening ofthe mucous coat, effusion, (of lymph or blood,) and occasionally even gangrenous spots. ' Sco ?ome remarks on this subject hy Mr. A. S. Taylor, in the Guy's Hspital Reports, No. xii. - Lond. Med. Gai. xix. -38, from Amcr. Journ. of Med. Sciences, Aug 183l>. 536 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. /3. Morbid appearances of the vascular system.—The blood is sometimes, though not invariably, fluid after death, and dark coloured. The heart is mostly flabby, and it is asserted that on its inner surface (especially the carneae columnae and valves, particularly of the left side,) is observed redness, sometimes diffused, sometimes in the form of spots,* which penetrate a line in depth into the substance ofthe heart. The pericardium usually contains serum. y. Morbid appearances of the respiratory system.—These are neither very remarkable nor constant, and principally consist' in redness of the pleura, effusion of lymph or serum into the cavity of the pleura, red spots, and occasional conges- tion ofthe lungs, and redness ofthe membrane lining the air tubes. £ The morbid appearances of other parts deserve little attention. In some cases inflammation, and even gangrene, ofthe genital organs have been observed; the conjunctiva is sometimes very vascular, and alterations are occasionally ob- served in the condition ofthe skin. Redness, extravasation of blood, and effusion of serum, are said to have been seen in the brain. In connexion with the morbid appearances produced by arsenic, the following remark.1", made by Orfila, (Diet, de Mid. ed. 2, art. Arsenic.) deserve notice. " Under certain circum. stances the mucous membrane ofthe stomach and intestines is lined with a multitude of bril- liant points, composed of fat and albumen : placed on burning coals these grains decrepitate on drying, and produce a noise which has been improperly denominated detonation: they inflame as a fatty body when they contain a notable quantity of fat, and exhale an odour of burned animal matter. These fatty and albuminous globules may be met with in the bodies of individuals who have not been poisoned, and require attentive examination in order to dis- tinguish them from arsenious acid. The best method of avoiding this error is to digest these granuhr parts with water, and to apply the tests proper for demonstrating the existence of arsenious acid." Influence of Arsenious Acid on the Putrefactive Process.—Until the com- mencement of the present century it was supposed that the bodies of animals poi- soned by arsenious acid were unusually prone to putrefaction. This, however, has been satisfactorily disproved by the experiments and observations of Klank, Kelch, Hiinefield, and others;3 and it appears that, when placed in contact with animal textures, it acts as an antiseptic. " I have kept a bit of ox's stomach four years in a solution of arsenic," says Dr. Christison, "and, except slight shrivelling and whitening, I could not observe any change produced in it." This antiseptic pro- perty of arsenious acid, which has been, in my opinion, fully and satisfactorily proved, sufficiently accounts for the good state of preservation in which the ali- mentary canal has been frequently found some months after death in those poisoned by this acid, where it was not evacuated by vomiting or purging.3 But there is another effect said to be produced on the bodies of animals, which is not so easily accounted for: I mean their conversion into a kind of mummy-like or adipocirous matter. The following is an abstract ofthe phenomena, as deduced from numerous experiments and observations, several of which are recorded in Dr. Christison's invaluable Treatise on Poisons. After death putrefaction com- mences, and is attended with the usual odour; but, instead of increasing in the customary manner, it seems for a time to be at a stand-still, and then a series of changes commences of a peculiar character: the soft parts become firmer and drier, at the same time retaining their structure; the putrid odour is frequently succeeded by one resembling garlic'; the skin becomes brown and parchment-like; the muscular fibres and cellular tissue (especially of the abdominal parietes) are changed into a tallowy cheesy-like mass; the liver, spleen, and heart, become dry, while the bowels, lungs, and brain, form a greasy mass. During these processes the quantity of arsenic in the body diminishes, probably by exhalation,—a circum- » White spots are frequently met with on the surface of the heart when np arsenic has been taken (Guy's Hospital Reports, vol. iii.) a Quoted by Wibmer, in his Wirkung d. Arineim. u. Gifte; and by Dr. Christison, in his Treatise on Poisons. 3 In the dissecting-room of the London Hospital I have often witnessed the powerful and valuable anti- septic properties of arsenious acid. Subjects injected with this substance are but little changed at the expi- ration of one or two months, even during the summer season. ARSENIOUS ACID. 537 stance very probable, when we bear in mind the garlic odour emitted by the body, and S has been observed by several writers. The dimunition, however, must ^exceedingly small. After some time the cheesy smell disappears, and the body blconSs drv and hard. In some cases the alimentary tube has been found little changedI or decomposed, although other parts ofthe body had been completely mUrounght,dhowever, to remark, that some writers do not ascribe these phenomena to the influence of arsenious acid, but to other causes. Jager (Quoted by Wibmer op. cit. i. 305.) tolls us that in his experiments the pu refaction of the bodies of animals poisoned by arsenic seemed neither to be retarded ™\^™f'^™ they were buried or not; but he admits that parts in contact with an arsenical solution seem preserved from putrefaction. Seemann (Quoted by Dr. ^nstison op. cit. p. 322; also Wibmer, op. cit. i. 322.) likewise states^hat the bodies of three dogs underwent the usual kind of putrefaction after death. However that in many cases arsenic modifies the putrefactive process, can hardly, I think, be doubted by those who carefully examine the evidence adduced in favour of this opinion. , . _ c ,, Does this mummifying process depend on the chemical influence of the arsenic, or ought we to refer it to a change effected by arsenic on the body, during lite, causing " a different disposition and affinity among the ultimate elements of orga- nized matter, and so altering the operation of physical laws in it?" The latter hypothesis, though advocated by Dr. Christison, appears to me untenable; for, m the first place, there is no evidence of any peculiar change of this kind during life; secondly, that this does not take place appears probable, from the putrefactive pro- cess commencing after death as usual; and it would appear that the peculiar influ- ence ofthe arsenic does not commence, or at least is not evident, until this process has existed for some time, and when a garlic odour is evolved by the body. It is, indeed, true that the quantity of arsenic which has been detected in the body after death, is, as Dr. Christison remarks, " almost inappreciably small;" but it is proba- ble that the quantity is much larger than chemists have yet been able to recognise: and it is not at all unlikely that the arsenious acid may enter into new combina- tions while within the dead body, and in this way become diffused, probably in a gaseous state: the garlic odour which is evolved favours this notion, as well as the statement made by some, that the quantity of arsenic in the body diminishes during the progress ofthe mummifying process. Modus Operandi.—When we consider that arsenious acid operates as a poison to whatever part of the body it be applied, the nerves and muscular fibres ex- cepted; that the quickness with which it acts is in proportion to the absorbing powers ofthe part, and that the most soluble are the most energetic preparations, we can have little difficulty in admitting that absorption into the blood-vessels is necessary to the action of this potent agent. Lassaigne (Lond. Med. and Phys. Journ. vol. xlvi. p. 259, Aug. 1821.) states, that he detected it in the infiltrated pleura of a horse: and Fodere (Quoted by Dr. Christison.) twice got indications of its presence in the urine: but Hardegg and Schubarth, on the other hand, failed to recognise it. An acquaintance of Beissenhir_ (Quoted by Wibmer, op. cit. i. 318.) obtained neaily three grains of metallic arsenic from the stomach, coecum, lungs, liver, heart, and brain of a horse poisoned by six drachms of ar- senious acid, taken at divided doses: but the extraction of this substance from the stomach and coecum is no evidence of its absorption. More recently, and by the aid of Marsh's apparatus, it has been detected in the liver and urine of dogs poi- soned by it. (Report of the French Commissioners in the Journ. de Pharm. t. xxvii. p. 415.) Arsenious acid appears to exercise a specific influence over several parts of the body, especially the alimentary canal, the heart, and the nervous system. That the alimentary canal is specifically aflected is shown by the inflammation of the stomach, induced bv the application of arsenic to wounds, and which, according Vol. I.—68 538 elements ok materia medica. to Sir B. Brodie, (Phil. Trans, for 1812, 205.) is more violent and more imme- diate than when this poison is taken into the stomach itself. That the heart is also specifically acted on by arsenious acid is proved by the symptoms (the anx- iety at the praecordia, the quick irregular pulse, &c.,) and by the post-mortem appearances (red spots in the substance of this viscus,) and by the diminished susceptibility to the galvanic influence. The specific affection of the nervous system is inferred from the symptoms: thus, the headach, giddiness, wandering pains, impaired sensibility of the extremities, and delirium or coma, are indica- tions of the cerebral affection; while the feebleness, lassitude, trembling of the limbs, and paralysis or tetanic symptoms, are evidences of the disordered condi- tion ofthe true spinal or excito-motory system of Dr. Hall. The alimentary canal, heart, and nervous system, are not the only parts on which this acid appears to exercise a specific influence: the lungs, the skin, the salivary glands, &c, are also specifically affected. The disorder of the lungs is inferred from the local pain, cough, and occasional inflammatory appearances after death. The eruptions and other altered appearances of the skin, and the falling off of the hair and nails (sometimes noticed,) have led to the idea of the specific influence of arsenious acid on the cutaneous system,—an opinion which seems farther supported by the fact of the remarkable influence it exercises in some cutaneous diseases, especially lepra. The salivation noticed by Marcus, Ferrier, Mr. Furley, Cazenave, and others, shows that the salivary glands are specifically influenced. The swelling of the face, and the irritation and redness of the eyelids, also deserve notice in connexion with the specific effects of this poison. Uses.—So powerful a poison as arsenic necessarily requires to be employed with great caution, and to have its effects carefully and attentively watched; for it has on more than one occasion proved fatal when used as a medicinal agent. In intermittent fevers and other periodical diseases, arsenic has been employed with great success. For its introduction into practice in these cases in this coun- try, we are indebted to the late Dr. Fowler, of Stafford; (Med. Rep. ofthe Effects of Arsenic, 1786.) but Lemery and Wepfer appear to have first mentioned its febrifuge property. Dr. Fowler was led to its use from the beneficial effects ob- tained by the use of the " Tasteless Ague Drop," and from the information of Mr. Hughes, that this patent medicine was a preparation of arsenic. The re- ports published by Dr. Fowler, of the good effects of arsenic in periodical dis- eases, as observed by himself, by Dr. Arnold, and by Dr. Withering, have been amply confirmed by the subsequent experience of the profession generally. No remedy has been more successful in the treatment of ague. It will not unfre- quently put a stop to the disease, even when cinchona or the sulphate of quinia has failed. Dr. Brown, (Cyclopaedia of Practical Medicine, ii. 228.) who has used it in many hundreds of cases, never saw any permanently ill effect arise from it: he considers it superior to crude bark, but inferior to quinia: over both it has the advantages of cheapness and tastelessness. It should be given three times a-day. It is not necessary to intermit its use during the febrile paroxysm, for I have repeatedly seen it given with the best effects during the attack. In agues, accompanied with inflammatory conditions, in which cinchona and sul- phate of quinia are apt to disagree, arsenic may, according to Dr. Brown, be sometimes administered with the best effects. It is also very successful in re- lapses after the use of the above remedies. Dr. Macculloch (An Essay on the Remitt. and Intermit!. Diseases, 1828.) states that -Jff of a grain of white arsenic given three or four times a-day, Will sometimes cure ague when the liquor potas- sae arsenitis fails. A combination of arsenic and cinchona, or arsenic and sul- phate of quinia, sometimes succeeds, where these agents used separately fail. When the stomach is very irritable, opium is occasionally advantageously con- joined with arsenic. If the bowels be confined during the use of the remedy, gentle laxatives should be employed. Arsenic has been beneficially employed ARSENIOUS ACID. 539 in various other periodical diseases; as periodical headachs, intermittent neural- gias, &.C. In various chronic affections of the skin; particularly the scaly diseases (lepra and psoriasis,) eczema, and impetigo, arsenic is one of our most valuable agents. I can confidently recommend it in lepra, having seen a large number of cases treated by it without a single failure. Frequently the disease is relieved without any obvious constitutional effect: sometimes a febrile condition of the body is brought on, with a slight feeling of heat in the throat, and thirst; occasionally with an augmentation of appetite: the urine and cutaneous secretion are often promoted ; the bowels may be constipated or relaxed, and occasionally as I have already noticed, salivation takes place. If the patient complain of swelling and stiffness about the face, or itching ofthe eye-lids, the use of the medicine ought to be immediately suspended. Ichthyosis and elephantiasis are said to have been benefited by the use of it.1 Various chronic affections of the nervous system have been treated by the arsenious acid, and with occasional benefit: for example, neuralgia, epilepsy, chorea, (Dr. Gregory, Med. Chirurg. Trans, of London, xi. 299.) and even te- tanus. I have seen arsenic used in a considerable number of epileptic cases, and in none was the disease cured. In some the fits occurred less frequently, but I am not sure that this was the effect of the medicine. In chorea, I have seen great advantage attend its use. It has also relieved angina pectoris. It is said to possess the power of controlling determinations of blood to the head. (Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journ. April, 1839.) In bites of venomous snakes and of rabid animals, arsenious acid has been recommended. In India, the Tanjore pill (the basis of which is arsenious acid) has long been celebrated for the cure of the bite ofthe Cobra di Capello, and other venomous serpents. There is, however, no valid reason for supposing that it possesses any remedial power in these cases. Arsenic has been employed as an internal agent in various other diseases—as chronic rheumatism, especially when attended with pains in the bones; in diseases of the bones, particularly venereal nodes ; (Colhoun and Baer, Amer. Med. Record, iii. and iv.)in syphilis; in passive dropsies; in the last stage of typhus, &c. (Ferriar Med. Hist. i. 84.) Arsenious acid has long been employed as an external application. It has been applied and recommended by Sir A. Cooper, Dupuytren, and other high authorities, but its use is always attended with some danger. M. Roux, a celebrated surgeon at Paris states, (Nouv. Elem. de Med.) that he amputated the breast of a girl 18 years of age, on account of a scirrhus of considerable magnitude. After the cica- trix had been several days completed, ulceration commenced, accompanied with darting pains. To avoid frightening the girl by the use of the actual cautery, he applied an arsenical paste over a surface of about an inch in diameter, Colic, vomit- ing, and alteration of countenance, came on the next day; and in two days after- wards she died in violent convulsions. " I am convinced," says M. Roux, " that this girl died poisoned by arsenic." I could quote several other cases illustrative of the same fact, but shall content myself with referring to Wibmer's work (Die Wirkung, &c.) for an account of them. The following case, related by Desgranges, (Orfila's Toxicol. Generate.) shows the danger of applying arsenic externally, even when the skin is sound:—A chamber-maid rubbed her head with an arsenical ointment, to destroy vermin. Though the skin was perfectly sound, the head be- gan to swell in six or seven days after; the ears became twice their natural size, and covered with scabs, as were also several parts of the head; the glands of the jaw and face enlarged; the face was tumefied, and almost erysipelatous. Her pulse was hard, tense, and febrile; the tongue parched and the skin dry. To these 1 For farther information on the use of arsenic in skin diseases, consult Raver, Treatise on Diseases of the Skin, by Dr. Will g. p 80. 540 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. were added excruciating pain, and a sensation of great heat. Vertigo, lainting, cardialgia, occasional vomiting, ardor urinae, constipation, trembling of the limbs, and delirium were also present. In a day or two after, the body, and especially the hands and feet, were covered with a considerable eruption of small pimples, with white heads. She finally recovered, but during her convalescence the hair fell off. Though employed as a caustic, yet the nature of its chemical influence on the animal tissues is unknown. Hence it is termed by some a dynamical caustic, in opposition to those caustics acting by known chemical agencies. Mr. Blackadder (Observations on Phagedena Gangrenosa. Edinb. 1818.) asserts that the danger of employing arsenic consists in not applying a sufficient quantity. A small quantity, he says, becomes absorbed, whereas a large quantity quickly de- stroys the organization of the part, and stops absorption. Arsenic has been extolled as a remedy for cancer. Justamond1 esteemed it a specific. Various empirical compounds, which gained temporary notoriety in the treatment of this affection, owe their activity to either arsenious acid or the ses- quisulphuret of arsenicum. But by the best surgeons of the present day it is never employed, because experience has fully shown that it is incapable of curing genuine cancer, while it endangers the lives of the unfortunate patients. It cannot, how- ever, be denied that diseases resembling cancer have been much relieved, if not cured, by it, and that the progress of cancer itself has occasionally been somewhat checked by its use. In some forms of severe and unmanageable ulceration, especially lupus or noli me tangere, arsenical applications are employed with occasional benefit, where all other local remedies fail. In such cases arsenic is not to be regarded as a mere caustic; for other, and far more powerful agents of this kind, are generally useless. It must act by substitution: that is, it sets up a new action in the part incompatible with that of the disease. The late Baron Dupuytren employed an arsenical dusting powder (composed of 99 parts of calomel and 1 part arse- nious acid) in lupus, not as an escharotic, but rather as a specific. Mixed with gum-water or with fatty matters, it has been sometimes used as a paste or oint- ment. These applications are to be allowed to fall off spontaneously, and to be repeated five or six times. Sir A. Cooper (Lancet, i. 264.) recommends an arsenical ointment (arsenious acid; sublimed sulphur, aa. 3j.: spermaceti cerate, 3j.) to be applied, on lint, for twenty-four hours, and then to be removed. When the slough comes away, the ulcer is to be dressed with simple ointment, and will generally heal in a short time. Cazenave says he has seen arsenical applications used by Biett, and has himself employed them many times, without having met with one instance of injurious consequences. The arsenical paste (arsenious acid, cinnabar and burnt leather, made into a paste with saliva or gum-water) is used where a powerful action is required; but, besides the danger of causing con- stitutional symptoms, to which all arsenical compounds are liable, it is apt to Occasion erysipelas. In onychia maligna, my friend, Mr. Luke regards an arsenical ointment (composed of arsenious acid, gr. ij., and spermaceti ointment, 3j.) as almost a specific. Arsenious acid is a constituent of some of the preparations sold as depila- tories. Administration.—Arsenious acid may be administered, in substance, in doses of from one-sixteenth to one-eighth of a grain, made into pills, with crumb of bread. In making a mass of pills, great care should be taken that the arsenic be equally divided; for this purpose it should be well rubbed in a mortar with some fine powder (as sugar) before adding the bread crumb. A much safer mode of « An Account of the Methods pursued in the Treatment of Cancerous and Scirrhous Disorders and other Indu rations. Lond. 1780. ARSENIUOS ACID. 541 exhibition is to give this potent remedy, in the form of solution, with potash (as the liquor potassse arsenilis.) But I have already mentioned, that Dr. Maccul- loch found solid arsenic more efficacious than this solution: and Dr. Physick, of the United States, thinks " that they act differently, and cannot be sub- stituted for one another." (United States Dispensatory.) Whether given in the solid or liquid form, it is best to exhibit it immediately after a meal, when the stomach is filled with food: for when given on an empty stomach (as in the morning, fasting,) it is much more apt to occasion gastric disorder. It is some- times advisable to conjoin opium, either to enable the stomach to retain it, or to check purging. In debilitated constitutions, tonics may be usefully combined with it. An emetic (as ipecacuanha,) or a laxative (as rhubarb,) may be em- ployed where the stomach is overloaded, or the bowels confined. Its effects are to be carefully watched, and whenever any unpleasant symptoms (as vomiting, griping, purging, swelling or redness of the eye-lids, dryness of throat, ptyalism, headach, or tremors) make their appearance, it will of course be advisable to diminish the dose, or suspend for a few days the use of the remedy. Indeed, when none of these symptoms occur, it is not proper to continue its use more than two weeks without intermitting its employment for a day or two, in order to guard against the occasional ill consequences resulting from the accumulation of the poison in the system. Antidotes.—In cases of poisoning by arsenic, the first object is to expel the poison from the stomach. For this purpose the stomach-pump should be imme- diately applied. If this be not in readiness, and vomiting have not commenced, tickle the throat with a feather or the finger, and administer an emetic of sulphate of copper or sulphate of zinc. Promote vomiting by diluent and demulcent liquids; as milk, white of egg and water, flour and water, gruel, sugared water, and broths. Administer as speedily as possible moist hydrated sesquioxide of iron (the preparation of which will be hereafter described.)1 The quantity ne- cessary to be given to render the arsenic inert, is large. Dr. Maclagan (Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journ. No. 144,) observes that "as far as chemical evidence goes, at least twelve parts of oxide, prepared by ammonia, and moist, are required for each part of arsenic." As, however, we cannot ascertain, in many instances, how much arsenic has been taken, we should administer to an adult a table-spoon- ful, at least, and to children, a dessert spoonful, every five or ten minutes, until relief from the urgent symptom is obtained. (Dr. T. R. Beck, Lond. Med. Gaz. Oct. 15, 1841.) The hydrated sesquioxide forms, with the arsenious acid, an arsenite of iron. This becomes a protaiseniate of iron. (Graham's Elements of Chemistry.) " The arsenious acid derives oxygen from the peroxide [sesqui- oxide] of iron, and becomes arsenic acid, while the peroxide of iron becomes protoxide; a protarseniate of iron being the result, which is insoluble and inert." Charcoal, magnesia, and any inert powder, when swallowed in large quan- tities, may be occasionally of service, by enveloping the particles of arsenic, and preventing their contact with the gastric surface. Olive oil, on which, according to Dr. Paris, (Pharmacologia.) the Cornish miners rely with confidence, can only act mechanically in the way just mentioned. The subsequent part of the treatment of poisoning by arsenic consists in neu- tralizing or counteracting its effects, and which is to be effected on general prin- ciples, as we have no counter-poison. When the gastro-enteritis is marked, our principal reliance must be on the usual antiphlogistic measures, particularly blood-letting, both general and local, and blisters to the abdomen. One draw- back to the success of this treatment is the great depression of the vascular sys- tem, so that the patient cannot support large evacuations of blood. Opium is a very valuable agent. Indeed, J'ager seems to regard it in the light of a counter- poison. However, on this point he has probably taken a too exaggerated view 1 [For some remarks upon the necessity of the recent preparation ofthe antidote, by William Procter, Jr. See 11 vdiult'il Sesquioxide of Iron | 54'2 elements of materia medica. of its efficacy; but it is undeniable that on most occasions it is of great service. If the stomach reject it, we may employ it in the form of clysters. If constipa- tion and tenesmus be troublesome, mild laxatives, especially castor oil, should be exhibited. 1. LIQUOR POTASS.E ARSENITIS, L. (U. S.) Liquor Arsenicalis, E. D. Fowler's Solution; Mineral Solution.—(Arsenious Acid [_broken in small pieces, L.; in powder, E.f] Carbonate of Potash, each grs. lxxx.; Compound Tincture of Lavender, f3v.; Distilled Water, Oj. Boil the Arsenious Acid and Carbonate of Potash with half a pint of the Water in a glass vessel until they are dissolved. Add the Compound Tincture of Lavender to the cooled liquor. Lastly, add besides, of distilled water, as much as may be sufficient, that it may accurately fill a pint measure, L. E.—The preparation of the Dublin College is one-ninth weaker: the proportions of materials used are of Arsenious Acid, in powder; Carbonate of Potash, from Tartar, of each sixty grains; Compound Spirit of Lavender, f 3iv.; Distilled Water, Oss. [wine measure.'])—[The U. S. Pharma- copoeia directs, Arsenious Acid in small fragments; Pure Carbonate of Potassa, each sixty-four grains; Distilled Water a sufficient quantity; Compound Spirit of Lavender half a fluid ounce. Boil the Arsenious Acid and Carbonate of Po- tassa with twelve fluid ounces of Distilled Water in a glass vessel till the acid is entirely dissolved. To the solution when cold, add the Spirit of Lavender, and afterwards sufficient Distilled Water to make it fill exactly the measure of a pint.] In this preparation the arsenious acid combines with the potash of the carbonate, and disengages the carbonic acid. A slight excess of carbonate is used. The compound tincture of lavender is used as a colouring and flavouring ingredient. The dose of this solution is four or five minims, gradually and cautiously in- creased. I have known 15 minims taken three times a-day for a week, without any ill effects. Dr. Mitchell, of Ohio, has given from 15 to 20 drops, three times a-day, in intermittents. (United States Dispensatory.) But as some persons are peculiarly susceptible of the influence of arsenic, we ought always to commence with small doses. It has been given to children, and even pregnant women. Dr. Dewees (Philadelphia Journ. of Med. and Phys. Sc. xiv. 187.) administered it successfully to a child only six weeks old, affected with a severe tertian ague. Dr. Fowler drew up the following table of doses for patients of different ages:— Ages. Doses. From 2 to 4 years.......................from 2 or 3 to 5 drops. 5— 7 ,........................... „ 5 — 7 „ 8—12 ,........................... „ 7 — 10 „ 13 — 18 ............................ „ 10 — 12 „ 18, and upwards.................................. 12 „ But it may be remarked that the quantities here indicated are larger than it will be safe, in most cases, to commence with. t PILUUE ASIATIC E: Asiatic Pillsf—(Arsenious Acid, gr. Iv.; Powdered Black Pepper, 3ix.; Gum Arabic, a sufficient quantity to make 800 pills; each of which contain about J- of a grain of arsenious acid.)—These pills are em- ployed in the East for the cure of syphilis and elephantiasis. 3. UNGUENTUM ARSENICI; Arsenical Ointment.—An ointment containing arse- nious acid is used of different strengths by surgeons. For onychia maligna I have already mentioned one containing two grains of arsenic to an ounce of lard or spermaceti ointment. The Ceratum Arsenici of the United States Pharma- copoeia consists of arsenious acid, in very fine powder, 9j.; Simple Cerate, 3j< This is used as a dressing for cancerous sores, but must be applied with great circumspection (see another formula at p. 540.) » Asiatic Researches, vol. ii. p. 153. The formula for these pills, given in the teit. is that usually followed (Rayer. Treatise on Skin Diseases by Willis, p. 1215.) The original recipe is very indefinite: one tola f 105 grs.] of arsenic and six times as much black pepper are to be made into pills " as large as tares or small pulse." arsenious acid. 543 4 PAST! ARSENICALIS; Arsenical Paste.—Various formulae for this are given. The Pulvis Escharotica Arsenicalis (Poudre causlique du frere Cosme ou de Rousselot) of the French Codex is composed of finely levigated Cinnabar, 16 parts; powdered Dragon's Blood, 16 parts; fine levigated Arsenious Acid, 8 parts.' Mix intimately. At the time of employing it, it is made into a paste, by mean's of a little saliva, or mucilage. This preparation is employed to cauterize cancerous wounds. It must be used very cautiously, and applied to limited por- tions only of the ulcerated surface. I have already referred to its occasional dangerous or fatal effects. (See p. 540.) It deserves especial notice, that this officinal preparation of the French Codex is very considerably stronger than was used either by Rousselot or Come, notwithstanding that it is named after them.1 OTHER COMPOUNDS OF ARSENICUM. I. ARSENICI IODIDUM : Iodide of Arsenic—This compound is prepared by gently heating, in a tubulated retort placed in a sand bath, a mixture of one part finely pulverized metallic arsenicum and five parts of iodine: the iodide is afterwards to be sublimed, to separate the excess of arsenicum. The compound thus obtained is an orange-red solid, volatile, and solu- ble in water. If the solution be rapidly evaporated to dryness, we reprocure the iodide; but if we concentrate, and then place the solution aside, white pearly plates are obtained, which by Plisson are regarded as periodide of arsenicum, but by Serullas as a compound of oxide and iodide of arsenicum.2 Iodide of arsenicum is probably composed of 1£ eq. iodine = 187-5, and 1 eq. arsenicum = 38. It has been employed by Biett in the form of ointment (com- posed of iodide of arsenicum, gr. iij.; lard, 3|j.) as an application to corroding tubercular skin diseases. (Magendie, Formulaire.) Dr. A. T. Thomson (Lancet for 1838-39, vol. i. p. 176.) has administered it internally in doses of from one-eighth to one-third of a grain, in lepra, impetigo, and diseases resembling carcinoma. Its general effects appear to be similar to those of arsenious acid. 2. REALGAR: Red Sulphuret of Arsenic ; Red Arsenic; Protosulphuret of Arsenic ; Bisul- phuret of Arsenic, Graham ; Sandarach3 (a-*v*ioi.) Though this substance occurs native, the commercial article is prepared artificially. It is met with in the form of red vitreous masses or as red powder. It consists of 1 eq. Arsenicum 38 -j- 1 eq. Sulphur 16 = 54. It is an energetic poison. It was the agent employed by Mrs. Burdock to destroy Mrs. Smith.4 The body ofthe victim was exhumed after having been buried for fourteen months. It was then discovered that the realgar had been transformed into orpiment, which was found in the stomach. Mr. Herapath (Ibid. vol. xviii. p. 883.) has shown that ammonia and sulphu- retted hydrogen (gases evolved during putrid decomposition) are each capable of converting realgar into orpiment. Realgar is not used in medicine, but is employed by pyrotechnists, and as a pigment. Heated with black flux it yields arsenicum (see p. 524.) 3. ORPIMENT; Yellow Sulphuret of Arsenic; Yellow Arsenic; Sesquisulphuret of Arsenic; Sulphoarsenious Acid; King's Yellow.—This is both found native and prepared artificially. Native orpiment is the Auripigmenlum of the ancients. Orpiment consists of 1 eq. Arseni- cum 38, -f li eq. Sulphur 24 = 62. It is soluble in alkalis (by which it is readily distin- guished from sulphuret of cadmium, which is insoluble in alkalis,) and is precipitated from its alkaline solutions by acids. Heated with black flux it yields metallic arsenicum (see p. 524.) As met with in the shops it is a powerful poison. It is a constituent of some depilatories (seep. 211.) According to Dr. Paris, Delcroix's depilatory, called Poudre Subtile, consists of quicklime, orpiment, and some vegetable powder. Orpiment is used by pyrotechnists, and as & pigment. » For farther information respecting Arsenical Paste, see Patrix, L'Art. cTappRquer la Pate Arsenicale 8vo. Paris, 1816. ' •> Souberain. JVbur. Traittde Pharm. ii. 2»dc ed. 580; also Serullas, Journ. de Chim. Med. iii. 601. • The term Sandarach is also applied to the resinous substance commonly called Gum Juniper. • See the account of the celebrated Bristol case of poisoning, in the Lond. Med. Oaz. vol xv d 519 • and *vi. p. 120. ' *' ' 544 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. ORDER XVIII.—COMPOUNDS OF ANTIMONY. 1. ANTIMO/NII SESQUISULPHURE'TUM, L.—SESQUISULPHURET OF ANTIMONY. (Antimonii Sulphuretum, E. D.) (U. S.) History.—Black sulphuret of antimony was known in the most ancient times, being used by the Asiatic and Greek ladies as a pigment for the eyebrows. (2 Kings, ix. 30; Ezekiel, xxiii. 40; Pliny, Nat. Hist, xxxiii.) It was formerly called Stimmi (l » Phillips, Translation ofthe Pharmacopeia ofthe Royal College of Physicians, fir 1824. Lond. 1,^_4, p. 81. r,.-)Q elements of materia medica. Manufacturers usually substitute bone sawings for hartshorn shavings. The following is the theory of the process: the gelatinous matter of the horn (or bones) is decomposed and burned off, leaving behind the earthy matter (sub- phosphate of lime, with a little calcareous carbonate.) The sulphur of theses- quisulphuret is expelled in the form of sulphurous acid, while the antimony attracts oxygen from the air, forming antimonious acid, and a valuable quantity of sesquioxide of antimony. By the subsequent heating the sesquioxide is, for the most part, converted into antimonious acid; but one portion is usually left unchanged, while another is volatilized. The carbonate of lime of the horn is decomposed by the united agencies of heat and antimonious acid: carbonic acid is expelled, and a small quantity of antimonite of lime formed. The sides of the crucible in which the second stage of the process has been conducted, are found, at the end of the operation, to be lined with a yellow glaze, and frequently with yellow crystals of sesquioxide. Properties.—Antimonial powder is white, gritty, tasteless, and odourless. Boiling water extracts the antimonite (and, according to Dr. Maclagan, super- phosphate of lime:) the liquid becomes cloudy on cooling. Hydrochloric acid, digested in the residue, dissolves the subphosphate of lime, all the sesquioxide of antimony, and that portion of the antimonious acid which was in combination with lime. Characteristics.—The solution obtained by boiling antimonial powder in dis- tilled water occasions white precipitates, soluble in nitric acid, with oxalate of ammonia, nitrate of silver, and acetate of lead. The precipitate with the first of these tests is oxalate of lime, with the second phosphate of silver, and with the third phosphate of lead. Hydrosulphuric acid gas transmitted through the solu- tion, produces an orange red precipitate. If the portions of antimonial powder not dissolved by distilled water be digested in boiling liquid hydrochloric acid, a solution is obtained, which, on the addition of distilled water, becomes turbid, and deposites a white powder (oxychloride of antimony :) at least I have found this to take place with several samples of antimonial powder which I have ex- amined, and the same is noticed by Dr. Barker; (Observations on the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, 204.) but neither Mr. Phillips (Ann. Phil. iv. N. S. 266.) nor Dr. Maclagan (Edinburgh Med. and Surg. No. 135.) have observed it. Hydro- sulphuric acid gas, transmitted through the hydrochloric solution, causes an orange-red precipitate: if this be separated by filtering, and the solution boiled to expel any traces of hydrosulphuric acid, a white precipitate (subphosphate of lime) is thrown down on the addition of caustic ammonia. That portion of anti- monial powder which is not dissolved by hydrochloric acid is antimonious acid: if it be mixed with charcoal, and heated to redness, it is converted into sesqui- oxide, or metallic antimony. "Distilled water, boiled with it and filtered, gives, with sulphuretted hydrogen, an orange precipitate : muriatic, digested with the residue, becomes yellow, does not [sometimes does, according to my experiments] become turbid by dilution, but gives a copious orange precipitate with sulphuretted hydrogen." Ph. Ed. 2nd ed. 1841. Composition.—Dr. James's Powder has been analyzed by Dr. Pearson, (Phil. Trans, lxxxi. for 1791, p. 317.) by Mr. Phillips, (Ann. Phil. N. S. vi. 187.) by Berzelius, (Traite de Chimie, iv. 481.) by M. Pully, (Ann. de Chim. 1805, lv. 74.) by Dr. D. Maclagan, (Op. supra cit.) and was imperfectly examined by Mr. Chenevix. (Phil. Trans, for 1801, p. 57.) Antimonial'Powderhas been analyzed by Mr. Phillips, (Ann. Phil. N. S. iv. 266.) and by Dr. D. Maclagan. (Op. cit.) Their results are, for the most part, shown in the following table:— COMPOUND POWDER OF ANTIMONY. 553 james's powiier. ANTIMONIAL POWDER. Antimonite of Lime [with \ some superphosphate, > Pearson Phillips Bcrzel Maclagan Phillips Maclagan 57 43 Newbury's 560 4-2-2 1-8 1 f>6 33 Newbury's 3 40 289 4347 50-24 Butler's 225 9 80 3421 53.21 0-53 1st samp. 35 65 2d do. 38 6a 08 3-98 50 09 45-13 Sesquioxide of Antimony .. Loss (Sesquioxide of An-] tiinony and impurity > 100 100-0 100 100 00 10000 100 100 niooe According to the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, (2nd ed. 1841,) antimonial pow- der is " A mixture chiefly of antimonious acid and phosphate of lime, with some sesquioxide of antimony and a little antimonite of lime." Pully found sulphate of potash and hypo antimonite of potash in James's powder. Mr; Brande has found as much as 5 per cent, of sesquioxide of antimony in the antimonial powder of the shops. The antimonite of lime is obtained in solution by boiling antimonial powder in distilled water : the greater part of it deposites as the solution cools. The existence of superphosphate was inferred by Dr. Maclagan, from the precipitates produced with the salts of lead and nitrate of silver. Mr. Phillips states that it contains but little, if any, sesquioxide of anti- mony, because the hydrochloric solution did not let fall any precipitate on the addition of water. But a small quantity of sesquioxide may be dissolved by this acid without our being able to obtain any evidence of it by the action of water. Dr. Maclagan (Op. cit.) has shown, that if hydrosulphuric acid gas be transmitted through the solution, an orange red precipitate is obtained, which he supposes to be an indication ofthe presence of sesquioxide. But unless the antimonial powder be boiled repeatedly in water, to remove completely the antimonite of lime, this test cannot be relied on: for if the least trace of this salt be present, on the addition of hydrochloric acid bichloride of antimony is obtained, which, it is well known, not only produces an orange red precipitate with hydrosulphuric acid, but even causes a white precipi- tate on the addition of water. (Gmelin, Handb. der Chemie, ii. 986.) Physiological Effects.—Antimonial powder is most unequal in its opera- tion,—at one time possessing considerable activity, at another being inert, or nearly so. This depends on the presence or absence of sesquioxide of antimony, which may be regarded as constituting its active principle, and which, when pre- sent, is found in uncertain and inconstant quantity. Moreover, this variation in the composition of antimonial powder cannot be regarded as the fault of the manu- facturer, since it depends, as Mr. Brande (Manual of Pharmacy, 3d. ed. p. 292.) has justly observed, " upon slight modifications in the process, which can scarcely be controlled." Mr. Hawkins gave 3j. morning and evening without any obvious effect; and the late Dr. Duncan, jun., administered 9j. and 3ss. doses, several times a-day, without inducing vomiting or purging. (Edinb. New Dispensat. 11th ed.) Dr. Eliiotson (Cases illustrative of the Efficacy of the Hydrocyanic Acid, p. 77.) found even 120 grains nearly inert; nausea alone being in some of the cases pro- duced. In these instances I presume it contained little or no sesquioxide.) But, on the other hand, a considerable number of practitioners have found it to possess activity. Dr. Paris (Pharmacologia.) observes, that " it will be diffi- cult for the chemist to persuade the physician that he can never have derived any benefit from the exhibition of antimonial powder." I have above stated that the experiments on which Mr. Phillips founds his assertion that this preparation contains but little if any sesquioxide, are inconclusive, as Dr. Maclagan (Op. cit.) has shown. I am acquainted with one case in which it acted with great activity. A workman employed in the manufacture of this powder in the laboratory of an operative chemist in London, took a dose of it (which, from his account, I esti- mate at half a tea-spoonful,) and, to use his own words, " it nearly killecfhim." It occasioned violent vomiting, purging, and sweating. Vol. I.—70 554 ELEMENTS OP MATERIA MEDICA. Dr. James's powder, which some practitioners consider as more active and certain than our antimonial powder, appears to be equally inconstant in its ope- ration. Dr. D. Munro, (Treatise on Med. and Pharm. Chem. i. 367.) who fre- quently used this powder, and saw Dr. James himself, as well as other practi- tioners, administer it, observes—" like other active preparations of antimony, it sometimes acts with great violence, even when given in small doses; at other times a large dose produces very little visible effects. I have seen three grains operate briskly, both upwards and downwards; and I wa3 once called to a pa- tient, to whom Dr. James had himself given five grains of it, and it purged and vomited the lady for twenty-four hours, and in that time gave her between twenty and thirty stools; at other times 1 have seen a scruple produce little or no visible effect." Dr. Cheyne (Dubl. Hosp. Rep. i. 315.) thought highly of it in the apo- plectic diathesis: but he used it in conjunction with bleeding, purgatives, and a strict antiphlogistic regimen. The preceding facts seem to me to show the propriety of omitting the use of both antimonial and James's powder, and substituting for them some antimonial of known and uniform activity; as emetic tartar (see p. 565.) Uses.—Antimonial powder is employed as a sudorific in fevers and rheumatic affections. In the former it is given either alone or in combination with mercu- rials: in the latter it is frequently conjoined with opium as well as with calomel. In chronic skin diseases it is sometimes exhibited with alteratives. Administration.—The usual dose of it is from 3 or 4 to 8 or 10 grains, in the form of powder or bolus. 6. POTAS'S_3 ANTIMO'NIO-TAR'TRAS.—ANTIMONY-TARTRATE OF POTASH. (Antimonii PotassioTartras, L.—Antiinnniuin Tartarizatum, E— Antimonii et Potassae Tartrassive Tar- tarum Emeticum, D.) [Antimonii et Potassae, Tartras, U. S] History.—This salt was first publicly noticed in 1631, by Adiian de Myn- sicht. (Thesaurus Medico-Chymicus.) Besides the names above mentioned it has been known by various others, as Tartarized Antimony, Emetic Tartar, and Stibiated Tartar (Tartarus Stibiatus.) Preparation.—Antimony-tartrate of potash is prepared by boiling water, and bitartrate of potash with sesquioxide of antimony or with some antimonial pre- paration which contains it, as the oxychloride or oxysulphuret of antimony. Antimony-ash (Cinis Antimonii) procured by roasting the sesquisulphuret, is employed to yield the sesquioxide in an extensive manufactory in London. As already stated (p. 544,) this compound is a mixture of sesquioxide, antimo- nious acid, and some undecomposed sesquisulphuret. The proportions of ash and bitartrate used vary according to the quality of the former: the average being equal parts. This, I am informed, is the cheapest method of obtaining emetic tartar. The London College directs this salt to be prepared as follows :—Take of Sesquisulphuret of Antimony, rubbed to powder; Nitrate of Potash, powdered, each, Ibij.; Bitartrate of Pot- ash, powdered, ^xiv.; Hydrochloric Acid, f^iv.; Distilled Water, cong. j. Accurately mix the Sesquisulphuret of Antimony with the Nitrate of Potash; the Hydrochloric Acid being then added, and the powder spread upon iron plate, ignite it. Rub what remains to very fine powder, when it is cold, and wash it frequently with boiling water until it is free from taste. Mix the powder thus prepared with the'Bitartrate of Potash, and boil for half an hour in a gallon of distilled water. Strain the liquor while hot, and set aside that crystals may be formed. These being removed and dried, let the liquor again evaporate that it may yield crystals. The theory of the process is this: part of the sulphur and of the antimony are oxidized at the expense of the oxygen of the acid of the nitrate, by which sul- phuric acid and sesquioxide of antimony are formed, while nitrogen and binoxide antimony-tartrate of potash. 555 of nitrogen escape. The sulphuric acid unites with part of the potash of the nitrate. The hydrochloric acid reacts on another portion of potash, and produces water and chloride of potassium. If no hydrochloric acid had been employed, the potash would react on some undecomposed sesquisulphuret, and generate antimonio-sesquisulphuret of potassium and sesquioxide of antimony. The residuum of this operation is, then, sulphate of potash, chloride of potassium, sesquioxide of antimony, and some undecomposed sesquisulphuret of antimony. By washing, the sulphate and chloride are got rid of. The following diagram, though imperfect, may perhaps assist the student in comprehending the foregoing changes:— MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. Nitrate of ^ Potash. f Nitrogen. | Nitrogen. 'Nitric Acid......^ Oxygen.. ' Oxygen Potash ( Oxygen Potash...........\ Oxygen... ( Potassium Hydrochloric Acid .......... $£ST. PRODUCTS. __Nitrogen. Binox. Nitrogen. •^Sulphate Potash. Water. Chloride of Potassium. Sesquisulphuret Antimony .. Sesquisulphuret of Antimony Sulphur..-'" Antimony.~— *Sesquiox. Antimony. . Sssquisulphuret Anti- mony. Six equivalents of nitrate, 7 equivalents of sesquisulphuret, and I5 equivalents of hydrochloric acid, contain the elements of 6 eqs. of binoxide of nitrogen, 4i eqs. of sulphate of potash, I5 eqs. of water, U eqs. of chloride of potassium, 3 eqs. sesquioxide of antimony, and 4 eqs. sesquisulphuret. MATERIALS 6 eqs. Nitrate of Potash............ 7 eqB. Sesquisulphuret of Antimony 1J eqs. Hydrochloric Acid.......... 12905 612 0 eqs. 623 4i eq-i 555 1 & eqs Heqs 3 eqs. 4 eqs. PRODUCTS. Binoxide of Nitrogen.............. 180 <. Sulphate of Potash................ 396 . Water............................ 13-5 . Chloride of Potassium............ 114 Sesquioxide of Antimony.......... 231 Sesquisulphuret of Antimony...... 356 1290-5 The changes in the second stage of the process are readily comprehended: two equivalents or 154 parts of sesquioxide of antimony combine with one equi- valent or 180 parts of dry bitartrate of potash, to form one equivalent or 334 parts of dry emetic tartar, which, in crystallizing, unite with three equivalents, or 27 parts of water. The sesquisulphuret is unacted on by the bitartrate of pot- ash. MATERIALS. 3 eq. Water......... 27 1 eq. dry Bitartrate Potash PRODUCTS. 3 rq. Water. 1 eq. Tart. Potash 114 27 1 I 1 eq. Crysd ?• Emetic I Tartar 361 2eq. Sesquiox. Ant 1 eq. Ditart. Ant. 220 J 301 The Edinburgh College gives the following directions for the preparation of this salt:— Take of Sulphuret of Antimony, in fine powder, ^iv.; Muriatic Acid (commercial,)1 Oj.; Water, Ov. Dissolve the sulphuret in the acid with the aid of a gentle heat; boil for half an hour; filter; pour the liquid into the water; collect the precipitate on a calico filter, wash it with cold water till the water ceases to redden litmus paper; dry the precipitate over the vapour bath. Take of this precipitate, ^'ij.; Bitartrate of Potash, 3;iv. and gij.; Water, fjxxvij. Mix the powders, add the water, boil for an hour, filter, and set the liquid aside to crystallize. The mother liquor when concentrated yields more crystals, but not so free of colour, and, therefore, requiring a second crystallization. By the mutual reaction of sesquisulphuret of antimony and hydrochloric acid, we obtain a sesquichloride of antimony (see p. 546.) When this is mixed with 556 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. water an oxichloride of antimony is precipitated (see p. 550.) The sesquioxide contained in. this unites with the bitartrate of potash and forms emetic water. The Dublin College orders Emetic Tartar to be prepared with Nitro-Muriatic Oxide of Antimony (Oxichloride, see p. 550,) four parts; Bitartrate of Potash, triturated to a mo6t sub- tile powder, Jive parts; Distilled Water, thirtyfour par tsr [The process of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia is similar to that of the Dublin College. The di- rections are as follows:—Take of Sulphuret of Antimony in fine powder, four ounces; Mu- riatic Aeid, twenty -five ounces ; Nitric Acid, two drachms; Water, a gallon. Having mixed the acids together in a glass vessel, add by degrees the Sulphuret of Antimony, and digest the mixture with a gradually increasing heat, till the effervescence ceases, then boil an hour. Filter the lienor when it has become cold and pour it into the water, wash the precipitated powder frequently with water, till it is entirely freed from acid and then dry it. Take of this powder two ounces; Bitartrate of Potassa in very fine powder, two ounces and a-half; Tistilled Water, eighteen fluid ounces. Boil the water in a glass vessel; then add the pow. ders previously mixed together and boil for an hour; lastly, filter the liquor while hot and set it aside to crystallize. By farther evaporation, the liquor may be made to yield an addi- tional quantity of crystals, which should be purified by a second crystallization.] Properties.—Emetic tartar crystallizes in white, transparent, inodorous, Fig. 88. Octohedron of Emetic Tartar. rhombic, octohedrons, whose lateral planes are striated. By exposure to the air the crystals become opake, probably by giving out an equivalent of water. Their taste is feebly sweet- ish, then styptic and metallic. They dissolve in 14 or 15 parts of water at 60° F. (12T%5^ at 70°, Brandes,)—and in two parts, (2-^ parts, Brandes) at 212°. The aqueous solution slightly reddens litmus and undergoes decomposition by keeping, like solutions of tartaric acid and most tartrates.1 Emetic tartar is not soluble in alcohoL When calcined in close vessels it yields a pyrophoric alloy of antimony and potassium. The crystals decrepitate in the fire. Characteristics.—Heated in a porcelain or glass capsule this salt is charred, showing that it contains an organic substance (tartaric aeid.) If the charred salt be heated in a glass tube by a blowpipe, globules of antimony are obtained. If a stream of hydrosulphuric acid gas be transmitted through a watery solution of emetic tartar, the latter becomes Fig. 89. orange-red (fig. 89:) if a small quantity of hydrochloric acid be then added, a floccul'ent orange-red precipitate (hy- drated sesquisulphuret of antimony) takes place. This precipitate is to be collected and dried, and intro- duced into a green glass tube, and a current of hydrogen gas transmit- ted over it. When the process has gone on for a few minutes, the heat of a spirit lamp should be applied to the sesquisulphuret: hydrosulphuric acid and metallic antimony are pro- duced. A portion of the latter is [spuriously!] sublimed. The metal is known to be antimony by dis- solving it in nitro-hydrochloric acid: the solution forms a white precipi- tate (Powder of Algaroth) on the addition of water, and an orange-red Apparatus for reducing Sulphuret of Antimony' a. Vessel for generating Hydrogen. b. Reduction tube. e. Vessel containing solution of Acetate of Lead to detect the Hydrosulphuric Acid which is formed. i The soft flexible mass which forms in a solution of Emetic Tartar, is said by Keitzing (Repertoirede Chimie, t. iii. p. 278; Paris, 1838) to be a vegetable organized being, which he bas described and figured ai before stated (see p. 361.) ANTIMONY-TARTRATE OP POTASH. 557 one with hydrosulphuric acid gas, or hydrosulphate of ammonia. (See fig. 89.) This process was proposed by the late Dr. E. Turner. A solution of emetic tartar forms while precipitates with oxalic and the strong mineral acids, the alkalis and their carbonates, and lime water: grayish or yellow- ish-white (tannate of antimony) with infusion of nutgalls: and reddish with the soluble hydrosulphates. Their relative delicacy, as well as the delicacy of hy- drosulphuric acid, has been thus determined by Devergie:—(Med. Leg. ii. 770.) Dilution ofthe Solution. Hydrochloric acid does not form aprecipitate at................ 2,500 Sulphuric (or oxalic) acid........ditto.......................... '.000 Ti-ncture of nutgalls„...........ditto......................... 1,000 Lime water....................stops at....................... V0O Potash (soda, ammonia, or carbonate of ammonia) stops at..... -i.UOO Hydrosulphuric acid (or hydrosulphate of ammonia) ditto.......100,000 The sesquioxide of antimony, thrown down by the alkalis, is soluble in an excess ofthe precipitant. The precipitate formed by sulphuric or nitric acid, is the sesqui- oxide combined with a small quantity of the acid. Acetic acid does not occasion any precipitate. Composition.—The following is the composition of this salt:— Eq. Atoms. Wt. Per Ct. Watlquist. R. Phill. Thomson. ^AnUmony^j2-- I54--42'65--'' 4299" 4335" 42'62 "| Potash..........1.. 48.. 1329.... 1326| .q.oe Tartaric Acid...2.. 132.. 3656.... 3861 $ ) ..5738 >-°r< Water...........3.. 27.. 7 47___ 514'.....740 ( Atoms. _*. Wt. Per Cent. Ditartrateof j . Antimony.... J 220 .. .. 6694 Tartrate Potash .. 1 .. 114 .. 27 .. .. 3157 .. 7-47 Emetic Tartar. .1.. 361.. 99-97___ 100-00 ..100 0.. 10000 J Purity.—In the crystalline state the purity of this salt is easily determined. The crystals should be well formed, perfectly colourless, transparent, or opaque, and, when dropped into a solution of hydrosulphuric acid, have an orange-coloured deposite formed on them. When pure the powder of this salt is perfectly white. Some ignorant druggists prefer a yellowish white powder, and I am informed by a manufacturer of this salt that he is obliged to keep too varieties (one white, the other yellowish white,) to meet the demands of his customers! The yellow tint is owing to the presence of iron, which is readily detected in the salt by the blue colour immediately produced in its solution by adding first a few drops of dilute sulphuric acid, and then ferro- cyanide of potassium. Emetic tartar is sometimes adulterated with bitartrate of potash. According to Mr. Hennell, (Phillips's Transl. of the Pharm. 4th ed.) the antimonial salt may contain 10 per cent, of bitartrate, and yet the whole will dissolve in the proper quantity (14 or 15 parts) of water. In order to detect any uncombined bitartrate he adds a few drops of a solution of carbonate of soda to a boiling solution ofthe antimonial salt, and if the precipitate formed be not dissolved, he concludes that there is no bitartrate of potash present. A dilute solution of emetic tartar occasions no precipitate with chloride of barium: it produces a white precipitate (unless the solutions be very dilute) with nitrate of silver, soluble in excess of water. Totally soluble in water, no bitartrate of potash remaining in the vessel; and hydrosulphu- ric acid being added, a reddish coloured precipitate is obtained. Neither chloride of barium nor nitrate of silver being added to [a dilute] solution, precipitates any thing. Nitric acid throws down a precipitate, which is dissolved by an excess of it. Ph. L. "Entirely soluble in twenty parts of water; solution colourless,, and not affected by solu- tion of ferrocyanide of potassium : a solution in forty parts of water is not affected by its own volume of a solution of eight parts of acetate of lead in thirty-two parts of water and fifteen parts of acetic acid." Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects, x. On Vegetables.—Emetic tartar acts as a poison to plants. (Sch'ubler and ZeHer,in Schweigger^s Journ. f. d. Chem. 1827, B. 50, S 54-60.) 558 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. j3. On Animals.—An extended examination of the effects of emetic tartar on the different classes of animals is still a desideratum. Hitherto experiments with it have been principally confined to dogs, rabbits, horses, oxen, sheep, and cats. Moiroud (Pharm. Veter. 287.) has given two drachms to horses, and gradually increased the dose'to six ounces, without perceiving any remarkable and perma- nent derangement in the exercise of the principal functions. Gilbert (quoted by Moiroud) has exhibited ten drachms to a cow, and four to a sheep, without any re- markable effect: but six drachms killed an animal ofthe latter species. Magendie (Orfila, Toxicol. Gen.) examined its effects on dogs. He found that from six to ten grains introduced into the stomach killed the animals in from two to three hours, when the gullet was tied: those who were able to get rid of it by vomiting took as much as a drachm without experiencing any bad effects, and in some cases half an ounce caused no ill effects. From his experiments it appears to operate locally and by absorption, its principal action being on the intestinal canal and lungs: for nausea, vomiting, alvine evacuations, difficulty of respiration, and ac- celerated respiration, were produced by injecting a solution of the salt into the veins, by introducing it into the stomach, as well as by applying it in the solid state to the cellular tissue. Traces of pneumonia, gastritis, and enteritis, were found after death. These experiments have been repeated by Rayer and Bonnet (Diet, de Med. et de Chir. Prat. iii. 69.) on rabbits; but without obtaining the lesion of. the lungs men- tioned by Magendie: in some cases no appreciable lesion was observed in any organ. Dr. Campbell (quoted by Dr. Christison) found no pulmonary inflammation in a cat killed by this salt. According to Flourens,1 emetic tartar injected into the veins of ruminants causes efforts to vomit, but not actual vomiting; of the four stomachs possessed by these animals, the reed or true stomach is the only one affected by it. Orfila3 has detected antimony in the viscera of animals to whom emetic tartar had been administered by the stomach. y. On Man. ~«. Local effects.—Emetic tartar is a powerful local irritant. Its irritant properties may be regarded as of a peculiar or specific kind; at least if we are to judge from its well-known effects when applied to the epidermis (as in the form of solution or ointment, or sprinkled over a plaster.) It causes an eruption of painful pustules, resembling those of variola or ecthyma. The smaller ones are semi-globular; the larger ones, when at their height, are flattened, are surrounded with an inflammatory border, contain a pseudo-membranous deposite and some purulent serum, and have a central dark point. When they have attained their greatest magnitude, the central brown spots become larger and darker, and, in a few days, desiccation takes place, and the crusts are thrown off*. The largest are produced by using the powder sprinkled over a plaster; the smallest are developed by applying the solution. They are usually very painful. I am acquainted with no agent which produces an eruption precisely similar. The facility with which this eruption is produced varies considerably in diffe- rent individuals, and in the same individual at different times. A similar pustular eruption has been met with in the mouth, oesophagus, and small intestines, from the internal use of emetic tartar, and white aphthous spots have been observed on the velum and tonsils. (Lepelletier, De VEmploi du Tart. Slibie, p. 171. Paris, 1835.) But these effects are rare. Severe inflam- mation of the throat (angina antimonialis?) has sometimes followed the employ- ment of antimony. (Lond. Med. Gaz. March 20, 1840, p. 960.) We have farther evidence of the local irritation produced by emetic tartar, in its action on the stomach and intestines. When swallowed in full doses it gives rise to vomiting and purging, and pain in the epigastric region. After death, redness of the gastro-intestinal membrane has been found. However, it would appear from the experiments of Magendie, before referred to, that part of this 1 Memoires de I'Academie Royale des Sciences, t. xvi. 1838; also Journal de Chimie Med. ix. 21. » Journ. de Chim. Mid. t. vi. lie Serie, p. 290. See also the report of the Commissioners ofthe French Aca- demy of Sciences, in the Journ. de Pharm. xxvii. p. 415. ANTIMONY-TARTRATE OF POTASH. 559 effect should be referred to the specific influence which emetic tartar exerts over the stomach, independent of its direct local irritation, since the same symptoms have been induced by the application of this substance to wounds, or by its injec- tion into the veins. Occasionally constitutional effects (nausea, vomiting, and griping pains) have appeared to result from the application of emetic tartar to the skin. (Journ. de Chimie Med. iv. 478.) In one instance death resulted from its employment: the patient was an infant two years of age, and death occurred in forty-eight hours. (Med. Repos. xvi. 357.) These effects, if really produced by this salt, occur very rarely. I have applied to the skin emetic tartar (in the form of solu- tion, ointment, and plaster) in a very large number of cases, without having ob- served any constitutional effect; though I have occasionally fancied that it ame- liorated pulmonary affections, even when no eruption or redness was produced, and which might arise from absorption.1 |3/3. Remote or constitutional effects.—Taken internally, in small doses, emetic tartar increases the secretion and exhalation of the gastro-enteritic membrane, and ofthe liver and pancreas. Subsequently it acts powerfully on other emunctories: thus it causes sweating, without any very marked vascular excitement; it renders the mucous membranes (especially the aerian membrane) moister, and, when the skin i3 kept cool, promotes the secretion of urine. These effects are produced more certainly and speedily by this salt than by any other antimonial prepa- ration. In somewhat larger doses it excites nausea, frequently with vomiting, disor- ders the digestive functions, gives rise to an uneasy sensation in the abdominal region, depresses the nervous functions, relaxes the tissues (especially the mus- cular fibres,) and occasions a feeling of great feebleness and exhaustion. These symptoms are accompanied or followed by increased secretion and exhalation from the different emunctories, but especially from the skin, as above mentioned. Of all emetic substances this creates the most nausea and depression. In excessive doses emetic tartar has, in a few instances, acted as an irritant poison, and even occasioned death. In one case a scruple, in another 27 grains, nearly proved fatal. (Orfila, Toxicol. Gen.) In a third 40 grains caused death. (Ibid.) The symptoms in the latter case were vomiting, hypercatharsis, con- vulsions, epigastric pain and tumefaction, and delirium. Death occurred four days after the ingestion of the poison. Were the above cases not well authenticated, we should be disposed to ascribe the dangerous symptoms, and death, to some other circumstance than the use of the above-mentioned quantities of emetic tartar; for of late years this salt has been extensively employed in enormous and repeated doses with perfect safety. Rasori (llayle's Bibliotheq. de Therap. i. 198.) has given many drachms in twenty-four hours, and many ounces during the course of a disease, without occasioning either vomiting or abundant alvine evacuations. Laennec (Treatise on Discuses of the Chest, by Dr. Forbes, p. 249.) has confirmed, to a certain extent, the statements of Rasori. He gave a scruple, two scruples, and even a drachm and a-half, within twenty-four hours (usually in doses of one, two, or three grains) without ever having seen any injurious consequences. The usual effects which I have observed from the continued use of one or two grain doses, are, nausea, vomiting, and purging, which/m most cases are much diminished, or entirely cease, after the use of the medicine for a day or two. Perspiration I have found to be a frequent effect. In all the instances above referred to, in which these large doses were administered, the patients were affected with inflammatory dis- eases. Now it is to this morbid state, or diathesis, that, according to Rasori, (Op. cit.) we ought to ascribe the tolerance of, or capability or aptitude of bear- ing, these immense quantities of so powerful a medicine (vide p. 149) for some ' See also some experiments on this subject in Mem. ofthe Med. Soc. Lond. vols. ii. iv. and v. 560 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. remarks on the Italian theory of contra-stimulus.) Consequently, if the opinion be worth any thing, the susceptibility lo the influence of the medicine should increase as the disease subsides; a circumstance which Rasori asserts really takes place. But in this the theoretical views of this distinguished Italian have probably led him to overlook the fact. "It is certainly true," observes Laen- nec, (Op. cit.) "that after the acute period of the disease [peripneumonia,] the tolerance diminishes, or sometimes entirely ceases; but it is more common to find the patient become habituated to the medicine, insomuch that during con- valescence, and when he has begun to use food as in health, he will take daily, without knowing it, six, nine, twelve, or even eighteen grains of the emetic tar- tar." Though I have seen this salt extensively employed in both public and private practice, I have never met any satisfactory cases supporting Rasori's assertion of the diminished tolerance when the patient becomes convalescent. Moreover, large doses have been taken by healthy individuals without any re- markable effects. Alibert (Nouv. Elem. d. Therap. 5me ed. i. 259.) saw at the Hopital St. Louis, a man who took a drachm of this salt, in order to poison himself, but suffered no remarkable inconvenience from it. Lebreton (Orfila, Toxicol. Gen.) reports the case of a girl who swallowed six drachms at once as a poison: oil was immediately given; vomiting took place, and she soon recovered. Other published cases might be brought forward in proof of the slight effects of large doses of this salt, but I must content myself with referring to the Memoir of Magendie (De VInfluence de VEmetique.) for notices of them. I may add, however, that this distinguished physiologist concludes, that the comparative slightness of the effects arose from the evacuation of the salt a few moments after its ingestion; but in several, at least, of the cases, this was not proved; and in one it certainly did not happen: it was that of a man who swallowed 27 grains of this salt, and did not vomit. The action of large doses of emetic tartar on the circulation and respiration is usually that of a sedative. This has been very frequently, though not constantly observed. In one case of peripneumonia, the daily use of from six to eight grains of this salt reduced the pulse, in nine days, from 120 to 34 beats per minute, and diminished the number of inspirations from 50 to 18.1 In another the pulse descended, in three days, from 72 to 44 beats per minute. (Trousseau, quoted by Lepelletier.) Modus Operandi.—Emetic tartar (or the antimony of this salt) has been de- tected in the viscera of animals, as I have already stated, M. Barre, (Quoted by Rayer, Diet, de Med. et de Chir. Prat. iii. 69.) however, endeavoured to prove that emetic tartar could not be absorbed by the healthy mucous membrane of the alimentary canal. Minaret (Lond. Med. Gaz. xiii. 496.) states that a young woman labouring under pleuritis took emetic tartar, which operated on the child at her breast as well as on herself. Several parts of the body are influenced by this salt The specific affection of the alimentary canal (especially of the stomach) is shown by the vomiting3 and purging produced, not only when the medicine is swallowed, but when it is injected into the veins or into the wind-pipe, or when applied to the serous coats of the intestines, or to the cellular tissue. If it purge or occasion sweating, it usually causes thirst, but not commonly otherwise. The appetite and digestion are frequently unimpaired. After the use of it for some days, patients some- times complain of irritation in the mouth and throat, with a metallic taste: this has been considered a sign that the system is saturated with antimony, and that the use of it should be suspended. A pustular eruption has occasionally appeared in the mouth, as I have already mentioned (p. 658.) Magendie ascribes to emetic tartar a specific power of causing engorgement or inflammation of the lungs ; for he found, on opening the bodies of animals killed i Bouneau et Constant, quoted by Lepelletier, De I'emploi du Tart. Stib. 84. * For some observations on the mode by which this salt induces vomiting, see p. 202. ANTIMONV-TARTRATE OF POTASH. 561 by it, that the lungs were of an orange red or violet colour, incapable of crepitating, gorged with blood, and here and there hepatized. Moreover, it has been assumed that the same effects are produced in the human pulmonary organs; and in sup- port of this opinion a case noticed by Jules Cloquet (Orfila, Toxicol. Gen.) has been referred to: it is that of a man who died of apoplexy, but who, within five days of his death, had taken 40 grains of tartar emetic. " In the lungs were observed very irregular blackish spots, which extended more or less deeply into the parenchyma of this organ." Farthermore, it is argued, that unless we admit a specific influence of antimony over the lungs, we cannot well explain the bene- ficial effects of this remedy in peripneumonia. In opposition to this view, I would remark, that in cases of poisoning by this substance in the human subject, no mention is made of difficulty of breathing, cough, pain, or other symptom, which could lead to the suspicion that the lungs were suffering; and in the case of poisoning related by Recamier, (Orfila, op. cit.) we are distinctly told that the thorax was sound. Besides, we should expect that if emetic tartar had a ten- dency to inflame the lungs, or at least to occasion pulmonary engorgement, that large doses of it would not be very beneficial in acute peripneumonia. It would even seem that this substance must have an influence over the human lungs of an opposite kind to that supposed by Magendie; for, as already related, it reduces the frequency of respiration in a considerable number of instances. The sedative influence of emetic tartar over the circulatory system has been already noticed: it is, however, not always evident. The great depression of the muscular power, the diminution of the frequency of the pulse and fainting, the epigastric pain sometimes experienced under cir- cumstances that almost preclude the supposition of gastric inflammation, the cramps and convulsions, the delirium and insensibility, caused by emetic tartar in poisonous doses, are referrible to the influence of this substance over the ner- vous system. The absorbent system is supposed to be stimulated to greater activity by eme- tic tartar, in consequence of the disappearance of serous and synovial effusions under its use. Moreover, Laennec (Op. cit. p. 203.) ascribed the efficacy of it in peripneumonia to the increased activity ofthe interstitial absorption.1 The influence of it over the secreting organs has been before referred to. (See Liquefucientia, p. 194.) Every one is familiar with its diaphoretic proper- ties. Its diuretic effect is best seen when the skin is kept cool, and when nei- ther vomiting nor purging supervene. Magendie says, it augmented the secre- tion of saliva in dogs; and the same effect has been observed in man by Drs. Griffith and Jackson. The menstrual discharge is not checked by it; but occa- sionally has come under its use. Usks.—As an emetic, this salt is usually administered by the stomach, but it is sometimes used as an enema, and occasionally is injected into the veins. When administered by the stomach, it is generally given in doses of one or two grains, frequently in combination with ten or fifteen grains of ipecacuanha. When our object is merely to evacuate the contents of the stomach, and with as little con- stitutional disorder as possible (as in cases of narcotic poisoning,) other emetics (as the sulphates of zinc and copper) are to be preferred, since they occasion less nausea and depression of system, while they excite speedy vomiting. On the other hand, when we use vomiting as a means of making an impression on the system, and thereby of putting a sudden stop to the progiess of a disease, emetic tartar is by far our best vomit. It is with this view that it is sometimes em- ployed in the early stages of fever, especially when accompanied by gastric or bilious disorder. It is most efficacious when given at the very commencement of the symptoms, and before the disease is fully formed. In such cases it occa- sionally puts an entire stop to the progress of fever. But, unfortunately, the 1 I have already made ^ouic obbervaiions on the mode by which rcsulvcnts operate. See u 194. Vol. I.—71 562 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. practitioner is not usually called in to see the patient until the proper period for the exhibition of an emetic has passed by,—that is, until the disease is fully established. Emetic tartar is used as a vomit, with considerable success, in the early stage of inflammatory diseases; especially in croup, tonsillitis, swelled tes- ticle, bubo, and ophthalmia. Here, also, the success of the remedy is in propor- tion to its early application. In croup it should be given to excite in the first instance vomiting, and afterwards prolonged nausea. Under this plan of treat- ment I have seen two or three slight cases completely recover without the use of any other remedial agent. Dr. Copland (Diet, of Pract. Med. i. 467.) also bears testimony to the success of the practice. In most cases it will be found advisable to precede the use of this medicine by blood-letting. Dr. Cheyne (Essay on Cynanche Trachealis, 1801.) advises the employment of emetic tar- tar in the second stage of croup, for the purpose of moderating vascular action, and of promoting the separation of the adventitious membrane. But I am dis- posed to rely chiefly on calomel (given so as speedily to occasion ptyalism) and blood-letting. Dr. Cheyne recommends half a grain*of emetic tartar to be dis- solved in a table-spoonful of water, and given to a child two or three years of age, every half hour till sickness and vomiting are produced; and, in two hours after the last act of vomiting, the same process is to be recommenced, and so re- peated while the strength will admit. Another disease which is relieved by the occasional use of emetics is hooping-cough. They should be administered at the commencement of the disease, every, or every other day. They diminish the violence and length of the fits of spasmodic coughing, and promote expecto- ration. Emetic tartar is particularly valuable in this disease in consequence of being tasteless, and, therefore, peculiarly adapted for exhibition to children. In derangements of the hepatic functions, indicating the employment of emetics, this salt is usually preferred to other vomiting agents, on account of its supposed influence in promoting the secretion of bile. Clysters containing emetic tartar have been employed to occasion vomiting, but they are very uncertain in their operation. Rayer has frequently employed from six to twelve grains without producing either nausea or vomiting. It has been repeatedly injected into the veins to excite vomiting. The usual dose is two or three grains dissolved in two ounces of water; but in some cases six grains have been employed. The effects are unequal: when vomiting does occur it is not always immediate; frequently it does not take place at all. (Dief- fenbach, Transf. d. Blut. u. d. Infus. d. Arzn.) In several cases of choking, from the lodgment of pieces of meat in the oesophagus, this remedy has been ap- plied with great success; vomiting was produced, and with it the expulsion of the meat. It has also been tried in epilepsy and trismus: but frequently with dangerous consequences. (Ibid. p. 49.) Meckel employed it to restore anima- tion in asphyxia by drowning. (Ibid.) It has also been used in tetanus. (Lancet for 1836-7, vol. i. p. 35.) As a nauseant, to reduce the force of the circulation and the muscular power, emetic tartar is frequently of considerable service. Thus, in dislocations of the larger joints (the hip and shoulder, for example,) blood-letting, and nauseating doses of emetic tartar, are employed to diminish the resistance of the muscles opposing the reduction. Even in strangulated hernia it has been given. (Ibid. p. 876.) Emetic tartar, in large doses, is a most powerful and valuable remedy in the treatment of inflammation, especially peripneumonia. As an emetic, nauseant, or diaphoretic, it has long been in use in this disease; having been employed by Riverius in the 17th century, and subsequently by Stoll, Brendel, Schroeder, and Richter, in Germany; by Pringle, Cullen, and Marryat, in England. But as a remedy for inflammation, independent of its evacuant effects, we are in- debted for it to Rasori (See the French translation of his Memoir, in Bayle's Biblioth. de Therap. i. 198.) who first used it in the years 1799 and 1800, in an ANTIMONV-TARTRATE OF POTASH. 563 epidemic fever which raged at Genoa. Subsequently he exhibited it much more extensively, and in larger doses, in peripneumonia. This mode of treatment was tried and adopted in France, first by Laennec; (Treatise on Diseases of the Chest, translated by Dr. Forbes.) and in this country by Dr. Balfour. (Illustra- tions of the Power of Emetic Tartar, 2d edit. 1819.) Its value as an antiphlo- gistic is now almost universally admitted. Practitioners, however, are not quite agreed as to the best method of using it. Rasori, (Op cit.) Laennec, (Op. cit.) Re- camier, (Gazette Medicale, 1832, p. 503.) Broussais, (Cours de Pathologie et de Therapeutique generate, ii. 521.) Bouillaud, '(Diclionnaire de Medecine et de Chirurgie pratique, xiii. 495.) Dr. Mackintosh, (Practice of Physic, i. 426.) Drs. Graves and Stokes, (Dublin Hospital Reports, v. p. 48.) Dr. Davis (Lectures on Diseases of the Lungs and Heart, 188.) and most practitioners of this coun- try, employ blood-letting in peripneumonia, in conjunction with the use of eme- tic tartar. But by several continental physicians the abstraction of blood is con- sidered both unnecessary and hurtful. Thus Peschier (Bayle, Bibliotheque Therapeutique, i. 246.) advises on no account to draw blood: and Trousseau (Dictionnaire de Medecine, 2de ed.iii. 220.) observes, that blood-letting, far from aiding the action of emetic tartar, as Rasori, Laennec, and most practitioners, imagine, is, on the contrary, singularly injurious to the antiphlogistic influence of this medicine. Louis (Recherches de la Saignee. Paris, 1835.) has pub- lished some numerical results of the treatment of inflammation of the lungs by blood-letting, and by emetic tartar; from which it appears that this substance, given in large doses, where blood-letting appeared to have no effect, had a fa- vourable action, and appeared to diminish the mortality. (Op. cit. p. 62.) But he particularly states that blood-letting must not be omitted (p. 32.) Laennec's mode of using this salt, and which, with some slight modification, I believe to be the best, is the following:—Immediately after bleeding gave one grain of emetic tartar, dissolved in two ounces and a-half of some mild fluid [cold weak infusion of orange flowers,] sweetened with half an ounce of sirup of marshmallows: this is to be repeated every two hours for six times, and then suspended for seven or eight hours, if the symptoms are not urgent, or if there be any inclination to sleep. But if the disease has already made progress, or if the oppression be great, or the head affected, continue the medicine until amend- ment takes place; and in severe cases increase the dose to two, or two and a-half grains. The only modification in this plan, which I would venture to propose, is, to begin with a somewhat smaller dose (say one-third or one-half of a grain,) and gradually increase it; for in consequence of the violent vomiting which one grain has sometimes produced, I have found patients positively refuse to con- tinue the use of the medicine. From my own experience I should say, that emetic tartar is nearly as ser- viceable when it causes moderate sickness and slight purging, as when it occa- sions no evacuation: but many practitioners deny this. Laennec observes, that " in general the effect of emetic tartar is never more rapid, or more efficient, than when it gives rise to no evacuation; sometimes, however, its salutary operation is accompanied by a general perspiration. Although copious vomiting and purging are by no means desirable, on account of the debility and hurtful irrita- tion ofthe intestinal canal which they may occasion, I have obtained remarkable cures in cases in which such evacuations had been very copious." (Op. supra cit. p. 251.) A few drops of tincture of opium may be sometimes conjoined with the antimony, to check its action on the alimentary canal. The attempts which have been made to explain the modus medendi of emetic tartar in pneumonia and other inflammatory diseases, are most unsatisfactory. Whilst almost every writer, even Broussais, admits its efficacy in inflammation, scarcely two agree in the view taken ofthe mode by which its good effects are produced; as the following statement proves. Rasori explains its operation according to the principles of the theory of contra-stimulus, (Vide p. 143.) of which he may be regarded as the founder. He considers emetic tartar en- dowed with the power of directly diminishing the inflammatory stimulus; of destroying the 564 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. diathesis, and of being, therefore, a real contra-stimulus. Broussais, Bouillaud, and Barbier, ascribe its curative powers to its revulsive or derivative action on the gastrointestinal mem- brane. Laennec thinks that it acts by increasing the activity of interstitial absorption. Fon. taueilles supposes that the antiphlogistic effect depends on alterations in the composition of the blood. Eberle (Materia Medica, i. 66.) refers it to the sedative effects, first, on the ner- vous system, and consecutively on the heart and arteries. Teallier thinks that, like many other therapeutic agents, it influences the organism by concealed curative properties. Dr. Macartney (A Treatise on Inflammation. 1838.) regards it as a medicine diminishing the force of the circulation, by the nausea which it occasions. These examples are sufficient to show the unsatisfactory condition of ouf present knowledge as to the mode by which emetic tartar produces its curative effects. (See p. 194 for some observations on the curative agency of resolvents.) But this is no argument against the existence of remedial powers. Shall we deny the efficacy of blood-letting in inflammation, of mercury in syphilis, of cinchona in inter- niittents, of arsenic in lepra, of sulphur in scabies, of hydrocyanic acid in gastrodynia, and of a host of other remedies, simply because we cannot account for their beneficial effects? The tact is, that in the present state of our knowledge we cannot explain the modus medendi of a large number of our best and most certain remedial means. (I have already offered some remarks on the modus medendi of liquefacients and resolvents, at p. 194.) In pleurisy emetic tartar does not succeed so well as in inflammation of the sub- stance ofthe lungs. "It, indeed, reduces speedily the inflammatory action," says Laennec, (Op. cit. p. 259.) " but when the fever and pain have ceased, the effusion does not always disappear more rapidly under the use of tartar emetic than with- out it." I have sometimes conjoined opium (always after copious blood-letting) with advantage. In bronchitis (both acute and chronic) it may be most usefully employed, in conjunction with the usual antiphlogistic agents. (Fide also Dr. Kemp, Lond, Med. Gaz. xix. 300; and Mr. Ellis, op. cit. p. 369.) In rheumatism (especially the kind called articular,) next to peripneumonia, emetic tartar has been found by some practitioners (especially by Laennec,) (Op. cit.) more effica- cious than in any other inflammatory affection: the usual duration of the com- plaint, when treated by this remedy, was found by Laennec to be seven or eight days. (See also Bayle's Bibl. Therap. i. 311; and Lepelletier, De VEmploi du Tart. Slib. p. 220.) In muscular rheumatism it succeeds less perfectly. Syno- vial effusions (whether rheumatic or otherwise) have, in some cases, given way rapidly to the use of emetic tartar. (Laennec, op. cit. p. 263; and Gimelle, Brit. and For. Med. Rev. for July, 1838, p. 224.) In arachnitis, Laennec has seen all the symptoms disappear, under the use of emetic tartar, in forty-eight hours. In three instances of acute hydrocephalus, all the symptoms disappeared in the same space of time. In phlebitis; (Laennec, op. cit.) in inflammation of the mammae, occurring after delivery; (Dr. E. Kennedy, Mr. Lever, and Dr. Ashwell, Lond. Med. Gaz. xx. 761.) in ophthalmia, and various other inflammatory affec- tions, emetic tartar has been successfully employed as an antiphlogistic. In continued fever, it is of considerable service. Mild cases are benefited by the use of small doses (as from one-sixteenth to one-fourth of a grain,) as a dia- phoretic. In the more severe form of this disease, accompanied with much vas- cular excitement, emetic tartar, in the dose of half a grain or a grain, may be use- fully administered as an antiphlogistic; but its use should, in general, be preceded by blood-letting. In the advanced stages of typhus fever, accompanied with in- tense cerebral excitement, manifested by loss of sleep, delirium, T«r (Argentum liquidum:) and the first of these naturalists says that Deedalus (who is supposed to have lived about 1300 years before Christ) communicated a power of motion to a wooden Venus by pouring quicksilver into it. We are also told that Daedalus was taught this art by the priests of Memphis. Pliny (Hist. Nat. lib. xxxiii.) and Dioscorides (Lib. v. cap. ex.) also speak of mercury, and the latter writer describes the method of obtaining it from cinnabar. Mercury was first employed medicinally by the Arabian physicians Avicenna and Rhazes; but they only ventured to use it externally against vermin and cuta- neous diseases. We are indebted to that renowned empiric Paracelsus for its administration internally. Synonymes.—The names by which this metal has been distinguished are nu- merous. Some have reference to its silvery appearance and liquid form: as 'rfyctpyvpe-r, Hydrargyria and Hydrargyrum, (from "rS'ap, Aqua, and 'Apyvper, Silver;) others to its mobility and liquidity, as well as its similarity to silver, such as Argentum vivum, Aqua argentea, Aqua metallorum, and Quicksilver. It has been called Mercury, after the messenger of the gods, on account of its volatility. Natural History.—Mercury is comparatively a rare substance. It is found in the metallic state, either pure (Native or Virgin Mercury,) in the form of globules, in the cavities or the other ores of this metal, or combined with silver (Native Amalgam.) Bisulphuret of mercury (Native Cinnabar) is the most important of the quicksilver ores, since the metal of commerce is chiefly obtained from it. The principal mines of it are those of Idria in Carniola, and Almaden in Spain. The latter yielded 10,000 lbs. of cinnabar annually to Rome in the time of Pliny. (Hist. Nat. xxxiii.) Protochloride of mercury (Mercurial Horn Ore or Corneous Mercury) is another of the ores of mercury. Traces of this metal have also been met with in common salt, during its distillation with sul- phuric acid, by Rouelle, Proust, Westrumb, and Wurzer. (Gmelin, Handb. d. Chemie, i. 1282.) Preparation.—The extraction of quicksilver is very simple. In some places (as in the Palatinate and the duchy of Deux-Ponts) the native cinnabar is mixed with caustic lime, and distilled in iron retorts. In this process the lime abstracts the sulphur (forming sulphuret of calcium,) and the disengaged mercury distils over. At Almaden the ore is roasted, by which the sulphui is converted into sulphurous acid, and the mercury volatilized. At Idria a modification of this process is followed. (Dumas, Traite de Chimie, iv. 305.) Commerce.—Quicksilver is imported in cylindrical, wrought-iron bottles (hold- ing from 60 lbs. to 1 cwt.,) the mouth of each being closed by an iron screw; and also in goat-skins, two or three times doubled. The quantities imported in the years 1827, 1830, and 1840, and the places from which the metal was brought in the first two years, are thus stated in the Parliamentary Papers:1— 1827. 1830. 1840. Spain and the Balearic Islands...... 653,374 lbs....... 1,675,652 lbs. ") Gibraltar......................... 121,1120 „ ...... — „ Italy and the Italian Islands....... 10S.567 „ ...... 331,416,, j-328,556 lbs. 883,261 ........ 2,007,068 „ J Properties.—At ordinary temperatures quicksilver is an odourless, tasteless, liquid metal, having a whitish colour, like silver or tin. Its sp. gr. is 13*5 or 13-6. When intimately mixed with pulverulent or fatty bodies, it loses its liquid character, and it is then said to be killed, extinguished, or mortified. When i Statement ofthe Imparts and F.rports for 1827 and 1830; and Trade List for 1840. MERCURY. 583 cooled down to — 38-66° F. it freezes, and crystallizes in needles and regular octohedrons. In this state it is ductile, malleable, and tenacious. At 662° F. it boils, and produces an invisible elastic vapour, whose sp. gr. is 6-976. Mr. Fa- raday1 has shown that at common temperatures, and even when the air is pre- sent, mercury is always surrounded by a mercurial atmosphere; and, according to Stromeyer, at from 140° F. to 160° F., mercury, when mixed with water, is volatilized in considerable quantities. Chemists are not agreed as to the equiva- lent, or atomic weight, of this metal. Thus Dr. Thomson assumes 100; Gmelin, 101; Berzelius and Graham, 101-43; Brande, 200; Turner and Phillips, 202. I shall adopt the latter. Characteristics.—In its metallic or reguline state, mercury is distinguished by its liquidity at common temperatures, and by its volatility. When invisible to the naked eye, and in a finely divided state, it may be readily detected by the white stain (called by workmen ejuickening) communicated to gold and silver. Mercurial vapour may be detected by exposing gold or silver to its influence. If mercury be in combination with other metals, and the tests now mentioned be not applicable, we may dissolve the suspected substance in nitric acid, and pro- ceed as for the mercurial salts. The mercurial compounds, when heated with potash or soda, or their carbonates, yield globules of metallic mercury, which may be recognised by the properties already described. Solutions of the mer- curial salts, placed for some time in contact with a piece of bright copper, and afterwards rubbed off with paper, leave a silvery stain behind, which disappears when the copper is heated to redness. Those compounds which are of them- selves insoluble in water may be dissolved by digesting them with nitric acid; and the copper test may then be applied. In this way the mercury contained in calomel, vermilion, sulphate and iodide of mercury, may be readily recognised. Sulphuretted hydrogen produces, with mercurial solutions, a black precipitate (sulphuret of mercury.) Solutions of the protosalts of mercury yield, with caustic potash or soda, a gray or black precipitate (oxide of mercury;) and, with iodide of potassium, a greenish or yellow precipitate (iodide of mercury.) Solutions of the persalts of mercury yield, with caustic potash or soda, a yel- low or reddish precipitate (binoxide of mercury,-) and with iodide of potassium, a scarlet one (biniodide of mercury.) Purity.—The purity of this metal is ascertained by its brilliancy and great mobility. Mechanical impurities—such as adhering dirt or dust—are instantly detected, and may be separated by straining through flannel, or by filtering through a small hole in the apex of an inverted cone of paper. The presence of lead, tin, zinc, or bismuih, may be suspected by the rapidity with which the metal tarnishes in the air, and by its small parts tailing, instead of preserving a spherical form. These impurities may be got rid of by distillation in an earthen retort. Totally dissipated in vapour by heat. Dissolved by diluted nitric acid. When boiled in hydrochloric acid, the acid, when cold, is not coloured, nor is any thing precipitated from it by hydrosulphuric acid. Its specific gravity is 13 5. Ph. Lond. " Entirely sublimed by heat: a globule moved along a sheet of paper leaves no trail : pure sulphuric acid agitated with it evaporates when heated, without leaving any residuum." Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects. 1. Of Metallic Mercury, ot. On Vegetables.—Mer- curial vapours are fatal to plants. (De Candolle, Phys. Veg. 1332.) /3. On Animals.—From the experiments of Moulin, (Philosophical Transac- tions for 1691, No. 192.) Haighton, (Beddoes, On Pulmonary Consumption. 1799.) Viborg, (Quoted by Wibmer, Wirkung d. Arzneim. iii. 88.) and Gas- pard, (Magendie, Journ. de Physiol, i.) it appears that when injected into the ' Quarterly Journal of Science, x. 351. 584 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. veins, mercury collects in the small vessels of the neighbouring organs, and acts as a mechanical irritant. Thus, if thrown into the jugular vein, peripneumonia is excited; and, on examination after death, little abscesses and tubercles have been found in the lungs, in each of which was a globule of quicksilver as the nucleus. y. On Man.—Some difference of opinion exists as to the effects of liquid mer- cury when swallowed; one party asserting that it is poisonous, another that it is innocuous. The truth I believe to be this: so long as it retains the metallic state it is inert; but it sometimes combines with oxygen in the alimentary canal, and in this way acquires activity. Avicenna, Fallopius, and Brasavola, declared it harmless; Sue (Mem. de la Facult. Med. dJEmulat. 4th year, p. 252.) states that a patient took for a long time two pounds daily without injury; and I could refer to the experience of many others who have seen it employed in obstructions of the bowels, without proving noxious; but the fact is so generally known and ad- mitted, as to require no farther notice. In some instances, however, it has acted powerfully, more especially where it has been retained in the bowels for a con- siderable time; no doubt from becoming oxidized. Thus, (Miscell. Curiosa Decur. 2nda. Ann. 6, 1688.) Zwinger states that four ounces brought on profuse salivation four days after swallowing it. Laborde (Journ. de Med. i. 3.) also tells us, that a man who retained seven ounces in his body for fourteen days, was attacked with profuse salivation, ulceration of the mouth, and paralysis of the extremities; and other cases of a similar kind might be quoted. Dr. Christison considers the question set at rest by the Berlin College of Phy- sicians, and that the metal is innocuous. Applied externally, liquid mercury has sometimes produced bad effects. Dr. Scheel has related a fatal case, attended with salivation, brought on from wearing at the breast during six years a leathern bag, containing a few drachms of liquid mercury, as a prophylactic for itch and vermin. (Richter, Ausfiihr Arzneim. Supplem. Bd. 615.) The injurious effects of mercurial vapours, when inhaled or otherwise ap- plied to the body, have been long known. They are observed in water-gilders, looking-glass silverers, barometer-makers, workmen employed in quicksilver mines, and in others exposed to mercurial emanations. In most instances an affection of the nervous system is brought on, and which is indicated by the shaking palsy or tremblement mercuriel (tremor mercurialis,) which is sometimes attended with stammering (psellismus metallicus,) vertigo, loss of memory, and other cerebral disorders, Avhich frequently terminate fatally. The first symptom of shaking palsy is unsteadiness of the arm, succeeded by a kind of quivering of the muscles, which increases until the movements become of a convulsive cha- racter. In all the cases (about five or six in number) which have fallen under my notice, the shaking ceased during sleep. 1 have not seen the least benefit ob- tained by remedial means, although various modes of treatment were tried. This is not in accordance with the experience of Dr. Christison, who says the tremors " are cured easily though slowly." If the individual continue his busi- ness, other more dangerous symptoms come on, such as delirium or epilepsy, or apoplexy (apoplexia mercurialis,-) and ultimately death takes place. In some instances salivation, ulceration of the mouth, and haemoptysis, are produced by the vapour of mercury. The following remarkable case is an in- stance in point. In 1810, the Triumph man-of-war, and Phipps schooner, re- ceived on board several tons of quicksilver, saved from the wreck of a vessel near Cadiz. In consequence of the rotting of the bags the mercury escaped, and the whole of the crew3 became more or less affected. In the space of three weeks 200 men were salivated, two died, and all the animals, cats, dogs, sheep, fowls, a canary bird,—nay, even the rats, mice, and cock-roaches, were destroyed. (Ed. Med. and Surg. Journ. xxvi. 29.) As metallic mercury in the liquid slate is not active, it has been thought that MERCURY. 585 mercurial vapour must also be inactive. Thus, Dr. Christison thinks that the activity of the emanations arises from the oxidation of the metal before it is in- haled. I believe, however, with Buchner, (Toxicologie.) Orfila, (Toxicol. Gen.) and others, that metallic mercury, in the finely divided state in which it must exist as vapour, is itself poisonous. a. Of Mercurial compounds.—Probably all the mercurial compounds are more or less noxious. The only doubtful exception to this statement is in the case of the sulphurets of this metal, which, according to Orfila, (Arch. Gen. de Med. xix. 330.) are inert. _. Local effects.—For the most part, the local action ofthe mercurial compounds may be regarded as alterative, and more or less irritant. Many of the prepara- tions (as the bichloride, the nitrates, &c.) are energetic caustics. The protoxide and protochloride (calomel) are very slightly irritant only : indeed, Mr. Annesley (Diseases of India.) asserts, from his experiments on dogs, and his experience with it in the human subject, that the latter substance is the reverse of an irritant; in other words, that when applied to the gastro-intestinal membrane it diminishes its vascularity. But I suspect some error of observation here. j3. Remote effects.—In small and repeated doses, the first obvious effect of mercurials is an increased activity in the secreting and exhaling apparatus. This is particularly observed in the digestive organs ; the quantity of intestinal mucus, of bile, of saliva, of mucus of the mouth, and probably of pancreatic liquid, being augmented. The alvine discharges become more liquid, and contain a larger pro- portion of bile. The operation of the medicine does not stop here : the pulmo- nary, urino-genital, and conjunctival membranes, become moister, the urine is increased in quantity, the catamenial discharge is sometimes brought on, the skin becomes damper, and at the same time warmer ; so that mercury seems to pro- mote the excretions generally. The absorbent or lymphatic system seems also to be stimulated to increased activity; for we frequently observe that accumulations of fluids in the shut sacs (as the pleura, the peritoneum, the arachnoid, and syno- vial membranes) diminish in quantity, and in some cases rapidly disappear, under the use of mercury. At the same time, also, glandular swellings, enlargements and indurations of various kinds, are dispersed. (For some other observations respect- ing the liquefacient action of mercury see p. 194.) When our object is to obtain the sialogogue operation of mercurials, we give them in somewhat larger doses. To a certain extent the effects are the same as those already mentioned, but more intense. Of all these secretions, none are so uniformly and remarkably augmented as those of the mucous follicles ofthe mouth and the salivary glands; and the increased secretion is accompanied with more or less tenderness and inflammation of these parts, the whole constituting what is termed salivation or ptyalsm (salivatio, plyalismus, sialismus.) The first symp- toms of this affection are slight tenderness and tumefaction ofthe gums, which ac- quire a pale rose colour, except at the edges surrounding the teeth, where they are deep red. Gradually the mouth becomes exceedingly sore, and the tongue much swollen ; a coppery taste is perceived, and the breath acquires a remarkable feti- dity. The salivary glands soon become tender and swollen ; the saliva and mu- cus of the mouth flow abundantly, sometimes to the extent of several pints in the twenty-four hours. During this state, the fat is rapidly absorbed, and the patient becomes exceedingly emaciated. The blood when drawn from a vein puts on the same appearance as it does in inflammatory diseases. The quantity of saliva and buccal mucus discharged by patients under the in- fluence of mercury, varies according to the quantity ofthe medicine employed, the susceptibility of the patient, &c. Formerly salivation was carried to a much greater extent than it is at the present day. Thus Boerhaave (Aphorismi.) con- sidered that a patient should spit three or four pounds in twenty-four hours; and Tomer (Practical Dissertation on the Vci veal Diseases. 1737.) says from two Vol. I.—74 586 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. to three quarts are " a good and sufficient discharge." Modern experience has shown that all the good effects of mercurials may be gained by a very slight affec- tion of the mouth. Several analyses have been made of saliva from patients un- der the influence of mercury. Fourcroy, Thomson, Bostock, and Devergie, failed to detect the least trace of mercury in it. But some other persons have been more successful, as will be hereafter mentioned. The following are the constituents of saliva during mercurial ptyalism, according to Dr. Thomson:—(Annul, of Phil. vi. 397.) Coagulated Albumen...................................... 0-257 Mucus with a little Albumen.............................. 0 367 Chloride of Sodium........................................ 0 090 Water...................................................99280 100000 It was an opal fluid, having a sp. gr. of 1-0038, and, by standing deposited flakes of coagulated albumen. The nitrates of lead and mercury produced copious pre- cipitates with it; but the ferrocyanide of potassium and the infusion of galls had no effect on it. Dr. Bostock (Medico-Chirurg. Trans, xiii. 73.) found the saliva discharged under the influence of mercury to differ from that of the healthy state, in being less viscid, and in containing a substance analogous to coagulated albu- men,1 such as it exists in the serum of the blood; so that it would seem the mercu- rial action alters the secretion of the salivary glands, and makes it more analogous to the exhaled fluids of the serous membranes. I have tested the urine of several patients in a profuse state of salivation with- out having detected a trace of albumen in it. The effects of mercury hitherto described are such as are frequently produced for the cure of diseases: but occasionally other phenomena present themselves in individuals who have been subjected to the influence of this metal, and which have been considered as constituting a peculiar malady, to which the name of mer- curial disease (morbus mercurialis, hydrargyriasis seu hydr argyrosis, cachexia mercurialis, &c.) has been given. The pseudo-syphilis or cachexia syphiloidea of some writers, is supposed to be syphilis, more or less modified by the mercurial disease.3 The following are the ill effects which have been ascribed to this metal, and which Dieterich (Die Merkurialkrankheit. Leipzig, 1837.) regards as so many forms ofthe mecurial disease:— 1. Mercurial fever (Febris mercurialis, Dieter.)—Under this name Dieterich has included two febrile states. One of these (Febris erethica; f. salivosa) comes on a few days after the use of large doses of mercury, and is characterized by great restlessness, dryness of the mouth, headach, loss of appetite, nausea, hot and dry skin, quick pulse, red gums, swollen tongue, &c.: it usually terminates in a critical discharge (as profuse salivation, purging, or sweating,) or an eruption makes it appearance. The affection which Mr. Pearson (Observations on the Effects of varims Articles of ihe Materia Medica, p. 131. Lond. 1800.) denominated mercu- rial erethism (erethismus mercurialis,) is regarded by Dieterich as an adynamic mercurial fever (febris adynamica.) It is characterized by great depression of strength, a sense of anxiety about the pr„cordiat frequent sighing, trembling, partial or universal, a small quick pulse, sometimes vomiting, a pale contracted countenance, a sense of coldness ; but the tongue is seldom furred, nor are the vital or natural functions much disordered. When these symp- toms are present, a sudden and violent exertion of the animal power will occasionally prove fatal. 2. Excessive salivation (Ptyalismus stomachalis mercurialis. Dieter. Stomatitis.)—I have already noticed mercurial salivation as far as it is ever purposely induced for the cure of dis- eases. But it sometimes happens, either from the inordinate employment of mercury, or from some peculiarity in the constitution ofthe patient, that the mouth becomes violently affected: the gums are tumefied and ulcerated; the tongue is swollen to such an extent, that it hangs i For some interesting observations on the conversion of albumen into mucus by the action of alkalis and various salts, see Brande, in the Phil. Trans, for 1809; Pearson in ditto, for 1810; Dr. B. G. Babbington, in Guy's Hospital Reports vol. 2; and Dr. G. Bird, in ditto, vol. 3. •»See some extraordinary cases of the combined effects of syphilis and mercury in the Lancet for 1832-3, vol. ii. p. 357. MERCURY. 587 out of the mouth, incapacitating the patient from either eating or speaking; the salivary glands are enlarged, most painful, and inflamed (parotitis mercurialis,) and the saliva flows most copiously from the mouth. In one instance sixteen pounds are said to have been eva- cualed in twenty-four hours. In some cases the gums slough, the teeth loosen and drop out, and occasionally necrosis of the alveolar process takes place. During this time the system becomes extremely debilitated and emaciated ; and, if no intermission be given to the use of mercury, involuntary actions of the muscular system come on, and the patient ultimately dies of exhaustion. I have repeatedly seen inflammation and ulceration ofthe mouth, and profuse salivation, induced by a few grains of calomel or some other mercurial. A very frequent consequence of excessive mercurial salivation, and the attendant ulceration and sloughing, is contraction ofthe mucous membrane in the neighbourhood of the anterior arches ofthe palate, whereby the patient is prevented from opening the mouth, except to a very slight extent. I have met with several such cases. In one (that of a female) it followed the use of a few grains of blue pill, administered for a liver complaint. The patient remains un- able to open her mouth wider than half an inch. Several operations have been performed by different surgeons, and the contracted parts freely divided, but the relief was only temporary. In another instance (that of a child, four years of age) it was produced by a few grains of calomel. Though several years have elapsed since, the patient is obliged to suck his food through the spaces left between the jaws by the loss ofthe alveolar process. flon mercurial salivation.—Salivation is occasionally induced by other medicinal agents, as iodine (see p. 226,) iodide of potassium, nitric acid (see p. 268,) hydrocyanic acid (see p. 383.) arsenious acid (see p. 561,) emetic tartar, the preparations of gold (see p. 568,) and of copper, foxglove, even opium, and castor oil. Moreover, salivation sometimes arises spontaneously. Of this I have seen more than a dozen cases, mostly females. The greater number of them had not (according to their own account) taken medicine of any kind for several months. Several other cases of it are referred to by Dr. Christison (Treatise on Poisons, 3d ed. p. 380.) and by Dr. Watson. (Lond. Med. Gaz. Aug. 6,1841.) Occasionally the cause of it is obvious: thus pregnancy, decayed teeth, sore throat, decomposing wool in the ears, &c; but in many instances it cannot be detected. It is sometimes a matter of considerable importance to distinguish the mercurial from the non-mercurial ptyalism. The essential symptoms of salivation from mercury are tumefaction, tenderness, and inflammation of the salivary glands; sponginess, swelling, and inflammation of the gums; copious secretion and excretion of saliva; remarkable fetor of breath (usually termed mercurial fetor;) brassy or coppery taste, and tongue generally swollen. These symp. toms may be followed by ulceration and sloughing. But all the same phenomena may exist when no mercury has been taken. Even the so-called mercurial fetor of the breath is not a peculiar effect of this metal. But the disease which is most likely to be mistaken for the effects of mercury, is gangrene of the mouth, commonly called Cancrum Oris.* This usually, but not invariably, occurs in children. It consists of ulceration, followed by gangrene, of the inside of the cheek or lips, and is attended with a copious-secretion of offensive saliva. Mercurial ptyalism may some- times be distinguished from cancrum oris by the peculiar odour of the breath and the saliva- tion preceding the ulceration and sloughing; and by the gums, salivary glands, and tongue, being tumehed and inflamed. But these symptoms are by no means to be relied on, as they may also attend cancrum oris; and it must be admitted, therefore, that the two affections closely resemble each other.2 The following is a remarkable case of gangrene of the moulh occurring in the adult, and simulating the effects of mercury :— A man affected with rheumatism, sent to a surgeon for advice, who, without seeing him, prescribed some pills, one of which was to be taken thrice daily. At the end of the week, his rheumatism not being relieved, he sent his wife again to the surgeon, who ordered the pills to be repeated. Another week elapsed, when the patient requested Mr. W. fl. Coward, surgeon, of the Now North Road, Hoxton, to see him, to whom I am indebted for part of the particu- lars of this case. Mr. Coward found his patient with the following symptoms . fever, great prostration of strength, sore throat; rheumatic pains in the wrists, profuse ptyalism, more than a pint of saliva being discharged per hour, with the breath having the " mercurial" odour; and on the inner surface of the right cheek a foul ulcer. He ascribed his present condition lo the pills, as he had no sore mouth until after taking them. On cutting one ofthe pills, it was observed to have a light-brown colour, and the odour of opium : hence it was supposed Ihey were composed of calomel and opium. Purgatives, tonics, and gargles of the chloride of soda, were used without avail, and, after some days, Mr. Coward requested me to see the patient. I found him in the following condition : right side of the face swollen and slightly red, gums swollen, red, and ulcerated, breath horribly offensive, its odour not distinguishable from that called mercurial; on the inner side ofthe cheek, near the orifice ofthe parotid duct, 1 Seu an excellent account of this disease, by Dr. H. Green, in Costello's Cyclopeedia of Practical Surgery. vol. i. » In Hip London Medical Qaiette, Aug. 08, 1840, is the report of an inquest held on the body of a child who died nf ranrriun orin. but whose death was alleged to have been caused by mercury T'88 ELEMENTS OP MATERIA MEDICA. there was a slough about the size of a sixpenny piece; salivation most profuse ; in fact the saliva flowed in a continued stream from his mouth; over the body were observed a few pete- chiee. Coupling this man's condition with what I may call the "moral" circumstances of the case, I concluded that these symptoms arose from the use of mercury. Notwithstanding the means employed, the man became worse, the sloughing gradually increased until the whole ofthe right cheek became involved, and in about a week from my first visiting him he died. A day or two before his death, I called upon the surgeon who had prescribed the pills, to tell him ofthe dangerous condition of the patient, arising, as I then thought, from the use of mercury. He assured me that the pills contained the Dover's powder only, and not an atom of any mercurial preparation. These pills he kept ready prepared, as he was in the habit of prescribing them frequently. To prove the correctness of his statement, he called his assis- tant, who made and dispensed the pills, and showed me his day-book, in which was contained this patient's prescription. Furthermore, on comparing the pills which were already prepared with those taken by the patient, they were found to be identical. 3. Mercurial purging (Diarrhcea mercurialis.)—Violent purging is a very frequent conse- quence of the use of mercury. It is frequently attended with griping, and sometimes with sanguineous evacuations. In some cases there is fulness of the left hypochondrium, burning pain and tenderness of the region of the pancreas, and the evacuations are frothy, whitish, tough, and often greenish, at least in the commencement, from the intermixed bile. These symptoms may fairly be referred to an affection of the pancreas, analogous to that of the salivary glands. Dieterich (Op. cit.) terms it ptyalismus yancrealicus mercurialis (diarrhoea sqlivulis, sialorrhoea alvina, pytalismus abdominalis. 4. Urorrhcea mercurialis.—Excessive secretion of urine, from the use of mercury, is very rare. Two cases are recorded by Schlichting. (Ephemerid, A. C. L., Nuremburgae, 1748, torn, viii., Obs. viii. p. 25, quoted by Dieterich, op. cit.) 5. Hiprosis mercurialis.—Profuse sweating is another occasional effect of mercury. j6. Skin diseases.—Several forms of skin diseases, both acute and chronic, have been re- garded as part ofthe ill effects of mercury. ct. Eczema mercuriale, Pearson; (Erythema mercuriale, Spens and Mullins; Lepra mercu- rialis, Stokes and Moriarty; Hydrargyria, Alley, Rayer; Erysipelas mercuriale, Cullerier, Lagneau; SpUosis merpurialis, Schmalz.)—This disease appears occasionally during the pro- gress of a mercurial course. Some writers have frequently met with it:—Thus, Alley (Observ. on the Hydrargyria, 1810.) saw forty-three cases in ten years, and of this number eight ter- minated fatally. Rayer confesses, that in twenty years he never saw but three instances of it. I have seen only two cases of it. The disease consists of innumerable, minute, and pel- lucid vesicles, which have been mistaken for papulae. These give the appearance of a diffused redness to the skin, and a sensation of roughness to the touch. Sometimes jt is preceded and attended by febrile disorder. In two or three days the vesicles attain the size of a pin's head, and the included serum becomes opaque and milky. It soon .extends over the body, and is accompanied by tumefaction, tenderness, and itching. It usually terminates by desquama- tion: but in some cases a copious discharge takes place from the excoriated and tender sur- face; and when this ceases, the epidermis conies off" in large flakes; in some instances the hair and nails fall off", and the eyes and eyebrows become entirely denuded. There is usually Borne affection of the respiratory organs, indicated by dry cough and tightness of the pree- cordia. 0. Miliaria mercurialis.—A miliary eruption has been observed by both Peter Prank and Dieterich, apparently as a consequence ofthe use of mercury. y. Chronic skin diseases (Herpes, Psydrapia, and Impetigo.)—These are doubtful conse- quences ofthe use of mercury. They have occurred after the employment of this metal; but considerable doubt exists, as to whether they ought to be regarded as the effect ofthe remedy, or of the disease for which they have been exhibited, or of some other condition of system. Herpes prtcputialis has been ascribed, by Mr. Pearson, to the previous use of mercury, (Bate. man's Pract. Synopsis of Cutaneous Diseases, 6th ed.) and his opinion has been adopted by Dieterich; (Op. cit.) but it certainly now and then occurs, when no mercury has been exhi- bited. The Psydracia mercurialis and Impetigo mercurialis of Dieterich are still more doubt- ful effects of mercury. 7. Inflammation or Congestion of the Eye, Fauces, and Periosteum, have been ascribed by some writers to the use of mercury; but by others the power of this agent to produce these diseases is denied. That they have followed the use of mercury cannot be doubted, but post hoc is not ergo propter hoc. Dieterich regards the maladies referred to as states of congestion, not of inflammation; and, therefore, calls them Symphoreses (from o-vf*: I'-olson and Dieterich, op. cit. MERCURY. 591 of positive. According to Dr. Farre,1 it diminishes the number of red globules of the blood. The evacuations from all the secreting and exhaling organs, espe- cially from the mucous follicles and salivary glands, is much increased. The secretion of bile is also promoted. Dr. Wilson Philip (On the Influence of Mi- nute Doses of Mercury, p. 14.) says, " mercury has a specific operation on the liver,—a power not merely of exciting its functions, but of correcting the various derangements of that function in a way which it does not possess with respect to any other organ, and which no other medicine possesses with respect to the liver." I confess I am not acquainted with any facts warranting this broad assertion. The purgative effects of mercury arise partly from the increased secretion of bile, and partly from the stimulus given to the mucous lining of the alimentary tube; more particularly to its follicular apparatus. The nervous sys- tem appears also to be specifically affected by mercurials. This is to be inferred partly from the effects produced in those who are subjected to the vapours of this metal, such as the shaking palsy, &c. and partly from the effects ofthe solu- ble salts, when given in enormous doses. The heart and lungs are, in some cases, remarkably affected. This was particularly observed by Sir Benjamin Brodie (Phil. Trans, for 1812.) in his experiments on animals with corrosive sublimate; as also by Smith, Orfila, and Gaspard. The affection of the urinary organs in poisoning by corrosive sublimate is also not to be overlooked. 4. The nature of the influence exercised by mercury over the organism has been a fertile source of discussion. One class of writers has regarded it as me- chanical, a second as chemical, a third as dynamical. _. Mechanical hypothesis.—Astruc (De Morb. f en. ii. 149.) and Barry (Medical Transactions i. 25.) fancied that mercury acted by its weight, its divisibility, and its mobility; and thus getting into the blood, separated its globules, rendered it more fluid and fit for secretion, made the lymph thinner, and overcame any existing obstructions. 6. Chemical hypotheses.—Some have advocated the chemical operation of mercurials, and have endeavoured to explain their curative powers in the venereal disease by reference to their chemical properties, but without success. Thus Mitie, Fressavin, (Quoted by Richter, Aus- fuhr. Arzneim. iv. 305.) and Swediaur, (Practical Observations on Venereal Complaints.) as- sumed that mercury acted chemically on the syphilitic poison, as acids and alkalis do on each other; while Girtanner (Abhandl. u. d. Vener. Krankh.) supposed that the efficacy of mercu- rials depended on the oxygen they contain. To both hypotheses the same objection applies : if they were true, the larger the quantity of mercury used, the more effectually would the venereal disease be cured. Now this is not found to be the case. Dr. Cullen (Treat, of the Mat. Med. ii. 446.) endeavoured to account for the action of mercury on the salivary glands, in preference to other organs, by assuming that it has a particular disposition to unite with ammoniacal salts, with which it passes off by the various excretions; and as the saliva was supposed to contain more of these salts than other secretions, he thus accounted for the larger quantity of mercury which passed off by these glands, and which, being in this way applied to the excretories, occasioned salivation. But the whole hypothesis falls to the ground when it is known that mercury has no "particular disposition" to unite with the ammoniacal salts; and that even if it had, other secretions are as abundantly supplied with these salts as the saliva. Dr. John Murray substituted another hypothesis, but equally objectionable :—mercury, says he, cannot pass off by the urine, because of the phosphoric acid contained in this fluid, and which would form, with the mercury, an insoluble compound. It must, therefore, be thrown out ofthe system by other secretions, particularly by saliva, which facilitates this transmission by the affinity which the muriatic acid, the soda, and the ammonia of the secretion, have for the oxide of mercury, and by which a compound soluble in water is formed. The an- swer to this hypothesis is, that mercury is thrown out of the system by the urine, and pro- bably in larger quantity than by the saliva; secondly, the saliva also contains phosphatic salts, according to Tiedemann and Gmelin. y. Dynamical hypotheses.—Some writers have principally directed their attention to the quality of the effects induced by mercury, and have termed this mineral stimulant, sedative, both stimulant and sedative, tonic or alterative. Those who assume mercury to be a stimu- lant or excitant are not agreed as to whether one or more parts or the whole system are 1 Ferguson's Essays on the Diseases of Women, part i. p '216.—" A full plethoric woman, of a purple red complexion, consulted me," says Dr. Farre, " for hemorrhage from the slomach, depending on engorgement, without organic disease. 1 gave her mercury, und in six weeks blanched her as white as a lily." 592 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. stimulated, and if particular parts, what these are. Thus Hecker fixes on the lymphatic sys- tem, Schone on the arterial capillary system, Reil on the nerves. (Richter, op. cit. v. 306.) The simple answer to all of them is, that other stimulants are not capable of producing the same effects on the constitution as mercury; nay, are frequently hurtful in the very cases in which this metal is beneficial. On the other hand, Conradi, Bertele, and Horn, (Quoted by Richter, op. cit. v. 307.) consi- dered it to be a weakening agent or sedative. Hence those who adopt this hypothesis must assume that this disease in which mercury is beneficial are of a phlogistic or hypersthenic character; and that syphilis, therefore, is of this kind,—an explanation not at all satisfactory, nor consistent with facts. Of late years the sedative operation of some of the mercurial pre- parations (calomel and mercurial ointment) has been assumed (particularly by our country. men practising in the East,) from the circumstance that these agents allay vomiting and diarrhcea in yellow fever, Cholera, and other dangerous diseases. But even admitting that mercurials do produce these effects, this is hardly a sufficient ground for denominating thera sedatives. Some think that mercurials, in small or moderate doses, are stimulants, but in excessive doses, sedatives; and that this sedative operation is common to all substances when employed in large quantities. This is the opinion of Dr. Wilson Philip. (Op. cit.) Dr. Murray (Syst. of Mat. Med.) calls mercury a tonic; Vogt (Pharmakodynamik.) terms it an alterative resolvent; Sundelin (Heilmittellehre.) places it among the resolvent alteratives, under the designation of liquefacient (verftiissigende.) Mr. Hunter (Treatise on the Venereal Disease.) accounts for its beneficial effects in syphilis, by saying it produces an irritation of a different kind to that caused by the venereal disease, and that it counteracts the latter by destroying the diseased action of the living parts. Uses. 1. Of Metallic Mercury.-—Liquid mercury has been used as a chemical agent, to dissolve silver coins which may have been swallowed; and as a mechan- ical agent to remove obstructions of the bowels: for example, intus-susception, or intestinal invagination. But neither theory nor experience seem favourable to its use; for in the greater number of cases the intus-susception is progressive— that is, the superior portion of the gut is insinuated into the lower portion, and, therefore, the pressure ofthe metal on the sides ofthe intestine cannot give relief; and even in cases of retrograde intus-susception,—-that is, where the lower portion of the bowels passes into the upper, mercury, instead of pressing the intus- suscepted portion back, might push it farther on, by getting into the angle of reflec- tion between the containing and inverted gut.1 Lastly, water, which had been boiled with mercury (aqua mercurialis cocta,) was at one time used as an anthelmintic; but if the metal be pure, the water takes up no appreciable quantity of it. More- over, it would appear that mercury has no particular anthelmintic powers: for per- sons who were salivated have not been freed from their worms, and Scopoli very frequently found ascarides in the workers of the quicksilver mines of Idria. (Brem- ser, sur les Vers Intest. 421.) Administration.—When taken internally, it has been administered in various doses, from an ounce to a pound or more. « 2. Of the Preparations of Mercury.—As errhines or emetics, mercurials are never resorted to now, though formerly the subsulphate was used for these pur- poses. As alteratives, they are given in small doses in various chronic diseases; such, for example, as dyspepsia, gout, chronic skin diseases, scrofula, &c. Calomel is said to be less beneficial as an alterative than blue pill, on account of its more irritating action on the bowels. The hydrargyrum cum creta is an excellant alterative, especially for children. Certain preparations of mercury (as blue pill, calomel, and the hydrargyrum cum creta) are employed as purgatives. They promote secretion from the mu- cous follicles of the intestines, from the liver, and the' pancreas. They are rarely, however, used alone; being, in general, either combined with, or followed by, other cathartics (as jalap, senna, colocynth, or the saline purgatives.) Thus 1 Hunter, Transactions of a Society for the Improvement of Medical and Chirurgical Knowledge, i. 103. MERrVRV. 593 it is a common practice to exhibit a blue pill or calomel at night, and an aperient draught the following morning, the object being to allow the pill to remain as long as possible in the bowels, in order that it may the more effectually act on the liver. Mercurial purgatives are administered for various purposes; some- times as anthelmintics, sometimes to assist in evacuating the contents of the ali- mentary canal; but more commonly with the view of promoting the secretions, particularly of the liver, or of producing counter-irritation, and thereby of re- lieving affections of other organs, as the skin or head. The great value of mercurials is experienced when they are given as sialo- gogues. Formerly it was supposed that the beneficial effects of mercury were proportionate to the degree of ptyalism, and thus to eradicate particular affec- tions, it was thought necessary to cause the evacuation of a given quantity of saliva. "I have heard," says Dr. Wilson Philip, (Op. cit. p. 19.) "the late Dr. Monro, of Edinburgh, state, the quantity of saliva which must be discharged daily to eradicate particular affections." Modern experience has proved the in- correctness of this notion; and we now rarely find it necessary to excite a high degree of salivation; indeed, frequently it would be prejudicial, but we some- times find it requisite to keep up this effect for several weeks, particularly in diseases of a chronic character. _. Production of sore mouth and salivation.—One of the most efficacious methods of put- ling the system under the influence of mercury is friction with the unguentum hydrargyri ; but the troublesome and unpleasant nature of the process is a strong objection to it in prac- tice, more especially in venereal diseases, in which patients usually desire secrecy. Full directions for its employment will be given hereafier (vide Ung. Hydrargyri.) In the year 1779, Mr. Clare' proposed a new method of causing salivation by friction, and which con- sists in rubbing two or three grains of calomel, or of the protoxide of mercury, on the inner surface of the cheeks and gums. It is said that the metal quickly becomes absorbed, and causes salivation, and if care be taken not to swallow the saliva, diarrhoea does not occur. Notwithstanding that Hunter, Cruikshank, and others, have tried this plan, and reported favourably of it, and that it is free from the objections made to the use of mercurial ointment, it has never been a popular remedy. Fumigation, as a means of affecting the general sys- tem, is an old method of treating venereal diseases. Turner (On the Venereal Disease.) em- ployed for this purpose cinnabar; Lalouette (Nouvelle Methode de trailer les Malad. Vener. 1776.) calomel; and the late Mr. Abernethy (Surgical and Physiological Essays.) the pro- toxide. Mr. Colles (Op. cit. p. 58.) has frequently seen fumigation fail in exciting salivation. He says, an easy mode of fumigating any part is by using mercurial candles (composed of cinnabar or oxide of mercury mixed with melted wax, with a wick, and burnt under a curved glass funnel.) Baume used mercurial pediluvia to excite salivation, composed of half a grain of corrosive sublimate dissolved in a pint of distilled water, and in a solution of this strength the patient immersed his feet for the space of two hours; several objections, however, exist to the practice, which has been rarely followed. Upon the whole, the most convenient method of producing salivation is by the internal use of mercurials, particularly of those preparations which are mild in their local action, as b!ue pill, calomel, and the hydrargyrum cum creta. |8. Treatment before and during salivation.—Formerly the use of mercurials was preceded by antiphlogistic measures, such as blood-letting, purging, warm bnthing, and low diet, but they are now rarely resorted to, though useful, by facilitating absorption. Mr. Colles (Prac- tical Observations on the Venereal Disease, p. 28 ) thinks that these preparatory measures have been improperly omitted, and that the want of them has, of late years, contributed to bring this valuable remedy into much disrepute—in which opinion I am disposed to join him. Oc- casionally great difficulty is experienced in affecting the mouth, a circumstance which may arise from the irritable condition of the bowels: and when this is the case, inunction should be resorted to, or opium or vegetable astringents conjoined. Sometimes, however, the sys- tern appears insusceptible to the influence of mercury, and this may arise from idiosyncrasy, or from the presence of some disease, particularly fever. Emetics and blood-letting are useful in these cases, as they promote absorption; and as the influence ofthe former depends on the state of nausea produced, tartar emetic will be the best vomit, since it is the most powerful nauseant. Varying the mode of administering the mercury will also sometimes facilitate its operalion on the system : thus, if it have been employed internally, inunction should be tried, and vice versd. During the time that the patient's mouth is sore, he should, if possible, confine lnmselt to ' F.ssay on the Cure of Abscesses by Caustic ; also, a Jfeir method of introducing Mercury into the Circula- tion 177!» Vol.. I.—75 594 ELEMENTS OF" MATERIA MEDICA. the house, use warm clothing, avoid exposure to cold, take light but nourishing food, and regulate the state of his stomach and bowels. Mr. Hunter thought that during a mercurial course the manner of living need not be altered : but Mr- Colles (Op. cit. p. 34.) has properly, I think, objected to this. If the discharge become excessive, or ulceration of the gums take place, the farther use of mercury is of course to be stopped; and, in order to moderate the effect already produced, the patient should be freely exposed to a cold but dry air, use purga. tives and opium, and wash his mouth with some astringent and stimulating liquid. I have generally employed, as a gargle, a solution of the chloride of soda or of lime ; but in the absence of these, a solution of alum, or of sulphate of copper, may be used. Dr. Watson (Lond. Med. Gaz. Dec. 25, 1840.) observes that " when the flow of saliva, and the soreness of the gums, form the chief part of the grievance, I have found nothing so generally useful as a gargle made of brandy and water; in the proportion of one part of brandy to four or five of water." With regard to internal remedies, I have no confidence in any as having a specific power of stopping salivntion, though iodine, sulphur, nitre, and other substances, have been strongly recommended. Sometimes sulphate of quinia is administered with advantage, y. Accidents during salivation.— Occasionally, during salivation, certain effects result from mercury, which are in no way necessary or useful in a therapeutical point of view: on the contrary, some of them are highly prejudicial. Thus, sometimes, excessive salivation, with ulceration of the gums, takes place, as already noticed: not unfrequently gastro-intestinal irritation (or actual inflammation) comes on, and which may require the suspension of the use of mercury, or its employment by way of inunction, or its combination with opium or vegetable astringents. I have already noticed fever, eczema mercuriale, mercuriul erethysm of Pearson, &c, as other occasional effects. In feeble and irritable habits, mercury some- times disposes sores to slough. Occasionally a kind of metastasis ofthe mercurial irritation is observed : thus, swallowing a large quantity of cold water, or exposing the body to cold and moisture, has caused a temporary cessation of salivation, attended with violent pains or convulsions, or great irritability of stomach. if. Curative action of salivation.—Though no surgeon ascribes the curative action of mer- cury to the salivation, yet, without this effect, the curative influence is not usually observed. Hence, though the one cannot be considered to stand to the other in the relation of cause and effect, yet the two are usually contemporaneous: so that when we fail to induce some affec- tion ofthe mouth, we do not observe the beneficial effects of mercury. (On this subject con- sult Colles, op. cit. p. 31.) JJaving offered these general remarks on salivation as a remedial agent, I pro- ceed to notice its use in particular diseases.1 _. Fever.—It has been said that salivation diminishes the susceptibility to the contagion of fever, whether common or specific; but that it is not an absolute preventive is shown by the fact, that patients under the full influence of mercury have caught fever and died of it, as will be found noticed by my friend, Dr. Clutterbuck, in his Inepuiry into the Seat and Nature of Fever. I have several times used mercurials as sialogogues in fever; I believe, for the most part, with » The following are Dr. Farre's rules for the exhibition of mercury, (Ferguson, op. supra cit. page 220 :)— " 1. Never to give mercury when there is an idiosyncrasy against it." The following cane is illustrative ofthe danger of neglecting this advice :— " A patient of Mr. G.'s, of the Borough, desired him never to give her any mercury, as that drug was a poison to her whole family, to which he, without arguing the point, at once assented. In Mr. G.'s absence, the late Mr. C. was consulted as to some trifling disorder of the bowels, and, not knowing the peculiarity of his patient's constitution, prescribed two grains of calomel. The next morning the lady showed the pre- scription to Mr. C, saying that she was sure sheliad taken mercury, as she felt it in her month. In a few hours ptyalism ensued; in consequence of which she lost her teeth, her jaw exfoliated, and she ultimately, after a succession of ailments, died, in about two years." "2. Mercury should be used in all active congestions—pyrexia, phlogosis, phlegmon, ophthalmia, strabis- mus, cynanche laryngea, cynanche trachealis, pneumonia, and all inflammatory diseases. In the adhesive stages of dysentery in the phlegmasia;, where there is inflammation with power, in tetanus, hemiplegia, paraplegia, neuralgia, in their states of active congestion. " 3. Mercury is hurtful, or doubtful—in the malignant or asthenic forms of pyrexia, where there i9 low delirium; but in phrenitis, and in that peculiar form of it, the coup de soleil,il is most effectual. It is hurt- ful in tetanus from punctured wound, and in all cases of irritable disease. " In idiopathic iritis, it is as effectual as bark in ague; but in the traumatic it is injurious, as it inter- feres with the closing ofthe vessels by adhesive inflammation : hence in all hemorrhage, where the orifices of vessels require to be closed, it is hurtful. " In the hemiplegia of lesion, in asthenic paraplegia, in the neuralgia of irritation it is bad. Poor Penv berton was three times salivated for tic douloureux, and three times ihe worse for it. •' It is hurtful in the inveterate forms of scrofulous ophthalmia, though useful in the early stage. It is bad in the amaurosis of depletion. •• It is useful in puerperal peritonitis, and hurtful in the typhoid form of it; as also in the ulcerative stage of dysentery. " In general, it is doubtful in the suppurative stages of inflammation, and in all erysipelatous and erythe- matous inflammations, or those tending to gangrene. It is hurtful in all cases of pure asthenia from defi- ciency of red blood." MERCURY. 595 advantage. I have only used them when there was some marked local determi- nation or inflammatory condition. I have seen several fatal cases of fever in which mercurials were used profusely, without having any effect on the mouth; but in other instances, in which the mouth became affected, recovery took place. My experience, therefore, agrees with that of Dr. Copland, (Diet, of Pract. Med. i. 929.) namely, that death, after salivation has been established, is very rare. Whether the recovery was the consequence of the mercurial action, or the sali- vation the result of the mitigation of the disorder, as Dr. Bancroft (On Yellow Fever.) and Dr. Graves {Lond. Med. Gaz. xx. 147.) assert, cannot be positively proved, though I think the first more probable. Dr. Graves (Op. cit.) declares the use of mercury in fever to be both injudicious and unnecessary, unless in- flammation of some organ be set up. In this opinion I cannot agree with him. Dr. Macartney (Treatise on Inflammation, p. 162.) on the other hand, says, " In no single instance have I known it ^mercury] fail in arresting the progress of the disease, provided the fever be not combined with visceral affections, or characterized from the beginning with unusual prostration of strength." The great indisposition of the system, in fever, to take on the mercurial action, is frequently a most annoying circumstance. It may sometimes be overcome by the employment of mercurials both internally and externally. Mr. Lempriere, (Pract. Observ. on Diseases of the Army of Jamaica.) who practised in Jamaica, finding that calomel was often exhibited in immense quantities, without exciting any apparent action, was induced to employ corrosive sublimate in doses of the eighth part of a grain, with the addition of ten drops of laudanum, and this quantity was repeated every hour until some affection of the mouth was ob- served, or until the more alarming symptOVns had considerably abated. The beneficial influence of mercurials has been more particularly experienced in the fevers of warm climates, especially those of the East Indies.1 It has been said by several writers,9 that in the yellow fever of the West Indies its beneficial effects are not equally evident. 0. Inflammation.—Of late years various forms of inflammation have been most successfully combated by the use of mercury. Hence this mineral is termed an antiphlogistic. We are principally indebted to Dr. Hamilton, (Dun- can's Med. Comm. vol. ix.) Dr. Yeates, (Duncan's Ann. of Med. vol. vii.) Dr. Wright, (Med. Facts and Observ. vol. vii.) and Rambach, (Dissert. Usus Mercurii in Morb. Inflamm. 1794.) for its introduction into use in this form of disease. It is principally valuable in adhesive inflammation to stop, control, or prevent the effusion of cOagulable lymph. On the other hand it may prove injurious in erythematous, scrofulous, malignant, and gangrenous inflammation, as well as in inflammation accompanied with debility or great irritability of the nervous sys- tem. Its curative power is not satisfactorily accounted for by the equalization of the circulation, the augmentation of the secretions, or the increased activity of the absorbents caused by mercury (see p. 194.) Mercury is not equally serviceable in all inflammations. The nature of the tissue, the structure of the organ affected, and the quality or kind of inflamma- tion, are points of considerable importance as affecting its use. Thus it appears that inflammations of membranous tissues are those princi- pally benefited by a mercurial plan of treatment; and more especially those in which there is a tendency to the exudation of coagulable lymph or of serous fluid —as meningitis, pleuritis, pericarditis, and peritonitis (particularly of puerperal women.) In inflammation of the lining membrane of the air-tube, but more especially in croup, or, as it is sometimes termed, plastic inflammation of the larynx, mercury is one of our most valuable remedies; and as this disease is one i Johnson, On Diseases of Tropical Climates, pp. 32, 96,-97, 122, &c. &c, 3d ed ; Annesley, On the Diseases of India, p 391, 2d cd. 5 Johnson, op. cit p. 37; Bancroft, On Yellow Fever1; Musgrave, Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journ. xxviii. 40. 596 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. which terminates rapidly, no time should be lost in getting a sufficient quantity of mercury into the system. Calomel is usually employed: but when the bowels are very irritable, the hydrargyrum cum creta, or even mercurial inunction, may be resorted to. In inflammation of the tunics of the eye, particularly iritis, mer- cury (next to blood-letting) is the only remedy on which much confidence can be placed; and we use it not merely with a view of putting a stop to the inflam- matory action, but also in order to cause the absorption of the effused lymph.1 In inflammation of the synovial membranes, mercury has been employed, and in some cases with manifest advantage. In dysentery, mercury has been exten- sively used, especially in warm climates. By some, calomel has been employed merely as a purgative (Jackson, Ballingall, Bampfield, and Annesley;) by others, to produce its sialogogue effects (Johnson and Cunningham.) The structure of the organ influences the effect of mercury: at least it is well known that this mineral is more beneficial in inflammation of certain organs (especially those of a glandular structure, as the liver) than of others; and we refer it to some peculiarity in the structure of the part affected. In hepatitis of either temperate or tropical climates (particularly of the latter,) mercury is advanta- geously employed.3 Blood-letting, however, should be premised, particularly in the disease as usually met with in this country. In peripneumonia, more especially when hepatization has taken place, the best effects have sometimes resulted from its use; of course after the employment of blood-letting. When hepatization has taken place, Dr. Davies (Lectures on Diseases ofthe Lungs, &c. p. 191.) recom- mends the use of blue pill and opium. In inflammation of the substance of the brain, also, mercury may be advantageously resorted to, after the usual deple- tives. The nature or quality of the inflammation also influences the effects, and thereby the uses, of mercury. Thus, in syphilitic inflammation, mercurials are of the greatest utility; less so in rheumatic inflammation; still less in scrofulous; and most decidedly objectionable in cancerous or scorbutic diseases. The treat- ment of rheumatism by calomel and opium was proposed by Dr. Hamilton, (Op. cit.) and has found many supporters; (Vide Dr. Hope, Lond. Med. Gaz. xix. 815.) and, undoubtedly, when the febrile action ,does not run too high, or when the pericardium becomes affected, calomel and opium, preceded by blood- letting, will be found serviceable. It appears to be best adapted to the fibrous or diffuse form of the disease, and to fail in the synovial. (Dr. Macleod, Lond. Med. Gaz. xxi. 361.) The scrofulous habit is, for the most part, unfavourable to the use of mercury given as a sialogogue, but there are cases in which it is not only admissible but serviceable—as scrofulous ophthalmia, when of an acute kind. In all maladies of a malignant character (as cancers, fungoid disease, &c.) mercurials are highly objectionable. y. Venereal diseases.—It was formerly the opinion of surgeons that the symptoms of the venereal diseases were progressive, and never disappeared until mercury was administered; but it has, of late years, been clearly proved that this notion is erroneous: and we are indebted to some of our army surgeons—namely, to Messrs. Ferguson, Rose, Guthrie, (Med. Chirurg. Trans, vols. iv. and viii.) Hennen, (Military Surgery.) and Bacot, (On Syphilis, 1821.) and to Dr. Thom- son (Ed. Med. and Surg. Journ. xiv.)—for showing that the venereal disease, in all its forms, may be cured without an atom of mercury. Moreover, it is fully established by the experience of almost every surgeon, that while in some in- stances mercury exercises a beneficial influence hardly to be observed with re- spect to any other disease or any other remedy, yet, that in some cases it acts most injuriously; and it is generally supposed that many of the bad venereal cases i Lawrence, Lectures on Diseases of the Eye, in Lancet, vol. x. p. 198; Mackenzie, On Diseases of the Eye, 2d ed. pp. 389, 394, 503. 2 Sir James M'Grigor, Medical Sketches; Johnson, On Tropical Climates; Annebley, On Diseases of India MERCURY. 597 formerly met with arose, in great part, from the improper use of mercury. It is a point, therefore, of considerable importance, to determine what cases are best adapted for a mercurial, and what for a non-mercurial, method of treatment; for in admitting the possibility of a cure without this agent, it is not to be inferred that the method is either eligible or expedient; nay, the very persons who have proved the possibility, admit that in some cases this mineral, given so as to ex- cite moderate salivation, is advisable. One fact is, I think, tolerably well estab- lished—viz. that the cure of venereal diseases without the aid of mercury is much slower and less secure against relapses than by a mercurial treatment. (Vide Colles, Practical Observations on the Venereal Disease, p. 318.) It is not easy to lay down rules to guide us in the selection of the one or the other of these methods of treatment. Mr. Carmichael (On Venereal Diseases, 2d ed. 1825.) relies principally on the eruption, and, next to this, on the appearance of the primary ulcer; and of the four forms ofthe venereal disease which he has de- scribed, namely, the papular, the pustular, the phagedenic, and the scaly, full courses of mercury are required, he says, in one only—namely, the scaly; in which the primary sore is the Hunterian chancre or callous ulcer, and the erup- tion partakes of the characters of lepra or psoriasis. But it has been satisfacto- rily proved by experiments made in the military hospitals, that even this scaly form ofthe disease may get well without mercury; and, on the other hand, in the pustular and papular forms, mercury is often a most valuable agent. Hen- nen, Rose, Guthrie, and Thomson, advise the employment of moderate quan- tities of mercury whenever the disease does not readily subside under the use of ordinary methods of treatment. But unless some special circumstances contra-indicate the use of mercury, it is, I think, advisable to affect the mouth slightly in most forms of the disease. The circumstances which deserve attention, as affecting the use of mercury, are numerous. The following are the principal:— «t~. Scrofula.—Some of the worst, and most intractable forms of venereal disease occur in scrofulous subjects; and in such, mercury is in general prejudicial. I have seen numerous instances of its injurious effects. One case which fell under my notice was that of a medical student, who, after three years' suffering, died; having been made much worse on two occa- sions by what I conceived to be the improper use of mercury, once by his own act, and a second time by the advice of the surgeon of his family. Mr. Colles, (Op. cit. p. 236.) however, denies the baneful influence of mercury in scrofula, and advises its use for the cure of syphilis in scrofulous subjects; but he admits that the profession generally entertain a contrary opinion. lS/3. Condition of the primary ulcer.—Another point deserving attention in deciding on the use of mercury, is the condition ofthe primary sore: if it be much inflamed, or of an irritable nature—if it be of the kind called phagedenic, or at all disposed to slough—mercury must be most carefully avoided, as it increases the disposition to sloughing. In one case that fell under my notice, a gentleman lost his penis by the improper use of mercury, under the cir- cumstances just mentioned. yy. Extreme debility with hectic fever.—This condition is usually believed to contra-indicate the employment of mercury. But Mr. Colles (Op. cit. p. 206.) asserts, " that a patient affected with secondary symptoms, even though extremely attenuated, and, as it were, melting away under the effects of hectic, can with perfect safety and advantage at once commence a course of mercury; by which not only shall his venereal symptoms be removed, but at the same time his general health be re-established." }. Cholera.—AVriters on the spasmodic cholera, both of this country and of India, speak for the most part favourably of the effects of mercury, especially in the form of calomel. I may refer to the works of Drs. Johnson, Venables, and Harnett, and of Messrs. Annesley, Orton, and Searle, in proof. I have met with no writers who attribute ill effects to it. Unfortunately those who advocate its use are not agreed as to the dose, or frequency of repetition; some advising it as a purgative; some as a sedative, in combination with opium: others, lastly, using it as a sialogogue. It is deserving of especial notice, that when salivation takes place, the patient in general recovers. Dr. Griffin, (Lond. Med. Gaz. xxi. p. 598 ELEMENTS OP MATERIA MEDICA. 882.) however, has shown that this is not invariably the case. (For farther in- formation on the use of mercurials in cholera, vide Hydrargyri Chloridum.) t. Dropsy.—In this disease, mercurials may do either good or harm. Thus when the dropsical effusion depends on inflammation, they may be employed with the best effects, as when hydrocephalus arises from meningitis, or hydro- thorax from pleuritis. When ascites is occasioned by an enlarged liver, which compresses the vena port*, and thereby gives rise to effusion, mercurials are some- times beneficial. On the contrary, when dropsy occurs in old subjects, and when it depends on, or is accompanied by, general debility, salivation is almost always hurtful. In granular degeneration of the kidney, characterized by an albuminous condition of the urine, its use is highly objectionable. It is of no service to the primary disorder, while its effect on the mouth is often very violent and uncon- trollable. When the effusion arises from mechanical causes not removable by mercury, as obliteration of any of the venous trunks, or pressure of malignant tumours, salivation is injurious. Occasionally dropsical effusion takes place without any appreciable cause, and then, of course, if mercury be employed, it must be in part on speculation. In such cases calomel is not unfrequently em- ployed in combination with squills or fox-glove. £. In chronic diseases of the viscera, especially those arising from or con- nected with inflammation, mercury is frequently serviceable. Thus, in enlarge- ment or induration of the liver, in hepatization of the lungs, &c. In those dis- eases commonly termed malignant, as cancer and fungus haematodes, and also in diseases of a non-malignant character, but occurring in debilitated subjects, mer- curials, given so as to excite salivation, are objectionable. v. In chronic diseases of the nervous system.—Mercury has been recom- mended in paralysis, and on some occasions has proved exceedingly efficacious. I have seen hemiplegia, with impaired vision and hearing, headach, and cramps of the extremities, recover under the use of mercury, after blood-letting, purga- tives, &c, had failed. The patient (a young man) was kept under the influence of the medicine for two months. Mr. Colles (Op. cit. p. 327.) has likewise found it most efficacious in paralysis. In tetanus, mania, epilepsy, hysteria, tic douloureux, and other affections of the nervous system, mercury has been used with occasional benefit. The foregoing are some of the most important diseases against which mercu- rials have been successfully administered as sialogogues. HYDRARGYRUM PURIFICATUM, D.; Purified Mercury. (Take of Mercury, six parts. Let four parts slowly distil.)—The characters of pure mercury have been already stated (p. 583.) As found in commerce, mercury is usually very pure, and, therefore, the process of purification directed by the Dublin College is un- necessary. By means of a common fire, mercury may be readily distilled in an earthen retort, to which a curved earthen tube, dipping into water, is adapted. A. wash-hand basin containing water answers as a receiver. The whole of the mercury may be drawn over. The object of the process is to separate this metal from lead, tin, zinc, and other metals with which it may be contaminated. 2. HYDRAR'GYRUM CUM CRE'TA, L. E. D. (U. S,)—MERCURY WITH CHALK. History.—This compound (called also Mercurius alcaliaatus, or Mlhiops absorbens) is first mentioned, I believe, by Burton, in 1738. Preparation.—All the British Colleges give directions for its preparation. The London College directs us to take of Mercury, giij.; Prepared Chalk, ^v. Rub them together until globules are no longer visible. The directions of the Edinburgh College are similar. [Also those of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia.] The Dublin College orders it lo be prepared like Hydrargyrum cum Magnesia, except that precipitated carbonate of lime is to be employed in tliu place of carbonate of magnesia. PILLS OF MERCURY. 599 If this powder be digested in acetic acid, the lime of the chalk is dissolved, and the carbonic acid escapes; but the greater part, if not the whole of the mer- cury, is insoluble in the acid, and hence it is not in the state of protoxide. If examined by a lens, the residuum is found to consist of minute separate globules, which readily whiten silver and gold, showing they are in the metallic state. Hence it is probable that the quicksilver is mechanically divided only. Properties and Characteristics.—It i3 a grayish powder, which effervesces on the addition of acetic acid, yielding a solution of lime, which may be. distin- guished by the tests for the calcareous salts already mentioned. By digestion in nitric acid, we obtain a solution known to contain mercury by the characters already detailed for the mercurial preparations generally. By heat the mercury is volatilized, leaving the chalk. Part is evaporated by heat; what remains is colourless, and totally soluble in acetic acid with effervescence: this solution is not coloured by hydrosulphuric acid. These substances can scarcely be so diligently triturated as that no globules shall be visible. Ph. Lond. Composition.—It consists of three parts of Mercury and five of Chalk. Physiological Effects.—It is an exceedingly mild but valuable mercurial. In full doses it acts as a gentle laxative, promoting the secretion of bile and intes- tinal mucus, but sometimes creating a little sickness. The chalk renders it an- tacid. By repeated use it occasions the constitutional effects of mercury already described. Uses.—It is a valuable remedy in syphilis infantum. It is frequently em- ployed to promote and improve the secretions of the liver, pancreas, and bowels, in various disordered conditions of the digestive organs, accompanied by clay- coloured stools or purging. In strumous affections of children (especially en- larged mesenteric glands,) and other chronic maladies, it is administered with great advantage as an alterative. Administration.—To adults it is given in doses of from five grains to a scru- ple, or half a drachm. It should be given in the form of powder. Pills made of it, and allowed to become hard, present internally large globules of mercury. This arises from the contraction of the substance used to form the pill mass, by which the minute globules are squeezed out and coalesce. For children the dose is two or three grains. Rhubarb, carbonate of soda, or, in some cases, Dover's powder, may be conjoined with it. 2. HYDRAR'GYRUM CUM MAGNESIA, £>.—MERCURY WITH MAGNESIA. The Dublin Pharmacopoeia gives the following directions for the preparation of this compound.— Take of purified Mercury; Manna, of each, two parts; Carbonate of Magnesia, one part. Rub the Mercury with the Manna in an earthenware mortar, adding a few drops of water, that the mixture may have the consistency of a sirup, and that the metallic globules, by con- tinued trituration, may disappear; then add, still triturating, an eighth part of Carbonate of Magnesia. To the whole, thoroughly mixed, add of warm water sixteen parts, and let the mixture be stirred; then let it rest, and as soon as the sediment has subsided, let the liquor be decanted; repeat the washing again, and a third time, that the manna may be completely washed off; then mix with the sediment, whilst moist, the remainder of the Carbonate of Magnesia. Lastly, let the powder be dried on bibulous paper. The manna is employed to effect the minute division of the mercury. By the water subsequently employed the manna is got rid of. The effects, uses, and doses of this preparation, are similar to those of Hydrargyrum cum Creta. 3. PIL'UL.T: HYDRAR'GYRI, L. E. D. (U. S.)—PILLS OF MERCURY. History.—The oldest formula for mercurial pills is that of Barbarossa (at one time admiral of the Turkish fleet, and afterwards governor or king of Algiers) 600 elements or materia medica. and which was communicated by him to Francis the First, king of Franconia, who made it public. The common name for this preparation is Blue Pill, or Pilula Caerulea. Preparation.—The following are the directions ofthe British Colleges for the preparation of these pills:— Take of Mercury, gij. [two parts, E.;] Confection of Red Roses, jjiij. [three parts, E.;] Liquorice Root, powdered [ Extract of Liquorice, reduced lo fine powder, D.,] £j. [one part, E.l Rub the mercury with the confection until globules can no longer be seen ; then, the Liquorice being added, beat the whole together until incorporated. [Divide the mass into five-grain pills, E.] [Take of Mercury, an ounce ; Confection of Roses, an ounce and a-half; Liquorice Root, in powder, half an ounce. Rub the Mercury with the confection till the globules disappear; then add the Liquorice root and beat the whole into a mass, to be divided into four hundred and eighty pills. The officinal pill is three grains.] The friction is usually effected by steam power. By trituration the metal is reduced to a finely-divided state, and becomes intimately mixed with the confec- tion and liquorice powder. Properties.—It is a soft mass, of a convenient consistence for making into pills, and has a dark blue colour. When rubbed on paper or glass, it ought to present no globules; but applied to gold it communicates a silvery stain. Composition.—Three grains of this pill contain one grain of mercury. Impurity.—If any sulphuric acid should have been added to the confection to brighten its colour, some subsulphate of mercury will be formed—a compound which possesses very energetic properties. Physiological Effects.—In full doses (as from five to fifteen grains) it fre- quently acts as a purgative. In small doses it is alterative, and, by repetition, produces the before-mentioned constitutional effects of mercurials. Uses.—The practice of giving a blue pill at night, and a senna draught the following morning, has become somewhat popular, in consequence of its being recommended by the late Mr. Abernethy, in various disorders of the chylopoietic viscera. As an alterative, in doses of two or three grains, blue pill is frequently resorted to. Lastly, it is one of the best internal agents for exciting salivation, in the various diseases for which mercury is adapted. Administration.—The usual mode of exhibiting it is in the form of pill, in the doses already mentioned; but it may also be administered when suspended in a thick mucilaginous liquid. If the object be to excite salivation, we may give five grains in the morning, and from five to ten in the evening; and to prevent purging, opium may be conjoined. 4. UNGUEN'TUM HYDRARGYRI, E. Z>.-OINTMENT OF MERCURY. (Unguentum Hydrargyri fortius, /..) History.—Mercurial ointment was known to, and employed by, the ancient Arabian physicians—for example, Abhenguefith, Rhazes, and Avicenna: so that it has been in use certainly 1000 years. However, Gilbertus Anglicus, who lived about the commencement of the thirteenth century, was the first who gave a detailed account of the method of extinguishing mercury by fatty matters. Be- sides its more common appellation of Mercurial Ointment, it was formerly termed Blue or Neapolitan Ointment. Preparation.—The following are the directions for preparing it: — Take of Mercury, lb. ij.; Lard, ^xxiij.; Suet, J j. First rub the mercury with the Suet and a little of the Lard until globules can no longer be seen ; then add that which is left of the Lard, and mix. L. E. (U. S.)—The Dublin College uses equal parts of Purified Mercury and Prepared Hog's Lard.—The Edinburgh College observes that " This ointment is not well prepared so long as metallic globules may be seen in it with a magnifier of four powers, ointment of mercury. 601 To promote the extinction of the mercury, the metal should be previously tri- turated with some old mercurial ointment. Rancid lard also assists the extinc- tion of the globules. The mercury is in a finely-divided metallic state. Guibourt (Pharm. Rai- sonnee, ii. 140.) states, that by digesting ether on mercurial ointment, the fatty matter may be dissolved, and liquid mercury obtained in equal weight to that used in making the ointment. Mr. Donovan, however, thinks that part of the mercury attracts oxygen, and that the oxide thus formed unites with the fatty matter. I have seen no satisfactory explanation of the efficacy of old mercurial ointment in extinguishing the mercury; Guibourt offers the following:—By tritu- ration, both lard and mercury assume oppositely electrical states, the lard be- coming negative, the mercury positive; these states, he supposes, determine a more intimate mixture of the particles, and a greater division of the mercury. Now rancid lard and old mercurial ointment, having attracted oxygen from the air, more readily take on the negative condition, and hence their efficacy in pro- moting the extinction of the mercurial globules. Guibourt also asserts, that mortars of marble or wood are better adapted for making this ointment than those of metal, on account of their power of conducting electricity being less. Properties.—It is an unctuous fatty body of a bluish gray colour, and if pro- perly prepared, gives no traces of globules when rubbed on paper, and examined by a magnifier of four powers; but when rubbed on gold, it quickens it. More- over, if examined by a powerful microscope, innumerable globules are observed. I found the sp. gr. of a sample, obtained from Apothecaries' Hall, to be 1-7813 at 60° F. Two other samples, procured from two respectable houses, had respec- tively a sp. gr. of 1-6602 and 1-7603. Mr. Hennell informs me that mercurial ointment should be kept in a moderately warm situation during the winter sea- son, for that when exposed to great cold the mercury separates in a liquid form, by the crystallization, I presume, of the fatty matter. Composition.—This compound contains half its weight of mercury. Strength and Purity.—Mercurial ointment is frequently prepared with a smaller proportion of mercury than that directed to be used in the pharmacopoeias; and in order to communicate to it the requisite shade of colour, sesquisulphuret of antimony, indigo, or Prussian blue, is sometimes intermixed. In order to ascertain the strength and purity of a given sample, it is desirable to obtain a standard by way of comparison. I have always used, for this pur- pose, the ointment prepared at Apothecaries' Hall, London. The qualities which should be attended to, in order to judge of a suspected sample, are its colour, and ils appearance under a magnifier of four powers, as well as under a powerful microscope. By the latter we fudge of the size of the globules, their number, and the presence of foreign particles. Its sp. gr. should then be observed.1 The fatty matter should afterwards be separated from the mercury, and the latter carefully weighed. This to be effected by means of ether or turpentine. To separate completely the fatty matter, Mr. C. Watt (The Chemist, No. xiv., Feb. 1840.) gives the following directions:—Having first melted the fatty matter with boiling water, and allowed it to stand till the greater part of it floated on the surface, pour off the fluid fat, and then boil this mercury in a dilute solution of soap [[or caustic alkali]] until the metal collects in one globule. Physiological Effects.—Mercurial ointment possesses very little power of irri- tating the parts to which it is applied; but when either swallowed or rubbed into the integuments, readily produces the constitutional effects of mercury. Thus Cul- 1 The specific gravity of mercurial ointment may be ascertained by weighing a lump of it rolled in a glo- bular form, and suspended by a horsehair from the bottom of a scale pan. first in air and then in water. Divide its weight in air by the loss experienced by weighing it in water, and the product will be its sp. gr. Thus suppose the weight in air to be 1'20 gr^ , atid the weight i'V water, 113 ii5 grs.; the loss is 1C0—113-2o = 6 75 grs. Then divide 1-0 by 675, and the product is 177, the sp. gr. Vol. 1.—76 602 KLEMKNTS OP MATERIA JIIiDlCA. lerier says, that three or four pills, containing each two grains of this ointment, and taken successively, have often sufficed to excite violent salivation. He also tells us, that if the object be to produce ptyalism in a very short space of time, we may effect it by giving half a drachm ofthe ointment in the space of twenty-four hours. When rubbed on the skin it is capable of producing the before-mentioned con- stitutional effects of mercurials: and if the lard which it contains be not rancid, no obvious local effect is usually produced. Applied to ulcerated surfaces, mercurial ointment is a stimulant, and in syphilitic sores is oftentimes a very useful and bene- ficial application. Uses.—It is rarely or never administered internally in this country, but has been much used on the continent, and with great success. It certainly well de- serves a trial where the system appears insusceptible to the influence of mercury; for Cullerier says, the difficulty with him has been rather to check than to excite salivation by it. Applied externally, it is employed either as a local or constitutional remedy. Thus, as a local agent it is used as a dressing to syphilitic sores, and is rubbed into tumors of various kinds (not those of a malignant nature, as cancer and fungus haematodes,) with the view of causing their resolution. Sometimes, also, it is em- ployed to destroy parasitic animals on the skin. As a means of affecting the con- stitution we use mercurial inunctions in syphilis, in inflammatory diseases, and, in fact, in all the cases (already noticed) in which our object is to set up the mercu- rial action in the system, more especially when the irritable condition of the diges- tive organs offers an objection to the internal employment of mercurials. It may be laid down as a general rule, that mercury may be used with more safety by the skin than by the stomach; but reasons of convenience, which I have already alluded to, frequently lead us to prefer its internal use. Administration.—Internally, it is given in doses of from two to five grains, made into pills, with either soap or some mild powder, as liquorice. Externally, when the object is to excite very speedy salivation, half a drachm may be rubbed into the skin every hour, washing the part each time, and varying the seat of ap- plication. If, however, it be not desirable or necessary to produce such a speedy effect, half a drachm or a drachm, rubbed in night and morning, will be sufficient. During the whole course of inunction the patient should wear the same drawers night and day. When the friction is performed by a second person, the hand should be enve- loped with soft oiled pig's bladder turned inside out. (Colles, op. cit. p. 42.) Mercurial frictions ought not to be violent, but long continued, and had better be carried on near a fire, in order to promote the liquefaction and absorption of the ointment. In syphilis, and other diseases in which our sole object is the constitu- tional affection, it matters little to what part of the body the ointment is applied, provided the cuticle be thin (for this inorganized layer offers an impediment to absorption in proportion to its thickness.) The internal parts of the thighs are usually, therefore, selected. However, in liver complaints, the inunctions are made in the region of the organ affected. The occasional use of the warm bath promotes absorption when the ointment is applied to the skin. 1. UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI MITIUS, L. D. Milder Mercurial Ointment. (Stronger Mercurial Ointment, lbj.; Lard, Ibij. Mix. L.—The Dublin College orders it to be made with double the weight of Lard.—The Edinburgh College merely observes, that " the mercurial ointment, with the proportions here directed [see p. 600,] may be diluted at pleasure with twice or thrice its weight of axunge.")—This prepara- tion is applied as a dressing to ulcers and cutaneous diseases. 2, CERATUM HYDRARGYRI COMPOSITUM, L. Compound Cerate of Mercury. (Stronger Ointment of Mercury; Soap Cerate, each 3iv.; Camphor, 3j. Rub them together until they are incorporated.)—Employed as a resolvent application to en- oxide of mercury. 603 larged joints and indolent tumours. This preparation was introduced into the pharmacopoeia on the recommendation of Mr. Scott.1 I LINIMENTUM HYDRARGYRI COMPOSITUM, L. Compound Liniment of Mercury. (Stronger Ointment of Mercury; Lard, each 3iv.; Camphor, 3j.; Rectified Spirit, f 3j.; Solution of Ammonia, f 3iv. Rub the Camphor first with the Spirit, then with the Lard and Ointment of Mercury; lastly, the Solution of Ammonia being gradually poured in, mix them all.)—It is used (by way of friction) in chronic tumours, chronic affections of the joints, &c, where the object is to excite the action ofthe lymphatic vessels. It is said to cause salivation more readily than the common mercurial ointment, owing to the camphor and ammonia. 5. EMPLASTRUM HYDRAR'GYRI, L. E. (U. S.)—PLASTER OF MERCURY. Both the London and Edinburgh Colleges give formulae for the preparation of this plaster. The London College orders of Mercury, §iij.; Plaster of Leadjbj.; Olive Oil, f^j.; Sulphur, grs. viij. To the heated Oil add the Sulphur gradually, stirring constantly witn a spatula until they incorporate; afterwards rub the Mercury with them until globules are no longer visi. ble; then gradually add the Plaster of Lead, melted with a slow fire, and mix them all. In this process the sulphur of the sulphurated oil (see p. 401) unites with part of the mercury. The remainder ofthe metal becomes mechanically divided. The Edinburgh College orders of Mercury, §iij.; Olive Oil, fgix.; Resin, 5;j.; Litharge Plaster, §vj. Liquefy together the oil and resin, let them cool, add the mercury, and triturate till its globules disappear; then add to the mixture the plaster previously liquefied; and mix the whole thoroughly. [The U. S. Pharmacopoeia directs mercury six ounces ; Olive Oil, Resin each two ounces; Lead Piaster a pound. Melt the oil and resin together and when they become cool,|rub the mercury with them till the globules disappear; then gradually add the lead plaster previously melted, and mix the whole together.] It is supposed to stimulate the lymphatic vessels of the parts to which it is ap- plied, and is used as a discutient in glandular enlargements and other swellings, whether venereal or otherwise, and also to the region of the liver in hepatic com- plaints. Dr. Wilson Philip (Op. cit.) has seen it induce salivation. EMPLASTRUM AMMONIACI CUM HYDRARGYRO, L. D. Emplastrum Ammoniaci et Hydrargyri, E. Plaster of Amrnoniacum with Mercury. (Ammoniacum, lbj.; Mercury, ?iij.; Olive Oil, f3J.; Sulphur, grs. viij. To the heated Oil gradually add the Sulphur, stirring constantly with a spatula until they incorporate; then rub the Mercury with them until globules are no longer visible; lastly, gradually add the Ammoniacum, melted, and mix them all. L. E.—The Dublin College orders purified mercury; and, instead of the olive oil and sulphur, directs two drachms of Common Turpentine to be used,)—It is a more powerful compound than the preceding, and is employed in the same cases, especially to disperse venereal buboes. G. HYDRAR'GYRI OX'YDUM, L.— OXIDE OF MERCURY. (Hydrargyri Oxydum nigrum, D.)—(U. S.) History.—The mode of preparing this compound was taught by Moscat, in 1797. This oxide is sometimes termed the Protoxide, Suboxide, Ash, Gray, or Black Oxide (Hydrargyri Oxydum cinereum, Hydrargyri Oxidum nigrum.) Preparation.—The following are the directions of the London and Dublin Col- leges for its preparation:— The London College orders of Chloride of Mercury, 3J.; Lime Water, Cong. j. Mix and fre- quently shake them. Set by, and when the oxide has subsided, pour off the liquor. Lastly, wash it in distilled Water until nothing alkaline can be perceived, and dry it, wrapped in bi- bulous paper, in the air. • Surrrical Observations on the Treatment of Chronic Inflammation in various Stnutures, particularly as erem- plified in Diseases ofthe Joints. Lond. 182k. 604 ELEMENTS OP MATERIA MEDICA. In this process double decomposition takes place: chloride of calcium is formed in solution, while oxide of mercury precipitates. PROnOCTR. 1 eq. Chloride Calcium---56 1 eq. Oxide of Mercury....210 The following is the process of the Dublin College:— Take of Sublimed Calomel, one part; Water of Caustic Potash, made warm, four parls, Let them be triturated together until an oxide of a black colour is obtained, and let this be frequently washed with water; lastly, let the oxide be dried with a medium heat on bibulous paper. {The U. S. Pharmacopoeia directs mild Chloride of Mercury, Potassa, each, four ounces, Water a pint. Dissolve the Potassa in the water and when the dregs shall have subsided, pour off the clear solution. To this add the Chloride of mercury, and stir them constantly together till the Black Oxide is formed. Having poured off the supernatant liquor, wash the black ox- ide wilh distilled water, and dry it with a gentle heat.] In this process the reactions are similar to those of the preceding one; but as potash is used instead of lime, the products are chloride of potassium in solution, and oxide of mercury precipitated. Properties.—Pure oxide of mercury is black, or nearly so. The present pre- paration, however, is frequently grayish, owing to the presence of some unde- composed calomel. It is readily decomposed by light (especially by the solar rays,) becomes olive-coloured, and is resolved into metallic mercury and the binoxide. It is odourless, tasteless, insoluble in water and the alkalis, but is solu- ble in nitric and acetic acids. By the action of hydrochloric acid it forms water and calomel. When heated it is first decomposed, and then completely dissi- pated. Characteristics.—Heated in a glass tube it evolves oxygen, while metallic glo- bules are sublimed. Dissolved in diluted nitric acid it forms a protomercurial salt, known by the before mentioned characters for these substances. Composition.—The composition of this oxide is as follows:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Sefstriim. Mercury....................... 1 ........ 202 ........ 96 19 ........ 962 Oxygen........................ 1 ........ 8 ........ 381 ........ 38 Oxide of Mercury.............. 1 ........ 210 ........10000 ........1000 Purity.—Digested, for a short time, in dilute hydrochloric acid, the solution, when filtered, should form no precipitate with either potash or oxalate of ammonia. If any binoxide had been dissolved, the potash would throw it down as a reddish qr yellowish hydrate. If any carbonate of lime had been precipitated, the oxalate would recognise it. Digested for a short time with diluted hydrochloric acid and strained, neither solution of potash nor oxalate of ammonia throws down any thing. It is totally soluble in nitric acid. By heat it is entirely dissipated. Ph. Lond. Physiological Effects.—Pure oxide of mercury is one of the least irritating of the mercurial preparations, and, therefore, when swallowed, does not produce much disorder of the alimentary canal. In small doses it acts as an alterative and purgative. When taken in repeated doses, its constitutional effects are simi- lar to those of other mercurials. Uses.—Mr. Abernethy employed it as a fumigating agent. The following are his directions for using it:—Place the patient in a vapour bath, in a complete suit of under garments, with a cloth around his chin. Two drachms ofthe oxide are then to be put on a heated iron within the machine in which the patient is sitting. After continuing in the bath for about fifteen or twenty minutes, the body is found JIATKKIALS. 1 eq. Chlor* Merc. = 238 ) ] e? Chlorine. .36. I 1 eq. Mercury. .202- 1 eq. Lime. __ no ( 1 eq. Calcium .. t 1 eq. Oxygen... BINOXIOE OP MERCURY. 605 to be covered with a whitish powder. The patient should be placed in bed, and lie in the same clothes till morning, and then go into a tepid bath. By this mode of proceeding, Mr. Abernethy says, he has known salivation induced in forty-eight hours. Oxide of mercury is rarely employed as an internal remedy; indeed, its varying composition is a strong objection to its use. As an external application it has been used in the form of Ointment (composed of one part of oxide and three parts of lard,) and also suspended in a weak solution of chloride of calcium, under the name of Black Wash. Administration.—For internal use the dose is from half a grain to two or three grains. LOTIO NIGRA (Black Wash; Aqua Mercurialis nigra; Aqua Phagedsenica mitis.)—This is prepared by adding calomel to lime-water. The proportions of the ingredients may be varied, but in general one drachm of calomel is used to a pint of lime-water. Oxide of mercury precipitates, and chloride of calcium re- mains in solution. As the efficacy of the wash depends on the oxide, the bottle must be well shaken every time of using it. This compound is a favourite ap- plication to venereal sores of almost all kinds,—in most being serviceable, in few or none being hurtful. 7. HYDRAR'GYRT BINOX'YDUM, L.—BINOXIDE OF MERCURY. CHydrargyri Oxydum rubrum, D.~) History.—This is the Peroxide or Red Oxide of Mercury of some writers. Geber (Sum. of Perfection, book i. part iv. ch. 16.) describes the method of making that variety of it which is prepared by calcination, and which was formerly called Red Precipitate per se (Mcrcurius Prsecipitatus ruber per se) or Calcined Mercury (Hydrargyrum calcinatum.) He calls it Coagulated Mer- cury. Preparation.—This compound may be prepared either by precipitation or by calcination. The London College directs it to be prepared by precipitation; and orders of Bichloride of Mercury ^iv.; Solution of Potash fgxxviij.; Distilled Water Ovj. Dissolve the Bichloride of Mercury in the Water; strain, and add the Solution of Potash. The liquor being poured off, wash, in distilled water, the powder thrown down, until nothing alkaline can be perceived, and dry it with a gentle heat. In this process one equivalent or 274 parts of bichloride of mercury are de- composed by two equivalents or 96 parts of potash, and yield one equivalent or 218 parts of binoxide of mercury, and two equivalents or 152 parts of chloride of potassium. MATERIALS. leq.Bichlde Mercury.... 374 | » J 2S£;; *S ™ 1 eq. Potash....... 96 2 eq. Potassium 80 2 eq. Oxygen .. 16 , PRODUCTS. ■■"—;;-.■>- 2 eq. Chloride Potassium....... 152 1 eq. Binoxide of Mercury...... 218 370 The Dublin College orders it to be prepared by calcination as follows:—Take of purified mercury any required quantity, passed into a glass vessel with a narrow mouth and broad bottom ; let it be exposed to a heat of about 600° F. until it is converted into red scales. The heat vapourizes the mercury, which in this state attracts oxygen from the air, and forms this red or binoxide. The long neck of the vessel prevents the escape of the vapours or newly-formed oxide. The process is a very tedious one, occupying several weeks; so that Geber's remark was correct, that " it is a most difficult and laborious work, even with the profoundness of clear-sighted industry." The apparatus which Mr. Boyle con- 606 elements op materia meoica. trived for the manufacture of it, was long termed " Boyle's Hell," from a notion that the mercury was tortured in it. Properties.—When prepared by precipitation it is in the form of an orange- red powder: but when made by calcination, occurs in small brilliant scales of a ruby red colour. Both varieties agree in the following properties:—They are odourless, have an acrid metallic taste, are very slightly soluble in water, (Journ. de Pharm. t. xxiv. p. 252.) but readily soluble in both nitric and hydrochloric acids. They are decomposed and reduced by heat and solar light: the precipi- tated variety is more readily acted on by solar light than the variety made by calcination. Characteristics.'—When heated in a glass tube by a spirit lamp, it is decom- posed into oxygen and mercury: the first may be recognised by a glowing match, the second condenses in small globules. It dissolves completely in hydrochloric acid: the solution contains bichloride of mercury, which may be known by the tests hereafter to be mentioned for this substance (vide Hydrargyri Bichlo- ridum.) Composition.—The composition of this substance is as follows:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Sefstrbm. Donovan. Mercury............ 1 ........ 202 ........ 92-66 ........ 92-68 ........ 9275 Oxygen............. 2 ........ 16 ........ 734 ........ 732 ........ 725 Binoxide of Mercury 1 ........ 218 ........100 00 ........ 100-00 ........10000 Binoxide of mercury prepared by precipitation usually contains some water. Purity.-—Binoxide of mercury should be completely dissipated by heat, and be insoluble in water. Its solution in nitric acid should be unaffected by nitrate of silver, by which the absence of any chloride is shown. If an insufficient quantity of potash be employed in the preparation of the precipitated variety, the product is brownish or brick-dust coloured, and contains oxychloride of mercury (composed, according to Souberain, of 1 eq. bichloride of mercury, and 3 eqs. of binoxide.) (Dumas, Traite de Chimie, iii. 615.) On the application of heat it yields oxygen, and the mercury either runs into globules, or is totally dissipated. It is entirely soluble in hydrochloric acid. Ph. Lond. Physiological Effects.—Binoxide of mercury is a powerful irritant, and when taken internally, even in small doses, readily excites vomiting and purging: large doses excite gastro-enteritis. Orfila (Toxicol. Gen.) found that binoxide, ob- tained by precipitation from four grains of bichloride, killed a dog in eighteen minutes. The constitutional effects of this preparation are the same as those of mercurials generally. Uses.—Binoxide of mercury is rarely employed as a medicine. It has been applied as an escharotic, either in the form of powder or ointment. Internally it was formerly exhibited to excite salivation in venereal diseases, but is objection- able, especially where the bowels are morbidly irritable. It is rarely or never used now. In pharmacy it is employed in the preparation of bicyanide of mercury (vide Hydrargyri Bicyanidum.) Administration.—The dose of it is from a quarter of a grain to a grain, given in the form of pill, in combination with opium. LOTIO FLAVA: Lotio (seu Aqua) Phagedsenica ; Fellow or Phagedenic Wash. —This compound, which was formerly in frequent use, is prepared by adding bichloride of mercury to lime-water. The proportions vary in different formulae. The quantity of bichloride should not, I think, exceed two grains to an ounce of lime-water: the usual proportions are thirty grains of bichloride to sixteen ounces of lime-water. The preparation, then, consists of the yellow hydrated binoxide of mercury, (which precipitates,) chloride of calcium, and caustic lime; the two NITRIC OXIDE OF MERCURY. 607 latter being in solution. But if the quantity of bichloride exceed 3T77 grains to an ounce of lime-water, the precipitate is brown or brick-dust coloured, and con- tains oxychloride of mercury, while the clear liquor holds in solution some hydrargyro-chloride of calcium; that i3, a saline combination, in which chloride of calcium is the base, and bichloride of mercury the acid.1 Yellow or phage- denic wash is applied, by means of lint, to venereal and scrofulous ulcers. Dr. Hintze (Brit, and For. Med. Rev. April, 1836.) used it with advantage in chronic ulcers which succeed to burns. It should be well shaken, and used in the turbid state. 8. HYDRAR'GYRI NI'TRICO OX'YDUM, L.—NITRIC OXIDE OF MERCURY. (Hydrargyri Oxidum rubrum, E. (U. S.)—Hydrargyri Oxydum nitricum, D.) History.—This preparation was known to Raymond Lully in the latter part of the thirteenth century. It is commonly termed Red Precipitated Mercury, (Mercurius Prsecipitatus ruber,) or, for brevity, Red Precipitate. Preparation.—All the British Colleges give directions for the preparation of this oxide. The London College orders of Mercury, lbiij.; Nitric Acid, lbiss.; Distilled Water, Oij. Mix them in a proper vessel, and apply a gentle heat until the mercury is dissolved. Boil down the liquor, and rub what remains to powder. Put this into another very shallow vessel; then apply a slow fire, and gradually increase it until red vapour ceases lo arise. The Edinburgh College directs of Mercury, gviij.; Diluted Nitric Acid (D. 1820) fgv. Dissolve half of the mercury in the acid, with the aid of a moderate heat; and continue the heat till a dry salt is formed. Triturate the rest of the mercury with the salt till a fine uni- form powder be obtained; heat the powder in a porcelain vessel, arid constantly stir it till acid fumes cease to be discharged. The Dublin College orders of purified Mercury, two parts; Diluted Nitric Acid, three parts. Let the mercury be dissolved, and let heat be applied until the dried mass passes into red scales. [The U. S. Pharmacopoeia orders Mercury, thirty-six ounces; Nitric Acid, fourteen fluid ounces; Water, two pints. Dissolve the Mercury, with a gentle heat, in the Acid and Water previously mixed together, and evaporate to dryness. Rub the dry mass into powder and heat it in a very shallow vessel, till red vapours cease to rise.] This compound is best prepared on the large scale, for it cannot be so well procured of the bright orange-red colour, and crystalline or scaly appearance, usually considered desirable, when only small quantities of materials are em- ployed. Some advise a larger quantity of nitric acid to be employed than is directed in the London Pharmacopoeia. The reduction of the nitrate to powder is objectionable, as it diminishes the crystalline appearance of the oxide. Mr. Brande (Manual of Chemistry.) says, "the nitrate requires to be constantly stirred during the process, which is usually performed in a cast-iron pot." But in general a shallow earthen dish is employed, with a second one inverted over it, and care is taken not to disturb the nitrate during the operation. The heat of the sand-bath is employed. Indeed, some have asserted, that the finest product is obtained when the calcination is performed in the same vessel in which the nitrate was formed, and without stirring, as directed in the Dublin Pharmaco- poeia. (Dr. Barker, Observ. on the Dublin Pharmacopoeia.) When quicksilver and the diluted nitric acid are digested together, the metal is oxidized at the expense of part of the acid, while binoxide of nitrogen escapes, and, combining with oxygen of the air, becomes nitrous acid. The oxidized metal unites to some undecomposed nitric acid to form a nitrate. The following diagram explains the formation of the protonitrate:— ' Guibourt, Journ. Chim. Mid. iii. 377; also, Pharm. Raisonnce, i. 563; and Souberain, Nouv. Traite de Pharm. ii. 529. 608 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. MATERIALS. PRODUCTS. 1 eq Nitric Acid 54 \ 1 eq- Binoz- °f Nitr. 30---------------------■— 1 eq. Binoxide Nitrog. 30 3e,.'M.n«rT...606!?.7:.^r.::::::::Mis^te^M-"-w. 3eq. Nitric Acid 162..........................-------------------_^3eq. Protonitr. Merc. 792 822 822 When nitrate of mercury is heated, decomposition takes place:—the nitric acid yields oxygen to the protoxide of mercury, which thereby becomes binoxide of mercury, while nitrous acid (or its elements) escapes. 1 eq. Protonitrate J1 e% ™tric ,. j } e^ ™trous Mercurv — 2641 Acld • • • • 54 ( 1 «?• Oxygen. mercury — .404 ^ ^ Protoxide 0f Mercury,,m MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. PRODUCTS. trie { 1 eq. Nitrous Jlcid 46----------_____1 eq. Nitrous Acid.... 46 ... 54 ( 1 eq. Oxygen...... 8 —■----____ Protoxide of Mercury........210 1 eq. Binox. Mercury.. 218 264 264 Some pernitrate of mercury usually remains undecomposed, but the quantity is small. Mr. Brande states, that 100 pounds of mercury and 48 pounds of nitric acid, (sp. gr. 1'48,) yielded 112 pounds of nitric oxide of mercury. Hence three pounds of nitric acid must have ramained in combination with the oxide. Properties.—It occurs in bright tile-red, or scarlet, crystalline grains or scales. Dr. Barker (op. cit.) found that 1000 parts of water took up 062 of this oxide. The other properties and characteristics of this compound are the same as those ofthe last-mentioned preparation (vide Hydrargyri Binoxydum.) Purity.—The presence of some undecomposed nitrate may be recognised by heating the suspected nitric oxide of mercury, when nitrous vapours are evolved, and by boiling in water, when a solution is obtained, from which lime-water and hydrosulphuric acid throw down precipitates. The nitric oxide of mercury is com- pletely dissipated by heat: hence the presence of non-volatile matters (as red lead) might be readily detected. Heated before the blow-pipe on charcoal, the mercu- rial oxide is reduced and dissipated, but if red lead be present, globules of metallic lead will be left behind. On the application of heat no nitric vapour is emitted. Neither lime-water nor hydrosul- phuric acid throws down any thing from the water in which it has been boiled. In other respects it resembles the preceding preparation. Ph. Lond. Entirely soluble in muriatic acid: heat decomposes and sublimes it entirely in metallic glo- bules, without any discharge of nitrous fumes. Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects.—Its local action is that of a powerful irritant (vide Hy- drargyri Binoxydum.) But the presence of nitrate of mercury in the nitric oxide renders its topical action more energetic. Its constitutional effects are the same as those of other mercurials. Fabricius Hildanus, Bartholinus, Langius, and Jacobs, (Quoted by Wibmer, Wirkung d. Arzneim. iii. 69.) have reported cases in which the external use of this agent gave rise to salivation and other constitutional effects of mercury. In the case mentioned by Jacob, death resulted from the application of it to a wart on the face. Frederic Hoffman, Ploucquet, Girtanner, (Wibmer op. cit.) and more recently Mr. Bret,1 have related instances of poisoning by its internal employment. Uses.—Internally it has been administered in the form of pill in venereal diseases, but the practice is highly objectionable. As an external agent it is used in the form of powder (obtained by levigation) or ointment; the latter is officinal. As a caustic, it is sprinkled over spongy excres- cences, venerea] warts, chancres, indolent fungous ulcers, &c. Mixed with eight parts of finely-powdered white sugar, it is blown into the eye with a quill in opacity of the cornea. (Mackenzie, On Diseases of the Eye, 2d edit. p. 584.) ' Lond. Med. Gaz. xiii. 117. A case of poisoning with it is also recorded in the Lancet for 1836-37, vol. i. p. 401. CHLORIDE OP MERCURY. 609 UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI NITRICO-OXYDI, L.; Unguentum Oxidi Hydrargyri, E; Unguentum Hydrargyri Oxydi Nitrici, D. [Unguentum Hydrargyri Oxidi Rubn, U. S.] (Finely powdered Nitric Oxide of Mercury, 5j.; White wax, 3ij.; Lard, 3yj. Mix. L. D.—The Edinburgh College employs Nitric Oxide of Mer- cury, 3j.; Lard, Sviij.) [This is the formula of the U. S. P.]_This ointment undergoes decomposition by keeping; its colour changing from red to gray, in consequence of the partial deoxidation of the nitric oxide of mercury. Dr. Dun- can (Edinb. Dispensatory.) says the presence of resin quickly causes it to become black. It is a valuable stimulant, and is frequently applied to indolent sores and ulcers, when we require to increase the quantity, and improve the quality, of the discharge: to inflamed eye-lids (ophthalmia tarsi;) chronic conjunctivitis, &c. 9. HYDRAR GYRI CHLORIDUM, L.—CHLORIDE OF MERCURY OR CALOMEL. (Calomelas, E.—Calomelas sublimatum ; and Calomelas precipitatum, D.) [Hydrargyri Chloridum Mite U. S.] History.—Beguin in 1608, and Oswald Croll in 1609, are the first Europeans who mention this compound. Mr. Hatchett (Brandie's Manual of Pharmacy, 2d. edit. 328.) says it had been long known to the natives of Thibet. Its disco- verer is unknown. It has had a great variety of names. The term Calomel (Calo- melas xxXor, good, and iieXx?, black) was first used by Sir Theodore Tourquet de Mayenne' (who died in 1655,) in consequence, as some say, of his having had a favourite black servant who prepared it; or according to others, because it was a good remedy for the black bile. Drago mitigatus, Aquilla alba, Manna Me- tallorum, and Panchymagogum minerale, are some of the appellations for it. Mercurius dulcis, Hydrargyrum muriaticum mite, Submuriate of Mercury and Subchloride, Protochloride, or Bichloride of Mercury are some ofthe more modern synonymes of it. Natural History.—Native Calomel or Corneous Mercury occurs in crusts, and also crystallized in four-sided prisms terminated by pyramids. It is found at Deux-Ponts, Carniola, and in Spain. Preparation.—All the British Colleges give directions for the preparation of this salt. The London College orders of Mercury, lbiv.; Sulphuric Acid, lbiij.; Chloride of So- dium, lbiss.; Distilled Water, as much as may be sufficient. Boil two pounds ofthe Mer- cury with the Sulphuric Acid in a proper vessel, until the Bipersulphate of Mercury re- mains dry; rub this when it is cold with (the remaining) two pounds of Mercury in an earthen mortar, that they may be perfectly mixed. Afterwards add the Chloride of So- dium, and rub them together, until globules are no longer visible; then sublime. Rub the sublimate to very fine powder, and wash it carefully with boiling distilled water, and dry it. [This is the formula of the U. S. P.] The Edinburgh College directs of Mercury, ^ viij.; Sulphuric Acid (commercial,) f^fij. and f£>iij.; Pure Nitric Acid, f^ss.; Muriate of Soda,^iij.; Mix the acids, add four ounces ofthe mercury, and dissolve it with the aid of a moderate heat. Raise the heat so as to attain a dry salt. Triturate this with the Muriate of Soda and the rest of Mercury till the globules entirely disappear. Heat the mixture by means of a sand-bath in a proper subliming apparatus. Reduce the sublimate to fine powder; wash the powder with boil- ing distilled water until the water ceases to precipitate with solution of iodide of potas- sium; and then dry it. ' Annals of Philosophy, vol. ii. N. S. p. 427 —See also the old series of this journal, vol. xvi. pp. 309, 394, and 420. Vol. I.—77 610 elements of materia medica. The Dublin College gives the following formula for the preparation of the biper- sulphate of mercury (Hydrargyri Persulphas, D.):— Take of Purified Mercury; Sulphuric Acid, of each, six parts; Nitric Acid, one part. Let them be exposed to heat in a glass vessel, and let the fire be increased until the tho- roughly dried residue shall have become white. From this, bipersulphate of mercury, Sublimed Calomel (Calomel sublimatum, D.) is thus directed to be prepared:— Take of Persulphate of Mercury, twenty Jive parts; Purified Mercury, seventeen parts; Dried Muriate of Soda, ten parts. Let the Persulphate of Mercury and Purified Mer- cury be triturated together in an earthenware mortar, until the metallic globules shall have completely disappeared ; then let the dried Muriate of Soda,be added: let them be well mixed, and in a suitable vessel, with a heat gradually raised, let them he sublimed into a receiver; let the sublimed mass be reduced to powder and washed with water, so long as the decanted liquor, on addition of water of Caustic Potash, shall exhibit any de- position; lastly, let the sublimed calomel be dried. In the first stage of this process one equivalent or 202 parts of mercury decom- pose two equivalents or 80 parts of dry sulphuric acid; and, abstracting two equi- valents or 16 parts of oxygen, to form one equivalent or 218 parts of binoxide of mercury, disengage two equivalents or 64 parts of sulphurous acid. The binoxide combines with two equivalents or 80 parts of undecomposed sulphuric acid, and forms one equivalent or 298 parts of bipersulphate of mercury. MATERIALS. PRODUCTS. dry Sulphe Acid = 80 „ . ci.. f 2 eq. Sulphur 32 ) ______________________.___________ eQ' Acid— 80 < 4 eq- teM™ 32 > ~~------------------------------ Cq Su,Phurous Acid......M ^•2 eq. Oxygen 161 1 eq.Mercury202....................} ] eq. Binox. Mercury — 218^ 2 eq. dry Sulphc ^^^ Acid = 80 ----..... ----;------------------—^2 eq. Bipersulphc Merc = 298 362 362 If one equivalent or 298 parts of bipersulphate, one equivalent or 202 parts of reguline mercury, and two equivalents or 120 parts of chloride of sodium, be inti- mately mixed and sublimed, reaction takes place, and we obtain two equivalents or 476 parts of chloride of mercury, and two equivalents or 144 parts of sulphate ofsoda. materials. products. 2 eq. Chloride Sod». 120 \ I eo- Chlorine......... 72--------------____^^ 2 eq. Chloride of } 2 eq. Sodium.......... 4*N ____ __ ~~ Mercury = 476 1 eq. Mercury........202 ..........................~**^~^^--^'---' _. ' . . „ fleq. Mercury........202---' 1 eq. Bipersulphate of J 8 * chygen......... 16-........;:.2eq.Soda04 -_.____ Mercury = 298 ^2 eq_ Sulphuric Ad..... 80______________________==> 2 eq. Sulpte Soda = 144 620 620 At Apothecaries' Hall, 50 lbs. of mercury are boiled with 70 lbs. of sulphuric acid to dryness in a cast-iron vessel; 62 lbs. ofthe dry salt are triturated with 40s lbs. of mercury, until the globules disappear, and 34 lbs. of common salt are then added. The mixture is submitted to heat, and from 95 to 100 lbs. of sublimed calomel are obtained. It is washed in large quantities of distilled water, after having been ground to a fine and impalpable powder. The subliming apparatus varies in different manufactories. In some it consists of a large earthen retort, with short but wide neck, opening into an earthen ellipti- cal receiver, in the bottom of which is water. The retort is placed in sand, con- tained in an iron pot set in a furnace. " The form in which calomel sublimes," observes Mr. Brande, " depends much upon the dimensions and temperature of the subliming vessels. In small vessels CHLORIDE op mercury. 611 it generally condenses in a crystalline cake, the interior surface of which is often covered with beautiful quadrangular prismatic crystals, (Brooke, Annals of Philo- phy.) transparent and of a texture somewhat elastic or horny: in this state it ac- quires by the necessary rubbing into powder, a decidedly yellow or buff colour, more or less deep, according to the degree of trituration which it has undergone. If, on the contrary, the calomel be sublimed into a very capacious and cold re- ceiver, it falls in a most impalpable and perfectly white powder, which requires only one elutriation to fit it for use; it then remains perfectly colourless. By a modification of the process, it may be suffered, as it sublimes, to fall into water, according to Mr. Jewell's patent. "The above circumstances, too, account for the various appearances under which calomel occasionally Fig. 91. presents itself in commerce; it may be added, that the buff aspect of this substance indi- cates the absence of corrosive sublimate; though it by no means follows as a conse- quence that when snow-white it contains it. When the sur- face of massive sublimed calo- mel is scratched, it always ex- hibits a buff colour: it also be- comes yellow when heated, but loses its tint as it again cools. (Manual of Chemistry, 4th ed. p. 788.) Mr. Jewell's process (Re- pert. of Arts, xiii. 79, 2d Se- ries.) for preparing calomel consists in keeping the re- ceiving vessel filled with steam, so that the vaporous calomel is condensed in it, and takes the form of a fine powder, which is much finer than can be obtained by levigation and elutriation. This process has been improved by M. O. Henry (fig. 91.) The Dublin College directs Precipitated Calomel (Calomelas prxcipitatum, D.) to be thus prepared:— Take of purified Mercury, seventeen parts; diluted Nitric nc\d, fifteen parts. On the mer- cury passed into a glass vessel, pour the acid, and when the mixture shall have ceased to ef- fervesce, digest with a medium heat [between 100° and 200° F.] during six hours, occasionally stirring it; then let the heat be increased, that the liquor may boil for a short time, and let this be poured off from the residual mercury, and quickly mixed with four hundred parts ot boiling water containing seven parts of muriate of soda in solution. Let the powder which falls down be washed with warm water, so long as the decanted liquor, on addition ot some drops of water of caustic potash, shall form any deposite ; lastly, let it be dried. By the mutual reaction of mercury and diluted nitric acid, a sulphate of the protoxide of mercury is formed; binoxide of nitrogen gas being evolved. Four equivalents of nitric acid and 3 eq. of mercury yield 3 equivalents of protonitrate of mercury and 1 equivalent of binoxide of nitrogen. When solutions of proto- nitrate of mercury and chloride of sodium are mixed, double decomposition takes place; nitrate of soda is formed in solution, while chloride of mercury is precipi- tated. One eq. of the protonitrate of mercury, and 1 eq. of chloride of sodium, vield 1 eq. of nitrate of soda and 1 eq. of chloride of mercury (see p. 624.) Henry's modification of Jewell's apparatus for preparing calomel by steam (Hydrosublimate of mercury.) a. Furnace containing an earthen retort (having a wide and short neck, in which the ingredients for making calomel are placed, b. An earthen receiver, having three tubulures: one communi- cating with the retort; a second dipping into water in an earthen jar, and a third connected to a steam-pipe. c. Steam-boiler. 612 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Properties.—The crystals of calomel are square prisms. The appearance of the crystalline cake of sublimed calomel has been already noticed. As met with in the shops, it is in the form of a fine odourless and tasteless powder, whose sp. gr. is 7*176 (7*2, Brande.) When prepared by Jewell's pro- cess it is perfectly white, but when obtained in the ordinary way has a light buff or ivory tint. It volatilizes by heat, and, under pressure, fuses. It is insoluble in cold water and alco- hol. According to Donovan (Ann. Phil. xiv. 323.) and others, (Gmelin, Handb. d. Chemie, i. 1299; Geiger's Handb. d. Pharm. by Liebig, i. 561.) calomel suffers partial decomposition by long boiling in water, and a solution is obtained which contains mer- Crystalof Calomel, cury and chlorine (bichloride of mercury?). By exposure to light, calomel becomes dark-coloured, in consequence, according to Dumas, (Traite de Chimie, iii. 605.) of the transfor- mation of a small portion into mercury and bichloride. Others have ascribed this change to the evolution of chlorine and combination of the metal with oxy- gen. Both hypotheses are inconsistent with the statement of Vogel, (Landgrebe, Ueber das Licht, 87.) that this blackened calomel is insoluble in nitric acid. Is it not probable that the change depends on the formation of a subchloride, as Wetzlar has shown to be the case with chloride of silver? By digestion in hot and concentrated hydrochloric acid, we obtain bichloride of mercury and reguline mercury. Boiling sulphuric acid forms bipersulphate and bichloride of mercury, with the evolution of sulphurous acid. Characteristics.—Iodide of potassium produces at first a grayish, afterwards a greenish-yellow precipitate (iodide of mercury.) When heated in nitric acid, calomel is converted into bichloride and bipernitrate of mercury; and on the ap- plication of the tests already mentioned (p. 583) for mercurial preparations gene- rally, we readily obtain evidence ofthe presence of mercury. Having thus shown it to be a mercurial compound, we may easily prove it to be calomel by observing that it is insoluble in water, and that on the addition of lime-water a blackish gray precipitate (protoxide of mercury) is obtained, while the supernatant liquor yields, with nitrate of silver, a white precipitate (chloride of silver) insoluble in nitric acid, but soluble in ammonia. Protochloride of tin, added to calomel, ab- stracts the chlorine, and becomes bichloride of tin, while globules of metallic mercury are obtained. Composition.—The following is the composition of calomel:— Turner, Davy, Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Zaboada. Mercury............ 1 ........ 202 ........ 8487 ........ 85 Chlorine............ 1....... 36 ........ 1502 ........ 15 Chloride of Mercury.. 1 ....___ 238 ........ 99 99 ..'......100 Purity.—When pure, calomel is completely vaporized by heat. Water or alcohol which has been digested on it, should occasion no precipitate or change of colour on the addition of lime-water, caustic potash, ammonia, nitrate of silver, or hydrosulphuric acid, by which the absence of bichloride of mercury may be inferred. I have met with calomel which, in consequence of being imperfectly washed, contained bichloride. It had been given to several patients before its purity was suspected, and had operated on them most violently. When mixed with potash it became black, like pure calomel: the quantity of bichloride being insufficient to produce any perceptible alteration in the colour of the precipitate. But water which had been digested on it, gave, with the above-mentioned tests, the characteristic indications of bichloride of mercury. Fig. 92. chloride of mercury. 613 A whitish powder, which, on the addition of potash, becomes black, and then, when heated, runs into globules of mercury. It is also totally vaporized by heat. The distilled water with which it has been washed, or in which it has been boiled, gives no precipitate with nitrate of silver, lime water, nor hydrosulphuric acid. Ph. Lond. Heat sublimes it without any residuum: sulphuric ether agitated with it, filtered, and then evaporated to dryness, leaves no crystalline residuum, and what residuum may be left is not turned yellow with aqua potassse. Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects. «. On Animals.—Wepfer, (Hist. Cicutse Aquat.) Viborg, Flormann, (Wibmer, Wirk. d. Arzn.) Gaspard, (Magendie, Journ. de Physiol.) and Annesley, (Diseases of India.) have examined the effects of calo- mel on dogs, horses, and pigs, but without any remarkable results. Viborg gave half an ounce, with six pounds of water, to a horse: the effects were cough, heaving of the flanks, quick pulse, enfeebled appetite, and in twenty-four hours loose stools. Annesley asserts, from his experiments on dogs, that large doses of calomel diminish the vascularity of the gastro-intestinal membrane. /3. On Man.—Calomel may be ranked among the mild preparations of mer- cury; for although, in its local action, it is somewhat more powerful than the oxide, or than those preparations which contain mercury in a finely divided state (as blue pill,) yet it is much milder than any of the other salts of mercury. In small doses, as a few grains, it occasionally excites no obvious effects, though more commonly it acts as a purgative; and in very susceptible persons, espe- cially females, it sometimes produces nausea, griping, and great faintness. It appears from the experience of most practitioners that adults are more suscepti- ble of the influence of calomel than children.1 The green stools (called calomel stools by Kraus) which sometimes follow the administration of calomel to chil- dren, are usually supposed to arise from the action of this medicine on the liver; though Zeller (quoted by Kraus) thinks it depends on alterations produced in the condition of the blood; and Kraus (Heilmittellehre, 161.) is disposed to refer it to the operation of calomel on the milk contained in the alimentary canal.2 But the same coloured stools are frequently observed when no mercury has been used. Like other mercurials, it increases the action of the secreting organs, and thus promotes the secretion of bile and of intestinal mucus; and we also presume it has a similar influence over the secretion of the pancreatic fluid. Neumann3 states, that a man took two, then three, and subsequently four grains of calomel, daily, for the space of two months, without inducing salivation; but that three months afterwards he became affected with chronic vomiting, the consequence of a scirrhous pancreas, of which he died in four months. From the manner in which the case is related, it is clear the narrator attributed the disease of the pancreas to the use of mercury; whether justly or not, however, is impossible to determine. The repeated and continued use of calomel, in small doses, is attended with the constitutional effects of mercurial preparations generally, before described. In large doses, it has been regarded as an irritant poison; and, judging from the fatal effects ascribed to it by several writers, not without reason. Thus Helhveg (Wibmer, op cit. iii. 71.) has reported a case in which a few grains of calomel, taken as a laxative, caused death; Vagnitius (Wibmer, op. cit. iii. 71.) saw fifteen grains prove fatal; and Ledelius, (Wibmer, op. cit. iii. 71.) half an » To this statement exceptions are frequently observed. The following is an instance of the occasional violence ofthe action of calomel on children. The late- Dr. Thomas Davies attended, with a medical friend of mine, a boy of four years of age, labouring under peritonitis. One grain of calomel was directed to be administered throe times a-day; and an aperient dose of calomel and jalap was given. On the fourth day its employment was stopped in consequence of its violent action. The cheeks were enormously swollen, the gums sloughed, necrosis of the alveolar process of the lower jaw on each side occurred, and portions ol bone, with the teeth, came away. The child ultimately recovered in about twelve months; but the jaws cannot be separated, and the patient is now obliged to suck his food through the apertures left by the loss of bone. » See also a paper On the Effects of Calomel in producing Slimy Stools, in the Lond. Med. and Surg. Journ., April, 1829, p. 344. o Giiifo and VValther's Journal, Bd ii. II. 3. S. 432, quoted by G. A. Ilkhter, Ausfiihr. Ar-.ncim. v. 4ih*. 614 elements of materia medica. ounce. Fr. Hoffmann has also related two fatal cases. (Wibmer, op. cit. iii. 71.) " Whytt, Odier, Quin, Wilmer, Leib, and others," says Golis, (Treatise on the Hydrocephalus Acutus, by Dr. Gooch.) " gave calomel internally in far larger doses; as two, three, and more grains at a time; and continued its use many days in the same dose, without considering the many evacuations from the alimentary canal, or the violent colic pains; and they affirm that they have never remarked, from the effect of this agent given in these large doses, any bad consequences in the abdomen. Melancholy experience compels me to contradict them. Many times I saw, under those large and long-continued doses of calomel, the hydro- cephalic symptoms suddenly vanish, and inflammation of the intestines arise, which terminated in death. Still oftener I observed this unfavourable accident from an incautious use of calomel in croup: viz. where all the frightful symp- toms of this tracheal inflammation, which threatened suffocation, suddenly vanish, and enteritis develope itself, which passed rapidly into gangrene, and destroyed the patients." In the Times newspaper ofthe 26th April, 1836, there is the report of a coro- ner's inquest on the body of a Mrs. Corbyn, who was destroyed by swallowing 20 grains of calomel, she having previously taken a moderate dose without its exciting what she considered a sufficient effect; and in the India Journal of Me- dical Science (Lond. Med. Gaz. xviii. 484.) is the case of a lad, aged 14, a native of Nepal, in whom six grains of calomel apparently produced inflamma- tion and ulceration of the mouth, enormous swelling of the face, mercurial fetor of the breath, mortification, and death. There was no ptyalism. In Pierer's Annalen for April, 1827, (Quoted by Wibmer, op. cit. 73.) is the case of a lady, who by mistake swallowed fourteen drachms of calomel at once. Acute pains in the abdomen came on, accompanied by frequent vomiting and purging. These symptoms were allayed by oleaginous demulcents; but on the second day salivation and ulceration of the mouth took place. In three weeks, however, she was perfectly recovered. Other violent effects are noticed by Wib- mer, Gmelin, and others; but the instances adduced are sufficient to show that dangerous and even fatal effects may result from large doses, and therefore that Teichmeyer, Buchner, and others, are justified in ranking it among poisons. Of late years, however, immense quantities of calomel have been administered medicinally, without giving rise to any symptoms of irritant poisoning,—nay, apparently with the opposite effect; for we have the concurrent testimony of many practitioners, that in yellow fever, cholera, and other dangerous diseases, calomel, in doses of a scruple and upwards, allays vomiting and purging; and on this account has been denominated a sedative. So that while in small doses (as from two to five grains) calomel is almost universally admitted to be an irritant to the bowels, it is asserted that larger ones are actually sedative. These state- ments appear to me to be almost inconsistent; and yet they are fair deductions from the experience of numerous intelligent practitioners. We must, therefore, endeavour to accumulate more facts, in order to illustrate the effects of calomel, and for the present confess, we have very imperfect information respecting the nature of its action. In a case published by Mr. Roberts, (Lond. Med. Gaz. xxii. 611.) an ounce of calomel was swallowed by mistake, and retained on the stomach for two hours before the error was discovered. The.only effects were slight nausea and faint- ness. Subsequently, emetics, lime-water, and purgatives, were administered; calomel was vomited up, and the day but one afterwards the patient was quite well. Neither salivation nor the slightest affection of the gums occurred. The largest quantity of calomel given as a medicinal agent, at one dose, is, I believe, three drachms; "and it was followed," says Dr. Christison, (Treatise on Poisons.) from whom I quote the case, which occurred in America, " by only chloride of mercury. 615 one copious evacuation, and that not till after the use of an injection." I have now before me reports of eighteen cases of spasmodic cholera, admitted in the year 1832 into the Cholera Hospital at Bethnal Green, in this metropolis, in which enormous quantities of calomel were employed by the house-surgeon, Mr. Charles Bennett, (formerly one of my pupils,) with very slight physiological effects. When a patient was brought into the hospital, two drachms of calomel were immediately given, and afterwards one drachm every one or two hours, until some effect was produced. In 17 out of 18 cases in which this plan was tried, the vomiting and purging diminished, and the patients recovered. Several of them took from 20 to 30 drachms without the subsequent ptyalism being at all excessive. In one case, (a female, aged 36 years,) 30^ drachms were admi- nistered within forty-eight hours; moderate ptyalism took place, and recovery. In the unsuccessful case which I have alluded to, 53 drachms of calomel were administered within forty-two hours, without the least sensible effect. Dr. Griffin (Lond. Med. Gaz. xviii. 880.) also tells us, that in several cases of cholera he gave calomel hourly, " in scruple doses, to the amount of two or three drachms or upwards, without eventual salivation; and I recollect," he adds, " one instance in particular, in which I gave two drachms within an hour and a-half with perfect success, and without affecting the system." I do not pretend to reconcile these cases with those recorded by Hellweg, Vagnitius, Ledelius, Hoffmann, and Golis; in fact they appear to me irrecon- cilable. Dr. Christison, however, suggests that in those cases in "which violent effects occurred, the calomel might Contain corrosive sublimate. Mr. Annesley (Diseases of India.) accounts for the increased quantity of bile found in the stools after the use of calomel, by supposing that the gall-bladder sometimes becomes distended in consequence of the tenacity of the mucous secre- tion, by which the mouth of the ductus- communis choledochus is closed; and that calomel acts chemically on the mucus, and detaches it. But the hypothesis is, I think, devoid of foundation. Uses.—Calomel is very frequently used as an alterative, in glandular affec- tions, chronic skin diseases, and disordered conditions of the digestive organs, more particularly in those cases connected with hepatic derangement. For this purpose it is usually taken in combination with other alteratives, as in the well- known Plummer's pill, which I shall presently notice. It is very frequently employed as a purgative, though, on account of the un- certainty of its cathartic effects, it is seldom given alone; generally in combina- tion with other drastic purgatives—such as jalap, scammony, compound extract of colocynth, Sic, whose activity it very much promotes. We employ it for this purpose when we are desirous of making a powerful impression on the alimentary canal, and thereby of relieving affections of other organs, on the principle of counter-irritation. Thus in threatened apoplexy, in mental disorders, (Lond. Med. Gaz. iii. 692.) in dropsical affections, and in chronic diseases of the skin. In torpid conditions ofthe bowels, where it is necessary to use powerful cathar- tics to produce alvine evacuations, as in paralytic affections, it is advantageously combined with other purgatives. Sometimes we use it to promote the biliary secretion—as in jaundice and other affections of the liver, in chronic skin dis- eases, and in various disordered conditions of the alimentary canal not accomr panied by inflammation. Moreover, in the various diseases of children requiring the use of purgatives, it is generally considered to be very useful; and its being devoid of taste is of course an advantage. As a sedative it has been administered in yellow fever, spasmodic or malignant cholera, dysentery, and liver affections (vide p. 597.) Dr. Griffin (Ibid. xxi. 880.) asserts that calomel proved a most successful medicine in cholera, con- trolling or arresting its progress, in 84 cases out of 100, when administered while the pulse was perceptible at the wrist; but that, on the contrary, it proved detri- 616 ELEMENTS of materia mbdica. mental when given in collapse. The practice was tested in 1448 cases. The dose was from one to two scruples every hour or half-hour. As a sialogogue, it may be used in the cases in which I have already stated (p. 593.) that mercurials generally are employed: with the view of preventing irritation ofthe alimentary canal, it is usually given in combination with opium, unless the existence of some affection of the nervous system contra-indicates the use of narcotics. This combination is employed in peripneumonia, pleuritic, croup, laryngitis, hepatitis, enteritis, and other inflammatory diseases: in fever, syphilis, chronic visceral diseases, &c. Calomel is frequently combined with other medicines, to increase their effects, as with squills, to produce diuresis, in dropsy; or with antimonials, to promote diaphoresis. As an anthelmintic it is in frequent use, and forms one of the active ingredients of many of the nostrums sold for worms; though it does not appear to have any specific influence over parasitic animals. The local uses of calomel are numerous. In diseases ofthe Schneiderian mem- brane, it is applied as a snuff. It is sometimes blown into the eye, to remove spots on the cornea. Dr. Fricke (Lond. Med. Gaz. xxii. 397.) has used it with great success in chronic cases of rheumatic, catarrhal, and scrofulous ophthalmia; but in two instances bad consequences resulted from its use. It is sometimes sus- pended in thick mucilage, and used as a gargle in venereal sore-throat, or injected into the urethra in blenorrhcea. Now and then it is used as a substitute for cin- nabar in fumigation. As a local application, in the form of ointment, calomel is one ofthe most useful remedies we possess for the cure of several forms of chronic skin diseases. Administration.—When used as an alterative, it is given in doses of from half a grain to a grain, frequently combined with oxysulphuret of antimony (as in Plummets Pill) or antimonial powder, and repeated every, or every other night; a mild saline laxative being given the following morning. As a purgative, from two to five grains are given usually in combination with, or followed by, the use of other purgatives, especially, jalap, senna, scammony, or colocynth. As a sialo- gogue, it is exhibited in doses of one to three or four grains, generally combined with opium or Dover's powder, twice or thrice a day. As a sedative, the dose is from a scruple to half a drachm, or more. Biett (Ibid, viii. 540.) has sometimes employed it as an errhine, in syphilitic eruptions. It is mixed with some inert powder, and given to the extent of from 8 to 20 grains daily. The use of acids with calomel frequently occasions griping. Calomel is most extensively em- ployed in the diseases of children, and may be given to them in as large or pro- portionally larger doses than to adults. Salivation is a rare occurrence in them: indeed, Mr. Colles (Pract. Observ. p. 281.) asserts, that mercury never produces ptyalism, or swelling or ulceration of the gums, in infants; but this is an error. 1. PILM HYDRARGYRI CHLORIDI COMPOSITE, UPilulse Calomelanos composite, E. D. Compound Calomel Pills. (Calomel; Oxysulphuret of Antimony, each 3ij., Guaiacum, powdered, 5ss.; Treacle 3ij. Rub the Calomel with the Oxysul- phuret of Antimony, afterwards with the Guaiacum and the Treacle, until incor- porated, L.—The Edinburgh College uses of Calomel, and Golden Sulphuret of Antimony, of each, one part; Guaiac, in fine powder, and Treacle, of each two parts; the pill-mass is ordered to be divided into six-grain pills.—The Dublin Col- lege employs of Calomel, Brown Antimoniated Sulphur, of each, Jj.; Guaiac, in powder, 3ij.; Treacle, as much as may be sufficient.)—This compound is com- monly known as Plummets Pill (Pilulce Plummeri) having been admitted into the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia at his recommendation. These pills are frequently employed as alteratives in chronic skin diseases, in the papular and pustular forms of the venereal disease, in chronic liver affections, and in various disordered con- ditions of thp digestive organs. The dose is from five to ten grains. BICHLORIDE OF MERCURY. 617 2. PILULE CALOMELANOS ET OPII, E.; Calomel and Opium Pills. (Calomel three parts; Opium, one part; Conserve of Red Roses, a sufficiency. Beat them into a proper mass, which is to be divided into pills, each containing two grains of calomel.) Each pill contains two-thirds of a grain of opium. It is a valuable compound in rheumatism and various other inflammatory diseases. Dose one or two pills. If ptyalism be required, one pill may be repeated three times daily. I UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI CHLORIDI; Calomel Ointment. (Calomel, 5J.; Lard, Jj.)—This is a most valuable application in porrigo favosa, impetigo, herpes, and the scaly diseases (psoriasis and lepra.) Indeed, if I were required to name a local agent pre-eminently useful in skin diseases generally, I should fix on this. It is well deserving "a place in the Pharmacopoeia. 4. PILULvE CATHARTICiE COMPOSITE, Ph. of the United States; Compound Ca- thartic Pills. (Compound Extract of Colocynth, ?ss.; Extract of Jalap, in pow- der; Calomel, of each, 3 ii j.; Gamboge, in powder, 9ij. M. Divide into 180 pills.) This pill is intended to combine smallness of bulk with efficiency and comparative mildness of purgative action, and a peculiar tendency to the biliary organs. (United States Dispensatory.) Each pill contains one grain of calomel. Three pills are a full dose. 10. HYDRAR'GYRI BlCHLO'RIDUM, L— BICHLORIDE OF MERCURY. (Subliraatus corrosivus, E.—Hydrargyri Murias corrosivus, D.)—[Hydrargyri Chloridum Corroeivum, U. S.J History.—We have no account of the discovery of this preparation. Geber (lnv. of Ver. viii. 252.) described the method of preparing it; but it is supposed to have been known long anterior to him. Like calomel, it has had various syno- nymes, of which the principal are the following:—Chloride, Hydrochlorate, Muri- ate or Oxymuriate of Mercury (Hydrargyri Chloridum, Hydrochloras, Murias vel Oxymurias,) Corrosive Sublimate, Corrosive Muriate of Mercury (Hydrar- gyri Murias corrosivus,)pxic\ (Acidum Chloro-hydrargyricum.) Preparation.—All the British Colleges give directions for the preparation of this salt. The London College orders of Mercury, Ibij.; Sulphuric Acid, Ibij.; Chloride of So- dium, lbjss. Boil down the mercury with the Sulphuric Acid in a proper vessel, uhtil the Bipersulphate of Mercury remains dry; rub this when it is cold with the Chloride of Sodium in an earthen mortar; then sublime with a heat gradually raised. [Also the for- mula of U. S. P.] The Edinburgh College directs of Mercury, §iv.; Sulphuric Acid (commercial) f^ij.; and fgiij.; Pure Nitric Acid, fgss., Muriate of Soda, giij. Mix the acids; add the mer- cury ; dissolve it with the aid of a moderate heat; and then raise the heat so as to obtain a dry salt. Triturate this thoroughly with the muriate of soda; and sublime in a proper apparatus. The Dublin College gives a separate formula for the preparation of the bipersulphate of mercury (Hydrargyri Persulphas, D.) It is as follows:— Take of purified Mercury, Sulphuric Acid, of each, six parts. Nitric Acid, one part. Let them be exposed to heat in a glass vessel, and let the fire be increased until the thoroughly dried residae shall have become white. From this salt corrosive sublimate IB directed to be thus-procured. Take of Persulphate of Mercury, five parts; Dried Muriate of Soda, two parts. Let them be well rubbed together in an earthen-ware mortar, that a most subtile powder may be formed ; then, with a heat gradually raised, let the Corrosive Muriate of Mercury be sublimed into a proper receiver. Bipersulphate of mercury is usually prepared by submitting the sulphuric acid and mercury to heat in an iron pot, set in brick-work, over ajproper fire, and un- der a hood or chimney to carry off the vapour of sulphurous acid. The mixture of bipersulphate and common salt is subjected to sublimation in an earthen alembic placed in sand contained in an iron pot; or in an iron pot lined with clay, and Vol. I.—73 618 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. covered by an inverted earthen pan. The same pot, with a different head, may be used in the preparation of calomel. The nature of the changes which occur in the manufacture of bipersulphate of mercury have been already explained (p. 610.) When this salt is sublimed with chloride of sodium, double decomposition takes place, and we obtain bichloride of mercury and sulphate of soda. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. 2eq. Chloride Sodm 120 \ *e^ Chlorine.... 72 ( 2 eq. Sodium..... 48 leq. Bipersulphate Mercury 298 418 2 eq. Oxygen . 1 eq. Mercury , 16 202- Zeq. Sulphur* Acid 80 4!8 Leq. Bichlde Merc. 27-1 Seq. Sulphate Soda 144 418 Fig. 93. Bichloride of mercury may also be procured by the direct union of its consti- tuents, chlorine and mercury. It may likewise be prepared by dissolving the red or binoxide of mercury in hydrochloric acid. Properties.—As usually met with in commerce, bichloride of mercury is a semi- transparent crystalline mass, in which perfect crystals are rarely found. Occasionally, however, they are obtained either by slow sub- limation, or from a solution ofthe salt. Their form is the right rhom- bic prism. Their sp. gr. is about 5-2 (5-14 to 5-42, Liebig.) The taste of this salt is acrid, coppery, and persistent. When heated it fuses, boils, and volatilizes: the vapour is very acrid. It is so- luble in about three times its weight of boiling, and in about eighteen or twenty times its weight of cold water: the acids (espe- cially hydrochloric) and the alkaline chlorides increase its solubility. It is soluble in seven parts of cold or three and a half parts of boil- ing alcohol. Ether dissolves it more readily than alcohol, and will even separate it from its watery solution; and hence is sometimes employed to remove it from organic mixtures. Crystal of Bichloride of Mercury. An aqueous solution of bichloride of mercury readily undergoes decomposition, especially when exposed to solar light; calomel is precipitated, and hydrochloric acid set free. This change is facilitated by the presence of organic substances,— as gum, extractive, or oil; whereas it is checked by the presence of alkaline chlo- rides. Albumen forms a white precipitate with an aqueous solution of bichloride of mercury. This precipitate is slightly soluble in water, and consists, according to Lassaigne, (Journ. de Chim. Med. iii. 2d0 Serie, 161.) of albumen, 93-45, and bi- chloride of mercury, 6-55; so that it is a hydrargyro-chloride of albumen. Fibrin forms a similar white compound with corrosive sublimate. When albuminous and fibrinous textures are immersed in a solution of this salt, combination takes place, the tissue contracts, increases in density, becomes whiter, and does not putrefy. Hence it is employed by the anatomist for hardening and preserving certain parts of the body—as the brain. A solution of bichloride of mercury possesses some ofthe characters of an acid. Thus its solution reddens litmus, and it unites with the chlor-bases (as chloride of sodium.) forming the double salts called hydrargyro-chlorides. Litmus, which has been reddened by a solution of bichloride of mercury, has its blue colour restored by chloride of sodium. Characteristics.—Bichloride of mercury is known to be a mercurial compound by the following characters:— *. Heated in a tube by a spirit lamp, with caustic potash, an alkaline chloride is formed, oxygen gas is evolved, and metallic mercury is sublimed and condensed in the form of globules on the sides of the tube. & Lime-water causes a lemon-yellow precipitate (hydrated binoxide of mercury.) If BICHLORIDE OF MERCURY. 619 the bichloride be in excess, the precipitate is brick-red (oxychloride of mercury,) and ihe hydrargyro-chloride of calcium is found in solution. a. Caustic ammonia, added to a solution of bichloride, causes hydrochlorate of ammo- nia to be formed in solution, while a white powder (hydrargyri ammonio-chloridum) is thrown down. See also several paper? on tt>c use of bichloride in syphilis, in the Medical Observations and Inquiries, vols. i. and ii. 622 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. He seems to have been led to its employment from a suspicion that salivation was not requisite for curing this class of diseases; and hence he was desirous of obtaining some mercurial " that could be diluted at will, and so tried in a very small dose." Now corrosive sublimate possessed these properties, and hence he commenced his experiments with it, and, meeting with great success, recom- mended it to' Maximillian Locher, whose results I have already stated.8 The balance of evidence is decidedly favourable to the employment of this medicine as an internal remedy for venereal diseases. By its partisans it has been asserted to be a safe and efficacious mercurial, to remove venereal symptoms in a very short space of time, and without causing salivation, merely by exciting diapho- resis. Its opponents (Vide Pearson, op. cit.) state, on the other hand, that other mercurials are quite as effectual and speedy; that the cure by corrosive subli- mate is not permanent; and, lastly, that its corrosive and irritant properties ren- der its employment objectionable. One of the latest advocates for its use is Dzondi,3 of Halle, who states, that the best mode of using bichloride of mercury is in the form of pills made with crumb of bread; and he gives the following for- mula for their preparation:—R Hydr. Sublim. Corros. gr. xij., solve in Aq. Dis- till, q. s., adde Micae Panis Albi, Sacchari Albi, aa. q. s. ut fit. pilulae numero ccxl. Of these pills, (each of which contains one-twentieth of a grain of corro- sive sublimate,) four are to be administered daily, and increased until thirty (con- taining one grain and a-half) are taken at a dose. The best time of exhibiting them is after dinner. In irritable subjects, and painful affections, a few drops of the tincture of opium may be taken with each dose. During the time the patient is under their influence he should adopt a sudorific regimen, (as is also recom- mended by. Van Swieten,) and take decoction of sarsaparilla. In acute diseases few have ventured to employ bichloride of mercury: how- ever, Schwartz gave it in hepatitis after the fever and pain had subsided; Sauter employed it in an epidemic scarlet fever; and Berends (Richter, Ausfuhr. Arzneim. v. 581.) administered it in asthenic malignant fevers. I have already noticed (p. 595) Mr. Lempriere's proposal to use it in fever as a sialogogue. In various chronic diseases it has been given as an alterative and diaphoretic, with occasional success. Thus in rheumatism, diseases of the bones, periodical pains, skin diseases, scrofulous affections, disorders of the nervous system, &c. In such it should be associated with diaphoretics (as antimony, sarsaparilla, &c.,) warm clothing, &c. Not unfrequently opiates should be combined with it. As an external remedy it has been employed as a caustic in substance (either alone or combined with arsenic) to cancerous ulcers, to parts bitten by rabid animals, to chancres, &c: used in this way, however, it is mostly objectionable. In onychia maligna it is used with great advantage, mixed with an equal weight of sulphate of zinc, and sprinkled thickly upon the surface of the ulcer, which is then to be covered with a pledget of lint saturated with tincture of myrrh. (United States Dispensatory.) A solution has been employed for various pur- poses: thus by Baume, as already mentioned (p. 593,) for pediluvia, to produce salivation; as a lotion in chronic skin disease (as lepra, psoriasis, scabies, rosacea, &c.;) as a wash to ulcers, particularly those of a venereal nature; as an injection in discharges from the urinary organs; as a collyrium in chronic diseases of the eye, especially those of a venereal nature; and as a gargle in ulcers of the ton- sils. A solution is sometimes used as a preventive for the venereal disease. Administration.—It may be used internally, in substance or solution. The dose of it in substance is from one-sixteenth to one-eighth of a grain. Some advise it to be given to the extent of one-fourth of a grain; but in this dose it is very apt » For farther historical details respecting its use, vide Pearson's Observations on the Effects of various Arti- cles of the Mat. Med. p. 99. et seq. » JVae zuvcrliiss. Heilart. d. Lusts, in alien ihren Formen, &c, 1826, in Richter, Ausf. Arm. Bd. v. 8. .r>9fi. AMM0NI0-CHL0R1DE OF MERCURY. 62a to gripe and purge. Dzondi's formula, already given, may be employed when we wish to administer it in substance. In solution it may be exhibited dissolved in water (vide liquor hydrargyri bichloridi,) alcohol, or ether. For external use, a watery solution may be employed, containing from half a grain to two or three grains, dissolved in one ounce of water. Antidotes.—Several substances which decompose corrosive sublimate have been employed as antidotes. These are, Albumen, Gluten of Wheat (as con- tained in wheaten flour,) Milk, Iron Tilings, and Meconic Acid. I have already alluded to the decomposition of corrosive sublimate by Albu- men. The compound which results from their mutual action appears to be inert, or nearly so. In Dr. Christison's Treatise on Poisons will be found several cases noticed, in which albumen has been most effectual: one of the most inte- resting of which is that of Baron Thenard, the celebrated chemist, who inadver- tently swallowed a concentrated solution of corrosive sublimate, but by the imme- diate use of whites of eggs suffered no material harm. Peschier states, that one egg is required for every four grains of the poison. Gluten of wheat has been recommended by Taddei, and may be employed when albumen is not procurable. Wheaten flour (which contains gluten) will probably answer as well as the pure gluten. Milk, in the absence of albumen or flour, may be used. Iron filings are stated to be useful, by reducing the corrosive sublimate to the metallic state. Meconic acid is also said to be an antidote, by forming an insoluble meconate of mercury. But a knowledge of the fact is of little practical value, since the acid is not generally procurable; and tincture of opium, which contains it, cannot be safely used in sufficient quantity; for Dr. Christison finds that five grains of cor- rosive sublimate require an infusion of 33 grains of opium to precipitate the whole of the mercury.1 The other parts of the treatment for acute poisoning by corrosive sublimate are the same as for other irritant poisons, and consist of the usual antiphlogistic sys- tem—the use of warm baths, opiates, &c. LIQUOR HYDRARGYRI BICHLORIDI, L. Solution of Bichloride of Mercury. (Take of Bichloride of Mercury; Hydrochlorate of Ammonia, each, grs-. x.; Dis- tilled Water, Oj. Dissolve the bichloride of mercury and hydrochlorate of am- monia together in water.) Hydrochlorate of ammonia is used to increase the solvent power of the water. Each fluid ounce contains half a grain of corrosive sublimate. The dose of this solution is from half a fluid drachm to two or three fluid drachms, taken in some bland liquid, as linseed tea. 11. HYDRAR'GYRI AMMO'NIO-CHLO'RIDTJM, L.—AMMONIO-CHLORIDE OF MERCURY. (Hydrargyrum praxipitatum album, E.—Hydrargyri submurias ammoniatuni, D.) [Hydrargyrum Ammoniarum.U. S] History.—This compound was discovered by Raymond Lully, in the thirteenth century. Lemery pointed out two modes of procuring it, and hence it is some- times termed Lemery's White Precipitate, to distinguish it from precipitated calomel, also called on the Continent white precipitate. It has had various other appellations, as Cosmetic Mercury (Mercurius Cosmeticus) White Precipitated Mercury; and, according to the view taken of its composition, it has been called Muriate of Ammonia and Mercury, Ammoniated Submuriate of Mercury, Am- moniated Mercury, Ammoniacal Oxychloruret of Mercury, and Chloramide or Chloro-amidide of Mercury. Its most familiar name is White Precipitate. ' The proto-sulphuret of iron has been proposed as an antidote by M. Mi mile. It is prepared by adding a ■olution of sulphuret of potassium to a solution of sulphate of iron, the precipitate is to be washed with water. When this is added to a solution of corrosive sublimate, the reaction is such, that two equiralentsof proto- mlphuret of iron, and one equivalent of bichloride of mercury, yield two equivalents of protochloride of iron, and one equivalent of the bisulphuret of mercury. This antidote requires the test of experience, theoretically il is all that is required.—J. C. 624 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Preparation.—All the British Colleges give formulae for the preparation of this salt. The London College orders of Bichloride of Mercury, ^vj.; Distilled Water, Ovj.; Solution of Ammonia, f^viij. Dissolve the Bichloride of Mercury, with the application of heat, in the Water. To this when it is cold add the Solution of Ammonia, frequently stirring. Wash the powder thrown down until it is free from taste; lastly, dry it. [The formula of the U. S. P. is essentially the same.] The Edinburgh College directs of Corrosive Sublimate, ^vj.; Distilled Water, Ovj.; Aqua Ainmonine, f^viij. Dissolve the Corrosive Sublimate with the aid of heat in the Distilled Water; and when the solution is cold add the Aqua ammonioe; stir the whole well; collect the powder on a calico filter, and wash it thoroughly with cold water. The explanation of the changes which occur in the above processes will vary according to the view taken of the constitution of white precipitate. If, with Mr. Phillips, we regard it as a compound of bichloride and binoxide of mercury with ammonia, its formation may be thus accounted for: 4 eqs. of ammonia, 2 eqs. of water, and 2 eqs. of bichloride of mercury, react on each other and yield 2 eqs. of sal ammoniac (hydrochlorate of ammonia,) and 1 eq. of white preci- pitate. MATERIALS. 2 eq. Water.... 18 4 eq. Ammonia G8 1 eq. Bichloride Mercury.....274 1 eq. Bichloride Mercury.....274 634 I 2 eq. Hydr. 2 Oxyg.... 2 eq. Chlor. 72 1 eq. Mere. 202 2 eq. Hydroc Ad. 74 2 eq. Ammonia 2eq. Ammonia 1 eq.Binox.Merc.2I8 2 cq. Hydrochlle Ammonia.... 108 leq Amm. Chlo- ride Mercury 526 634 Dr. Kane, (Trans, of the Royal Irish Academy, vii. 423.) however, states that white precipitate contains neither ammonia nor Oxygen, but, instead of these, the elements of amidogen (N H3.) He, therefore, regards it as a compound of bichloride and binamidide of mercury (Hg Chi3 + Hg Ada) or as a chloro-ami- dide of mercury. It is formed by the mutual reaction of two equivalents of bichloride of mercury (2 Hg Chi3) and four equivalents of ammonia (4 eqs. ami- dide of hydrogen = 4 HAd:) the products being one equivalent of white precipi- tate (Hg Chi3 + Hg Ad2) and two equivalents of sal ammoniac (2 eqs. of chloro- amidide of hydrogen = 2 (H Chi + H Ad) ). The Dublin College gives the following directions for its preparation:—Add to the liquor poured off from precipitated Calomel as much water of Caustic Ammonia as may be sufficient completely to throw down the metallic salt; which is to be washed with cold water and dried orr bibulous paper. Owing to the presence of some pernitrate of mercury in the protonitrate from which calomel is precipitated on the addition of chloride of sodium (see p. 611,) there is some bichloride of mercury formed in the liquor. This is, therefore, directed to be used by the Dublin College in the preparation of white preci- pitate. Properties.—It occurs in commerce in masses or in powder. It is white, inodorous, has a taste at first earthy, afterwards metallic. It is decomposed and dissipated by heat, giving out ammonia, nitrogen, calomel, and water. It is inso- luble in alcohol. By boiling in water we obtain a solution of hydrochlorate of ammonia, and a yellow powder (white precipitated mercury and biniodide of mercury, Kane.) It is soluble in sulphuric, nitric, and hydrochloric acids. Characteristics.—When heated with caustic potash, it gives out ammonia, and forms a yellow powder (white precipitated mercury and binoxide of mer- cury, Kane.) The solution contains chloride of potassium, and with nitrate of silver yields a white precipitate (chloride of silver,) insoluble in nitric acid, but soluble in ammonia. Caustic ammonia does not alter white precipitate. By AMMONIO-CHLORINt OP MERCURY. 625 this it may, therefore, be distinguished from calomel, which yields a gray pow- der (protoxide of mercury) on the addition of ammonia. Protochloride of tin decomposes white precipitated mercury, and separates metallic mercury. To these characters must be added the effect of heat, water, and acids, as above men- tioned. Composition.—The analysis of Mr. Hennel (Quarterly Journal of Science, xviii. 297.) and Mitscherlich, (Ann. Chim. xxxv. 428.) agree in showing the ele- ments of white precipitate to be those of binoxide of mercury and hydrochlorate of ammonia, in the following proportions:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Hennel. Mitscherlich. Binoxide of Mercury............ 1 ........ 218 ........ 80-14 ........ 80 ....... 82-2 Hydrochloric Acid.............. 1 ........ 37 ........ 13-60/ on J 10-7 Ammonia...................... 1 ........ 17 ........ 625 J........ ........j 71 White Precipitate.............. 1 ........ 272 ........ 99-99 ........ 100........ 1000 This composition is adopted by Berzelius. But in explaining the theory of the formation of the white precipitate, I have assumed, with Mr. Phillips, (Translation of the London Pharmacopoeia.) a somewhat different view of the subject. Two equivalents of the Avhite precipitate of Mr. Hennel, minus two equivalents of water, are equal to one equivalent of the same compound, accord- ing to Mr. Phillips. Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Bichloride of Mercury............. 1 ...... 274 ...... 52 09 Binoxide of Mercury................ 1 ...... 213 ...... 41-44 Ammonia.......................... 2 ...... 34 ...... 6-46 White Precipitate (Phillips)......... 1 ...... 526 ...... 99-99 If two more equivalents of water be abstracted, we have the composition of white precipitate, according to Dr. Kane. Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Bichloride of Mercury............ 1 ........ 274 ........ 5393 Binamide of Mercury............ 1 ........ 234 ........ 46-06 Chloro-amidide of Mercury,...... 1 ........ 508........ 99-99 Purity.—This compound is largely adulterated with sulphate of lime. I have one sample containing one-third of its weight of this substance. Carbonate of lime and of lead are sometimes employed to adulterate white precipitate. Pure white precipitate, thrown on a red-hot shovel, is dissipated without any residuum: whereas the above impurities remain. The carbonates are recognised by the effervescence on the addition of hydrochloric acid. Sulphate of lime may be detected by boiling the suspected substance in distilled water, and applying the tests for sulphates and calcareous salts, as before directed (pp. 406 and 488.) Totally evaporated by heat. When digested with acetic acid, iodide of potassium throws down nothing either yellow or blue. The powder rubbed with lime-water does not become black. It is totally dissolved by hydrochloric1 acid without effervescence. When heated with solution of potash it becomes yellow, and emits ammonia. Ph. Lond. The iodide of potassium is employed to detect lead or starch in the acetic so- lution. If lime-water occasion a black precipitate, it indicates the presence of a protosalt of mercury. Physiological Effects.—Its action on the body is very imperfectly known, no modern experiments having been made with it. It is usually considered to be highly poisonous, and somewhat similar in its operation to bichloride of mercury. Palmarius and Naboth (Wibmer, Wirk. d. Arzn. iii. 64.) have reported fatal cases of its use. (Vide also Cmelin, App. Medicam. ii. 166.) Uses.—It is employed as an external agent only; commonly in the form of an ointment. It is an efficacious application in various skin diseases—as porrigo, im- Vol. I.—79 626 elements of materia medica. petigo, herpes, and even scabies; also in ophthalmia tarsi. Among the lower classes it is commonly used to destroy pediculi. UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI AMMONIO-CHLORIDI, L.; Unguentum Przeipitati albi, E.; Unguentum Hydrargyri Submuriatis Ammoniati, D.; Ointment of IV/iite Precipitate. [Unguentum Hydrargyri Ammoniati, U. S.] (White Precipitate, 5j.; Lard, giss. Mix.) Stimulant, alterative, and detergent. Used in various skin diseases as above-mentioned. 12. HYDRAR'GYRI IO'DIDUM, L. (U S.)—IODIDE OF MERCURY. History".—This compound is commonly called Protiodide of Mercury, to dis- tinguish it from other iodides of this metal. Preparation.—There are several methods of preparing this compound. The London College orders of Mercury, ^j.; Iodine, gv.; Alcohol, as much as may be suffi- cient. Rub the Mercury and Iodine together, adding the alcohol gradually, until globules are no longer visible. Dry the powder immediately, with a gentle heat, without the access of light, and keep in a well-stoppered vessel. [Also U. S.] In this process the mercury and iodine enter into combination. The alcohol facilitates the union by dissolving a portion of iodine and forming with the re- mainder a pasty mass. Some biniodide is usually first formed, and is afterwards transformed into the protiodide by uniting with mercury. This process succeeds well when small quantities of iodide are to be prepared; but it is scarcely applicable to the preparation of large quantities, owing to the great heat which is evolved, by which iodine is volatilized and some biniodide formed. Soubeiran (Nouveau Traite de Pharmacie, t. ii. p. 513, 2ndeed.) says that the mass sometimes inflames, and escapes from the mortar with a kind of explosion. To avoid these inconveniences small quantities only (7 or 8 ounces, for example) should be prepared at one time, and the quantity of alcohol should be augmented. Another mode of preparing protiodide of mercury is by the addition of solution of iodide of potassium to a solution of protonitrate of mercury, acidified with a very small quantity of nitric acid, as long as a greenish precipitate is produced. There are, however, some difficulties in this mode of proceeding. A subnitrate of mercury is apt to be precipitated with the protiodide, and if, to avoid this, we use excess of nitric acid, this decomposes the iodide of potassium and sets iodine free, which combines with the protiodide to form the biniodide. If the solution of protonitrate be added to that of the iodide of potassium, metallic mercury and biniodide are apt to be formed: the latter is at first dissolved, but is afterwards deposited with the protiodide. Properties.—It is a greenish-yellow powder, whose sp. gr. is 7"75. It is in- soluble in water, alcohol, or an aqueous solution of chloride of sodium; but is so- luble in ether, and slightly so in an aqueous solution of iodide of potassium. When heated quickly, it fuses and sublimes in red crystals, which become yel- low by cooling. Solar light decomposes it, and changes its colour. Heated with potash, it yields iodide of potassium and reguline mercury. When recently prepared it is yellowish, and when heat is cautiously applied it sub- limes in red crystals, which afterwards become yellow, and then by access of light they blacken. It is not soluble in chloride of sodium. Ph. Lond. Composition.—It consists of Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Mercury.................... 1 .............. 202 ............ 6158 Iodine..................... 1 .............. 126 ............ 38 41 Iodide of Mercury............ l .............. 32>j ............ 9999 biniodide of mercury. 627 Physiological Effects.—It is a powerfully irritant poison. A scruple killed a rabbit within twenty-four hours, and a drachm destroyed a pointer dog in five days. (Cogswell, Essay on Iodine and its Compounds, p. 160.) In small but repeated doses, it appears to exercise a specific influence over the lymphatic and glandular system. Two grains taken daily caused salivation in two instances. (Biett, Lancelte Erancaise,Juin, 1831.) Uses.—It has been used in syphilis and scrofula, especially when they occur in the same individual. Lugol (Essays on the Effects of Iodine in Scrofulous Dis- orders, by Dr. O'Shaughnessy. p. 170.) employed an ointment of it in those forms of external scrofulous disease which resemble syphilis. Ricord (Lancelte Fran- gaise, 1835, No. 65.) gave it internally with good effect in syphilis infantum. Biett (O'Shaughnessy's Trans, of LugoVs Essays, p. 201.) has successfully em- ployed it in syphilitic ulceration and venereal eruptions. Administration.—The dose of it for adults is from one grain gradually increased to three or four. Ricord gave from one-sixth to one-half of a grain to children of six months old. Biett employed it internally, and also externally, in the form of ointment, to the extent of twelve or fourteen grains daily, by way of friction. 1. PILULyE HYDRARGYRI IODIDI, L. (Iodide of Mercury, 5J.; Confection of Dog- rose, 3iij; Ginger, powdered 3 j. M.)—Five grains of these pills contain one grain of iodide. The dose, therefore, will be from five grains to a scruple. I UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI IODIDI, L. (Iodide of Mercury, gj.; White Wax 5ij.: Lard, $vj. M.—(This is used as a dressing for scrofulous ulcers, or for sy- philitic ulcers in scrofulous subjects. It is also employed in tubercular skin dis- eases, as lupus, rosacea, and sycosis. (Rayer, Treat, on Skin Diseases.) 13. HYDRAR'GYRI BINlO'DIDUM, L. E.—BINIODIDE OF MERCURY. [Hydrargyri Iodidum Rubrum, U. S.] History.—This compound is frequently called the Deutiodide of Mercury, or the Red or Per-Iodide of Mercury. Preparation.—Both the London and Edinburgh Colleges give directions for the preparation of this compound. The London College orders of Mercury, 3j. > Iodine, £x.; Alcohol as much as may be sufficient; rub the mercury and iodine together, adding the alcohol gradually, until the globules are no longer visible. Dry the powder immediately, with a gentle heat, with- out the access of light, and keep in a well-stoppered vessel. [Also U. S.] The Edinburgh College directs of Mercury, gij. ; Iodine, ^ijss.; Concentrated Solu- tion of Muriate of Soda, a Gallon. Triturate the Mercury and Iodine together, adding occasionally a little rectified spirit till a uniform red powder be obtained. Reduce the product to fine powder, and dissolve it in the solution of muriate of soda with the aid of brisk ebullition. Filter, if necessary, through calico, keeping the funnel hot; wash and dry the crystals which form on cooling. In these processes the iodine and mercury combine, to form the biniodide. The alcohol facilitates the combination by dissolving part of the iodine, and forming a pasty mass with the remainder. The solution of common salt employed by the Edinburgh College serves to se- parate the biniodide from any protiodide (which is insoluble in that liquid) as well as to obtain the biniodide in a crystalline form. Considerable inconvenience is experienced in obtaining large quantities of the biniodide by the above process, on account ofthe great heat evolved when mercury and iodine are rubbed together (see p. 642.) Biniodide of mercury may be readily obtained by mixing solutions of bichloride of mercury and iodide of potassium. 1 eq. or 274 parts of bichloride are required 628 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. to decompose 2 eqs. or 332 parts of iodide of potassium. These proportions are about eight of the first, to ten of the second salt. In this process double de- composition takes place : 1 eq. or 454 parts of biniodide of mercury precipitate, and 2 eqs. or 152 parts of chloride of potassium remain in solution. In order to obtain a fine-coloured biniodide, and to ensure the absence of bi- chloride of mercury in the product, a slight excess of iodide of potassium should be employed. This, indeed, holds a little biniodide of mercury in solution, but the quantity is inconsiderable. A large excess of iodide of potassium combines with the biniodide, and forms therewith a soluble double salt (hydrar gyro-iodide of potas- sium) composed of iodide of potassium and biniodide of mercury. If the bichloride of mercury be slightly in excess, a pale-red precipitate (composed of biniodide of mercury with a little bichloride) is obtained. A great excess of bichloride of mer- cury keeps biniodide in solution. Properties.—It is a scarlet-red powder, whose sp. gr. is 6-32. It is insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol, some acids, alkalis, and solutions of iodide of po- tassium, chloride of sodium, and of many of the mercurial salts. From its solution in boiling rectified spirit it is deposited, on cooling, in rhombic prisms. When heated it fuses, forming a ruby-red liquid, sublimes in crystals, which are at first yellow but afterwards become red, and furnish a scarlet-red'powder. It combines with other alkaline iodides (as iodide of potassium) forming a class of double salts, called the hydrar gyro-iodides. Characteristics.—Heated with potash in a tube it yields metallic mercury, which is volatilized: the residue is iodide of potassium, recognizable by the tests before described (p. 422.) From the protiodide of mercury it is distinguished by its colour and its solubility in a solution of chloride of sodium. The effects of heat on it, and its solubility in iodide of potassium, are other characters which serve to recognise it. Composition.—Its composition is as follows:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Mercury............... 1 ............ 202 ............ 44-5 Iodine................. 2 ............ 252 ............ 555 Biniodide of Mercury .. T ............ 454 ............ 1000 Purity.—The presence of bisulphuret of mercury in it may be recognised by fusion with caustic potash in a glass tube, by which a mixture of sulphuret and iodide of potassium is obtained: the existence of sulphur may be proved by the evolution of hydrosulphuric acid on the addition of a mineral acid. By heat, cautiously applied, it is sublimed in scales, which soon become yellow, and after- wards, when they are cold, red. It is partially soluble in boiling rectified spirit, which affords crystals as it cools. It is alternately dissolved and precipitated by iodide of potassium and bichloride of mercury. It is totally soluble in chloride of sodium. Ph. Lond. "Entirely vaporizable: soluble entirely in 40 parts of a concentrated solution of muriate of soda at 212°, and again deposited in fine red crystals on cooling."—Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects, *• On Animals.—A scruple killed a rabbit in twenty- four hours: the stomach was found preternaturally reddened. Ten grains, dis- solved in a solution of iodide of potassium, and given to a dog, caused vomiting, pain, tenesmus, and depression: in four or five days the animal was well. (Cogs- well, Essay on Iodine, p. 164.) Maillet (Journ. de Chim. Med. iii. 543, 2de Serie.) has also made some experiments with it. jS. On Man.—It is a powerful irritant and caustic. It is nearly as powerful as the bichloride of mercury; indeed, Rayer (Treatise on Skin Diseases, by Dr. Willis, p. 79.) considers it more active than the latter. Applied to ulcers, in the form of ointment, I have known it cause excruciating pain. Left in contact with the skin for awhile, it induces, says Rayer, a most intense erysipelatous inflam- bisclphuret of merccry. 629 mation. When administered internally, it must be done with great caution. Like other mercurial compounds, its repeated use causes salivation. Uses.—It has been employed in the same cases (i. e. syphilis and scrofula) as the protiodide of mercury, than which it is much more energetic. Breschet (O'Shaughnessy's Transl. of LugoVs Essays, p. 204.) applied it, in the form of ointment, with great success in a case of obstinate ulceration (thought to have been carcinomatous) of the angle of the eye. In the form of a dilute and thin ointment (composed of biniodide of mercury, gr. ii.; cerate, 9ii.; and almond oil, ►)i.) it has been used in opacity of the cornea. (Craefe and Walther's Journ. f. Chir. Bd. 13.) In obstinate ophthalmia tarsi, with thickening ofthe meibomian glands, it has also been successfully employed. Administration.—It should be given in doses of one-sixteenth of a grain, gra- dually increased to one-fourth of a grain. It may be exhibited in the form of pills, or dissolved in alcohol or ether. UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYIil BINIODIDI, L. (Biniodide of Mercury, 3j.; White Wax, 3h\; Lard, 3yj. M.) Used in the before-mentioned cases. For ordinary purposes it will require to be considerably diluted, 14. HYDRAR'GYRI BISULPHURE'TUM, L— BISULPHURET OF MERCURY. (Cinnabaris, E— Hydrargyri Sulphuretum rubrum, D-)—[U. S.] History.—It is mentioned in the Old Testament. (Jerem. xxii. 14.) Theo- phrastus (De Lapidibus.) says that Cinnabar (xiw»(ixpi) was accidentally disco- vered, by Callius, about ninety years before the magistracy of Praxibulus, of Athens—that is, 494 years before Christ. Geiger (Handb. d. Pharm. by Liebig.) found it in the colouring matter of the old Egyptian tombs. It was formerly called Minium. (Pliny Hist. Nat. lib. xxxiii. cap. 38, ed. Valp.) It is com- monly termed Red Sulphuret of Mercury; and, when in powder, Vermilion. Natural History.—The principal repositories of Native Cinnabar (Cinnabaris nativa) are Idria, in Carniola, and Almaden, in Spain. It occurs both massive and crystallized: the primary form of its,crystals being the acute rhombohe- dron. Preparation.—All the British Colleges give directions for the preparation of this compound. The London College orders of Mercury, Ibij.; Sulphur, §v. Melt the Sulphur, add the mercury, and continue the heat till the mixture begins to swell up. Then remove the vessel, and cover it closely to prevent the mixture taking fire. When the material is cold, reduce it [the mass] to powder, and sublime it. The process of the Edinburgh College is similar. The Dublin College orders of Purified Mercury, nineteen parts; Sublimed Sulphur, three parts. Mix the mercury with the melted sulphur, and, if the mixture takes fire, extinguish the flame by covering the vessel. Reduce the product of this operation to powder, and sublime it. [The U. S. P. directs Mercury, forty ounces; Sulphur, eight ounces. Mix the mercury with the melted sulphur over a fire; and as soon as the mass begins to swell, remove the vessel from the fire, and pover it with considerable force to prevent combustion, then rub the mass into powder and sublime.] In this process the heat enables the mercury and sulphur to combine and form a black sulphuret of mercury. When large quantities of sulphur and mercury are heated together, a slight explosion and flame are produced. By sublimation the black sulphuret is converted into cinnabar or the red sulphuret.1 Properties.—Artificial cinnabar has, in the mass, a dark reddish brown crys- talline appearance; but, when reduced to a fine powder, is of a beautiful scarlet- 1 Full details respecting the Dutch method of manufacturing cinnabar are given in the Ann. de Chim. iv- 25; and in Aikin's Diet, of Chemistry, vol. ii. p. S7. 630 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. red colour, and is then termed Vermilion. It is tasteless, odourless, insoluble in water or alcohol, and unalterable in the air. It is fusible and volatile. It burns in the air with a blue flame, the sulphur uniting with oxygen to form sul- phurous acid, while the mercury is dissipated in a vaporous form. Characteristics.—Heated in a glass tube, with potash, it evolves mercurial va- pour, which condenses into liquid globules of this metal. The residue, which is sulphuret of potassium, gives out hydrosulphuric acid on the addition of hydro- chloric acid. The colour of cinnabar deepens under the influence of heat. Composition.—Its composition is as follows:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Ouibourt. Sefstrom. Mercury.................. 1 ........202 ........86'32 .......8021 ........ 86 2!) Sulphur.................. 2 ........ 32 ........1307 ........1379 ........ 13 71 Bisulphuret of Mercury... 1 ........234 ........ 9999 ........100 00 ........10000 Purity.—Pure cinnabar is totally evaporated by heat, and is insoluble in nitric or hydrochloric acid. If minium or red lead be intermixed, we may recognise it by boiling in acetic acid, by which acetate of lead is procured in solution: this forms a black precipitate with hydrosulphuric acid,—white with the sulphates,__ and yellow with iodide of potassium. Realgar, or sulphuret of arsenicum, may be detected by boiling the suspected cinnabar in solution of caustic potash, supersa- turating with nitric acid, and passing a current of hydrosulphuric acid through it, by which a yellow precipitate (orpiment or sesquisulphuret of arsenicum) is ob- tained. Earthy impurities are not volatile. Totally evaporated by heat; and on potash being added to it, it runs into globules of mer- cury. It is not dissolved either by nitric or hydrochloric acid, but is so by a mixture of them. Rectified spirit, with which it has been boiled or washed, acquires no red colour. Digested with acetic acid it yields no yellow precipitate by iodide of potassium. Ph. Lond. "It is sublimed entirely by heat, and without any metallic globules being formed." Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects.'—According to Orfila, (Archiv. Gen. de Med. xix. 330.) pure cinnabar is inert: for he found no effects were produced on dogs, by half an ounce, when either applied to wounds, or taken into the stomach. These results being opposite to those obtained by Smith, (Christison, Treat, on Poisons, 3d ed. 395.) it has been presumed that the latter must have employed an impure sul- phuret. The vapour obtained by heating cinnabar in the air is poisonous; but this is not in opposition to Orfila's experiments, since this vapour is not bisulphuret of mercury, but a mixture of the vapour of mercury (either in the metallic or oxi- dized state) and of sulphurous acid gas. Schenkius (Observ. L. vii.) has related the case of a young man who died from the use of this vapour; and Hill (Edin. Med. Essays, iv.) saw cough, violent salivation, diarrhcea, &c, produced by its inhalation. Uses.—Cinnabar is used merely as a fumigating agent, in venereal ulcerations of the nose and throat. The method of using it is this:—About half a drachm is placed on a heated iron, and the fumes inhaled as they arise. In the shops, a copper apparatus, with iron heater, is sold for the purpose. In the absence of this, the bisulphuret is to be placed on a hot iron shovel, and the vapour inhaled by the patient through a funnel. The irritating nature of the sulphurous vapour usually excites coughing, and is injurious in persons disposed to phthisis. Hence the oxide of mercury is to be preferred for fumigating. Administration.—When employed internally, cinnabar has been given in doses of from ten grains to half a drachm. For the purpose of fumigation, half a drachm may be employed. BICYANIDE OF MERCURY. 631 15. HYDRAR'GYRI SULPHURE'TUM CUM SUL'PHURE, L.—BISULPHURET OF MERCURY WITH SULPHUR. (Hydrargyri Sulphuretum nigrum, D.)—[U. S.J History.—It is stated that the Chinese used this remedy long before it was known to Europeans. Harris, in 1689, first taught the method of preparing it by trituration. Its most common name is Mthiops mineral. Preparation.—The London and Dublin Colleges give directions for the prepa- ration of this compound. The London College orders of Mercury; Sulphurr each, lbj^ Rub them together, until globules are no longer visible. [Also U. S. P.] The directions of the Dublin College are similar, with the addition that a stone-ware mor- tar should be used. Properties.—It is £ heavy, black, tasteless, odourless powder, insoluble in water. When heated it fuses, and is completely dissipated. Characteristics.—By boiling in caustic potash liquor we obtain a solution of sulphuret of potassium. The residue is black, but possesses all the before-men- tioned chemical characteristics of cinnabar (vide p. 630.) Composition.—If this compound be, as Mr. Brande (Manual of Pharmacy, 3d ed. 329.) supposes, a mixture of bisulphuret of mercury and sulphur, the propor- tions must be— Per Cent. Bisulphuret of Mercury.............................. 58 Sulphur.........................................--- 42 Hydrargyri Sulphuretum cum Sulphure, Ph. Lond..... TOO Purity.—Free mercury may be detected by its communicating a white stain to gold. Charcoal may be detected by its not volatilizing by heat. Animal char- coal, by this character, as well as by the presence of phosphate of lime in the resi- due (vide pp. 300 and 505.) Sesquisulphuret of antimony may be recognised by boiling in hydrochloric acid, and applying the before-mentioned (p. 544,) tests for sesquichloride of antimony. Totally evaporated by heat, no charcoal nor phosphate of lime being left.—Ph. Lond. Physiological Effects.—According to the experiments of Orfila, this prepara- tion, like the last, possesses little or no activity. The late Dr. Duncan (Edin- burgh Dispensatory.) also tells us that he has given "it in doses of several drachms, for a considerable length of time, with scarcely any effect. It is com- monly regarded as alterative. Uses.—It has been used in glandular diseases, especially of children; and also in cutaneous diseases. Administration.—The dose for adults is from 5 to 30 grs. 16. HYDRAR'GYRI BICYAN'IDUM, L.—BICYANIDE OF MERCURY. (Hydrargyri Cyanuretum, D.)—[TJ. S. ] History.—This salt was discovered by Scheele. Its real nature was first pointed out by Gay-Lussac in 1815. It has been known by various appellations, as Prussian Mercury, (Hydrargyrum Borussicum,) Prussiate, Hydrocyanate, Cyanuret, Cyanide or Cyanodide of Mercury (Hydrargyri Pritssias, Hydro- cyanas, Cyanuretum, Cyanidum seu Cyanodidum.) Preparation.—There are two methods of preparing this salt: one recommended by Proust, the other by Winckler. The London and Dublin Colleges adopt Proust's process. The London College orders, of Percyanide of Iron, [Prussian blue,] 3viij.; Binoxide of Mercury, ^x.; Distilled Water, Oiv. Boil them together for half an hour and strain. Eva- porate the liquor that crystals may be formed. Wash what remains frequently with boiling distilled Water, and again evaporate the mixed liquor that crystals may be formed. 632 elements of materia medica. The Dublin College employs of Prussian Blue, six parts; Nitric Oxide of Mercury, five parts; Distilled Water, forty parts. [The U. S. Pharmacopoeia directs Ferrocyanuret of Iron, four ounces; Red Oxide of Mcr- cury, three ounces, or a sufficient quantity; Distilled Water, three pints. Put the Ferro- cyanuret of Iron and three ounces of the Oxide of Mercury, previously powdered and thoroughly mixed together, into a glass vessel; and pour upon them two pints ofthe Distilled Water. Then boil the mixture, stirring constantly; and, if at the end of half an hour the blue colour remain, add small portions of the Oxide of Mercury, continuing the ebullition until the mixture becomes of a yellowish colour;—after which filter it through paper. Wash the residue in a pint of the Distilled Water and filter as before. Mix the solutions and cva. porale till a pellicle appears; then set the liquor aside that crystals may form. To purify the crystals, dissolve them in Distilled Water, filter and evaporate the solution and set it aside to crystallize.] In this process the cyanogen ofthe Prussian blue combines with the mercury ofthe nitric oxide, while the iron unites with the oxygen oHhe oxide. MATERIALS. 2 eq. Perrosesqui- / 3 eq. Protocyan. Iron 162 cyanide of Iron 430 J I 4 eq. Sesquiey. Iron. 268 4i eq. Binoxide of Mercury.......981........................I 4£ 1411 COMPOSITION. 3 eq. Cyan. 78 3 eq. Iron 84 6 eq. Cyan. 156 leq. Iron 112 Merc. 909 Oxyg. 24 Oxyg. 48 1411 ( 4i eq. <3eq. (Geq. 4i Bteyan. Merc___ 1143 3 eq. Oxide Iron.... 4 eq. Sesquiox. Iron 108, 160 I The awkwardness of the use of half an equivalent may be easily obviated by doubling all the above numbers; but several reasons have induced me to retain it in the above diagram. Pure bicyanide of mercury may be more economically prepared by Winckler's process. This consists in saturating hydrocyanic acid with binoxide of mer- cury. The London College observes that bicyanide of mercury may be otherwise prepared by adding as much Binoxide of Mercury as will accurately saturate it, to Hydrocyanic Acid, distilled from Ferrocyanide of Potassium with diluted Sulphuric Acid. The solution is to be filtered and allowed to crystallize. In this process double decomposition takes place, the resulting products being water and bicyanide of mercury. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. 2'eq. Hydrocyanic | 2 eq. Hydrogen 2 acid.......... 54 | 2 eg. Cyanogen 52 1-eq. Binoxide of (2 eq. Oxygen.. 16 Mercury......218 j leq. Mercury. 202 PRODUCTS. 2 eq. Water................... 18 1 eq. Bicyanide of Mercury---254 272 272 272 Properties.—The crystals of this salt are square prisms. The crystals are Fig. 94. Fig. 95. Crystals with modified Planes. General form of Crystals of Bicyanide of Mercury. BICYANIDE OF MERCURY. 633 heavy, white, colourless, transparent or opaque, inodorous, and have a strong metallic taste Phey are soluble in water, both hot and cold, and very little, if at all so, in alcohol. Characteristics.—Perfectly dry bicyanide of mercury when heated yields me- tallic mercury and cyanogen gas. The latter is known by the violet or bluish red colour of its flame. Heated with hydrochloric acid it evolves hydrocyanic acid. It is not decomposed by nitric acid or the alkalis. Its solution throws down a black precipitate with hydrosulphuric acid, and white pearly crystalline plates (hydrargyro-iodo-cyanide of potassium) with a concentrated solution of iodide of potassium (vide p. 379.) Composition.—Its composition is as follows:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Oay Lussat. Mercury ................. 1 ........202........79-52........ 76-91 Cyanogen................2........ 52 ........2047........ 2009 Bicyanide of Mercury .... 1 ....___254 ........9999........ 10000 Purity.—Wheii prepared from ferrosesquicyanide of iron (Prussian blue) the crystals are usually yellowish from the presence of some oxide of iron. Transparent and totally soluble in water. The solution, when hydrochloric acid is added, emits hydrocyanic acid, which is known by its peculiar smell; and" a gfass moistened with (he solution of nitrate of silver and placed over it, gires a deposite, which is'dissolved by boil- ing nitric acid. By heat it emits cyanogen, and runs into globules of mercury. Ph. Lond. Physiological Effects, a. On Vegetables.—It acts on plants like bichloride of mercury. (Goeppert, in De Candolle, Phys. VSg. 1834.y j8. On Animals.—Coulon (Traite sur VAcide Prussique, quoted by Wibmer, Wirk. d. Arzneim. iii. 30.) found that it acted on dogs, cats, sparrows, frogs, snails, &c. like hydrocyanic acid. After death, inflammation of the stomach was observed. OUivier d'Angers (Journ. de Chim. Med. i. 269.) tried its effects on dogs. Seven grains, dissolved in water, killed a small dog in ten minutes, under attempts to vomit, general convulsions, and exhaustion, manifested alternately; respiration and circulation at first accelerated, afterwards diminished. Similar effects were produced by applying the salt to the cellular tissue, or injecting it into the veins. Tiedemann and Gmelin1 detected mercury in the blood of the splenic vein of a horse to whom the bicyanide had been administered. y. On Man.—Taken in small doses, it very readily excites nausea and vomit- ing. Parent (Journ. de Chim. Med. viii. 473.) says it does not produce the epigastric pain which the bichloride of mercury readily occasions. Continued use causes salivation. In one case one-eighth of a grain twice a-day caused ptyalism in three days.3 Mendaga3 says it acts directly on the skin and bones, and hence it sometimes very speedily allays the pain of and disperses nodes. In large doses, especially in very susceptible persons, it affects the nervous system, and causes fainting, anxiety, and cramps. Twenty-three and a-half grains in one instance (Journ. de Chim. Med. i. 210.) caused death in nine days. The most remarkable symptoms were, obstinate vomiting; mercurial ulceration ofthe mouth and abundant ptyalism; contractions of the heart, which at first were very strong, but became successively slower and more feeble; the abdomen was yielding, and not tender, notwithstanding the constant tenesmus; suppression of urine; semi-erection ofthe penis, and ecchymosis of this organ, as well as ofthe scrotum; and, ultimately, convulsive movements. Uses.—It has been employed as an antivenereal medicine, and was first used as such by Brera. (Richter, op. cit.) Parent (Journ. de Chim. Med. viii. 473.) i Vcrsuche il. d. Wcge auf welch. Subst. aus d. Ma gen v. Darmh. ins Blut gelang. i Neumann, in Dierlinr.h's Neucstc Enid, in d. Mat. Med. ii. 483, 1H28. a Decade* Medico chirurgicas y Farmaccuticas vi. 3lJ, in Kicutcr's Aasfiihr Arzneim. v. 477. Vol. L—80 634 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. administered it as a substitute for the bichloride of mercury, over which it has several advantages. Thus, being more soluble, it ought to be more readily ab- sorbed: it does not give rise to epigastric pain; and, lastly, it is not so readily decomposed; for alkalis, several salts, and many solutions of organic matters, which decompose corrosive sublimate, have no effect on it It may be applied in the form of aqueous solution or ointment to venereal sores. It has been employed in induration of the liver, in some chronic skin diseases, in obstinate headach, and in other maladies, as an antiphlogistic. Its principal use in this country is as a source of hydrocyanic acid (vide p. 376) and of cyanogen gas. Administration.—Internally it may be employed in doses of one-sixteenth of a grain gradually increased to one-half of a grain. It may be administered in the form of pills (made with crumb of bread) or alcoholic solution. It will be fre- quently advisable to conjoin opium, to prevent nausea or vomiting. When used as a gargle or tvashffwe may employ ten grains to a pint of water. An ointment may be prepared of ten or twelve grains to an ounce of lard. Antidote.—I am unacquainted with any antidote for it. Albumen does not decompose it. Perhaps ammonia might be found serviceable, to diminish the effect on the nervous system. Opium relieves the vomiting. Our principal object must be ta remove the poison from the stomach, which is to be effected by the stomach-pump, emetics, tickling the throat, &c. 17. UNGUEN'TUM HYDRAR'GYRI NITRA'TIS, L. (U. S.)-OINTMENT OF NITRATE OF MERCURY. (Unguentum Citrinum, E.— Unguentum Hydrargyri Nitratis vel Unguentum Citrinum, D.) History.—This ointment is commonly known as Citrine or Yellow Ointment. It has also been termed Mercurial Balsam. Preparation.—All the British Colleges give directions for its preparation. The London College orders of Mercury, §j.; Nitric Acid, fgxi.; Lard, §vj.; Olive Oil, f^iv. First dissolve the Mercury in the Acid ; then mix the solution while hot with the Lard and Oil melted together. The Edinburgh College directs of Pure Nitric Acid, fjfviij. and fgvi.; Mercury, ^iv.; Axunge, ^xv.; Olive Oil, fgxxxij. Dissolve the mercury in the acid with the aid of a gentle heat. Melt the axunge in the oil with the aid of a moderate heat in a vessel capable of hold- ing six times the quantity; and while the mixture is hot, add the solution of mercury, also hot, and mix them thoroughly. If the mixture do not froth up, increase the heat a little till this takes place. Keep this ointment in earthenware vessels, or in glass-vessels, secluded from the light. The Dublin College orders of Purified Mercury, by weight ^j.; Nitric Acid, Jxiss.; Olive Oil, Oj. [wine measure;] Prepared Hog's Lard, glv. Dissolve the mercury in the acid; then, having melted the oil and lard together, mix them and make an ointment in the same man- ner as the ointment of nitric acid. [For the formula of the U. S. P. see p. 635.] The theory of the process is as follows:—By the mutual action of mercury and strong nitric acid, a nitrate of the binoxide, as well as of the protoxide of mercury, is formed, while binoxide of nitrogen is generated.1 Part of the latter escapes, and, combining with atmospheric oxygen, forms nitrous acid; the re- mainder reacts on the free nitric acid, and forms with it hyponitrous or nitrous acid. The liquor then is a mixture of nitric acid in excess, probably of nitrous acid, ofthe nitrate and hyponitrite ofthe binoxide of mercury, and nitrate ofthe protoxide of mercury. i For the theory ofthe formation ot Protonitrate of Mercury, see i>p (307, 011, and 624, OINTMENT OF NITRATE OP MERCURY. 635 When this solution is added to the fatty matter (lard and olive oil,) the olein (oleate of glycerine) of the olive oil and of the lard is transformed into elaidine (So called by Boudet, Journ. de Chim. Med. viii. 641 from ***<«-, *A*<&r an olive tree.) (elai'date of glycerine) by the nitrous or hyponitrous acid of the solution. A red viscid oil is also simultaneously developed. Binoxide of nitrogen, and, ac- cording to Souberain, (Nouv. Traite de Pharmacie, t. ii. p. 526 2nd6 ed.) carbonic acid gases are evolved. By the action of the fatty bodies on nitrate of mercury, the latter is transformed into a yellow subnitrate of the protoxide of mercury. A small portion of elai'date of mercury is also formed. The continued deoxidizing influence of the fats on the mercurial salt ultimately effects the reduction of the mercury. The gray colour which the ointment acquires by keeping is due to the dissemination of minute globules of metallic mercury through the mass. If old citrine ointment be digested in ether, the fatty matters are dissolved, and metallic mercury left behind. By keeping, this ointment is apt to change its colour, and become hard, pulve- rizable, and thereby unfit for use. To prevent these alterations various modifica- tions ofthe officinal formulae above given have been suggested. Dr. A. T. Thom- son (London Dispensatory.) declares that the proportion of lard used is too large. This statement, however, is pronounced by Dr. Wood, (United Slates Dispensa- tory.) to be a mistake; and the hardening is ascribed to the olive oil. In the United States Pharmacopoeia neat's-foot oil is substituted for olive oil, and it is said with decided advantage. One writer recommends rape oil. (Pharmaceutical Transactions, No. iv. p. 175.) Mr. Lessey, of Manchester, informs me, that when made with lard only, the oint- ment remained soft for six months. MM. Henry and Guibourt, (Pharmacopee Raisonnee, p. 448, 3me ed.) and Mr. Duncan, of Edinburgh, (Supplement of the Edinburgh Dispensatory, p. 196.) employ a considerable excess of acid. The following are several formulae for its preparation:— United States Dispensatory. Paris Co-dex. Henry and Guibourt. Duncan. Bell and Co.t Lessey. Nitric Acid .. . fgxi. (sp. gr.1-5) Neat's-foot Oil, fgix. 32 parts. 48 parts. (sp.gr. 1-286) 250 parts. 250 parts. 0 30 parts. 60 parts. (sp.gr. 1.321) 240 parts. 240 parts. 0 §iv. |xii. (Nitrous acid.) gxv. ^xxxviss. 0 gviii. fgxiv. (sp. gr. 1-43.) lb. iij. lb. ij. 0 iiv-3X1J-(Nitrous acid.) Sxliss. 3o 0 Fine citrine ointment may be procured by any of the above processes; but, on the other hand, failure may attend all of them. This may arise either from defec- tive manipulation or from the employment of acid of different strength to that or- dered. The following are some practical points to be attended to in conducting the process:—(See Mr. Alsop's paper in the Pharmaceutical Transactions, No. iii. p. 100.) 1. The due regulation of the heat employed.—" If the mixture be made at a low temperature, no effervescence takes place, and the ointment so produced will become hard in a few days, of a greenish white colour, and eventually of a con- sistence that may almost be powdered; but if the oil or fat is heated to a sufficient temperature, or the quantity operated upon is large enough to generate the heat required, strong effervescence takes place, much gas is evolved, and a perfect arti- cle is produced, of a fine golden colour, and of the consistence of butter." The greater success which attends the manufacture of large than of small quantities of this ointment, may be referred to the higher temperature generated by the reaction of larger quantities of the materials. i Pharmaceutical Transactions, No. iii. p. 102. 636 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEOICA. 2. The employment of a proper quantity of acid.—In the process of the Lon- don College, by which, when it is strictly followed, a very fine product is obtained, acid of a sp. gr. of 1-5 is directed to be used. But the sp. gr. of commercial nitric acid rarely exceeds 1-38 or 1-4. Hence, therefore, a larger quantity of commercial acid is required to be equivalent to the quantity of strong acid ordered by the Phar- macopoeia. 3. Stirring assists the evolution of gas, and is usually believed to favour the formation of a fine product.—Mr. Alsop, however, asserts that a long continued stirring is not required. Properties.—When fresh prepared, this ointment has a fine golden yellow colour, a butyraceous consistence, and a remarkable nitrons odour. It is very apt to be- come gray when mixed with other ointments, in consequence of their deoxidizing powers. It should be spread with wooden or ivory spatulas. Composition.—When fresh prepared this compound contains the following sub- stances :— Elaidine. Red Oil. Elaidate of mercury (mercurial soap.) Nitrate of Mercury. Elaidine is a white saponifiable fat, fusible at 97°F. [896 P. according to Meyer,] (Pharmaceutisches Central-Blatt fur 1840, S. 790.) very soluble in ether, but requiring 200 times its weight of boiling alcohol to dissolve it. It consists of elaidic acid and glycerin. Physiological Effects.—It is an irritant and slight caustic. When it has undergone decomposition by keeping, it irritates ulcers exceedingly, and even excites slight erysipelatous inflammation. Uses.—We employ it as a stimulant and alterative in chronic diseases of the skin, more particularly those affecting the hairy scalp, as the different forms of porrigo, in which it is exceedingly efficacious. It is also used as a dressing to ulcers—to stimulate and cleanse them—as in foul syphilitic sores and phage- denic ulcers. Lastly, it is employed in ophthalmic diseases—more particularly oph- thalmia tarsi, or psorophthalmia, in which it is applied (mixed with its own weight of almond oil) by means of a camel's-hair pencil to the lids, frequently with such advantage that some have regarded it as a specific in this complaint, 18. HYDRAR'GYRI ACE'TAS, D.—ACETATE OF MERCURY. History.—This compound was known to Lefebure in the 17th century. Preparation.—In the Dublin Pharmacopoeia the directions for procuring it are the following:— Take of Purified Mercury, Acetate of Potash, of each nine parts; Diluted Nitric Acid, eleven parts; Boiling Distilled Water, one hundred parts ; Distilled Vinegar, as much as may be sufficient. Let the Nitric Acid be added to the Mercury, and when the effervescence has ceased, let the mixture be digested that the metal may be dissolved : let the Acetate of Potash be dissolved in water, and let the distilled vinegar be added until the acid shall predominate in the liquor; to this, whilst boiling, let the solution ofthe Mercury in the Nitric Acid be added, and let the mixture be filtered as quickly as possible through a double linen cloth; let it cool that crys- tals may form; having washed these with cold distilled water, dry them on paper with a very gentle heat. In every step of this process let glass vessels be employed. By the mutual action of diluted nitric acid and mercury we obtain a protonitrate of mercury (vide p. 607.) When this is mixed with acetate of potash double decom- position takes place: nitrate of potash and protoacetate of mercury being formed. To prevent precipitation of the yellow subnitrate of mercury, excess of acetic acid should be employed: and by filtering, whilst hot, any which may be formed would be separated before the acetate has deposited. Properties.—This salt occurs in white micaceous, flexible scales, which are jnodorous, but have an acrid taste. It blackens by light. When heated it is i<> acetate of mercury. 637 solved into carbonic acid, acetic acid, and mercury. It is very slightly soluble in water, requiring 300 times its weight of this liquid to dissolve it, according to Dumas. It is insoluble in cold alcohol: boiling alcohol abstracts part of its acid. Characteristics.—Its appearance, its slight solubility in water, and the action of heat on it, are some of its characteristics. Heated with sulphuric acid the vapour of acetic acid is evolved. The fixed alkalis precipitate the black oxide of mercury. Chloride of sodium forms calomel with it. Composition.—It has the following composition:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent, Dumas. Protoxide of Mercury...... 1 ........210 ........ 80-46 ........ 8066 Acetic Acid............... 1 ........ 51 ........ 19-54 ........ 1934 Acetate of Mercury....... 1 ........261 ........ 10000 ........ 10000 Physiological Effects.—It is one of the mild mercurial preparations. From the reports of Guarin, Colombier, and Vogler, (Wibmer, Wirkung d. Arzneim. iii. 647.) it appears to have acted in some cases with great violence, and to have occasioned violent vomiting, purging, abdominal pain, bloody evacuations, &c. These effects probably arose from the presence of some acetate of the binoxide of mercury. Uses.—It was introduced into practice in consequence of being supposed to be the active ingredient of Keyser's antivenereal pills. But Robiquet has subse- quently ascertained that Keyser employed the acetate of the Binoxide. (Dumas, Traite de Chimie, v. 178.) It is occasionally used in syphilitic affections. Administration.—The dose of it is from one to five grains. A solution com- posed of one grain of the acetate dissolved in an ounce of water, may be used as a wash. An ointment is prepared by dissolving two or three scruples in an ounce of olive oil. 19. HYDRAR'GYRI SUBSUL'PHAS FLAVUS.—YELLOW SUBSULPHATE OF MERCURY. (Hydrargyri Oxydum Sulphuricum, D.)—[Hydrargyri Sulphas Flavus, U. S.J History.—This compound was known to Croll in the sixteenth century. It has been termed Turpeth (or Turbith) mineral (Turpethum minerale,) from its resemblance in colour to the root ofthe Ipomoea Turpethum. Preparation.—The Dublin College directs it to be thus prepared:— Take ofthe Persulphate of Mercury one part, Warm Water twenty parts. Triturate them together in an earthen ware mortar, and pour off the supernatant liquor; let the yellow pow- der be washed with distilled water, so long as the decanted fluid exhibits any deposite on the addition of some drops ofthe water of caustic potash; lastly, let the sulphuric oxide of mer- cury be dried. [The U. S. P. directs the Persulphate to be made with Mercury four ounces, Sulphuric Acid six ounces. Then proceed as above.] By the action of water there are obtained a soluble supersulphate and a diffi- culty soluble subsulphate of mercury. Properties.—It is a heavy, lemon-yellow, inodorous powder, having an acrid taste. It requires 2000 parts of water at 60°, or 600 parts at 212°, to dissolve it. Characteristics.—When heated in a tube, sulphurous acid is evolved, and glo- bules of mercury sublimed. Boiled with caustic potash or soda, the red binox- ide precipitate*, and a solution of sulphate of potash is obtained, known to be a sulphate by chloride of barium (vide p. 406.) Composition.—Its composition is as follows:— Braamcamp and Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Siqueira-Oliva. Binoxide of Mercury........ 1 ........218 ........ 815 ........ 84-7 Sulphuric Acid............. 1........ 40 ........ 15-5 ........ 15- Subsulphate of Mercury..... 1 ........258 ........ 1000 ........ 997 638 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEOICA. Physiological Effects.—In small quantities it occasions nausea, vomiting, and ptyalism. Taken into the nostrils it excites sneezing, and sometimes salivation. Stenzel (Wibmer, TVirk. d. Arzneim. iii. 66.) mentions a fatal case from its in- ternal use. Uses.—It is sometimes used as an emetic in cases of swelled testicle, to pro- mote absorption by its nauseating and emetic action. (Observ. on the Dublin Pharmacopoeia.) It was formerly given at the commencement of a mercurial course. As an errhine it has been administered in chronic ophthalmia and affec- tions of the brain; as incipient hydrocephalus. As an alterative it has been given in the scaly diseases (lepra and psoriasis.) Administration.—As an alterative, the dose should not exceed half a grain, or at most a grain. As an emetic, it is given to the extent of five grains; in which dose it causes violent vomiting. As an errhine, a grain should be mixed with four or five of some mild powder, as starch or liquorice powder. It is rarely given for any other purposes. Order XXII.—COPPER AND ITS COMPOUNDS. 1. CU'PRUM.—COPPER. History.—Cuprum, or Copper, received its name from Kvxpor, from the island of Cyprus, where it was first discovered, or at least worked to any extent. It seems to have been known in the most remote ages of antiquity, for Moses (Job, ch. xxviii.) speaks of brass (an alloy of copper and zinc.) The alchymists called it Venus. Natural History.—It is found in both kingdoms of nature. a.. In the Inorganized Kingdom.—Copper is found in the metallic or reguline state, com- bined with oxygen, with sulphur, with selenium, with chlorine, or with oxygen and an oxyacid (carbonic, arsenic, phosphoric, sulphuric, or silicic.) &. In the Organized Kingdom.—It has been discovered in the ashes of most plants, as of Stavesacre, Rhatany, Flax, Nux-vomica, Hemlock, &c. Sarzeau has detected it in the blood of animals. (Ann. de Chim. xliv. 334.) Preparation.—The copper of commerce is usually prepared from copper py- rites (the double sulphuret of copper and iron.) The greater part of the ore raised in Cornwall is of this kind. It is roasted and then smelted, by which coarse metal is produced. This is calcined and again smelted, by which we obtain fine metal, or, when cast in sand, blue metal. By re-roasting and smelt- ing, coarse copper is produced. These processes, of roasting and smelting, effect the expulsion of the sulphur and the oxidizement ofthe iron. The copper thus produced is melted and exposed to the air, to drive off any volatile matters by which blistered copper is obtained. It is refined or toughened by melting it and stirring with a birchpole. (J. H. Vivian, Ann. of Philosophy, N. S. vol. v. Properties.—It is a brilliant, red metal, crystallizable in regular octohedra and cubes, having a specific gravity of 8-86 to 8-89; malleable and ductile; it has a nauseous, styptic taste, and a peculiar and disagreeable smell. It fuses at 1996° F. (Daniell;) at a higher temperature it may be volatilized. Its equivalent is 32. It is combustible, and is readily oxrdated. Acid, alkaline, saline, and fatty bodies, when placed in contact with it in the air, promote its union with oxygen; and, by dissolving a portion of the newly-formed oxide, acquire poisonous pro- perties. Characteristics.—Copper is easily recognised by its colour, and by its com- municating a green tinge to flame. It dissolves in diluted nitric acid: the solution possesses the following properties:—It is blue, or greenish-blue; with potash or soda it yields a blue precipitate (hydrated oxide of copper;) a small quantity of copper. 639 ammonia produces with it a similar bluish-white precipitate, but an excess redis- solves it, forming a deep blue liquid (cuprate of ammonia:) ferrocyanide of po- tassium occasions in it a reddish-brown precipitate (ferrocyanide of copper;) the hydrosulphurets throw down a precipitate (sulphuret of copper;) and, lastly, a polished iron plate plunged into the liquid, becomes coated with metallic copper. Physiological Effects. «. Of Metallic copper.—Metallic copper appears to produce no pernicious effects when taken internally, so long as it retains its me- tallic state, as many cases are recorded where coins of this metal have been swal- lowed, and retained for a considerable time, without any ill effects arising; and Drouard (Exper. et Observ. sur VEmpoisonnem. par VOxide de Cuivre. Paris, 1802.) gave as much as an ounce of finely-powdered copper to dogs of different ages and sizes, but none of them experienced any inconvenience therefrom. Notwithstanding these facts, however, various effects have been attributed to it. Thus, Cothenius (Voigtel, Arzniemittellehre.) says, copper filings operate by stool, urine, and saliva; and the late Professor Barton (Chapman, Elem. of Therap. ii. 457.) was accustomed to relate an instance of a child, who, having swallowed a cent, continued for some time to discharge several pints of saliva. Lastly, Portal (Orfila, Toxicol. Gen.) mentions a case in which copper filings, incorporated with crumb of bread, acted powerfully on the system. I have no doubt but that the effects here mentioned arose from the oxidation of the metal by the acids of the alimentary canal. jS. Of the Cupreous Compounds.—Most, if not all, the preparations of copper are poisonous in large doses. The sulphuret and ferrocyanide are doubtful ex- ceptions to this statement. If the cupreous preparations be used in very small doses, they sometimes give relief in certain diseases (principally of the nervous system,) without obviously disordering the functions; in other words, in these instances the only apparent effect is the modification observed in the morbid con- dition. These are cases in which these preparations have been termed tonic, antispasmodic, or alterative, according to the nature of the disease; thus, in ague they have been termed tonic, in epilepsy antispasmodic, in dropsy alterative. The beneficial operation is presumed to be owing to some influence exerted by the remedy over the nervous system. The effects produced by the long-con- tinued use of small doses of the preparations of copper have not been satisfactorily determined; they are said to be various affections of the nervous system (such as cramps or paralysis,) alteration of the colour of the skin, chronic inflammation of the respiratory and digestive apparatus, slow fever, and wasting of the body. These symptoms constitute what has been termed slow, or chronic poisoning by copper. The smelters and workers in copper do not suffer from thevapour or emanation of this metal, as the workmen employed in the preparation of mer- cury, of arsenic, or of lead do, from the vapours of these metals: this, indeed, might be expected, when we consider how much more volatile the latter and their preparations are, than copper and its compounds. In larger, or full medicinal doses, these remedies act as emetics, exciting speedy vomiting, with less nausea than tartar emetic produces. In still larger quantities, these bodies act as poi- sons, giving rise to gastro-intestinal inflammation, and disordering the functions of the nervous system (especially the cerebro-spinal portion,) constituting acute poisoning by copper. The usual symptoms are, a coppery taste, eructations, violent vomiting and purging, griping pains, cramps in the legs and thighs, head- ach, giddiness, convulsions, and insensibility: jaundice is occasionally observed. In some cases the cerebro-spinal symptoms precede those which indicate inflam- mation of the alimentary canal. In experiments made on animals, it has been observed that death was sometimes produced without any marks of local irri- tation; the symptoms being those indicative of a disordered condition of the ner- vous system. By some toxicologists these preparations are ranked among the 640 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. irritant poisons, though Buchner, (Toxicologie.) judging from Reiter's experi- ments, terms them astringent. Drouard, and others, were of opinion that the preparations of copper did not become absorbed, but Lebkuchner (Christison, Treatise on Poisons, 3d ed. 433.) has detected copper in the blood of the carotid artery of a cat, into whose bron- chial tubes he had injected four grains of the ammoniacal sulphate; and Wibmer (Wirk. d. Arzn. ii. 244.) has found it in the liver of animals to whom he had given the acetate for several weeks. Post-mortem appearances.—In animals killed rapidly by these poisons, no morbid appearances are found, in consequence of death being produced by their action on the nervous system: but when the death was slow, marks of gas- trointestinal inflammation, and occasionally indications of inflammation of the brain, have been observed. Uses. ct. Of Metallic Copper.—Copper filings, in doses of three or four grains, were formerly used in rheumatism, and also as an antidote against the effects of the bite of a mad dog. /3. ofthe Cupreous Compounds.—These preparations are used both as external and as internal remedies; externally, as stimulants, astringents, styptics, and caus- tics ; internally, as emetics, tonics or antispasmodics, and astringents. The parti- cular cases will be noticed when treating of the individual preparations. Antidotes.—The chemical antidote for the cupreous preparations is albumen; hence, the whites of eggs, and in the absence of these, milk, or even wheaten flour, should be employed. Iron filings have been proposed by Navier, by Payen and Chevallier, and subsequently by Dumas and Milne Edwards. The iron decom- poses the cupreous salt, and precipitates the copper in the metallic (and, therefore, in an inert) state. The ferrocyanide of potassium is also said to be a good anti- dote : a drachm or two of it may be taken with safety, for it is not so poisonous as was at one time imagined. Sugar was proposed by Marcelin Duval as an anti- dote ; its efficacy, though denied by Orfila and Vogel, has been lately reasserted by Postel. The alkaline sulphurets formerly used are worse than useless, since they are active poisons. The inflammatory symptoms are of course to be sub- dued by the usual means. (For farther details on this subject consult Christison's Treatise on Poisons.) 2. CU'PRI SUL'PHAS, L. E. D. (U. S.)—SULPHATE OF COPPER. History.—This substance was probably employed by Hippocrates, (De ulce- ribus.) under the name of £«a*;t<$- y,vxvey (Chalcitis ccerulea,) to promote the heal- ing of ulcers. Pliny (Hist. Nat. xxxiv. 32.) also was doubtless acquainted with it,, though he seems to have confounded it with sulphate of iron. His Chalcanthum Cyprium was, perhaps, sulphate of copper. This salt has had various other names, such as Blue Vitriol (Vitriolum cceruleum,) Roman Vitriol, Blue Copperas, Blue Stone, Bisulphate of Copper. Natural History.—It occurs in copper mines (as those of Cornwall, &c.) and is formed from sulphuret of copper by the joint agency of air and water. The cu- preous solutions of copper mines are termed waters of cementation. Preparation.—It may be prepared by evaporating the water found in, or issuing from, copper mines. It is also produced by roasting copper pyrites, lixivating the residuum to dissolve the sulphate, and evaporating so as to obtain crystals. In this process both the sulphur and the copper of the pyrites abstract oxygen from the air, and become, the one sulphuric acid, the other oxide of copper: these by their union constitute the sulphate of copper. Sulphate of copper is " occasionally prepared by dissolving in sulphuric acid an oxichloride of copper made for the purpose, by exposing sheet copper to the joint action of air and hydrochloric acid." (Brande's Manual of Chemistry, 5th edit.) It is also obtained in large quantities in certain processes for refining gold and silver. sulphate of copper. 641 For the following information respecting its production at the Mint I am indebted to the kindness of Professor Brande :■— " A large quantity of sulphate of copper is occasionally obtained here, as follows:—When ingots of silver are found to Contain a certain quantity of gold, they are melted, granulated, and boiled in sulphuric acid, by which sulphate of silver is formed, and the gold remains in a pulverulent form: the sulphate of silver is then decomposed by the immersion of copper plates; the silver is precipitated in a fine crystalline powder, washed, pressed into masses, and melted, and so affords pure silver, which is afterwards made standard by alloying it with copper, and used for the coinage: the resulting sulphate of copper is then crystallized and sold. " When gold ingots contain a certain quantity of silver, they undergo a similar process. Suppose a certain number of ingots of gold to contain 2 or 3 per cent, of silver,— instead of leaving it, as formerly, to constitute a part of the standard alloy, it pays to extract it, and sub- stitute copper in its place. To get the silver out of the said ingots they are melted with about 3 parts of silver,—the resulting alloy is granulated and boiled in sulphuric acid,—the gold remains untouched,—and all the silver is dissolved and converted into sulphate, which is de- composed by copper as before: so that here again sulphate of copper is obtained. Properties.—This salt occurs in fine blue crystals, whose form is the doubly oblique prism. Its sp. gr. is 2*2. It has a styptic metallic taste, and reacts on litmus as an acid. By exposure to the air it effloresces slightly, and becomes covered with a greenish-white powder. When heated it loses its water Of crys- tallization, and becomes a white powder (pulvis sympathelicus.) By a very in- tense heat it is decomposed,—sulphurous acid and oxygen are evolved, and oxide of copper left. It dissolves in about 4 parts of water at 60°, and two parts of boiling water. It is insoluble in alcohol. Characteristics.—Its characteristics are those of the sulphates (vide p. 406,) and ofthe cupreous compounds (vide p. 638.) Composition.—Its composition is as follows:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Thomson. Berzelius. Oxide of Copper............... 1 ........ 40........ 32 ........ 32 ___.... 3213 Sulphuric Acid ............... I ........ 40 ........ 32 ........ 32 ........ 3157 Water......................... 5 ........ 45 ........ 36 ........ 36 ........ 3630 Crystallized Sulphate of Copper 1 ........ 125 ........ 100 ........ 100 ........ 100 00 Impurity.—The commercial sulphate of copper sometimes contains traces of sulphate of iron. It may be detected by excess of ammonia, which throws down the oxide of iron, but dissolves the oxide of copper. In the air it becomes slightly pulverulent, and of a greenish colour. It is totally soluble in water. Whatever ammonia throws down from thfs solution an excess of ammonia dissolves. PA. Lond. Physiological Effects, <*. On Vegetables.—It is poisonous to plants: (De Candolle, Phys. Veg. 1335.) hence its use in preventing dry rot (Merulius la- chrymans,) by soaking timber in it, according to Mr. Margary's patent; and' in destroying or preventing the Smut (Uredo segetum,) or Bunt (U. caries,) in corn, by immersing the grain in a weak solution of it: the solution is not made sufficiently strong to injure the seed. /3. On Animals.—This salt operates as a poison to animals. Six grains killed a dog in half an hour, without producing any appearance of inflammation (Drouard.) Applied to a wound it destroyed the animal in twenty-two hours, and the body was every where in a healthy state. (Duncan, in Christison on Poisons, 432.) Orfila (l^oxicol. Gen.) also lound that it proved fatal in a few hours when ap- plied to wounds. The only symptoms mentioned are dulness, loss of appetite, and sometimes purging. Inflammation ofthe mucous membrane of the stomach and rectum was found after death. y. On Man.—In very small doses it has no sensible operation on the body, though it occasionally ameliorates certain diseases, such as epilepsy and ague: in these cases it has been denominated an antispasmodic and tonic. The local Vol. I.—81 642 elements of materia medica. action on the alimentary tube is that of an astringent. Dr. Eliiotson (Lond. Med. Gaz. xii. 557.) has known a patient to take it for three years, for a parti- cular kind of diarrhoea, without any constitutional effect I have administered six grains thrice a-day for several weeks, in an old dysentery, without any other obvious effect than slight nausea and amelioration of the disease for which it was given. In larger doses it is a safe and useful emetic, acting very speedily, and without exciting any great disorder of the general system. In excessive doses it becomes a poison, producing inflammation of the alimentary canal, and disor- dering the functions of the nervous system, as noticed when describing the action of the cupreous preparations generally. In a case mentioned by Dr. Percival, (Transactions of the London College of Physicians, iii. 88.) two drachms proved fatal; the patient was violently convulsed. In a more recent case (Lond. Med. Gaz. xviii. 624 and 742.) there were vomiting and insensibility, but no convul- sions or purging: the child died in four hours. Its topical action is stimulant, astringent, styptic, and caustic. Its causticity depends on its union, either as a neutral or basic salt, with one or more of the constituents of the tissues. Thus it combines with albumen to form a pale bluish green compound, which produces with caustic potash a violet-coloured solution. (Dr. C. G. Mitscherlich, Brit. Ann. of Med. i. 751 and 817, and ii. 51.) According to Lassaigne (Journal de Chim. Med t. vi. 11* Series.) the bluish white precipitate which sulphate of copper occasions in a solution of al- bumen, is composed of albumen 90-1, and sulphate of copper 9-9. Uses.—Where speedy vomiting without much nausea is required, as in cases of narcotic poisoning, sulphate of copper is a tolerably sure and valuable emetic. It has also been used, with success, to provoke vomiting in croup, and thereby to promote the expulsion of the false membrane. (Brit, and For. Med. Rev. i. 568.) As an astringent it has been used with great benefit in chronic diarrhoea and dysentery. (Eliiotson, Lond. Med. Gaz. viii. 378, and xii. 577; also Med. Chir. Trans, xiii. 451.) It often succeeds where the ordinary vegetable astrin- gents fail. It should be given in doses of from half a grain to two or more grains twice or thrice a-day, in combination with opium. I have employed it with most excellent effects in the old diarrhoeas of infants, in doses of TlT of a grain. The largest dose I have given to an adult is six grains, as above mentioned. It is also used as an astringent to check excessive secretion from the bronchial and urino-genital mucous membranes. Dr. Wright (Lond. Med. Journ. i. and x.) found it serviceable in dropsy. As a tonic or antispasmodic it has been given in intermittent diseases, as the ague; and in some maladies of the nervous system (epilepsy and chorea.) In epilepsy it has recently been strongly recommended by Dr. F. Hawkins. (Lond. Med. Gaz. viii. 183.) As a topical agent, it is often employed in substance as an application to ulcers, either for the purpose of repressing excessive soft and spongy granulations, com- monly denominated " proud flesh," or of hastening the process of cicatrization: and for either of these purposes it is one of the best agents we can employ. So- lutions of it are frequently applied to mucous membranes, to diminish excessive secretion: thus to the conjunctiva, in chronic ophthalmia, and to the mucous lining of the vagina or urethra, in discharges from these parts. In superficial ulcerations of the mucous membranes (especially of the mouth) one or two applications of the sulphate of copper, in substance, are generally sufficient to heal them. As a styptic a solution of this salt is sometimes used to repress hemorrhages from a number of small vessels. Rademacher applied with good effect brandy impregnated with sulphate of copper in a case of alopecia, or baldness, which occurred in a young man; but it failed in the hands of Dr. T. J. Todd. (Cyclop. of Pract. Med. i. 52.) cupro-sulpiiate of ammonia. 043 Administration.—The dose of it, as an emetic, is from three or four grains to fifteen; as an astringent, or tonic, from a quarter of a grain to one, two, or more grains, given so as not to occasion vomiting. Solutions used for external pur- poses vary considerably in their strength in different cases, but usually from one or two grains to eight 01 twelve, dissolved in an ounce of water, are employed. Antidotes.—Vide Cuprum. 3. AMMO'NIiE CU'PRO-SUL'PHAS.-CUPRO-SULPHATE OF AMMONIA. (Cupri Ammonio-Sulphas, L.—Cuprum Ammoniatum, E. D.)—[U. S.] History.—Boerhaave was acquainted with an ammoniacal solution of copper. In 1757 Weissman gave imperfect directions for its preparation. In 1799 Aco- luth published a better process. Dr. Cullen introduced this substance into prac- tice in this country. It is usually called Ammoniated Copper, or Ammoniuret of Copper (Cupri Ammoniaretum.) Preparation.—All the British Colleges give directions for its preparation. The London College orders of Sulphate of Copper, §j.; Sesquicarbonate of Ammonia, 3iss. Rub them together until Carbonic Acid ceases to evolve; then dry the Ammonia-sulphate of Copper, wrapped in bibulous paper, in the air. [The same proportions are directed by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia.] The directions of the Edinburgh College are essentially similar; with the addition that the product is to be preserved "in closely-stoppered bottles." The Dublin College employs of Sulphate of Copper, two parts; Carbonate of Ammonia, three parts. The theory of the process is imperfectly understood. The proportions of in- gredients employed are about two equivalents of sulphate and three and one-fifth equivalents of sesquicarbonate. When rubbed together, these salts give out part of their water of crystallization, by which the mass becomes moist; and, at the same time, a portion of carbonic acid of the sesquicarbonate escapes, producing the effervescence alluded to; and the compound becomes of a deep azure-blue colour. This colour is probably owing to cuprate of ammonia; for oxide of cop- per with caustic ammonia forms a similarly-coloured liquid. If this notion be correct, the decomposition may be thus explained:—Two equivalents or 118 parts of hydrated sesquicarbonate of ammonia react on one equivalent or 125 parts of crystallized sulphate of copper, and produce one equivalent or 57 parts of sulphate of ammonia, seven equivalents or 63 parts of water, and three equi- valents or 66 parts of carbonic acid. The cuprate and sulphate of ammonia with one equivalent of water represent the crystallized cupro-sulphate of ammonia (Cuprum ammoniacale of some authors.) MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. PRODUCTS. ! 3 eq. Carb. Acid.. 66 ...................................3 eq. Carb. Acid .. 66 Zeq.Water...... 18.-----y j « e(* -Water, 54..........6 eq. Water....... 54 1 eq. Ammonia ... U—XXl 11 Sufphate of Am-""' 1 1 eq. Ammonia ... 17^/ ,S monia ...........57 ! 1 eq- Crystallized a Water 45 VS I Cupro-Sulph. 1 eq. Crystd Sulp. \.\ eg. Sulph. Acid. 40"^ ^y j of Ammonia 123 Copper........ 125 ( 1 eq. Oxide Copper 40------- 1 eq. Cuprate of Amm. 57 243 243 243 Properties.—It has a deep azure-blue colour, a styptic metallic taste, and an ammoniacal odour. It reacts oh vegetable colours as an alkali: thus it reddens turmeric, and restores the blue colour of litmus, which has been reddened by an acid. By exposure to the air, ammonia is evolved, and a green powder is left, composed of sulphate of ammonia and carbonate of copper. To prevent this, therefore, it should be preserved in a well-stoppered bottle. It is soluble in water; but unless excess of sesquicarbonate of ammonia be present, the solution, when much diluted, lets fall a subsulphate of copper. Cupro-sulphate of am- 644 elements of materia medica. monia crystallizes in large, right rhombic prisms, which Dr. Kane (Elements of Chemistry, p. 833. Dublin, 1841.) considers to be macles. Characterstics.—Dissolved in water it forms a green precipitate (arsenite of copper) with a solution of arsenious acid. When heated, all its constituents are dissipated, save the oxide of copper. Boiled with caustic potash a solution of sulphate of potash is obtained, the hydrated oxide of copper is thrown down, and ammonia is disengaged. Sulphuric acid may be recognised in the solution by the barytic salts. By heat it is converted into oxide of copper, evolving ammonia. Dissolved in water, it changes the colour of turmeric, and solution of arsenious acid renders it of a green colour. Ph. Lond. Composition.—The essential part of this compound is the cupro-sulphate of ammonia. This, in the crystalline state, has the following composition:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berzeliu3. Brandes. OxideofCopper..................... 1 ...... 40 ...... 3252 ...... 34-00 ...... 33017 Ammonia..:....................... 2 ...... 34 ...... 2764 ...... 26-40 ...... 21-410 Sulphuric Acid..................... 1 ...... 40 ...... 3252 ...... 3225 ...... 3175.1 Water.............................. 1 ...... 9 ...... 732 ...... 735 ...... 13 358 Crystd Cupro-sulphate of Ammonia.. 1 ...... 123 ......100-00 ...... 10000 ...... 99538 Ammoniated Copper of the pharmacopoeias usually contains some undecomposed sesqui. carbonate (bicarbonate?) of ammonia, and probably some sulphate (subsulphiate?) of copper. Physiological Effects.—Its action is, for the most part, similar to sulphate of copper. Wibmer (Wirk. d. Arzneim. ii. 256.) examined its effects on horses and dogs. Four grains dissolved in water, and injected into the veins, killed a dog. The respiration and circulation were quickened by it. In some cases vomiting and purging were produced; weakness, tremblings, and paralysis, indi- cated its action on the nervous system. Its general effects on man are like those of sulphate of copper, but it is thought to be less disposed to occasion nausea and vomiting. An over-dose, however, readily acts as an emetic. Its action is probably somewhat more stimulant to the general system than the sulphate. It is employed in medicine as a tonic and antispasmodic, Uses.—Internally it has been principally employed in chronic spasmodic affec- tions; such as epilepsy, chorea, hysteria, spasmodic asthma, and cramp of the stomach. In epilepsy it has been much esteemed, and was found useful by Dr. Cullen, (Treat, on Mat. Med.) and other accurate observers; but, like all other remedies for this disease, it frequently fails. It has also been used in ague and dropsy. As a topical remedy, a solution of it has been employed as an injection in gonorrhoea and leucorrhoea; and as a collyriqm to remove opacity of the cornea. Administration.—It may be administered internally in doses of from half a grain gradually increased to five or more grains. It is usually exhibited in the form of pill; rarely iii that of solution. 1. PILULE CUPRI AMMONIATI, E. Pills of Ammoniated Copper. (Ammoniated copper in fine powder, one part; Bread crumb, six parts; Solution of Carbonate of Ammonia, a sufficiency. Beat them into a proper mass; and divide it into pills, containing each half a grain of ammoniated copper.) Dose from one to five or six pills in the before-mentioned cases. 2. LiqOUR CUPRI AMMONIO-SULPHATIS, L.; Cupri Ammoniati Solutio, E.; Cupri Ammoniati Aqua, D.; Solution of Ammoniated Copper; Aqua Sapphirina. (Ammonio-sulphate of Copper, 3j.; Distilled Water, Oj. Dissolve the Ammonio- sulphate of Copper in the water, and strain. L. E.—The Dublin College uses of Ammoniated Copper, one part; Distilled Water, one hundred parts.) This subacetate of copper. 645 solution is applied to indolent ulcers as a stimulant and detergent; and, when diluted, to the eye, to remove slight specks of the cornea. 4. CUTRI SUBACE'TAS, D. (U. S.)—SUBACETATE OF COPPER. (iErugo; Diacetas Cupri impura, L— JEiaga; Commercial Diacetate of Copper, E.) History.—Hippocrates employed Verdigris, which he terms xceXxov *• NUn*.... 30 * I 3 eq. Oxygen.......24-----—-—_3eqOx.Bism.240 __-3eqOx.Bism.240 3eq. Bismuth......216........................-—------ ^. 3 eq. Nitric Acid.. 162........................-------------i—-----------^»3 eq Nitrat. Bism. ... 402 432 li When nitrate of bismuth is mixed with water, two bismuthic salts are produced; a soluble supersalt (ternitrate,) and an insoluble subsalt (trisnitrate.) MATERIALS. PRODUCTS. 1 eq. Nitrate Bismuth = 131 '■■■-' ^^^>l eq. Ternitrate Bismuth = 242 (leq. Nitric Acid......108.——""" 3 eq. Nitrate Bismuth = 402-? 1 eq. JVitricAcid..... 54 ( , _, . . „. \3 eq. Oxide Bismuth = 240 J--------1 e^' Trisnitrate Bismuth = 294 536 536 Properties.—It is a dull white, inodorous, tasteless pulverulent substance, which, when examined by a magnifier, is found to consist of very fine silky acicular crys- tals. It is nearly insoluble in water, but is readily dissolved by nitric acid. By exposure to light it becomes grayish. Characteristics.—Hydrosulphuric acid, or the hydrosulphates, blacken it, by forming the sulphuret of bismuth. It dissolves in nitric acid without effervescence. Heated on charcoal by the blowpipe flame it gives out nitrous acid (or its ele- ments,) and yields the yellow oxide of bismuth; and by a continuance ofthe heat, the oxide is reduced, globules of metallic bismuth being obtained, which may be readily distinguished from globules of lead by their brittleness; for, when struck sharply by a hammer on an anvil, they fly to pieces; frofn antimony they are distin- guished by their solubility in nitric acid. Composition.—Its composition, according to Mr. Phillips, (Phil. Mag. Dec. 1-830, p. 409.) is as follows :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. R. Phillips. Oxide of Bismuth............... 3 ........ 240 ........ 8164........ 81.92 Nitric Acid.................... 1 ........ 54 ........ 18 36 ........ 1836 Trisnitrate of Bismuth......... 1 ..---.. 294 ........10000........10028 Purity.—Its freedom from any carbonate (as of lead) is distinguished by its solution in nitric acid without effervescence. Diluted sulphuric acid added to the solution throws down a white precipitate, if lead be present. It is soluble in nitric acid without effervescence. Diluted sulphuric acid being added to the solution, nothing is thrown down. Ph. Lond. It forms a colourless solution with nitric acid and without effervescence: not subject to adulteration. Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects. «. On Animals.—It acts as a local irritant and caus- tic poison. Moreover it appears to exercise a specific influence over the lungs and nervous system. (Orfila, Toxicol. Gen.) ji. On Man.—In small doses it acts locally as an astringent, diminishing secre- tion. On account of the frequent relief given by it in painful affections of the sto- mach, it is supposed to act on the nerves of this viscus as a sedative. It has also been denominated tonic and antispasmodic. Vogt (Pharmakodynamik, i. 288, 2te Aufl.) says, that when used as a cosmetic, it has produced a spasmodic trem- bling of the muscles of the face, ending in paralysis. Ixtrge medicinal doses disorder the digestive organs, occasioning pain, vomiting, TIN. 649 purging, &c.; and sometimes affecting the nervous system, and producing giddi- ness, insensibility, cramps ofthe extremities, &c. The following is the only reported case of poisoning with it. A man took two drachms by mistake, and died therefrom on the ninth day. In addition to the usual symptoms of gastro-enteritis, there was a disordered condition of the nervous system, indicated by cramps of the hands and feet, disordered vision. and delirium. It is deserving also of remark, that there were difficulty of breathing, and salivation. Post-mortem examination showed inflammation throughout the alimentary canal; the spinal vessels were gorged with blood, particularly towards the cauda equina; there was fluid in the cerebral ventricles; and the inner surface of both ventricles ofthe heart'was very red. (Christison's Treatise on Poisons.) Use.—It has been principally employed in those chronic affections of the sto- mach which are unaccompanied by any organic disease, but which apparently depend on some disordered condition of the nerves of this viscus; and hence the efficacy of the remedy is referred to its supposed action on these parts. It has been particularly used and recommended to relieve gastrodynia and cramp of the stomach, to allay sickness and vomiting, and as a remedy for the waterbrash. It has also been administered in intermittent fever, in spasmodic asthma, &c. Hahnemann has recommended a portion to be introduced into a hollow tooth, to allay toothach. I have used it, with advantage, in the form of ointment, applied to the septum nasi, in ulceration of this part, and as a local remedy in chronic skin diseases. Administration.—The usual dose of this remedy is from five grains to a scruple. I seldom commence with less than a scruple of it for a dose, and have repeatedly exhibited half a drachm without the least inconvenience. It may be administered in the form pf linctus or, pill. The ointment which I have above referred to was composed of one drachm of the trisnitrate, and half an ounce of spermaceti ointment. Antidotes.—No chemical antidote is known. Emollient drinks should be ad- ministered, and the poison evacuated from the stomach as 'speedily as possible. I^hc antiphlogistic plan is to be adopted, to obviate inflammation.' Order XXIV.—TIN. STAN'NUM, L. E. D. (U. S.)—TIN. History.—Tin has been known from the most remote periods of antiquity. It is mentioned by Moses (Number.-, xxxi. 22.) and by Homer. (Iliad, xi. 25.) The alchymists called it Jove, or Jupiter. Natural History.—It is peculiar to the mineral kingdom. It occurs' in two states; as an oxide (the Tin Stone and Wood Tin of mineralogists,) and as a sul- phuret (Tin Pyrites.) It is found in both states in Cornwall, v/hich has long been celebrated for its tin works. The Phoenicians, who were perhaps the first people who carried on commerce by sea, traded with England and Spain for tin at least 1000 years before Christ. Preparation.—In Cornwall, Slrectm Tin (a variety of Tin Stone) is smelted with charcoal or with culm, in a reverberatory furnace. The metal thus pro- cured is subsequently made hot, and then let fall from a height, or is struck with a hammer, by which it splits into a number of irregular prisms, somewhat like a basalt pillar. This is called Grain Tin; of this there are two kinds, the best whicli is used for dyers,—and a second employed in the manufacture of tin-plate, and which is called tin-plate grain. Mine Tin (another variety of Tin Stone) is stamped, washed, roasted, afterwards smelted with Welsh culm and limestone, bv which Block Tin is procured; the finest kind of which is called Refined Tin. (Mr. John Taylor, Ann. Phil. Hi- 449.) Besides the two varieties of tin just described, other kinds are met wilh in Vol. 1.—^ - 650 ELEMENTS OK MATERIA MEDICA. commerce. Malacca Tin occurs in quadrangular pyramids, with flattened bases. Banca Tin is met with in wedge-shaped pieces. Properties.—In its massive form it is a yellowish-white metal, having a pecu- liar odour when rubbed or handled. Its sp. gr. is 7-29. It melts at 442° F. and at a white heat is volatilized. It is malleable, and forms Sheet Tin and Tin Foil (Slannum folialum,) but is sparingly ductile. Its equivalent is 58. Characteristics.—Boiled in strong hydrochloric acid, we obtain a solution of protochloride of tin, which has the following characters:—Potash added to it causes a white precipitate, soluble in excess of the precipitant^ hydrosulphuric acid produces a brown precipitate; and chloride of gold, a dark or black precipi- tate. If protochloride of tin be heated with nitric acid, we obtain a perchloride which causes a yellowish precipitate with hydrosulphuric acid. The London and Edinburgh Colleges give the following characteristics of its purity:— Boiled wilh hydrochloric acid it is almost entirely dissolved. The solution is free from colour, but becomes purple on the addition of chloride of gold. What is precipitated by pot- ash is white, and when added in excess it is redissolvcd. The specific gravity of tin is 7"29. Ph. Lond. When finely granulated, 100 grains are entirely converted into a white powder by three fluid-drachms of nitric acid (D. 1380;) and distilled water, boiled with this powder and fil- tered, is colourless, and precipitates but faintly, or not at all, with solution of sulphate of mag. nesia. Ph. Edinb. Physiological Effects.—In the mass, tin has no influence on the body, except that arising from its form and weight. Powdered tin is not known to produce any disorder in the functions of the body. It appears, however, that acid, fatty, saline, and even albuminous substances, may occasion colic and vomiting by having remained for some time in tin vessels. Oxide of tin is poisonous, ac- cording to Orfila; ('Toxicol. Gen.) but Schubarth (Quoted by Dr. Christison, Treat, on Poisons.) found it inactive. Uses.—Powdered tin has been employed with great success by various practi- tioners, as a vermifuge, particularly in tape-worm. Dr. Alston (Med. Essays, v. 89, 92; also Led. on Mat. Med. i. 150.) explains its operation on mechanical prin- ciples : he supposes that the powder of tin gets betwixt the worms and the inner coat ofthe alimentary canal, and causes them to quit their hold, so that purgatives easily carry them away with the faeces. It has, however, been asserted that water in which tin has been boiled is anthelmintic, at least so says Pitcairn and Pietsch; (Quoted by Richter, Ausf. Arzneim. iv. 553.) wine which has been digested in a tin vessel is also said to be noxious to worms. If these statements be true, the before-mentioned mechanical explanation is inadmissible. Some have, therefore, supposed that the efficacy must depend on the tin becoming oxidized in the ali- mentary canal; others have fancied that arsenic, which is frequently found in tin, is the active agent; while, lastly, some have imagined that the metal, by its action on the fluids of the canal, generated hydrogen, or hydrosulphuric acid, which de- stroyed these parasites. Dr. D. Monro, (Treat, on Med. and Pharm. Chem. i. 289.) Fothergill, and Richter, have used powdered tin in epilepsy produced by worms, and, as it is stated, with advantage. Administration.—It is usually exhibited mixed with treacle: the dose commonly employed is one or two drachms, but Alston gave much larger quantities. His mode of employing it as a vermifuge was the following:—The patient was well purged with senna, and on the following morning one ounce of tin powder was given in four ounces of treacle: on each of the two following days half this quantity was taken, and then the patient again purged. Tin powder is much inferior to oil of turpentine as a remedy for tape-worm. STABI PULVIS, E. D.—Pulvis Stanni (U. S.) Powder of Tin; Granulated Tin. (The Edinburgh College gives the following directions for its preparation:—Melt r.RAD. 651 tin in an iron vessel; pour it into an earthenware mortar heated a little above the melting point of the metal; triturate briskly as the metal cools, ceasing as soon as a considerable portion is pulverized; sift the product, and repeat the process with what remains in the sieve.—The Dublin College orders of the purest Tin, any required quantity. Liquefied by heat, let it be strongly agitated until it passes into a powder, which when cold is to be shaken through a sieve.)—Tin may be reduced to powder by shaking it when melted in a wooden box, the inside of which has been rubbed with chalk. The doses and uses have been above de- scribed. Tin Filings (Stanni Limatura seu Rasura Stanni) have also been used in medicine. Order XXV.—LEAD AND ITS COMPOUNDS. 1. PLUM'BUM.—LEAD. History.—This metal was known in the most remote ages of antiquity. It is mentioned by Moses. (Job, xix. 23,24.) The Greeks called it poitphr; the alchymists, Saturn. Natural History.—It is found both in the metallic state (Native Lead) and mineralized. It is met with combined with sulphur (Galena,) with selenium, with chlorine (Horn Lead,) with oxygen (Native Minium,) and with oxygen and an acid, forming an oxy-salt (Carbonate, Phosphate, Sulphate, Tungstale, Molyb- date, Chromate, Arseniate, and Aluminate.) Preparation.—It is usually extracted from galena, which is roasted in reverbe- ratory furnaces, by which it is converted into a mixture of sulphate and oxide of lead, and afterwards smelted with coal and lime; the first to abstract oxygen, the second to remove the sulphur. Properties.—It has a bluish-gray colour and considerable brilliancy. It may be crystallized by cooling in four-sided pyramids. It is malleable, but not ductile. Its sp. gr. 11-35. It has a peculiar odour when handled. It fuses at 612° P. and at a red heat boils and evaporates. Its equivalent is 104. By exposure to the air it attracts, first oxygen, and then carbonic acid, so as to form carbonate of lead. Pure distilled water has no action on lead,1 if the gases (as air and carbonic acid) be excluded ; but if these be admitted, a thin crust of carbonate is soon formed. It is remarkable that the presence of most neutral salts—sulphate of soda and chloride of sodium, for example—impairs the corrosive action of air and water. (Chris- tison, Treatise on Poisons.) Hence, therefore, we can easily comprehend the reason why leaden cisterns and pipes do not more frequently give a metallic im- pregnation to water; "and why rain-water is more apt than spring-water to become impregnated with lead. The latter, however, by long keeping in leaden vessels, may also become contaminated with lead. Characteristics.—If the lead be dissolved in nitric acid, we may easily recog- nise its presence in the solution by the following tests:—Alkalis, their carbonates, sulphuric acid and the sulphates, and ferrocyanide of potassium, produce white precipitates (which are respectively hydrated oxide, carbonate, sulphate, and fer- rocyanide of lead;) chromate of potash and iodide of potassium occasion yellow precipitates (chromate and iodide of lead;) hydrosulphuric acid and the hydrosul- phates form black precipitates (sulphuret of lead;) lastly, a piece of zinc throws down metallic lead in an arborescent form. 1 For iome observations on this subject see Mr. Taylor's memoir in the Guy's Hospital Reports, vol. iii. 652 elements of materia mkdica. The delicacy of these tests is according to Devergie (Med. Leg. ii. 779.) as follows:— Degree of Dilution. Sulphate of Soda.........................stops at 5,000 Iodide of Potassium............................. 10,000 Ferrocyanide of Potassium....................... 18,000 Potash........................................... 20,000 Cai bonate of Soda or oi" Potash.................. 00,000 Chromate of Potash......-...................... 100,000 Hydrosulphuric Acid......:...................... 500,000 Physiological Effects, i. Of Metallic Lead*—I believe that so long as lead retains its metallic form it is inert. In a French journal (Journ. tie Med. de Leroux, xxiii. 318.) it is stated that three ounces and six drachms of this metal have been given to a dog without any obvious effects. As, however, it is a metal which is readily oxidated, it occasionally proves active when swallowed. An in- stance of this kind is mentioned by Paulini, (Miscell. Nat. Cur. Dec. ii. Ann. vi. App. p. 7, quoted by Voigtels, Arzneimittellehre.) in which colic was produced by swallowing a leaden bullet. Proust (Ann. de. Chipi.lvii. §4.) says that the alloy of lead and tin may be swallowed with impunity, in consequence of its being much less easily oxidated than the pure metal. a. Of the Preparations of Lead. ct. On Vegetables.—Marcet found the solu- tion of acetate of lead injurious to plants, but Wiegmann declares it to be inert, and ascribes its inertness to the formation of an insoluble salt (carbonate) pf lead by the carbonic acid ofthe roots ofthe plants. /3. On Animals.—The preparations of lead are, for the most part, energetic poisons. The Sulphuret, however, appears to be inactive, or nearly so; for Orfila (Toxicol. Gen.) gave an ounce of it to dogs without observing any ill effects; four ounces have even been given to horses without any unpleasant results. The Sulphate, also, according to Orfila, is inactive. Our knowledge of the effects ofthe salts of lead op aninials is derived from experiments made with the acetate, nitrate, and carbonate. The first two act as corrosives: all affect the nervous system, and occasion convulsions, palsy, and colica pictonum. (Christison, Treat, on Poisons, 506 et seq. 3d ed.) y. On Man.—Mr. Braid (Christison, op. cit. 518.) states that workmen who dig and pulverize the ore (sulphuret of lead,) at the Lead Hills in Lanark- shire, never have the lead colic until they work at the smelting furnaces. Most, if not all, the other preparations are more or less active; the effects and symptoms, however, vary with the dose. In small doses these preparations act on the alimentary canal as astringents; checking secretion and causing constipation. These may be regarded as the local effects. When ahsorbed, the constitutional effects of lead are observed: the arteries become reduced in size and activity, for the pulse becomes slower and smaller; the temperature of the body is diminished; and sanguineous dis- charges, whether natural or artificial, are frequently checked, or even completely stopped. This cons,tringing and sedative effect seems extended to the secreting and exhaling vessels.; the discharges from the mucous membranes, the exhalation from the skin, and the urine, being diminished in quantity. Thus we observe dryness ofthe mouth and throat, thirst, greater solidity pf the alvine evacuations, diminution of the bronchial secretion, and of cutaneous exhalation. From these circumstances it appears that the preparations of lead give rise to a contracted state of the coats of the blood-vessels (at least of the arteries.) It is not at all improbable that the absorbent vessels are similarly affected. The wasting of the body produced by lead (Tabes saturnina, or Tabes sicca) may perhaps be re- ferred to this constringing influence on the vessels. A remarkable effect on the human gums, produced by the absorption of lead, has been pointed out by Dr. Burton. (Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, 2d Series, vol. v. p. 63. Lond. 1840.) It consists in the formation of a narrow LEAD. 653 leaden-blue line, about the one-twentieth of an inch thick, which borders the edges ofthe gums attached to the necks of two or more teeth of either jaw. In every case of lead colic that has fallen under my care I have observed this line. Moreover, in several cases where sugar of lead, in full doses, has been given for many days continuously, I have noticed it; and in most of the cases it was ac- companied by abdominal pain. On two patients not known to have been sub- jected to the influence of lead I have observed some faint indication of a similar line, without, however, any constitutional symptoms of lead poisoning. I have not observed this line in patients under the influence of mercury. In one in- stance mentioned by Dr. Burton, fifteen grains of acetate of lead, taken in four days, caused the blue line: in another this effect was not produced until the pa- tient had taken one hundred and sixty grains in twenty-one days. Salivation, (Dr. Warren, Medical Transactions, vol. ii. p. 87.) turgidity ofthe gums,1 and a bluish colour of the saliva, (Dr. Christison, Treatise on Poisons, p. 514. 3d. ed.) are other effects ascribed to the influence of lead. " I do not wish to assert," observes Dr. Burton, "that salivation and turgidity ofthe gums are never produced by the internal operation of lead; but I venture to affirm they are rare occurrences, and not characteristic of its influence." The bluish colour of the saliva, and the blue line on the gums, probably de- pend on the presence of sulphuret of lead, formed by the action of sulphuretted hydrogen, evolved by the lungs, on the lead contained in the salivary and buccal secretion; for I have observed that an alloy of mercury and silver, introduced into the hollow of a tooth, becomes coated in a few days with a black film of metallic sulphuret. The long-continued use of the preparations of lead rarely fails to give evidence of its effect on the muscular and nervous systems: and which is manifested by a curious train of symptoms, commencing with colic, and terminating in palsy or apoplexy. Lead or painter's colic, (colica pictonum) is variable in its mode of attack; at one time commencing suddenly, and without any very marked pre- monitory symptoms, at another being preceded by dyspeptic symptoms—such as diminished appetite, with a painful and constipated state of the bowels, the faeces being very hard. During an attack, there is usually obstinate constipation, with acute pain, much increased at intervals; but sometimes a relaxed condition ofthe bowels has been met with. Merat (Traite de la Colique Melal/ique.) re- fers the continued pain to the small intestines, while the more violent and inter- mitting kind resides principally in the transverse portion of the colon. Pressure rarely increases, and very commonly relieves, the pain. Cases, however, do occur (and I have seen several) in which there is great tenderness of the bowels. The abdomen is strongly retracted, sinks in about the navel, and feels very hard. To these symptoms may be added vomiting, cramps of the lower extremities, hard and generally slow pulse, though sometimes it has been found frequent. De Haen and Merat, on examining the bodies of patients who have died affected with lead colic, found a contracted condition of the colon, and this was considered by the last-mentioned writer to indicate the seat of the disease. But Sir G. Baker, Andral, (Path, Anal, by Townsend and West, ii. 140.) Louis, and Copland, (Diet. Pract. Med. i. 366.) have not, in some cases, found any alteration. Moreover, it would appear probable from Dr. Abercrombie's obser- vations on ileus (On Diseases of the Abdom. Jlscera.) that the empty and col- lapsed portion of the intestine was not the seat of the colic, but another part found in a state of distention,—for the collapsed or contracted state is the natural condition of healthy intestine when empty; while the distended portion is, in ordinary cases of ileus, the primary seat of the disease, the distention arising from a paralytic condition of the muscular fibres, whereby it is unable to •ontract « Dr. A. ThoniFon, Elements of Materia Medica, vol. ii. p. 66; and Laidlaw, in the Lond. Med. Rep. N.S. vi. W. 654 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. and propel its contents onward. Now this view of the case is the more pro- bable, since the action of lead on the muscular fibres of the intestine is doubtless of the same kind as that on the fibres of the voluntary muscles. Some have found intus-susception, others have noticed marks of inflammation. Lead colic is accompanied by the blue line on the gums above referred to; which, therefore, is an important aid in distinguishing this variety of colic from that which arises from other causes. Another effect of poisoning by lead is an affection of the cerebro-spinal system, generally manifested by paralysis, but occasionally by giddiness, convulsions, and coma, and now and then by apoplexy. The palsy may occur without colic, or it may come on while the patient is suffering with it, but in general it suc- ceeds colic. It is accompanied with the blue line on the gums above described. It may happen in both upper and lower extremities, though more frequently in the former; and it,affects the extensor more than the flexor muscles, so that the hands are generally bent on the arms, which hang dangling by the side. Fre- quently pain is experienced in the paralyzed part, and sometimes in the region of the spine also. On examining the bodies of persons who have died with this disease, no lesion has hitherto been discovered in the spinal marrow. The mus- cles of the affected limb are observed to be wasted and very pale, and have some- times the appearance of a white fibrous tissue. In very large doses, some of the plumbeous preparations (the acetate, for ex- ample) act as irritant and caustic poisons; giving rise to the usual symptoms indicative of gastro-enteritis. However, none of them equal, in the intensity of the local action, the mercurial or even the cupreous compounds. Modus Operandi.—Tiedemann and Gmelin (Vers. Uber d. Wege, auf welchen Subst. aus d. Mag. ins Blut. gelang.) found lead in the blood of the splenic, mesenteric, and hepatic veins of dogs killed by the acetate; they also found it in the contents of the stomach and intestines, but neither in the chyle nor the urine. Wibmer (Christison's Treatise on Poisons, 3d edit. p. 509.) detected it in the liver, muscles, and spinal cord. The local or corrosive action of the soluble salts of lead depends on the affinity of these bodies for the organic constituents of the tissues (vide Plumbi Acetas.) The nervous system is specifically affected by lead. The paralysis of the voluntary muscles, the pain in the course of the spine, the occasional giddiness, coma, or apoplexy, seem to establish this. The colic as well as the astringent influence of lead over the coats of vessels are probably secondary effects of the action of lead over the nervous system. The constitutional effects of lead may be produced in various ways: as, when taken with articles of food and drink into the stomach; when inhaled in the form of dust or vapour with the air; when applied to mucous membranes, ulcers, &c. Hence the persons most liable to these effects are those whose occupations bring them in contact with this metal; for example, painters, plumbers, roasters and smelters of lead, the manufacturers of the plumbeous preparations, glass-blowers, potters, lapidaries, &c. Dr. Anthony Todd Thomson (Lond. Med. Gaz. v. 538, and x. 689.) is of opinion, that carbonate of lead is the only preparation of this metal that can pro- duce colic: and though he has, I think clearly, shown that lead colic more fre- quently arises from the carbonate than from any other salt of lead, he has, in my opinion, failed in proving that no other preparation of lead can produce it. In- deed, if his opinion were true, it would constitute an exception to the general effects ofthe metallic preparations; for we do not find that the specific effects of arsenic, or of mercury, or of copper, or of antimony, are produced by one prepara- tion only: so that, a priori, analogy is against the opinion. Farthermore, it is well known that the vapour of the oxide of lead taken into the lungs may pro- duce colic, and that the ingestion of the acetate, citrate, or tartrate of lead, is capable of exciting the same effect. Now Dr. Thomson explains these facts by RED OXIDE OF LEAD. 655 assuming that the oxide of lead unites with carbonic acid in the lungs, and is thus converted into carbonate: and that the acetate, citrate, and tartrate, are de- composed in the alimentary canal, and converted into carbonates. But it appears to me to be much more simple and consistent with analogy, to admit that these preparations are of themselves capable of producing colic, than to assume that they undergo the changes here supposed. Moreover, in some instances in which colic was produced, it is unlikely that these changes would have occurred, owing to the excess of acid taken with the salt of lead. Uses.—The uses of the preparations of lead may be in part inferred from the foregoing account of their effects. These agents are employed when we wish to constringe the capillary vessels and to diminish their vital activity. Thus we ad? minister them internally to check excessive secretion and exhalation, as in catarrhal affections of the mucous membranes of a chronic nature; in profuse secretion of pus; in sanguineous exhalations from the mucous membranes; and colliquative sweating. They have also been applied, in some instances with success, in cer- tain chronic affections of the nervous system, as epilepsy; but the practice is alto- gether empirical, as we have no rational principles, to guide us in using them. As topical remedies,1 we employ the preparations of lead to diminish vascular excite- ment, to allay preternatural heat, and to check excessive secretion. Thus we ap- ply them to inflamed parts to promote resolution, and to ulcers and other secreting surfaces as astringents or desiccants. During the internal employment of lead, at- tention must be paid to the condition ofthe gums, stomach and bowels, as we find traces of their injurious effects in these organs. The blue line on the gums has been noticed. Constipation is a very frequent result ofthe medicinal employment of lead. Loss of appetite, indigestion, and griping pains, are also often noticed. The tendency to colic is diminished, according to Dr. A. T. Thomson, by con- joining acetic acid. Antidotes.—Poisoning by lead usually puts on one of three forms—irritant poisoning, lead colicr and paralysis,- and the treatment varies with each. In irritant poisoning administer diluents holding in solution some sulphate (as sulphate of soda, of magnesia, or of potash or alum,) so that a sulphate of lead may be formed. If vomiting have not already come on, tickle the throat, and administer emetics of the sulphate of zinc or of copper, or the stomach-pump may be em- ployed. In lead colic the best remedy is alum (vide pp. 518 and 519.) But in this country lead colic is frequently treated by the combined use of purgatives and ano- dynes, the purgatives being either castor oil or salts and senna, and the anodyne being opium. When the vomiting is very troublesome, and liquid medicines do not remain on the stomach, we may give the compound extract of colocynth, with opium in the form of pill. In several cases in which the pulse was full and strong, the face flushed, and the tongue furred and dry, I have used blood-letting with evident advantage. The sulphates have been recommended, as also mercury. In lead paralysis, nux vomica, and its active principles—strychnia and brucia are perhaps of all internal remedies most deserving of trial, because of their specific effect on the spinal marrow; and the chance of their success is, of course, much increased by the circumstance of there being no discoverable lesion of this portion of the nervous system. Mercury has been recommended by Dr. Clutterbuck. Various local measures have been tried, but without much benefit; for example, electricity and irritants (such as ammonia and cantharides.) 2. PLUMBI OX'YDUM.—OXIDE OF LEAD. (Lithargyrum, E— Plumbi Oxydum semivitreum, D.)—(U. So) History.—The ancients were acquainted with oxide (Protoxide) of lead. Hippo- i «o,> r»r Aikin's Observations on the Erternal Use of Preparations of Lead. Lond. 177. a in all cases the U. S. P. uses the i instead of y in spelling the latin word for oxide, thus Oxidum. 656 ELEMESTo of materia MEdica. crates (De Morb. Mul. ii.)employed the semi-vitrefied oxide (Litharge) x&xpyvftv. Dioscorides (Lib. v. cap. cii.)and Pliny (Hist. Nat. xxxiv. 53.) both mention litharge: the latter calls it Molybdsena. Preparation.—If melted lead be exposed to a current of air, it is rapidly oxi- dated and converted into the protoxide of this metal. The oxidated skimmings are denominated Massicot. This, when fused at a bright red heat, is separated from some metallic lead with which it was intermixed; the fused oxide forms, on solidi- fying, a brick-red mass, which readily separates into crystalline scales: these con- stitute Litharge. Litharge is obtained as a secondary product in the cupellation of argentiferous lead. The alloy is melted on a porous vessel, called a test or cupel, and exposed fo the blast of a bellows, by which the lead is oxidized, half vitrefied, and driven off into hard masses of a scaly texture, and in that state is called Litharge or Silver Stone. (Watson's Chem. Essays, iii. 325, 6th ed.) Properties.—Oxide of lead presents itself in several forms. One of these is yellow, and is termed Massicot (Cerussa citrina.) When semi vitrefied (Plumbi Oxydum semivitreum,) it is called Litharge (Lithargyreum,) which occurs in the form of small yellow or reddish scales or flakes, and according to its colour, is called Gold or Silver Litharge (Lithargyrum aureum [Chrysitis] seu Argenteum [Argyritis.]) Gold Litharge owes its red tint to the presence of a portion of minium. Oxide of lead is fusible, and at a very high temperature volatile. It is=almost in- soluble in water. Charetcleristics.—Heated on charcoal by the blow-pipe, it is readily reduced to the metallic state. It is blackened by hydrosulphuric acid and completely dissolves in nitric acid. The characteristics of this solution have been already described (vide p. 651.) The varieties of the oxide are distinguished by their physical peculiarities. Composition.—Oxide of lead is thus composed:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berzelius. Berthier. Lead............... 1 ...... 104 ...... 9285 ...... 9285...... 933 Oxygen........... 1 ...... 8 ...... 7 14 ...... 7-15 ...... 67 OxideofLead...... 1 ...... 112 ...... 99-99 ......10000 ...... 1000 Purity.—It is not subject to adulteration. Almost entirely soluble in dilute nitric acid. Its other properties are the same as those of carbonate of lead. Ph. Lond. Fifty grains dissolve entirely, without effervescence, in a fluid ounce and a-half of pyrolig- neous acid; and the solution, precipitated by 53 grains" of phosphate of soda, remains preci- pitable by more ofthe test. PA. Ed. The presence of a carbonate would be indicated1 by effervescence on tlie addi- tion of acetic acid. Physiological Effects.—Inhaled in the form of vapour, or fine dust, if pro- duces the before-mentioned constitutional effects of lead (vide p. 653.) The effects of this substance, when swallowed, are but little known. It pos- sesses very slightly irritant properties. " The experimentalists of Lyons found litharge'to be irritant in large doses of half an ourice." (Christison, op. cit. p. 509.) From its external use ill consequences have sometimes resulted. Uses.—Oxide of lead is never employed internally. Litharge is sometimes sprinkled over ulcers, as an astringent and desiccating substance. In pharmacy, it is used in the preparation of Emplastrum Plumbi (3ee p. 669,) Ceratum Sapo- 7iis (see p. 481,) Acetas Plumbi (see p. 663,) and Liquor Plumbi Diacetatis (see p. 667.) 1. PLUMBI OXYD10I HYDMTUM, L. Hydrated Oxide of Lead. (Solution of Di- acetate of Lead, Ovj.; Distilled Water, Cong, iij.; Solution of Potash, Ovj., or OXIDE OF LEAD. 0)/ as much as may be sufficient to precipitate the oxide. Mix. Wash with water what is precipitated, until nothing alkaline remains.) In this process the potash combines with acetic acid, and forms acetate of potash, which remains in solu- tion, while the white hydrated oxide of lead is precipitated. According to Mit- scherlich this compound consists of two equivalents or 224 parts of oxide of lead, and one equivalent or 9 parts of water: it is, therefore, a dihydrated oxide. It is soluble in a considerable excess of a solution of caustic potash. What is used in preparing disulphate of quinia should be totally dissolved by dilute nitric acid. Its remaining properties resemble those ofthe preceding. Ph. Lond. It is directed, by the London College, to be employed in the preparation of Quinse Disulphas. 2. CALCIS PLUMBIS; Plumbite of Lime.—This compound is employed as a Hair Dye (see p. 211.) 3. PLUM'BI OX-YDUM RU'BRUM:—RED OXIDE OF LEAD. (Plumbi Oxidum rubrum, E.)—[U. S.j History.—It is doubtful whether the ancients were acquainted with this com- pound, as the substance which Pliny (Hist. Naturalis, lib. xxxiii. cap. 40, ed. Valp.) called Minium was Cinnabar (see p. 629.) He describes, however, an inferior kind, which he terms Minium secundarium, (Idem.) and which may be perhaps the red oxide of lead. Dioscorides (Lib. v. cap. 109.) distinguished Minium from Cinnabar. Besides Minium there are several other names for red oxide of lead. In com- merce it is usually known as Red Lead. It is sometimes termed Deutoxide of Lead. Natural History.—Native Minium is found in Yorkshire, Suabia, Siberia, and some other places. Preparation.—Red lead is prepared by subjecting protoxide of lead (massicot or litharge) to the combined influence of heat and air. It absorbs oxygen and is converted into red lead. A heat of about 600° is necessary. The finest minium is procured by calcining the oxide of lead obtained from the carbonate. (Gra- ham, Elements of Chemistry, p. 589.) Properties.—Red oxide of lead has a brilliant red colour. By heat it gives out oxygen gas, and is converted into the protoxide of lead. Characteristics.—Before the blowpipe on charcoal it is converted into the yel- low protoxide, and then into metallic lead. When digested in nitric acid, the nitrate of the protoxide is obtained in solution, while the insoluble brown or pe- roxide of lead remains. By the action of sulphurous acid on red lead, the white sulphate of the protoxide is obtained. "Entirely soluble in highly-fuming nitrous acid; partially soluble in diluted nitric acid, a brown powder being left." Ph. Ed. Composition.—The composition of real or pure red lead is as follows:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Lead......... 3 .... 312 .... 90 7 Oxygen .... 4 .... 32 .... 93 Or, Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Dumas. Protoxide.... 2 .... 224 .... 65 11 .... 64 9 Peroxide .... 1 .... 120 .... 3489 .... 351 Red Lead.... 1 .... 344 .... 1000 1 .... 344 .... 100-00 .... 1000 Dumas (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. xlix. 398.) has shown that red lead of com- merce is not uniform in composition; but consists of variable mixtures of real red lead with protoxide. His results have been confirmed by those of Mr. Phillips. (Phil. Mag. N. S. iii. 125.) That real red lead is not a mere mixture of prot- oxide and peroxide is apparently shown by its colour as well as by the fact that Vol. I.—83 658 elements of materia medica. it is not altered by heating it in a solution of acetate of lead, which is capable of dissolving free protoxide. Physiological Effects and Uses.—Its effects are similar to the protoxide of lead. It is but little employed in pharmacy. The Edinburgh College directs it to be employed in the preparation of Aqua Chlorinii (see p. 221.) 4. PLUM'BI CHLO/RIDUM, L.—CHLORIDE OF LEAD. Natural History.—Chloride of lead is found native at Churchill, in the Mendip Hills of Somersetshire. Preparation.—In the London Pharmacopoeia this compound is directed to be prepared as follows:— Take of Acetate of Lead, ^fxix.; Distilled Water, Boiling, Oiij.; Chloride of Sodium, ^vj. Dissolve the Acetate of Lead and Chloride of Sodium separately, the former in three pints of Distilled Water, and the latter in one pint of Distilled Water. Then the liquors being mixed together, wash what is precipitated with distilled water when it is cold, and dry it. In this process one equivalent or 163 parts of dry acetate of lead are decom- posed by one equivalent or 60 parts of chloride of sodium; by which one equiva- lent or 140 parts of chloride of lead are precipitated, and one equivalent or 83 parts of acetate of soda remain in solution. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. PRODUCTS. 1 eq. Acetate of c 1 cq. Acetic Acid............51 -------------------------- 1 eq. Acetate Lead......163?, „ . eadUo\^e9- Oxyg. 8 —-- \ eq. Soda....32 ~"' Soda.... 83 ( l eq-ux-Lem ^l leq. Lead lM-^/___ 1 eq. Chloride oft 1 eq. Sodium................24 ' "----------__ Sodium.... 60 \ 1 eq. Chlorine...............36-----------------------^r-r- \ eq. Chloride Lead....140 223 223 Hydrochloric acid occasions the precipitation of more chloride of lead after the action of chloride of sodium is over; so that there must be some compound of lead in solution. (Phillips, Transl. of Pharm. 4th ed.) Properties.—It is a white crystalline powder (Magisterjum Salurni Crollii,) soluble in thirty parts of cold or twenty-two parts of boiling water. When heated it fuses; and by cooling forms a semi-transparent horny-like mass, called Horn Lead (Plumbum corneum.) Characteristics.—Its aqueous solution causes a white precipitate with nitrate of silver, soluble in ammonia but insoluble in nitric acid; hence it is shown to be a chloride. The solution is known to contain lead by the before-mentioned tests for this metal (vide p. 651.) Totally dissolved by boiling water, the chloride concreting almost entirely into crystals as it cools. On the addition of hydrosulphuric acid it becomes black, and by heat yellow. Ph. Lond. Composition.—The following is its composition;— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. J. Davy. Lead...................... 1 ........ 104 ........ 743 ....... 7422 Chlorine................... 1........ 36 ........ 057 ........ 2578 Chloride of Lead.......... 1 ........ 140 ........1000 ........10000 Use.—It is employed in the preparation of hydrochlorate of morphia. 5. PLUM'BI IO/DIDUM, L. E.—IODIDE OF LEAD. History.—This compound was introduced into medicine by Cottereau and Verde-Delisle. IODIDE OF LEAD. 659 Preparation.—The London and Edinburgh Colleges give directions for the preparation of it. The London College orders of Acetate of Lead, gix.; Iodide of Potassium, ?vii.; Distilled Water, cong. j. Dissolve the Acetate of Lead in six pints of the Water, and strain ; and to these add the Iodide of Potassium first dissolved in two pints of the water. Wash what is precipitated, and dry it. The reacting proportions of iodide of potassium and crystallized acetate of lead are 166 parts of the former and 190 parts of the latter. Hence the London Col- lege uses a larger proportion of iodide than is requisite, supposing the acetate to be neutral. This excess is disadvantageous, since it retains a portion of the iodide of lead in solution. To prevent the formation ofthe pale yellow oxyiodide of lead, a little acetic acid should be added to the acetate of lead, before adding the iodide of potassium. The precipitate should be washed and dried. By the mutual action of one equivalent or 163 parts of dry acetate of lead, and one equivalent or 166 parts of iodide of potassium, we obtain one equivalent or 230 parts of iodide of lead, and one equivalent or 99 parts of dry acetate of potash. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. 1 eq. Acetate c leq. Acetic Acid.......... 51 — Lead.. 163 i.i eq. Ox. Lead I 1 eq. Oxyg. 8 - (112 11 eq. Lead 104 -- leq. Iodide I. leq. Potassium.........'.. 40 Potasm. 166 ( 1 eq. Iodine.............. 126 — 329 329 329 The Edinburgh College orders of Iodide of Potassium, and Nitrate of Lead, of each, ^j.> Water, Oiss.; dissolve the salts separately, each in one.half of the water; add the solutions ; collect the precipitate ori a filter of linen or calico, and wash it with water. Boil the powder in three gallons of water acidulated with three fluid ounces of pyroligneous acid. Let any undissolved matter subside, maintaining the"temperature near the boiling point; and pour off the clear liquor, from which the iodide of lead will crystallize on cooling. The reacting proportions are one atom or 166 parts of nitrate of lead, and one atom or 166 parts of iodide of potassium; or equal weights ofthe materials. The products are one equivalent or 230 parts of iodide of lead, and one equivalent or 102 parts of nitrate of potash. For Pharmaceutical purposes, especially for the preparation of ointments, the pulverulent iodide is preferable to the crystalline or scaly kind.. Properties.—It is a fine yellow powder, very sparingly soluble in cold water, but readily soluble in boiling water; from which it for the most part separates, as the Solution cools, in the form of golden yellow, brilliant, small scales. It is fusible. It combines with the alkaline iodides, forming a class of double salts, called the plumbo-iodides (iodo-plumbates, Thomson.) Caustic potash dissolves it, and forms a plumbo-iodide of potassium and plumbate of potash. (Dumas, Traite de Chim. iii. 379.) It is soluble in acetic acid and in alcohol. Characteristics.—When heated, it first forms a yellow vapour (iodide of lead,) and afterwards a violet vapour (iodine,) leaving a residue (lead,) which, when dissolved in nitric acid, gives all the characters of solution of lead (vide 651.) Boiled with carbonate of potash, it forms carbonate of lead and iodide of potas- sium. Composition.—Its composition is as follows:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Henry. Lead.............. 1 ........ 104 ........ 4521 ........ 45-1 Iodine............ 1 ....... 126 ........ 54 78 ........ 5-1-9 Iodide of Lead..... 1 ........ 230 ........ 99 99 ........ 1000 Purity.—It should be completely soluble in boiling water, PRODUCTS. 1 eq. Acet. Potash. 99 1 eq. Iodide Lead. 230 660 ELEMENTS of materia medica. Totally dissolved by boiling water, and as it cools separates in shining yellow scales. It melts by heat, and the greater part is dissipated first in yellow, and afterwards in violet vapours. Ph. Lond. Bright yellow : five grains are entirely soluble, with the aid of ebullition, in one fluid drachm of pyroligneous acid, diluted with a fluid ounce and a half of distilled water ; and golden crys- tals are abundantly deposited on cooling. Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects, ce. On Animals.—Twenty-four grains of iodide of lead were given to a cat at two doses, with an interval of four hours: the animal suffered violent colic, and died in three days; but no signs of irritation were ob- served after death. (Paton, Journ. de Chim. iii. 41, 2llde Ser.) Iodide of lead was given in doses of from gr. v. to 3ss. to a bull-dog: no effect was observed until the fifteenth day, when the animal refused food, and kept in the recumbent posture. He died on the eighteenth day, having swallowed altogether ten drachms and fifty grains of iodide. During the whole period, he had only three or four intestinal evacuations. (Cogswell, Essay on Iodine, 143.) /3. On Man.—Its effects on man have been imperfectly determined. It does not appear to act as an irritant when applied to the skin or ulcerated surfaces. Under the continued external and internal use of it, enlargements of the lymphatic glands have disappeared, from which we infer a specific influence over the glandular and lymphatic system. In some cases it appeared to occasion irrita- tion of the stomach. I have seen constipation induced by it. Afyer its medicinal use for several weeks I have not observed any blue line on the gums. Uses.—It has been principally employed to reduce the volume of indolent tumors, especially enlargements of the cervical, axillary, and mesenteric glands. In these cases it should be simultaneously administered internally and externally. I have also employed it in suspected incipient phthisis. I have used it in two cases of enlarged cervical glands, but without benefit. Velpeau (Lugol's Essays, by Dr. O'Shaughnessy, p. 206.) and others, however, have been more suc- cessful. Administration.—The dose is three or four or more grains. Dr. O'Shaugh- nessy (Lugol's Essays, p. 207.) says, ten-grain doses are easily borne, without the slightest annoyance. It is given in the form of pill. UNGUENTUM PLUMBI IODIDI, L. (Iodide of Lead, 3j.; Lard, 3viij. M.)—This is applied, by way of friction, to scrofulous and other indolent swellings. 6. PLUM'BI CAR'BONAS, L. E. D. (U. S.)—CARBONATE OF LEAD. History.—This substance was employed by Hippocrates, (De Morbis, lib. ii.) under the name of ■^trifaB-tov. Theophrasfus (De Lapidibus.) described the me- thod of making it. Dioscorides (Lib. v. cap. ciii.) and Pliny (Hist. Nat. lib. xxxiv.) also mention it. It has been known by several names, as Psimmythium, Ceruse (Cerussa.) Magislery of Lead (Magislerium Plumbi,) While Lead, Flake White, and Sub- carbonate of Lead. Natural History.—This salt is found native, crystallized, or massive, in Scotland, England, &c. It is called White Lead Ore. Preparation.—Neutral carbonate of lead is obtained by adding an alkaline carbonate to a solution of acetate or nitrate of lead. Procured in this way it is deficient in body, owing to the transparency of the crystalline grains; and it is not, therefore, fitted for the use of the painter, who requires a carbonate having a dense and opaque body. Within the last few years several patents have been taken out for new modes of preparation.1 Some of the processes so patented have been subsequently i See Repertory of Patent Inventions; also Brande's Manual of Chemistry, 5th ed.; Journal de Pharmacie, t. xxvi. p. 772; and Ure's Diet, of Arts, art. White Lead. CARBONATE OF LEAD. 661 abandoned, either because a profitable remuneration could not be obtained by them; or because the quality of the product was inferior. I am informed that the white lead obtained by the old or Dutch process is superior, as an oil pigment, to that procured by most other methods. "In the Dutch process, introduced into England about 1780, lead is cast into plates or bars, or into the form of stars, or circular gratings of six or eight inches in diameter, and from a quarter to half an inch in thickness; five or six of these are placed one above another in the upper part of a conical earthen vessel something like a garden-pot, in the bottom of which there is a little strong acetic acid. These pots are then arranged side by side, on the floor of an oblong brick chamber, and are imbedded in a mixture of new and spent tan (ground oak bark as used in the tan-yard.) The first layer of pots is then covered with loose planks, and a second range of pots imbedded in tan is placed upon the former; and thus a stack is built up so as entirely to fill the chamber with alternate ranges ofthe pots containing the lead and acetic acid, surrounded by and imbedded in the tan. Several ranges of these stacks occupy each side of a covered building, each stack containing about 12,000 of the pots, and from 50 to 60 tons of lead. Soon after the stack is built up the tan gradually heats or ferments, and begins to exhale vapour, the temperature of the inner parts of the stack rising to 140° or 150°, or even higher. The acetic acid is slowly volatilized, and its vapour passing readily through the gratings or folds of lead, gradually corrodes the surface of the metal, upon which a crust of subacetate is successively formed and converted into carbonate, there being an abundant supply of carbonic acid furnished by the slow fermentative decom- position of the tanners' bark. In the course of from 4 to 6 weeks the process is completed, and now, on unpacking the stacks, the lead is found to have undergone a remarkable change : the form of the castings is retained, but they are converted, wilh considerable increase of bulk, into dense masses of carbonate of lead ; this conversion is sometimes entire, at others it penetrates only to a certain depth, leaving a central skeleton as it were of metallic lead, the conversion being unequal in different parts of the stack, and varying in its perfection at different seasons, temperatures, and stales of the atmosphere. The stacks are so managed that they are successively being built up and unpacked. The corroded and converted gratings, or cakes, are then passed through rollers, by which the carbonate of lead (white lead) is crushed and broken up, and the central core of metallic lead (blue lead,) if any remain, is easily separated: the white lead' is then transferred to the mills, where it is ground up into a thin paste with water, and is ultimately reduced, by the process of elutriation or successive washings and subsidences, to the state of an impalpable powder; it is then dried in wooden bowls, placed upon shelves in a highly.heated stove, and thus brought to the state of masses easily rubbed between the fingers into a fine powder, in which the microscope does not enable us to discern the slightest traces of crystalline character. If intended for the use of the painter, it is next submitted to grinding wilh linseed oil; and it is found that a hundred- weight of this white lead is farmed into a proper consistence with 8 pounds of oil, whereas precipitated white lead requires 16 pounds of oil for the same purpose; the one covering the surface so much more perfectly, and having so much more body than the other. It is some- times supposed in this process that the oxygen and carbonic acid required to form the car- bonate of oxide of lead are derived from the decomposition of the acetic acid; but this is evi- dently not the case, for not more than 100 pounds of real acetic acid exist in the whole quantity ofthe diluted acid contained in the several pots of each stack; and in 100 pounds of acetic acid there are not more than 47 to 48 pounds of carbon, whereas 6740 pounds would be required to furnish the carbonic acid which should convert 50 tons of lead (the average weight of that metal in each stack) into carbonate of lead. There can be no doubt then that the carbon or carbonic acid must come from the tan, and that the oxygen is partly derived- from the same source, and partly from the atmosphere: the principal action ofthe acetic acid therefore is to form successive portions of subacetate of lead, which are successively decoirr- posed by the carbonic acid: the action is, however, of a very remarkable description, for even masses of lead, such as blocks of an inch or more in thickness, are thus gradually converted through and through into carbonate, so that if due time is allowed there is no central remnant of metallic lead. The original texture of the lead is much concerned in the extent and rapidity of the conversion. Rolled or sheet lead will not answer, and the gratings, coils, and stars which are employed, are all of cast-lead. The purest metal is also required ; for if it contain iron, the resulting white lead acquires a tawny hue, and if a trace of silver, it acquires a perceptible dinginess when it is subjected to the action of light." (Brande.) Properties.—The form ofthe crystalsof the native carbonate of lead is a right rhombic prism. Artificial carbonate is a heavy, snow-white, tasteless powder, or it occurs in white chalk-like masses. It is insoluble in water, but dissolves in caustic potash. When heated it gives out carbonic acid, and forms the yellow oxide. 662 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Characteristics.—Heated beforo the blow-pipe, on charcoal, it yields metallic lead. It is blackened by hydrosulphuric acid. It dissolves in nitric acid with effervescence. The solution possesses the general characters' of the plumbeous solutions as already described (vide p. 651.) Composition.—Its composition is as follows:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berzelius. Oxide of Lead........ 1........ 112 ........ 83-58........ 835 Carbonic Acid........ 1 ........ 22 ........ 16*12 ........ 165 Carbonate of Lead.... 1 ........134 ........ 10000 ........1000 Commercial white lead is not a neutral salt, but a mixture or combination of carbonate and hydrated oxide of lead in varying proportions.1 Purity.—Carbonate of lead of commerce is rarely pure. It is usually adulte- rated with earthy or metallic sulphates (as of lime, baryta, or lead.) These are detected by their insolubility in diluted nitric acid. Chalk (which is by some used to adulterate it) may be detected as follows:—Dissolve the suspected substance in nitric acid, and precipitate the lead by hydrosulphuric acid. Boil and filter the solution, in which will be contained nitrate of lime (if chalk had been present,) recognisable by oxalic acid or oxalate of ammonia (vide p. 488.) Dissolved with effervescence in dilute nitric acid. What is precipitated from the solution by potash is white, and is re-dissolved by excess of it: it becomes black on the addition of hydrosulphuric acid. It becomes yellow by heat, and, with the addition of Charcoal, it is reduced to metallic lead. Ph. Lond. It does not lose weight at a temperature of 212°: 68 grs. are entirely dissolved in 150 minims of acetic acid diluted with a fluid-ounce of distilled water ; and the solution is not entirely precipitated by a solution of 60 grs. of phosphate of soda. Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects.—Its local effects are not very powerful: applied to ulce- rated surfaces it acts as a dessicating and astringent substance: swallowed in large quantities it does not act as a local irritant, like the acetate. Its constitutional effects are similar to those ofthe other preparations of lead already described. It appears (see p. 654) that carbonate of lead more frequently produces colic than the acetate of lead—a circumstance which Dr. Christison thinks may be owing to the great obstinacy with which its impalpable powder adheres to moist mem- branous surfaces, and the consequent greater certainty of its ultimate absorption. Uses.—It is never administered internally. Externally it is employed as a dusting powder in excoriations of children and lusty persons; but the practice is objectionable, on account of the danger of ab- sorption. In one case, related by Kopp, (Richter, Ausf. Arzneim. iv. 613.) a child was destroyed by it. An ointment or plaster of carbonate of lead has been known to give relief in some cases of neuralgia. (Journ. de Pharm. xx. 603). UNGUENTUM PLUMBI CARBONATIS, E. D. (U. S.) Ointment of Carbonate of Lead. (Simple Ointment, 3v.; Carbonate of Lead, 3j. E.—Carbonate of Lead, reduced to very fine powder, 3ij.; Ointment of White Wax, lbj. D. (U. S.) Mix.)—This ointment is valuable as a cooling and desiccating application to ex- coriated surfaces or burns. 7. PLUM'BI NI'TRAS, E.—NITRATE OF LEAD. Preparation.;—The Edinburgh College gives the following directions for its preparation:—- Take of Litharge, §ivss.; Diluted Nitric Acid, Oj. Dissolve the litharge to saturation with the aid of a gentle heat. Filter, and set the liquor aside to crystallize. Concentrate the residual liquid to obtain more crystals. The nitric acid combines with the protoxide of lead to form the nitrate of this metal. Properties.—This salt crystallizes in regular octohedrons or modifications of 'Mulder, Pharmaceutisches Central-Blatt fur 1340, S. 100; ana1 Richardson, in Graham's Elements of Cht- **hstry, p. 591. ACETATE OF LEAD. 663 these. It is soluble in water and alcohol. Its solution is sweet and austere. The crystals loudly decrepitate by heat. Characteristics.—When subjected to heat in a glass tube this salt evolves the reddish-brown vapour of nitrous acid. It possesses also the other characters of a nitrate which have been before stated (p. 274.) It is known to be one of the plumbeous salts by the before-mentioned tests for these substances (p. 651.) Composition.—This salt is anhydrous. Its composition is as follows:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Dbbereiner. Berzelius. OxideofLead.............. 1 ........ 112........ 6717........ 676 ........ 672225 NitricAcid................. 1........ 51........ 3253........ 32 4 ........ 327775 Crystallized Nitrate of Lead. 1 ........ 166........ 10000........ 100-0 ....... 1000000 Physiological Effects.—Its general effects are similar to those of the other soluble salts of lead. Its local action on the animal tissues depends on its affinity for albumen and fibrin. In a solution of albumen it forms a white precipitate, composed, according to Lassaigne, (Journ. de Chim. Med. t. vi. 2nde Serie.) of albumen, 89*45, and nitrate of lead, 10-55. This precipitate is soluble in a great excess of albumen, as well as in solutions of ammonia and some neutral salts, as acetate of potash. Uses.—The Edinburgh College employs it in the preparation of Iodide of Lead. 8. PLUM'BI ACE'TAS, L. E. D. (U. S.)—ACETATE OF LEAD. History.—Raymond Lully and Isaac Hollandus were acquainted with this salt in the 13th century. It has been known by several appellations, as Sugar of Lead, (Saccharum Saturni,) ■ Acelated Ceruse, (Cerussa acetata,) and Super- acetate of Lead (Plumbi Superacetas.) Preparation.—Though directions are given in British Pharmacopoeias for its preparation, it is never made by the apothecary, but is procured from persons who manufacture it on a large scale. The London College orders of Oxide of Lead, rubbed to powder, lbiv. and t^ij.; Acetic Acid; Distilled Water, each Oiv. Mix the acid with the water, and add the oxide of lead to them, and, a gentle heat being applied, dissolve it; then strain. Lastly, evaporate the liquor, that crystals may be formed. The Edinburgh College uses of Pyroligneous Acid (D. 1034) Oij.; Distilled Water, Oj.; Litharge, ^xiv. The Dublin College employs of Carbonate of Lead, named Ceruse, any required quantity; Distilled Vinegar, ten times the weight of the Carbonate of Lead. In the above processes the protoxide of lead combines with acetic acid, and forms a definite compound. In the Dublin process carbonic acid is set free. Acetate of lead is sometimes procured by partially immersing lead in crude acetic acid. The metal attracts oxygen from the air, and the oxide thus formed unites with the acid. Properties.—The crystals of this salt belong to the oblique prismatic system. Their taste is sweetish and astringent. In a dry and warm Fig. 96. atmosphere they slightly effloresce, and are apt to be decom- ^-__^ posed by the carbonic acid of the air, and thus to become par- /d^xX^ tially insoluble. When heated they fuse, give out their water *^S \, of crystallization, and, at a higher temperature, are decom- posed; yielding acetic acid, Pyroacetic Spirit, (Acetone, C3 H3 O.) carbonic acid, inflammable gas, and water: the resi- duum is a pyrophoric mixture of lead and charcoal. Acetate of lead is soluble in both water and alcohol. The aqueous solution feebly reddens litmus, though it communicates a green colour to the juice of violets. "A solution of the neutral ace- Crystal of Acetate tate is partially decomposed by carbonic acid: a small quantity of Lead. of carbonate of lead is precipitated, and a portion of acetic acid is set free, which protects the remaining solution from farther change." (Dumas, Traite de Chim. t. v. p. 173.) 664 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Characteristics.—When heated with sulphuric acid, the vapour of acetic acid is disengaged. Its solution is known to contain lead by the tests for this metal already mentioned (vide p. 651.) If a small quantity of acetic acid be added to the solution, a current of carbonic acid occasions no precipitate. The ordinary acetate of the shops throws down a scanty white precipitate (carbonate of lead) with carbonic acid. When charred, it readily yields globules of metallic lead on the application ofthe blowpipe flame. Composition.—The neutral acetate has the following composition:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berzelius. OxideofLead.............. 1 ........ 112........ 589........ 58 71 Acetic Acid................ 1........ 51........ 268........ 2097 Waler..................... 3........ 27........ 143........ 14 32 Crystallized Acetate of Lead 1........190........1000........ 10000 Purity.—It should be readily and completely soluble in water. Sulphuric acid, or sulphuretted hydrogen in excess, being added to the solution, to throw down the lead, the supernatant liquor should be completely volatilized by heat; any fixed residue is impurity. Dissolved by distilled water. By carbonate of soda a white precipitate is thrown down from the solution, and by iodide of potassium a yellow one; by hydrosulphuric acid it is blackened. Sulphuric acid evolves acetic vapours. By heat it first fuses, and is after- wards reduced to metallic lead. Ph. Lond. Entirely soluble in distilled wa'ter acidulated with acetic acid: forty-eight grains thus dissolved are not entirely precipitated by a solution of thirty grains of phosphate of soda Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects. «. On Vegetables,—(Vide p, 652.) /3. On Animals.—Orfila (Toxicol. Gen.) found that in large doses the acetate of lead acted on dogs as an irritant, and caused vomiting, pain, and death. When the action was slower an absorption took place, an affection of the nervous sys- tem was observed, marked by difficult progression, and in some cases convulsive movements. The mucous membrane lining the alimentary canal was found whitened (owing to the chemical influence of poison,) and, where the action was more prolonged, reddened. Injected into the veins, or applied to wounds, it affects the nervous system. Schloepfer (quoted by Dr. Christison, p. 507.) produced colica pictonum, paralysis, and convulsions, in dogs, by the repeated use of small doses. Dr. A. T. Thomson (Lond. Med. Gaz. x. 691.) gave successively, one, two, three, and six drachms to a dog without any ill effect. y. On Man.—Applied to ulcers, mucous membranes, or other secreting surfaces, it acts as a desiccative and astringent. It reacts chemically on the albumen of the se- cretions and of the living tissues, and forms therewith compounds which are for the most part insoluble in water and acids.1 Hence the difficulty with which this salt becomes absorbed. Some of its compounds with organic substances are, however, rendered soluble in water by acids (as the acetic, hydrochloric, and lactic.) In large quantities, acetate of lead taken into the stomach acts as an irritant, and causes symptoms of inflammation ofthe stomach, viz. vomiting, burning in the gullet and stomach, and tenderness at the pit ofthe stomach; but these are usually accompa- nied with colica pictonum, and are not unfrequently followed by convulsions, coma, or local palsy.3 Ten grains taken daily for seven days caused tightness of the breast, metallic taste, constriction ofthe throat, debility, sallow countenance, slow res- pirations and circulation, turgid and tender gums, ptyalism, tightness and numb- ness in the fingers and toes, no nausea, pains ofthe stomach and abdomen, bowels ' Dr. C. G. Mit?cherlich Brit. Ann. of Med. i. 204. a Christison, Treat, on Poisons. 3d edit. p. 512.—In a recent case an ounce of acetate of lead in solution, caused, in a young girl, collapse and syncope followed by vomiting and convulsions. Orfila detected lead in the urine (Pharm. Trans. No. vi. p. 119.) ACETATE of lead. 665 confined.1 The observations of Dr. A. T. Thomson and others (Van Swieten,9 Reynolds, Latham, Laidlaw, Daniell, Christison, &c.) have, however, shown that injurious effects from the use of large doses are very rare. I have repeatedly given five grains three times a day for ten days, without inconvenience. This dose was taken for a fortnight.3 The blue line on the gums (see p. 653) was then very dis- tinct, and the patient complained of griping pains in the bowels. Dr. Christison has given eighteen grains daily for eight or ten days without any unpleasant symptoms whatever, except once or twice slight colic. During its employment the gums should be frequently examined, in order that the earliest appearance of the blue line, before referred to, may be detected. Whenever this salt gives rise to any obvious effects, they are those ofthe plumbeous preparations in general, and which have been already described (p. 652.) Its medicinal action, therefore, is sedative and astringent. Uses.—Acetate of lead is administered internally to diminish the diameter ofthe capillary vessels, and lesson circulation, secretion, and exhalation. Thus, we em- ploy it in profuse discharges from the mucous membranes; as from the lungs, ali- mentary canal, and even the urino-genital membrane. In the mild cholera, so common in this country towards the end of summer, I have found acetate of lead in combination with opium most efficacious where the chalk mixture failed. I have used this combination in a few cases of malignant cholera, and in one or two with apparent benefit. In colliquative diarrhoea and chronic dysentery it occasionally proves serviceable.4 In phthisis it has been found beneficial, but only as a pallia- tive; namely, to lesson the expectoration, check the night-sweats, or stop the harassing diarrhoea. Dr. Latham5 speaks most favourably of the use of sugar of lead and opium in checking purulent or semi-purulent expectoration. I have re- peatedly seen it diminish expectoration, but I have generally found it fail in re- lieving the night-sweats, though Fouquier supposed it to possess a specific power of checking them: they are more frequently benefited by diluted sulphuric acid. In sanguineous exhalations from the mucous membranes, as epistaxis, haemoptysis, and haematemesis, and in uterine hemorrhage, it is employed with the view of diminishing the caliber of the bleeding vessels, and thereby of stopping the dis- charge: and experience has fully established its utility.6 It may be employed in both the active and passive states of hemorrhage. It is usually given in combina- tion with opium. In bronchitis, with profuse secretion, it proves exceedingly valuable. (Henderson, Lond. Med. Gaz. May 8, 1840.) It has been employed also as a remedy for mercurial salivation. (Daniell, Lond. Med. Repos. N. S. vi. 308.) It had been applied for this affection in the form of gargle by Somme. (Archiv. Gen. de Med. i. 483.) Unless care be taken to wash the mouth carefully after its use, it is apt to blacken the teeth. On the same principles that we administer it to check excessive mucous discharges, it has been employed to lessen the secretion of pus in extensive abscesses attended with hectic fever. There are some other cases in which experience has shown acetate of lead is occasionally serviceable, but in which we see no necessary connexion between its obvious effects on the body and its remedial powers; as in epilepsy, chorea, intermittents, &c. As a topical remedy, we use acetate of lead as a sedative, astringent, and de- » Laidlow, Lond. Med. Repos. N. S. vi. 292. » Commentaries, vol x. p. 236, Eng. ed. Van Swieten says colic was induced by the use of a drachm of lead in an emulsion every day for ten days. » In the Jjurn. de Chim. Med. (t. vi. 21° Serie, p. 97) a case is related of death from this salt. The patient, a boy of 15 years of age, affected with a phthisical malady, took from a £ gr. to grs. ii. four times a day, until he had taken 130 grs. without any ill effect. A month after he was seized with colic, which was followed by paralysis and death. * See Dr. Burke, On the good Effects of a mixture of Acetate of Lead and Tincture of Opium in the Dysentery lehich occurred in Dublin in 1825, in the Edinb. Mid. and Surg. Journ. vol. xxvi. p. 56. » Med. Trans. Coll. Phys. v. 341. « Reynolds, Trans, of Coll. Phys. London, iii. 217; Davies, Med. and Phys. Journ. Jan. 1808, p 8; also, Mitch- ell, ibid, p 69; and Latham, op. cit. Vol. I.—81 066 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. siccant. An aqueous solution of it is applied to inflamed parts, or to secreting surfaces, to diminish profuse discharges. Thus, we use it in phlegmonous in- flammation, in ophthalmia, in ulcers with profuse discharges, in gonorrhoea, and gleet. In the sloughing and ulceration of the cornea which attend purulent and pustular ophthalmia, its use should be prohibited, as it forms a white compound which is deposited on the ulcer; to which it adheres tenaciously, and in the heal- ing becomes permanently and indelibly imbedded in the structure of the cornea. The appearance produced by this cause cannot be mistaken: its chalky imper- vious opacity distinguishes it from the pearly semi-transparent structure of even the densest opacity produced by common ulceration. (Dr. Jacob, Dublin Hosp. Rep. v. 369: also, Velpeau., Lond. Med. Gaz. Oct. 5, 1839.) The white com- pound consists of oxide [acetate?] of lead, animal matter, much carbonate of lead, traces of phosphate and chloride of the same metal. (Dr. Apjohn, op. cit. p. 402.) Administration.—Acetate of lead may be administered internally in doses of one or two grains to eight or ten grains, repeated twice or thrice daily. Dr. A. T. Thomson advises its exhibition in diluted distilled vinegar, to prevent its change into carbonate, which renders it more apt to occasion colic. It is usually exhibited in the form of pill, frequently in combination with opium. Acetate of lead and opium re-act chemically on each other, and produce acetate of morphia and meconate, with a little sulphate of lead. Experience, however, has fully established the therapeutic value of the combination. Sulphuric acid (as in in- fusion of roses,) sulphates (as of magnesia, and soda, and alum,) phosphates, and carbonates, should be prohibited. Sulphuric acid, the sulphates, and phosphates, render it inert: the carbonates facilitate the production of colica pictonum. Com- mon (especially spring) water, which contains sulphates, carbonates, and chlorides, is incompatible with this salt. The liquor ammoniae acetatis is incompatible with it, on account of the carbonic acid usually diffused through this solution. 1. CERATUM PLUMBI ACETATIS, L.; Unguentum Plumbi Acetatis, E. D.; Un- guentum Saturninum; Cerate of Sugar of Lead. (Acetate of Lead, powdered, 2>ij.; White Wax, 3ij-s Olive Oil, f3viij. L.—Simple Ointment, 3xx.; Acetate of Lead, in fine powder, 3j. E.—Ointment of White Wax, lbiss.; Acetate of Lead, gj. D. Mix.)—An excellent soothing application to irritable ulcers, painful ex- coriations, and blistered surfaces. 2. PILULE PLUMBI OPIATiE, E. Acetate of Lead and Opium Pills. (Acetate of Lead, six parts; Opium, one part; Conserve of Red Roses, about one part. Beat them into a proper mass, which is to be divided into four-grain pills.—This pill may be made also with twice the quantity of opium.)—Each pill contains three grains of acetate of lead, and half a grain of opium. I have before stated that, notwithstanding a mutual decomposition is effected between acetate of lead and opium, the resulting compound is a most efficacious one. The Edinburgh College, therefore, has done wisely in countenancing the combination, but the permission to vary the strength of the pill is highly objectionable. In haemop- tysis, profuse secretion of bronchial mucus, obstinate diarrhcea, and dysentery, its effects are most valuable. Dose, one to three grains. 9. LIQUOR PLUM'BI DIACETA'TIS, L.—SOLUTION OF DIACETATE OF LEAD. (Plumbi Diacetatis Solutio, E.—Plumbi Subacetatls Liquor, £>.)—[Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis, U. S.J History.—This compound was known to Basil Valentine in the fifteenth cen- tury. It owes its reputation, as a medicine, principally lo the praises bestowed DIACETATE OF LEAD. 667 on it by M. Goulard,1 in the latter end of the last century. He called it Extract of Saturn (Extractum Saturni.) It is frequently termed Goulard's Extract. Preparation.—The following are the directions of the British Colleges for its preparation:—. The London College orders, of Acetate of Lead, Ibij. and giij.; Oxide of Lead, rubbed to powder, Ibj. and giv.; Water, Ovj. Boil them for half an hour, frequently stirring, and when the liquor is cold, add of distilled water as much as may be sufficient to measure with it six pints; lastly, strain [the solution.] The Edinburgh College employs, of Acetate of Lead, gvj. and ^vj.; Litharge, in fine powder, giv.; Water, Oiss. [The U. S. P. directs Acetate of Lead, sixteen ounces; Semi-vitrefied Oxide of Lead, in fine powder, nine ounces and a-half; Distilled Water, four pints. The mode of proceeding is essentially the same as that ofthe London College.] The acetate of lead combines with an additional equivalent of oxide of lead to form the diacetate. This process yields a uniform product. The Dublin College employs, of Litharge, one part; Distilled Vinegar, twelve parts. Boil together in a glass vessel until eleven parts of the fluid remain; then let the liquor rest, and when the impurities have subsided, let it be filtered. In this process the acetic acid unites with the oxide of lead to form a subsalt- This method of preparation is objectionable, since the strength of the solution depends on the strength ofthe vinegar, which is subject to variation. Properties.—It is a transparent and colourless liquid. Prepared according to the London Pharmacopoeia, its specific gravity is 1-260: according to the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, it is 1-118. Its taste is sweet and astringent. By evaporation it yields crystals of the diacetate of lead, which according to Dr. Barker, are flat rhomboidal prisms, with dihedral summits'. Characteristics.—The presence of lead and acetic acid in this solution may be known by the tests before mentioned (p. 651) for acetate of lead. From the neutral acetate it is distinguished by the copious precipitate which it produces with carbonic acid, as well as with mucilage. Solution of the diacetate of lead forms a precipitate with most vegetable colouring matters. Composition.—This liquid is an aqueous solution ofthe diacetate of lead. The solid hydrated- diacetate has, according to Dr. Thomson, the following composi- tion :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. OxideofLead..............___ 2 ........224 ........ 61-37 Acetjc Acid.................... 1 ........ 51........ 13-97 Water........................ 10........ 90 ........ 24 06 Solid Hydrated Diacetate of Lead 1 ........ 365 ........ 100-00 Purity.—When this compound has been prepared with common vinegar, it has a brown colour. Its sp. gr. is 1-260. Its other properties are similar to those of the last preparation. Ph. Lond. A copious precipitate is gradually formed when the breath is propelled through it by means of a tube. Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects.—Its effects are analogous to the acetate. Its chemical action on the living tissues depends on its affinity for albumen and fibrine. In a solution of albumen it occasions a white precipitate, composed of albumen and diacetate of lead. According to Lassaigne, (Journ. de Chim. Med. t. vi. 2e Serie, p. 299.) the precipitate caused in an albuminous liquor by the trisacetate of lead consists of albumen 71-67, and trisacetate of lead 28-33. This precipitate is solu- ble in an excess of-the solution of the trisacetate, as well as in concentrated solu- tions of several salts (as acetate and nitrate of potash,) and of caustic ammonia. > A Treatise on the Effect" and various Preparations of Lead,particularly of the Extract of Saturn, for different Chirurgical Disorders, 2nd cd. Lond. 1770. 668 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Dr. A. T. Thomson (Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. v. p. 538; vol. x. p. 693.) asserts, from his experiments on animals, that the diacetate has more tendency to cause colic than the neutral acetate, because it is more readily converted into carbonate of lead. It is employed in medicine as a local astringent and sedative. Paralysis is said to have resulted from its external use. Uses.—It is employed, when diluted, to promote the resolution of external in- flammation, to check profuse discharges from suppurating, ulcerated, and mucous surfaces, and to alleviate local pains. Thus it is applied to parts affected with either phlegmonous or erysipelatous inflammation, to whitloes, to inflamed ten- dons, aponeuroses, or absorbent glands; in ophthalmia, to contusions, sprains, burns, wounds (whether incised or lacerated,) to blistered surfaces, ulcers, ab- scesses, &c. It is said to have proved successful, when administered internally, in hydro- phobia. Administration.—It is employed diluted with water, added to poultices, or mixed with fatty matters, and applied as an ointment. 1. LIQUOR PLUMBI DIACETATIS DILUTUS.Z. Plumbi Subacetatis Liquor compo- situs, D. (Solution of Diacetate of Lead, f 3iss; Distilled Water, Oj.; Proof Spirit, gij.—M.) [Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis Dilutus, U. S. Diluted Solution of Subacetate of Lead. Take of Solution of Subacetate of Lead, 3ij.; Distilled Water, a pint. Mix them.]—This preparation is an imitation of the Water of Saturn, or Vegeto-Mirieral Water of Goulard. It is commonly termed, in the shops Goulard Water. It should be transparent and colourless; but when pre- pared with common water it is more or less milky, owing to the formation of car- bonate, sulphate, and chloride of lead. The small quantity of spirit employed can be of no service. The quantity of the solution of diacetate of lead employed in making Goulard water is much too small; it should be, at least, three times, and in some cases, I have used six times as much. I have never seen any ill effects from its use, though it is said to have become absorbed in some cases. The same objection applies to the use of this compound as to that of the neutral acetate, in ulceration of the cornea ($ide p. 666.) Goulard water is used as a cooling, sedative, and astringent wash in the cases already enumerated for the Goulard's extract. A poultice, composed of crumb of bread, boiled in Goulard water, is sometimes a very useful application to phleg- mons, painful wounds, irritable ulcers, &c. &c. t CERATUM PLUMBI COMPOSITUM, L. \Ceratum Plumbi Subacelates, U. S., Cerate of Subacetate of Lead.] (Solution of Diacetate of Lead, fjiij., [f3hss., U. S.;] Wax, 3iv.; Olive Oil, Oss., [f3ix., U. S.;] Camphor, 3ss. Mix the melted Wax with eight fluid-ounces of the Oil; then remove them from the fire, and, when first they begin to thicken, gradually add the solution of Diacetate of Lead, and stir them constantly with a spatula until they cool; lastly, with these mix the Camphor dissolved in the rest of the oil.) This is the Cerate of Saturn of M. Goulard, and is commonly called Goulard's Cerate. It is employed as a dressing to wounds and ulcers, for the purpose of allaying irritation and appeasing pain. With the same views it is also applied to excoriated surfaces, burns, scalds, blistered surfaces, and irritable cutaneous affections. Opium is sometimes advan- tageously combined with it. 3. CERATUM SAPOMS, L.—This contains a subacetate of lead. It has been before described (p. 414.) 10. EMPLASTRUM PLUM'BI, L. (U. S.)—PLASTER OF LEAD. (Emplastrum Lithargyri, E. D.) History.—This compound was known to the ancients: both Pliny (Hist. Nat. xxxiv. 53.) and Celsus (De Medicina, lib. v. cap. xix.) gave a formula for a plas- PLASTER OF LEAD. 669 ter used by the Roman surgeons, which is almost identical with that for the officinal plaster of lead. It is commonly sold in the shops as Diachylon or Dia- chylum. Preparation.—The following are the directions of the British Colleges for its preparation:— The London College orders of Oxide of Lead, rubbed to very fine powder, lbvj.; [Ibv. U.S.] Olive Oil, Cong. j.; Water, Oij. Boil them together with a slow fire, constantly stirring, until the Oil and Oxide of Lead unite into the consistence of a plaster; but it will be proper to add a little boiling water, if nearly the whole of that which was used in the beginning should be evaporated before the end of the boiling. The Edinburgh College orders of Litharge, in fine powder, Jjv.; Olive Oil. f^xij.; Water, f^jiij. Mix them; boil and stir constantly till the oil and litharge unite, replacing the water if it evaporate too far. The process ofthe Dublin College is similar to that ofthe London College. Olive Oil is a compound of Oleine (Oleate of Glycerine) and Margarine (Mar- garate of Glycerine.) When subjected to heat with litharge and some water, the oxide of lead combines with the oleic and margaric acids, and sets free the glycerine, which remains dissolved in the water. The mixture of oleate and margarate of lead constitutes emplastrum plumbi. (See p. 478 for an account of Saponification.) The water employed in this process serves two purposes: it moderates the heat and facilitates the union of the acids with the oxide of lead. MATERIALS. PRODCCTS. Water...................•................—--------- -r Solution of Glycerine. ! Oleine I GlVccrin* • • ™»ne....j oleic Acid.. Margarine ( Glycerine___ / Margaric Acid ■ Oxide of Lead (Oxide of Lead...............- .^rrr^^^-.-r.-, Oleate of Lead. ( Oxide of Lead............_u_______________>_^=- Margarate of Lead. Properties.—It is met with in the shops in cylindrical rolls, of a grayish or yellowish-white colour, brittle when cold, but softening and ultimately fusing by heat. It is insoluble in water, and nearly so in alcohol. It has no taste, but a slight though peculiar odour. Characteristics.—When heated it fuses, then decomposes, gives out inflam- mable gas, and leaves a carbonaceous residue, which, when heated in a close vessel, yields globules of lead. Ether dissolves oleate but not margarate of lead. Composition.—Lead plaster consists of Oxide of Lead, Oleic Acid, and Mar- garic Acid. The proportions have not been precisely ascertained. The two compounds which oleic and margaric acids form with oxide of lead are probably basic salts. Effects and Uses.—This plaster is employed in surgery, on account of its adhesiveness and the mildness of its local action; for it rarely excites irritation. It is used to keep the edges of wounds together in persons with delicate skins. Spread on calico it forms a good strapping for giving support and causing pressure in ulcers of the leg,—a most successful mode of treating them, and for which we are indebted to Mr. Baynton. In pharmacy it serves as a basis for various other plasters. 1. EMPLASTRUM RESLNjE, L. (U. S.;) Emplastrum Resinosum, E.; Emplastrum Lithargyri cum Resind, D.; Resin Plaster. (Resin, lbss. [3j. E.;~] Lead Plas- ter, lbiij! f3v. E.; lbiijss. Z?.] To the plaster of lead, melted with a slow fire, add the Resin, powdered, and mix.)—This is the common Adhesive Plaster (Emplastrum Adhsesivum,) and is kept in the shops ready spread. It is em- ployed to retain the lips of wounds in contact, as in cuts, surgical operations, &c. U is more adhesive than lead plaster, but at the same time somewhat more irri- 670 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. tating, and occasionally causes excoriation. It is employed as a strapping for dressing ulcers on Baynton's principles. %. EMPLASTRUM SAPOMS, L. E. D. This contains lead plaster, (see p. 415.) I UMJENTUI PLUMBI COMPOSITUM, L. (Prepared Chalk, 3viij.; Distilled Vinegar, f^vj.; Plaster of Lead, lbiij.; Olive Oil, Oj. Mix the chalk with the vinegar; and, when the effervescence has ceased, add gradually the solution to the plaster and oil melted with a slow fire, and stir constantly until they are cooled.)—By the action of the acetic acid on the chalk, an acetate of lime is pro- cured, and carbonic acid evolved, and the acetate of lime is then mixed with lead plaster and oil. This compound is an imitation of Kirklanefs Neutral Cerate, used as a dressing to indolent ulcers. It is employed by Mr. Higginbottom, (Essay on the Use of Nitrate of Silver, 2nd ed. p. 119.) under the name of Neu- tral Ointment, as a defence for ulcers after the application of nitrate of silver. Order XXVI.—ZINC AND ITS COMPOUNDS. 1. ZIN'CUM, L. E. D. [U. S.]—ZINC. History.—Although the ancients were acquainted with the method of con- verting copper into brass by means of an ore of zine, yet we have no positive evidence that they were acquainted with metallic zinc, one of the constituents of this alloy.1 Albertus Magnus, who died in 1280, is the first writer who expressly mentions this metal.2 It has had various appellations, such as Contrefeyn, Golden Marcasite, Indian Tin (Stannum lndicum,) Spiaulter, Speltre or Spelter (Spellrum.) Natural History.—It occurs only in the mineral kingdom. It is found in the form of Oxide (Red Zinc,) of Sulphuret (Blende or Black Jack,) of Carbonate (Calamine,) of Sulphate (White Vitriol,) of Silicate (Electric Calamine,) and Aluminate (Automalite or Gahnite.) Preparation.—Zinc is usually procured from the native sulphuret or carbonate of that metal. It may also be obtained from the silicate. Both the sulphuret and carbonate are roasted: by this process the sulphur ofthe sulphuret is transformed into sulphurous acid, which escapes, and the zinc is oxi- dized ; while the carbonate loses carbonic acid and water. The oxide is then mixed with some carbonaceous substance and submitted to heat, by which the metal is reduced and vaporized. Sometimes the reduction is effected in a covered earthen crucible, the bottom of which is perforated by an iron tube, which termi- nates over a vessel of water situated in an apartment below the furnace. The gaseous products and zinc escape by this tube ; and the latter is condensed in the water. This is called distillatio per decensum. In Silesia, however, dislillalo per ascensum is employed. (Dumas, Traite de Chimie, t. iv. p. 82.) The zinc used in this country is principally imported in ingots and plates from Silesia, by way of Hamburgh, Antwerp, Dantzic, &c. Properties.—It is a bluish-white metal, of considerable lustre. It crystallizes in four-sided prisms and needles; its texture is lamellated and crystalline. Its sp. gr. is from 6-8 to 7-2. At a common temperature it is tough; from 202° 300° it is ductile and malleable, and may be readily rolled into thin leaves (Sheet Zinc;) at 400° it is so brittle that it may be reduced to powder. It readily fuses, and, at a white heat, may be volatilized. Characteristics.—It is soluble in dilute sulphuric acid, with the evolution of hy- drogen gas. Ferrocyanide of potassium forms, in this solution, a gelatinous white » Beckmann, in his History of Inventions and Discoveries, vol. iii. p. 71, has given a good account of the history of zinc. o An anonymous reviewer (British and Foreign Medical Review, vol. viii. p. 361,) in commenting on the above paragraph, observes, that a passage iii Strabo authorizes the belief that the ancients did know this metal in its separate state, and that it is ihe false silver (■^tvota.fryvfOv).0( that ancient geographer. ZINC. 671 precipitate (ferrocyanide of zinc:) if iron be present the precipitate is bluish-white. If the liquid be neutral, hydrosulphuric acid and the soluble hydrosulphates also occasion a white or yellowish-white precipitate (hydratedsulphuret oj zinc.) Al- kalis and their carbonates likewise throw down white precipitates: that occasioned by the alkalis is soluble in excess of alkali. The delicacy of these tests is, accord- ing to Devergie, (Med. Leg. ii. 787.) as follows:— Degree of Dilution. Ferrocyanide of Pottassium...........,.............. stops at .. 4,001) Ammonia............................................, .. 6,000 Potash, or Carbonate of Ammonia.................... „ .. 8,000 Carbonate of Potash, or Hydrosulphate of Ammonia.. ,, .. 10,000 Hydrosulphuric Acid................................ „ ..15,000 Purity.—The zinc of commerce is never pure. It always contains iron and carbon, and not unfrequently traces of arsenicum. By the action of diluted sul- phuric acid the zinc and the iron are dissolved, while the arsenicum, when present, escapes in the form of arseniuretted hydrogen gas. A black matter remains undis- solved, which has a carbonaceous appearance, but contains iron. Almost entirely dissolved by diluted sulphuric acid. The solution is free from colour. Its other properties as above [see Zinci sulphas.] The specific gravity is 6-86. Ph. Lond. It dissolves in a great measure in diluted sulphuric acid, leaving only a scanty grayish- black residuum : this solution presents the characters just given [see Zinci sulphas] for the solution of sulphate of Zinc. Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects.—In the metallic state it is inert. The compounds of zinc axe somewhat analogous in their action on the system to those of copper, sil- ver, and bismuth, but are much less energetic. They act topically, according to their degree of concentration, as desiccants, astringents, irritants, and caustics. Taken internally they excite more or less readily, nausea and vomiting, and in large doses operate as irritant and caustic poisons. They exercise a specific in- fluence over the nervous system, though this is much less obvious than in the pre- parations of the other metals just referred to. The stupor and inactivity, men- tioned by Orfila, (Toxicol. Gen.) as being produced by the sulphate, are evidence ofthe affection ofthe nervous system. The antispasmodic power evinced by zinc, in certain diseases, can only be explained by referring it to the action of this metal on the nervous centres. Uses.—As topical agents we employ the compounds of zinc as caustics, astrin- gents, and desiccants. Thus the chloride is used as a caustic ; the sulphate and acetate as astringents; and the oxide and carbonate as desiccants. Internally, the compounds of zinc are administered in large doses to excite vomiting; in smaller doses as tonics and antispasmodics in intermittent diseases and chronic affections ofthe nervous system. 2. ZINCI OX'YDUM, L. D.—OXIDE OF ZINC. (Zinci Oxidum, E.)—[U. S.] History.—The oxide was first prepared by Hellot in 1735. It has received various names, some of them of a fantastic nature; as Nihil album, Lana philo- sophica, Pompholyx, Flowers or Calx of Zinc (Flores seu Calx Zinci.) Natural History.—Oxide of zinc is found in America, mixed or combined with the sesquioxide of manganese, and constituting the Red Oxide of Zinc of the mineralogist. It is also found in various localities, in combination with carbonic, sulphuric, or silicic acid. Preparation.—All the British Colleges give directions for the preparation of this compound. 672 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. The London College orders of Sulphate of Zinc, Ibj.; Sesquicarbonate of Ammonia, ^ viss.; Distilled Water, Cong. iij. Dissolve the Sulphate of Zinc and Sesquicarbonate of Ammonia, separately, in twelve pints ofthe distilled Water, and strain; then mix. Wash what is preci- pitated frequently with water; and, lastly, burn it for two hours in a strong fire. [This is the formula ofthe U. S. P.] The Edinburgh College employs of Sulphate of Zinc, ^xij.; Carbonate of Ammonia, ^vj. The process is otherwise the same as that ofthe London College. In these processes double decomposition takes place; sulphate of ammonia is formed in solution, and carbonate of zinc precipitates. A portion of the carbonic acid of the sesquicarbonate of ammonia escapes. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. PRODUCTS. eq. Sesquicarb. j Ammonia ...100. o „n (Sooimr-arh ( * ea- Carbonic Acid 22----------,----------------------1 eq. Carbonic Acid.... 22 2eq. Sesquicarb. ) 2 Carbonic Acid 44- A mmnn in___lllll J _ * 2 eq. Ammonia .... 34 / ■------ o on Sulnhatn nf Am 2 eq. Sulphate of 2 eq. Sulph. Acid... 80 ( '--------------- ' ^onja * 114 Zinc........160 | 2 eq. Oxide of Zinc 80_________________________-----" eq. Carb! Zinc.'.'.'. .'.'.-124 260 260 ~260 The carbonate of zinc is decomposed by the subsequent ignition, and the carbo- nic acid expelled, leaving the oxide. The Dublin College directs Oxide of Zinc to be prepared as follows :—Take of Zinc, broken into small fragments, any required quantity. Let portions of the metal be thrown at sepa- rate intervals of time into a crucible heated to whiteness and of sufficient depth; its mouth inclining somewhat toward the door of the furnace; and after the injection of each piece of zinc, let another crucible be inverted over that which receives the metal, but loosely, that the air may not be excluded: let the sublimed light powder and .the whitest part of it be pre- served for use. In this process the metal attracts oxygen from the air, and is thereby converted into oxide of zinc. A manufacturing chemist who prepares oxide of zinc (so called) informs me that he obtains it from a solution of chloride of zinc, which he procures from the workers of palladium. This liquid is boiled with small pieces of zinc and some caustic soda, to get rid of the iron; and to the clear liquor is then added a solu- tion of carbonate of soda (soda ash,) by which the white carbonate of zinc is pre- cipitated. This is washed, dried, and sold as oxide of zinc. Properties.—The form of the crystallized native oxide of zinc (containing the oxides of iron and manganese) is a right rhombic prism. The artificial oxide of the Pharmacopoeia is a white, or, when ignited, yellow- ish-white, tasteless, odourless powder. It is fusible, forming a yellow glass, and at a white heat is volatilized. When heated with charcoal it is readily reduced. It is insoluble- in water, but readily dissolves in most acids and in alkalis. It forms two classes of salts: one (the zincic salts,) in which it is the base; a second (zincates,) in which it acts the part of an acid. Characteristics.—It dissolves in dilute sulphuric acid. The characteristics of the solution have been already detailed (p. 670.) Composition.—Oxide of zinc has the following composition:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Proust. Berzelius. Zinc............ 1 ...... 32 ...... 80 ...... 80 ...... 801 Oxygen.......... 1 ...... 8 ...... 20 ...... 20 ...... 19-9 Oxide of Zinc... I ...... 40 ......100 ...... 100 ...... 1000 Purity.—Pure oxide of zinc is completely and readily soluble in diluted sul- phuric, nitric, or hydrochloric acid, without effervescence. The substance met with in the shops under the name of oxide of zinc is in reality a carbonate of this metal, and, therefore, effervesces on the addition of an acid. The solution obtained bv dissolving the oxide in any of the above acids yields a precipitate, OXIDE OF ZINC. 673 on the addition of caustic ammonia or potash, which should be completely solu- ble in an excess of the precipitant. If the substance sold as oxide of zinc have been prepared by adding a caustic alkali to a solution of sulphate of zinc, it will be found to be in reality a subsul- phate instead of an oxide; and its solution in nitric acid yields traces of contain- ing sulphuric acid when tested with a salt of baryta. Oxide of cadmium has been sometimes found in it, and was once mistaken for arsenious acid. (Thomson's Hist, of Chem. ii. 219.) Iron and manganese (Liebig.) are sometimes present in oxide of zinc, and communicate a yellow tinge to it. The oxide is,— White ; tasteless ; entirely soluble in diluted nitric acid without effervescence : this solution is not affected by nitrate of baryta, but gives with ammonia a white precipitate entirely solu- ble in an excess of the test. Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects, a. On Animals.'—Orfila (Toxicol. Gen.) gave from three to six drachms of it to small and weak dogs: they were attacked with vo- mitings, without suffering much. j3. On Man.—Applied to ulcerated or other secreting surfaces, it acts as a de- siccant and astringent substance. On account of its insolubility, the absorption of it must be very slow. Taken into the stomach in large doses, it acts as a slight irritant, and provokes vomiting, and sometimes purging. It is said to have also caused occasional giddiness and temporary inebriation. In small doses it may be taken for a considerable period without causing any obvious effects. Sometimes, under its employment, certain affections of the nervous system (as epilepsy, chorea, &c.) subside; from which we infer that it exercises some spe- cific influence over this system; and it is, therefore, termed tonic, antispasmodic, and sedative. But the nature of its influence is not very obvious, and is inferred rather from analogy than observation. By long-continued use it acts as a slow poison, and produces tabes sicca. A gentleman, for the cure of epilepsy, took daily, at an average, twenty grains of oxide till he had consumed 3246 grains, which must have taken him about five months. At the end of this time he was found of a pale, earthy hue, wasted away, and almost idiotical: his tongue was thickly coated, the bowels were constipated, the inferior extremities cold and cedematous, the abdomen tumid, the superior extremities cold and shrivelled, and the skin dry, like parchment; the pulse was about sixty, thready, and scarcely perceptible. Under the use of purgatives, a light nutritive diet, with tonic and diuretic medicines, he rapidly recovered, but he remained subject to epileptic at- tacks. (Brit, and For. Med. Rev. July, 1838, p. 221.) Uses.—Internally it has been commended in some spasmodic diseases, viz. epilepsy, chorea, hysteria, catalepsy, and hooping-cough; and in some painful affections, as neuralgia and gastrodynia. Though occasionally serviceable in some of these maladies, it has so frequently failed, that practitioners have ceased to place much confidence in it. Externally, it is employed in the form of powder, or lotion, or ointment. As a dusting powder it is useful, by its mild, absorbent, and desiccant properties, and is applied to impetiginous and other chronic diseases of the skin, attended with profuse secretion. It is also used to allay or prevent excoriation in chil- dren and bedridden persons, and to remove chaps and cracks of the nipples. In painful ulcers, with copious discharge, it is not unfrequently beneficial by its de- siccant and sedative properties. Diffused through water or a mucilaginous solu- tion (in the proportion of two drachms of the oxide to six or eight ounces of liquid,) it is occasionally useful in chronic ophthalmia, especially ophthalmia tarsi. Somme (Archiv. Gen. de Med. i. 486.) employed an injection, composed of half an ounce of oxide and two pints of water, in gonorrhoea and leucorrhcsa, with success. Vol. I.—8.S 674 ELEMENTS of materia medica. Administration.—Internally, it is administered in the form of pill or powder, in doses of from two or three grains gradually increased to eight, ten, or more. 1. UNGUENTUM ZINCI, L. E. (U. S.;) Unguentum Zinci Oxydi, D. (Oxide of Zinc, 3j-'» Lard, 3yj. M. L. (U. S.)—The Edinburgh College substitutes Simple Liniment for Lard.—The Dublin College uses of Ointment of AVhite Wax, lbj.; Oxide of Zinc, prepared in the same manner as chalk, 3ij. M.)—This compound is employed as a mild drying ointment in porrigo, impetigo, and other skin dis- eases attended with profuse discharges, after extensive burns, blisters, sinapisms, &c; to painful ulcers with excessive secretion, to the eye when affected with chronic inflammation, &c. 2. ZINCI OXYDUM IMPURUM.—This substance is known in the shops under the name of Tutty (Tutia seu Tuthia,) or Furnace Cadmia (Cadmia Fornacum seu factitia.) It is found in the chimney of the furnace in which zinc ores are roasted, or in which zinciferous lead ores are smelted. When prepared by levi- gation and elutriation it is called Prepared Tutty (Oxydum Zinci impurum prse- paratum; Tutia Prseparata.) It is applied as a dusting powder, or as a cooling ointment (Unguentum Oxydi Zinci impuri; composed of Simple Liniment or Lard, 5 parts; Tutty, 1 part; M.) to excoriated surfaces. 3. ZIN CI CtlLO'RTDUM, (U. S.)—CHLORIDE OF ZINC. History.—This compound, which has been long known to chemists, was first introduced into medicine by Papenguth, (Russ. Samml. f. Naturw. u. Heilk. H. i. S. 79, quoted by Richter, Ausf. Arzneim. iv. 526.) and subsequently has been recommended by Professor Hancke, of Breslau, (Rust's Magazin, 1826, Bd. 22, S. 373.) and by Dr. Canquoin, of Paris. (Dr. Alex. Ure, Lond. Med. Gaz. xvii. 391.) It is termed Muriate, Hydrochlorate, or Butter of Zinc. Preparation.—The easiest and cheapest method pf obtaining it is by dissolving zinc, or its oxide, in hydrochloric acid, evaporating to dryness, and fusing in a glass vessel with a narrow mouth, as a Florence flask. In solution it 13 obtained as a secondary product in the preparation of some other metals, as of palladium (see p. 672.) [The following is the method of obtaining it directed by the U. S. P. Take of Zinc in small pieces, two ounces and a-half; Nitric Acid, Prepared Chalk, each a drachm; Muriatic Acid a sufficient quantity. To the Zinc in a glass or porcelain vessel, add gradually sufficient Muriatic Acid to dissolve it; then strain, add the Nitric Acid and evaporate to dryness. Dis- solve the dry mass in water and add the Chalk, and having allowed the mixture to stand for twenty-four hours, filter and again evaporate to dryness.] Properties.—It is a whitish-gray semi-transparent mass, having the softness of wax. It is soluble in water, alcohol, and ether. It is fusible; and, at a strong heat, may be sublimed and crystallized in needles. It is very deliquescent. It unites with both albumen and gelatine to form difficultly soluble compounds, and hence it occasions precipitates with liquids containing these principles in solution. A patent has been obtained by Sir William Burnett for the preservation of wood by a solution of the chloride of zinc. Characteristics.—Dissolved in water it may be recognised to be a chloride by nitrate of silver (see p. 218.) That zinc is the base of the salt may be shown by the tests already mentioned for the salts of this metal (p. 670.) Composition.—Its composition is as follows:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. J. Davy. Zinc................... 1.......... 32 .......... 47 .......... SO Chlorine.............. 1 .......... 36.......... 53 .......... 50 Chloride of Zinc...... 1 .......... 68 .......... 100 .......... 100 Physiological Effects.—Its local action on living tissues is that of a caustic or escharotic, depending partly on its affinity for albumen and gelatine; so that SULPHATE uf zinc. 6/5 when placed in contact with living parts into whose composition these organic compounds enter, the chloride exercising its affinity, destroys the life ofthe part, and unites with the albuminous and gelatinous matters present, and forms thus an eschar. Other chemical changes of a comparatively unimportant nature are also effected: thus various salts found in the solids or liquids of the part may be decomposed. For example, when the chloride is applied to a cancerous sore, it decomposes the carbonate and hydrosulphuret of ammonia found in the secretion of the sore. The effects produced by the application of chloride of zinc are the following: — Soon after it has been applied a sensation of warmth is felt in the part, quickly followed by violent burning pain, which continues for seven or eight hours; that is, until the parts in contact with the chloride are dead. A white eschar is now observed, which usually saparates in from eight to twelve days. Unless used in the neighbourhood of loose cellular tissue, there is rarely much swelling. As a caustic, chloride of zinc is not inferior in power to chloride of antimony; nay, Vogt (Pharmakodynamik, i. 363. 2,e Aufl.) says it appears to him to be more powerful and to penetrate deeper. It decomposes the organic tissues as quickly as the nitrate of silver, but excites more burning, and for a longer time, owing to its action extending to parts placed more deeply; for it is well known that the operation of the nitrate is confined to superficial parts. Both Vogt and Canquoin agree that chloride of zinc, besides corroding the parts with which it is in contact, exercises an influence over the vital actions of neighbouring parts. To this circumstance is owing, in great part, the efficacy of the chloride in various diseases in which it has been applied, and the healthy appearance of the sore after the separation of the eschar. There is no danger of any constitutional disorder arising from the absorption of the poison, as is the case with the arseni- cal and mercurial caustics. Taken internally, in large doses, it acts as an irritant or caustic poison, and affects the nervous system. Thus it produces a burning sensation in the stomach, nausea, vomiting, anxiety, short breathing, small quick pulse, cold sweats, faint- ing, and convulsions. Taken in very small doses, no obvious effects are pro- duced, except sometimes the amelioration of certain diseases. It is supposed, in these cases, to influence the nervous system. Uses.—Internally chloride of zinc has been given in small, but gradually- increased doses, in scrofula, epilepsy, chorea, and (in combination with hydro- cyanic acid) in neuralgia ofthe face. Commonly, however, it is employed externally: thus Papenguth used a dilute solution of it as a lotion in fistulous ulcers of a scrofulous nature. As a caustic it has been applied, by Professor Hancke and Dr. Canquoin, to produce an issue, to destroy naevi materni, and, as an application to parts affected with malignant diseases, such as fungus haematodes and cancer, or to other intractable forms of disease, such as old syphilitic or scrofulous ulcers. The benefit is supposed not to depend merely on the escharotic effect, but on the chloride inducing a new action in the surrounding parts. Administration.—Internally it may be given in doses of one or two grains. Hufeland recommends it to be taken dissolved in ether; his formula for the .Ether Zinci, as it is called, is the following:—R. Zinci Chlor. 3ss.; Alcoholis, 3j.; iEtheris Sulph. 3ij- Post aliquot dies decanta. The dose of this solution is from four to eight drops, taken twice daily. Externally it has been used as a Lotion, composed of two grains of the chlo- ride and an ounce of water; or in the form of Paste: this may be composed of one part of chloride of zinc, and from two to four parts of wheaten flour. 4. ZIN'CI SULPHAS, L. E. D. (V. S.)—SULPHATE OF ZINC. History.—This salt is said by Schwarlze (Pharm. Tabell. 2te Ausg. 779.) to have been known towards the end of the 13th, or at the commencement of the 676 elements of materia medica. 14th century; but Beckmann affirms it was not known before the middle of the 16th century. (Hist, of Invent, iii. 85.) It has had various names, as Sal Vitrioli, White Vitriol, and Gilla Theophrasti. Natural History.—It occurs native at Rammelsberg, near Goslar, in" the Hartz; at Holywell, in Flintshire; and other places. Preparation.—It is readily prepared by dissolving zinc in diluted sulphuric acid. The London College orders of Zinc, in small pieces, ^v.; Diluted Sulphuric Acid, Oij- Pour gradually the dilated Sulphuric Acid upon the pieces of Zinc, and, the effervescence being finished, strain the liquor; then boil it down until a pellicle begins to form. Lastly, set it aside that crystals may be formed. The Edinburgh College observes that this salt may be prepared either by disssolving frag. ments of zinc in diluted sulphuric acid till a neutral liquid be obtained, filtering the solution, and concentrating sufficiently for it to crystallize on cooling,—or by repeatedly dissolving and crystallizing the impure sulphate of zinc of commerce, until the product, when dissolved in water, does not yield a black precipitate with tincture of galls, and corresponds with the cha- racters laid down for sulphate of zinc in the List ofthe Materia Medica (see p. 667.) The Dublin College orders of Zinc, in small fragments, thirteen parts; Sulphuric Acid, twenty parts ; Water, one hundred and twenty parts. [The U. S. Pharmacopoeia directs, Zinc, in small pieces, four ounces; Sulphuric Acid, six ounces; Distilled Water, four pints.] In this process 1 equivalent or 9 parts of water are decomposed; an equivalent or 1 part of hydrogen escapes, while an equivalent or 8 parts of oxygen unite with 1 equivalent or 32 parts of zinc, to form 1 equivalent or 40 parts of the oxide, which, with 1 equivalent or 40 parts of sulphuric acid, form 1 equivalent or 80 parts of the sulphate. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. PRODUCTS. 1 ea Water Q\ leq. Hydrogen 1---------------------1 eq. Hydrogen.......... l i eq. vvaier......... J \ 1 eq. Oxygen.. 8 ) _ „. ,„ leq. Zinc........... 32................J 1 eq-. Ox. Zinc 40 1 eq. Sulphuric AciihJO------------------------------—^-1 eq. Sulphate of Zinc . . 80 The impurities in commercial zinc have been already stated (see p. 671.) If a piece of zinc be added to the impure solution of sulphate, and the liquid heated in contact with air, the iron is peroxidized and is deposited. By roasting blende (sulphuret of zinc) in reverberatory furnaces, an impure sulphate is obtained, which is lixiviated, and the solution concentrated by evapo- ration, so that on cooling it forms a crystalline mass iesembling lump sugar. This is distinguished among druggists by the name of While Vitriol, a term which they confine to this commoner kind of sulphate. This impure salt con- tains iron, and usually copper and lead. Properties.—Crystals of sulphate of zinc are right rhombic prisms: they are transparent and colourless, and have a metallic astringent taste. Fig. 97. They are soluble in 2/Jg- times their weight of cold water, and less than their own weight of boiling water. They are insoluble in alcohol. In dry and warm air they effloresce. When heated they undergo the watery fusion; and if the liquid be rapidly cooled, it congeals into a granular, crystalline, white mass: if the heat be continued the salt becomes anhy- drous, and, at an intense heat, is decomposed, leaving a resi- due of zinc. Characteristics.—That this salt is a sulphate, is proved by Crystal of Sulphate tne acti°n of chloride of barium on it; a white precipitate is of Zinc. produced, insoluble in nitric acid (see p. 406.) Acetate of lead also occasions a white precipitate. The presence of oxide of zinc in the solution is recognised by the tests already mentioned for this substance (see p. 670.) BULPHATE OK ZINC. 677 Composition.—This salt has the following composition:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berzelius. Mitscherlich. -i ...... 1U ...... -so ...... ju yoo .. ) 7 ...... 63 ...... 44 ...... 36-450 .. .. 44-76 Crystallized Sulphate of Zi nc 1 ...... 143 ...... 100 ......100 000 ......100 00 Purity.—Ammonia added to a solution of sulphate of zinc throws down a white precipitate soluble in excess of ammonia. If any oxide of iron or magne- sia be present it remains undissolved; while any oxide of copper would form an azure blue solution (cuprate of ammonia.) Arsenic or cadmium may be de- tected by adding excess of sulphuric acid to the solution of the sulphate, and then passing a stream of hydrosulphuric acid through it: the arsenicum and cadmium are thrown down in the form of sulphurets. The impure sulphate called White Vitriol occurs in irregular masses; here and there stained yellow with the iron. Totally dissolved by water. What is thrown down by ammonia is white, and when the ammonia is added in excess it is again dissolved. On the addition of chloride of barium or acetate of lead they are decomposed. Ph. Lond. When a solution in six waters is boiled with a little nitric acid, and solution of ammonia is then added till the oxide of zinc first thrown down is all redissolved, no yellow precipitate remains, or a trace only, and the solution is colourless. Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects.—In small and repeated doses it acts as an astringent on-the alimentary canal, checks secretion, and promotes a constipated condition of the bowels. It exercises a specific influence over the nervou system, mani- fested by its power of removing certain spasmodic affections: hence it is reputed antispasmodic. To the same influence is to be referred its power of. preventing the recurrence of intermittent maladies, from which it has principally derived its denomination of a tonic. Its astringent effect is not confined to the bowels, but is manifested in the pulmonary and urethral mucous membranes, the secretions from which it diminishes: hence the advantage of its use in catarrhal affections of these parts. It does not appear to possess any power of checking cutaneous ex- halation. In full medicinal doses it is a powerful but safe emetic; it excites speedy vo- miting without giving rise to that distressing nausea occasioned by emetic tartar, though this statement is not in accordance with the experience of Dr. Cullen, (Treat, of the Mat. Med.) who observes that " in order to render its effects cer- tain, the dose mtlst generally be large; and if this is not thrown out again imme- diately it is apt to continue a disagreeable nausea, or even a vomiting, longer than is necessary." But this observation does not agree with the experience of other practitioners. In excessive doses it acts as an irritant poison, causing vomiting, purging, cold- ness ofthe extremities, and fluttering pulse. The local action of it is that of an astringent and desiccant, and in a concen- trated form it is a powerful irritant and caustic. Its external use is said to have been found fatal in one case, by causing vomiting, purging, and convulsions. (Christison, op. cit. p. 468.) Its causticity depends on its affinity for albumen and fibrin. Uses.—A* an emetic it is almost exclusively employed in poisoning, especially by narcotics. In these cases it is the best evacuant we can administer, on ac- count of its prompt action. As an internal astringent it is administered in chronic dysentery (Impey, Lond. Med. and Phys. Journ. ix. 55, 1803.) and diarrhcea, in chronic bronchial affections attended with profuse secretion, and in gleet and leucorrhoea. In the latter cases it is usually associated with terebin- thinate medicines, and is sometimes decidedly beneficial. (See a paper on this subject, by Mr. Graham, in the Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journ. vol. xxvi.) As an antispasmodic it has been employed with occasional success in epilepsy, Oxide of Zinc. Sulphuric Acid Water........ 678 ELEMENTS OF .MATERIA MEDICA. chorea, hysteria, spasmodic asthma, and hooping-cough. I have little faith in its efficacy in any of these cases. As a tonic it has been sometimes serviceable in agues, but it is far inferior to sulphate of quinia or arsenious acid. As a topical astringent sulphate of zinc is most extensively employed. We use its aqueous solution as a collyrium in chronic ophthalmia, as a wash for ulcers attended with profuse discharge, or with loose flabby granulations; as a gargle in ulcerations of the mouth, though I have found it for this purpose much inferior to a solution of sulphate of copper; as a lotion for chronic skin diseases; and as an injection in gleet and leucorrho3a. Administration.—As an emetic the dose should be from ten to twenty grains; as a tonic, antispasmodic, or expectorant, from one to five grains. For external use, solutions are made of various strengths. Haifa grain ofthe sulphate to an ounce of water is the weakest. The strongest I ever knew em- ployed consisted of a drachm of sulphate dissolved in an ounce of water: it was used with success as an injection in gleet. But solutions of this strength must be applied with great caution, as they are dangerous. Antidotes.—Promote the evacuation of the poison by demulcents. Afterwards allay hyperemesis by opium, blood-letting, and the usual antiphlogistic regimen. Vegetable astringents have been advised. 5. ZINCI ACE'TAS. (U. S.)—ACETATE OF ZINC. . History.—This salt was discovered bf Glauber. Preparation.—It may be procured by dissolving oxide of zinc in acetic acid, and crystallizing the saturated solution; or it may be readily obtained by double decomposition: 143 grains of crystallized sulphate of zinc, dissolved in water, and mixed with 190 grains of crystallized acetate of lead in solution, will pro- duce 152 grains of sulphate of lead, which, being insoluble, precipitates, while 91 grains of the anhydrous acetate of zinc (equal to 154 grains of the crystallized acetate) are left in solution; or it may be procured by immersing a piece of zinc in a* solution of acetate of lead, until the liquid forms a white precipitate with hydrosulphuric acid. In this process the lead is reduced to the metallic state, (forming the Arbor Saturni, or Lead Tree,) while the zinc replaces it in solu- tion. [The U. S. Pharmacopoeia directs, Acetate of Lead, a pound; Zinc, granulated, nine ounces ; Distilled Water, three pints. Dissolve the Acetate of Lead in the Water and filter. Add the Zinc to the solution, and agitate them occasionally together, in a stoppered bottle for five or six hours, or until the liquid yields no precipitate with a solution of iodide of potassium. Filter the liquor, evaporate it with a moderate heat to one-fifth and set it aside to crystallize. Pour off the liquid and dry the crystals on bibulous paper. Should the crystals be coloured, dissolve them in Distilled Water; and having heated the solution, drop into it while hot a filtered solution of Chlorinated Lime, until it ceases to let fall sesquioride of iron; then filter the liquor, acidulate it with a few drops of Acetic Acid, evaporate and crystallize.] Properties.—It usually crystallizes in rhomboidal plates, having a pearly or silky lustre, closely resembling talc. The form of the crystals is the oblique rhombic prism. The salt is odourless, but has a bitter metallic taste. It dis- solves readily in water, and is slightly efflorescent. Characteristics.—When heated it fuses, and gives out an inflammable vapour, having the odour of acetic acid. When sulphuric acid is added to the salt, the vapour of acetic acid is evolved: this is easily recognised by its odour. These characters show it to be an acetate. That it is a zincic salt is proved by the tests before mentioned for a solution of this salt (p. 670.) Composition.—Its composition is, according to Dr. Thomson, as follows:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. OxideofZinc.............. 1 ........ 40........ 26 00 Acetic Acid................ 1........ 51 ........ 3310 Water..................... 7........ 63........ 40-90 Crystallized Acetate of Zinc 1 ........ 154 ........ 10000 CARBONATE OF ZINC. 679 Physiological Effects.—Its effects are analogous to those of the sulphate of zinc. Its local action is astringent. Taken internally, in small doses, it acts as a tonic and antispasmodic; large doses occasion vomiting and purging. Deveaux and Dejaer (Orfila, Toxical. Gen.) deny that it is a poison, even in large doses. Uses.—It is rarely administered internally; but is applicable as an emetic, tonic, and antispasmodic, in the same cases in which the oxide or sulphate of zinc is employed. As a topical remedy, it is used on account of its astringent qualities in chronic ophthalmia, gleet, and leucorrhoea. In the latter stages of gonorrhoea I have found it far more successful than the sulphate. Its beneficial effects were first described by the late Dr. Wm. Henry, of Manchester. (Lond. Med and Phys. Journ. ix. 53. 1803.) Sir A. Cooper (Lancet, iii. 199.) recommends, as the best injection which can be used in the third week of gonorrhoea, a mixture of six grains of sulphate of zinc and four ounces of liquor plumbi subacetatis dilutus. Of course double decomposition takes place, and the active ingredient is the ace- tate of zinc. Administration.—When exhibited internally, as a tonic or antispasmodic, the dose is one or two grains gradually increased. As an emetic it is rarely admi- nistered: the dose is from ten grains to a scruple: its operation is very safe. As a lotion or injection, it is employed in the form of aqueous solution, containing two or more grains of the salt to an ounce of water. ZINCI ACETATIS TINCTURA, D. (Sulphate of Zinc; Acetate of Potash, aa one part. Triturate them together, and add sixteen parts of Rectified Spirit; mace- rate for a week with occasional agitation, and filter through paper.)—Here we have double decomposition: sulphate of potash and acetate of zinc are formed. The first is precipitated, being insoluble in spirit, the second remains in solution. One drachm contains a quantity of acetate of zinc equal to about four grains of the crystallized acetate. When diluted with water it is used as a collyrium and injection. 6. ZIN'CI CAR'BONAS.-CARBONATE OF ZINC. (Calamina; Carbonas Zinci impura, L—Calamina praparata; Levigated impure Carbonate of Zinc, E.—Carbonas Zinci imputum ; Calamina, D.) History.—The native carbonate of zinc was perhaps known to the ancients, though they were unacquainted with its nature. The term Calamine is applied both to the native carbonate and native silicate of zinc: the latter is termed by way of distinction Electric Calamine. Natural History.—Native carbonate of zinc (Calamine) is found in great abundance in several parts of England, (in the counties of Somerset, Derby, Durham, Sic.,) as well as in various parts of the continent of Europe (in Carin- thia, Hungary, Silesia. &c.) It occurs crystallized or in compact or earthy masses. Its colour varies, being more or less gray, yellow, or brown. Its sp. gr. is 4-2 to 45. Preparation.—Calamine (Calamina) or the impure carbonate of zinc (Car- bonas Zinci impura,) is directed to be calcined, in order to make it pulverizable. But in this process water and more or less of the carbonic acid is expelled. It is then reduced to a very fine powder (usually in mills,) and is afterwards submitted to the process of elutriation. By this means we obtain Prepared Calamine (Cala- mina Prceparala, L. E.; Zinci Carbonas impurum prceparatum, D.) Properties.—Prepared calamine is met with in the shops in the form of a heavy pinkish or flesh-coloured powder, or made up into little masses. When pure, it dissolves in nitric, hydrochloric, or sulphuric acid, with effervescence. Various impurities mixed with calamine are insoluble in these acids. Characteristics.—The effervescence with the mineral acids shows calamine to be a carbonnfo. The prosoncr of zinc in thr solution is determined by the tests 680 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. before mentioned for this metal (p. 670.) The action of these tests, however, is more or less impeded by the presence of foreign matters in calamine. Composition.—Carbonate of zinc has the following composition:— Smithson. Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. (Mendip Ore.) (Derbyshire ore.) Oxide of Zinc.......... 1 ........ 40 ........ 64 5 ........ 64 8 ......to...... 65.2' Carbonic Acid.......... I ...___. 22 ........ 355 ........ 352 ......to...... 348 Carbonate of Zinc...... 1 ........ 62 ........100 0 ........100 0 ......to...... 100 0 Impurities.—The substance sold in the shops as prepared calamine frequently contains only traces of zinc. If hydrochloric acid be poured on it, effervescence (owing to the escape of carbonic and hydrosulphuric acids) takes place, and a por- tion is dissolved; but the greater part remains undissolved. JMx. Brett (Lond. Med. Gaz. xx. 72.) found from 78 to 87-5 per cent, of sulphate of baryta. The remainder of the powder consisted of oxide of iron, carbonate of lime, lead, [sul- phuret of]] and mere traces of zinc. Physiological Effects..—Pure carbonate of zinc is probably similar in its action to the oxide. Uses.—Calamine is employed as a dusting powder for children, and as a mild desiccant and astringent in excoriations, superficial ulceration, &c. 1. CALAMINA PRJEPARATA, L; Zinci Carbonas impurum prseparatum, D. [Zinci Carbonas praeparatus, U. S.] Lapis Calaminaris prceparalus. (Burn the Calamine, then bruise it. Afterwards let it be made into a very fine powder in the same manner as we have directed chalk to be prepared, L.—The directions ofthe Dublin College are essentially similar.) Some remarks on the preparation have been previously offered. The Edinburgh College gives no direction for the preparation of calamine. 2. CERATUM CALAMINE, L. E.; Unguentum Calaminse, D.; [Ceratum Zinci Carbonatis, U. S.f] Turner's Cerate; Ceratum Epulotieum. (Calamine; Wax, aa lbss.; Olive Oil, f 3xvj. Add the calamine to the melted wax and oil when they begin to thicken, L.—[The U. S. Pharm. directs Lard, Ibij. instead of the olive oil.]—The Edinburgh College uses of prepared Calamine, one part; and Simple Cerate, five parts.—The Dublin College employs of prepared Calamine, lbj.; and Ointment of Yellow Wax, lb v. M.) It is an excellent desiccant and astringent application (when prepared with good calamine) to burns, scalds, excoriations, superficial ulcerations, &c. NON-OPFICIlVAIi PREPARATION OP ZINC. ZINCI CYANIDUMj Hydrocyanate, Cyanide, or Cyanuret of Zinc. This salt was introduced by the German physicians, as a substitute for hydrocyanic acid. It is prepared by adding recently.made oxide of zinc to hydrocyanic acid; or by adding a solution of sulphate of zinc to a solution of cyanide of potassium. It is a white powder, insoluble in water or alcohol. If a strong mineral acid be added to it, hydrocyanic acid is developed, and a soluble salt of zinc obtained. The latter is recognised by the tests before mentioned for a solution of zinc (p. 670.) It consists of one equivalent or 32 parts of Zinc, and one equivalent or 26 par,ts of Cyanogen. • Its effects have not been carefully ascertained, but they are supposed to be similar to those of hydrocyanic acid. It has been used principally in affections ofthe nervous system, as epi- lepsy, hysteria, and chorea. It has also been employed in cardialgia and cramps of the sto. mach, and as an anthelmintic in children. The dose is a quarter of a grain to a grain and a half three times a day. It may be taken in the form of powder mixed with calcined mag- nesia. IRON. 681 Order XXVII.—IRON AND ITS COMPOUNDS. 1. FER'RUM, L. E. D. [U. S.]—IRON. (Ramenta. L.—Filum ; Limatura, E.—Fila ; Scobs, Oxydi Squammie, D.) [Ferri Filum; Iron Wire, Ferri Ramenta, Iron Filings, U. S.J History.—This metal (called by the alchymists Mars) was known in the most ancient times. It was employed medicinally at a very early period, namely, above 3200 years ago. Indeed, it appears to have been the first mineral used internally; and a curious anecdote is given of its introduction into medicine. Melampus (a shepherd supposed to possess supernatural powers) being applied to by Iphicles, son of Philacus, for a remedy against impotence, slaughtered two bulls, the intestines of which he cut to pieces, in order to attract birds to an argury. Among the animals which came to the feast was a vulture, from whom Melam- pus pretended to learn that his patient, when a boy, had stuck a knife, wet with the blood of some rams, into a consecrated chestnut-tree, and the bark had subse- quently enveloped it. The vulture also indicated the remedy, namely, to procure the knife, scrape off the rust, and drink it in wine, for the space of ten days, by which time Iphicles would be lusty, and capable of begetting children. The advice thus given by Melampus is said to have been followed by the young prince with the most perfect success! (Le Clerc, Hist, de la Medecine.) Natural History.—Iron is met with in both kingdoms of nature. a. In the Inorganized Kingdom.—Few minerals are free from iron, ft is found in Ihe metallic state (native iron,) in combination with oxygen (haematite, micaceous iron, brown iron stone, and magnetic iron ore,) with sulphur (iron pyrites, and magnetic pyrites,) with chlorine (pyrosmalite,) arid with oxygen and an acid (ca'ihonate, phosphate, sulphate, arsenide, tung. state, tantalate, titaniate, chromate, oxalate, and silicate.) 0. In the Organized Kingdom.—It occurs in the ashes of most plants, andMn the blood and some other parts of animals. Extraction.-—In Sweden, iron' is extracted from magnetic iron ore and mica- ceous iron: in England, principally from clay iron ore (carbonate of iron.) Clay iron ore (technically called Mine) is burned with coal in large heaps, by which it loses carbonic acid, water, and sulphur. It is then smelted with a flux (in South Wales this is limestone; in the forest of Dean, clay;) and coke. The smelted iron is run into moulds, and is then called Cast Iron (Ferrum fusum) or Pig Iron. This contains carbon, oxygen, silicon, and often sulphur and phos- phorus. To separate these, it is submitted to several processes (called refining, puddling, and welding,) by which it is converted into Wrought Iron (Ferrum cusum.)1 Properties.—The primary form of the crystals of native iron is the regular octohedron: Pure iron has a whitish gray colour, or, according to Berzelius, is almost silver white. When polished it has much brilliancy: its taste is peculiar and styptic; when rubbed it becomes odorous. Its ductility and tenacity are great;' its malleability comparatively small. Its sp. gr. is 7*788, but diminishes by rolling or drawing. It is attracted by the magnet, and several of its com- pounds are capable of becoming permanent magnets; but pure iron retains its magnetic property for a short time only. It requires a very intense heat to fuse it; and it is not volatile at any known temperature; while in the softened state, pre- vious to melting, it is capable of being welded. Its equivalent or atomic weight is 28. Characteristics.—Iron readily dissolves in diluted sulphuric acid, with the ' Manufacture of Iron, in the Library of Useful Kncalea'gc; also, Treatise on Iron and Steel, in Lardner's Cyclopaedia. Vol. I.—8G 682 elements of materia medica. evolution of hydrogen gas. The solution contains the protosulphate of iron, and produces, on the addition of caustic potash or soda, a greenish-white precipitate (the hydrated protoxide:) this precipitate, by exposure to the air, attracts oxy- gen, and is converted into the red or sesquioxide. Auro-chloride of sodium forms a purple precipitate with the protosalts of iron. By boiling the solution of the protosulphate with a little nitric acid, we obtain a persulphate of iron, recog- nised by ferrocyanide of potassium, causing a blue precipitate; sulphocyanic or meconic acid, a red colour; gallic or tannic acid, or infusion of galls, a purple or bluish black; and succinate, or benzoate of ammonia, a yellowish preci- pitate. Physiological Effects, a. Of the Metallic iron.—Iron is probably inert so long as it retains its metallic form, but it readily oxidizes in the alimentary canal, and thereby acquires medicinal power. As acids promote this chemical change, acid wines and fruits assist in rendering the metal active, while alkalis and their carbonates have an opposite effect. The oxidizement of. the iron is attended with the evolution of hydrogen gas, which gives rise to unpleasant eructations. If sulphur be taken along with iron, hydrosulphuric acid is developed. Like the ferruginous preparations generally, the internal employment of iron causes black- ening ofthe stools. The nature ofthe effects produced by oxide of iron formed in the alimentary canal will be best examined hereafter, under the head of ferru- ginous preparations. I may, however, remark here, that it is one of the few me- tals which by oxidizement is not rendered more or less poisonous. /3. Of the Ferruginous Compounds. « ct. On Vegetables.—Most of the com- pounds of iron do not appear to be hurtful to plants: at least this is the case with the oxides. (De Candolle, Phys. Veg. 1837.) The sulphate, however, is in- jurious. jS /3. On Animals.—The effects of the ferruginous compounds on animals gene- rally are similar to those on man. It is stated that in animals to whom iron has been given for a considerable time, the spleen has been found smaller, harder, and denser—an effect which is supposed to be owing to the increased contractile power experienced by the veins of the abdomen. The liver is also said to have been affected in a similar manner, though in a somewhat slighter degree. y y. On Man.—The local effects of the sulphate and chloride of iron are those of irritants, and these preparations accordingly rank among poisons: but they are not equal in power to the mercurial or cupreous salts. Most of the ferruginous preparations are astringent; that is, they constringe the parts with which they are in contact, and thereby diminish secretions ami check sanguineous discharges. Thus, when swallowed, they repress the secretions and exhalation ofthe gastro- intestinal membrane, and thereby render the alvine evacuations-more solid, and even occasion costiveness. The sulphate and chloride of iron are the most powerful of the ferruginous astringents. Administered in large quantities, or when the alimentary canal is in an irritable condition, all the compounds of iron are capable of exciting heat, weight, and uneasiness at the praecordia, nausea,. and even vomiting, and sometimes purging. The constitutional or remote effects1 of the chalybeates are principally observed in the alteration induced in the actions of the vascular and muscular systems, and are best seen in that state of the system denominated anaemia, or more properly hypaemia, (See p. 44.) in which both the quantity and quality of the blood appear defective. We have a good illustration of this state in chlorotic patients. The skin appears pale and almost exsanguineous, the cellular tissue is cedematous, and, after death, the larger vessels as well as the capillaries are found to be imperfectly supplied with blood. Patients with this con- dition of system are affected with great feebleness, loss of appetite, and palpitation; and in i The best account ofthe physiological effects of iron is that published by Menghini (De Ferrearum parti- cularumprogressuad sanguinem) in the Comment. Acad. Bonon. t. ii. pt» iik p. 475. A notice of these i» given by Bayle in the Bibliotheque de Therapeutique, t. iv. Paris, 1837. iron. 683 females the catamenial secretion is frequently, but not invariably, defective. That the want or uterine action is not the cause, but in some cases is, perhaps, the effect of this condition of system, seems tolerably clear from Ihe circumstance ofthe same constitutional symptoms of an»mia sometimes occurring with a perfect regularity of the uterine functions ; moreover, we occasionally meet with anaemia in men. It is sometimes the consequence of hemorrhages— at other times it occurs spontaneously, and without any known cause. (Andral, Pathol. Anat. by Townsend and West, i. 97.) If in this condition of system we administer iron, the appetite increases, di- gestion is promoted, the pulse becomes fuller and stronger, the skin assumes its natural tint, the lips and cheeks become more florid, the temperature of the body is increased, the oedema disappears, and the muscular strength is greatly aug- mented. The alvine evacuations assume a black colour, as they always do under the use of the ferruginous preparations. After continuing the use of iron for a few weeks,-we frequently find excitement of the vascular system (particularly of the brain;) thus we have throbbing of the cerebral vessels, and sometimes pain in the head, a febrile condition of system, with a tendency to hemorrhage. Mr. Carmichael (Essay on the Effects of Carbonate of Iron on Cancer, Dubl. 1806, p. 396.) considers the sanguine temperament (marked by a high complexion, celerity of thought, remarkable irritability of fibre, and a quick pulse) as depend- ing on an excess of iron in the system; whereas the leucophlegmalic, or relaxed, temperament (characterized by a pale bloated countenance, dull eyes, mind heavy and slow in receiving and forming ideas, little irritability of fibre, and pulse small and feeble) as depending on a deficiency of iron. When by the use of iron the state of the general system improves, the secre- tions resume their natural condition; and thus at one time we observe this metal promoting the uterine discharge, at another checking it, according as chlorosis or menorrhagia had been previously present; we cannot, therefore, regard the pre- parations of this metal as having any direct emmenagogue effect, as some have supposed. Some refer all the other symptoms of anaemia to the abnormal state of the blood, and ascribe the beneficial influence of iron to the improvement in the qua- lity of this liquid. It is certain that, under the use of the preparations of this metal, the blood frequently acquires a more scarlet colour, owing probably to an increase in the number of its colouring particles; and the crassamentum becomes firmer and more solid, and even increased in quantity. This alteration of the physical and chemical properties of the blood must render it more stimulating, and thus the different organs, receiving a fluid of a more healthy character, re- sume their normal condition, and perform their functions in a proper manner. Tiedemann and Gmelin1 have detected it in the serum of the blood of the portal and mesenteric veins of horses and dogs, to whom they administered either the sulphate or chloride. Occasionally, too, iron has been found in the urine. Moreover, Menghini2 asserts, that the quantity of iron in the blood of dogs may be increased by feeding them on substances mixed with this metal. Farthermore, it is not to be forgotten, that iron exists in no inconsiderable quantity in healthy blood, and is supposed to contribute to its colour, and probably to its stimulant properties; so that it is not unlikely any variation in the quantity of this metal would be attended with an alteration in the action of every organ. Iron is a substance not readily absorbed, for it remains in the stomach and intestines many days after it is swallowed: in order, therefore, that the ferru- ginous preparations should have much effect on the general system, it is neces- sary that they be employed for some considerable time. It does not, like most other metals, act as a poison when it gets into the blood. Another circumstance connected with the operation of iron is likewise de- serving of notice; namely, that it has no primary or specific effect on the nervous i Vers. ii. d. Wege auf welch. Subst. aus d. Magen u. Darmk. » De Ftrrearum particul. progressu ad sanguinem. In Com. Acad. Bonon. t. ii. pl. iii. p. 475. 681 elements of materia MEOICA. system, as arsenic, mercury, copper, zinc, bismuth, silver, and many other metals. It must not, however, be imagined from these remarks, that the prepa- rations of iron never operate injuriously. On the contrary, we see them some- times acting as local irritants oh the alimentary canal, as already noticed; and by the use of them in too large quantities, or for too long a period of time, they bring on a hypersthenic or phlogistic diathesis. Uses. u. Of Metallic iron.—Iron filings have been used in those cases where the chalybeate preparations generally have been administered, and which will be hereafter noticed. In some instances, however, the efficacy of iron depends on its being employed in the uncombined state. Thus, when used as an antidote to poisoning by the salts of copper, it is necessary thai the iron be administered in the metallic state, in order to reduce the cupr'eous salts. Iron filings have been regarded as anthelmintic, especially in the small thread-worm (the Ascaris I er- micularis;) they have been used also as an astringent application, to repress fetid secretion of the feet. /3. Of the Ferruginous Compounds.—By a careful attention to the known phy- siological effects of the ferruginous compounds, the indications and contra-indi- cations for their employment may be in great part learned. Thus, the impro- priety of administering them where there is irritation or inflammation of the alimentary canal, in plethoric habits, and in persons disposed to inflammatory diseases, or to apoplexy, will be obvious from the foregoing remarks. On the other hand, in all cases characterized by feebleness and inertia of the different organs of the body, by a soft lax condition of the solids, and by a leucophleg- matic state of the system—where the patient appears to be suffering from a state of general anaemia, already described—the preparations of iron are indicated. It is hardly within the scope of my present object to instance particular diseases where this metal may be used, but rather to point out those conditions of system which affect the employment of iron in diseases generally. I may notice a few cases by way of illustration. As external or local agents we rarely employ the preparations of iron, since we have other more efficacious and powerful remedies. Occasionally, however, they have been used as astringents, styptics, arid caustics. Thus solutions of the sul- phate and chloride have been used in the form of injection, in discharges from the urethra and vagina; and the tincture of the chloride is now and then applied as a styptic, or to repress the growth of spongy granulations. The ferruginous preparations are usually resorted to with the view of affecting the general system. They are frequently given to promote the uterine functions, as in chlorosis, amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhcca, and menorrhagia, and often with success. When chlorosis depends on, or at least is accompanied by, that condi- tion of the system before described under the name of anaemia, the ferruginous preparations are frequently useful; but if it occur in patients of a full habit, or if it arise from inflammation of some organ (as the lungs, stomach, or bowels,) chaly- beates will do harm. In eases of impotence, connected with or arising from gene- ral feebleness, it may be now and then useful; but in nine out of ten cases which we are called on to treat, this condition arises from indulgence in bad habits, which no medicine can affect. Sometimes iron is resorted to in sterility (though Dioscorides says the rust of iron hinders women from conceiving,) but the condi- tions under which it is likely to be useful are precisely those before mentioned for other diseases. In discharges from the genital organs, as gleet and leucorrhoea, the internal employment of the tincture of the chloride of iron, sometimes con- joined with the tincture of cantharides, has been found useful. In some periodical diseases—namely, ague, asthma, and tic doloureux—the fer- ruginous preparations have gained considerable repute. In the first of these dis- eases (that is, ague,) the sulphate has been used by Marc1 and others, the subcar- ' Recherches sur VEmploi du Sulf. de Fer dans le Traitement des Fievres Interm. Paris, 1810. IRON. 685 bonate by Buchwald, the ammoniacal chloride by Hartmann; but it has been almost wholly superseded, of late years, by the sulphate of quinine and by arsenic. In asthma, Dr. Bree,1 who was himself a sufferer from the disease, regards iron as preferable to all other remedies. However, the experience of others has not con- firmed his favourable opinion of it. The sesquioxide of iron has latterally been extensively employed, at the recommendation of Mr. B. Hutchinson, (Cases of Tic Doloureux successfully treated. 1820.) in tic douloureux, and with yariable success; in some cases acting in a most extraordinarily beneficial manner, in others being of no avail. In diseases of the spleen and liver, the ferruginous compounds are occasionally found useful. I have already alluded to the influence which they are supposed to possess over these organs; a supposition the more probable from the occasional remarkable effects produced by them in diseases of these organs. " I regard iron as a specific" says Cruveilhier, (Diet, de Med. et de Chir. Prat. t. viii. p. 62.) " in hypertrophy of the spleen, or chronic splenitis; whether primitive or conse- cutive to intermittent fevers." After noticing the symptoms attending this condition (such as paleness of the lips, &c, great lassitude, abdominal and cephalic pulsa- tions, brought on by the slightest exertion, pain at the left side, disordered state ofthe digestive organs, accelerated pulse, and heart easily excited,) he goes on to remark, " By the aid of iron I have obtained the complete resolution of enlarge- ments ofthe spleen, which have occupied half, or even two-thirds, ofthe abdomen." In hypertrophy ofthe liver, iron has not been equally serviceable. Some years ago the preparations of iron were strongly recommended in cancer by Mr. Carmichael. (Op. svpra cit.) The grounds on which he was led to the use of them were the probability that cancer had an independent life—in other words, that it was a kind of parasite, as some preceding writers, more particularly Dr. Adams, had presumed; and secondly, the efficacy of iron in destroying intes- tinal worms, which led him to hope that it would be equally destructive to other parasites. With these views he employed (externally and internally) various ferruginous compounds—namely, the ferrotartrate of potash, the subcarbonate (sesquioxide) of iron, and the phosphates. Whatever hopes may have at one time been entertained of these remedies as curative agents, in this most intractable dis- ease, they are now completely destroyed. That these medicines are occasionally useful as palliatives may perhaps be admitted; but they have no curative powers. Indeed this might have been suspected, from the hypothetical grounds on which they were introduced into use. The proofs of the parasitical nature of cancer must be much stronger than any yet offered, ere we can admit this hypothesis, Moreover, the preparations of iron, though useful, are not so " very effectual" in worms as Mr. Carmichael's remarks would lead us to imagine. In certain affections ofthe digestive organs, the preparations of iron are occa- sionally used with benefit; as in some forms of dyspepsia, but only in the condi- tions of system already noticed. In some affections of the nervous system which occur in weak debilitated sub- jects, it is also useful; for example, in epilepsy, chorea, hysteria, and the shaking palsy produced by the vapour of mercury. These are the most important diseases for which we employ the ferruginous compounds. There are many other diseases for which chalybeates are occasion- ally beneficial; but the general principles regulating their use will be readily com- prehended from the foregoing remarks, and I have only to add, that in all diseases attended by debility and marked by atony and inertia of organs, more especially in those indicating a disordered state of the haematose functions, the preparations of iron will be found in most instances more or less serviceable. Furthermore, I may enumerate scrofula, rickets, dropsy, and gout, as diseases in which iron has been at times used with advantage. 1 A Practical Inquiry on Disordered Itesinration, distinguishing Convulsice Asthma, fts Specific Causes, &c. Birmingham, 1797. 686 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Administration.—Iron in substance is administered in the form of filings. These are procured from the workshop of the smith, and are usually impure, being mixed with the filings of other metals, &c. The magnet is generally employed to sepa- rate the ferruginous from other particles, but it does this imperfectly, as various impurities cling to the iron particles. The only way to procure them pure is by filing a piece of pure iron with a clean file. The dose of iron filings is from ten to thirty grains, given in the form of an electuary made with treacle, honey, or some other thick substance. 2. FER RI OX'YDUM, NIGRUM, D.—BLACK OXIDE OF IRON. (Ferri Oxidum Nigrum, E.) History.—It was first employed as a medicine by Lemery in 1735. It is the Martial Ethiops (AHlhiops Martialis) of some writers, and the Oxydum ferroso- ferricum of Berzelius. It is sometimes termed the Magnetic Oxide. Natural History.—It occurs in the mineral kingdom under the name of Magnetic Iron Ore, the massive form of which is called Native Loadstone. It is found in Cornwall, Dovenshire, Sweden, &c. Preparation.—Directions for its preparation are given by both the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges. The Edinburgh College orders of Sulphate of Iron, §vj.; Sulphuric Acid (commercial) f^ij. and f'Qij.; Pure Nitric Acid, f ^iv.; Stronger Aqua Am monies, f Jivss.; Boiling Water, Oiij. Dissolve half the sulphate in half the boiling water, and add the sulphuric acid; boil; add the nitric acid by degrees, boiling the liquid after each addition briskly for a few minutes. Dissolve the rest ofthe sulphate in the rest of the boiling water; mix thoroughly the two solutions; and immediately add the ammonia in a full stream, stirring the mixture at the same time briskly. Collect the black powder on a calico-filter; wash it with water till the water is scarcely precipitated by solution of nitrate of baryta; and dry it at a temperature not exceeding 180°. The object of the first part of this process is to convert the sulphate of the pro- toxide of iron into the sulphate of the sesquioxide. This is effected by adding ni- tric acid to the boiling solution. The acid gives oxygen to the protoxide, while binoxide of nitrogen gas escapes. The additional quantity of sulphuric acid is re- quired to enable the salt to preserve its neutrality, and prevent the deposition of a basic sulphate of the sesquioxide. If, however, the sulphate of iron directed to be used be a pure protosulphate, the additional quantity of sulphuric acid ordered by the Edinburgh College is not sufficient for the purpose. On the addition of ammonia to the mixed solution of the protosulphate and sesquisulphate of iron, a compound ofthe hydrated protoxide and sesquioxide of iron is precipitated. This is*to be washed with water until all traces of sulphuric acid are got rid of. When dried at 180° it constitutes the Ferri-Oxidum nigrum of the Edinburgh Pharma- copoeia, The Dublin College orders it to be prepared as follows:—Let the scales of Oxide of Iron [Ferri Oxydi Squama;,] which are to be found at the smiths' anvil~, be washed wilh water; and when dried, let them be detached from impurities by application of a magnet. Then let them be reduced to powder, of which let the most subtile parts be detached, according to the mode directed for the preparation of chalk. Scales of iron are composed of a mixture or combination of protoxide and ses- quioxide; but they are not uniform in constitution. The process of the Dublin Pharmacopoeia has the advantage of cheapness. There are several other methods of procuring this compound. In the Paris Co- dex it is directed to be prepared by covering iron with water and exposing the mixture to the air: then, by elutriation, separating the black powder. Properties.—The crystalline form of the magnetic iron ore is the regular octo. SESHUIOXfOE OF IRON. 687 hedron. The black oxide of iron of the Pharmacopoeia is a grayish-black pow- der, with a velvety appearance, and is strongly magnetic. It dissolves in hydro- chloric acid without effervescence. Prepared according to the Edinburgh Phar- macopoeia its properties are as follows :— "Dark grayish-black: strongly attracted by the magnet: heat expels water from it; muriatic acid dissolves it entirely; and ammonia precipitates a black powder from this solution." Ph. Ed. Composition.—The following is the composition of this oxide:— Atoms. Eq- Wt. Per Cent. .. 72-414 . Gay-Lassac. Or Atoms. Eq. Wt Protoxide...... 1___ 36 Sesquioxide.... 2___ 80 .. 100 000 . 1 .... 116 It has been above stated that the constitution of scales of oxide of iron is va- riable. The following is their composition according to Mosander:— Outer Layer. Atoms. Eq- Wt. Protoxide of Iron..........2...... 72 Sesquioxide of Iron........ 1...... 40 Scales of Iron. 112 Inn Horns. er Layer. —*----, Eq. Wt ...... 103 ...... 40 1 .... ..... 148 Purity.__Black oxide of iron should be readily soluble in hydrochloric acid without effervescence ; by which the absence of metallic iron is shown. Physiological Effects and Uses.—These are similar to those of the chalybeates in general, and which have been already described. It does not produce local ir- ritation. It is a more valuable preparation than the sesquioxide, in consequence of being more readily soluble in the fluids of the stomach. Administration.—Dose from grs. v. to Bj. or more, twice or thrice daily. 3. FER'RI SESQUIOX'YDUM, L.—SESQUIOXIDE OF IRON. (Ferri Oxidum rubrum E.—Ferri Oxydum rubrum; Ferri Rubigo; and Ferri Carbonas, D.) [Ferri Sub-Carbonas, Precipitated Carbonate of Iron, U. S.J History.—Geber (Invention of Verily, p. 280.) was acquainted with this sub- stance, which he calls Crocus Martis. It was probably known long before his time ' It is the Red or Peroxide of Iron of some chemists. Natural History.—It is found native in the crystallized state (Specular Iron or Iron Glance) and in globular and stalactitic masses (Red Haematite:) the finest specimens ofthe first occur in the Isle of Elba; the second is found near Ulverstone, in Lancashire, and in Saxony. The hydrated sesquioxide of iron (Brown Iron Stone) is met with in Scotland, and at Shotover Hill, Oxfordshire. Preparation.—There are several modes of preparing this compound:— 1. By precipitation from Sulphate of Iron. The London College orders of Sulphate of iron, lbiv.; Carbonate of Soda, lbiv. andgij.; Water boiling Cong vi. Dissolve the Sulphate of Iron and Carbonate of Soda, separately, in three gallons of Water; then mix the liquors together, and set them by that the pow- der may subside. Lastly, the supernatant liquor being poured off, wash what is precipi- ^e^/K'rwI^employ- of Sulphate of Iron, giv.; Carbonate of Soda, gv.; Bo I ngWater, Oss.; Cold Water, O.ijss. Dissolve the sulphate in the boiling: water, add the cold water, and then the carbonate of soda, previously dissolved in abou thr.ee its weight of water. Collect the precipitate on a calico filter; wash it with water till the Ii8d ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MKDICA. water is but little affected with solution of nitrate of baryta, and dry it in the hot-air press, over the vapour bath. The Dublin College orders it [Ferri Carbonas, D ] to be prepared with twenty-five parts of sulphate of iron, twenty six parts of carbonate of soda, and eight hundred parts of water. [The U. S. P. directs Sulphate of Iron 3 viij.; Carbonate of Soda gix. Boiling water a gallon. The mode of proceeding is essentially that of the London College.] In this process one equaivalent or 76 parts of sulphate of iron are decomposed by one equivalent or 54 parts of carbonate of soda : and the products of their mu- tual reaction are one equivalent or 58 parts of carbonate of the protoxide of iron which are precipitated, and one equivalent or 72 parts of sulphate of soda which remain in solution. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. PRODUCTS. , « n- 1. - o„j„ ka 5 1 j.; Distilled Water, Oivss. Mix the Iodine with four pints of the wuter, and to these add the Iron. Heat them in a sand-bath, and when it has acquired a greenish colour, pour off the liquor. Wash what re- mains with the half-piirt of water, boiling. Let the mixed and strained liquors evaporate at a heat not exceeding 212° in an iron vessel, that the salt may be dried. Keep it in a well- stoppered vessel, access of light being prevented. [The U. S. Pharm. directs Iodine, ^ij.; Iron filings, Ji.; Water, Oiss. The same steps are to be taken.] The Edinburgh College orders any convenient quantity of Iodine, Iron-wire, and Distilled Water in the proportions for making solution of Iodide of Iron [see Ferri Iodidi Syrupus.] Proceed as directed for that process; but before filtering the solution concentrate it to one-sixth of its volume, without removing the excess of iron-wire. Put the filtered liquor quickly in an evaporating basin, along with twelve times its weight of quicklime around the basin, in some convenient apparatus in which it may be shut accurately in a small space not communicating with the general atmosphere. Heat the whole apparatus in a hot air-press, or otherwise, until the water be entirely evaporated ; and preserve the dry iodide in small well-closed bottles. Fine soft iron-wire employed by the Edinburgh College is to be preferred to the iron filings used by the London College. It should be recently cleaned to free it from all rust. In this process one equivalent or 126 parts of iodine combine with one equiva- lent or 28 parts of iron, and thereby form one equivalent or 154 parts of protoiodide of iron. The Edinburgh College directs a considerable excess of iron to be used. The object of this is to prevent the deposition of sesquioxide of iron (formed by the union of part of the iron of the iodide with the oxygen of the air) during the eva- poration of the solution of the iodide. For the same reason also, the general at- mosphere is directed to be excluded during the evaporation, which is ordered to be carried on over quicklime, in order that the latter may absorb the aqueous vapour. Properties.—By evaporation with as little contact of air as possible, solution of iodide of iron yields green tabular crystals. (Mr. R. Phillips, Translation of the Pharmacopoeia.) If the solution be evaporated to dryness and the residue be moderately heated, this salt is fused, and on cooling becomes an opaque, iron-gray crystalline mass, with a metallic lustre. Iodide of iron has a styptic taste. It is fusible, volatile, very deliquescent, and very soluble in both water and alcohol. It readily attracts oxygen from the air, and is thereby converted into a mixture of sesquioxide and sesquiodide of iron. "A solution of protoiodide of iron dissolves iodine abundantly, becoming brown, and possibly containing the sesquiodide Fe3 I3, but it is more likely that the iodine is not combined, as it is sensible to the test of starch." (Kane, Elements of Chemistry, p. 732.) Characteristics.—When heated in the air it evolves violet vapours of iodine, while the iron attracts oxygen from the air and is converted into sesquioxide. If this be dissolved in an acid (hydrochloric, nitric, or sulphuric,) the liquid reacts as a solution of a persalt of iron (see p. 681.) Alkalis throw down from it the reddish brown sesquioxide of iron. Solution of protoiodide of iron, like that of other protosalts of iron, is green. i Oiservat. on the Preparation and Medicinal Employment of the loduret and Hydriodate of Iron, 1834. 696 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Composition.—The composition of crystallized iodide of iron is, according to Mr. R. Phillips, as follows:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Iron........................ 1 ___........ 28 ............ 14 Iodine...................... 1............ l~'l> ............ 633 Water..........:............ 5 ............ 45 ............ 22 7 Hydrated Iodide of hori..... 1 ............ 199 ............ 1000 Purity.—It should' be perfectly soluble in water. By exposure to the air it forms sesquioxide and sesquiodide of iron: (Cogswell, Essay on Iodine andfits Compounds, p. 128, et seq.) the latter is soluble, the former is insoluble, in water. To preserve a solution of this salts, a coil Of soft iron wire is to be kept immersed in it: this prevents the formation of sesquioxide of iron. Emits violet vapours by heat, and sesquioxide of iron remains. When fresh prepared it is totally soluble in water. From this solution, when kept in a badly-stoppered vessel, sesqui- oxide of iron is very soon precipitated; but with iron wire immersed in it, it may be kept clear in a well-stoppered" vessel. Ph. Lond. Entirely soluble in water, or nearly so; forming a greenish solution. PA. Ed. Physiological Effects, ce. On Animals.'—Three drachms of iodide of iron were administered to a dog: vomiting and purging were produced, but in three days the animal was well. One drachm dissolved in a drachm of water killed a rabbit in three hours and a-half, with the appearance of gradually-increasing debility: the stomach was found congested, and its lining membrane decomposed. Forty grains injected into the jugular vein of a dog killed the animal within twelve hours: the symptoms were dilatation of the pupils, staggering, vomiting, and bloody stools.1 j3. On Man.*—In small and repeated doses its effects are not very obvious, save that of blackening the stools. It sometimes sharpens the appetite and promotes digestion. It passes out of the system in the urine, and both of its constituents may be detected in this fluid.- When it does not purge, it frequently acts as a diuretic. In full doses, as ten grains, it on one occasion caused uneasy sensa- tion at the epigastrium, nausea, slight heachach, copious black stool, and, in two hours, a larger quantity of urine, containing both iron and iodine. (Dr. A. T. Thomson, op. cit.) Its medicinal influence on the body seems to be stimulant, tonic, and alterative or'deobstruent. It possesses the combined properties of iron and iodine. Uses.—Iodide of iron is indicated as a tonic and resolvent in cases of debility accompanied with a soft and relaxed condition of the solids, and paleness of the skin. It is especially applicable in scrofulous and strumous affections of the glandular system, in which the use both of iodine and iron is indicated. In tabes mesenterica, and swellings of the cervical lymphatic glands, it often proves highly advantageous. In chlorosis, and in atonic amenorrhoea, Dr. Thom- son found it serviceable; and his testimony of its good effects has been supported by that of others. Its operation must be promoted by exercise and an invigorating diet. In a case of anaemia, without any disturbance Of the uterine function, I found it useless; while the compound iron mixture was of essential service. In secondary syphilis, occurring in debilitated and scrofulous subjects, it is in some cases, according to the testimony of both Dr. Thomson and Ricord, (Journ. de Pharm. xxiii. 303.) a valuable remedy. The last-mentioned writer employed it in the form of injection (composed of from half a drachm to a drachm of iodide dissolved in eight ounces of water) in blenorrhoeas, and in that of lotion in vene- real and carious ulcers. Dr. Pierquin (Quoted by Dierbach, Neuesle Enid, in d. i Sesqui-iodide of iron is said to produce the same effects, but to be more active than the iodide (Lond Med. Gat. June 18, 1841 ) sulphuret of iron. 697 Mat. Med. 2te Ausg.) employed it internally and externally in leucorrhoea and amenorrhoea. It has also been used in incipient cancer and in atonic dyspepsia (Thomson.) Administration.—The dose of it is three grains gradually increased to eight or ten or more. Ricord has given forty grains per day. It may be exhibited in the form of tincture or of aqueous solution, flavoured with a little tincture of orange- peel. It must be remembered that acids, alkalis, and their carbonates, most me- tallic salts, all vegetable astringents, and many organic solutions, decompose it. Pierquin gave it in chocolate, Bourdeaux wine, distilled water, diluted spirit, or made into lozenges with saffron and sugar. In leucorrhoea and amenorrhoea he employed an ointment (composed of a drachm of iodide to an ounce of lard,) by way of friction in the upper part of the thighs. FERRI IODIDI SYRUPUS, E.—Syrup of Iodide of Iron. (Iodine, dry, 200 grs.; Fine Iron-wire, recently cleaned, 100 grs.; White Sugar, in powder, givss.; Distilled Water, f3yj. Boil the iodine, iron, and water together in a glass matrass, at first gently to avoid the expulsion of iodine-vapour, afterwards briskly, until about two fluid ounces of liquid remain. Filter this quickly, while hot, into a matrass containing the sugar. Dissolve the sugar with a gentle heat; and add distilled water, if necessary, to make up six fluid ounces.—Twelve minims contain one grain of iodide of iron.) This preparation is a very convenient form for the exhibition of iodide of iron, as it is not so readily decomposed as an aqueous solution of this salt.1 In the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia it is described as being " colourless, or pale green; transparent; without sediment, even when exposed to the air." [An analogous preparation is the Liquor Ferri-Iodidi, U. S., prepared as fol- lows. Iodine, two ounces; Iron Filings, an ounce; Prepared Honey, five fluid ounces; Distilled Water, a sufficient quantity. Mix the Iodine with ten fluid ounces of the Distilled Water in a porcelain or glass vessel, and gradually add the Tron Filings, stirring constantly. Heat the mixture gently until the liquor acquires a light greenish colour; then having added the Honey, continue the heat a short time and filter. Lastly, pour Distilled Water upon the filter and allow it to pass until the whole of the filtered liquor measures twenty fluid ounces. To be kept in closely stopped bottles. The dose is 10 to 30 min. This formula is in accordance with the suggestion of Mr. Wm. Procter, jr.] 8. FER'RI SULPHURETUM, E. P.—SULPHURET OF IRON. Natural History.—In the mineral kingdom sulphur and iron are frequently met with in combination. Common Iron Pyrites, commonly termed Mundic, is a bisulphuret of iron. White Iron Pyrites, or Cockscomb Pyrites, differs from mundic in its specific gravity, the shape of its crystal, and its tendency to decom- pose on exposure to the air, and thereby to furnish sulphate of iron. Magnetic Iron Pi/riles contains a less proportion of sulphur. Preparation.—Directions for the preparation of sulphuret of iron are given in both the Edinburgh and Dublin Pharmacopoeias. The Edinburgh College states that " the best sulphuret of iron is made by heating an iron rod to a full white heat in a forge, and rubbing it with a roll of sulphur over a deep vessel filled with water, to receive the fused globules of sulphuret which form. An inferior sort, good enough, however, for pharmaceutic purposes, is obtained by heating one part of sub- limed sulphur and three of iron filings in a crucible in common fire till the mixture begins to glow, and then removing the crucible and covering it, until the uction, which at first increases considerably, shall come to an end." • For some observations on the chemical properties of Sirup of Iodide of Iron, see Wackenroder in the rhannaceutischee Centra I-BUM fur lf of potassium and iron (the bluish white precipitate formed when yellow prussiate of potash is added to a protosalt of iron) to the air. Oxygen is ab- sorbed, and two products are obtained—viz. Basic Prussian Blue and Yellow Prussiate of Potash. 2 eqs. of Ferrocyanide of Potassium and Iron (Fe™ Cy'» K»,) with 3 eqs. Oxygen (0»,) yield 1 eq. Yellow Prussiate of Potash (Fe Cy* K3,) 1 eq. Prussian Blue (Fe' Cy») and 2 eqs. Sesquioxide of Iron (Fe3 0».) Composition.—The following is the composition of pure and anhydrous Prus- sian blue:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Atoms. Eq. WL Per Cent. Iron...................... 7 --- 196 --- 45-5 > j Protocyanideoflron 3 ___ 162 ___ 378 Cyanogen ................ 9 .... 234 .... 54-5 jor \ Sesquicyanide of Iron 4 .... 268 .... 62-2 Ferrosesquicyanide of Iron.. 1 ___ 430 .... 100-0 1 .... 430 ___100-0 Prussian blue appears to contain also the elements of water, of which it can- not be deprived without the destruction of the compound. Purity.—Prussian blue of commerce usually contains alumina and sesquioxide of iron. These may be detected by boiling the suspected compound with diluted hydrochloric acid, which dissolves both the impurities. Caustic ammonia added to the filtered solution throws down the impurities; excess of the alkali will re- dissolve the alumina. It is pure if, after being boiled with dilute hydrochloric acid, ammonia throws down no- thing from the filtered solution. PA. Lond. Physiological Effects, et. On Animals.—Coullon gave it to dogs and spar- rows without killing them; and Schubarth states that the only effect produced on a dog by two drachms was dejection. (Wibmer, Wirk. d. Arzneim. ii. 356.) /3. On Man.—Its effects on man are not very obvious. It is reputed alterative, tonic, and febrifuge. Sachs (Handwort. d. prakt. Arzneim. ii. 557.) calls it a resolvent tonic. Uses.—It has been recommended by Dr. Zollickoffer1 as a more certain, prompt, and efficacious remedy for intermitting and remitting fevers than cin- chona; and particularly adapted for children, on account of its insipidity and smallness of dose. It may be administered during the paroxysm as well as in the intermission, and does not disagree with the most irritable stomach. Ho- sack,51 Eberle, (Mat. Med. i. 233.) and others, have borne testimony to its good » Treatise on the Us* of Prussian Blue in Intermitting and Remitting Fevers, Maryland, 1822, « Jfeu> York Medical and Physiological Journal, 1823, quoted by Richter, Ausf. Arzneim. TOO ELEMENTS OF MATERI \ MEDICA. effects. Subsequently, ZoUickoffer found it useful in dysentery. Kirkhoff (Froriep's Notizen, Bd. xvij. 340.) used it for many years in epilepsy, with the best results, having cured some cases of several years' standing. It has also been employed by Dr. Bridges, of Philadelphia, (United Slates Dispensatory.) in a case of severe and protracted facial neuralgia, with very considerable relief. Lastly, it has been used in the form of ointment, as an application to foul ulcers. In pharmacy it is employed in the manufacture of bicyanide of mercury. Administration.—The dose of commercial Prussian blue is from four to six or more grains every four hours. The ointment above referred to may be pre- pared with a drachm of Prussian blue and an ounce of lard. 10. POTASSII FERROCYAN'IDUM, L. E.—FERROCYANIDE OF POTASSIUM. [Potassii Ferrocyanuretum, U. S.] History.—This salt was accidentally discovered at the commencement of the last century. It has had a variety of appellations, such as Prussiate of Potash, Ferroprussiate of Potash, and Ferrocyanate of Potash. Preparation.—The usual method of obtaining it is the following:—"Into an egg-shaped iron pot, brought to moderate ignition, project a mixture of good (pearl-ash and dry animal matters, of which hoofs and horns are the best, in the proportion of two parts of the former to five of the latter. Stir them well with a flat iron paddle. The mixture, as it calcines, will gradually assume a pasty form, during which transition it must be tossed about with much manual labour and dexterity. When the conversion into a chemical compound is seen to be completed by the cessation of the foetid animal vapours, remove the pasty mass with an iron ladle. If this be thrown, while hot, into water, some of the Prussic acid will be converted into ammonia, and of course the usual product diminished. Allow it to cool, dissolve it in water, clarify the solution by filtration or subsi- dence, evaporate, and, on cooling, yellow crystals of the ferroprussiate of potash will form. Separate these, re-dissolve them in hot water, and by allowing the solution to cool very slowly, larger and very regular crystals may be had." (Ure's Dictionary of Chemistry.) " Mr. Charles Mackintosh, of Glasgow, who is one of the largest manufac- turers of this salt, informs me that the animal matters employed as the source of cyanogen are chiefly chips of horns, animal hoofs, woollen rags, and the sub- stance called greaves, which is the refuse of tallow-melters, and consists chiefly of cellular membrane from which the fat has been expressed: these are burned, and in fact, fused at a very high heat with potash, to form what is called prus- siate cake; this, when cold, is lixiviated with water, and the evaporated solution yields a first crop of very impure ferroprussiate; it is redissolved, and the second crystallization is allowed to go on very slowly, it being at least a fortnight be- fore the contents of the coolers are disturbed. The iron requisite to the consti- tution of this salt is derived from the iron pots and stirrers used in the operation, or, if requisite, iron filings are added" (Brande.) The following explanation ofthe theory of this process is from Liebig.1 When animal sub- stances containing carbon and nitrogen are fused with potash at a red heat, the potassium is reduced by the carbon, and forms by its reaction on the other ingredients cyanuret of potas- sium. The fused mass at a red heat contains no ferrocyanogen, but iron and carburet of iron in the form of a suspended powder. When it is lixiviated with cold water and immediately evaporated, it furnishes no ferrocyanuret; but when the solution is gently heated for several hours in the contact of air, oxygen is absorbed, it acquires a yellow colour, and now contains much ferrocyanuret of potassium. This explains why a solution of cyanuret of potassium in pure water and in the presence of finely divided metallic iron, absorbs the oxygen of the air in passing into the state of oxide of potassium and dissolving the metal; the potassium of the cyanuret, in yielding to the iron the cyanogen with which it was combined, and so forming ' See Phil. Mag. for June. 1841 ; also Proceedings ofthe Chemical Society, p. 2. FERROCYANIDE OF POTASSIUM. 7-01 cyanuret of iron, enables it to combine with the remaining undecomposed cyanuret of potas- sium to form ferrocyanuret of potassium. In close vessels the solution of iron by cyanuret of potassium evolves hydrogen. The fused mass also contains free potassa, which, by being boiled with the cyanuret of potassium, decomposes it into formiate of potassa and ammonia. When animal substances are fused in open vessels with potassa, cyanate of potassa is formed, which is decomposed by boiling into ammonia and bicarbonate of potassa: the quantity of ammonia formed being in proportion to the loss of cyanuret of potassium. The best way of converting the whole of the cyanuret into ferrocyanuret of potassium, is to treat one-third of a cold solution ofthe raw mass with protosulphate of iron, as long as a pre- cipitate falls, and then to add the remaining two-thirds ofthe solution, and heat the whole to the boiling point; the solution may then be evaporated without decomposition, and the sul- phate of potassa is easily separated by crystallization from the ferrocyanuret. The original solution ofthe fused mass generally contains sulphuret and sulphocyanuret of potassium, and formiate and carbonate of potassa, which remain in the mother liquor (Brande.) Mr. L. Thompson has observed that cyanuret of potassium is abundantly formed when an ignited mixture of coke or charcoal, carbonate of potassa, and iron-filings, is exposed to the action of the air. In that process he says the po- tassa is decomposed by the iron, and that the evolved potassium combines with the carbon, and also with the nitrogen of the atmosphere; and that the cyanuret of potassium results from this action. He proposes to apply the process to the manufacture of Prussian blue," (Brande.) (Trans. Soc. Arts, iii. 24.) Properties.—This salt crystallizes in large, beautiful, lemon-yellow, transpa- rent, permanent, inodorous, tabular crystals, whose form is the octohedron with a square base, usually more or less truncated. Fig. 99. Fig. 98. Truncated octohedron of ferrocyanide of potassium, Octohedron (primary form) of ferrocyanide of potassium. They have a peculiar toughness or flexibility somewhat analogous to selenite. Their sp. gr. is 1-832. They have a sweetish, yet somewhat bitter, saline taste. They are insoluble in alcohol, but dissolve readily in both hot and cold water. When moderately heated they evolve about 13 per cent, of water of crystalliza- tion, and are converted into a white friable powder (anhydrous ferrocyanide of potassium.) When heated to redness in contact with air, the cyanide of iron of the salt is decomposed, and the residuum consists of cyanide of potassium, oxide of iron, and carbon: by a more continued heat hydrocyanic acid and ammonia are evolved, while the residue consists of sesquioxide of iron and carbonate of potash. Characteristics.—A solution of this salt throws down, with the protosalts of iron, a white precipitate (ferrocyanide of potassium and iron, see p. 701,) which by exposure to the air becomes blue (Basic Prussian Blue, see p. 701.) With the persalts of iron it forms a deep blue (Prussian Blue;) with the salts of copper a deep brown (Ferrocyanide of Copper;) and with those of lead a white precipitate (Ferrocyanide of Lead.) Heated with dilute sulphuric acid, hydrocyanic acid is evolved, and a white precipitate formed, which, by exposure to the air, becomes blue. Hydrosulphuric acid, the sulphurets, alkalis, or tincture of galls, give no 702 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. precipitate with a solution of this salt; showing that the iron which it contains is in some remarkable-state of combination. If a solution of the ferrocyanide of potas- sium be boiled with binoxide of mercury, bic)'anide of mercury is formed in solu- tion, and a mixture of sesquioxide and cyanide of iron is precipitated. The pre- sence of potassium is best shown by calcining the salt, and detecting potash by the usual tests in the residuum. If chlorine be passed through a solution of ferro- cyanide of potassium, it abstracts one equivalent of potassium from every two equivalents ofthe ferrocyanide, by which one equivalent ofthe ferrosesquicyanide of potassium (Red Prussiate of Potash) is formed in solution, and by evaporation this salt may be obtained in the form of red crystals, which throw down a blue precipitate (TurnbuW s Blue, see p. 699) with the protosalts of iron, but occasion no change with the persalts of iron. Composition.—Crystallized ferrocyanide of potassium has the following compo- sition:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Or, Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Cynanogen.............. 3 --- 78 ___ 36620 Cyanide of iron........ 1...... 54......2535 Iron..................... 1 --- 28 ___ 13145 Cyanide of Potassium.. 2......132...... 61-97 Potassium............... 2 .... 80 ___ 37-5G0 Water...............3...... 27......1267 Water.................. 3 ___ 27 ___ 12675 Crystd. Ferrocyanide j Potassium........) 1 ---213 ___100 000 ...................... 1 ......213......99-99 Totally dissolved by water. A gentle heat evaporates 12-6 parts from 100 parts. It slightly [if at all] alters the colours of turmeric. What it throws down from the preparation of ses- quioxide of iron is blue, and that from the preparations of zinc is white. When burnt, the residue dissolved by hydrochloric acid is again thrown down by ammonia; 18-7 parts of ses- quioxide of iron are yielded by 100 parts. Ph. Lond. Physiological Effects. «. On Animals.—Schubarth (Wibmer, Wirk. d. Arz- neim^) gave two drachms to one dog, and half an ounce to another, without ob- serving any injurious consequences. Callies (Wibmer, op. cit.; also Christison's Treat, on Poisons.) found the commercial ferrocyanide of potassium slightly poisonous, but when prepared with care he remarked that several ounces might be given with impunity. These and other experiments show that this salt pos- sesses very little activity. The rapidity with which it is absorbed and gets into the secretions, as the urine, is most remarkable. Westrumb (Midler's Pbysiology, by Baly, i. 247.) recognised it in the urine, in from two to ten minutes after it was taken into the stomach. Hering (Lond. Med. Gaz. iv. 250.) has shown the amazing rapidity with which it traverses the body when it once gets into the blood. Thus, when it was placed in one jugular vein of a horse, he recognised it in the opposite one in from twenty to thirty seconds. /3. On Man.—It has no great influence on man. D'Arcet swallowed half a pound of a solution of this salt, prepared as a test, without any ill effects. (Merat and De Lens, Diet. Mat. Med. ii. 532.) " Similar results," observes Dr. Christi- son, (Treatise, p. 699.) "were obtained previously with smaller doses by Wollas- ton, Marcet, Emmert, as well as afterwards by Dr. Macneven and Schubarth, who found that a drachm or even two drachms might be taken with impunity by man and the lower animals." Dr. Smart, (Amer. Journ. of Med. Sciences, xv. 362.) however, regards it as possessed of some activity. He asserts that its primary action is that of a sedative, softening and diminishing the fulness and frequency ofthe pulse, and allaying pain and irritation. In a healthy person, he says, a full dose will often reduce the num- ber of pulsations ten beats in a minute, in a few minutes after being taken; and in a diseased state of the system, accompanied with increased arterial action, the sedative effects are much more striking. Occasionally also it acts as a diaphoretic (in cases accompanied with excessive vascular action and increased heat of skin) and astringent, as seen in its power of diminishing excessive discharges. In some cases, he says, it caused ptyalism, with redness, swelling, and tenderness of the sulphate of iron. 703 gums, but unaccompanied with swelling of the salivary glands or fostor. An over- dose, he tells us, occasions vertigo, coldness, and numbness, with a sense of gas- tric sinking; sometimes universal tremors, as in an ague fit. Farther evidence, however, is required to confirm these statements, which do not accord with the observations before reported. Uses.—Hitherto it has rarely been employed in medicine. Dr. Smart employed it as a sedative in diseases of increased action of the vascular system and morbid sensibility of the nerves, as in erysipelas, to allay pain, in cephalalgia, in inflamma- tion of the brain, in chronic bronchitis, &c. In the last mentioned disease it lessened the frequency of pulse, the sweating, the cough, and the dyspnoea. As an anodyne, he gave it in neuralgia. In hooping-cough he speaks highly of it. As an astringent, he administered it to check colliquative sweating in chronic bronchitis and phthisis, to diminish leucorrhceal discharge and to allay diarrhcea. Rau (Dierbach, Neueste Entd. in d. Mat. Med. i. 371. 1837.) employed it in calculous complaints. Administration.—The dose, according to Dr. Smart, is from ten to fifteen grains, given in the form of solution every four or six hours. Rau gave as much as forty grains at a dose, and I have no doubt that very much larger doses may be given with safety. II. FER'RI SUL'PHAS, L. E. D. [U. S.]—SULPHATE OF IRON. History.—Sulphate of iron is one of the substances which Pliny (Hist. Nat. xxxiv. 32.) termed Chalcanthum. This is evident from the circumstance of his statement that the Romans called it Atramentum Sutorium or Shoemaker''s Black. It is frequently termed Copperas, and in consequence has been sometimes con- founded with the salts of copper: (Dr. Cummin, Lond. Med. Gaz. xix. 40.) Green Vitriol (Vilriolum Viride,) Vitriol of Mars (Vitriolum Martis,) Salt of Mars (Sal Martis,) Vitriolated Iron (Ferrum Vilriolatum,) are other names by which it is known. Natural History.—It is found dissolved in some mineral waters, (sulphated chalybeates, vide p. 249,) as those ofthe Hartfell Spa, Scotland. In the aluminous chalybeate waters it is associated with sulphate of alumina; as in the water of Sand Rock, Isle of Wight. The strong Moffat chalybeate, and Vicar's Brig chaly- beate, contain the sulphate of the sesquioxide of iron. Sulphate of iron is also found in the waters of several copper mines. Sulphate of the protoxide of iron is rarely met native in the crystallized state. It occurs, however, in Rammelsberg mine, near Goslar; at Schwartzenburg, in Saxony; at Hurlet, near Paisley; and in New England. (Phillip's Mineralogy, by Allan.) Dr. Thomson (Outlines of Mineralogy, vol. i.) has described two native sul- phates ofthe sesquioxide of iron, and an aluminous protosulphate. Preparation.—Sulphate ofthe protoxide of iron is prepared by dissolving clean unoxidized iron in diluted sulphuric acid. The London College orders, of Iron Filings, gviij. 5 Sulphuric Acid, £xiv.; Water, Oiv. Mix the Sulphuric Acid with the Water, and add the Iron to them ; then apply heat, and when bubbles have ceased to escape, strain the liquor, and set it aside that crystals may be formed. Evaporate the liquor poured off, that it may again yield crystals. Dry them all. The Edinburgh College observes, that if the Sulphate of Iron of commerce be not in trans. parent green crystals, without efflorescence, dissolve it in its own weight of boiling water, acidulated with a little sulphuric acid ; filter, and set the solution aside to crystallize. Pre- serve the crystals in well-closed bottles. The Dublin College orders, of Iron Wire,/o«r parts; Sulphuric Acid, seven parts; Water, sixty parts, 704 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. [The U. S. Pharm. directs Iron Wire cut into pieces, twelve ounces; Sulphuric Acid, eigh- teen ounces; Water, a gallon. The subsequent steps are essentially the same as above.] In this process an equivalent or 28 parts of iron decompose one equivalent or 9 parts of water, combining with an equivalent or 8 parts of oxygen, and setting free an equivalent or 1 part of hydrogen, which escapes in the gaseous form. The equivalent or 36 parts of protoxide iron, thus formed, combines with an equi- valent or 40 parts of sulphuric acid, to form an equivalent or 76 parts of sulphate of iron. MATERIALS. PRODUCTS. ----------------------1 eq. Hydrogen........... 1 . ,., . nil eq. Hydrogen 1--- 1«1-Water.......... 9\lel Oxygen.. 8j„ 1 eq. Iron............28................ j : eq. Protoxide Iron 36 ^__^ 1 eq. Sulphuiic Acid.. 40—--------- —-----------------------—^^1 eq. Sulphate of Iron.... 76 ~77 77 The Common Green Vitriol, or Copperas of the shops, is prepared by exposing heaps of moistened iron pyrites (bisulphuret of iron) to the air for several months. In some places the ore is previously roasted. The moistening is effected by rain or by manual labour. The pyrites attracts oxygen, and is converted into a super- sulphate of iron, which is dissolved out by lixiviation; and to the solution thus ob- tained old iron is added to saturate the free acid. It is then concentrated in leaden boilers, and run off into large vessels (lined with lead) to crystallize. Properties.—Sulphate of the protoxide of iron crystallizes in transparent pale bluish green crystals, the form of which is the oblique rhombic Fig. 100. prism. Their sp. gr. is 1-82. They have an acid, styptic taste, and redden litmus. By exposure to the air oxygen is absorbed, and they acquire, first, a yellowish and darker green tint, then slightly effloresce, and become covered with a yel- low crust, which subsequently changes to brownish (sulphate of the sesquioxide of iron.) When heated the crystals under- go the watery fusion, give out water, and become white and pulverulent: at an intense heat they are deprived of their acid. They are soluble in water, but insoluble in alcohol. They require two parts of cold, and three-fourths of their weight Crystal of Sulphate of boiling water, to dissolve them. The solution has a bluish oj ron. green colour, but by exposure to the air it attracts oxygen, becomes reddish yellow, and deposites a tetrasulphate ofthe sesquioxide of iron. Characteristics.—It is known to be a sulphate by chloride of barium (see p. 406.) Binoxide of nitrogen communicates a deep olive colour to a solution of this salt (vide p. 266.) Ferrocyanide of potassium causes a white precipitate (ferro- cyanide of potassium and iron, see p. 701,) which, by exposure to the air, be- comes blue (Basic Prussian Blue.) If any sesquioxide be present, a bluish pre- cipitate (Prussian Blue) is obtained. Alkalis throw down the greenish white hydrated protoxide of iron. Composition.—The composition of this salt is as follows:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berzelius. Thomson. Protoxide of Iron............. 1 ........ 36 ........ 25-9 ........ 257 ........ 26 7 Sulphuric Acid................ 1 ........ 40 ....... 288 ........ 2^9 ........ 283 Water........................ 7 ........ 63 ........ 453 ........ 454 ........ 450 Crystallized Sulphateofthe ( .. i #,......I3gr ........ ioo-O ........ 100-0 ........ 1000 Protoxide of Iron........\ Purity.—This salt is frequently mixed with sulphate of the sesquioxide: this may be known by the yellowish green colour of the crystals, and by the blue colour produced on the addition of ferrocyanide of potassium. Colour bluish green ; dissolved by water. Iron put into the solution does not pre- cipitate copper. Ph. Lond. Pale bluish green crystals, with little or no efflorescence. Ph. Edinb. sulphate of iron. 705 The Common Green Vitriol, or Copperas ofthe shops, is a mixture of the sul- phates of the protoxide and sesquioxide of iron. It sometimes contains copper, which may be recognised by immersing a clean iron spatula in a solution of it; the iron becomes encrusted with copper: or it may be detected by adding excess of caustic ammonia, and filtering the liquor. If copper be present, the liquor will have an azure blue tint. The ammoniacal liquid should yield, by evaporation, no fixed residuum. Physiological Effects, ot. On Vegetables.—Sir H. Davy (Agricult. Chem. 4th ed. 186.) ascribes the sterility of a soil to the presence of sulphate of iron. /3. On Animals.—C. G. Gmelin (Vers. u. d. Wirk. &c. 84.) found that two drachms of sulphate of iron given to a dog caused vomiting only; that forty grains had no effect on a rabbit; and that twenty grains, thrown into the jugular vein of a dog, produced no effect. Dr. Smith, (Quoted by Wibmer and by Christison.) however, found that two drachms proved fatal to a* dog when taken into the sto- mach or applied to a wound. Orfila (Toxicol. Gen.) obtained similar results. The effects were local inflammation and a specific affection ofthe stomach and rectum. According to Weinhold, (Quoted by Richter, Ausf. Arzneim. v. 55.) the spleen of animals fed with it becomes remarkably small and compact. y. On Man.—This salt acts locally as a powerful astringent, and, when em- ployed in a concentrated form, as an irritant. The latter effect depends on its chemical action on the organic constituents (albumen, &c.) of the tissues. The remote effects of sulphate of iron are analogous to those of other ferruginous com- pounds, and which have been already described. Swallowed in small doses it has an astringent operation on the gastro-intestinal mucous membrane, and thereby diminishes the quantity of fluids secreted or ex- haled : hence its continued use causes constipation. It blackens the stools like other compounds of iron. It becomes absorbed, and operates" on the system as a tonic, stimulant, emmenagogue, and astringent. In large medicinal doses it readily excites pain, heat, or other uneasiness at the pit of the stomach, and not unfre- quently causes nausea and vomiting: this is especially the case in irritable condi- tions of this visCus. In excessive doses it operates as an irritant poison. A girl took, as an emmenagogue, an ounce of it in beer, and was seized, in consequence, with colic pains, constant vomiting and purging for seven hours. Mucilaginous and oily drinks soon cured her. (Christison, from Rust's Magazin, xxi. 247.) Uses.—Sulphate of iron is to be preferred to other ferruginous compounds where there is great relaxation of the solid parts' with immoderate discharges. Where the long continued use of ferruginous compounds is required, it is less adapted for administration than some other preparations of iron, on account of its- local action on the alimentary canal. It is employed in lump, powder, or solution, as a styptic, to check hemorrhage from numerous small vessels. A solution of it is applied to ulcerated surfaces, and to mucous membranes, to diminish profuse discharges; as in chronic ophthalmia, leucorrhoea, and gleet. Internally it is administered in passive hemorrhages, oh account of its supposed astringent influence over the system generally: also in immoderate secretion and exhalation ; as in humid asthma, chronic mucous catarrh, oki dysenteric affections, colliquative sweating, diabetes, lducorrhoea, gleet, &c. In intermittents it has been employed as a tonic. It has also been found serviceable against tape-worm. Its other uses are the same as the ferruginous compounds before mentioned. Administration.—The dose of it is from one to five grains, in the form of a pill. If given in solution" the water should be recently boiled, to expel the atmos- pheric air dissolved in it; the oxygen of which converts this salt into a persul- phate. For local purposes, solutions of it are employed of various strengths, ac- cording to circumstances. In chronic ophthalmia we may use one or two grains to an ounce of water: as an injection in gleet, from four to ten grains. 1. FERRI Sl'LPHAS EXS1CCATD1, E.; Dried Sulphate of /row.—(Expose any' Vol. I.—89 706 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEU1CA. convenient quantity of Sulphate of Iron to a moderate heat in a procelaln or earthenware vessel, not glazed with lead, till it is converted into a dry grayish white mass, which is to be reduced to powder.)—By exposure to a moderate heat the crystals lose ^ths of their water by crystallization; so that 85 grains of dried sul- phate are equivalent to 139 grs. ofthe crystallized sulphate; or 3 grains are equal to 4T90 grs. of the crystals. The dried sulphate is used in the following prepara- tion. I PILUIJE FERRI SU1PHATIS, E.; Pills of Sulphate of Iron.—(Dried sulphate of Iron, two parts; Extract of Taraxacum, five parts; Conserve of Red Roses, two parts; Liquorice-root powder, three parts. Beat them together into a proper mass, which is to be divided into five-grain pills.)—Each pill should contain £ of a grain of dried sulphate of iron.—Dose, one to three pills. 12. FER'RI CAR'BONAS.—CARBONATE OF IRON. History.—This compound must not be confounded with the sesquioxide of iron, which is frequently but improperly termed carbonate of iron (see p. 687.) Natural History.—It occurs native in the crystallized state, constituting the mineral called Spat hose Iron. It is also found in the carbonated chalybeate waters (see p. 248.) Preparation.—It is prepared by adding a solution of an alkaline carbonate to a solution of a protosalt (as the sulphate) of iron, the atmospheric air being care- fully excluded. The carbonate of the protoxide of iron is precipitated. When we attempt to collect and dry it, decomposition takes place; oxygen of the air is absorbed, carbonic acid escapes, and sesquioxide of iron remains (see Ferri Ses- quioxydum, p. 687.) Hence when employed in medicine it must be prepared extemporaneously. Properties.—Native protocarbonate of iron is yellow: the primary form of its crystals is the obtuse rhombohedron. Carbonate of iron prepared as above directed is a white precipitate, which by exposure to the air becomes at first greenish, then brown (sesquioxide.) It is insoluble in water, but dissolves in sulphuric or hydrochloric acid with effervescence. It also readily dissolves in carbonic acid water: the acidulo-chalybeate waters are natural solutions of this kind (see pp. 248 and 250.) Characteristics.—It dissolves in diluted sulphuric acid with effervescence. The solution possesses the before-mentioned properties of the ferruginous solu- tions (see p. 682.) Composition.—Carbonate ofthe protoxide of iron is thus composed:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Stromeyer. Protoxide of Iron........ 1........ 36........ 62 ........ 59-6276 Carbonic Acid.......... 1........ 22........ 38 ........ 380352 Carbonate of Iron....... 1 ........ 58........100........ 976628 Physiological Effects and Uses.—It is one of the most valuable of the ferru- ginous compounds, on account of the facility with which it dissolves in the fluids of the stomach, and becomes absorbed. Its local effects are very mild. Its uses are those of chalybeates in general, and which have been before men- tioned. 1. FERRI CARBONAS SACCHARATTM, E. Saccharine Carbonate of Iron. (Sul- phate of Iron, giv.; Carbonate of Soda, 3v.; Pure Sugar, 3ij.; Water, Oiv. Dis- solve the sulphate and carbonate each in two pints of the water; add the solu- tions and mix them; collect the precipitate on a cloth filter, and immediately wash it with cold water, squeeze out as much of the water as possible, and with- out delay triturate the pulp which remains with the sugar previously in fine CARBONATE OF IRON. 707 P? at Sl\u y the mixture at a temperature not much above 1203.)— Dr. Becker, of Muhlhausen, suggested this compound. His idea was carried out by Klauer;1 and hence this preparation is known on the continent as Klauer's Ferrum Car- bonicum Saccharatum. The sugar checks, though it does not completely pre- vent, the farther oxidation of the iron. This preparation is a greenish powder,2 composed of sesquioxide of iron, sugar, and carbonic acid, with some sesqui- oxide of iron. Its characters are, according to the Edinburgh College, as fol- lows:— Colour grayish.green; easily soluble in muriatic acid, with brisk effervescence. It may be given in doses of from five to ten grains. [This preparation is similar to the Pilulae Ferri Carbonatis of the U. S. Phar- macopoeia. ValletPs ferruginous pills. To make them, take Sulphate of Iron, 3iv.; Carbonate of Soda, 3v.; Clarified Honey, gijss.; Syrup, Boiling Water, each a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the Sulphate of Iron and Carbonate of Soda each in a pint of the Water, and to each solution add a fluid ounce of syrup; then mix the two solutions in a bottle just large enough to contain them, close it accu- rately with a stopper, and set it by that the Carbonate of Iron may subside. Pour off the supernatant liquid, and having washed the precipitate with warm water, sweetened with syrup in the proportion of a fluid ounce ofthe latter to a pint of the former, until the washings no longer have a saline taste, place it upon a flan- nel cloth and express as much of the water as possible; then immediately mix it with the Honey. Lastly, heat the mixture, by means of a water bath, until it attains a pilular consistence. Dose the same.] I MISTURA FERRI COMPOSITA, L. E. D. (U. S.;) Compound Mixture of Iron; Griffith's Mixture. (Myrrh, powdered, 3ij.; Carbonate of Potash, 3j.; Rose Water, f3xviij.; Sulphate of Iron, powdered, 3ijs3.; Spirit of Nutmeg, f3j.; Sugar, 3ij. Rub together the Myrrh with the Spirit of Nutmeg and the Car- bonate of Potash; and to these, while rubbing, add first the Rose Water with the Sugar, then the" Sulphate of Iron. Put the mixture immediately into a pro- per glass vessel, and stop it. L. The processes of the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges are essentially the same.)—This is a professed imitation of Dr. Griffith's celebrated antihectic or tonic mixture.3 [The U. S. Pharmacopoeia directs, Myrrh, a drachm; Carbonate of Potassa, twenty-five grains; Rose Water, seven fluid ounces and a half; Sulphate of Iron, in powder, a scruple; Spirit of Lavender, half a fluid ounce; Sugar, a drachm. Rub the Myrrh with the Rose Water gradually added, then mix with these the Spirit of Lavender, Sugar, and Carbonate of Potassa, and lastly, the Sulphate of Iron. Pour the mixture immediately into a glass bottle, which is to be well stopped.] In the preparation of it, double decomposition takes place: by the mutual re- action of carbonate of potash and sulphate of iron we obtain sulphate of potash, which remains in solution, and carbonate of protoxide of iron, which precipitates. To prevent the latter attracting more oxygen, it is to be preserved in a well- stoppered bottle. The quantity of carbonate of potash directed to be used is almost twice as much as is required to decompose the quantity of sulphate of iron ordered to be employed. The excess combines with the myrrh, and forms a kind of saponaceous compound, which assists in suspending the carbonate of iron in the liquid. When first made, this mixture has a greenish colour, owing to the hydrated ferruginous carbonate; but by exposure to the air it becomes reddish, owing to the absorption of oxygen, by which sesquioxide of iron is formed, and carbonic acid evolves: hence it should only be prepared when required for use. 1 Pharmaceutisches Central-Matt far 1836, S. 8v!7; also, Journ. de Pharmacie, t. xxiii. p. 86. a For some observations on its chemical properties see a paper by A. Buchner in the Pharmaceutisches Cen- tral- Blatt fur 1837, S. 755. » Pract. Observations on the Cure of Hectic and Slow Fevers, and the Pulmonary Consumptien. 1776. 708 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. It is one of the most useful and efficacious ferruginous preparations, and which is owing to its ready solubility, by which it is easily digested and absorbed. Its constitutional effects are analogous to those of the ferruginous compounds in general, and which have been already described. Its tonic and stimulant opera- tion is promoted by the myrrh: the excess of alkaline carbonate must not be for- gotten in estimating the sources of activity of this medicine. It is admissible in most of the cases in which ferruginous remedies are indi- cated; but it is especially serviceable in anaemia, chlorosis, atonic amenorrhoea, and hysterical affections. It is also employed with benefit in the hectic, fever of phthisis and chronic mucous catarrhs. It is contra-indicated in inflammatory conditions of the gastro-intestinal membrane. The dose of it is one or two fluid ounces three or four times a-day. Of course acids and acidulous salts, as well as all vegetable astringents which contain gallic or tannic acid, are incompatible with it. 3. PILULJE FERRI COMPOSITE, L. D. (U. S.) Pilulce Ferri Carbonatis, E.; Pilulce Ferri cum Myrrhd; Compound Pills of Iron; Pills of Carbonate of Iron. (Myrrh, powdered, 3ij.; Carbonate of Soda; Sulphate of iron; Treacle, of each, 3j. Rub the myrrh with the carbonate of soda; then having added the sulphate of iron, rub them again; afterwards beat the whole in a vessel previously warmed, until incorporated, L. (U. S.)—The Dublin College orders, a drachm of Brown Sugar instead of Treacle.—The Edinburgh College orders, of Saccharine Carbonate of Iron, four parts; Conserve of Red Roses, one part. Beat them into a proper mass, to be divided into five-grain pills.)—Prepared according to the London and Dublin Colleges these pills are analogous in composition, effects, and uses, to the preceding preparation. Double decomposition takes place between the two salts employed, and the products are sulphate of soda and carbonate of iron. The carbonate of soda is preferred to the carbonate of potash, on account of the deliquescence of the latter. These pills, like the mixture, should only be made when required for use. The effects and uses of these pills are similar to those of the Mistura Ferri composita.—Dose, from grs. x. to grs. xx. 8. SUPERCARBONATED CHALYBEATES.—Carbonate of the protoxide of iron dis- solves in water by the aid of carbonic acid. The Carbonated Chalybeate Mineral Waters (see p. 248) are solutions of this kind. Artificial solutions of the carbonated chalybeates are prepared in various ways. A convenient extemporaneous solution is obtained by mixing intimately sulphate of iron and bicarbonate o«~ soda (sodce sesquicarbonus, L.,) and dissolving them in a tumblerful of carbonic acid water (bottled soda water.) One hundred and thirty-nine grains of crystallized sulphate of iron require eighty-three grains of sodce sesquicarbonas, L. to yield fifty-eight grains of carbonate of iron. It is advisable, however, to employ an excess of the sesquicarbonate of soda. If 10 grs. of sulphate of iron, and 10 grs. of the sesquicarbonate of soda L. be used, we shall obtain a solution of about 4 grs. of carbonate of iron, 2£ grs. of sulphate of soda, and 5 grs. of sesquicarbonate of soda. The solution should be taken in a state of effervescence. Another mode of preparing a solution of carbonate of iron is to add bicarbonate of soda to a solution of sulphate of iron acidulated by some acid, as sulphuric, tartaric, or citric acid. FERRO-TARTRATE OF POTASH. 709 13. POTAS'SiE FER'RO-TAR'TRAS.—FERRO-TARTRATE OF POTASH. (Ferri Potassio-Tartras, L— Ferrum Tartarizatum, E-—Ferri Tartarum, D.) [Ferri et Potasss Tartras, U, S,J History.—This preparation was first described by Angelus Sala at the com- mencement of the seventeenth century. Mr. R. Phillips1 improved its mode of pre- paration. The late Dr. Birkbeck has described its medical properties. (Lond. Med. Review, No. xix. July, 1812.) Besides the above, it has had various other names; such as Chalybeated Tartar (Tartarus chalybeatus seu ferralus,) and Tartrate of Potash and Iron (Potassse et Ferri Tartras.) Preparation.—Soubeiran (Nouveau Traite. de Pharmacie, t. ii. p. 447, 2nde ed.) directs this compound to be thus prepared: Take of Powdered Bitartrate of Potash, one part; Distilled Water, six parts; Moist Hydrated Sesquioxide of Iron, as much as may be sufficient: digest them, at the temperature of from 120° to 140° F., until the liquor ceases to dissolve a fresh quantity of hydrate; then filter, and evaporate to dryness by a gentle heat. The process of the London College, according to Mr. Phillips, (Translation of the Pharmacopoeia.) is a modification of that of Soubeiran. It is, however, much more complex. The London College orders of Sesquioxide of Iron, §iij,; Hydrochloric Acid, Oss.; Solution of Potash, Oivss., or as much as may be sufficient; Bitartrate of Potash, ^xiss.; Solution of Sesquicarbonate of Ammonia, Oj., or as much as may be sufficient; Distilled Water, Cong. iij. Mix the sesquioxide of iron with the acid, and digest for two hours in a sand-bath. Add to these two gallons of the water, and set aside for an hour ; then pour off the supernatant liquor. The solution of potash being added, wash what is precipitated frequently with water, and while moist boil it with the bitartrate of potash, previously mixed with a gallon ofthe water. If the liquor should be aeid when tried by litmus, pour into it solution of sesquicarbonate of ammonia until it is saturated. Lastly, strain the liquor, and with a gentle heat let it evapo- rate, so that, the salt may remain dry. [The U.S. P. directs, Subcarbonate of Iron, three ounces; Muriatic Acid, ten fluid ounces; Solution of Potassa, five pints and a-half; Bitartrate of Potassa, seven ounces and a-half; Distilled water a gallon and a-half. The process is essentially the same as above.] The theory of this process is as follows:—By the reaction of sesquioxide of iron and hydrochloric acid we obtain water and sesquichloride of iron (see p. 692.) On the addition of caustic potash the sesquichloride is decomposed, hy- drated sesquioxide of iron is precipitated, and chloride of potassium is left in solu- tion. These changes are illustrated by the following diagram:— MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. PRODUCTS. ■? pn Potash 144 i 3 '?■ Pot^sium 120------------—^=3 eq. Chloride jeq. roiasn.... *** f 3 e? .Oxygen... 24-^ ^^—""^ Potassium.. 228 2 eq. Sesquichio- ( 3 eq. Chlorine.. 108 ride Iron..... 164 ( 2 eq. Iron...... 56 ----^=»2eq.Sesquiox- \12.'S ide Iron.... 60 / S a ^ » > S g-§ § Water..........................................................................'^ ° 308 308 308 When the hydrated sesquioxide of iron is boiled with bitartrate of potash, one equivalent or 40 parts of the sesquioxide combine with one equivalent or 66 parts of tartaric acid of the bitartrate of potash, and form an equivalent or 106 parts of tartrate of sesquioxide of iron, which combine with an equivalent or 114 > An Experimental Examination of the last edition of the Pharmacopeia Londinensis. JS11 710 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. parts of tartrate of potash, to form one equivalent or 220 parts of ferrotartrate of potash. MATERIALS. PRODUCTS. leq. Sesquioxide 7........................? 1 eq. Tartrate of Ses- oflron....... 40 J > quiox. Iron.... 106 1 eq. Bitartrate ) 1 eq. Tartaric Acid.. 66* Potash....... 180 ) 1 eq. Tartrate Potash 114---------------------- 220 The Edinburgh College orders of Sulphate of Iron, ^v.; Bitartrate of Potash, ^v. and Jjj.j Carbonate of Ammonia in fine powder, a sufficiency. Prepare the Rust of iron from the sul- phate as directed under Ferrugo, and without drying. Mix the pulpy mass wilh four pints of water; add the Bitartrate; boil till the rust of iron is dissolved; let the solution cool; pour off the clear liquid, and add to this the carbonate of ammonia so long as it occasions effer- vescence. Concentrate the liquid over the vapour bath to the consistence of a thick extract, or till the residuum becomes on cooling a firm solid; which must be preserved in well-closed vessels. The explanation of the formation of hydrated sesquioxide of iron (here called Rust) has been already explained (see p. 690.) The theory of the other part of the process is the same as that of the process of the London Pharmacopoeia. The Dublin College orders of Iron, drawn into thin wire, one part; Bitartrate of Potash, in very subtile powder,/o«r parts ; Distilled Water, eight parts, or as much as may be suffi- cient. Let them be mixed, and exposed to the air during fifteen days in a wide vessel. Let the mixture, which is to be occasionally stirred, be kept constantly moist by the daily addi- tion of water, taking care that the iron shall not be entirely covered by the water. Lastly, boil the product in a sufficient quantity of water, and let the filtered liquor evaporate to dry- ness over a water bath. Let the Tartar of Iron be kept in a well-stopped vessel. By the united agencies of air and water the iron is converted into the sesquioxide, which combines with the bitartrate of potash to form tartarized iron. Properties.—It is an olive-brown inodorous powder, with a styptic inky taste. It reacts on vegetable colours, mildly alkaline. It is slightly deliquescent, pro- bably from the tartrate of potash which it contains. It dissolves in about four times its weight of water, and slightly in alcohol. Characteristics.—Ferrocyanide of potassium does not occasion any blue colour with it, unless a few drops of acid be added. Potash, soda, and their carbonates, do not decompose it at ordinary temperatures, nor does ammonia or its carbonate even by the aid of heat. Tincture of nutgalls causes a dark-coloured precipitate. Sulphuric, nitric, or hydrochloric acid, throws down the sesquioxide of iron from a solution of this salt; an excess of acid redissolves it: the solution has then a very astringent taste. Tartaric acid causes the formation of crystals of tartar. Heated in a covered crucible, ferrotartrate of potash yields charcoal, carbonate of potash, and protoxide of iron. Composition.—The following table exhibits the composition of this salt, ac- cording to Soubeiran and Phillips:— Phillips. Soubeiran. Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Per Cent. Tartrate of Sesquioxide of Iron 1 --- 106 .... 4818 ... Sesquitartrate of Sesquioxide....... 45 Tartrate of Potash............ 1 --- 114 .... 51-82 .... Tartrate of Potash.................. 55 Ferrotartrate of Potash...... 1 --- 220 .... 10000 --- " .................. 100 Soubeiran says it contains 13 per cent, of sesquioxide of iron; whereas, ac- cording to Mr. Phillips, the quantity is 18-18 per cent. The ferrotartrate of potash is to be regarded as a double salt, in which tartrate of iron is the acid or electro-negative ingredient, and tartrate of potash the basic or electro-positive constituent. On this view, we comprehend why ferrocyanide 1 eq. Ferrotartrate of Potash.220 ACETATE OF IRON. 711 of potassium and the alkalis refuse to act on it in the way they do on the ordi- nary ferruginous salts, until an acid be added. Geiger (Handb. d. Pharm.) re- gards it as a combination of tartrate of iron and ferrate of potash. Purity.—In commerce we frequently meet with an imperfectly prepared com- pound, in which none or only part of the sesquioxide of iron is in chemical com- bination with bitartrate of potash. In this state it is only partially soluble in water, and the solution strikes a blue colour with the ferrocyanide of potassium, and throws down a reddish brown precipitate with solution of potash. The fol- lowing are the characters of the properly prepared salt:— Totally soluble in water: the solution does not change either litmus or turmeric: nor is it rendered blue by ferrocyanide of potassium ; nor is any thing precipitated from it by any acid or alkali. The magnet does not act upon it. Ph. Lond. Entirely soluble in cold water; taste feebly chalybeate: the solution is not altered by aqua potassae, and not precipitated by solution of ferrocyanide of potassium. Ph. Edinb. Physiological Effects.—In its effects on the system it agrees, for the most part, with other ferruginous compounds. Its taste, however, is comparatively slight; its astringency is much less than the sulphate or sesquichloride, and con- sequently its constipating effects are not so obvious; and its stimulating influence over the vascular system is said to be somewhat milder. These peculiarities in its operation are supposed to depend on the tartaric acid and potash with which it is in combination. Uses.—It is not frequently employed, yet it is a very eligible preparation of iron, and may be employed wherever the ferruginous tonics are indicated. Administration.—The dose of it is from ten grains to half a drachm, in the form of solution or bolus, combined with some aromatic. 14. FER'RI ACETAS, D.—ACETATE OF IRON. History.—A solution of iron in acetic acid has long been known and used in the arts. It constitutes the Iron Liquor of the dyer. Preparation.—The Dublin College orders it to be prepared as follows:— Take of Carbonate [Sesquioxide] of Iron, one part; Acetic Acid, six parts. Digest during three days, and filter. Properties.—It is a deep-red liquid, having an acid chalybeate taste. It red- dens litmus. Characteristics.—When heated, it yields acetic acid. Ferrocyanide of potas- sium strikes a blue colour with it; infusion of galls a purplish black. Composition.—It consists of the Acetate of the Protoxide, and Acetate of the Sesquioxide of Iron. The Physiological Effects and Uses are the same as other ferruginous com- pounds.—The dose is from ten to twenty-five drops, in water. 1. FERRI ACETATIS TINCTURA, D. (Acetate of Potash, two parts; Sulphate of Iron, one part; Rectified Spirit, twenty-six parts. Rub together the acetate and sulphate, then dry, and add the spirit. Digest for seven days in a well-stoppered bottle; then pour off the clear liquor, and preserve in a vessel perfectly closed.)— In this process sulphate of potash and acetate of iron are formed: the latter, as well as the excess of the acetate of potash, dissolves in the spirit. It is a claret- coloured tincture. It possesses the usual properties of a ferruginous compound. It is said to be an agreeable chalybeate, and was introduced into the Dublin Phar- macopoeia by Dr. Perceval.—The dose is from half a drachm to a drachm. % TINCTURA ACETATIS FERRI CUM ALCOHOLE, D. (Sulphate of Iron; Acetate of Potash -la 3j.; Alcohol, Oij. [urine measure.'] Triturate together the sulphate and acetate, then dry them, and when cold add the alcohol. Digest in a well- stoppered bottle for twenty-four hours.)—The dose is from twenty drops to a drachm. 712 elements of materia medica. OTHER FERRUGINOUS COMPOUNDS. 1- FERRI PIRSULPHAS; Persulphate of Iron.—The mode of converting sulphate of the pro- toxide into sulphate of the sesquioxide of iron has been already pointed out (see p. 690.) Per. sulphate of iron combines with albumen to form a pale yellowish compound ; (Journ. de Chim. Med. t. vi. 2de Serie, p. 308.) on this property depends its chemical action on the tissues. Dr. Osborne (Lond. Med. Gaz. March 6, 1840. p. 892.) says, Widow Welch's pills are composed of " sulphate of peroxide of iron, with a small quantity of insipid vegetable matter, probably gum, as much as is requisite foT adhesion." It is more probable, however, that they are pre- pared with the common sulphate of the shops, which is a mrxture of protosulphate and per- sulphate of iron. 2. FERRI PERNITRAS; Pernitrate of Iron.—A solution of this salt has been employed as an astringent in diarrhoea.1 It is prepared by dissolving iron in diluted nitric acid to satura- tion. 3. AMMONI/E FERRO-f ARTRAS; Ferro- Tartrate of Ammonia; Tartrate of Iron and Ammo. nia; Aikin's Ammonia-Tar Irate of Iron. This salt was first employed in medicine by Mr. Aikin. (Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. viii. p. 438.) It may be prepared by adding caustic ammonia to a solution of tartrate of iron (prepared by digesting together, for two or three days, one part of tartaric acid, dissolved in hot water, with two or three parts of iron filings.) The green solution thus obtained is to be evaporated to dryness by a gentle heat. (Aikin, op. cit.) [The following formula for preparing this salt is communicated by Mr. Procter, Am. Journ. of Pharmacy, vol. xii. p. 276. Take of Tartaric Acid, gxij. and !jiv; Carbonate of Ammonia, §iv., gvij. and ^j ; Sesquioxide of Iron, §vj., gv. and Qj; Hydrochloric Acid, f^xxij. f Ziv ; Solution of Ammonia and water of each a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the tartaric acid in a gallon ofthe water and add the carbonate of ammonia gradually. A considerable quan- tity of a while crystalline powder subsides, which is bitartrate of ammonia and with which the supernatant liquid is saturated. Dissolve the sesquioxide of iron in the hydrochloric acid, by means of a gentle heat, dilute the solution with six pints of water and add a sufficient quantity of solution of ammonia to precipitate the sesquioxide. Separate this on a flannel filter, wash it with water until the washings pass tasteless, and add it to the solution containing the bitar- trate of ammonia; then apply a gentle heat, by means of a water bath, until the whole of the sesquioxide of iron is dissolved and a deep reddish brown solution results. The solution thus obtained should be evaporated to dryness by means of a water bath.] It is in the form of shining brittle fragments of a deep red colour, not very unlike pieces of deep-coloured shell lac. It is very soluble in water. It's tasle is strongly saccharine. Its general effects are analogous to those of the other ferruginous compounds, except that it has very little if any astringency. Its advantages over other chalybeates are its ready solubility in water, its palatable taste, arid the facility with which it may be mixed with va- rious saline substances, without undergoing decomposition. It contains more oxide of iron than the same quantity of sulphate. The dose for an adult is five or six grains in powder, pill, or solution. It may be exhibited in porter without being detected by the taste. It may be added to the compound decoction of aloes without suffering decomposition. A Ferrocitrate of Ammonia (called Citrate of Iron) is met with in the shops. Its properties are similar to those ofthe preceding preparation. 4. FERRI LACTAS; Lactate of Iron.—This salt occurs in beautiful small, green, acicular crystals. It has been used in medicine, (British and Foreign Medical Review, vol. x. p. 565.) though it does not appear to present any advantages over the other preparations of iron. 5. VINUM FERRI, Ph. L. 1809; Wine of Iron. Tron Filings, 3ij; Wine, [Sherry] Oij. [wine measure.] Mix and set the mixture by for a month, occasionally shaking it; then filter it through paper.)—The iron is oxidized by the air and water, and the sesquioxide combines with the tartaric acid ofthe wine. It is properly discarded from the pharmacopoeias.—Dose, 3J. to 3.V. 1 See Dr. S. W. Williams, in the Boston (U. S.) Medical and Surgical Journal, April 7, 1841. binoxide of manganese. 713 Order XXVIII.—BINOXIDE OF MANGANESE. MANGANE'SII BIXOX'YDCM.—6INOXIDE OF MANGANESE. (Manganesii Oxidum, E.) History,—Native binoxide of manganese has been long known and used in the manufacture of glass {Magnesia Vitriariorum;) but until Kaim, in 1770, succeeded in extracting a peculiar metal from if, it was usually regarded as an ore of iron. It is' commonly termed Native Black or Peroxide of Manganese, or for brevity Manganese. Natural History.—The oxide of manganese used in chemistry and pharmacy is the native anhydrous binoxide, called by mineralogists Pyrolusite. It rs found in great abundance in Cornwall, Devonshire, Somersetshire, and Aberdeenshire, from whence most of what is met with in commerce in this country is obtained. The principal mines of it are in the neighbourhood of Launceston, Liftony and Exeter. The Upton Pyne mine, once celebrated for its oxide of manganese, has yielded scarcely any for several years past, if, indeed, it be not completely worked out. Pyrolusite is also found in Saxony, Hungary, France, and other countries of Europe. Preparation.—Native binoxide of manganese after being raised from the mine is broken into small pieces, about the size of peas, and then washed to separate the earthy impurities. It is afterwards ground in mills to an impalpable powder. Properties.—This mineral occurs massive, columnar, crystallized, and pulve- rulent: the form of the crystals is the right rhombic prism. The massive variety has sometimes a metallic lustre, but is generally dull and earthy: its colour is iron black or brownish: it soils the fingers in handling it: its sp. gr. varies from 4-5 to 4'9: it is tasteless, odourless, and insoluble in water: it yields a black powder. Characteristics.—When heated it yields oxygen gas. Mixed with common salt and sulphuric acid it gives out chlorine. Heated with sulphuric acid it evolves oxygen, and forms a sulphate of the protoxide of manganese. It is infu- sible before the blow-pipe; dissolves infused borax with effervescence, and colours the globule of an amethystine colour. If it be digested in hydrochloric acid until chlorine cease to be evolved, and the solution be slightly supersaturated with am- monia, we get rid of the sesquioxide of iron: the filtered liquid throws down a white precipitate with ferrocyanide of potassium. Composition.—Pure binoxide of manganese has the following composition:— Berzelius and Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Forchammcr. Arfvedson. Manganese............ 1 ........ 28 ........ 635 ........ 6375 ........ 64 02 Oxygen................ 2 ........ 16 ........ 365 ........ 36 25 ........ 35 08 Binoxide of Manganese. 1 ........ 44 ........ 100 0 ........ 10000 ........ 10000 Purity.—The native binoxide is, however, never pure: if usually contains oxide of iron, carbonate of lime, sulphate of baryta, and argillaceous matter. Its purity is judged of by the quantity of oxygen which it is capable of yielding; or of the quantity of chlorine set free when this oxide and hydrochloric acid are allowed to act on each other. The quantity of chlorine set free can be estimated by the quantity of protosulphate of iron which it peroxidizes. (Graham, Elements of Chemistry, p. 536.) The brown varieties are inferior to the black ones. Muriatic acid aided hy heat dissolves it almost entirely, disengaging chlorine : heat iiiscn- gages oxygen. Ph. Ed. Physiological Ejects.—The effects of this substance are imperfectly known. Vol. I.—00 714 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Kapp (Hufeland's Journ. Bd. xix. St. 1, S. 176.) first employed it internally. He regards it as a permanent stimulant, and says it promotes the appetite and diges- tion. Vogt (Pharmycodynamik.) places it among the tonics, and considers it to be intermediate between iron and lead, but his views are altogether theoretical, as he does not seem to have employed it. Dr. Coupar (Brit. Ann. of Med. Jan. 13, 1837, p. 41.) has described several cases of disease which took place among the men engaged in grinding it at the chemical works of Messrs. Tennant and Co., in Glasgow: from these it appears that, when slowly introduced into the sys- tem, it produces paralysis of the motor nerves. The disease commences with symptoms of paraplegia. It differs from the paralysis of lead in not causing colica pictonum or constipation, and from mercury in first affecting the lower extremities, and in not exciting tremors of the affected part. C. G. Gmelin ( Versuche, ii d. fVirkungen, &c.) tried the effect ofthe sulphate ofthe protoxide of manganese on animals, and found that it caused vomiting, paralysis, without convulsions, and inflammation of the stomach, small intestines, liver, spleen, and heart. Gmelin observes, as remarkable, " the extraordinary secretion of bile produced by it, and which was so considerable that nearly all the intestines were coloured yellow by it, and the large intestines had a wax-yellow colour communicated to them." (Op. cit. 90.) It deserves notice, in connexion with this effect, that the set deso- pitant of Rouviere, used as a quack remedy to evacuate bile, contains chloride of manganese. (Journ. de Chim. Med. v. 534.) Dr. Thomson has seen an ounce of the sulphate swallowed without any effect, except the free action of the bowels. (Coupar, op. cit.) Hiinefeld (Horn's Archiv.f. Med. Erf. 1830, quoted by Wibmer, Wirk. d. Arzn.) gave to a rabbit nearly two drachms of manganesic acid, in three days, in doses of ten or fifteen grains. The only obvious effect was increased secretion of urine. The animal being killed, the peritoneum and external coat of the colon was found of a green- ish colour [protoxide of manganese is green,] the muscles were readily lace- rated and pale, the liver was inflamed, the bile increased. Wibmer (Op. cit.) gave six grains daily ofthe carbonate ofthe protoxide of manganese to a rabbit during many weeks. No disturbance of function was observed. The animal was killed, but neither in the blood nor the muscles could the least trace of manganese be detected. Uses.—It is rarely employed in medicine. Kapp (Op. cit.) administered it, as well as the salts of manganese, internally as well as externally in the various forms of syphilis. In herpes, scabies, and the scorbutic diathesis, he used it with benefit. Brera (Harless, Neues Journ. d. Ausl. Med. Lit. Bd. viii. St. 2, S. 57.) used it in chlorosis, scorbutus, hypochondriasis, hysteria, &c. Otto (Froriep's Notizcn, Bd. xii. No. 22, S. 347.) administered it in cachectic complaints with favourable results. Odier (Handb. d. pr. Arzneitviss. quoted by Richter.) employed it in cardialgia. It has been applied as an absorbent in the treatment of old ulcers, as a depilatory, and as a remedy for skin diseases, especially itch and porrigo. (Rayer, Treat. on Skin Diseases, by Willis, p. 58.) Administration.—Internally it has been given in the form of pills, in doses vary- ing from three grains to a scruple, three or four times in the day. As a local agent it has been used in the form of gargle, composed of two or three drachms of the oxide diffused through five or six ounces of barley water. An ointment, consisting of one or two drachms of oxide to an ounce of lard, has also been used. In chemistry and pharmacy it is employed in the manufacture of oxygen, chlo- rine, and iodine. In the arts it is used by the bleacher for the production of chlo- rine; by the glass-maker to destroy the brown colour communicated to glass by iron; and to give an amethystine tint to plate-glass; and by the potter for colour- ing earthenware. END OF VOL. I. WORKS ON MEDICINE, SURGERY, ANATOMY, MIDWIFERY, AND THE COLLATERAL SCIENCES, PUBLISHED BY LEA & BLANCHARD, PHILADELPHIA, AND FOR SALE BY ALL BOOKSELLERS. MIDWIFERY ILLUSTRATED. THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF OBSTETRIC MEDICINE AND SURGERY, IN REFERENCE TO THE PROCESS OF PARTURITION; ILLUSTRATED BY ONE HUNDRED AND FORTY-TWO FIGURES. BY FRANCIS H. 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A NEW WORK,—DUNGLISON'S THERAPEUTICS AND MATERIA MEDICA. GENERAL THERAPEUTICS AND MATERIA MEDICA, ADAPTED FOR A MEDICAL TEXT-BOOK, BY ROBLEY DUNGLISON, M.D., Professor of Institutes of Medicine, &c, in 2 vols. 8vo.—Just ready. A second edition of the work on General Therapeutics, being called for by the publishers, the author has deemed it advisable to incorporate with it an account of the different articles ofthe Materia Medica. To this he has been led by the circumstance, that the departments of General Therapeutics and Materia Medica are always associated in the Medical Schools. The author's great object has been to prepare a work which may aid the Medical Student in acquiring the main results of modern observation and reflec- tion ; and, at the same time, be to the Medical Practitioner a trustworthy book of reference. Throughout, he has adopted the Nomenclature of the last edition of the Pharmacopoeia of the United States, a work which ought to be in the hands of every practitioner as a guide in the preparation of medicines; and he has endeavoured to arrange the articles in each division, as nearly as he could, in the order of their efficacy as Therapeutical agents. DEWEES' MIDWIFERY. A COMPENDIOUS SYSTEM OF MIDWIFERY, chiefly designed to facilitate the inquiries of those who may be pursuing this branch of study. Illustrated by occa- sional cases, with many plates. The ninth edition, with additions and improvements, by W. P. DEWEES, M. D., late Professor of Midwifery in the University of Penn- sylvania, in one volume 8vo. LEA & BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. MEDICAL LEXICON, BROUGHT UP TO 1842. A NEW DICTIONARY OF MEDICAL SCIENCE; Containing a concise account of the various Subjects and Terms, with the French and other Synonymes, and Formulae for various Officinal and Empirical Preparations, &c. Third Edition, brought up to 1842. BY ROBLEY DUNGLISON, M.D., Professor in the Jefferson Medical College, &c. In One Volume, royal 8vo. " The present undertaking was suggested by the frequent complaints, made by the author's pupils, that they were unable to meet with information on numerous topics of Professional Inquiry,—especially of recent introduction,—in the medical dictionaries accessible to them. " It may, indeed, be correctly affirmed, that we have no dictionary of medical subjects and terms which can be looked upon as adapted to the state of the science. In proof of this the author need but to remark, that he has found occasion to add several thousand Medical Terms, which are not to be met with in the only medical lexicon at this time in circulation iu this country. " The present edition will be found to contain many hundred Terms more than the first, and to have experienced numerous Additions and Modifications. " The author's object has not been to make the work a mere lexicon or dictionary of terms, but to afford, under each, a condensed view of its various medical relations, and thus to render tire work an epitome ofthe existing condition of Medical Science." This New Edition includes, in the body of the work, the Index or Vocabularv of Synonymes that was in the former Editions printed at the end of the Volume, and embraces many Corrections, with the addi- tion of many New Words. PEREIRA'S MATERIA MEDICA, EDITED BY DR. CARSON, WITH NEAR THREE HUNDRED ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD. ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA AND THERAPEUTICS; COMPRE- HENDING THE NATURAL HISTORY, PREPARATION, PROPERTIES, COMPOSITION, EFFECTS, AND USES OF MEDICINES, BY JONATHAN PEREIRA, M.D., F.R.S., Assistant Physician to the London Hospital, &c. Part I, contains the General Action and Classification of Medicines, and the Mineral Materia Medica. Part II, the Vegetable and Animal Kingdoms, and including diagrams explanatory of the Processes of the Pharmacopoeias, a Tabular view of the History of the Materia Medica, from the earliest times to the present day, and a very copious index. From the Second London Edition, which has been thoroughly revised, with the Introduction of the Processes of the New Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, and containing additional articles on Mental Remedies, Light, Heat, Cold, Electricity, Magnetism, Exercise, Dietetics, and Climate, and many additional Wood Cuts, illustrative of Pharmaceutical Operations, Crystallogra- phy, Shape and Organization of the Feculas of Commerce, and the-Natural History of the Materia Medica. The object of the author has been to supply the Medical Student with a Class Book on Materia Medica, containing a faithful outline of this Department of Medicine, which should embrace a concise account of the most important modern discoveries in Natural History, Chemistry, Physiology, and Therapeutics, in so far as they pertain to Pharmacology, and treat the subjects in the order of their natural historical relations. This great Library or Cyclopedia of Materia Medica is now passing rapidly through the press, and will be published early in January. The American edition will have full references to the United States Pharmacopoeia, with a revision and numerous additions, by JOSEPH CARSON, M.D., Professor of Materia Medica and Pharmacy in the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, and one of the editors of the American Journal of Pharmacy. To form two handsome volumes at a moderate price. Now Published. PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF SURGERY, WITH CUTS. THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF MODERN SURGERY, BY RO- BERT DRUITT. From the Second London Edition, illustrated with fifty wood en- gravings, with notes and comments by Joshua B. Flint, M.D., in one volume 8vo., at a low price. EXTRACT FROM THE AUTHOR'S PREFACE. " The arrangement of a work of this kind ought not, as I conceive, to be regarded as a matter of mere indifference, or at most of convenience, but it ought to embody in it something of a principle; and I believe that the arrangement of this work may be useful to the student, by showing him in what order he may best prosecute his researches into the principles of his profession. " Of the five parts into which it is divided, the first two are more especially devoted to the principles, and the three others to the practice of surgery. The first part treats of the disturbances of the constitu- tion at large, that, may be produced by injury or disease of a part; beginning with the simple faintness or collapse that follows a blow, and proceeding to consider the varieties of fever and tetanus. "The second part describes what maybe called the elements of local disease; that is to say, those morbid changes of structure or function, which are produced either immediately by external causes, or secondarily, through some deviation from health, &c. " The third part treats of the various kinds of injuries, beginning with the simplest mechanical inju- ries ; then proceeding to the effects of chemical agents, and lastly, considering the effects of animal poisons, &c. " The fourth part considers the various tissues, organs, and regions of the body in order, and describes the various accidents they are liable to, &c. " The fifth part describes such of the operations as were not included in the former }>arts, &c. " To the whole is appended a collection of formula;, the number of which is very much increased in this edition." ______ LEA & BLANCHARD'S PUBLI C ATIO NS\_______ ESSAYS ON ASTHMA, APHTHAE, ASPHYXIA, APOPLEXY, ARSENIC, ATROPA, AIR, ABORTION, ANGINA PECTORIS, and other subjects, embraced in the Articles from A to Azote, prepared for the Cyclopcedia of Practical Medicine by Dr. Chapman and others. Each article is complete within itself, and embraces the practical experience of its author, and as they are only to be had in this collection, will be found of great value to the profession. The two volumes are now offered at a price so low, as to place them within the reach of every practitioner and student. OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY ; with an Appendix on Phrenology. By P. M. Roget, M.D., Professor of Physiology in the Royal Institute of Great Britain, &c. First American edition revised, with numerous Notes. In one volume octavo. GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY, considered with reference to Natural Theology. By the Rev. William Buckland, D.D., Canon of Christ Church, and Reader in Geo- logy and Mineralogy in the University of Oxford. With nearly one hundred copper- plates and large coloured maps. A new edition from the late London edition, with supplementary notes and additional plates. THE BRIDGEWATER TREATISES, complete in seven volumes octavo, em- bracing : I. The Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Constitution of Man. By the Rev. Thomas Chalmers. II. The Adaptation of External Nature to the Physical Condition of Man. By John Kidd, M.D.F.R.S. III. Astronomy and General Physics, considered with reference to Natural Theology. By the Rev. William Whewell. IV. The Hand; its Mechanism and vital Endowments as evincing Design. By Sir Charles Bell, K.H., F.R.S, With numerous wood-cuts. V. Chemistry, Meteorology, and the Function of Digestion. By William Prout, M.D.F.R.S. VI. The History, Habits, and Instincts of Animals. By the Rev. William Kirby, M.A.F.R.S. Illus- trated by numerous engravings on copper. VII. Animal and Vegetable Physiology, considered with reference to Natural Theology. By Peter Mark Roget, M.D. Illustrated with nearly five hundred wood-cuts. VIII. Geology and Mineralogy, considered with reference to Natural Theology. By the Rev. William Buckland, D.D. With numerous engravings on copper, and a large coloured map. The works of Buckland, Kirby and Roget, may be had separate. A POPULAR TREATISE ON VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY, by W. P. Car- penter, Author of Principles of Human Physiology,